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TRANSACTIONS
ee | re

moIN TUCK Y
ACADEMY G8 Ns

i”
;
:

: SCIENCE ~~ é

Sf -~ ee OeE ee

: Volume 53
Numbers 1-2
| March 1992

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

GoveERNING Boarp FoR 1992
Executive COMMITTEE

President: Douglas L. Dahiman, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546
President Elect: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biological Sciences, Georgetown College, Georgetown,
KY 40324 :
Vice President: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101
Past President: W. Blaine Early, III, Department of Biology, Cumberland College, Williamsburg, KY 40769
Secretary: Peter X. Armendarez, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Brescia College, Owensboro, KY
42301
Treasurer: David R. Hartman, Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101
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Editor, TRANSACTIONS-ex officio: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, KY 40475
Editor, NEWSLETTER-ex officio: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Lou-
isville, KY 40292

MemBers, GOVERNING BOARD

Bruce Mattingly 1992 Burtron H. Davis 1993
Estel M. Hobbs 1992 James E. Gotsick 1994
Lee T. Todd, Jr. 1992 Blaine R. Ferrell 1995
Ray K. Hammond 1993 Kimberly Ward Anderson 1995

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Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: Douglas L. Dahlman, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40546
Gerrit Kloek, Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort 40601
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Steven Falkenberg, Department of Psychology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond
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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 1-4

March 1992
Volume 53
Numbers 1-2

Intermediate Host Sex and Cysticercoid Age:
Effect on Size of Adults of the Tapeworm,
Hymenolepis diminuta (Cyclephyllidea)

RON ROSEN
Department of Biology, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404

ABSTRACT

This study determined the effect of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) sex on the rate of Hymenolepis diminuta
cysticercoid development and infectivity at 25.5°C and subsequent size of the adult worm developing from
these larvae. In addition, the effect of cysticercoid age on the size of adult worms was also assessed. A
significant difference in the frequency of cysticercoid developmental stages between male and female beetles
was apparent on day 8 postinfection (PI). At this time, all male beetles possessed cysticercoid infrapopulations
in which less than 20% of the larvae had withdrawn scoleces. By contrast, 50% of the female beetles had
larvae infrapopulations in which more than 20% of the worms possessed withdrawn scoleces, indicating a
faster rate of development. No host sex-related differences in the rate of cysticercoid development, infectivity
or scolex width were detected by day 10 PI indicating the transient nature of this phenomenon. Eleven-
day-old, prepatent adult H. diminuta, which developed from 15-day old cysticercoids obtained from male
vs. female beetles and 12- vs. 27-day old cysticercoids, did not vary significantly in their dry weights.
Therefore, the effect of intermediate host sex on cysticercoid condition and differences in cysticercoid age

do not affect the size obtained by adults of the tapeworm, H. diminuta.

INTRODUCTION

Sex of the intermediate host is rarely re-
corded in studies dealing with the metacestode
of Hymenolepis diminuta (1). Susceptibility
of male and female beetles to this parasite has
been evaluated by several workers (2, 3, 4, 5),
but only Soltice et al. (6) assessed the effect of
intermediate host sex on the rate of H. dimi-
nuta development. They found that H. dim-
inuta developed more rapidly in females of
the beetles, Tribolium confusum and Tribo-
lium castaneum, but it was unclear as to the
physiological basis for this difference. Hurd
and Arme (7, 8, 9) have reported differences
in some metabolic changes between infected
male and female mealworms, Tenebrio moli-
tor, but no study has compared rates of cys-

ticercoid development between the sexes in
this host species.

Beetle sex may not only affect the rate of
cysticercoid differentiation, but may have a
carry-over effect on adult worm size in the
definitive host. Several studies have suggested
such a link between tapeworm size in one stage
of the life cycle and larval “condition” in the
previous host in the Orders Proteocephalata
(10) and Pseudophyllidea (11, 12, 13), but only
Mueller (14) provided adequate quantitative
evidence for this phenomenon when he found
that larger plerocercoids were obtained from
older procercoids of the pseudophyllidean
tapeworm, Spirometra mansonoides.

This study was initiated to further assess the
importance of intermediate host sex and larval

2 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

age on the size of adult tapeworms using the
eyclophyllidean, H. diminuta, as a model sys-
tem. The specific objectives of this study were
to determine the effect of: (1) sex of T. molitor
on the rate of cysticercoid development, in-
fectivity and, thus, subsequent adult worm size
and (2) cysticercoid age on the ensuing size of
H. diminuta in the definitive host.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pupae of T. molitor were sexed according
to the techniques of Bhattacharya et al. (15).
The sexes were maintained separately at 25.5°C
for the duration of the experiments. This elim-
inated possible effects mating and oviposition
might have on cysticercoid development. Fol-
lowing emergence, adults were placed in bran
(Wingold Baker’s Bran, Bay State Milling Co.,
Winona, MN) from 1-6 days and then starved
for 3 days. Eggs of H. diminuta (Rice Strain)
were obtained from a single Sprague-Dawley
rat with a single worm infection to minimize
genetic variation. Beetles were between 4-9
days postemergence when they were exposed
to a mixture of apple pulp and H. diminuta
eggs for 24 hours. It was assumed that male
and female beetles ingested eggs at a similar
rate during this exposure period. Following
exposure to eggs, beetles were placed in bran
and maintained in the dark.

Seventy male and 65 female T. molitor were
dissected between days 6-10 postinfection (PI)
to evaluate the effect of host sex on the rate of
cysticercoid development. Cysticercoids from
each beetle were stored in buffered formalin
and later staged with a compound microscope
using slightly modified criteria adopted from
Voge and Heyneman (16). The major features
used to classify each stage were as follows: (1)
stage Il—body spherical or pear-shaped, (2)
stage IlI—tripartite body; scolex not with-
drawn into cyst and; (3) stages IV/V—scolex
withdrawn into cyst. In addition, 23 male and
21 female beetles were dissected on day 10 PI
to evaluate the effect of host sex on scolex width
of 10 randomly selected stage V cysticercoids
from each beetle. (It should be noted that the
scolex represents the only tissue which ulkti-
mately establishes itself in the definitive host
in the case of H. diminuta.) Measurements
were made with a compound microscope using
an ocular micrometer and are reported in um.

Asa preliminary experiment had established
that day 12 PI was the earliest time for 100%
infectivity of cysticercoids at 25.5°C, an ex-
periment was conducted at day 10 PI to assess
early infectivity of cysticercoids from male vs.
female beetles. Seven and 9, one-month old
Sprague-Dawley rats were infected with 10
day PI cysticercoids obtained from female and
male beetles, respectively. Fifteen one-month
old male Sprague-Dawley rats were infected
with 15-day old cysticercoids from male bee-
tles, and 15 additional male rats with larvae
from female beetles to assess possible differ-
ences in adult worm size resulting from cys-
ticercoid condition due to differences in inter-
mediate host sex. Eighteen (9 male and 9
female) and 20 (10 male and 10 female) two-
month old Sprague-Dawley rats were infected
with 12- and 27-day old cysticercoids, respec-
tively, to evaluate the effect of larval age on
adult worm size. In all experiments, rats were
infected by gastric intubation with 4 randomly
selected cysticercoids each to avoid the well
documented crowding effect (17). In the ex-
periment assessing cysticercoid age, rats were
infected with equal numbers of larvae from
male and female beetles at each time period.
Rats were killed by a blow to the head on day
11 PI. Prepatent adult worms were flushed from
the intestine with saline, cleaned free of debris,
placed on metal planchets and dried for 24
hours at 95°C. Percent worm recovery was re-
corded and an average dry weight was cal-
culated for worms from each individual rat.

A 2 X 8 chi-square contingency test was
used to compare frequencies of cysticercoid
developmental stages between male and fe-
male beetles on days 6, 8 and 10 PI. Intensity
of infection is reported but not considered in
these comparisons since Voge and Heyneman
(16) indicated that the crowding effect on H.
diminuta in its intermediate host is directed
against the thickness of the sheaths enveloping
the scolex, but not against this parasite’s rate
of development. A 2 X 2 chi-square contin-
gency test was used to compare the infectivity
of day 10 PI cysticercoids taken from male vs.
female beetles. A Student’s t test was used to
test for differences in: (1) scolex width of stage
V cysticercoids recovered from male vs. female
beetles and (2) dry weights of adult worms. A
probability of P < 0.05 was considered sig-
nificant for all tests.

EFFECT OF Host on TAPEWORMS—Rosen 3

TABLE l.

Frequencies of developmental stages (II, I[[ and IV/V) of Hymenolepis diminuta cysticercoids in adult

male and female Tenebrio molitor at days 6, 8 and 10 postinfection and 25.5°C.

Female beetles

Male beetles

N (#)! % I % Il % IV and V N (#) % % TI % IV and V
Day 6 799 (23) 100.0 0 1,406 (23) 99.5 0.5 0
Day 8 2,074 (20) 6.5 73.6 19.9 1,611 (24) 11.2 82.1 6.7
Day 10 1,817 (22) 0.8 4.6 94.6 2,761 (23) 0.4 3.8 95.8

''N (#) = number of cysticercoids assessed (number of beetle hosts).

RESULTS

A total of 10,468 (mean intensity of infection
= 77.5 + 71.5; range = 1-400) cysticercoids
were staged from the infections of T. molitor.
The data on cysticercoid development are pre-
sented in Table 1. There was a significant dif-
ference in the proportions of cysticercoid stages
between male and female beetles on day 8 PI
(x2 = 143.95; df = 2). More cysticercoids had
withdrawn scoleces in female beetles than in
males at this time. Comparison of the data by
individual hosts on day 8 PI revealed that none
of the cysticercoid infrapopulations from the
24 male beetles evaluated had more than 20%
stage IV/V metacestodes. By contrast, 50% (10/
20) of the female beetles had cysticercoid in-
frapopulations in which more than 20% of the
worms had withdrawn scoleces at this time.
No host sex-related differences in the rate of
cysticercoid development were detected at days
6 or 10 PI.

A total of 433 stage V cysticercoids (mean
intensity of infection = 104.0 + 92.1; range
= 7-400) were assessed to determine possible
differences in the scolex width of larvae due

TaBLe 2. Mean dry weights + SD of 11-day old pre-
patent adults of Hymenolepis diminuta grown from: (1)
15-day old cysticercoids from male vs. female Tenebrio
molitor and (2) 12- vs. 27-day old cysticercoids. Infected
beetles were held at 25.5°C during cysticercoid develop-
ment.

Number of adult Dry weight (mg)
D!

Variable worms recovered mean +
Beetle sex

Female 60 29.3 + 5.36

Male typ) 26.2 + 6.78
Cysticercoid age

12 Days 62 34.8 + 8.00

27 Days 75 386.1 + 6.19

!Mean + SD = 3-4 worms were recovered from each rat. The average
dry weight of worms from an individual rat was determined, and these were
used to obtain an overall mean dry weight for worms recovered from all rats
in a treatment.

to beetle sex. No significant difference was ob-
served in the scolex width between male (0.096
+ 0.009) vs. female (0.097 + 0.008) beetles at
day 10 PI (T = 1.219; df = 481). No significant
difference in the infectivity of day 10 PI cys-
ticercoids taken from male (adult worm re-
covery = 27.8%, 10/36) vs. female (adult worm
recovery = 14.3%, 4/28) beetles was noted (x?
= 1.678; df = 1). Adult worms, grown from
15-day old cysticercoids taken from male vs.
female beetles, did not show a significant dif-
ference in dry weight (T = 1.423, df = 28;
Table 2). Similarly, adult worms grown from
12- vs, 27-day old cysticercoids did not vary
significantly in their weights (T = 0.563, df =
36; Table 2).

DISCUSSION

The developmental rate of H. diminuta in
female T. molitor was more rapid than in males
by day 8 PI. Hurd and Arme (9) suggested that
more metabolites may be available in the he-
molymph of infected female T. molitor as a
result of reduced vitellogen synthesis. This de-
velopmental advantage imparted to cysticer-
coids developing in “nutrient-rich” females is
apparently transient since no difference was
encountered in either: (1) cysticercoid devel-
opment, infectivity or scolex width between
male and female beetles by day 10 PI or (2)
the size of 11 day adult worms grown from
15-day old cysticercoids taken from male vs.
female T. molitor.

Differences have been documented in the
cyst walls (18) and excystation times (19) of
young vs. old infective cysticercoids of H. dim-
inuta. However, the cyst wall tissue is lost dur-
ing the excystment of the parasite in the de-
finitive host and would therefore not be a likely
factor contributing to adult worm size. Only
the small scolex of H. diminuta, which ceases
growth after the larva reaches maturity within
the beetle (16), contains tissue which will be-

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

come part of the adult worm. Thus, it was not
surprising that adult worm size was unaffected
by cysticercoid age. Similarly, Goodchild and
Harrison (20) were unable to detect differences
in the early (ie., 48 hours PI) growth of H.
diminuta in rats developing from young vs.
old cysticercoids. By contrast, the majority of
procercoid tissue, with the exception of the
cercomer in S. mansonoides, is incorporated
into the next stage in the life cycle so that
factors affecting procercoid growth in the cy-
clopid host may be reflected in plerocercoid
size as described by Mueller (14). These find-
ings support the conclusion that the amount
and type of cestode tissue transferred into the
next host in the life cycle dictate the impor-
tance of larval “condition” with regard to tape-
worm size in subsequent hosts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This investigation was supported by a fel-
lowship to R. Rosen from the Appalachian Col-
lege Program with funds granted by the Mabel
Pew Myrin Trust. Facilities for this study were
provided by Dr. Gary L. Uglem, School of
Biological Sciences, The University of Ken-
tucky.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ubelaker, J. E. 1980. Structure and ultrastructure
of the larvae and metacestodes of Hymenolepis diminuta.
Pp. 59-156. In H. P. Arai (ed.) Biology of the tapeworm
Hymenolepis diminuta. Academic Press, New York.

2. Kelly R. J., D. M. O’Brien, and F. F. Katz. 1967.
The incidence of burden of Hymenolepis diminuta cys-
ticercoids as a function of the age of the intermediate host
Tribolium confusum. J. N.Y. Entomol. Soc. 75:19-23.

3. Mankau,$. K. 1977. Sex asa factor in the infection
of Tribolium spp. by Hymenolepis diminuta. Environ.
Entomol. 6:233-236.

4. Rau, M. E. 1979. The frequency distribution of
Hymenolepis diminuta cysticercoids in natural, sympatric
populations of Tenebrio molitor and T. obscurus. Int. J.
Parasitol. 9:85-87.

5. Keymer, A. 1982. The dynamics of infection of
Tribolium confusum by Hymenolepis diminuta: the in-
fluence of exposure time and host density. Parasitology 84:
157-166.

6. Soltice, G. E., H. P. Arai, and E. Sheinberg. 1971.
Host-parasite interactions of Tribolium confusum and Tri-
bolium castaneum with Hymenolepis diminuta. Can. J.
Zool. 49:265-273.

7. Hurd, H. and C. Arme. 1984. Tenebrio molitor
(Coleoptera): effect of metacestodes of Hymenolepis dim-
inuta (Cestoda) on hemolymph amino acids. Parasitology
89:245-252.

8. Hurd, H. and C. Arme. 1984. Pathophysiology of
Hymenolepis diminuta infections in Tenebrio molitor:
effect of parasitism on hemolymph proteins. Parasitology
89:253-262.

9. Hurd, H. and C. Arme. 1986. Hymenolepis dim-
inuta: influence of metacestodes on synthesis and secretion
of fat body protein and its ovarian sequestration in the
intermediate host, Tenebrio molitor. Parasitology 93:111-
120.

10. Wagner, E. D. 1954. The life history of Proteo-
cephalus tumidocollus Wagner, 1953, (Cestoda), in rain-
bow trout. J. Parasitol. 40:489-498.

11. Archer, D. M. and C. A. Hopkins. 1958. Studies
on cestode metabolism; III. Growth pattern of Diphyllo-
bothrium sp. in a definitive host. Exp. Parasitol. 7:125-
144.

12. Rosen, R. and T. A. Dick. 1984. Growth and mi-
gration of plerocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus Forel
and pathology in experimentally infected whitefish, Cor-
egonus clupeaformis (Mitchill). Can. J. Zool. 62:203-211.

13. Kuperman, B. I. 1973. Tapeworms of the genus
Triaenophorus, parasites of fishes. Nauka Publishers, Len-
ingrad. (English translation by Amerind Publishing, Co.
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1981, for the United States De-
partment of the Interior and the National Science Foun-
dation, Washington, D.C.).

14. Mueller, J. F. 1966. The laboratory propagation
of Spirometra mansonoides (Mueller, 1935) as an exper-
imental tool. VII. Improved techniques and additional notes
on the biology of the cestode. J. Parasitol. 52:437-443.

15. Bhattacharya, A. K., J. J. Ameel, and G. P. Wald-
bauer. 1970. A method for sexing living pupal and adult
yellow mealworms. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 63B:1783.

16. Voge, M. and D. Heyneman. 1957. Development
of Hymenolepis nana and Hymenolepis diminuta (Ces-
toda: Hymenolepididae) in the intermediate host Tribo-
lium confusum. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 59:549-580.

17. Roberts, L. S. 1961. The influence of population
density on patterns and physiology of growth in Hymeno-
lepis diminuta (Cestoda: Cyclophyllidea) in the definitive
host. Exp. Parasitol. 11:332-371.

18. Richards, K.S. and C. Arme. 1984. An ultrastruc-
tural analysis of cyst wall development in the metacestode
of Hymenolepis diminuta (Cestoda). Parasitology 89:536—
566.

19. Rothman, A. H. 1959. Studies on the excystment
of tapeworms. Exp. Parasitol. 8:336-364.

20. Goodchild, C. G. and D. L. Harrison. 1961. The
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ing the first five days in the final host. J. Parasitol. 47:819-
829.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 5-8

A Preliminary Survey of the Small Mammals on the
Fort Knox (Meade, Hardin and Bullitt counties), Kentucky,
U.S. Army Facility

JENNIFER MCGEHEE Mars, RICHARD K. KESSLER, AND ROBERT A. MATTINGLY, JR.

Biology Department, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

A small mammal survey was conducted on the Ft. Knox, KY, military reservation. One hundred forty-
six specimens (11 species) were trapped and preserved. The white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) was
the most abundant species caught, followed by the prairie deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii),
prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster), short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda), golden mouse (Ochrotomys
nutalli), eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus), pine vole (Microtus pinetorum), house mouse (Mus musculus),
eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), southern bog lemming (Synaptomys cooperi), and eastern harvest

mouse (Reithrodontomys humulis).

INTRODUCTION

The U.S. Army is responsible for managing
almost 5 million hectares (19,000 square miles)
of land in the continental United States. Ac-
cording to the Army (1), this is not adequate
to meet their training mission because the area
necessary to train a division in the use of mod-
ern weapon systems is roughly 10 times the
area that was needed in the 1940s. Because of
the increased use of training lands, there has
been a general deterioration in the condition
of the U.S. Army’s natural resources (2, 3). As
a result, the Secretary of Defense has charged
the military to be a leader in environmental
compliance and natural resource management
(4).

In the spring of 1984, an independent expert
review panel was convened by the U.S. Army
to evaluate the natural resource management
programs on selected military installations and
to make recommendations for improving these
programs. Twenty four recommendations were
developed, including “. . . the requirement that
new or more adequate natural resource inven-
tories be completed on all military installations
soe | ®)

The U.S. Army Construction Engineering
Resource Laboratory (USACERL) was enlisted
to develop the recommended natural resource
inventory and monitoring program, using stan-
dard methods for data collection, analyses, and
reporting so that information would be com-
parable among installations and could be com-
piled Army-wide. This Land Condition Trend
Analysis (LCTA) program has the support of

the Assistant Secretary of the Army (6), the
National Military Fish and Wildlife Associa-
tion (7) and the Defense Natural Resource
Council (8).

A Wildlife Inventory and Monitoring Sys-
tem (WIMS) was designed by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers to integrate with existing
LCTA technology and to provide the U.S. Army
with an integrated, low cost system for assess-
ing the status of installation wildlife. Three
year-long WIMS have already been imple-
mented at Ft. Hood (TX), Ft. Sill (OK), Ft.
Chaffee (AR), White Sands Missile Range (NM),
Dugway Proving Ground (UT), Pinon Canyon
Maneuver Site (CO) and Orchard Training
Area (ID). Ft. Knox (KY) is one of the sites
that has been selected for a WIMS during the
summers of 1991, 1992 and 1998. This paper
reports the results of the first (1991) summer's
survey.

Fort Knox is a U.S. Army installation that
encompasses 101,000 acres in Meade, Hardin
and Bullitt counties, Kentucky. It lies southeast
of the Ohio River and is split by the Salt and
Rolling Fork rivers. The military reservation
includes a cantonment (residential) area, ar-
tillery and grenade ranges and impact areas,
and tank training tracks. Most of the land is
rugged and hilly with steep slopes gullied by
intermittent streams and is heavily wooded with
secondary growth timber. There is a large area
of knobs topography, conical, flat-topped hills
with broad valley floors, developed on shale
and sandstone bedrock. There are rolling up-
lands along the Salt and Rolling Fork rivers,

6 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

dominated by a sandstone substratum. The
open range area, covered with sparse, scrub
growth, has a clay soil. Sinkholes are prevalent
where the installation edges a karst region (9).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

It was decided that by using permanent plots,
it would be possible to return to the same lo-
cation year after year, providing a statistical
foundation for determining trends in resource
conditions. The standard size of the LCTA plots
is 100 m X 6 m with a 100-m line transect
forming the central, longitudinal axis. There
is one core plot per 200 ha (500 acres) of land,
with a maximum of 200 core plots per instal-
lation. In order to ensure objectivity in the
placement of the plots, an automated site se-
lection process was developed. The procedure
used incorporated SPOT (Systéme Probatoire
pour |’Observation de la Terre) satellite im-
agery, digital soil surveys and the Geographic
Resource Analysis Support System (GRASS)
geographical information system. The 140 core
plots surveyed for this study were allocated
through a stratified random process (5).

The small mammal census was taken by set-
ting out 2 rows of 20 museum special traps
and 5 rat traps parallel to the longitudinal axis
of each LCTA plot. A total of 40 museum
special traps and 10 rat traps were placed about
7.5 m and 30 m apart, respectively. The traps
were baited with rolled oats and peanut butter
and run for 2 nights for a total of 100 trap
nights per plot. Traps were set late in the af-
ternoon of the first day, checked early the next
morning, reset during the late afternoon of the
second day and checked and collected the fol-
lowing morning. Captures for each site and
day were placed in separate Ziploc® bags, la-
beled and frozen. Trapping began on May 15
and ended on June 15, 1991. Specimens were
identified by their morphological characteris-
tics and the enamel patterns on the occlusive
surfaces of the cheek teeth as described by
Barbour and Davis (10). All specimens have
been preserved and are on deposit in the col-
lections of the University of Louisville.

RESULTS

Eleven species were collected with a total
of 144 specimens. In the following list, all mea-
surements are in centimeters with averages
given first, followed by the extremes given in

parentheses. Information about the habitats of
each animal is from Barbour and Davis (10).

1. Peromyscus leucopus (Rafinesque).
White-footed Mouse. This was the most abun-
dant mammal in the inventory. It was found
at all elevations and all habitats except weed-
fields not bordered by trees or shrubs, areas
which were occupied by the prairie deer mouse,
P. maniculatus bairdii. Measurements of the
96 specimens are weight 21.38 g (36.7-9.1);
total length 15.07 (17.9-7.1); tail length 6.88
(10.7-2.1); foot length 1.83 (2.2-1.1); pinna
length 1.38 (1.9-1.1).

2. Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy
and Kennicott). Prairie Deer Mouse. These mice
occupy open weedfields, grasslands and agri-
cultural land. Measurements of the 11 speci-
mens are weight 18.7 g (21.1-7.4); total length
12.33 (17.6-9.7); tail length 5.11 (8.14.4); foot
length 1.55 (2.1-1.3); pinna length 1.16 (1.8-
0.7).

3. Ochrotomys nutalli (Harlan). Golden
Mouse. This animal inhabits greenbrier thick-
ets, pine and cedar saplings and honeysuckle,
blackberry and grape vines. Measurements of
the 8 specimens caught are weight 17.5 g (28.8-—
10.72); total length 14.87 (16.9-12.4); tail length
6.97 (7.9-5.9); foot length 1.69 (1.8-1.5); pinna
length 1.43 (1.8-1.1).

4. Mus musculus Linnaeus. House Mouse.
In addition to living wherever humans do, the
house mouse lives in brushland and weedfields,
away from deep woods. Measurements of the
2 caught are weight 10.5 g (14.2-6.8); total
length 8.1 (11.3-4.9); tail length 3.9 (5.1-2.7);
foot length 1.75 (1.9-1.6); pinna length 1.55
(1.6-1.5).

5. Reithrodontomys humulis (Audubon and
Bachman). Eastern Harvest Mouse. With a
statewide distribution, living in tall, dense
weeds, this mouse is uncommon and requires
persistent trapping. Only 1 animal was caught
and its measurements are weight 12.1 g; total
length 13.2; tail length 7.2; foot length 1.7;
pinna length 0.9.

6. Synaptomys cooperi (Baird). Southern
Bog Lemming. These mice are fairly common
in Kentucky and live in colonies in dense stands
of bluegrass which contain brush, rock or
shrubs. They will live in habitats too small to
support meadow or prairie voles. One animal
was caught and its measurements are weight

SMALL MAMMALS IN KENtucky—Maarsh, Kessler, and Mattingly 7

38.2 g; total length 12.4; tail length 1.5; foot
length 1.7; pinna length 0.8.

7. Microtus ochrogaster (Wagner). Prairie
Vole. This vole is abundant in Kentucky except
for the southeastern mountains. Its favored
habitat is upland pasture grasses but it will also
occupy lowland cattail swamps. During dry
years the species becomes scarce. Ten speci-
mens were trapped and their measurements
are weight 33.03 g (42.2-30.1); total length
13.37 (14.2-12.5); tail length 3.21 (3.7-2.5);
foot length 1.58 (1.8-1.4); pinna length 0.97
(1.8-0.7).

8. Microtus pinetorum (LeConte). Pine
Vole. This species is found in all habitats, any-
where there is adequate cover and food supply.
Only 2 specimens were caught and their mea-
surements are weight 20.25 g (21.6-18.9); total
length 10.8 (11.4-10.2); tail length 2.2 (2.8-
1.6); foot length 2.15 (2.8-1.5); pinna length
1.05 (1.1-1.0).

9. Blarina brevicauda (Say). Short-tailed
Shrew. Perhaps the most abundant mammal
in Kentucky (10), the short-tailed shrew lives
anywhere there is good vegetative cover and
eats insects and slugs that are pests to farmers.
Measurements of the 9 specimens are weight
13.32 g (14.8-10.5); total length 10.32 (10.8-
9.8); tail length 1.97 (2.4-1.6); foot length 1.31
(1.7-1.1).

10. Tamias striatus (Linnaeus). Eastern
Chipmunk. This striped squirrel is common in
woodlands; parks, cemeteries and gardens.
They prefer varied habitats which include rock
walls, cliffs, woodpiles and hedgerows. Three
chipmunks were trapped and their measure-
ments are weight 106.9 g (139.9-71.1); total
length 22.47 (25.3-17.4); tail length 9.77 (11.1-
8.1); foot length 3.37 (3.4-8.3); pinna length
1.23 (1.3-1.1).

11. Sylvilagus floridanus (Allen). Eastern
Cottontail. This is the most common rabbit in
Kentucky. It occupies a variety of habitats in-
cluding lawns, parks, upland thickets, brush,
farmland, deep woods and lowland swamps.
One rabbit was taken and its measurements
are weight 100.8 g; total length 16.0; tail length
3.7; foot length 3.6.

DISCUSSION
Several factors could have contributed to the
paucity of species taken. Trapping during the
summer, with an abundance of food already

available, could have lessened interest in our
peanut butter-and-oats bait. In addition, for-
micids and cockroaches (Blattoidea) were a
nuisance, eating the bait, and in some cases,
the soft tissue of the trapped animals.

Another source of bias in the study could
have been created by using only snap traps,
which limited the size and type of animal
caught. However, state law prohibits trapping
game animals, so to produce a more exhaustive
count of all animals on the facility, secondary
evidence (scats, prints, burrows, nests) would
have to be recorded.

The site selection process also had a built-in
drawback. A computer was used to choose the
study sites in an effort to ensure random se-
lection and for the most part, a diverse range
of habitats were targeted. Unfortunately, in-
appropriate areas were also selected (soccer
field, rocky cliff face) and no animals were
caught at these sites.

Two final problems encountered with this
survey were a function of trapping on a mil-
itary installation which has restricted areas.
There were times when the investigators were
not allowed back into an area on the second
day of trapping because ‘maneuvers were
scheduled for the area. There was also night
fire practice over or close to areas where traps
had been set, which we suspect would dis-
courage all but the most intrepid animal from
foraging. These issues will need to be addressed
before the 1992 trapping begins.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering
Resource Laboratory, Champaign, Illinois.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Department of the Army. 1978. Training land. Cir-
cular 25-1. Washington, D.C.

2. Schaeffer, D. J., W. R. Lower, S. Kapila, A. F. Yan-
ders, R. Wang, and E. W. Novak. 1986. Preliminary
study of the effects of military obscurant smokes on flora
and fauna during field and laboratory exposures. U.S. Army
Construction Eng. Res. Lab. Tech. Rept. N-86/22:1-84.

3. Goran, W. D., L. L. Radke, and W. D. Severinghaus.
1983. An overview of the ecological effects of tracked
vehicles on major U.S. Army installations. U.S. Army Con-
struction Eng. Res. Lab. Tech. Rept. N-142:1-75.

4, Cheney, R. 1989. Memorandum for Secretaries of
the Military Departments. Subject: environmental man-
agement policy. October 10. Washington, D.C.

8 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

5. Diersing, V. E., R. B. Shaw, D. J. Tazik, R. J. Brozka,
and §. D. Warren. 1991. U.S. Army land condition trend
analysis field methods.

6. Shannon, J. W. 1987. Memorandum for Director
of the Army Staff. Subject: land management—action
memorandum. August 18. Washington, D.C.

7. National Military Fish and Wildlife Association.
1988. Resolution 2—military land inventory and moni-
toring. Fish and Wildlife News 5(2).

8. Ramsey, C. 1989. Memorandum for Deputy Di-
rector, Defense Research and Engineering. Subject: train-
ing area management technology. March 1. Washington,
D.C.

9. McGrain, P. and J. C. Currens. 1978. Topography
of Kentucky. University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geolog-
ical Survey, Series 10, Special Publications 25:1—76.

10. Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals
of Kentucky. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 9-14

The Combinatorial Game ‘‘Chomp”’

CHARLES H. FRANKE

Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

In their comprehensive treatment of Combinatorial Games, Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays,
Berlekamp, Conway, and Guy considered the game “Chomp” and presented some winning positions for the
2-dimensional game. In this paper, a method of representing positions, moves, and strategies, and an algorithm
to determine a winning strategy are given. Winning first moves for special cases of 2- and 3-dimensional

chomp are given.

INTRODUCTION

The game “Chomp’ is defined for a given
positive integer N by the following rules. De-
fine S to be the set of all positive divisors of N.
At each turn, a player names an element of S.
The number named, and all of its multiples,
are removed from S. The player who names
“1” loses. For example, if N = 6, then S = {1,
2, 3, 6}. If the first player names “2” then S is
reduced to {1, 3}, and the second player can
name “3” and win. If the first player starts
with “6” then the first player can win by re-
ducing S to {1} on his second move. Chomp,
for a given N, will be denoted by C(N). If N
has the prime decomposition N = pi-q):--r*,
then C(N) is clearly independent of the par-
ticular primes p, q,..., r, and C(N) will be
called “the game (i, j,... , k).”” When the game
is represented in this form, it will be assumed
that the exponents form a non-increasing se-
quence.

Chomp is a combinatorial game in the sense
of (1). In general, the terminology of (1) will
be used. In particular, the first player will be
called white, the second player blue; a P po-
sition is one in which the previous player wins,
and an W position is one in which the next
player wins.

The 2-dimensional game, (i, j), has a natural
geometric interpretation with the set S rep-
resented as a rectangle. For the game (5, 2), S
is:

Le De p° p* p
G GD Ger Gee. Gy Gis
GF GF Go". Go Gas coy

The first move determines a sub-rectangle
whose upper left vertex is the number chosen.
The result of the move is to excise that rect-

angle from S. Subsequent moves have similar
interpretations.

It is noted that white always has a winning
strategy, and some winning positions for
2-dimensional Chomp are given in (1). During
the Short Course in Combinatorial Games at
the American Mathematical Society 1990
Summer Meeting, Richard K. Guy suggested
extending these results and analyzing 3-di-
mensional Chomp. (2).

SUMMARY

A non-constructive proof that white has a
winning strategy for C(N) if N # 1 is given.
A means of representing winning strategies for
2-dimensional Chomp is defined, and the re-
sults of (1) are extended. The method is ex-
tended to 3-dimensional Chomp and the win-
ning first moves for (i, j, k) wheni + j + k <
9 are given. Next, an algorithm to determine
a winning strategy for any N is presented and
discussed. The final section contains some
questions and conjectures concerning Chomp.

THE EXISTENCE THEOREM

If one considers C(N) for small values of N,
then it is not immediately clear that white has
a decisive advantage, and it is surprising that
it is so easy to prove that white always has a
winning first move.

Theorem. IfN # 1, then white has a winning
strategy for C(N).
Proof. Assume not. Then, for any initial move

X by white there is a move by blue which
defeats X; call it {(X). Then, independent of
white’s second move, blue wins the game that
starts with white playing N and blue playing
f(N). In particular, blue wins the game that
starts N - f£(N) - f(f(N)), and this sequence of

10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

moves results in an W position. Since f(N) is
a divisor of N, the position of the game after
the sequence N - f(N) is the same as the position
after just the initial move f(N). Therefore, the
position after N - f(N) - f£(£(N)) is identical to
that of the game that begins with f(N) - f(£(N)),
which is a P position. This contradiction com-
pletes the proof.

The existence proof is of little practical value
in determining the winning first move. The
proof shows, in effect, that if one tests each
move K < N and finds a move f(K) that defeats
it, then one knows that N is a winning move,
since one already has a list of the moves that
will defeat blue’s possible responses to N. The
theorem does, however, rule out powers of
primes as winning first moves.

Corollary. If N = p’ is a power of a prime,
then the only winning first move for C(N) is
p. If N has more than one prime divisor, then
the winning first move is not a power of a
prime.

Proof. Assume that N = p'M where (p, M)
= | and p° is a winning first move. After the
move p* the game becomes C(p*~!M). Since the
next player has no winning strategy, s = M =
1. Conversely, p is clearly the winning move
iroie (Clyov)), & SO)

Two-DIMENSIONAL CHOMP
A shape A for the game (i, j) is a non-in-
creasing sequence (a(0), ..., a(j)) of integers
0 = a(k) <i + 1. The geometric represen-
tation of 2-dimensional Chomp given above
defines a 1-to-1 correspondence between shapes
and positions which can be reached in the game.
The initial position is] = (i+ 1,...,i+ 1
and the final position is 0 = (0,..., 0). An
admissible transformation of a shape B = (b(0),
.., b(j)) is a shape C = (c(0), ..., c(j)) # 0
for which there is an integer s so that b(k) =
e(k) for k < s, b(s) > e(s), and e(k) = min{b(k),
c(s)} for k > s. The shape C corresponds to
the position in the game which follows from
the position corresponding to B after the move
q*p*) is made.
A set T of shapes is closed if it satisfies (1)
and (2) and complete if it also satisfies (3).

Chat sOl-. 0) is in deanna O's notin
(2) If A is in T and B is an admissible trans-
formation of A, then there is a shape C in

T which is an admissible transformation
of B.

(3) T contains a shape which is an admissible
transformation of the initial position I.

Example. For the game (3, 1), set T = {(4,
3) (eo 2) GRO) then(4e3) tis vankad=
missible transformation of the initial position
(4, 4). The admissible transformations of ele-
ments of T are (3, 8), (2, 2), (1, 1), (4, 2), (4,
1), (4, 0), (3, 1), (8, 0), and (2, 0). There is an
admissible transformation of each which is in
T. Therefore, T is a complete set of shapes for
(3, 1). The same argument shows that T = {(k,
k — 1):0 < k Si + 1} is a complete set of
shapes for (i, 1).

A complete set T of shapes for a game de-
termines a complete strategy for white to win
the game. White plays so that each move re-
sults in a shape in T. (3) guarantees that there
is an initial move. (2) guarantees that white
can respond to any move by blue, except the
move 0, which is equivalent to blue resigning,
by a move that will result in another position
corresponding to a shape in T. Since each move
by white results in a shape in T, and each move
by either player reduces the sum of the com-
ponents of the shape corresponding to the move,
eventually white’s move will result in the po-
sition corresponding to the shape (1, 0, .. . , 0).

The following is an algorithm to determine
if a set of shapes is closed. If T has a few
hundred shapes, then a program implementing
this algorithm will execute in a few seconds.

Store the set to be tested in an array T[k].

(1) The outer loop is on k.

(2) The next level is on x and y. For each k,
find each admissible transformation AJk, x,
y] of T[k].

The inner loop is on s and t. For each A[k,
x, y], determine each admissible transfor-
mation B[k, x, y, s, t] of A[k, x, y]. When
B is determined, search the array T for it.
If it is found, then it is the shape in T which
is a response to A[k, x, y]. Return to the
next step of loop 2 and consider the next
admissible transformation of T[k]. If such
a B is not found for any (s, t), then T is
not closed.

(3

—

If one records the results of the algorithm
for a complete set of shapes by listing each T[k]
followed by each pair A[k, x, y] - B[k, x, y, s,

THE GAME “CHomp —Franke il

TABLE 1. Complete set of shapes to win (6, j) for j} < 6. Winning initial moves are underlined.

760000 650000 540000 430000 320000 210000 100000 774000 752000
743000 642000 633000 553000 032000 422000 311000 221000 773300
755400 754300 753200 744200 732200 622200 502200 533200 521100
411100 331100 222100 741110 733110 722220 663330 643320 631110
622110 643320 511110 442220 421110 333220 332110 222210 T77744
777611 777554 777543 777442 776665 776654 776642 776511 776443
776432 7755382 775411 775333 759533 759332 754222 753311 744311
742222 733322 733211 732111 721111 611111 555311 000222 504211
531111 022111 441111 333111 332211 222221

t], then one has a table which lists the moves
necessary to win the game. This table is in a
convenient but redundant form. One consults
the entry T[k], corresponding to the current
position of the game in the table. The A values
represent all possible blue moves, and the cor-
responding B values the winning white re-
sponses. Particular pairs, A - B, may be re-
peated in several different entries, so this table
is longer than necessary.

Table 1 gives a set of shapes which is suffi-
cient to win any game (6, j) for 0 < j < 6. For
(6, 5), the shapes are of length 5 + 1 = 6. For
(6, j), one need only use the shapes whose final
5 — j positions contains 0’s. Table 2 gives a
sample of the entries in a table of responses.

A complete set of shapes for a particular
game (i, j) can be considerably smaller than
the list for all j; e.g., for (8, 5) there is a com-
plete set of 21 shapes; a list containing all of
these shapes and all responses takes 91 lines.
For (8, 7), the smallest complete set found con-
tains 407 shapes, and the list of shapes and all
responses, as described above, requires about
63 pages (3,779 lines). A list of responses only,
with duplicates omitted, for the 467 shapes
found to win each (8, j) requires about 21 pages
(1,266 lines).

The winning first moves for the game (i, j),
OF <= 10 = 10 are in Mable 3. In. (1);
2-dimensional Chomp is described by the size
of the initial rectangle, and winning moves by
the size of the rectangle that must be removed.
An entry of (a, b) for the game (i, j) in Table
3 corresponds to an entry of (i + 1 — a,j +
1 — b) for the game (i + 1, j + 1) in (1).

The author will provide a listing of a com-
plete set of shapes, and a program which will
generate the response table from the set of
shapes, for any of the 2-dimensional games

mentioned here or for the 3-dimensional games
mentioned below.

THREE- DIMENSIONAL CHOMP

The set S for 3-dimensional Chomp has a
natural geometric representation as a box, sim-
ilar to the 2-dimensional representation as a
rectangle. A shape for the game (i, j, k) can be
obtained by using separate shapes for each val-
ue of the third component. For example, for
(2, 2, 1), S can be written in the form.

] p jor ie rp rp
Gl GID Gi ig) GYD aE
GP Ghd”. che OP EO! REPO,

with the initial position (3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3).

In general, a shape for (i, j, k) is a sequence
with 2 indices, A(x, y), 0 <x =j,O<y <k,
and 0 S A(x, y) Si + 1. An admissible trans-
formation of a shape B = (b(0, 0), .. . , b(j, 0),
..., b(0, k), ..., b(j, k)) is a shape C ¥ 0 for
which there are integers s and t so that b(x, y)
= Obs, sy) ili os SS Or yy S & LNG, 0) S GG, ©)
and c(x, y) = min{b(x, y), e(s, t)} if x = s and
y = t. With this definition of admissible trans-
formation, all of the statements about complete
sets of shapes carry over from 2-dimensional
Chomp to 3-dimensional Chomp. Table 4 gives
the winning first moves fori + j + k < 9.

There is a natural symmetry for 3-dimen-

TABLE 2. Winning Responses for the Game (6, 3).

(6, 3) initial position 7777, initial move 7733.
7732 - 7532, 7731 - 2221, 7730 - 7480, 7722 - 7322,
7711 - 8311, 7700 - 7600, 7633 - 7600, 7533 - 75382,
7433 - 74380, 7333 - 7322, 7222 - 6222, 7111 - 4111,
7000 - 1000, 6633 - 6222, 5533 - 5530, 4433 - 4111,
3333 - 881], 2222 - 2221, 1111 - 1000.

12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

TABLE 3. Winning first moves for game (i, j) 0 <j <i < 10.

j

1 2 3 | 5) 6 7 8 9 10

] (il, U)

2 (@, il) (CL)

3 (3, 1) (23) (il, J)

4 (4, 1) (3, 2) (2, 2) (Ql, YD)

5 (5, 1) (3, 1) (2) (3, 2) (1, 1)

6 (6, 1) (4, 2) (3, 2) (2, 1) (4, 4)* (it, Jt)

7 (a, WW) (4, 1) (3, 1) (6, 4)* (3, 2)* (252) (il, I)

8 (8, 1) (6, 2) (7, 2)* (5, 2)* (2, ye (3, 2)* (6, 5)* (il, H)

9 (9, 1) (5, 1) (2 (3, 1)* (4, 2)* (, il} # 1, OF (1, 1)
10 (10, 1) (6, 1) (4, 1)* (9, 4)* (10, 5)* (6, 4)* (5, 3)* (3, 4)* (@ Zr (il, 1)

If (a, b) is the ij entry, then p*q? is the winning initial move for (i, j).
Values not in (1) are indicated by *.
# Two values are known for (9, 7). They are (5, 4) and (8, 3).

sional Chomp when 2 of the exponents are
equal. For example, 44434400, a shape in a
complete set for (3, 3, 1), expresses the fact
that the moves p®q® and rq? are paired in the
sense that if one is the initial move then the
other is a move that defeats it. By symmetry,
p°q® and rp? are also paired. The shape that
expresses that fact is 44432222. Symmetry in
q and r is easily recognizable, since symmetric
pairs correspond to matrix transposes; e.g., in
the game (3, 2, 2), the shape (a, b, c; d, e, f;
g, h, i) is symmetry to (a, d, g; b, e, h; ¢, f, i).

AN ALGORITHM TO FIND A COMPLETE
SET OF SHAPES FOR ANY N

The definitions generalize directly. A shape
for the game (io, .. . , i,) is a finite sequence of
integers P(x;, ..., X,) defined for 0 = x, = i,
ail 0) SS INC 5 oe 52S) S ty ae Ib oe 52 Os am
admissible transformation of P if there is a
vector y = (y;,..., y;) so that P*(x) = P(x) if
some x, < y,, P*¥(y) < P(y), and P*(x) =
min{P(x), P*(y)} if each x, = y,.

While shapes can be used to represent po-
sitions and to find winning strategies for C(N)
for any N, the representation is not always
natural, nor is it likely that it is the most effi-

TABLE 4. Winning initial moves for (i, j, k), i + j + k
<< 9}
ie ee oN roo T= 2,2,2 par
Dee Niort ~ “pq OO IN
Beales Ninh dno de gr 4,2,2 peqr
li at N 5 | p’q Bh Bh p7q?
ay, N 8, 3, 1 p’q?r
(os dd N 4,3, 1 N

cient representation for computational pur-
poses. For example, if N is a product of 5
distinct primes, N = pqrst, then, by symmetry,
there are only 5 different first moves. When
one knows that p is paired with qrst and that
pq is paired with rst, then the winning first
move must be N. One would hope to be able
to express a winning strategy in a more natural
way than by sequences of 16 integers (the win-
ning initial move corresponds to the shape con-
sisting of 15 2’s follows by a 1.

To obtain a complete set of shapes for any
C(N), one can use the following algorithm.

(1) Let T be any closed set of shapes. (It is

always possible to start with T = {(1, 0,
., 0)}. However, one would normally

have solved lower-order games and have
the solutions to those games available to
use as an initial value of T. For example,
to solve (3, 3, 2), one might start by com-
bining complete sets of shapes for (8, 8, 1)
and (8, 2, 2), adding 0’s where necessary
to obtain shapes of the proper form.)

(2) Start with P = I, the initial position for the

game. This is a loop on the t variables i,,

St

(a) Find the next admissible transforma-
tion P* of P.

(b) Test each admissible transformation
P** of P* to see if it is in T.

(c) If some P** is in T, then go back to
(a).

Step (2) will end in one of two ways. If

some P* is found for which no P** is in T

then replace P by P* and go back to (2a).

If for each P* there is a P** in T, then add

©

THE GAME ~“CHomp’ —Franke 13

P to T. If P is an admissible transformation
of I, then P is the winning first move. If
not, go back to (2).

To illustrate the algorithm, consider the game
(2, 1). Start with P = I = (8, 3) and T = {(1,
0)}. P has 5 admissible transformations, (3, 2),
(3, 1), (8, 0), (2, 2), and (1, 1). The “lowest,”
(1, 1), has an admissible transformation (1, 0)
in T. The next, (2, 2), does not. Set P = (2, 2).
Two of P’s 3 admissible transformations have
admissible transformations in T; (2, 1) does not.
Set P = (2, 1). Both of P’s admissible transfor-
mations have (1, 0) as admissible transforma-
tions, so (2, 1) is added to T. Again set P = I.
Now the 4 lowest transforms of P have trans-
forms in T. Set P = (8, 2). The transforms of
P are (8, 1), (3, 0), (2, 2), and (1, 1). They all
have transforms in T, so (3, 2) is added to T.
Now T = {(1, 0), (2, 1), (8, 2)} is complete and
the game is solved.

To see that the algorithm always yields a
solution to a game, notice that when P is re-
placed by P* the sum of the components de-
creases. Therefore, the process must terminate.
When it terminates we have a shape P which
can be added to T with T remaining closed.
Since P is found by a sequence T, P), Ps, ...,
P, = P where P,_,; was chosen as a shape with
no admissible transformation in T, P is a new
addition to T unless k = 1. Since there are a
finite number of shapes, T remains closed at
each step, and T grows at every step until a
shape that is an admissible transformation of
the initial position is reached, the algorithm
determines a complete set of shapes.

An algorithm to find a solution to a finite
game is not in itself remarkable, since an ex-
haustive search of the game tree is also such
an algorithm. The value of the algorithm de-
pends upon its performance. When the author
first became interested in Chomp, an old pro-
gram was modified, rather casually, to search
the game tree and print the winning first move.
It used only alpha-beta pruning and did not
use symmetry. It gave a winning first move for
a few games like (3, 1, 1) and (8, 2, 1) ina few
seconds. When it did not solve (8, 2, 2) in a
few minutes, it was put on a background queue
where it would run at priority zero when the
computer was not otherwise in use. The pro-
gram used 92.5 hours of CPU time on a Vax
6000-410 and was not successful. The same

game was solved easily in an afternoon using
an interactive program which implemented
the shape-finding algorithm. One could enter
a shape and see its transforms, and which of
its transforms have a transform in T. By choos-
ing a transform which did not, and repeating
the process, one could follow the algorithm
down the game tree until a new P position
was found, and then add it and its symmetric
partner to T. Notice that one need not start
applying the algorithm with the initial posi-
tion. For any shape P, either P or one of P’s
transforms is a P position. Therefore, one can
start with a simple shape and follow a short
path to find a new P position. Also, one need
not return to the starting position after finding
a new FP position. It is more efficient to back
up a few steps on the path that was followed
to the last shape added to T.

Although the number of possible initial
moves in (i,,.. . , i,) is known to be the number
of divisors of N, which is (i, + 1)---(i, + 1),
the branching factor of the game tree is not
obvious. For example, (8, 3) has 36 initial moves,
but the number of second moves is a function
of the first move. By a direct count, the average
number of second moves is 23.5. By compar-
ison, (8, 2, 2) also has 36 initial moves, but the
average number of second moves is 26. The
propagation of this effect down the game tree
accounts for the relative difficulty of 3-dimen-
sional Chomp compared to 2-dimensional
Chomp.

CONJECTURES AND QUESTIONS

(1) Frequently, more than 1 winning move
is possible in a position, but the initial winning
move is unique in all cases that have been
studied except one. If one could find conditions
under which the winning first move is unique,
it would simplify the study of games with sym-
metry (e.g., in (3, 3, 2) there are 48 initial
moves, but only 1] are symmetric in p and q).

(2) If N is a product of distinct primes, then
it appears that the winning first move is N. To
provide this conjecture, it would be sufficient
to show that the winning initial move is unique.

(3) If M is a product of distinct primes and
N = M«, then it appears that M is the winning
first move. This is known when M is the prod-
uct of 2 primes and has been checked for other
small values.

14 Trans. KENTucKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

TaBLeE5. Number of s(i) shapes in a known complete set,
for all games (i, j) as a function of i.

_
n
=

1 1 1
2 6 3
3 12 7
4 20 15
5 30 26
6 42 77
7 56 104
8 72 467
9 90 1,373
10 110 1,324
I(i) is the number of initial moves in (i, i — 1). s(i) is the number of shapes
in the complete set found for all of the (i, j), j < i.

(4) When one examines games (i, j) for small
values, there appear to be many patterns; how-
ever, they do not always continue for larger
values. The only classes of games for which
the winning strategies are known in closed form
are (i, i) and (i, 1). It would seem that complete
strategies for some other general cases could
be described.

(5) To measure the efficiency of the algo-
rithm in solving Chomp, it would be interest-
ing to have an estimate on the number of shapes
in a complete set in terms of the number of
initial moves for the game. Table 5 gives the
number s(i) of shapes in a known complete set,

for all games (i, j) as a function of i. It is unlikely
that these sets are minimal, but it would be
surprising if complete sets which are signifi-
cantly smaller exist. It is interesting to note in
Table 5 that s(10) < s(9). This is true, since
the games (10, 9) and (10, 8) are “easy” in the
sense that the winning initial moves remove a
relatively large number of possible moves and
prune the game tree sharply. Since it is fre-
quently true that (i, k + 1) is “easier” than (i,
k), the set of shapes that solve (i, j) for all j <
i has been used to smooth the data. From this
data it does not appear that s(i) will grow ex-
ponentially in I(i), the number of initial moves
in the largest game.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Academic Computing Center at East-
ern Kentucky University provided the com-
puting facilities used for this work.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Berlekamp, E., C. Conway, and R. Guy. 1982. Win-
ning ways for your mathematical plays, Vol. 2. Academic
Press, New York.

2. Guy, R. 1990. Unsolved problems in combinatorial
games, combinatorial games lecture notes. American
Mathematical Society, Providence, R.I.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 15-18

Internal Parasites in a Small Flock of Lambs and Ewes
During the Periparturient Period in 1987 in Kentucky

EUGENE T. Lyons, SHARON C. TOLLIVER, J. HAROLD DRUDGE, AND SHELBY STAMPER

Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099

ABSTRACT

Epizootiology of internal parasites in ewes and lambs in a small flock in Kentucky was investigated during
the periparturient period in 1987. Eggs per gram (EPG) counts in ewes (N = 7), which lambed between 17
March and 15 April, were determined weekly between 4 February and 19 August. Lambs (N = 10) from
the flock were killed periodically (1 to 8 lambs per month) between 15 April and 19 August, at which time
EPG and helminth counts were determined. EPG counts for the ewes gradually increased until early April
after which, for about a month, they rapidly ascended and exhibited a diphasic peak during April and May
before decreasing abruptly to low levels by late May and early June, and thereafter. For the lambs, EPG
and helminth counts, in general, began to increase sharply in early June, reaching the highest numbers in
July and August. The large increase in EPG counts and numbers of helminths in lambs began about 2 months
after the peak period of EPG counts were found for ewes. Data are compared in this investigation with

those from a similar study in 1986 in Kentucky.

INTRODUCTION

Periparturient increase in nematode eggs per
gram of feces (EPG) of ewes allows build up
on pastures of parasitic larvae (L;) (1, 2). These
larvae are the major source of infections of
internal parasites in spring lambs. In 1986, re-
search on the transmission of internal parasites
in spring lambs in Kentucky and relationship
to periparturient rise in EPG in ewes was pub-
lished (3). The present investigation was un-
dertaken to obtain additional data on trans-
mission of internal parasites in spring lambs in
Kentucky and to compare results in 1987 with
similar research in 1986.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lambs and ewes in the present investigation
were from the Field 21 flock, whose history
was described previously (3). The flock in 1987
consisted of 16 ewes when the investigation
was initiated, and 11 of them had lambs be-
tween 16 March and 7 June. Lambing of 7
ewes occurred between 17 March and 15 April
and infections of gastrointestinal parasites in
them were monitored by determining EPG
counts once a week for the period 4 February
through 19 August. Some (N = 10) of the lambs
(testers) in the flock were euthanatized at pe-
riodic intervals (1 to 3 lambs per month) from
15 April through 19 August. At necropsy, data
on worm eggs (EPG) (except for the lamb killed
on 15 April) and helminths were recorded.

15

Specific details on the tester lambs, relative to
the dates of and age at necropsy, are sum-
marized (Table 1).

At necropsy of the tester lambs, the aboma-
sum, small intestine, cecum, and large intestine
were examined for immature and adult hel-
minths. Worm egg counts (EPG) on fecal sam-
ples and recovery and identification of internal
parasites were done according to methods used
previously (4).

RESULTS

Nematode EPG counts for the ewes (weekly)
and lambs (at necropsy) are graphically shown
(Fig. 1). The bulk of the eggs were trichostron-
gyle type.

For the ewes, EPG counts gradually in-
creased until early April when a dramatic in-
crease occurred, lasting for a period of about
a month. However, during the month of high-
est EPG there was a decline in the middle of
the period and an increase again. After late
May, the EPG counts declined rapidly and
soon returned essentially to prelambing values.

EPG counts at necropsy of the tester lambs
were low for the 2 animals examined in May.
For the 2 lambs killed in June, EPG increased
to over 1,400 for 1 lamb. An unexplained low
value EPG count was observed for the lamb
examined on 1 July. Markedly higher EPG
values (4,200 to 6,680) occurred in the re-
maining 4 lambs killed in July and August.

Worm-count data for the lambs at necropsy

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

16

‘suauttoads 1ay}0 ay} UeY) 9ZIs UI Ja[[eUIs YonuI BuIeq UO AjUO paseq pure AxexjIque st ‘dds sanyous, 10} A1089}e0 ainjyeuIUN! oY], §
‘pajeys asIMIayjO ssajuN § puke P YJOq Sapnyou (ainjeUr) sapoyeureU jo JaquiNu ‘(WUIT) sINJeUTUNT se paj}oU o1aYyM ydaoxe oiNjeUr oie sepoyeutou [TY +
‘dds pizaruow “wi0mMjey ay) 10} }d9oxa sapoyeuiau aie SyUIWAY [[V *

SSI FI 666 02 c9s°9 Cr6E'S 661 6 680° IL0°T 619 1 OP it, syyurutyey [[V
I i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 wnuDIquinjos wnwojsospYydosa—d
OL GLY LOE 096 IG OTT VP €€ GG 0 S100 SLANY OT
0 0G OV 0 0G OF LG OGI 0G ) §( uu) dds syunyou |
901 OF 8 Z 8 fh, G 9 c 0 ‘dds pizaiuop
OF 0 03 0 0 0 0 0 L L snsojjidpd saprojisuo.ys
099 OFS 08% OF 0 0 0 0 0 0 1a4no Diuadood
0 OFT 02 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 (urunr) ‘dds m4adooD
00F% 006'T 09L 096 088 009 08% 0¢E 09 0 8 ‘dds snuypoynwan
OOLT OFr9 I 029 08Z OFS 03S €8Z 096 6S 0 ° dad1yzods snavpo}DWaN
OGP 008 08 OGI 006 08 LO OVE PL 0 (uur) ‘dds snspozpwan
O8F t O9L'T 09F OFS Ost 09 03 03 0 0 swusofiuqnjoa snphsuossoy nd |
OFE OFZ OV 0G OF LG 0 0 0 0) 1axD snjhisuosjsoyori J,
031 OOT 03 0 OF OF L 0Z 0 0 (urunt) ‘dds snjhduossoyous J
09 096 OGI 086 OOT €L L9 08 rere) 0 & ‘dds nid0}12)8E0
0 OF 0 02 0 0 I 0 0 0 2 DIDIN {1A} DIGDI121SO
08 OOT 09 Ort OFI 0G VE OFT 09 0 9 DIIWIIWNINI DIGDI1IISO
09 OF 0 0Z 09 0 0G 0 02 0 (urunt) dds pid0}.10180
0038S 08¢S0I 00s'¢ 099'T OGY O9F 06G 006 0 0 SNJLOJUOI SNYQUOWADT
096'T 0ZES OFT O8s 08 OF OF 08 eL 0 (UIUI) sN710]U09 snyoUOWADT]
(OFT‘61/8) (Z81:31/8) (081'6Z/2) (9TT:ST/L) (LOT:1/2) (8L:LT/9) (PL'8/9) (OL:L2/S) (8S:81/¢) — (83'ST/F) {soroads ayisereg
6FL8 ZSL8 TSL8 CPLs IPL8 OSL8 PPLS GPL8 OFLS 9FLS

‘L861 Ul (OT = N) squire] 10389] Jo Asdoso9ou je poteaooel ,SyyUTW[ay Jo siaquinu pur sotoads uo vyeq

(skep ut a8e :pal[ty aep) ‘ON que]

‘| ATAV

PARASITES OF SHEEP IN KENTUCKY—Lyons et al. M7

— EWES. -7000 indicate a gradual increase from late May

-6500 through early July (Table 1). From mid-July
through the end of the investigation, worm
counts increased more rapidly, with the high-
est numbers being found in lambs examined
in August. The nematodes present in highest
numbers were Haemonchus contortus, Ne-
matodirus spathiger, and Trichostrongylus
colubriformis. These 3 species increased in
numbers throughout the investigation with the
highest values being found in lambs examined

2500 -

Ls)
°
°
°

a
°
°
e
o
3
ro)
SEWV1 - CIVNGIAIGNI) 5d3 AGOLVNAN

NEMATODE EPG (MEAN) - EWES

Sia yx 7 cae in August. Worm counts and EPG counts had
af \ A ae Tet general correlation, although the EPG counts
500 - / oa cod for the lamb examined on 1 July were much
-e eo sz :
ie a en R oS ae, lower than would be expected according to
O- pee MaRS APR BAY JUNE _wuty AUG, 0 worm-count data.
4111726 4111825 18 ee DATE. 3101724 1 8 182229 61219
DISCUSSION
Fic. 1. Periparturient data on nematode eggs per gram
of feces (EPG) in ewes (N = 7) (mean for weekly samples) Worm and EPG counts in tester lambs began
and lambs (N = 9) (single EPG at necropsy) in 1987. manifold increases at about 2 months (in mid-

TABLE 2. Data, including standard error of mean (SEM), on counts of eggs per gram (EPG) of feces for ewes at pre-
and postparturition comparable periods in 1986* and 1987.

1986 1987
EPG EPG
Parturition Animal se nA Tals
(week) (N) Avg. Range SEM (N) Avg. Range SEM

—5 1 160 a= +0 u 77 0-360 +49
—4 2 675 390-960 +288 7 74 10-220 +31
—3 i) 278 50-490 +88 ¢ 286 0-1,420 +196
=% 4 395 0-860 +227 6 408 10-1,510 +238
ll 8 326 40-1,270 +142 rl 646 20-3,160 +43]
0 . 4 188 20-500 +108 t 691 20-2,530 +354

1 ll 245 0-990 +99 7 836 40-3,720 +500

2 6 773 90-2,390 +367 ri 1,284 70-4,140 +595

3 8 408 10-800 +92 7 1,170 200-3,630 +470

4 6 1,020 80-2,970 +506 ¢ 2,241 230-9,360 + 1,242
5) 8 824 200-2,590 +295 if 1,961 610-4,640 +555

6 6 908 10-2,420 +469 6 1,422 70-2,280 +327
U 8 1,644 120-4,520 +580 i 1,279 30-5,460 +741
8 a 1,514 0-5,060 +854 a 1,654 0-9,180 + 1,294
9 7 1,923 480-7,680 + 1,009 U 5909 30-2,360 +324
10 6 1,120 20-2,740 +459 oh 320 30-1,020 +138
ll 7 1,754 50-5,270 +881 6 285 0-780 +126
12 4 1,905 80-4,300 +929 6 312 0-900 +147
13 6 1,320 80-3,790 +731 7 303 0-1,220 +170
14 4 805 40-1,840 +451 7 PAT 0-490 arf{(Il
15 rit 834 30-5,500 +791 7 127 10-340 +55
16 5) 152 0-630 +122 7 174 0-800 +109
17 6 15 0-60 ar) 7 283 0-970 +137
18 5) 10 0-20 +5 U 196 30-470 +73
19 i) 28 0-120 +23 7 187 10-700 +105
20 1 10 — +0 il 339 0-1,480 +226
21 1 20 — +0 6 420 0-1,870 +314
22 a 0 — +0 7 681 0-3,430 +496

N = number of ewes sampled.
_ Avg. = average.
* (8).

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

July) after the highest EPG of ewes that had
lambed. The times for these related events were
a month or so later than found in 1986 in the
same breeding flock (3). This was probably due
to the regulated breeding period of the ewes
in the fall of 1986. Therefore, lambing of the
ewes was somewhat later in starting, and oc-
curred over a shorter period of time in 1987
than in 1986.

EPG-count data for the ewes in the present
test were similar in pattern to those observed
for 1986. Statistical comparison (SEM) for the
data for the 2 years is recorded in Table 2. For
the 1987 study, the transient decline in the
middle of April is not readily explainable. Pos-
sibly, it was due to variability, accentuated
because of the low number of test ewes. The
epizootiological events in the present investi-
gation provided a more definitive picture of
periparturient worm egg production in ewes
than in 1986 because of weekly (vs. biweekly)
determination of EPG counts.

Likewise, the present research, using a small
number of animals, provided further indica-
tion in Kentucky of ewes in the spring as an
important source of nematode infections in the
gastrointestinal tract of lambs (1, 2). Increased

numbers of nematode eggs, voided by the
lambing ewes during the periparturient peri-
od, contaminate the pastures and provide in-
fective larvae for ingestion by grazing lambs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The investigation reported in this paper (No.
88-4-225) was made in connection with a pro-
ject of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station and is published with the approval of
the director.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Michel, J. F. 1974. Arrested development of nem-
atodes and some related phenomena. Adv. Parasit. 12:279-
366.

2. Herd, R. P., R. H. Streitel, K. E. McClure, and C.
F. Parker. 1983. Control of periparturient rise in worm
egg counts of lambing ewes. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 182:
375-379.

3. Lyons, Eugene T., J. Harold Drudge, and Sharon C.
Tolliver. 1987. Epizootiology of internal parasites in lambs
and ewes during the periparturient period in Kentucky in
1986. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 54:233-236.

4. Drudge, J. H. and J. Szanto. 1963. Controlled test
of the anthelmintic activity of thiabendazole and an or-
ganic phosphate (CL 38,023) in lambs. Am. J. Vet. Res.
24:337-342.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 19-25

Observations on the Common Horse Bot
(Gasterophilus intestinalis) (Diptera: Gasterophilidae):
Incomplete Molting of a Second Instar Specimen

EUGENE T. LYONS, SHARON C. TOLLIVER, AND SHELBY STAMPER

Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0099

ABSTRACT
Description and illustration are given of a specimen of the third instar of the common horse bot (Gas-
terophilus intestinalis) with the cast-off cuticle of the second instar attached at 2 places. It was recovered
from the stomach of a dead 4-month-old horse along with 1 second instar G. intestinalis on 14 August 1991.

Horse bots are ubiquitous parasitic insects.
There are 2 main species, the common horse
bot (Gasterophilus intestinalis) and the throat
bot (Gasterophilus nasalis), in equids in the
U.S.A. Bots spend the bulk of their life span
inside these animals as larvae (lst, 2nd, and
3rd instars). The primary location in equids is
the stomach for the common bot and duode-
num for the throat bot (1).

The life cycle is similar for all species of
bots. Bot flies lay eggs on the hairs of equids
(Fig. 1)—mainly on the forelegs for G. intes-
tinalis and lower jaws for G. nasalis. After at
least 1 week of incubation, Ist stage larvae
hatch from the eggs in response to licking by
the equid (G. intestinalis) (Fig. 2) or sponta-
neously (G. nasalis); shortly thereafter, they
enter the mouth.

Larvae spend about 1 month in the tissues
of the mouth undergoing development, and
then are swallowed as 2nd instars (Fig. 2). The
final molt to 3rd instars occurs after an addi-
tional month (Fig. 2). After a maximum of
about 10 months in the equid, bot fly larvae
pass as 3rd instars in the feces, pupate, and the
adult flies emerge in a few weeks.

During an examination of the stomach of a
dead 4-month-old horse (mixed lighthorse)
suckling on 14 August 1991, two specimens of
G. intestinalis were found. One was a 2nd
instar. The other, a 3rd instar with the cuticle
of the 2nd instar partially attached. The latter
specimen is described because thousands of
horse bots have been examined over several
years by the present authors, but this type of
occurrence has not been observed previously
(E. T. Lyons, University of Kentucky, pers.
comm. ).

i)

Morphological features of the present spec-
imen are illustrated (Figs. 3, 4, and 5) and
include the following: The cuticle of the 2nd
instar is attached by structures (probably parts
of the respiratory system) at 2 locations to the
3rd instar: (1) a few strands of tissue connect
the spiracular plates of the 2nd instar cuticle
to the area of 1 spiracular plate of the 3rd
instar, and (2) a tubular structure is attached
laterally to the 11th segment of the 2nd instar
cuticle and last row of spines of the 3rd instar.

The cuticle of the 2nd instar is turned inside
out except at the anterior end. There is a linear
opening in the ventral midline, extending be-
tween segments | and 9 (through segments 2
and 8, inclusive). The cuticle is folded over on
the edges of the opening. Between segment 1
and approximately the 3rd and 4th segments,
the opening appears to be dorsal. However, in
this area, the cuticle is not turned inside out.
Apparently, the anterior end was reinverted
with the normal side out during emergence of
the 3rd instar; or, it never was turned inside
out.

On the inside of the cuticle of the 2nd instar
are several strands that are attached at one end;
the other end is free. Exact nature of these
remnants of the 2nd instar is uncertain, but it
is likely that they are nonfunctional spiracular
filaments (2). It has been suggested that the
attachment of the internal tracheae to the non-
functional spiracles is important to the process
of the removal of the ecdysed 2nd instar tra-
cheal system (2). The respiratory system of G.
intestinalis first instars in metapneustic and
second and third instars is amphipneustic (3).

The morphological details of the 2nd instar
cuticle and its attachment to the 3rd instar

20

Imes I

Trans. KENTuCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Gasterophilus intestinalis from a horse: egg containing Ist instar and attached to a hair from the leg (20%).

Common Horse Bor In Kentucky—Lyons, Tolliver, and Stamper 2A

2

Fic. 2. Gasterophilus intestinalis from a horse: 1st, 2nd, and 3rd instars (ventral side). Left to right—1st instar from
an egg and from the mouth, 2nd instar from lesion around the teeth and from the stomach, and 3rd instar from the
stomach (7.5 x).

22

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

3

(dorsal view) and cuticle of 2nd instar turned partially

Fic. 3. Whole specimen of Gasterophilus intestinalis, 3rd instar
dent (see arrow).

inside out (7.5). Strands, probably part of the respiratory system, are evi

Common Horse Bot IN Kentucky—Lyons, Tolliver, and Stamper 23

Fic. 4. Anterior end of Gasterophilus intestinalis, 3rd instar (partial) (dorsal view) and cuticle of 2nd instar (view is
ventral except extreme anterior end is dorsal) (20x). The linear opening (arrow) of the 2nd instar cuticle where the
3rd instar emerged and the folds (F) are obvious.

24

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

(ventral view) and cuticle of 2nd instar (40~).

Fic. 5. Posterior ends (partial) of Gasterophilus intestinalis, 3rd instar
)—tags (T) of tissue connecting spiracles (S)

Note: 2 attachment sites of cuticle of 2nd instar (left) to 3rd instar (right
of both instars and a tubular structure (TB).

Common Horse Bort In KeNtucky—Lyons, Tolliver, and Stamper 25

have been described for the specimen in situ.
It is unknown whether the 8rd instar was found
just at the end of a normal ecdysis, or some
abnormality existed so that separation of the
2nd instar cuticle would not have been com-
pleted even after a longer period of time.

The 3rd instar appeared normal. It is as-
sumed that the manner of escape of this stage
through the 2nd instar cuticle was typical.
However, the failure to completely separate
may be atypical.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The investigation reported in this paper (No.
91-4-194) was made in connection with a pro-
ject of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station and is published with the approval of
the director.

Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Douglas
Dahlman, Department of Entomology, Uni-
versity of Kentucky, for his advice in writing
the manuscript and evaluating the bot speci-
men.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Drudge, J. H. and E. T. Lyons. 1983. Bots. Pp. 283-
286. In N. E. Robinson (ed.) Current therapy in equine
medicine. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

2. Hinton, H. E. 1947. On the reduction of functional
spiracles in the aquatic larvae of the Holometabola, with
notes on the moulting process of spiracles. Trans. Royal
Entomol. Soc. London 98:449-473.

3. Klein, D. 1944. Respiratory systems and respiratory
adaptations in larvae and pupae of Diptera. Parasitol. 36:
1-66.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 26-28

Bark Girdling by Herbivores as a Potential Biological
Control of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in
Power-Line Corridors

James O. LUKEN, STEVEN W. BEITING, SCoTT K. KARETH,
Ropyn L. KuUMLER, JUN H. Liu, AND Craitc A. SEITHER

Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, Kentucky 41099-0400

ABSTRACT

Experimental plots were established in a Clermont County, Ohio power-line corridor to assess the effects
of different herbicides on tree mortality, but a fortuitous influence on tree populations was observed. Her-
bivores, probably cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus), girdled 36% of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
stems. Other tree and shrub species were avoided. On control plots (not sprayed with herbicides), 87% of
black locust mortality was due to girdling. Encouraging high and persistent populations of herbivores in or
adjacent to power-line corridors may be an efficient biological control of unwanted tree populations.

INTRODUCTION

Power-line corridors are common elements
of urban, exurban, and rural landscapes (1).
These linear openings exist solely to accom-
modate electric transmission lines and towers.
Where corridors traverse forest patches, line
managers constantly strive to inhibit or elim-
inate tree populations, because trees interfere
with line function and maintenance. Herbicide
spraying, mechanical mowing, and manual
cutting have all been used in corridors to in-
hibit tree growth and forest regeneration (2,
3, A).

Biological control of tree populations in
power-line corridors is an alternative manage-
ment approach. Most research in this area has
centered on plant/plant competitive interac-
tions (5, 6, 7, 8). Few have considered the
possibility that plant/herbivore interactions
could contribute to tree control.

In this paper, we present data on bark gir-
dling of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
by herbivores. Efforts to augment this natural
process could lead to more efficient and less
environmentally damaging management tech-
niques for vegetation in power-line corridors.

METHODS

The study site was a power-line corridor in
Clermont County, Ohio, near the Zimmer
Power Plant. Vegetation in this corridor was
last cut with a mechanical mowing machine
during spring 1989. Regenerating plant com-
munities that dominated this site in spring 1991
were characterized by the following woody

26

species: black locust, sycamore (Platanus oc-
cidentalis), white ash (Fraxinus americana),
redbud (Cercis canadensis), smooth sumac
(Rhus glabra), sassafras (Sassafras albidum),
black cherry (Prunus serotina), and spicebush
(Lindera benzoin).

During spring 1990, vegetation in one-half
of the corridor was recut at ground-level with
a mechanical mowing machine. Fifty experi-
mental plots (15.2 m x 15.2 m) were estab-
lished, 25 in the recently cut area and 25 in
the one-year-old vegetation. During August
1990, 4 different herbicides were applied to 40
of the plots. The remaining 10 plots were left
as controls. At the time of herbicide applica-
tion, it was noted that large numbers of black
locust stems were girdled, but stem mortality
was not yet evident.

In spring 1991, data were recorded for every
woody plant stem found in the experimental
plots. All stems were noted according to ex-
perimental plot number, species, stem diam-
eter, whether the stem was alive or dead, and
whether the stem was girdled or not. In Oc-
tober 1991, we collected bark tissue from black
locust, redbud, and sycamore trees. This tissue
was analyzed for total nitrogen using the mi-
crokjeldahl technique.

We compared the size-class distributions of
girdled and ungirdled black locust stems with
a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Differences in ni-
trogen content were detected on square root
transformed data with a one-way analysis of
variance. Specific differences among means
were determined with Tukey’s test.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF BLACK Locust—Luken et al. 27

MM cinDLeD GSM Not GIRDLED
1022 =
1025 f n=1544, GIRDLED
n=2762, NOT GIRDLED

(a)

Ww

ZI 820

a

=

<<

”

n 615

=

Ww

[=

n

We

ro) 410

oc

Ww

[ea)

2 205

=)

Zz : aa

0 a ee poe cs
<0.6 0.6-1.0 1.1-1.5 1.6-2.0 2.1-2.5 >2.5
SIZE CLASSES (cm)
Fic. 1. Size-class distributions of black locust stems found

in all plots of an herbicide efficacy experiment.

RESULTS

Of the 8 woody plant species found in the
study sites, black locust was the only species
showing evidence of bark girdling. Stems were
typically girdled from the soil surface to 80
cm from the soil surface. Of the 4,306 black
locust stems measured in all study plots, 36%
were girdled. The size-class distribution of gir-
dled stems was similar to that of ungirdled
stems (Fig. 1). When these data were calcu-
lated as percentages of stems sampled, the dis-
tributions were not significantly (P > 0.05)

different. Forty-one percent of black locust

stems in control plots were girdled and 87% of
black locust mortality was due to girdling (Fig.
)

The nitrogen content of black locust bark
was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that
of sycamore or redbud bark. Mean percentages
+ standard error, N = 3 are as follows: syca-
more 0.88 + 0.18, redbud 1.04 + 0.09, and
black locust 2.75 + 0.25.

DIscussION

The animal responsible for girdling black
locust is unknown. However, because of the
height and configuration of girdled zones on
the stems (9), and because bark is a common
component of the cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus
floridanus) diet (10), it is hypothesized that
cottontail rabbits are responsible. Woodchucks
(Marmota monax) and voles (Microtus spp.)
might also be implicated, but the woodchuck
diet does not commonly include bark (11), and
girdled zones on stems were well beyond the
reach of voles.

Bryant and Kuropat (12) maintained that

LIVE-GIRDLED LIVE-NOT GIRDLED DEAD-GIRDLED
415 112
Ee n=185, GIRDLED

DEAD-NOT GIRDLED

n=266, NOT GIRDLED

92

69

46

23

NUMBER OF CONTROL STEMS SAMPLED

So

<0.6 0.6-1.0 1.1-1.5 1.6-2.0 2.1-2.5 >2.5

SIZE CLASSES (cm)
Fic. 2. Size-class distributions and physiological condi-
tions of black locust stems found in control (unsprayed)
plots of a herbicide efficacy experiment.

browsing animals avoid plant tissues with high
concentrations of secondary chemical constit-
uents and do not select winter forage on the
basis of proximal nutrient content. In contrast,
other researchers have suggested that rabbits
and hares do select woody tissue with the high-
est nitrogen (protein) content (13, 14). Black
locust has nearly 3 times the amount of bark
nitrogen than redbud or sycamore, but it is
unknown if monospecific girdling is the result
of this high nitrogen content or is due to the
fact that other tree species have higher con-
centrations of secondary chemicals in the bark.
Clearly, more research is needed in this area
of plant/herbivore interaction because black
locust bark is readily used as a food source but
it is also toxic to livestock and humans due to
the presence of a proteinaceous phytotoxin (15).

The fact that herbivores do selectively girdle
black locust has implications for biological con-
trol. Black locust is the premier problem tree
in power-line corridors, especially those with
a history of repeated mowing (4). It is also
considered a weed in nature reserves (16). By
encouraging high and persistent populations
of rabbits in or adjacent to power-line corri-
dors, it is possible that management costs could
be reduced. Such a biological control effort
should be approached cautiously because rab-
bits are also implicated in damage to orchards
and grainfields (9, 17).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support for this project was pro-
vided by Cincinnati Gas and Electric Com-

28 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

pany. We thank Dr. Debra Pearce for assis-
tance with the nitrogen analyses.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Forman, R. T. T and M. Godron. 1986. Landscape
ecology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

2. Bramble, W. C. and W. R. Byrnes. 1983. Thirty
years of research on development of plant cover on an
electric transmission right-of-way. J. Arboric. 9:67-74.

3. Dreyer, G. D. and W. A. Niering. 1986. Evaluation
of two herbicide techniques on electric transmission right-
of-way: development of relatively stable shrublands. En-
viron. Manage. 10:113-118.

4. Luken, J. O., A. C. Hinton, and D. G. Baker. 1991.
Assessment of frequent cutting as a plant-community man-
agement technique in power-line corridors. Environ. Man-
age. 15:381-388.

5. Niering, W. A. and R. H. Goodwin. 1974. Creation
of relatively stable shrublands with herbicides: arresting
succession on rights-of-way and pastureland. Ecology 55:
784-795.

6. Bramble, W. C., W. R. Byrnes, and R. J. Hutnik.
1990. Resistance of plant cover types to tree seedling
invasion on an electric transmission right-of-way. J. Ar-
boric. 16:130-135.

7. Pound, C. E., and F. E. Egler. 1953. Brush control
in southeastern New York: Fifteen years of stable treeless
communities. Ecology 34:63-73.

8. Luken, J. O. 1990. Directing ecological succession.
Chapman and Hall, London.

9. Barnes, T.G. 1990. Managing rabbit and vole prob-
lems in Kentucky orchards. Univ. Ky. Coll. Ag. Rep. For-
43, 5 pp.

10. Haugen, A. D. 1942. Life history studies of the
cottontail rabbit in southwestern Michigan. Am. Midl. Nat.
28:204-244,

11. Grizzell,R. A. 1955. A study of the southern wood-
chuck, Marmota monax monax. Am. Midl. Nat. 53:257-
293

12. Bryant, J. P. and P. J. Kuropat. 1980. Selection of
winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: the role
of plant chemistry. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11:261-285.

13. Miller, G. R. 1968. Evidence for selective feeding
on fertilized plots by grouse, hares and rabbits. J. Wildl.
Manage. 32:849-853.

14. Lindlof, B., E. Lindstrom, and A. Pehrson. 1974.
Nutrient content in relation to food preferred by mountain
hare. J. Wild]. Manage. 38:875-879.

15. Hardin, J. W. 1961. Poisonous plants of North
Carolina. Ag. Exp. Sta. North Carolina State Coll., Bull.
No. 414.

16. Vegetation management manual. 1990. Illinois
Nature Preserves Commission, Springfield, Illinois. Vol. 1.
Nos. 2-27.

17. Anthony, R. B. and A. R. Fisher. 1977. Wildlife
damage in orchards—a need for better management. Wildl.
Soc. Bull. 5:107-112.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 29-38

Natural Plant Communities of Hopkins County, Kentucky

JULIAN CAMPBELL

The Nature Conservancy, Kentucky Field Office, 642 West Main Street, Lexington, Kentucky 40508

AND

JEFF GRUBBS

Division of Water, Kentucky Environmental Protection Agency,
18 Reilly Road, Ash Building, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

A survey of Hopkins County was conducted in order to characterize the natural plant communities and
to find the best remaining examples. This effort relied on aerial photographs, aerial reconnaissance, and field
trips to selected sites. Vegetation patterns are interpreted in relation to Soil Conservation Service data. Species
composition is outlined for each community, including reference to rare species. Some classification problems

are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

This study is part of the ongoing effort by
the Nature Conservancy and Kentucky State
Nature Preserves Commission (KSNPC) to
identify the best remaining examples of dif-
ferent natural ecosystems in the state. Varia-
tion in plant communities is receiving special
attention. The inventory is progressing county

by county, with the intent of completion in

the next 5-10 years. The wetlands of Hopkins
County are among the largest in the state; sev-
eral have been studied previously by Harker
et al. (1, 2). In the survey reported below, some
of these wetlands were revisited, and uplands
were also explored. The results indicate what
plant communities exist in the county, and what
sites deserve most urgent conservation action.

Human disturbance and destruction of nat-
ural vegetation in Hopkins County has in-
creased greatly in the past few decades. Most
of the flatter uplands have been farmed for
over 100 years, but large bottomland areas re-
mained forested until clearance and drainage
accelerated after 1950. On the Pond and Green
river bottoms, in particular, more than 10,000
acres (4,000 ha) were forested in the 1950s, but
at least 75% has now been converted to crop-
land (see USGS Topographic Quadrangles and
KSNPC aerial photographs). The other major
disturbance is strip-mining for coal, which has
removed over 10% of the natural soils (3), and
has caused much sedimentation and pollution
in the wetlands.

29

In addition to describing some of the best
remaining natural areas in the county, this re-
port discusses apparent ecological relation-
ships, with special attention to wet and dry
extremes, and possible seasonal fluctuations.
Understanding the causes of variation in nat-
ural vegetation will help in developing a truly
ecological (functional) classification, in select-
ing the best examples, and in implementing
management for conservation.

The Study Area

Hopkins County lies entirely within the
Shawnee Hills, in its strictest sense, which has
also been called the “Western Coal Field” in
Kentucky (4). The bedrock is all of Pennsy]-
vanian age, consisting of shale, siltstone and
sandstone with minor amounts of coal and
limestone (USGS Geological Quadrangles).
Overlying most of these gently rolling hills and
broad valleys is a mantle of loess, i.e., calcar-
eous silt blown in during glacial eras from large
river valleys to the west. Probably due to this
loess (3), most soils are only moderately acid
(alfisols), in contrast to the Appalachian Pla-
teau soils on similar bedrock (ultisols). The
northern half of the county lies among less
rugged hills, where uplands are mostly on Up-
per Pennsylvanian rocks, with less extensive
sandstone. Loess deposits tend to be thicker in
the north, and upland soils are mostly some-
what poorly drained (fragiudalfs) as opposed
to well-drained (hapludalfs). There is also a

30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-—2)

GENERAL HIGHWAY MAP

HOPKINS COUNTY
KENTUCKY

5 MILES

!
}

Fic. 1. Map of Hopkins County, Kentucky, showing roads (from 1990 Dept. of Transportation road map) and “potential
natural areas’ (PNAs) inspected during this study. The underlined numbers indicate PNAs that were checked on the
ground in addition to aerial reconnaissance. Hatched areas do not have special natural quality other than their large

acreage and potential importance for connecting better sites.

greater extent and variety of bottomland soils,
covering huge terraces of the Green and Ohio
rivers (3).

Early descriptions, and ecological inference,
suggest that almost all of the county was for-
ested before settlement, except, perhaps, the
wettest and driest extremes (4, 5, 6, 7). Abun-
dant trees included Quercus alba, O. velutina
and Carya spp. on drier sites; Fagus grandi-
folia and Acer saccharum on moister sites; bot-

tomland Quercus spp., Liquidambar styraci-
flua and probably A. rubrum on wetter sites.
Some trees typical of the Mississippian Em-
bayment approach their northern limits here,
e.g., QO. pagoda, Q. michauxii, Carya illinoen-
sis and C. aquatica. The dominants of deep
southern swamps—Taxodium distichum and
Nyssa aquatica—are unknown from the coun-
ty, though the former still occurs in McClean
and Muhlenberg counties to the east. In the

UPLAND SOILS

no loess sewd
LITHIC DYSTROCHREPT
Ramsey lom

30-50 1-2 1-2

no loess wd thin loess wd/mwd thin loess mwd

TYPIC DYSTROCHREPT TYPIC FRAGIUDALF GLOSSIC FRAGIUDALF
Steinsburg lom Zanesville sil Sadler sil

20-30 2-3 1-2 2-20 5-8 1-2 2-6 5-8 1-2

no loess wd thin loess wd thick loess mwd
VERTIC HAPLUDALF ULTIC HAPLUDALF GLOSSIC FRAGIUDALF
Lenberg sil Wellston sil Grenada sil

12-30 2-3 1-2 6-20 3-5 1-2 2-6 .5-10 1-2

thin loess wd thick loess mwd thick loess spd

ULTIC HAPLUDALF TYPIC FRAGIUDALF GLOSSIC FRAGIUDALF
Frondorf sil Loring sil Calloway sil

12-30 2-3 1-2 2-12 5-10+ 1-2 0-2 5-10+ 2-3

clay slack wd/mwd mixed all. wd/mwd mixed all. spd

TYPIC HAPLUDALF TYPIC FRAGIUDALF AERIC FRAGIUQUALF
Markland sic Otwell sil Weinbach sil

6-12 6-12+ 2 2-6 >10 1-2 0-2 >10 1-2

mixed all. wd loess all. mwd clay slack spd

FLUV. DYSTROCHREPT AQUIC UDIFLUVENT AERIC OCHRAQUALF
Cuba sil Collins sil McGary lom/sil

O25 0) ae? 0-2 >10 1-2 0-2 6-12+ 1-3

mixed all. mwd loess all. spd clay slack pd

FLUV. DYSTROCHREPT AERIC FLUVAQUENT VERTIC HAPLAQUEPT
Steff sil Belknap sil Karnak sil/sic

0-2 >12 1-2 O22; SQ =2 0-2 >12 3-4

mixed all. spd loess all. pd

AERIC FLUVAQUENT TYPIC FLUVAQUENT
Stendal sil Waverly sil

0-2 >12 1-3 O22 2 a2

mixed all. pd
TYPIC FLUVAQUENT
Bonnie sil

LOWLAND SOILS 0-2 >12 1-2

Fic. 2. Soil series of Hopkins County arranged according to natural gradients. All data are from Fehr et al. (3), and
are condensed here in a way that enables overlays for individual characteristics to be readily generated. The terminology
follows standard Soil Conservation Service usage. Terms and symbols in the four-line characterizations of each soil
series are as follows: First line: Left: parent material; no loess = bedrock alone; thin loess = less than 1.2 m thick; thick
loess = over 1.2 m thick; clay slack = clayey slack-water deposits; mixed all. = alluvium from bedrock and loess; loess
all. = alluvium derived mostly from loess. Right: wd = well drained; sewd = somewhat excessively well drained; mwd
= moderately well drained; spd = somewhat poorly drained; pd = poorly drained. Second line: Classification of National
Cooperative Soil Survey. Third line: Soil series name, with typical A horizon texture: sil = silt loam; lom = loam; sic
= silty clay loam. Fourth line: Left numbers = typical slope percent; Central numbers = typical depth to bedrock in
feet; Right numbers = typical A horizon pH (unlimed): 1 = 4.5-5; 2 = 5-5.5; 3 = 5.5-6; 4 = 6-6.5.

32 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

absence of these 2 species, land that is too wet
for closed hardwood forest is occupied by more
or less open marshes, sloughs and ponds. These
areas include some of the most extensive wet-
lands in the Shawnee Hills. The wetlands and
adjacent forests have several rare plants, as
detailed below, and these areas are also essen-
tial habitat for most rare animals known from
the county or its immediate environs (8): fishes
(cypress minnow, lake chubsucker, spotted
sunfish, stargazing minnow); an amphibian
(bird-voiced treefrog); reptiles (copperbelly
watersnake, mudsnake—cottonmouth snake is
also notable here at its range margin); and birds
(American bittern, least bittern, great blue her-
on, pied-billed grebe). Most of these plants and
animals are southern species, here near the
northern edge of their Mississippi Valley rang-
es. No species currently listed or proposed for
federal protection are known to reside in the
county.

METHODS

About 40 “Potential Natural Areas” (PNAs)
were identified by the senior author from ae-
rial photographs taken in the summer of 1980
for the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Com-
mission (Fig. 1). Compared to some other
regions of the state, the threshold for “natural
quality” was lowered substantially to select
these 40 sites. This selection included the few
areas that appeared to have forest of uniform
commercial maturity, with trees ca. 75-100
years old (PNAs 6/10/29). However, most ar-
eas appeared to have younger forests, up to
30-60 years old, with only scattered older trees.
Given this general immaturity, other sites were
selected simply due to their having relatively
large areas free from mining or recent logging.
A particular effort was made to cover upland
and bottomland about equally, and to include
representative areas from all kinds of topog-
raphy and soils (3).

On 19 June 1991, the 40 PNAs were in-
spected by the senior author by flying over the
country in a small airplane (172 Cesna). This
revealed any major disturbance or destruction
of sites since 1980, and it allowed better as-
sessment of tree sizes and other natural features
in remaining sites. About 15 sites were finally
selected for field visits, including sites with

particularly mature forest, and maintaining to-
pographic variety. These sites were visited in
July 1991. Several of these sites, and some oth-
ers, had been visited also by the second author
during 1989. On the ground, notes were made
on forest maturity and the most frequent spe-
cies. Rare plant species were looked for, and
vouched by collections deposited at the Uni-
versity of Kentucky. However, complete flo-
ristic lists were not attempted. Field notes of
the senior author are deposited at the Kentucky
State Nature Preserves office in Frankfort; those
of the second author are available at his ad-
dress. Field notes from KSNPC (1, 2) and other
sources (especially Hal Bryan and R. Mohlen-
brock, pers. comm., from PNA 2C) are also
referred to below.

In order to examine the relationship of veg-
etation to soils, the USDA Soil Survey of Hop-
kins County (3) was analyzed in order to dis-
play the major gradients in soil conditions.
Ecological features of each soil series were used
to arrange them in a two-dimensional scheme
that places similar soils close to each other (Fig.
2). On this scheme was then overlayed the
pattern of forest types most frequently asso-
ciated with each soil series (Fig. 3). All soil
terminology below follows the above refer-
ence.

The term “old growth,” as used in this re-
port, refers to those few sites where most can-
opy trees exceed 75-100 years old, i.e., about
50-75 cm dbh (diameter at breast height) on
bottomland or 40-60 cm dbh on uplands. “Ma-
turing forest’ refers to areas that appear to be
in this transitional range of ages and sizes. Bo-
tanical nomenclature generally follows Fer-
nald (9), though with a few changes used by
Kartesz and Kartesz (10; see also 11).

Results: Notes on Community Types

Each community heading below is followed
by the corresponding type code in Allard’s (12)
regional “Natural Community’ classification
(codes in parentheses are transitional or mixed
types). Species lists in this section are not meant
to be complete, but indicate only some of the
more common, characteristic and rare species
in each community type. Asterisks (*) indicate
relatively rare species in Kentucky that have
been listed by KSNPC (13), or may warrant
consideration.

NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Campbell and Grubbs 33

UPLAND SOILS

Ram

SUBXERIC FORESTS
(DYSTROCHREPTS)

Ste Zan
TRANSITIONS
MESIC FORESTS

7
Len (HAPLUDALFS) Wel Gre
Za
TRANSITIONS “ XEROHYDRIC FORESTS
(FRAGIUDALFS)

Cal

Wei

ea TRANSITIONS ‘. HYDROXERIC FORESTS
\_ (VARIOUS SOILS)
SUBHYDRIC FORESTS | N
Cub (VARIOUS SOILS) Co! ——————————- McG

Bel

HYDRIC FORESTS ne

(FLUVAQUENTS)

LOWLAND SOILS

Fic. 3. Major forest types associated with each soil series. This is an overlay for Figure 2, with the same arrangement
of soil series, abbreviated by their first three letters. Forest types and typical soil classes are shown in upper case. Forest
types are based on data from the ca. 15 sites visited during this study. The most characteristic types are shown for
each soil series; contacts and transitions are indicated by more than one type sharing a soil series.

34 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Upland Communities

1. Moist (mesic) forest: I[A5d(/e). This is typ-
ically located on well-drained soils that are
relatively base-rich (hapludalfs), especially on
lower slopes (6—30%) and on north or east as-
pects. Bedrock is at 2-5 ft (0.6-1.5 m) depth,
and in some areas there is a thin loess cover.
Common species include Fagus grandifolia,
Acer saccharum, Liriodendron tulipifera,
Carpinus caroliniana, Asimina triloba and
Lindera benzoin. Also typical are Quercus ru-
bra, Juglans nigra, Fraxinus americana, UI-
mus rubra and Morus rubra. Ground vegeta-
tion includes Polystichum acrostichoides,
Podophyllum peltatum, Asarum canadense,
Circaea canadensis, Mitchella repens, Galium
triflorum, G. concinnum, Eupatorium rugo-
sum, Polygonatum biflorum, Carex laxiflora
and Brachyelytrum erectum. The rare Cimi-
cifuga rubifolia*, Hydrastis canadensis* and
Panax quinquefolius* have been found at an
old-growth site in adjacent Caldwell County
(i),

Best examples. No old-growth was found.
Small 1-10 acre (0.4—-4 ha) remnants of ma-
turing forest occur on moister sites within some
larger upland areas (e.g., PNAs 8/1/34/35).

2. Moderately dry (subxeric) forest: IATi(/c/d).
This is typically located on well- or somewhat
excessively well-drained soils with relatively
low base-status (dystrochrepts), especially on
steeper slopes (20-50%) and on south or west
aspects. Bedrock is at 1-2 ft (0.3-0.6 m) depth,
and there is little or no loess. Quercus alba is
frequent in this forest type, and may have been
dominant before logging. In 1884, DeFriese
(6) noted this species “all along the streams
and the foot-hills and on low grounds gener-
ally. In many localities, even the hilltops are
covered with it; but, generally speaking, it does
not extend high up the hill-sides.’’ Other spe-
cies include Q. velutina, which increased
greatly after logging (6), and lesser amounts
of Carya spp. (especially C. glabra), Acer ru-
brum, Nyssa sylvatica, Sassafras albidum,
Cornus florida, Ostrya virginiana and Oxy-
dendron arboreum. Quercus coccinea and
Vaccinium arboreum occur on more rocky
ground, where the tree canopy is locally open.
Pinus virginiana is locally abundant in youn-
ger stands, but it was apparently rare or absent
before settlement (6, 7). In some transitions to

moister forests (e.g., PNA 13), Acer saccharum
dominates the understory, perhaps replacing
the Quercus spp. in areas without fire or other
disturbance. A different kind of transition was
noted by DeFriese (6) as a “splendid belt of
timbers” on relatively moist soil, correspond-
ing to the Middle Pennsylvanian Carbondale
Formation, with Q. alba, “Q. heterophylla”
[Q. pagoda?], Q. velutina, Carya spp., Lirio-
dendron, Juglans nigra, Fraxinus americana
and F. quadrangulata [unvouched?]. Ground
vegetation is generally sparse, except in dis-
turbed areas with frequent Rhus radicans and
the exotic Lonicera japonica. Typical species
include Porteranthus stipulatus, Desmodium
nudiflorum, Ascyrum hypericoides, Aureola-
ria laevigata, Monarda bradburiana, Cunila
origanoides, Houstonia tenuifolia, Galium
circaezans, Solidago caesia, S. erecta, Aster
undulatus, Helianthus microcephalus, An-
tennaria plantaginifolia, Carex digitalis, C.
wildenovii, C. Section Montanae, Bromus
purgans, Panicum commutatum and P. di-
chotomum.

Best examples. There are 1,000s of forested
acres that have not yet been mined, but few
areas even approach old-growth status. A few
areas are slightly more mature than average
(PNAs 8/11/13), and a few are notable for
their large contiguous acreage (PNAs 14/16).

3. Dry-wet fluctuating (xerohydric) forest:
IA7c(/?). This appears to have been wide-
spread, typically on gentler slopes (0-20%) with
moderately well-drained soils containing a fra-
gipan (fragiudalfs). Bedrock is at 5-10 ft (1.5-
3 m) depth, and loess is present, often over 3
ft (1 m) deep. The forest is virtually all con-
verted to farmland today. Quercus stellata (post
oak) was the most typical tree; in 1884, DeFriese
(6) noted that “post oak is plenty, covering all
the hills through this part of Kentucky, and
extending far down toward the foot-hills.”’
Other characteristic species in modern rem-
nants may include Q. falcata, Q. marilandica,
Carya tomentosa, Ulmus alatus, Corylus
americana and Symphoricarpos occidentalis.
However, there is much mixture with other
forest types. On the better drained land, now
most intensively farmed, transitions to moister
(mesic or subhydric) forest appear to have had
much Q. pagoda, since trees up to 3-4 ft dbh
(1 m) are frequently seen along roads and in

NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Campbell and Grubbs 35

woodlots. Wetter sites appear to have had more
Acer rubrum, Liquidambar, some Q. palustris
and occasional Q. imbricaria.

Drier sites may have had sparse tree canopy.
On Pennsylvanian shales in nearby Union
County, R. Peter (in 5: vol. 2, p. 266; vol. 3,
p. 402) noted “remarkable flat post oak glades.”
Judging from the few wooded remnants, ad-
jacent rights-of-way and old fields, post oak
forest in Hopkins County may indeed have
been open in places. Some of the species in
native grasslands are Desmodium spp., Les-
pedeza spp. (including L. capitata*), Stropho-
styles umbellata, Tephrosia virginiana, Cro-
tonopsis elliptica*, Monarda fistulosa,
Hypericum denticulatum var. recognitum,
Phlox pilosa, Pycnanthemum spp., Diodia
teres, Galium pilosum, Liatris squarrosa, He-
lianthus spp., Eupatorium spp., Solidago
nemoralis, Carex hirsutella, C. gravida, Dan-
thonia spicata, Elymus glabriflorus, Panicum
spp. (including P. longiligulatum*), Andro-
pogon scoparius, A. gerardii, Erianthus alo-
pecurioides and Sorghastrum nutans. Fires
may well have promoted such species before
settlement.

Best examples. There is virtually no native
vegetation left on flatter ground with deeper
loess (Loring-Grenada-Calloway soil associa-
tion), other than highly disturbed, 1-10 acre
(0.4-4 ha) remnants (e.g., uplands of PNAs
8/34 and woodlots SW of PNA 6). However,
within more dissected areas, broad ridges
capped by thin loess often have the charac-
teristic Quercus spp. noted above, intermixed
with typical subxeric forest (e.g., PNAs 8/14/
16/35).

Bottomland Communities

These are all on alluvial soils with a depth
to bedrock of at least 10 ft (4 m), or 6 ft (1.8
m) in slack-water areas. All of these commu-
nities can be intimately mixed with aquatic
communities (see below).

4. Moderately wet (subhydric) forest:
I[A8b(/6g). This transitional type occurs on
more or less well-drained soils, on either: (a)
mixed alluvium sufficiently high above the lev-
el of frequent saturation (fluventic dystro-
chrepts); or (b) more dissected areas near the
front or back edges of broad slack-water flood-
plains (hapludalf and udifluvent soils). Com-

mon species include mesophytes like Fagus
and Liriodendron, plus more hydrophytic spe-
cies such as Quercus michauxii, QO. pagoda,
Liquidambar, Nyssa sylvatica and Acer ru-
brum var. trilobum. Especially on slack-water
deposits, other species include Fraxinus pen-
sylvanica, Ulmus americana, Celtis laevigata,
Q. macrocarpa, Carya laciniosa and occasional
C. illinoensis. Rare trees that may be expected
in the county or nearby include Gleditsia
aquatica* (vegetative collections suggest hy-
brids with G. triacanthos) and Bumelia lan-
uginosa* (collected by L.R. Phillippe, pers.
comm., from the small old-growth forest in
adjacent McLean County). Ground vegetation
includes Boehmeria cylindrica, Polygonum
virginianum, Parthenocissus quinquefolia,
Rhus radicans, Eupatorium serotinum, Uvu-
laria sessilifolia*, Carex rosea, C. projecta, C.
debilis, Poa autumnalis, Elymus virginicus,
Panicum clandestinum and P. joorii*.

Best examples. Two areas of 5-20 acres (2-
8 ha) approach old-growth (PNAs 10/34<A).
Another area (PNA 5B) has an unusual abun-
dance of Q. macrocarpa, Carya laciniosa and
Urticales (see Discussion).

5. Wet (hydric) forest: IIA6b(/d). This is ex-
tensive on more or less poorly drained soils of
floodplains (especially fluvaquents). Common
species include Quercus palustris, Acer ru-
brum var. trilobum and Liquidambar, with Q.
lyrata on wetter sites and Q. michauxii on drier
sites. Quercus bicolor and Fraxinus pensyl-
vanica are frequent on slack-water deposits.
Minor species on wetter sites include F. to-
mentosa, Carya aquatica* and Cornus stricta.
Ground vegetation includes Onoclea sensibi-
lis, Saururus cernuus, Boehmeria cylindrica,
Impatiens capensis, Hypericum tubulosum,
Cicuta maculata, Scutellaria lateriflorus, Ly-
copus virginicus, Galium obtusum, Bidens
frondosa, Aster spp. (ontarionis, simplex, lat-
eriflorus, vimeneus), Iris virginica, Comme-
lina virginica, Carex crinita, C. louisianica, C.
grayii, Leersia lenticularis, Glyceria striata,
Cinna arundinacea and Muhlenbergia cf.
bushii*. More acid soils at seeping slope bases
may have had distinct vegetation, including
Stenanthium gramineum, several ferns (Os-
munda spp., Thelypteris palustrus, Wood-
wardia areolata, etc.) and mosses (Sphagnum
spp.). The only good example known in the

36 Trans. KENTucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

region is in adjacent Caldwell County (“Daw-
son Springs Swamp ’; 1), but these species have
been found nearby in Hopkins County (West-
ern PNA 35; M. Medley).

Best examples. There are no areas of old-
growth. Maturing forest occurs in a few lo-
cations (e.g., parts of PNAs 2A/2C/22B/35).
Extensive areas of less mature forest occur along
the Pond River and the Tradewater River.

6. Wet-dry fluctuating (hydroxeric) forest:
I[A6a(/5a/?). This is typical of soils that are
more or less poorly drained, but which often
dry out in the growing season. Extreme ex-
amples occur on the clayey slack-water de-
posits (with relatively base-rich ochraqualf and
haplaquept soils). Less distinct examples also
occur on these deposits and on old mixed al-
luvial terraces with fragipans (fragiudalfs).
Perhaps the most characteristic tree of extreme
hydroxeric conditions is Quercus phellos, which
can be associated with Q. lyrata and other
species of wetter forests, or with Q. stellata,
Carya ovata and other species of drier forests.
Ilex decidua is often frequent. Less extreme
sites are transitional to wetter forest types with
Liquidambar, Q. palustris, Q. pagoda and oth-
ers, or to upland forest types with Q. alba, C.
tomentosa, Diospyros virginiana and others.
The highly varied ground vegetation includes
Rhus radicans, Baptisia leucantha* (collected
by H. Bryan), Amsonia tabernaemontanum
var. gattingeri*, Lycopus rubellus, Leersia
virginica, Carex tribuloides, C. typhina, C.
intumescens and Panicum longiligulatum*.
Species in the Quercus stellata woods (PNA
5A) include Lespedeza intermedia, Croton-
opsis elliptica*, Carex glaucodea, Eleocharis
tenuis, Danthonia spicata and Panicum acu-
minatum var. fasciculatum.

Best examples. There are no areas of old-
growth. On slack-water deposits, areas with
frequent Quercus phellos are well-represented
along the outer floodplain limits of the lower
Clear Creek watershed (especially PNA 38);
DeFriese (5, p. 22) noted in 1884 that “On
Clear Creek, a great deal of swamp laurel oak
[Q. phellos] is found, often 26 inches [66 cm]
in diameter’. There are several less distinct
examples, with little or no Q. phellos (e.g.,
PNA 6 and the large PNA 7). The OQ. stellata
forest on Pitman Creek (PNA 5A) is excep-
tional for its lack of typical hydric species. On

the terraces with fragipans, strips of forest re-
main along Green and Pond rivers (e.g., PNA
3C).

Communities Associated with
Bodies of Water

7. Flowing water (rivers and streams): I1A7b/f.
More or less well-drained soil that, neverthe-
less, gets frequent flooding with fresh alluvium
is typified by Salix nigra, Platanus occiden-
talis, Betula nigra (especially on more acid
soil), Acer negundo (especially on more base-
rich soil) and A. saccharinum (especially along
larger streams and rivers). This zone generally
grades into adjacent subhydric or hydric forest.
A shrub zone of Cornus obliqua is often present
next to the water. Ground vegetation includes
Boehmeria cylindrica, Laportea canadensis,
Polygonum spp., Cryptotaenia canadensis,
Ruellia strepens, Mimulus alatus, Aster on-
tarionis, Arundinaria gigantea, Chasman-
thium latifolium, Leersia oryzoides, Elymus
virginicus and Muhlenbergia frondosa. Bars
of gravel or sand are generally not well-de-
veloped.

Best examples. No particularly mature forest
was found along rivers and streams, but these
communities remain extensive.

8. Stagnant water (marshes, sloughs, oxbows
and ponds): IICle/IID1d/lWD6a/IID8a. In
these situations, subhydric or hydric forest gen-
erally borders the water directly. Dead trees
are frequent along the larger sloughs, as dis-
cussed further below. A zone of Cephalanthus
occidentalis is generally present. Along the
larger sloughs, this shrub is often mixed with
Populus heterophylla, Salix nigra, Forestiera
acuminata and Styrax americana. In deeper
water, Hibiscus militaris is abundant. The herb
layer includes Polygonum hydropiperoides,
Ludwigia spp., Diodia virginiana, Alisma sub-
cordatum, Typha spp., Sparganium spp., Jun-
cus effusus, Rhynchospora corniculata, Carex
lupulina, Eleocharis quadrangulata, Phrag-
mites australis, Panicum agrostoides and Ech-
inochloa crus-gallii. True aquatics include Nu-
phar luteum, Nymphaea odorata, Ranunculus
flabellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum, Didip-
lis diandra*, Peltandra virginica*, Limno-
bium spongia* and the liverwort, Riccia flui-
tans (sensu lato). Around one shallow pond
polluted by red deposits from mine run-off,

NATURAL PLANT COMMUNITIES IN KENTUCKY—Campbell and Grubbs 37

Decodon verticillatus* is dominant, with fre-
quent Cephalanthus, Itea virginica, Juncus
acuminatus and Eleocharis obtusa.

Best examples. There are several extensive
marshy bottoms in the county, notably along
Clear Creek (PNA 22) and its tributaries—
Weir Creek (PNA 29) and Lick Creek (PNA
30). Relatively undisturbed examples of ox-
bows are Long Pond (in PNA 2A) and the
oxbow just south of the mouth of Clear Creek
(in PNA 38). Smaller ponds of various types
occur in many areas, but their natural or ar-
tificial status is often uncertain. Though pol-
luted, the Maple Swamp pond (in PNA 35)
may have a natural origin and is notable for
the Decodon.

DISCUSSION

The Nature Conservancy is currently de-
veloping a “Natural Community’ classifica-
tion for the southeastern United States (12),
including Kentucky (M. Evans, unpublished).
The general correspondence of Hopkins Coun-
ty plant communities to this system is refer-
enced above. However, some forest types on
sites with much wet-dry fluctuation are not
clearly matched in the regional classification,
especially types on less well-drained uplands
with fragipans, and on bottoms with high po-
tential for seasonal drought. Also, there needs
to be more analysis of soil chemical differences
between communities at local and regional lev-
els, which would help refine the correspon-
dence. g

A major component in the relationship be-
tween soil and vegetation indicated above (Figs.
1, 2) is that soils with potential for much mois-
ture fluctuation have vegetation that is distinct
from more constant dry, moist or wet condi-
tions. This local pattern illustrates the inde-
pendent gradients of dryness and wetness ey-
ident in the whole Central Hardwood Region
(14). Such independence may be more pro-
nounced on the Coastal Plain and Piedmont,
though requiring deeper analysis than some-
times performed (15, 16, 17, 18). Expression
of these trends is often limited by the almost
complete agricultural conversion of flatter
lands, where the most typical “xerohydric”
vegetation is hypothesized to have existed be-
fore settlement. The search for good examples
of natural vegetation on fragipan soils in these
landscapes should become a priority. It is in-

triguing that upland areas most prone to a nat-
ural shift from forest to fire-prone, grassy, open
woodland or barrens may have occurred on
such sites. Despite the historical reference to
“post oak glades” (4; see above), no definite
remnants of such vegetation have been found
within the Shawnee Hills, apart from some
peripheral sites on Mississippian bedrock.

The natural condition of the Clear Creek
wetland and other large marshy areas in Hop-
kins County remains uncertain. The frequent
dead trees may indicate an increase in water
levels during the past 10-30 years, caused by
the concurrent increase in dam-building of the
recovering beaver population (E. Young, Hop-
kins Co. Conservation Office, pers. comm.),
and by sedimentation and pollution from strip-
mines. Studies of ““greentree reservoirs’ indi-
cate that flooding in the growing season results
in a shift from bottomland hardwoods to more
water-tolerant plants (19), especially when the
trees are less than 3 inches (7.5 em) dbh (20).
After such flooding, trees are stressed and killed
by oxygen depletion, whereas flooding in the
dormant season has little effect on tree growth
(20);

The Hopkins County marshes have not been
considered particularly good examples of nat-
ural communities (1, 2), though there are sev-
eral rare plant and animal species. Their enig-
matic treeless aspect could simply be due to a
lack of natural migration from the Ohio River
valley by the extremely flood-tolerant Taxo-
dium distichum and Nyssa aquatica. How-
ever, Taxodium is said to have occurred for-
merly in several parts of the county, as
evidenced by old stumps and knees, and may
have been eliminated by logging (E. Young,
pers. comm.). No relevant historical descrip-
tion has yet been found.

Differences in vegetation related to soil pH
and fertility, as evident in regional compari-
sons (14), are less easily demonstrated within
ares of relatively uniform soil parent material.
Within Hopkins County, field notes suggest
that some areas on the clayey slack-water de-
posits have forest composition typical of higher
pH or fertility. These soils have an A horizon
pH of up to 5.5-6.5, whereas all other soils in
the county have a typical pH of 4.5-5.5. Trees
of Hopkins County that are generally indica-
tive of higher base-status (14), and which ap-
pear characteristic of these particular soils in-

38 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

clude Carya laciniosa, Quercus macrocarpa,
Q. bicolor, Q. shumardii, Gleditsia spp., Frax-
inus spp. and Ulmaceae. In composition, a few
of these areas (e.g., PNA 5A) resemble the “sa-
vanna-woodlands” and swamps of the highly
fertile Bluegrass stream bottoms, which often
have a long grazing history (22, 23; and J.
Campbell, unpublished data). More detailed
study of soils will be needed to examine these
relationships at the local level.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Much work for this study was funded by a
gift to The Nature Conservancy (Kentucky
Chapter) by Dillman Rash, and was conducted
with guidance from Jim Aldrich, Director of
the Kentucky Office. Special thanks are due to
Clarence Day (Aerial Recon, Lexington), who
stretched his flying time to the limit for the
aerial reconnaissance. Additional data and
comments were provided by Hal Bryan, Mare
Evans, Richard Hannan and Eddie Young.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Harker, D. F., R. R. Hannan, M. L. Warren, L. R.
Phillippe, K. E. Camburn, R. S. Caldwell, S. M. Call, G.
J. Fallo, and D. VanNorman. 1980. Western Kentucky
Coal Field: preliminary investigations of natural features
and cultural resources. Kentucky Nature Preserves Com-
mission, Frankfort.

2. Harker, D. F., M. L. Warren, K. E. Camburn, and
R. R. Cicerello. 1981. Aquatic biota and water quality
survey of the Western Kentucky Coal Field. Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort.

3. Fehr, J. P., E. H. Jacobs, and H. T. Converse. 1977.
Soil survey of Hopkins County, Kentucky. U.S.D.A., Soil
Conservation Service.

4. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern
North America. Blakiston Company, Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania.

5. Owen, D. D. 1987. Report on the Geological Survey
of Kentucky. Kentucky Department of Geology and For-
estry, Frankfort.

6. DeFriese, L. H. 1884. Report on the timbers of the
Tradewater Region. Kentucky Geological Survey, Frank-
fort.

7. Barton, J. E. 1919. The amount of standing timber
in Kentucky. Pp. 251-284. In The mineral and forest re-
sources of Kentucky, Volume I, Series V. Kentucky De-
partment of Geology and Forestry, Frankfort.

8. Kentucky State Nature PreservesCommission. 1991.
Natural heritage database. KSNPC, Frankfort.

9. Fernald, M. E. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany, 8th
ed. (corrected printing 1970). D. Van Nostrand Company,
New York.

10. Kartesz, J. T. and R. Kartesz. 1980. A synonymized
checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada
and Greenland. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel
Hill, North Carolina.

11. Mohlenbrock, R. H. 1985. The taxonomic status
of Panicum joorii Vasey. Erigenia 5:45-51.

12. Allard, D. 1990. The southeastern regional eco-
logical community classification, version 1.2. The Nature
Conservancy, Southeastern Regional Office, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina.

13. Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission.
1991. Endangered, threatened and special concern plant
and animal species of Kentucky. Frankfort, Kentucky. (See
also: Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 47:83-98).

14. Campbell, J. J. N. 1987. Gradients of tree species
composition in the Central Hardwood Region. Pp. 325-
346. In R. L. Hay, F. W. Woods, and H. DeSelm (eds.)
Proc. Sixth Central Hardwood Forest Conf. University of
Tennessee, Knoxville.

15. Christensen, N. L. 1988. Vegetation of the south-
eastern Coastal Plain. Pp. 350-363. In M. G. Barbour and
W. D. Billings (eds.) North American terrestrial vegeta-
tion. Cambridge University Press.

16. Ware, S. 1988. Ordination of Quarterman and
Keever’s original Southern Mixed Hardwood Forest. Cas-
tanea 53:197-206.

17. Monk, C. D., D. W. Imm, R. L. Potter, and G. G.
Parker. 1989. A classification of the deciduous forest of
eastern North America. Vegetatio 80:167-181.

18. Monk, C. D., D. W. Imm, and R. L. Potter. 1990.
Oak forests of eastern North America. Castanea 55:77-96.

19. Bedinger, M.S. 1979. Relation between forest spe-
cies and flooding. In P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J. E.
Clark (eds.) Wetland functions and values: the state of our
understanding. American Water Resources Association,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.

90. Hall, T. F.and G. E. Smith. 1955. Effects of flood-
ing on woody plants in West Sandy Dewatering Project,
Kentucky Reservoir. J. Forest. 53:281--285.

21. Mitchell, W. A. and C. J. Newling. 1986. Green-
tree Reservoirs. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wildlife
Resource Management Manual. Technical Report EL-86-
9, Section 5.5.3. Vicksburg, Massachusetts.

22. Bryant, W. S., M. E. Wharton, W. H. Martin, and
J.B. Varner. 1980. The blue ash-oak savannah woodland,
a remnant of presettlement vegetation in the Inner Blue-
grass Region of Kentucky. Castanea 45:149-165.

23. Campbell, J. J. N. 1989. Historical evidence of
forest composition in the Bluegrass Region of Kentucky.
Pp. 231-246. In G. Rink and C. A. Budelsky (eds.) Proc.
Seventh Central Hardwood Forest Conf. Southern Illinois
Univ., Carbondale.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 39-45

Selection Methods for Simple Column PLA Folding

BILL JANEWAY AND PATRICIA COSTELLO

Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Simple column folding for programmable logic arrays (PLAs) consists of either input column folding or
output column folding. Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli (1) developed a heuristic for optimal
simple column folding for PLAs as the optimal solution is NP-complete. In their algorithm, a selection policy
must be supplied to select the 2 columns/rows to try to combine next. This paper examines their recommended
selection policy as well as several others. For non-sparse PLAs, none of the selection policies studied are
statistically better than any of the others. However, it was found that in very sparse PLAs a selection criteria
using the inverse of the personality density for live intervals is statistically better than several selection
policies, including the one recommended by Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli.

INTRODUCTION

Integrated circuits have made it possible to
put a large number of gates on a chip and to
make gate interconnections on the chip as well.
For each function or set of functions, the layout
of the gates and interconnections on the chip
has to be designed. The cost and time involved
in the custom design of chips is high. Thus, it
is an attractive option to develop a general
purpose chip that can be readily adapted to
specific functions. This is the reason for pro-
grammable logic arrays (PLAs). A PLA is an
array of logic gates whose interconnections can
be programmed to perform specific logical
functions. A PLA is divided into 2 planes. One
is the “and” plane and the other is the “or”
plane. Figure 1 shows a PLA with five inputs
and two outputs. A personality is a connection
that is being used (represented by a dot in Fig.
1). Column a has a personality in row 1 and
in row 3. The live interval of a column is the
interval (measured in number of rows) from
the top to the bottom personalities in the col-
umn. Hence, the length of the live interval for
column a is 8. The output for f is the boolean
function ace + bd (where the and operation
is written as multiplication and the or opera-
tion is written as addition) and the output for
g is the boolean function bd + ae. The sparse-
ness of personalities in a PLA wastes compo-
nents and leads to time degradation of circuits.
PLA folding is a technique that constructs a
physical PLA which minimizes the area of the
chip by structural reorganization of the per-
sonalities of the PLA.

39

There are several types of PLA foldings.
These include row and column folding and
include the possibility of realizing more than
two symbolic rows or columns within a given
physical row or column. This paper discusses
only simple column folding. Simple column
folding consists of either input column (the and
plane) folding or output column (the or plane)
folding. In either case a physical column is
divided into two parts so that two electrical
input (output) signals can share the same phys-
ical column.

Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vincen-
telli (2) developed a heuristic for the optimal
simple column folding problem. The optimal
simple column folding problem is NP-com-
plete. Their algorithm is an n° algorithm, where
n is the number of columns, and provides a
maximal solution but not necessarily a maxi-
mum solution. In using their algorithm, one
must provide a selection policy to determine
which 2 columns to try to combine next. In
this paper, the primary objective is to study
different selection policies to see if one is better
than the others. Hatchel, Newton, and San-
giovanni-Vincentelli (2) recommended a se-
lection policy based on the number of columns
a column intersects (have a personality in the
same row). For very sparse PLAs, a selection
policy using the inverse of the personality den-
sity of the live interval is statistically better
than their method as well as the other methods
that were studied. However, for non-sparse
PLAs all selection methods provided approx-
imately the same results.

40 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

and plane | orplane
a b c d e f g
|
| i
1
2
3
|
Fic. 1. A sample PLA.

SIMPLE COLUMN FOLDING

The density of a PLA is the number of per-
sonalities divided by the total number of con-
nections (used and unused). The density for
the PLA in Figure 1 is 11/21, or approximately
52%. Is it possible to decrease the area of the
chip by improving the density so that the dis-
tance the signal will have to travel is decreased,
thereby improving the performance of the
PLA? Simple column folding combines 2 col-
umns into 1 where the combined column is
divided into 2 parts so that 2 electrical signals
can share the same column. The personalities
of the two signals in the column must not be
intermixed but must be grouped on opposite
sides of a “cut” to be located somewhere in
the column with one signal routed from the
top and the other from the bottom. Figure 2
shows the PLA from Figure 1 after a single
column fold. The density of the PLA in Figure
2 is 11/18 which is approximately 61%. How-
ever, if row 2 and row 3 are swapped then the
PLA can be folded into the PLA of Figure 3
which has density of approximately 73%.

3.) ke
spe
|
d
Fic. 2. PLA of Figure 1 folded without row rearrange-
ment.

a c e€ f g
|
| |
1
3
2
|
b d

Fic. 3. PLA of Figure 1 folded with a row rearrange-

ment.

Hence, a simple column folding allows for a
rearrangement of the rows in order to be able
to find more pairs of columns that can be com-

bined.

THE ALGORITHM

Only a brief summary of Hatchel, Newton,
and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli’s algorithm (2) is
presented in this paper. In order to do this, a
few definitions are needed. In a PLA, columns
u and v are foldable if and only if they do not
have personalities in the same row. If u and v
are foldable with u occupying the rows above
those of v, after folding, then (u, v) is an or-
dered folding pair. The fact that 2 columns
must be disjoint to be folded is not the only
constraint on folding. Folding columns u and
v imposes a relation on the set of rows. The
concept of an ordered folding pair being com-
patible with a set of ordered folding pairs is a
bit more complicated. A set B of ordered fold-
ing pairs is an implementable folding set if
there is a permutation on the rows such that

Fic. 4. A sample PLA plane.

PLA FoLpINc IN Locic Arrays—Janeway and Costello 4]

b d e f

a Cc
Fic. 5. PLA plane of Figure 4 after folding.

for each ordered pair (u, v) in B, the rows in
which u has a personality are above the rows
in which v has a personality. As new ordered
folding pairs are added to the implementable
folding set, the relation on the rows obtained
from the union of the relations imposed by
each ordered folding pair must be checked.
The transitive closure of this relation must be
a partial ordering on the rows. If this is not a
partial ordering on the rows, then it is not
possible to find a permutation of the rows that
will be compatible with the ordered folding
pairs. To aid in this explanation, consider the
example in Figure 4. The set {(b, a), (d, e)}
is an implementable folding set. Figure 5 shows
such an implementation. Now (f, e) is also an
ordered folding pair. However, {(b, a), (d, e),
(f, e)} is not an implementable folding set as
(d, ce) implies that row 1 must come before

Fic. 6. A PLA plane.

a b Cc

d

Fic. 7. A fold of the PLA plane in Figure 6.

row 4 and (f, e) implies that row 4 must come
before row 1. Similarly, {(b, a), (d, ¢), (e, f)}
is not an implementable folding set.

The following is a brief version of Hatchel,
Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli’s (2) al-
gorithm:

pre: A PLA plane whose set of col-
umns is V
post: F is a maximal implementable
folding set for the PLA plane
(maximal in that there does not
exist an implementable folding
set H for the PLA with F a proper
subset of H)
procedures: build] and build2 will build a pri-
ority queue from a set based upon
the selection method being used.

a Cc
1
4
2
3
5
b d

Fic. 8. Another fold of the PLA plane in Figure 6.

42 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Method Selection Selection Tiebreaker Tiebreaker
Number for Top for Bottom for Top for Bottom
1 co CO N/A N/A
2 MD mD co co
3 MD mD MI mil
4 MD mD MP mP
5 MP mP co co
6 MP mP MI mil
7 MP mP MD mD
i) MI ml co co
9 MI mil MP mP
10 MI mil MD mD
il MID MID co co
12 MID mID Co co
13 Random Random N/A N/A

Legend: CO = Column Order
MD = Maximum Degree
mD = Minimum Degree
MID = Max(1/density of live interval)
mID = Min(1/density of live interval)

MP = Maximum Number of Personalities
mP = Minimum Number of Personalities
MI = Maximum live interval
ml = Minimum live interval

Fic. 9. Selection methods studied.

variables: T and B are the sets of candidates
for the top and bottom columns
in ordered pairs. They will be pri-
ority queues ordered according to

the selection method being used.

T = build1 (V)

B = build2 (V)

F=2

while T + Z do

begin

set u equal to first item in T
find the first v in B such that

(u, v) is a folding pair com-
patible with F
if such a v is found then
begin
add (u, v) to F
delete u and v from B
delete v from T
end
delete u from T
end
output F

Many of these steps are very complicated.
For a detailed explanation of the algorithm,
see Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vin-
centelli (2) where they prove the correctness
of the algorithm and show that the worst case
has complexity n*.

SELECTION POLICIES

There are 2 selection steps in the algorithm.
Begin by selecting a column for the first com-
ponent of a possible ordered folding pair and
then select a candidate for the second com-
ponent. How should one select these columns?
Will these selections have any impact on the
ability to find additional ordered folding pairs?
Consider the small plane of a PLA in Figure
6. If column order is used for the selection
method for the first component and reverse
column order for the second component, then
columns a and d will form a folding pair but
no additional folds can be made. Figure 7 shows
the folded plane of the PLA. However, if both
selections use column order, then columns a
and b and columns e and d will be compatible
folding pairs. Hence, the folded plane of the
PLA given in Figure 8 would be produced.
Similarly, given any two known selection pol-
icies, say A and B, a PLA can be constructed
in which method A would produce more com-
patible ordered folding pairs than method B.
Yes, the selection policy determines the out-
come. Is there a selection policy that works
best for all PLAs? If there exists such a selection
policy, it is yet to be found.

This paper studies 13 selection policies. Be-
fore the 13 methods are described, a definition
is in order. Two columns are said to intersect

PLA Fo.Lpinc IN Locic ArrAys—Janeway and Costello

TaBLE 1. Summary of results from Friedman Multiple Comparisons.
Density Fat Square Skinny
15 11 > 1-10, 12,138 11 > 2-10, 13 1] > 2-4
1 > 2-10, 12 12 > 2-4,7 1> 2-4
13 > 4,5, 7-10 1 > 2-4 12 > 2-4
20 11 > 2-10, 12,138 il SS 2 i) SS 32 2!
1 > 2-10 Zee, i Se!
13 > 3-10 2 2
25 1, S> PaO) 12 > 2-4, 8,10 No significant differences
]1 > 2-5, 7, 10 iil Ss 3}
13 > 2-4 PS ys
8) > 2
30 1] > 2-4,7 No significant differences No significant differences
eS 2
35 No significant differences No significant differences No significant differences
40 No significant differences No significant differences No significant differences
45 No significant differences No significant differences No significant differences
50 No significant differences No significant differences No significant differences

Note: Methods to left of > are statistically better than those to the right.

if there exists a row which has a personality in
each of the 2 columns. The degree of a column
is the number of columns that it intersects.
Some of the 13 methods have the property that
when one tries to select the next columns to
try a tie occurs. For these policies, one must
have a tie breaker. Some of the 13 methods
will be essentially the same policy but with a
different tie breaker.

The primary selection method for methods
2, 3 and 4 is the method recommended by
Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-Vincentelli
(2) with three different tie breakers. Method
1 uses a very natural method of column order
which requires no tie breaker. The primary
selection method for methods 5, 6, and 7 uses

the number of personalities. A column with a
larger number of personalities is more likely
to be foldable with a column which has only
a few personalities. This is why these methods
were studied. Methods 8, 9, and 10 are based
on the length of the live interval. If a column
with a large live interval can be folded with a
column with a short live interval, then the car-
dinality of the relation on the rows that this
folding pair generates will probably be small.
Method 11 takes large live intervals with a
small number of personalities and compacts
the live intervals but dictates a relative order-
ing on only a few rows. This is the new method
being studied. Method 12 is based on the fact
that a column with a very dense live interval

Mean density after folding for FAT PLAs.

Density before folding

TABLE 2.
Method 15 20 25 30
il 21.33 25.21 29.10 33.12
2 20.75 24.71 28.58 32.82
3 20.83 24.71 28.58 32.86
4 20.78 24.70 28.65 32.82
5 20.71 24.68 28.72 33.01
6 20.7 24.55 28.74 32.96
7 20.68 24.65 28.69 32.89
8 20.65 24.56 28.73 33.00
9 20.68 24.63 28.80 32.91
10 20.65 24.61 28.71 32.89
ll 21.87 25.49 29.21 33.18
12 20.69 24.78 28.76 33.12
13 21.07 25.09 28.97 33.10

35 40 45 50
37.49 41.84 46.20 50.77
37.24 41.75 46.13 50.76
37.30 41.81 46.11 50.75
37.28 41.9] 46.16 51.78
37.42 41.98 46.17 50.78
37.41 41.94 46.18 50.76
37.32 41.92 46.16 50.78
37.44 41.84 46.14 50.75
37.44 41.86 46.16 50.76
37.3 41.82 46.14 50.75
37.54 41.95 46.17 50.76
37.47 41.92 46.17 50.77
37.58 41.8] 46.15 50.75

44 TrANs. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

TaBLE 3. Mean density after folding for SQUARE PLAs.

Density before folding

Method 15 20 25 30
] 18.23 22.69 27.04 31.39
2 17.99 22.54 26.78 31.34
3 17.94 22.57 26.78 31.38
4 17.96 22.56 26.88 31.43
5 18.08 22.63 26.90 31.40
6 18.06 22.61 26.91 31.42
a 17.99 22.65 26.88 31.38
8 18.06 22.63 26.88 31.36
9 18.09 22.68 26.93 31.31
10 18.08 22.62 26.87 31.33
ll 18.44 22.74 27.04 31.44
12 18.18 22512 27.04 31.43
13 IS. UG 22.74 26.95 31.41

is more likely to fold with a column with a
sparse live interval. Method 13 randomly se-
lects the next columns to try to combine. If
method 13 works as well as the other methods,
then the selection policy used is not important.
This is the reason for including Method 13.

CONCLUSIONS

As a result of a preliminary investigation, it
was decided to look at 3 classes of PLAs, as the
effectiveness of the selection methods is deter-
mined by the shape of the PLA. The 3 classes
are fat, skinny, and square where for fat PLAs,
the number of rows divided by the number of
columns is less than or equal to 0.85, for skinny
PLAs this ratio is greater than or equal to 1.15,
and for square PLAs the ratio is between 0.85
and 1.15. It is easier to find more folding pairs
for fat PLAs than for skinny PLAs. Also it is
easier to find more folding pairs for PLAs of
low personality density than for PLAs with a
high personality density. Hence the original
densities were varied as well. Each of the 13
methods was used on 300 randomly generated
fat, skinny, and square PLAs having densities

15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50. The size of :

the PLAs was randomly generated with a max-
imum of 120 rows and 120 columns. Fried-
man s rank sum test (3) was used to test wheth-
er the methods differed. A nonparametric test
was performed since the final densities were
not normally distributed. An additional ad-
vantage of using ranks is that averages may be
affected by extremely large or small values. It
is more important that a good folding method

35 40 45 50
36.07 40.48 45.24 50.16
36.05 40.47 45.25 50.18
36.06 40.49 45.23 50.16
36.04 40.50 45.25 50.18
36.05 40.48 45.25 50.18
36.05 40.48 45.25 50.18
36.05 40.48 45.25 50.18
36.09 40.49 45.23 50.14
36.08 40.51 45.23 50.14
36.07 40.49 45.23 50.14
36.00 40.49 45.24 50.14
36.06 40.49 45.25 50.16
36.06 40.50 45.25 50.16

consistently perform better than the other
methods. Ranking measures this consistency.
Large sample multiple comparisons based on
the Friedman rank sums (8) were used to de-
termine which (if any) of the 13 selection
methods were statistically better than the oth-
ers. The results of this analysis are presented
in Table 1 and the average densities after fold-
ing are given in Tables 2, 3, and 4.

While the actual average densities after
folding do not appear to differ much, from
Table 1 it can be seen that method 11 is the
primary method which consistently performs
statistically better than the other methods. The
only exception to this occurs for square PLAs
of density 25 where method 12 is better than
more methods than method 11. There is also
no situation in which any method is statistically
better than method 11. In addition, methods
based on Hatchel, Newton, and Sangiovanni-
Vincentelli’s recommendations (2, 3, 4) con-
sistently do worse than methods 1, 11, 12 and
18. This is particularly interesting since meth-
od 13 uses a random selection method and

“method 1 uses column order.

Method 11 is statistically better than all the
other methods for fat PLAs of density 15. For
all densities of size 35 or greater, none of the
methods differ statistically. Also, the choice of
a method has more bearing on PLAs where
the number of rows divided by the numbers
of columns is small (i.e., fat PLAs).

In general, method 11 is the recommended
method since it consistently performs better
than the other methods and there is no method

PLA Fo.pinc IN Locic ArrAys—Janeway and Costello 45

Mean density after folding for SKINNY PLAs.

Density before folding

TABLE 4.

Method 15 20 25 30
1 19.21 23.03 27.08 81.25
2 18.93 Doni, 26.95 31.26
3} 18.91 22.81 26.96 31.29
4 18.95 22.76 27.04 31.29
5 19.07 22.85 27.05 31.28
6 19.00 22.85 27.05 31.26
7 18.98 22.81 27.05 31.28
8 19.13 22.90 27.00 31.28
9 19.15 22.88 27.01 31.27

10 19.10 22.89 27.02 ORT
11 19.16 22.97 27.06 31.32
12 19.13 22.86 27.08 31.28
13 19.13 22.95 27.04 31.30

35

40

45

50

35.60 40.36 45.07 50.02
35.60 40.36 45.08 50.02
35.61 40.36 45.08 50.02
35.61 40.37 45.08 50.02
35.60 40.37 45.08 50.02
35.59 40.35 45.08 50.02
35.61 40.37 45.08 50.02
35.60 40.36 45.08 50.02
35.60 40.36 45.08 50.02
35.61 40.36 45.08 50.02
35.58 40.36 45.07 50.02
35.61 40.33 45.08 50.02
35.61 40.36 45.08 50.02

which is ever statistically better than it. If the
original density of the PLA is 35 or greater or
if the number of rows divided by the number
of columns is large, it does not appear to matter
which method is chosen.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Eastern Kentucky University made this study
possible by providing release time to the first
author during Spring 1991. Also Eastern Ken-
tucky University provided the computer
equipment to do this research.

LITERATURE CITED

1. G. D. Hachtel, A. R. Newton, and A. Sangiovanni-
Vincentelli. 1982. Techniques for programmable logic
array folding. Design Automation Conference IEEE 19:
147-155.

2. G. D. Hachtel, A. R. Newton, and A. Sangiovanni-
Vincentelli. 1982. An algorithm for optimal PLA folding.
IEE Trans. Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits
and Systems, Vol. CAD-1:63-76.

83. M. Hollander and D. A. Wolfe. 1973. Nonpara-
metric statistical methods. John Wiley, New York.

4. W. Stallings. 1987. Computer organization and ar-
chitecture. Macmillan, New York.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 46-49

Use of Fractal Dimension to Analyze Meandering
Patterns in the Redbird River of Eastern Kentucky

BRENDA J. MELLETT, ROBERT W. BOSSERMAN, AND JAMES H. THORP

Department of Biology and Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville,
Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT
Aspects of the geomorphic structure of streams in the Redbird River catchment in eastern Kentucky were
examined using fractal geometry, a discrete mathematical technique. Fractal dimension of tributaries and
stream length were calculated using data digitized from U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps (1:24,000,

1:100,000, and 1:250,000 scales).

Based on an analysis of streams of various orders and slopes from these maps, we concluded that map
scale can generally be ignored when calculating fractal dimension, particularly for higher order streams.
Stream order varies directly with stream length but varies inversely with slope. However, no significant
relationships were evident between the fractal dimension of a stream and either stream order or slope. Results
of these analyses for the Redbird River basin are contrasted with those found for the larger and more
meandering Kentucky, Monongahela, and Green rivers.

INTRODUCTION

The geomorphic structure of streams, as de-
fined by the size and shape of their channels,
results from water flowing over differentially-
erodible landscapes. The geomorphic features
of a stream can have important implications
for several public and private groups, includ-
ing stream ecologists, wildlife managers, and
land developers (1). Kellerhals and Church (2)
developed a system that classifies streams ac-
cording to channel characteristics; they grouped
streams into straight, sinuous, wandering, ir-
regular meandering, and regular meandering
patterns. They also recognized streams that
anastomose, with water flowing through com-
plex channel networks, and several types of
braiding, where islands split the flow of water
into multiple stream channels.

While qualitative terms such as braiding,
anastomosing, and meandering can be useful
in a general way, a scientific or engineering
comparison of stream complexity often re-
quires precise mathematical language and
techniques. This need has led to the develop-
ment or application of fractal analysis that fur-
nishes a mathematical measure of complex
boundaries, surfaces, and paths (3). Scientists
and mathematicians have used fractal analysis
to compare geographic boundaries (8, 4), de-
velopment of biological characteristics (such as
branching patterns; 5), and both soil (6, 7) and
atmospheric variability (8). Fractal analysis can
gauge irregularities in a stream channel or oth-

46

er path and evaluate features of a stream not
measurable with continuous methods. For ex-
ample, fractal geometry can be used to mea-
sure and compare the degree of braiding in
different rivers of several biomes.

“Fractal” refers to fractional dimension (or,
“F.D.”). Many complex, geometric figures have
spatial dimensions that lie between the integers
which describe straight lines (F.D. = 1), flat
planes (F.D. = 2), or cubes (F.D. = 3). For
example, an irregular line has an F.D. between
1 and 2, whereas an irregular plane has an
F.D. between 2 and 8. The following equation
defines F.D.:

(length)!/? = K (area)!/?

where D equals F.D., and K is a constant.

Fractional dimension can compare the com-
plexities of river and stream channels. Figure
la displays the graph of a relatively straight,
first order stream which flows into the Redbird
River in eastern Kentucky; it has an F.D. of
1.01. The Redbird River (Fig. 1b), a fourth
order stream with more pronounced mean-
dering, has an F.D. of 1.10. Braided and anas-
tomosing rivers have higher fractal dimen-
sions. For example, the Tygart Valley River
(Fig. lc) in the Monongahela drainage basin
as many braided regions and a resulting F.D.
of 1.18 (9).

Because stream meandering has important
implications for landscape ecology, erosional/
depositional processes, and retention of living

FRACTAL DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF REDBIRD RIvER—Mellett et al. 47

a.
0.4
0.3
North/
South 0.2
(km)
0.1
0
(0) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
East/West (km)
b. Cc
12 12
10
8 8
North/ North/
South South 6
(km) (km)
4 4
2
0 to)
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
East/West (km) East/West (km)
Fic. 1. (A) Graph of a first order stream in the Redbird

River catchment with a fractal dimension (F.D.) of 1.01;
(B) the fourth order Redbird River with an F.D. of 1.10;
(C) the fourth order Tygart Valley River in the Monon-
gahela River catchment with braids and an F.D. of 1.18.

and dead organic matter, channel morphology
was examined for streams within and among
5 biomes in the continental United States in a
study by Bosserman and Thorp (9). That study,
which determined the F.D. of streams
throughout the catchment areas of over 15 riv-
ers, relied on U.S. Geological Survey 1:100,000
scale maps. An assumption was made that the
determination of a river's F.D. was indepen-
dent of map scale for charts produced with
similar methods by the U.S. Geological Survey.
In the present study, we examined this ques-
tion and several others by calculating the F.D.
of streams in the Redbird River drainage basin
in eastern Kentucky. The following principal
null hypothesis was tested. The F.D. of a stream
is independent of scale for maps of 1:24,000,
1:100,000, and 1:250,000 scales. In addition,
we examined two secondary, null hypotheses
as part of this study. The F.D.s and lengths of

1:24000 e o 1:100000
Fractal °
Dimension
e
8 °o 0°?
°
Q
fe} U RO
ey 29 6 A
e
First Second Third Fourth

Rivers

Fic. 2. Fractal dimensions of streams measured on
1:24,000 scale U.S. Geological Survey maps in comparison
to F.D.s for streams measured on 1:100,000 scale maps.

streams within the Redbird River catchment
are unaffected by stream order. The F.D. of a
stream does not vary with slope.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to establish the F.D., length, and
order of a stream (for an explanation of the
last parameter, see references 10 or 11), we
used 3 types of U.S. Geological Survey topo-
graphic maps (1:24,000, 1:100,000 and
1:250,000) and digitized a random selection of
streams of different orders from each set of
maps with a Graf/Bar Mark II sonic digitizer.
As the scale of a map becomes larger, the small-
est streams tend to be eliminated; therefore,
we were forced to calculate F.D. for fewer
streams as the map scale increased. We deter-
mined stream orders on the 1:100,000 maps
even though we recognized that these orders
are generally one order less than would be
determined by ground studies.

TaBLE 1. Relationship between stream order and stream
length.
Signifi-
cant
Stream Mean length Number of differ-
order km 95% C.I. samples ence*
First 1.136 0.1318 92 A
Second 1.697 0.6134 25 B
Third 3.778 2.8445 4 C
Fourth 20.855 — 1

* Means with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.01.

48

TABLE 2.

Stream order Range of F.D. Mean F.D.
First 1.010-1.177 1.048
Second 1.010-1.085 1.048
Third 1.026-1.040 1.035
Fourth 1.102 =

* Means with the same letter are not significantly different at P < 0.05.

We calculated F.D. with a BASIC computer
program which analyzes random growth paths
(12). This method assumes that rivers wander
on a random path through a landscape, as sug-
gested by Langbein and Leopold (18). We
measured elevation differences on 1:24,000
U.S.G.S. maps and calculated slope by dividing
elevation differences by stream length. We did
linear regressions, paired t tests, and pooled
variance t tests with SAS (14) using an alpha
level for significance of 0.05 or less.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Our principal null hypothesis was that the
determination of a stream’s F.D. was scale in-
dependent; that is, one could employ more
than 1 of the 3 map scales without introducing
systematic error to the analysis. Our results
indicated that map scale can generally be ig-
nored when calculating F.D., especially for
higher order streams. A paired t test showed
that the mean F.D. for rivers on the 1:250,000
maps (1.0520) were not significantly different
from that calculated with the 1:100,000 scale
maps (F.D. = 1.0525). Similarly, F.D.s of sec-
ond, third, and fourth order streams do not
significantly differ when calculated from
1:100,000 and 1:24,000 scale maps. However,
a paired ¢ test revealed that the F.D. of first
order streams on 1:100,000 scale maps were
significantly lower (approximately 4%) than
the same streams on 1:24,000 maps (Fig. 2).

The second hypothesis concerned the rela-
tionship between stream order and both length
and meandering tendency (i.e., F.D.) of the
stream. Stream length increased significantly
with stream order (Table 1; Student’s ¢ test, P
< 0.01). Although stream length appeared to
rise exponentially with stream order, a linear
regression of order versus the natural loga-
rithm of length did not explain significant vari-
ation.

The tendency of lowland streams to mean-
der differently than headwater streams has not

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Relationship between stream order and fractal dimension (F.D.).

Number of Significant

95% C.I. samples difference
0.00329 92 A
0.00450 25 A
0.00433 4 A
] A

been tested statistically in the scientific liter-
ature. Most streams in the Redbird River catch-
ment are fairly straight, and thus have low
F.D.s. Fractal dimensions of streams in the
Redbird River catchment ranged from 1.010
to 1.177, with higher average values tending
to occur in smaller streams (Table 2). However,
there were no significant differences in F.D.
among stream orders according to the Stu-
dent’s ¢ test (Table 2). [Only 1 fourth order
stream—the Redbird River itself—exists in the
catchment, so we could not statistically com-
pare the F.D. of this fourth order river with
lower order streams. ] These results for the Red-
bird River contrast with the findings for the
Kentucky, Monongahela, and Green rivers,
where F.D. increased directly with stream or-
der (9).

Our results from the Redbird River catch-
ment demonstrated that slope decreased sig-
nificantly from first order (mean = 341.0
m/km) to second order streams (mean = 280.5
m/km) (Student’s ¢ test, P < 0.01). Thereafter,
the slope continued to decline from the third
order streams (mean = 272.8 m/km) to the
fourth order river (mean = 11.5 m/km), but
the results were not significant, probably be-
cause of the low number of streams of those
orders in our statistical comparisons. While
slope is related inversely to stream order, a
linear regression indicated that F.D. did not
vary significantly with slope in the Redbird
River basin. Again, these results conflict with
those found for the streams within the catch-
ments of the more meandering and much larg-
er Kentucky, Monongahela, and Green rivers
where F.D.s were inversely and significantly
related to slope (9).

SUMMARY

Fractal dimension provides a discrete math-
ematical tool for characterizing the shape of
stream channels. This tool allows us to compare
stream properties such as meandering, which

FRACTAL DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF REDBIRD RIvER—Mellett et al. 49

have been discussed in stream theory but rarely
examined statistically.

Our results indicated that map scale can
generally be ignored when calculating F.D.,
especially for higher order streams, as long as
the maps were constructed with data collected
by similar methods. As expected, stream order
was significantly related in a direct fashion to
stream length but inversely associated with
slope. However, no significant relationships
were evident between the F.D. of a stream and
either stream order or slope—in contrast to the
results found for the larger and more mean-
dering Kentucky, Monongahela, and Green
rivers.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Rechard, R. P. and V. R. Hasfarther. 1980. The
use of meander parameters in the restoration of mined
stream beds in the eastern Powder River basin. Final report
to the Industrial Fund of the Rocky Mountain Institute of
Energy and Environment. University of Wyoming, Lar-
amie, Wyoming.

2. Kellerhals, R. and M. Church. 1989. The mor-
phology of large rivers: characterization and management.
Pp. 31-48. In D. P. Dodge (ed.) Proc. Internat. Large River
Symp. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 106.

3. Mandelbrot, B. B. 1967. How long is the coast of
Britain? Statistical self-similarity and fractional dimension.
Science 156:636-638.

4, Phillips, J. D. 1985. Measuring complexity of en-
vironmental gradients. Vegetatio 64:95-102.

5. Goldberger, A. L., D. R. Rigney, and B. J. West.
1990. Chaos and fractals in human physiology. Sci. Amer.
262(2).

6. Burrough, P. A. 1983a. Multiscale sources of spatial
variation in soil. I. The application of fractal concepts to
nested levels of soil variation. J. Soil Science 34:577-597.

7. Burrough, P. A. 1983b. Multiscale sources of spatial
variation in soil. II. A non-Brownian fractal model and its
application in soil survey. J. Soil Science 34:599-620.

8. Lovejoy, S. 1982. Area-perimeter relation for rain
and cloud areas. Science 216:185-187.

9. Bosserman, R. W. and J. H. Thorp. In preparation.
Interbiome comparisons of stream meandering.

10. Strahler, A. N. 1952. Dynamic basis of geomor-
phology. Geological Soc. of Amer. Bull. 63:1117-1142.

11. Thorp, J. H. and A. P. Covich. 1991. Chapter 1:
An overview of freshwater habitats. Pages 17-36. In J. H.
Thorp and A. P. Covich (eds.) Ecology and classification
of North American freshwater invertebrates. Academic
Press, New York.

12. Katz, M. J. and E. B. George. 1985. Fractals and
the analysis of growth paths. Bull. of Math. Biology 47:
273-286.

13. Langbein, W. B. and L. B. Leopold. 1966. River
meanders and the theory of minimum variance. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Pap., 422-H. 15 pp.

14. SAS Institute. SAS User’s Guide: Basics, Version 5.
SAS Inst., Ave., Cary, North Carolina.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 50

NOTES

New Microcaddisfly (Trichoptera: Hydroptilidae)
Records for Kentucky.—Further examination of adult
caddisflies collected in 1988 from the Buck Creek System,
Pulaski County (Floyd, M. A. and G. A. Schuster 1990,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 51:127-134) revealed a new Ken-
tucky distributional record for Hydroptila sandersoni
Mathis and Bowles. This species, reported as Hydroptila
species 2 by Floyd and Schuster, was collected in light-
trap samples from 7 different localities on Buck Creek
(stations 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10) and one locality on Short
Creek (station 8). It had an emergence period of May
through August. Collection of H. sandersoni in Kentucky
is a northeastern range extension for this species, known
only from northern Alabama (Steven C. Harris, pers.
comm.) and northern Arkansas (Mathis, M. L. and D. E.
Bowles 1990, Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 92:86-92). The
addition of H. sandersoni to the caddisfly fauna of Ken-
tucky brings the state’s total up to 199 species, including
38 species within the family Hydroptilidae (Floyd, M. A.
and G. A. Schuster 1990, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 51:127-
134; Resh, V. H. 1975, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:6-16).

Although not representing distributional records new to
Kentucky, 3 additional species were identified from the
Buck Creek System and represent new records for the
Cumberland River drainage. These include Hydroptila
grandiosa Ross (known also from Paint Creek at Paints-
ville, Johnson County), H. perdita Morton (known from
Anderson, Johnson, Shelby, and Spencer counties), and
Orthotrichia cristata Morton (reported from Anderson and
Spencer counties) (Resh, V. H. 1975, Trans Ky. Acad. Sci.
36:6-16). These 3 species were originally reported by Floyd

50

and Schuster as Hydroptila species 3, Hydroptila species
1, and Orthotrichia nr. curta, respectively.

I thank Dr. Steven C. Harris, University of Alabama,
for the identification of specimens. Dr. Guenter A. Schus-
ter, Eastern Kentucky University, and Dr. John C. Morse,
Clemson University, reviewed the manuscript. This is
Technical Contribution No. 3229 of the South Carolina
Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson University.—
Michael A. Floyd, Department of Entomology, Clemson
University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0365.

Two Additions to the Known Mushroom Flora of Ken-
tucky.—A large colony of the brick-top mushroom, Nae-
matoloma sublateritum (Fr.) Karst. was found growing
around the base of a dead Chinese chestnut tree in Deacon
Hills Estates, Richmond, Kentucky on 22 November 1989.
This species is often mistaken for N. capnoides (Fr.) Karst.
(Weber, N. S. and Smith, A. H. 1985, Field Guide to
Southern Mushrooms. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor), but
that species grows almost entirely on decaying coniferous
wood and is dull yellowish-brown rather than brick red.

On 11 July 1990, a small colony of the poroid aphyll-
porale Tyromyces chioneus (Fr.) Karst. was found growing
on the trunk of an autumn olive tree in Deacon Hills
Estates. Although widespread in North America, reports
of the species are infrequent.

Neither species has been previously reported from Ken-
tucky.—Branley Allan Branson, Department of Biological
Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Ken-
tucky 40475.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 51-61

FORUM

DNA Replication in Plants
A Review

VALGENE L. DUNHAM AND LESA DILL

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

INTRODUCTION

Applications of biotechnical procedures have
resulted in an increased interest in plant DNA
replication. These procedures, coupled with
classical methods of protein purification and
enzyme analysis, are now being applied in the
elucidation of proteins involved in DNA rep-
lication.

Unfortunately, elucidation of the mecha-
nisms of DNA replication in plants has pro-
gressed more slowly than investigations of bac-
terial and animal systems. Progress has been
hindered by the presence of cell walls, non-
synchronous cell populations and relatively low
intracellular protein concentrations. The use
of cell-culture techniques, including synchro-
nization of cell division using specific inhibitors
of DNA replication, have led, and will contin-
ue to lead, to protein concentrations and yields
necessary for protein purification. Perhaps more
importantly, proteins involved in DNA repli-
cation are being studied at the genetic level
through screening of genomic and cDNA li-
braries using oligonucleotide probes made to
known DNA sequences for proteins in animal
and yeast systems.

Using the above techniques, information
concerning DNA replication and the intracel-
lular controls of proteins are beginning to ac-
cumulate more rapidly. This review is an at-
tempt to update information concerning DNA
replication in plants reviewed by one of the
authors several years ago (1) and will include
recent unpublished data from several sources.
The text is arranged in the proposed sequence
of intracellular events immediately preceding,
during, and following the S phase of the cell
cycle. Data from animal and other eukaryotic
systems may be included when information
from plants is lacking so that a clearer picture
of current knowledge can be presented.

ol

PREPARATION FOR SYNTHESIS
Chromosome Organization

The chromosomes of plants, like other eu-
karyotes, are complex structures composed of
numerous proteins in addition to DNA. The
supercoiling of DNA and the wrapping of the
DNA around nucleosomes add to this com-
plexity. It is assumed that levels of this orga-
nization must be altered so that proteins in-
volved in the initiation of DNA replication can
bind to the DNA strands. In addition, part of
chromosomal organization in eukaryotes in-
volves transient and permanent attachment of
looped domains of DNA to a nuclear matrix.
These domains approximate the size of repli-
cons, regions of DNA that are synthesized dur-
ing the S phase of the cell cycle. The matrix
appears to serve as a scaffold during replication
and reorganization of chromosomes. DNA to-
poisomerase II, an enzyme that uses ATP in
the relaxation of supercoiled DNA by cleavage
of both strands, is present in actively dividing
cells and is involved in the attachment to the
matrix (2). Although this enzyme is present in
plants (3, 4), its role and its relationship to the
nuclear matrix in replication of plant DNA
remains to be elucidated.

Replicons

After areas of DNA have been exposed for
replication, initiation must be localized at se-
quences that act as origins. Because of the size
of the plant genome, multiple origins exist on
a given chromosome. A replicon, the distance
on the chromosome between origins, is used as
the basic replication unit in studying DNA rep-
lication. Initiation of DNA replication at dif-
ferent replicons along the chromosome has been
shown to have a sequential order and, there-
fore, is not simultaneous (Fig. 1). Replicons are

52 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Fic. 1.
mosomes. O = replication origin; T-T distance = one rep-

Initiation of DNA replication on eukaryotic chro-

licon.

additionally organized into clusters and fam-
ilies. Clusters are defined as tandem replicons
that may vary in organization based on the
number of replicons/cluster, with up to 18 si-
multaneously active replicons/cluster in plants
(5). Families of replicons are one or more clus-
ters that are initiated at the same time during
the S phase. Therefore, plants with large ge-
nomes require more replicon families and a
longer S phase (6). In general, eukaryotic repli-
cons are smaller than those of prokaryotes and
replication forks move much more slowly (Ta-
ble 1). In addition, spacing between origins is
species specific and varies from 15 kb to 100
kb (7). A correlation between replicon size and
the rate of fork movement has been shown in
several grass species (8). Fork rates vary from
1.46 hr for complete replication of a replicon
of Oryza sativa (DNA C value = 0.6 pg) to
2.40 hr in the hexaploid x Triticosecale (DNA
C value = 21.5 pg). A DNA C value of 1.0 is
the amount of DNA in the unreplicated nu-
clear genome of a gamete (9).

Origin Sequences

Initiation of DNA replication occurs at nu-
merous origins along the eukaryotic chromo-
some. Demonstration of specific sequences at
these sites of initiation have depended on au-
tonomous replicating sequences (ARS) in yeast.
With increasing evidence that ARSs are origins
of replication, a putative origin might have the
consensus ARS sequence A/T TTTATPuTTT
A/T. When inserted into yeast, sequences from
a number of eukaryotes have functioned as
ARS sequences. The overall size of DNA frag-

TaBLE 1. Comparison of replicons and fork movement
in various organisms.

Mean Fork

Number of replicon movement

Organism replicons size (Kb) (bp/min)

E. coli I 4,200 50,000
S. cerevisiae 500 40 3,600
M. musculus (mouse) 25,000 150 2,200
higher plants 75,000* 66 400

References 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
* Calculations based on: 15,000 replicons/pg DNA, 5 pg DNA/genome.

ments acting as ARS sequences may vary with
species and even within species. For example,
the size of ARS sequences in yeast and animal
cells are approximately 300 bp, whereas ARS
elements in tobacco are 1,187 bp (10), and in
rape (Brassica napus) sequences of 220 and
926 bp have been found to be the minimum
effective length (11). As expected, these plant
ARS elements are A-T rich but, in the case of
rape, are not the same from element to ele-
ment. It is interesting to note than one of the
elements from rape contained three consensus
sequences, but in another element two regions
of eleven consecutive T-residues were found
(11). Apparently, not all ARS sequences are at
origins of DNA replication in the plant ge-
nome. The cloned replication origin of the 9
kb rDNA repeats (ori-r-9) in pea is in a non-
transcribed spacer region. Data from a hy-
bridization between this clone and a labeled
ARS consensus probe indicate that the ARS
sequence is in a flanking region to the origin
(12). These plant origins of replication resem-
ble yeast ARS/origins in that they contain
CAA..T and AAAA.. motifs, areas known to be
involved in bent DNA (J. A. Bryant, pers.
comm. ).

In addition to these consensus sequences, or-
igins from numerous organisms are known to
contain binding sites for initiator proteins. The
binding sites for yeast ARS binding proteins
have been mapped using DNase I footprinting
and binding techniques (13, 14). These tech-
niques may now be employed using plant ARS-
elements to assist in the identification of pro-
teins that specifically bind at origins.

DNA Helicase

In prokaryotic cells, an ATP-dependent DNA
helicase has been shown to function in the sep-
aration of DNA strands at the replication fork
(15). Helicase activity has been described in

DNA IN PLants—Dunham and Dill 53

mammals where it is closely associated with
DNA polymerase-a and requires ATP (16), but
not a replication fork-like structure for un-
winding (17). Information about helicase in
plant systems is restricted to the meiotic cells
of Lilium (18). The enzyme requires a nick in
the DNA for binding but has not been shown
to be active at the replication fork.

Single-strand Binding Protein

Another protein located at the replication
fork that functions in stabilizing DNA single
strands is single-strand binding protein (SSBP).
Once again, evidence for the presence of SSBPs
in plants is restricted to the meiotic cells of
Lilium (19).

DNA Topoisomerases

The separation of DNA strands during rep-
lication places torsional strain on the double-
stranded DNA in front of the replication fork.
This strain results in supercoiling of the DNA
that must be removed by the action of topo-
isomerases so that movement of the fork is not
inhibited. Type I topoisomerases, which do not
require ATP and catalyze the relaxation of
supercoiled DNA, have been studied in nu-
merous eukaryotic organisms including plants.
The enzyme has been characterized from wheat
(20), pea (21, 22), soybean (23), tobacco (24),
corn (4) and carrot cells (25). In general, the
enzyme from plants does not require ATP, is
stimulated by salt, and is not inhibited by no-
vobiocin (an inhibitor of Type II topoisomer-
ases). The actual association of Type I enzymes
with events at the replication fork during DNA
replication in plants remains to be described.

Eukaryotic Type II topoisomerase requires
ATP, cleaves both strands of DNA, and cata-
lyzes not only the reduction of supercoils but
also the catenation and decatenation of closed
double-stranded DNA circles (26). This en-
zyme has been implicated in anchoring DNA
loops in animal chromosomes (3, see below),
but its role in plants remains unknown.

SYNTHETIC ACTIVITIES
Priming
Once the double-stranded DNA has been
separated at the origin of a replicon and re-
quired proteins (SSBPs, helicase, etc.) are pres-
ent, the next step in replication is the priming

of both template strands. Evidence in eukary-
otic systems indicates that the primer is a short
fragment of RNA that is synthesized by a
unique enzyme, DNA primase. It is obvious
that greater primase activity is required on the
lagging strand because each Okazaki fragment
must be primed.

In animal systems, primase appears to be
part of a large multienzyme complex that in-
cludes DNA polymerase-a. For example, in
HeLa cells the overall complex has a size of
640 kDa, which includes DNA polymerase-a,
accessory proteins and a primase of 70 kDa
(27). In several other eukaryotic systems the
primase activity is a dimeric protein with sub-
units of approximately 60 and 40 kDa (28). In
HeLa cells and human placenta, primer rec-
ognition proteins (PRP) I and II interact with
DNA polymerase-a, allowing DNA replication
under conditions similar to those during lag-
ging-strand synthesis. PRP I has been identi-
fied as a phosphoprotein (calpactin I heavy
chain) and PRP I] is 3-phosphoglycerate kinase
(29).

A recent investigation of a large DNA rep-
lication complex from pea (Pisum sativum)
(30) has aided in a comparison of plant primase
activity with that described for animals. Pri-
mase activity was monitored by increased DNA
synthesis in the presence of (1) M13 DNA and
ribonucleotides or (2) poly (dT) and rATP. Al-
though not separately isolated and character-
ized, primase appears to be part of a large
complex associated with DNA polymerase-a.
Primase has been isolated from wheat embryos
and rice cells separate from any polymerases
(31, 32), but it is possible that the primase was
dissociated from a DNA polymerase complex
during purification.

Daughter Strand Synthesis

The most studied of the proteins involved
in the synthesis of the daughter strands of DNA
are the DNA polymerases. To date, 5 separate
polymerases—termed a, 6, y, 6 and e—have
been described to function in the replication
of animal DNA (Table 2).

DNA polymerase-a is a large enzyme (200
kDa) with four major subunits of 180, 100, 73,
and 49 kDa. The processivity of this enzyme
in animals is fewer than 100 nucleotides in-
corporated per binding event, suggesting its
involvement in lagging strand replication (33,

54

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

TaBLE 2. Characteristics of Animal DNA polymerases.

Properties* a B

Molecular weight

(catalytic subunit) 100-200,000 50,000

Inhibition by

N-ethylmaleimide yes no

aphidicolin yes no

phosphate no yes

high salt yes no
Associated activities

5’ > 3’ exonuclease no no

3’ > 5! exonuclease no no
In vivo location nucleus nucleus
General function replication on repair

lagging strand

* Properties may vary slightly depending on the source of the enzyme.

34, 35, 36). The animal enzyme is inhibited
by aphidicolin, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), and
high salt concentrations, while it is unaffected
by low phosphate concentrations or the pres-
ence of dideoxy NTPs.

Plant polymerase-a has been studied in a
number of plants, most notably pea, sugar beet,
soybean, turnip and spinach (see review; ref.
1). The pea enzyme, thought to be involved in
the replication of nuclear DNA because of in-
creased activity in proliferating cells (review,
ref. 37), undergoes rapid breakdown from 230
kDa to catalytically active products of 180,
140, 100 and 50 kDa (80). Generally, the ac-
tivity of plant polymerase-a is inhibited by
potassium chloride, NEM, phosphonacetate,
and aphidicolin and is unaffected by the pres-
ence of dideoxy NTPs.

DNA polymerase-8 is unique among the
polymerases because of its low molecular
weight, a single polypeptide of about 40 kDa.
The activity of the enzyme isolated from an-
imals is inhibited by low concentrations of
phosphate and dideoxy NTPs but is unaffected
by aphidicolin and stimulated by high salt con-
centrations.

Although the enzyme has been character-
ized from numerous animal systems (review,
38), further investigation of the characteristics
of the enzyme remains to be accomplished in
plant systems. A small molecular weight en-
zyme with characteristics similar to the animal
enzyme has been identified in several plants
including sugar beet, tobacco, soybean, pea,
and wheat embryos (review, 1). In recent ex-
periments (39), the enzyme has been further

Y () €

140-200,000 120-170,000 200-250,000
yes yes

no yes yes

no

no

no no no

yes yes yes

mt, chlor nucleus nucleus
replication replication on repair

leading strand

characterized from etiolated soybean hypo-
cotyls following chromatography through Se-
phadex G-75 and DEAE-cellulose. The en-
zyme has a molecular weight less than 50 kDa,
is insensitive to aphidicolin, and is stimulated
by high salt concentrations (Table 8). Its roles
in DNA repair and recombination in plants
remain to be elucidated.

DNA polymerase-y functions in the repli-
cation of mitochondrial and chloroplastic DNA.
DNA polymerase-y has been isolated, purified,
and characterized from the chloroplasts and
cytoplasmic preparations of several plants in-
cluding pea (40), turnip (41, 42), spinach (48)
and soybean (42). As isolated from various plant
tissue, DNA polymerase-y is a large molecular
weight enzyme (>100 kDa) with a catalytic
subunit of 87 kDa (48, 44). A recent study using
soybean and turnip indicates the presence in
both plants of a y-catalytic polypeptide of 66
kDa that is part of a much larger holoenzyme
(42). In general, the enzyme is similar to ani-
mal polymerase-y in that it is inhibited by
NEM and by dideoxy NTPs and is unaffected
by high salt concentrations, phosphate and low
concentrations of aphidicolin.

DNA polymerase-6 is quite similar in prop-
erties to the a-enzyme but also has proofread-
ing capabilities (3’-5’ exonuclease activity). The
enzyme, as isolated from animal systems, has
a large molecular weight of 170 kDa in its
native form with subunits of 120 and 50-70
kDa. In the presence of proliferating cell nu-
clear antigen (PCNA, also known as cyclin),
its processivity is greater than 1,000 nucleo-
tides incorporated per binding event (35). These

DNA IN PLants—Dunham and Dill 55

TaBLE8. Characteristics of DNA polymerase-6 from soy-
bean hypocotyls.

Properties

Molecular weight <50,000
Inhibition by

Aphidicolin no

KCl no
Activity on template/primer

Poly (rA)-oligo (dT) in presence

of Mn?* yes
Activated calf thymus yes

characteristics suggest that a and 6 may work
together as the major components of the mul-
tiprotein complex at the replication fork with
a functioning on the lagging strand and 6 syn-
thesizing the continuous leading strand (35, 36,
45). As prepared from animals, the enzyme is
sensitive to aphidicolin and NEM and is in-
sensitive to phosphate and dideoxy NTPs. Hu-
man polymerase-6 has been shown to be im-
munologically distinct from polymerase-a and
-e. Both 6 and «¢ are probably located in the
nucleus (46). Recently, a plant 6-like poly-
merase has been identified (47) and the gene
for PCNA appears to be present in rice, soy-
bean, and tobacco genomes. These studies were
based on hybridization of plant genomes with
arat PCNA cDNA probe (48). Recent evidence
from pea indicates that replication of riboso-
mal DNA replicons is by leading strand only
(49). This implies that polymerase-6 may be
the polymerase involved in the replication of
ribosomal DNA.

DNA polymerase-e is a recently identified
large molecular-weight enzyme of over 200
kDa. Originally discovered and classified as a
subclass of DNA polymerase-6, € has been shown
to be highly processive in the absence of PCNA
and involved in DNA repair, specifically in
repair induced by UV irradiation (50). DNA
polymerase-e has yet to be identified in plant
preparations.

The above classification system (Greek let-
ters) for eukaryotic organisms has been based
on characteristics of the enzymes including
molecular weight, sensitivity to inhibitors,
specificity for template/primer systems, and
processivity. With the techniques of recom-
binant genetics, a new system for the classifi-
cation of DNA polymerases from both pro-
karyotic and eukaryotic cells is possible. This

TABLE 4. Classification of DNA polymerases based on
similar conserved sequences.

Family A Family B

E. coli polymerase I Eukaryotic polymerase-a

S. pneumoniae
polymerase I

Taq polymerase I

T7 polymerase

Eukaryotic polymerase-6

bacteriophage T,

T5 polymerase 29
SPO2 mitochondrial

polymerase PR D1
Yeast mitochondrial

polymerase

References 51, 52, 53.

classification is based upon conserved regions
in the enzymes and consists of 2 groups, family
A and family B (51, 52, 53; Table 4).

Family B polymerases, the group containing
the eukaryotic enzymes, possess several regions
of highly conserved amino acid sequences that
appear to be in the same order in all of the
enzymes in the family. Several investigators
have shown that one of the regions (the most
highly conserved), when mutated, results in a
loss of polymerase function (54, 55, 56). The
pyrophosphorolytic activity of phage 629 DNA
polymerase (family B) has been mapped in a
conserved region with the amino acid se-
quence YCDTD common to a-like DNA poly-
merases (57). The authors of this review are
presently using these regions as probes for plant
genes coding for DNA polymerases.

Removal of RNA Primers

Following the synthesis of daughter strands,
RNA primers (especially on the lagging strand)
must be removed from nascent Okazaki frag-
ments. In prokaryotic cells, this is thought to
be accomplished by the 5’-3’ exonuclease ac-
tivity of DNA polymerase I, which then fills
in the resulting gap. Although Euglena con-
tains a 5’-3’ exonuclease activity closely asso-
ciated with DNA polymerase (58), the activity
has not been found associated with other eu-
karyotic replicative polymerases. An RNA
primer could be removed by RNase H, an en-
zyme that removes RNA from a DNA/RNA
duplex. Such activity is known to occur in some
plants and increases in activity during DNA
replication in carrot cells (59). The enzyme has
not been shown to be associated with poly-
merases and can be separated from polymer-
ase-primase (21).

56 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Ligation

Following removal of the primer and the
filling of the resultant gap, the newly synthe-
sized fragments must be joined by the action
of DNA ligase. Although DNA ligase activity
is known to occur in higher plants, the enzyme
has not been thoroughly characterized and its
role in replication remains to be elucidated. As
in animal systems, the enzyme may exist in
multiple forms. Two forms of ligase from pea,
soluble and chromatin-bound (60), increase
during seed germination but at slightly differ-
ent rates and are unequally inhibited by dTTP
(61). A single DNA ligase activity has also been
implicated in the repair of DNA in dry seeds
(62). The loss of DNA repair activity with the
increase in age of seeds appears to be associated
with a loss of ligase activity. The association
between ligase activity and plant DNA repli-
cation remains to be established.

POsTSYNTHETIC ACTIVITIES
Methylation

Plant DNA is highly methylated, especially
in the ubiquitous sequences mCpG and mCNG.
The enzyme, DNA methylase, has been iden-
tified in plants (review, ref. 1) and best char-
acterized in pea. This enzyme has a molecular
weight of 160 kDa, apparently uses CNG as
the target sequence and has a preference for
hemi-methylated double-stranded DNA (68).
Further research is required to determine the
specific timing of methylation during the plant
cell cycle and the various roles that methyl-
ation plays in cellular events such as chro-
mosome condensation and gene expression.

Separation of Daughter Molecules

Following DNA replication of both parental
strands, the daughter strands must be separat-
ed before cell division. Although the role of
topoisomerase II in separating daughter chro-
mosomes in yeast has been described (64), such
a function for topoisomerase II has not been
shown in plants, although the enzyme has been
shown to be active in cauliflower (3).

REGULATION

Regulation of DNA replication may be ac-
complished at several levels including entrance
of cells into the S phase of the cell cycle, tran-
scriptional and translational controls, post-

translational modification and substrate and ef-
fector concentrations. It is quite possible that
these levels of control may be under more gen-
eral types of control including growth regu-
lators and other factors in the environment of
the cell.

Cell Cycle

The intracellular levels and/or activity of
enzymes and proteins involved in replication
may be regulated directly or indirectly by
mechanisms that control the entrance of cells
into S phase. Extracts from the G1 phase, for
example, are 10-fold less active than extracts
from S phase in supporting in vitro replication
of SV40 DNA (65).

Several enzymes exhibit changes in activity
during the cell cycle with maximum activity
in the S phase of proliferating cells. For ex-
ample, in animal systems several proteins and
protein complexes, which are specifically re-
lated to the S phase of the cell cycle, are known
to interact and regulate DNA polymerases.
PCNA, originally termed DNA polymerase-6
auxiliary protein, is synthesized during the S
phase. In the presence of PCNA, DNA poly-
merase-6 increases in processivity, synthesizing
long stretches of DNA per binding event (35).
Activator 1 (A1) is a 5-subunit protein complex
present in HeLa cells that has ATPase activity
and, in conjunction with PCNA, acts in primer
recognition for DNA polymerase-6 (66). The
gene for PCNA has been identified in several
plant genomes (48), but the expression of the
gene and the role of the gene product remains
to be described in plants.

Posttranslational Modification

An increasing number of studies related to
the control of DNA replication at the level of
the cell cycle have focused on the activity of
protein kinase. For example, a protein kinase
(Cde28) is required for yeast cells to proceed
from G1 into S phase. Factors that inhibit cell
division, such as nutrient limitation and mating
pheromones, also result in a loss of Cde28 ac-
tivity (67). A similar protein (p34), observed
in human cells, does not fluctuate in concen-
tration during the cell cycle and is a phospho-
protein itself (68). Another S phase-specific
phosphoprotein from human cells, dividin, has
been shown to be required for G1 to S phase
transition, but its function remains to be de-

DNA IN PLants—Dunham and Dill 57

scribed (69). Yet another protein, progressin,
is S phase-specific and not present in quiescent
cells. Like dividin, it has not been shown to be
directly associated with DNA replication (69).

Several of the enzymes involved at the rep-
lication fork have been shown to be phospho-
proteins. DNA polymerase-a is phosphorylat-
ed in several mammals (38). For example, the
catalytic subunit of human DNA polymerase-a
is hyperphosphorylated in G/M phase and ap-
pears to be controlled by p34 kinase (70). To-
poisomerase I from Chinese hamster and mouse
leukemia cells loses DNA relaxing activity along
with its sensitivity to camptothecin following
treatment with alkaline phosphatase (71). Both
its DNA relaxing activity and inhibitor sensi-
tivity are restored following phosphorylation
by protein kinase C (PKC). Since PKC has been
found in nuclei and co-purifies with topoiso-
merase I, phosphorylation may play a regu-
latory role in vivo (71). Topoisomerase I of calf
thymus is also a phosphoprotein as evidenced
by increased activity following phosphoryla-
tion by Type N II protein kinase (72). Topo-
isomerase II from HeLa cells has also been
shown to be a phosphoprotein (73). Some ey-
idence suggests that phosphorylation of other
non-enzymatic proteins may regulate enzymes
at the replication fork. For example, phos-
phorylation of histone-H1 in regenerating rat
liver may regulate the activity of DNA primase
(74).

At present, information on the phosphory-
lation of proteins involved in plant DNA rep-
lication has been limited to SSBPs in Lilium
(75) and a loss of topoisomerase I and II activity
following treatment of an extract from maize
embryos with alkaline phosphatase (4). This
mechanism of control is quite probable in plants
because plant cell division and DNA replica-
tion are accompanied by an increase in phos-
phorylation. In earlier work, alteration of DNA
polymerase activity has been shown following
phosphorylation of crude nuclear protein
preparations by a nuclear protein kinase from
soybeans (76). In addition, protein kinase is
present in a polymerase-primase complex re-
cently isolated from pea nuclei (J. A. Bryant,
pers. comm. ).

Plant Growth Regulators

The long term effects of plant growth reg-
ulators on DNA synthesis have been reported

by numerous investigators over the last 10-15
years (review, 6). The major problem associ-
ated with these data is the separation of in-
creased DNA synthesis from a general increase
in growth and/or nutrient supply. With im-
provement in the techniques employed in such
studies, it may be possible to pinpoint the ef-
fects of growth regulators on the cell cycle and
DNA replication. For example, using cytofluo-
rometric techniques coupled with autoradiog-
raphy, benzyladenine (BA) has been shown to
induce DNA synthesis and the doubling of nu-
clear DNA in bean leaves (77). At a more spe-
cific level, treatment of the apical meristem of
mustard with BA has been shown to activate
new replicon origins resulting in a reduction
of replicon size and a synchronization of rep-
licon firing (78). The mechanism by which BA
alters replicon initiation and timing remains
to be described.

Reports of the effects of growth regulators
on the synthesis and/or activity of proteins
involved at the replicating fork are limited and
do not yield information as to mechanism. Al-
though treatment of maize embryos with 2,4-
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) resulted in
a 200% increase in topoisomerase II activity
(4), the mechanism has not been elucidated
and might be the result of induced protein
kinase activity.

Recently, several investigators have shown
more specific mechanisms for growth regulator
control at the level of gene expression. With
respect to DNA replication and the involved
proteins, indoleacetic acid (IAA) induces a gene
in the shoot apex of Arabidopsis that codes for
a DNA binding protein that is lysine-rich and
has other properties similar to histone H1 (79).
This gene, dpb, is expressed in all parts of the
plant but is increased 5-fold in apical regions.
Although the gene product is not H1, based
on biochemical and immunological studies, it
binds double-stranded DNA. These studies may
begin to clarify the overwhelming amount of
information relating growth regulators with
DNA replication and chromosome structure.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

New technologies have resulted in numerous
important additions to our knowledge of DNA
replication. These include the ability to rep-
licate SV40 DNA in vitro that has led to an
understanding of the involvement of several

08 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

3

A B

Fic. 2. Model for protein function during nuclear DNA
replication in eukaryotic cells. 1. Topoisomerase I. 2. Hel-
icase. 3. Single-strand binding protein. 4. Primase. 5. DNA
polymerase-a. 6. DNA polymerase-6. 7. Ribonuclease H.
8. DNA ligase. 9. Topoisomerase II.

proteins. Many advances have been made link-
ing proteins associated with cell cycle controls
to the regulation of DNA polymerases. They
are reflected in a current model for DNA rep-
lication in eukaryotic cells (Fig. 2). The model
reflects data that imply that DNA polymer-
ase-a functions on the lagging strand and DNA
polymerase-6 on the leading strand. Topoisom-
erase II has been included in the model to
separate daughter chromosomes following rep-
lication. Unfortunately, few of these additions
to information on DNA replication have come
from plant research. With increased effort in
several areas of plant research, including use
of recombinant techniques to elucidate DNA
polymerase structure, localization of proteins
at replicons, and regulation of these proteins
during the cell cycle, we should more rapidly
clarify some of the major problems remaining
in the replication of plant genomes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge Kentucky-NSF-
EPSCoR for financial support and the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science for its role in es-

tablishing the NSF-EPSCoR program in the
Commonwealth. We also thank Dr. John Bry-
ant for his comments and unpublished data.

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Tyr-Gly-Asp-Thr-Asp-Ser in a-like DNA polymerases is
required by phage ¢29 DNA polymerase for protein-primed
initiation and polymerization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
87:4610-4614.

56. Jung, G., M. C. Leavitt, M. Schultz, and J. Ito. 1990.
Site-specific mutagenesis of PRD1 DNA polymerase: mu-
tations in highly conserved regions of the family B DNA
polymerase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 170:1294—
1300.

57. Blasco, M. A., A. Bernad, L. Blanco, and M. Salas.
1991. Characterization and mapping of the pyrophos-
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involvement of amino acid motifs highly conserved in
a-like DNA polymerases. J. Biol. Chem. 266:7904-7909.

58. McLennan, A. G. and H. M. Keir. 1975. Deoxy-
ribonucleic acid polymerases of Euglena gracilis. Primer-
template utilization of, and enzyme activities associated
with the two deoxyribonucleic acid polymerases of high
molecular weight. Biochem. J. 151:227-288.

59. Sawai, Y., N. Sugano, and K. Tsukada. 1978. Ri-
bonuclease-H activity in cultured plant cells. Biochim. Bio-
phys. Acta 518:181-185.

60. Daniel, P. P., J. A. Bryant, and D. G. Barker. 1985.
DNA ligase activity in pea seedlings (Pisum sativum L.):
development of a sensitive assay system and partial char-
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chem. Internat. 11:645-652.

61. Daniel, P. P. and J. A. Bryant. 1988. DNA ligase
in pea (Pisum sativum L.) seedlings: changes in activity
during germination and effects of deoxyribonucleotides.
J. Exp. Bot, 39:481—486.

62. Elder, R. H., A. Dell’Aquila, M. Mezzina, A. Sarasin,
and D. J. Osborne. 1987. DNA ligase in repair and rep-
lication in the embryos of rye, Secale cereale. Mut. Res.
181:61-71.

63. Yesufu, H. M. I., A. Hanley, A. Rinaldi, and R. L.
P. Adams. 1991. DNA methylase from Pisum sativum.
Biochem. J. 273:469-475.

64. DiNardo, S., K. A. Voelkel, and R. Sternglanz.
1984. DNA topoisomerase II mutants of Saccharomyces
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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81:2616-2620.

65. Roberts, J. and H. Weintraub. 1988. Positive and
negative control of DNA replication. Pp. 191-196. In T.
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66. Lee, S.-H., A. D. Kwong, Z.-Q. Pan, and J. Hurwitz.
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67. Reed, S. L, J. A. Hadwiger, M. D. Mendenhall, and
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In T. Kelly and B. Stillman (eds.) Cancer cells, Vol. 6.
Eukaryotic DNA replication. Cold Spring Harbor Labo-
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68. Draetta, G., L. Brizuela, and D. Beach. 1988. p34
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69. Celis, J. E., P. Madsen, S. U. Nielsen, B. Gesser, H.
V. Nielsen, G. P. Ratz, J. B. Lauridsen, and A. Celis. 1988.
Cyclin (PCNA, auxiliary protein of DNA polymerase 6),
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mon pathway leading to DNA replication and cell division
in human cells. Pp. 289-295. In T. Kelly and B. Stillman
(eds.) Cancer cells, Vol. 6. Eukaryotic DNA replication.
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York.

70. Nasheuer, H. P., A. Moore, A. F. Wahl, and T. S.
F. Wang. 1991. Cell cycle-dependent phosphorylation
of human DNA polymerase a. J. Biol. Chem. 266:7893-
7903.

71. Pommier, Y., D. Kerrigan, K. D. Hartman, and R.
I. Glazer. 1990. Phosphorylation of mammalian DNA
topoisomerase I and activation by protein kinase C. J. Biol.
Chem. 265:9418-9422.

72. Coderoni, S., M. Paparelli, and G. L. Gianfrances-
chi. 1990. Phosphorylation sites for type N II protein
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Biochem. 22:737-746.

73. Kroll, D. J. and T. C. Rowe. 1991. Phosphorylation

DNA IN PLants—Dunham and Dill 61

of DNA topoisomerase II in a human tumor cell line. J.
Biol. Chem. 266:7957-7961.

74. Takada, S., T. Magira, E. Suzuki, and M. Yama-
1990. Regulation of DNA primase activity by
phosphorylation of histone-H1 in regenerating rat liver.
Biochem. Int. 22:509-515.

75. Hotta, Y. and H. Stern. 1979. The effect of de-
phosphorylation on the properties of a helix-destabilising
protein from meiotic cells and its partial reversal by a
protein kinase. Eur. J. Biochem. 95:31-38.

76. Dunham, V. L. and W.N. Yunghans. 1977. Effects
of nuclear proteins on the activity of soybean DNA poly-
merase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 75:987-994.

mura.

77. Momotani, E., I. Kinoshita, E. Yokomura, and H.
Tsuji. 1990. Rapid induction of synthesis and doubling
of nuclear DNA by benzyladenine in intact bean leaves.
Plant Cell Physiol. 31:621-625.

78. Houssa, C., A. Jacqmard, and G. Bernier. 1990.
Activation of replicon origins as a possible target for cy-
tokinins in shoot meristems of Sinapis. Planta 181:324-
326.

79. Alliotte, T., C. Tire, G. Engler, J. Peleman, A. Cap-
lan, M. V. Montagu, and D. Inzé. 1989. An auxin-reg-
ulated gene of Arabidopsis thaliana encodes a DNA-bind-
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 62-66

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SEVENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING
OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Executive Inn—Rivermont
Owensboro Kentucky
7-9 November 1991

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING

The meeting was called to order by the President, W.
Blaine Early III, at 10:08 a.m.

REPORTS OF THE OFFICERS

Blaine Early thanked those who had been so willing to
serve the Academy during his tenure. He reported that
there were no nominations for the Distinguished Scientist
Award this year and that more effort should be made to
solicit nominations for the 1992 Annual Meeting.

He noted that the Academy has a maior role to play in
science education through the Kentucky Junior Academy
of Science (KJAS) in the Kentucky Education Reform Act
(KERA). In relation to KJAS he reported that the Director
and two students attended the AAAS/NAAS/NAJAS meet-
ing last February. At the Annual Meeting of KJAS over
300 students from 20 clubs were in attendance. He also
mentioned the need for professional scientists to serve as
mentors in the Junior Academy program.

The data base forms, originally developed by Larry
Giesmann, have been modified with new categories. Only
about 75 have been returned to the Secretary so far. There
is a need for greater participation.

The Academy sponsored a Critical Thinking Workshop
at the Kentucky Science Teachers Association meeting this
year.

The Kentucky Mentors Program for Women in Science
and Engineering has been published. The women high-
lighted in this publication can serve as role models for
young, aspiring women scientists. He thanked Rod and
Loraine Rodriguez for their efforts to bring this publication
together.

The Collegiate Academy Committee has developed a
program of paper competition and reward for undergrad-
uate student presentations. This committee arranged a re-
ception and pizza party at Brescia College for graduate
and undergraduate students who were not attending the
Annual Awards banquet.

On environmental issues Richard Hannan and the Ken-
tucky Nature Preserves Commission requested that a Sci-
entific Liaison Committee be appointed from KAS to work
with the commission. That committee was approved by
the Governing Board and has as members William H.
Martin, Jerry Baskin, Branley Branson, and Guenter Schus-
ter.

The Governing Board also approved a working draft of
a plan to eventually have a permanent home with a full-
time person to represent the Academy.

62

Blaine announced that the Academy has been the re-
cipient of a bequest from the estate of Mr. Raymond Ath-
ey. The money is in trust and income will be available for
research, education, and a limited amount of administra-
tion operation.

Vice-President Charlie Boehms thanked Doug Dahlman
for being the program director this year and that as Pres-
ident Elect he will work closely with the section chairs
and secretaries and the local arrangement committee for
the 1992 meeting. He will need a list of officers from each
section as soon as possible. He reminded the Academy that
the meeting in 1992 will be 29-31 October. The first call
for papers will be in the April Newsletter with return by
the end of August. The program will be mailed to all those
who preregister.

David Hartman distributed the Treasurer's Report and
made brief comments about it.

TREASURER S REPORT

Kentucky Academy of Science

1991
Stanting@ balances (99) meee ene $69,184.24
Income (see below)................... +38,815.51
Expenses (see below) .............. — 43,020.34
Ending Balance (30 September 1991).............. $64,979.41
Income—1991
Membership Dues... $12,015.00
Active (46 @ $15.00).......... $ 690.00
(218[1] @ $25.00)... 5,450.00
(27[2] @ $45.00)... 1,215.00
(65[3] @ $60.00) ........ 3,900.00
Family (8 @ $20.00)........... 60.00
(8[1] @ $35.00) ........ 280.00
(1[2] @ $65.00)... 65.00
Student (3 @ $7.00)... 21.00
(17 @ $10.00)........ 170.00
(12[1] @ $12.00)... 144.00
(1[2] @ $20.00) ........ 20.00
Life (61) 1992
Institutional Memberships
(See List Below)........................ 5,950.00
Corporate Memberships
(See List Below)..............--.---- 6,150.00
Library Subscriptions................... 850.00
Page Charges... cece 2,897.00
Abstracts—(1991) 000. 60.00
Annual Meeting—(1991).......... 856.00

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 63

F3:x<la'i 01's ae 0.00 Kentucky Academy of Science Foundation
Preregistration & Banquet... 856.00 Endowment Fund—1991
Onslte Regsueiuon Starting Balance (1 January 1991)... $17,568.79
LISTE CSG eae 2,435.07 1 ife Memberships (58)........ $14,750.00
1,026.47 Endowment... 2,818.79
908.60
Un CONTE ee eee eee oe ete + 8,076.88
Transfer from KAS...
0.00 E
132.00 Life Member Increase....... 5,650.00
Life Memberships... 350.00 Gifts Ear ha pae ie an eae RE coe
Direct Gifts to Endowment... 100.00
Mentor Program... 7,000.00 i 4
Life Memberships
Miscellaneous—Overpay- pean OCT
ment of Dues 120.00 (1 @ $250.00)... ;
eS Life Memberships
Ota nn $38,815.51 OO REO 700.00
Interest
KASH NLS dls oe ck $ 2,500.00 Bank Account 000... 363.02
RAGANAAC- Sigel 400.00 CD cee 881.86
NAAS— D6 oie scieeeeccseeeeeeeeeeee 80:00) eSExPemses aU Re ieee) ecules eines SEE 0.00
Printing 23,116.36 Transfer to KAS for
Transactions ecco $ 7,813.06 Life Memberships—1992
Newsletter (Secretary) 2,377.17 Ending Balance (15 October 1991)... $25,645.67
Other (Executive Life Memberships (61)........... $21,350.00
Secretary) sss seer 1,384.73 andlor 4,295.67
Mentor Publication................... 11,541.40
D : Starting Balance (January 1, 1991)... $15,468.27
Professional Services (CPA)...... 590.00 Pail $13,296.97
rues ee cineg Wee 2,171.30
angquel ,U0U.
Palouse aeitisin| tne hi iseily 0.00 ae ena aitiies aaeaS AD 28
Transfer to E d 132.00 ms
Fans er to Endowment Fun 6,132 so LEN naire $ 304.36
Ciktsee SA eee, Sige 132.00
; : GD ea Ne Ee 540.93
Life Membership Bee 100.00
Adjustment... 5,650.00 Ra Ma eRe roe Te
New Life Member.................... 350.00 Expenses — 787.00
Gaitth Award 0.00 Grant (Victor Call). 787.00
Refund see eae eae 2.00 Ending Balance (15 October 1991)... $15,626.56
TN REO E 72.43 rin cijya| eee one nennN $13,396.97
Rostapeniianitsiusreniindn ~ 21.60 Iniberest as. csw ase ait arn 2,229.59
Checksps areata sie ie I 50.83 i
eee nina ahd talib 432.2] Marcia Athey Fund—1991
Postage a cetyr ill 398.2] Starting Balance (1 January 1991). $62,398.41
Computer Supplies 34.00 EA eee $54,218.52
Executive Secretary. 5,744.44 Interest nee 8,179.89
hostage We ania he 1,625.46 UT MESA sok we ee eed ena eae +3,462.11
Secretarial Services ................... 885.95 Interest
Computer 2,688.00 Bank Account... $ 723.36
Rhone 22 erin she PEt 162.81 (OID seine bee rant Wie aera) 2,738.75
Kentucky Journal. 20.00 FS PCN SE Spxtas st encase as Ueda Ala ~7,820.60
Transportation (U.K.).... 362.22 Grant (Darwin Dahl)............. 5,637.00
Meetings (Executive and Grant (Todd Buck)................... 1,333.60
Governing Board)... 445.80 Grant (Verdie Abel)... 850.00
MCE O NS scr 504.45 Ending Balance (15 October 1991). $58,039.92
CO TOTENS SE ay Princ pela aeeeae ne $54,218.52
Mailings (J. H. Carpenter)... 28.60 Tateres eM al Sen 3 821.40
AIsT'0 phat Seen ee cat 41.85 é
Travel (H. T. Davis)................ 420.00 Contributions from Colleges and Universities
Bank Service Charge........... 6.00 BellarminelCollesciseenae anne ans $ 250.00

Rotella Se Miah a ce BT ee SOL $43,020.84 Berea College oo. ccccecceccsesceeessesseesecsssseeeesseeseeee 100.00

64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

BresciaiCollezee 2 oe Nue Te ne eee 100.00
Campbellsville College ...eecee-es-seecceeeeeeeo 100.00
@entrei@olleges: nll Be 100.00
Cumberland College. eee 250.00
Eastern Kentucky University... 500.00
Georgetown College, 2.2 eee 250.00
Kentucky State University... 2------ss-cccce-esen---- 100.00
Kentucky Wesleyan College 100.00
MidwayiCollegescs 22 ar een eee 100.00
Morehead State University 500.00
Murray State University 2.2.2 ccccccssesssceeeccceeeee 500.00
Northern Kentucky University... 500.00
Salli pa Wii ve GS taye eee ene ee ee 100.00
Sue Bennett College... 100.00
thomas) More} Collegens =e eeeerwaeee 100.00
Transylvania University iiss 100.00
UnioniGolleg eye ee ea 100.00
Wmiversitysot Kentuckyae. == ee eee 1,000.00
University of Louisville. 500.00
Western Kentucky University... 500.00
Corporate Affiliates—1991

Air Products & Chemicals, Ine. ........20000000--------- $ 500.00
All-Rite Pest Controle 100.00
Alltech Biotechnology Center... 250.00
ANGlalerael OM, Tine; 2a 2,000.00
Brown and Williamson

Tobacco Corporation... eee 1,000.00
G@cotingineenng ine 250.00
Cohart Refractories Corporation... 250.00
DataBeam Corporation oii eeecccceeeeeeeeeeeee 250.00
BinstaSeC Ui bye Bal kg ese mest eevee eee 100.00
GAF Chemicals Corporation 222222. 250.00
Group Financial Partners, Inc... 100.00
The Humana Foundation Ine... 200.00
International Business Machines

Corporation= ewe ee ee ee 250.00
Litton Industrial Automation 250.00
IN EAB) 35) hela ies ee ae ee 250.00
PTOCLOTe Gari) Caen ae meen enne 100.00
Winmiteck@atallyy sts inc eaemeeennassennaesenennasantene 250.00
Wood Hudson Cancer Research

fal ora toryzelirn ciara neces seer eee oie 100.00
VV GS lay aC sce ceo ie ds to oer ae 200.00

On a motion by Ted George (seconded by Charlie
Boehms) the Treasurer's Report was accepted.

The Executive Secretary, Rod Rodriguez, noted his
pleasure at the acceptance of the publication on the Ken-
tucky Mentors Program. There is a plan to update it in
the future. Some of the operations of the Secretary and
Treasurer have now been assumed by the Executive Sec-
retary and in the future all mailings will be made from
Lexington. He reported that the membership dues were
sent in mid-Summer as they will be in the future.

COMMITTEE REPORTS
MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE

Larry Giesmann, reporting for the Nominations, Elec-
tions, and Resolutions Committee, announced the election

of Larry Elliott as Vice President, Kimberly Ward An-
derson as the representative from the Division of Physical,
Mathematical and Computer Sciences, and Blaine R. Fer-
rell as representative from the Division of Biology.

He then presented the following resolutions for ap-
proval.

Resolution I:

Whereas, the Kentucky Academy of Science, a profes-
sional society of over 900 scientists from across the Com-
monwealth of Kentucky and the United States, is vitally
interested in the encouragement of research, the promo-
tion of the diffusion of scientific knowledge, and the uni-
fication of scientific knowledge, and

Whereas, Brescia College, Kentucky Wesleyan College,
and Owensboro Community College, all with outstanding
academic programs and having dedicated and highly qual-
ified faculty and staff, have graciously and efficiently host-
ed the 77th Annual Meeting of the Academy in Owens-
boro, Kentucky,

Therefore be it Resolved: that the Kentucky Academy
of Science expresses its appreciation and gratitude to the
administration, faculty, and staff of the host institutions
and to the members of the city of Owensboro who have
worked so diligently and effectively to make this Annual
Meeting a success.

Resolution II:

Whereas, Varley E. Wiedeman has faithfully and tire-
lessly served as Secretary of the Kentucky Academy of
Science for four years by keeping records of Academy
proceedings and membership, preparing and mailing items
of Academy business, editing the Newsletter, and tirelessly
serving the Academy and its Governing Board in all other
matters,

Therefore be it Resolved: that the Kentucky Academy
of Science expresses its sincere appreciation and gratitude
to Varley E. Wiedeman for his significant efforts in making
the Kentucky Academy of Science a viable and strong
presence in the Commonwealth.

Resolution III:

Whereas, the Officers, members of the Governing Board,
and members of the Committees of the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science have labored diligently and long through-
out 1991 to achieve the goals of the Academy, and

Whereas, W. Blaine Early III, as President of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science in 1991 has served the Academy
with distinction, provided creative leadership, and self-
lessly contributed his time and talents to the betterment
of the Academy,

Therefore be it Resolved: that the members of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science collectively express their sin-
cere gratitude for a job well done.

On a motion by Thomas Rambo (seconded by James
Meeks) these resolutions were approved.

Blaine Early then recognized the retiring Secretary,
Varley Wiedeman, and presented him with a plaque rec-
ognizing his service from 1988 through 1991.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Blaine then passed the gavel of the Office of President
to Doug Dahlman who in return presented a plaque to
Blaine recognizing his service as President of the Academy.

Doug Dahlman then made the following comments.

We must continue to encourage the growth of the Ken-
tucky Junior Academy of Science through the investment
of both time and resources. This should include expansion
of the number of participating schools, identification of
an individual to serve as the coordinator of all KJAS ac-
tivities, as well as the identification of several individuals
who will assume responsibilities for individual state-wide
activities such as the science quiz teams, the presentation
of research projects, and the science mentor program.

We must continue to foster the development of the
Collegiate Academy as an integral part of the KAS. Im-
portant steps have been made in 1991 and should be im-
plemented at the 1992 Annual Meeting. Included in this
effort are Section Awards for best undergraduate paper,
encouragement of affiliation of existing science clubs on
various campuses with the KAS, and development of in-
centives to attend and participate in the Annual Meeting.

A working proposal has been approved by the KAS
Governing Board which outlines a long-range plan to es-
tablish a permanent office for KAS. A substantial amount
of additional planning, particularly as it relates to fiscal
responsibility and logistics, remains to be completed. It is
certain that during 1992 the KAS will continue to address
this very important issue related to our future.

KAS has made great strides in the development of a
sound membership base during the past 10 years, as evi-
denced by both the significant increase in numbers of
currently paid memberships and in the participation of
members in the Annual Meeting. However, participation
is still not what it should and could be. This is particularly
true with respect to our colleagues at the two Ph.D. grant-
ing institutions in the Commonwealth. Hopefully, through
a united effort, we can begin to communicate to our col-
leagues within the ranks and administrative structure the
truth that participation in KAS activities provides reward
at both the academic and professional levels. Our collective
concern over declining numbers of young scientists and
the level of preparation of those that do choose a science
career is one important reason that all Kentucky scientists
should have an affiliation with KAS. Another response is
to raise our level of consciousness with respect to profes-
sional citizenship and to become activists at the local and
regional levels in the promotion of good science.

The meeting was adjourned at 10:58 a.m.

Chairpersons and Secretaries for KAS in 1992
Chairperson Secretary
Anthropology—Section A

James F. Hopgood
Anthropology Program
Northern Kentucky

James Murray Walker
Dept. of Anthropology &
Social Work

University Eastern KY University
Highland Heights, KY Richmond, KY 40475
41076 (606)622-4387 or 1644

(606)572-5252

65

Botany and Microbiology—Section B

David Taylor

USDA Forest Service
1835 Big Hill Road
Berea, KY 40403
(606)986-8434

Chemistry—Section C

Nancy Flachskam

Chemistry Department

Kentucky Wesleyan
College

Owensboro, KY 42301

(502)926-3111

(502)683-0023 (home)

Geology—Section E

Thomas R. Lierman

Dept. of Physical Sciences
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351
(606)783-2166

Physics—Section F

John Christopher

Dept. of Physics

University of Kentucky

117 Chem-Physics Bldg.

Lexington, KY 40506-
0055

(606)257-6101

Landon McKinney

KY State Nature Preserves
Commission

407 Broadway

Frankfort, KY 40601

(502)564-2886

will let us know

Graham Hunt

Dept. of Geology
University of Louisville
Louisville, KY 40208
(502)588-6821

Vincent DiNoto

KAS REPRESENTATIVE

Jefferson Community
College SW

Louisville, KY 40201

(502)935-9840, ext. 280

Physiology, Biophysics, Biochemistry, and Pharmacolo-

gy—Section G

William W. Farrar

Dept. of Biological
Sciences

Eastern Kentucky
University

Richmond, KY 40475

(606)622-1531 or 4990

Dexter Speck

Dept. of Physiology &
Biophysics

MN504A Chandler
Medical Ctr.

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40536-
0040

(606)233-5383

Science Education—Section H

Zexia K. Barnes

Dept. of Chemistry
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351
(502)783-2927 or 2914

Psychology—Section I

David Hogan

Dept. of Psychology

Northern KY University

Highland Heights, KY
41076

(606)572-5117

Sociology—Section J

Curt Bergstrand
Dept. of Sociology
Newburg Road
Bellermine College
Louisville, KY 40205

Ben Malphrus

Lappin 216

Dept. of Physical Sciences
Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351
(502)783-2212

Jeff Smith

Dept. of Psychology

Northern KY University

Highland Heights, KY
41076

(606)572-5317

Steve Savage

Dept. of Sociology

Keith 223

Eastern Kentucky
University

66

(502)452-8145 or 800-928-

4723

Richmond, KY 40475
(606)622-1644

Zoology and Entomology—Section K

Matthew Byers
Community Research
Service
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502)227-6253
Mathematics—Section M
No change yet
Engineering—Section N
Keith Rouch
Center for Robotics
University of Kentucky
236B Anderson Hall
Lexington, KY 40506-
0037
(606)257-8733

Monte Johnson

Dept. of Entomology

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40546-
0091

(606)257-6693

No change yet

Issam Harik

Civil Engineering

University of Kentucky

224 Eng. Transportation
Res. Bldg.

Lexington, KY 40506-
0461

(606)257-3116

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Scientific Information—Section O

no new officers
Agriculture—Section Q

Robert J. Barney

Atwood Research Facility
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502)227-6178

Industrial Sciences—Section R

Estel M. Hobbs
Ashland Petroleum Co.
PO Box 391

Ashland, KY 41114
(502)329-5485

Robert J. Barney

Atwood Research Facility
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502)227-6178

Burtron H. Davis
Center for Applied
Energy Research
3572 Iron Works Pike
Lexington, KY 40511
(606)257-0251

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 538(1-2), 1992, 67-92
PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE SEVENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING

Executive Inn
Owensboro, Kentucky
7-9 November 1991

Governing Board

Executive Committee

President W. Blaine Early, UI
Cumberland College

President Elect Douglas L. Dahlman
University of Kentucky

Past President Debra K. Pearce
Northern Kentucky University

Vice-President Charles N. Boehms
Georgetown College

Secretary Varley E. Wiedeman
University of Louisville

Treasurer David R. Hartman
Western Kentucky University

Executive Secretary J. G. Rodriguez
University of Kentucky

Editor of the Transactions Branley A. Branson

Eastern Kentucky University

Division Representatives and At Large Members

Julia H. Carter (1991) Wood Hudson Cancer Research Lab
Valgene L. Dunham (1991) Western Kentucky University
Estel M. Hobbs (1992) Ashland Petroleum Co.
Bruce Mattingly (1992) Morehead State University
Lee T. Todd, Jr. (1992) Databeam Corp.
Burtron H. Davis (1993) Center for Applied Energy Research
Ray K. Hammond (1993) Centre College
James E. Gotsick (1993) Morehead State University
AAAS/NAAS Representative

William P. Hettinger, Jr. Ashland Petroleum Company
Chairman, Governing Committee of KJAS

Randall Sale Paris City Schools

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
77TH ANNUAL MEETING

Owensboro, Kentucky

University Center—UC
Natural Science Center—NS

67

68

PROGRAM SUMMARY
Thursday, 7 November 1991

9:00-12:00 p.m.

KAS Officiers and Governing Board Meeting
Tennessee Room

2:00-7:00 p.m.

Registration

Main Lobby

7:00-9:00 p.m.

Reception

Florida Room

Friday, 8 November 1991

7:30 a.m.—6:00 p.m.
Registration
Main Lobby

8:00 a.m.—3:40 p.m.

Protecting Kentucky’s Biological Diversity: Current Per-
spectives

Texas Room

8:00 a.m.-5:30 p.m.
Scientific Poster Exhibits
Florida Room

8:00 a.m.—5:30 p.m.
Vendor Exhibits
Florida Room

8:00 a.m.—11:00 a.m.
Coal and Petroleum Symposium
Michigan Room

10:00 a.m.—10:30 a.m.
Community College Science Faculty
Hoosier Room

10:30 a.m.—12:00 noon

Community College Biology Faculty
Hoosier Room

10:30 a.m.—12:00 noon

Community College Chemistry Faculty
Illinois Room

10:30 a.m.—12:00 noon

Community College Physics Faculty

Missouri Room

8:00 a.m.—12:00 noon

Sectional Meetings

Section B—Botany and Microbiology (10:45), Colorado
Room; Section C—Chemistry (11:15), Michigan Room;
Section D—Geography (8:30), Arizona Room; Section
G—Physiology and Biophysics (8:30), Oklahoma Room;
Section I—Psychology, California Room; Section J—
Sociology (10:00), Nevada Room; Section K—Zoology
and Entomology, Ohio Room

9:30 a.m.—10:00 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

1:00 p.m.—3:40 p.m.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Protecting Kentucky’s Biological Diversity: Current Per-
spectives

Texas Room

1:00 p.m.-3:30 p.m.

Sectional Meetings

Section B—Botany and Microbiology (1:15), Colorado
Room; Section C—Chemistry, Michigan Room; Section
D—Geography (1:30), Arizona Room; Section E—Ge-
ology, Hoosier Room; Section F—Physics (1:15), Okla-
homa Room; Section H—Science Education (1:15), Mis-
souri Room; Section I—Psychology (1:30), California
Room; Section J—Sociology (1:30), Nevada Room; Sec-
tion K—Zoology and Entomology, Ohio Room; Section
M—Mathematics (1:30), Illinois Room

3:30 p.m.—4:00 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.-5:30 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Presiding

W. Blaine Early, [1]—President,
Kentucky Academy of Science

Welcome
Bruce Beck, Local Arrangements Chairperson
Plenary Presentation
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion as It Affects Life on Earth
Dr. Thomas P. Coohill—Western Kentucky University

7:00 p.m.—9:00 p.m.
Annual Awards Banquet
International A

Reducing Class Gender and Racial Bias in Science Teach-
ing
Dr. Craig E. Nelson—University of Indiana

Saturday, 9 November 1991

8:00 a.m.—1:00 p.m.

Registration

Main Lobby

8:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.

Scientific Poster Exhibits

Florida Room

8:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.

Vendor Exhibits

Florida Room

7:55 a.m.—12:40 p.m.

Industrial Science Symposium Featuring Kentucky Men-
tors, Women in Science, Mathematics and Engineering

Texas Room

9:00-11:00 a.m.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 69

Physics Workshop—Vernier Software and Use of the Com-
puter in the Laboratory
Arizona Room

8:00 a.m.—9:30 a.m.

Sectional Meetings

Section A—Anthropology, Nevada Room; Section B—Bot-
any and Microbiology, Colorado Room; Section C—
Chemistry, Michigan Room; Section F—Physics, Okla-
homa Room; Section H—Science Education (8:45), Mis-
souri Room; Section I—Psychology, California Room;
Section K—Zoology and Entomology, Ohio Room; Sec-
tion L—Computer Science (8:30), Louisiana Room; Sec-
tion M—Mathematics, Illinois Room; Section N—En-
gineering, Hoosier Room; Section R—Industrial Science
(7:55), Texas Room

9:00 a.m.—12:00 noon

A Quick Introduction into Three Schemes for Critical
Thinking in Science—Dr. Craig Nelson—Workshop

Tennessee Room

9:30 a.m.-10:00 a.m.
Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.-11:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

11:00 a.m.-12:00 noon

Sectional Meetings (same locations as above)

1:00 p.m.—end

Sectional Meetings

Section A—Anthropology, Hoosier Room; Section F—
Physics, Illinois Room

1:00 p.m.-4:00 p.m.

A Quick Introduction into Three Schemes for Critical
Thinking in Science—Dr. Craig Nelson—Workshop

Tennessee Room

Note: KJAS

Each spring the Kentucky Junior Academy of Science
holds an Annual Spring Symposium. The 57th Symposium
was held at Eastern Kentucky University on April 26-27,
1991. Activities at this meeting include the presentation
of Science Projects by KJAS members as well as Science
Bowl competition and Lab Skills competition. The winners
of each division of the Science Projects presentations are
invited to present their work at the annual meeting of the
Kentucky Academy of Science, A KJAS precedes the title
of each of the papers given by these young scientists.

PROTECTING KENTUCKY'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
CURRENT PERSPECTIVES
Texas Room
Friday, 8 November 1991
Richard Hannan—Presiding

8:15 a.m.
Welcome

Section I—Conservation Organizations

8:25 a.m.

The Kentucky Chapter of The Nature Conservancy
Barry Dalton—The Nature Conservancy

8:50 a.m.

Bernheim Forest

Charles McClure—I. W. Bernheim Foundation

Section II—Colleges and Universities

9:05 a.m.

Eastern Kentucky University’s Division of Natural Areas
William H. Martin—Eastern Kentucky University
9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Robinson Forest

Robert Muller—University of Kentucky

10:25 a.m.

Berea College Forest

Ralph Thompson and John Stephenson—Berea College
10:40 a.m.

Murphy's Pond

Duke Wilder—Murray State University

Section III—State Agencies

10:55 a.m.

Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission

Joyce Bender—Kentucky State Nature Preserves Com-
mission

11:20 a.m.

Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources

Lynn Garrison—Kentucky Department of Fish and Wild-
life Resources

11:45 p.m.

Lunch

1:00 p.m.

Kentucky Department of Parks

Carey Tichenor—Kentucky Department of Parks

1:25 p.m.

Kentucky Division of Forestry

Cary Perkins—Kentucky Division of Forestry

Section IV—Federal Agencies

1:50 p.m.

Daniel Boone National Forest

Rex Mann—Forest Service

2:15 p.m.

Mammoth Cave National Park

Jeff Bradybaugh—National Park Service

2:30 p.m.

Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area

William Dickinson and Ron Cornelius—National Park Ser-
vice

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

2:45 p.m.

Cumberland Gap National Historic Park

Jack Collier—National Park Service

3:00 p.m.

Land Between the Lakes

Thomas Forsythe—Tennessee Valley Authority

3:20 p.m.

Army Corps of Engineers

Robert VanHoff—Army Corps of Engineers

3:40 p.m.

Closing

Richard R. Hannan—Kentucky State Nature Preserves
Commission

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

WORKSHOP OF CRITICAL THINKING IN SCIENCE
Dr. Craig Nelson, Indiana University

A Quick Introduction into Three Schemes for
Critical Thinking in Science

Saturday, November 9

9:00 a.m.—12 noon

Tennessee Room

1:00 p.m.—4:00 p.m.

(repeat of morning workshop)
Tennessee Room

This 3 hour interactive Workshop will be limited to 30
persons for each session. A variety of materials will be
provided to the participants. This workshop meets the
guidelines for inservice credit under the category of re-
search-based instructional strategies. Participants should
consult their local Districts regarding the availability of
flexible inservice credit for this workshop. Participants will
be provided with documentation of attendance and par-
ticipation in the 3 hr workshop. An additional $20 fee is
to be charged for participants who also are registered for
the KAS meeting. Participants who do not register for the
KAS meeting will be charged a fee of $30.

ComMMUNITY COLLEGES SCIENCE FACULTY
Hoosier Room
Friday, 8 November 1991

10:00 a.m.

General Session—Michael Kerwin—Presiding

10:30 a.m.

Break-out Sessions

Biology Teachers, Janet Robison—Presiding—Hoosier
Room

Chemistry Teachers, Kenneth Fuller—Presiding—Ilinois
Room

Physics Teachers, Vincent DiNoto—Presiding—Missouri
Room

12:00 p.m.
Lunch

ANTHROPOLOGY SECTION

James F. Hopgood—Chairman
Jim Murray Walker—Secretary
a.m.—Nevada Room
p.m.—Hoosier Room

Saturday, 9 November 1991
James F. Hopgood—Presiding

8:00 a.m.
Reducing Regional Tensions After the Gulf War
Jules DeLambre—Frankfort, KY

8:15 a.m.

Thus Sprang Zarathushtra: The Aryan-Hebraic Back-
ground of the Ancient Iranian Prophet

Jim Murray Walker—Eastern Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

Evidence of Intentional Large Design in Anasazi Rock
Art: Three Widely Separated Sites

Robert Vallier—University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

8:45 a.m.

Navajo Sand-Painting Motifs in Chaco Rock Art

Jeannette Vallier—University of Tennessee at Chatta-
nooga

9:00 a.m.

Angels at Smallhous—Fact or Fiction?

Bruce Beck—Owensboro Community College

9:15 a.m.
The Rise and Fall of the Ghost Dance Religions
Joseph D. Stewart—Eastern Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

11:00 a.m.

Sacred Fruit: Utilization of the Hallucinogenic Plants
Among Native Americans of the Southwest and Middle
America

Rocky Lear—Eastern Kentucky University

11:15 a.m.

Consent of the Governed: Is It Really Greek?

Cara Richards—Transylvania University

11:30 a.m.

The Role of Terrain in the Struggles of the Cimmarones
in Latin America

Ray Lewis—Eastern Kentucky University

11:45 a.m.

Exchange Moralities and Negative Reciprocity in an Aztec
Village: Practical and Ethical Problems in Fieldwork

Timothy D. Murphy—Northern Kentucky University

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING val

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

1:00 p.m.

Health Policy and Infant Development in an Urban Chi-
nese Setting

Angela Scoggin—Eastern Kentucky University

1:15 p.m.

The Jagannath Car Festival

Robin Martin-Holmes—Northern Kentucky University

1:30 p.m.

Museum Methods: Programmatic and Pedagogic Issues

James F. Hopgood—Northern Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.

Anthropology Section Business Meeting

2:00 p.m.

Modern Aztec Wedding: Economic Cooperation and Rit-
uals of Kinship

Patrick D. Murphy—Ohio University and Timothy D.
Murphy—Northern Kentucky University

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

Allen Risk—Chairperson
David Taylor—Secretary
Colorado Room

Friday, 8 November 1991

Alan Risk—Presiding 10:45 a.m.-12 p.m.
David Taylor—Presiding 1:00-3:30 p.m.

10:45 a.m.

The Status of Trifolium stoloniferum Muhl. ex A. Eaton,
Running Buffalo Clover (Fabaceae), in Kentucky

Tom Bloom* and Margaret Shea—Kentucky State Nature
Preserves Comm.

11:00 a.m. ‘
The Vascular Flora of Estill County, Kentucky
Richard G. Guetig—Eastern Kentucky University

11:15 a.m.

Fungal Composition of On-farm Stored Corn in Western
Kentucky: Results of a Two Year Survey

Bryan D. Price,* John D. Sedlacek and Paul A. Weston—
Kentucky State University

11:30 a.m.

Effects of Acidity, Aluminum, and Manganese on Multi-
plication of Lespedeza Bradyrhizobium

G. R. Cline—Kentucky State University

11:45 a.m.

KJAS

The Effect of Salt on Rye Grass

Andy Callahan—Moss Middle School

12:00 p.m

Lunch

1:15 p.m.

Microhabitat Variability and the Diatom Community
Structure in the Bracts of Six Species of Heliconia spp.

Vicki Martin-Kier* and Thomas C. Rambo—Northern
Kentucky University

1:30 p.m.

Effects of Simulated Rain Acidified by Nitric Acid on
Wisconsin Fast Plants (Brassica rapa L.)

Mary K. Mastorakis—Midwestern State University and Joe
E. Winstead*—Western Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.

Microbial Quality Assurance Program Developed for a
Juice Bottling Company

Larry P. Elliott* and J. Mark Clauson—Western Kentucky
University

2:00 p.m.

Slug Dispersal of Bryophyte Propagules

Craig C. Young and Robin W. Kimmerer—Centre College

2:15 p.m.

Species Area Relationships Among Saxicolus Bryophytes

Melanie J. Driscoll and Robin Kimmerer—Centre College

2:30 p.m.

Population Density and Resistance to Invasion in the Soil-
Dwelling Bryophyte, Dicranella heteromalla

Julie S. Dickson and Robin W. Kimmerer—Centre College

NSF—RESEARCH EXPERIENCE FOR
UNDERGRADUATES

University of Kentucky
Andrew Sih—Coordinator

2:45 p.m.

Effects of Root Herbivory on Competitive Interactions
Across a Nutrient Gradient

Kenneth Hensley* and Scott Gleeson—University of Ken-
tucky

3:00 p.m.

Root/shoot Dynamics Under Variable Nitrogen and Den-
sity Conditions

Travis Harper*—Centre College and Scott Gleeson—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

3:15 p.m.

Nutrient Considerations in Tidal Creeks of North Inlet,
South Carolina

Steven Davis*—Georgetown College and Brian Reeder—
Morehead State University

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991

Alan Risk—Presiding 8:00-9:30 a.m.
David Taylor—Presiding 1:00 p.m.-12 p.m.

8:00 a.m.
Dry Matter Accumulation in Bell Pepper (Capsicum an-

72 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

num) Plants Grown in Association With Azospirillum
lipoferum

Cloyd J. Bumgardner*—Pulaski County High School and
David Madon—FEastern Kentucky University

8:15 a.m.
The Styracaceae of Kentucky
Edward W. Chester—Austin Peay State University

8:30 a.m.

Blooming and Triggering Patterns of Pleiostachya prui-
nosa (Marantaceae)

Amy M. Racke—Northern Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Effect of Axospirillum lipoferum on Establishment of As-
sociative Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria in the Rhizospheral
Growth Substrate of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annum)
Plants

Cloyd J. Bumgardner*—Pulaski County High School and
David Mardon—Eastern Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

KJAS

The Effect of Municipal Waste on the Growth of Algae
in Lily Creek

Tonya K. Wade—Casey County High School

9:15 a.m.

Botany and Microbiology Section Business Meeting

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

11:00 a.m.

Effect of Azospirillum lipoferum on Establishment of Types
and Numbers of Non-Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria and Fungi
in Bell Pepper (Capsicum annum)

Rhizospheral Growth Substrates

Cloyd J. Bumgardner*—Pulaski County High School and
David Mardon—Eastern Kentucky University

11:15 a.m.

KJAS

Effect of Electric Discharge on Nitrification in Soil

Lara Rymarquis—Notre Dame Academy

11:30 a.m.

KJAS

Does the Amount of Sodium Ions in a Solution Provide a
Shield From Microwaves

Lori Ann Clark—Southside Middle School

11:45 a.m.

The Habitat and Associates of Helianthus eggertii Small

Ronald L. Jones—Eastern Kentucky University

CHEMISTRY SECTION

James Niewahner—Chairperson
Nancy Flachskum—Secretary
Michigan Room

Friday, 8 November 1991

Coal and Petroleum Symposium
John T. Riley—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Organic Sulfur in Raw and Extracted Coals

Scott Coffey,* Sarah Sadler, Jeff Stidam and John T. Riley—
Western Kentucky University

8:15 a.m.

Desulfurization of Coal Using Mild Oxidative Conditions

Bucheng Wang, Junior Graham, Michelle Lewis and John
T. Riley—Western Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

FT-NMR Analysis of Sulfur in Coal

Paul Whitley,* Kanning Wu and Thomas K. Green—
Western Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Determination of Chlorine in Gases Evolved From Coal
Pyrolysis

Dakang Shao, Chan-Shon Ya and Wei-Ping Pan—Western
Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

The Determination of Volatile Matter in Coals of High
Free Swelling Index by Instrumental Methods

Mark Thompson* and Henry Francis—University of Ken-
tucky

9:15 a.m.

Design of Fluidized Bed Combustor

Erik J. Hutchinson,* Wei-Ping Pan, John Riley and John
Smith—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

Evaluation of Combination Fuels for Fluidized Bed Com-
bustors by Thermal Analytical Techniques

Tim Roth, Mary Campbell, Mingxu Zhang and Wei-Ping
Pan—Western Kentucky University

9:45 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Vapor Sorption Studies on Argonne Premium Coals

Trent Selby* and Thomas Green— Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

10:15 a.m. ;

The Effect of Slurried Coal Particle Size on ICP Emmission
Intensities

Joe Werth, Michelle Lewis, Mike Mertens and John T.
Riley—Western Kentucky University

10:30 a.m.

Clean Gasoline Coal Derived Liquids

Robert A. Keough and B. H. Davis—Center for Applied
Energy Research

10:45 a.m.

Deuterium Tracer Studies in Coal Liquefaction

Bluchang Shi, Robert Guthrie and B. H. Davis—Center
for Applied Energy Research

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 13

11:00 a.m.

Determination of Styrene/Butadiene Copolymer by TG-
FTIR

Brice Bowley,* Pei Gu and Wei-Ping Pan—Western Ken-
tucky University

General Papers—Section C

11:15 a.m.

A Low-Cost, Precision Data Acquisition System for the
Commodore 64

Terry W. McCreary* and Lisa Culver—Murray State Uni-
versity

11:30 a.m.

Determination of Milkweed by Thermal Technique

Pei Gu,* Rita K. Hessley and Wei-Ping Pan—Western
Kentucky University

11:45 a.m.

Bimolecular Substitution Reactions of Benzyl Chlorides:
Evidence for a Changing Transition State Structure

Paul E. Yeary—University of Kentucky

12:00 p.m.
Lunch
Friday, 8 November 1991
James Niewahner—Presiding
1:00 p.m.

Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions of N-Het-
erocycles: Aminolysis of 2-Fluoro-1-methylpyridinium
Iodide in Aqueous Solution

Songyuan Shi* and Oliver J. Muscio, Jr.—Murray State
University

1:15 p.m.

Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions of N-Het-
erocycles: Aminolysis of 1-Methyl-2-(4-nitrophen-
oxy)pyridinium Iodide in Acetonitrile

Haisheng Wang* and Oliver J. Muscio, Jr.—Murray State
University

1:30 p.m.

SEM Studies of Composite Electrodes

Jeffrey B. Montgomery,* Christina L. Thompson and Jef-
frey E. Anderson—Murray State University

1:45 p.m.

Thermal Properties of Some Lipid Components of Cell
Membrane

Lihua Wei, David R. Hartman and Martin R. Rouston—
Western Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

Advanced NMR Spectroscopy I: Organic Analysis by the
DEPT Technique

R. W. Holman, John Reasoner and Ellen Ligon—Western
Kentucky University

2:15 p.m.

Advance NMR Spectroscopy II: Organic Analysis by the
COSY Technique

Robert W. Holman, John W. Reasoner and Carl Whit-
tle*— Western Kentucky University

2:30 p.m.

Advanced NMR Spectroscopy III: Organic Analysis by the
HETCOR Technique

Robert W. Holman, John W. Reasoner and Todd Early*—
Western Kentucky University

2:45 p.m.

Advanced NMR Spectroscopy IV: Total Structure Analysis
via DEPT, COSY, and HETCOR

R. W. Holman, John Reasoner and Valerie Grantham*—
Western Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

Advanced NMR Spectroscopy V: Organic Analysis by the
INADEQUATE Technique

Robert W. Holman, John W. Reasoner and Blandon Cher-
ry*—Western Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

A Quick Calculation of Flash Point From Boiling Point

Wade Cain—Morehead State University

3:30 p.m.

Samarium Iodide Catalyzed Reactions of Organic Bifunc-
tional Alkenes

Robert Holman, Sherry Ladvsaw,* Melinda Lyons and
Katrina Smith—Western Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Nancy Flachskam—Presiding 11:00 a.m.

9:00 a.m.
Chemistry Section Business Meeting

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

11:00 a.m.

KJAS

The Effect of Group II Sulfates on the Physical Charac-
teristics of Clay

Nathan Brock—Model Laboratory School

11:15 a.m.

The Brittle Fragmentation of Asteroids

Alan A. Johnson, Stephen L. Weeks—University of Lou-
isville and John L. Remo—Quantametrics, Inc.

11:30 a.m.

An Electron Spin Resonance Spin Trapping Study of Free

74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Radical Involvement in Graft Failure Following Ortho-
topic Liver Transplantation in the Rat

Henry D. Connor*—Kentucky Wesleyan College, Wenshi
Gao and Sadayuki Nukina—University of North Car-
olina

11:45 a.m.

Use of High Neutron Fluxes for the Determination of
Trace Elements in Biological Tissues

D. J. Van Dalsem,* W. D. Ehmann, W. R. Markesbery—
University of Kentucky and L. Robinson—Oak Ridge
National Laboratory

GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Conrad T. Moore—Chairman
Adrian A. Wasserman—Secretary
Arizona Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Conrad T. Moore—Presiding

8:30 a.m.

Some Oddballs of the Karst: Kentucky Rivers That Flow
Backwards

Christopher G. Groves—Western Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Mechanisms Responsible for Sinkhole Flooding

Thomas P. Feeney* and Nichlas C. Crawford—Western
Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

Springhead Protection Study of the Shakertown, Sum-
mers , and Auburn Springs Groundwater Basins, Logan
and Simpson Counties, Kentucky

William D. Howcroft* and Nicholas C. Crawford—West-
ern Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Groundwater Contamination From Spills of Hazardous
Liquids Upon Karst Terrain

Nicholas C. Crawford—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

An Investigation of Racial Segregation in Bowling Green,
Kentucky

Joseph A. McGarry—Western Kentucky University

10:15 a.m.

Argentina’s Mothers of Courage

Mark Lowry Il—Western Kentucky University

10:30 a.m.

Pattern of Human Geography in an Indian Village

S. Reza Ahsan—Western Kentucky University

10:45 a.m.

Urban Places and Literary Influences

James L. Davis* and Nancy H. Davis—Western Kentucky
University

11:00 a.m.

Tourism Development in Kentucky’s I-75 Corridor (South),
1980-1991
R. L. Marionneaux—Eastern Kentucky University

11:15 a.m.
Internal Structure of Eastern European Cities
Edwin T. Weiss, Jr.—Northern Kentucky University

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

1:30 p.m.

Environmental and Economic Implications of the Distri-
bution of Lakes and Reservoirs in Kentucky

Clara A. Leuthart* and Hugh T. Spencer—University of
Louisville

1:45 p.m.

Who Uses Climatological Data?

Glen Conner—Western Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

The Fire-origin of Grasslands Re-examined

Conrad T. Moore—Western Kentucky University

2:15 p.m.

Saving the “Other” Rainforest: Fundacao S.O.S. Mata At-
lantica

L. Michael Trapasso—Western Kentucky University

2:30 p.m.

Geography Section Business Meeting

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

GEOLOGY SECTION

Charles E. Mason—Chairman
Thomas R. Lierman—Secretary
Hoosier Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Charles E. Mason and Robert T. Lierman—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Counting Error in Petrographic Analysis: Examples from
Coal Petrography

Kenneth W. Kuehn—Western Kentucky University, J. C.
Hower, and G. D. Wild—University of Kentucky

1:15 p.m.

Petrology of the Corbin Member of the Lee Formation
(Pennsylvanian) in East Central Kentucky

Robert Thomas Lierman* and Jolene Howard—Morehead
State University

1:30 p.m.

An Examination of the Clay Mineral Assemblages from
Lower Mississippian Rocks in Eastern and Central Ken-
tucky

Robert Thomas Lierman—Morehead State University

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 75

1:45 p.m.

Fossils From the Haney Limestone, (Mississippian) Chris-
tian County, Kentucky

Malinda Washer Powell—Murray State University and
James X. Corgan—Austin Peay State University

2:00 p.m.

A New Kinderhookian Ammonoid Fauna from the Borden
Formation of Northeastern Kentucky

Charles E. Mason* and Greg Duke—Morehead State Uni-
versity

2:15 p.m.

Geology Section Business Meeting

2:30 p.m.

A Continuous Holocene Sea-level Rise—Evidence from
Southwest Florida

Deborah W. Kuehn—Western Kentucky University

2:45 p.m.

Subsidence Analysis in Eastern Kentucky

Peter Goodman—University of Kentucky

3:00 p.m.

Mississippian-Pennsylvanian Uncomformity in the Cum-
berland Gap Area

Ann Watson—University of Kentucky

3:15 p.m.

Honokohau Bay and Pu u Nianiau Stratigraphic Sections,
Maui of the East Chain Paired Volcano Sequence, Ha-
wail

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Puysics SECTION

Douglas Jenkins—Chairperson
Vincent A. DiNoto—Secretary
Oklahoma Room (Fri p.m., Sat a.m.)
Illinois Room (Sat p.m.)

Friday, 8 November 1991
Vincent A. DiNoto—Presiding

1:15 p.m.

KJAS

The Effect of Air Pressure and Ball Circumference on the
Bouncing Ability of Different Size Rubber Balls

Matt Hoyt—Moss Middle School

1:30 p.m.

Artificial Neural Network Model

A. K. Mukhopadhyay—Southwest Community College and
V.L.N. Samra—Lincoln Memorial University

1:45 p.m.

90-96 Zr (d,d) and (d,d’) Reactions

S. Sen—Thomas More College, S$. E. Darden, Z. Ayer and
N. O. Gaiser—University of Notre Dame

2:00 p.m.

Evolution of Beam-Tilted-Foil Excited Hydrogen Atoms
Through Electric Fields

Douglas L. Harper*—Western Kentucky University, Nor-
man H. Tolk and Royal G. Albridge—Vanderbilt Uni-
versity

2:15 p.m.

A Nuclear Hazard from an Antique Firearm

C. E. Laird and John Meisenheimer—Eastern Kentucky
University

2:30 p.m.

Black Hole Normal Modes

Koorosh Zaerpoor, Forzaneh S. Zaerpoor and James W.
Gwinn—Bera College

2:45 p.m.

Irreversible Transport Critical Current in Polycrystalline
YBCO at 77°K

K. C. Hung* and W. F. Huang—University of Louisville

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
John Christopher—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Astronomy Laboratory Exercises Based in the Planetarium

R. Scott, K. Hackney, R. Hackney, P. Campbell, M. Rob-
inson, G. Coles and J. George—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

8:15 a.m.

Science: A Data Analysis Program for Introductory Lab-
oratories

S. Cassady, R. Hackney, K. Hackney, R. Scott and M.
Raymer—Western Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

Improved Capacitance Bridge for Use in Elementary
Physics Laboratories

M. Robinson, K. Hackney, R. Hackney, J. McClain and S.
Boddeher—Western Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Digital Holography Generation on the Personal Computer

Keith Powell,* John T. Tarvin and Donald L. Jackson—
Murray State University

9:00 a.m.

Interactive Computer Demonstrations in Physical Optics

John T. Tarvin,* Donald L. Jackson and Stephen H. Cobb—
Murray State University

9:15 a.m.

Computer Study of a Gradient-Index Optical Fiber

76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

J. Carl Hartsfield* and John T. Tarvin—Murray State Uni-
versity

9:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 p.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

11:00 a.m.

Shaft Encoders in the Physics Laboratory

Michael J. Moloney—Rose-Hulman Institute of Technol-
ogy

11:15 a.m.

Analysis of Multiexponential Data

Dale Baltimore,* John T. Tarvin and Donald L. Jackson—
Murray State University

11:30 a.m.

A Fast Integration Method for Circularity Symmetric Op-
tical Intensities Incident on Square Detectors

Kevin Bowman,* Kenneth Zabel and Louis Beyer—Mur-
ray State University

11:45 a.m.

Physics Section Business Meeting

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

1:00 p.m.

Enhancing Physics Lectures with 3-D Stereographic Im-
ages

Donald L. Jackson* and John T. Tarvin—Murray State
University

1:15 p.m.

Motion: Advanced Program for Graphical Study of Dif-
ferential Equations of Motion Using a Personal Com-
puter

M. Raymer,* R. Hackney, K. Hackney, R. Scott, D. Bryant
and M. Troutman—Western Kentucky University

1:30 p.m.

Chaos: Introductory Studies of Chaotic Dynamics Using a
Personal Computer

M. Troutman, R. Hackney, K. Hackney, J. Chamberlin
and T. Nordmeyer—Western Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.

Fractal Foundations

G. Coker, M. Raymer, R. Hackney, K. Hackney, R. Scott
and R. Crawford—Western Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

Utilizing a Linear CCD in the Advanced Physics Labo-
ratory

Rodney E. Graf,* Donald L. Jackson and John T. Tarvin—
Murray State University

2:15 p.m.

Effect of Sticking Coefficient on Evolution of a Coagula-
tion System

Eric Baugher,* J. T. Tarvin and H. R. Kobraei—Murray
State University

2:30 p.m.

Extended Model of Interacting Monomers and Clusters for
Homogeneous Nucleation

Bill Cullen,* H. R. Kobraei and B. R. Anderson—Murray
State University

2:45 p.m.

Application of Model of Interacting Monomers and Clus-
ters to Nonane, Ethanol, and Methanol

Jwain C. White,* H. R. Kobraei and B. R. Anderson—
Murray State University

3:00 p.m.

Classical Nucleation Rates for Water, n-Nonane, Metha-
nol, and Ethanol

Neil Wolf,* H. R. Kobraei and B. R. Anderson—Murray
State University

3:15 p.m.

Prediction of Protein Content in Hay by Near Infrared
Reflectance Spectroscopy

Carol J. Baltimore* and Stephen H. Cobb—Murray State
University

3:30 p.m.

X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Trace Metals in the An-
nual Growth Layers of Freshwater Mussel Shells

Troy Howton,* William E. Maddox, James Sickel, Leon
Duobinis-Gray and David Owen—Murray State Uni-
versity

3:45 p.m.

Monte Carlo Model of a Radioactive Beam

Barry McGuffin*—Western Kentucky University, James
Kolata—Notre Dame University and Karen Hackney—
Western Kentucky University

Puysics WORKSHOP
Arizona Room

9:00-11:00 a.m.

Vernier Software and Use of the Computer in the Labo-
ratory

Dewey Beadle—Seneca High School

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS AND
PHARMACOLOGY SECTION

David R. Hartman—Chairperson
William W. Farrar—Secretary
Oklahoma Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
William W. Farrar—Presiding

8:30 a.m.

Cortical Evoked Potentials in Response to Inspiratory Oc-
clusion in Cats

Susan M. Reynolds* and W. Robert Revelette—University
of Kentucky

8:45 a.m.

Effect of GABA, or Glycine Receptor Blockade on Inspi-

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING ta

ratory Inhibitory Reflexes Elicited by Pontine Stimu-
lation

Liming Ling,* Diane Karius and Dexter F. Speck—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

9:00 a.m.

Inspiratory Termination by Superior Laryngeal Nerve
Stimulation is Interrupted by Non-N-Methyl-D-Aspar-
tate (non-NMDA) Receptor Antagonists

Diane R. Karius,* Liming Ling and Dexter F. Speck—
University of Kentucky

9:15 a.m.

Colorblindness in Kentucky: A Preliminary Report

Venna Sallan* and Timothy T. Dick—Owensboro Com-
munity College

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:15 a.m.

Cardiovascular Responses to Voluntary Wheel Running in
Rats

Susan L. Yancey* and J. Michael Overton—University of
Louisville

In vivo Microvascular Responses to Blockade of Endothe-
lium-Derived Relaxing Factor Production in Rat Skel-
etal Muscle

Feng Li and Irving G. Joshua—University of Louisville

10:45 a.m.

Regulation of Female Reproductive Structure Blood Flow
in Rats

April Forsberg,* R. T. Dowell and D. F. Speck—Univer-
sity of Kentucky Medical Center

11:00 a.m.

Preliminary Identification of a 22 KDA Protein From the
Dense Tubular System (DIS) of Human Platelets

Eric Schepers—Bellarmine College

11:15 a.m. g

Physiology and Biophysics Business Meeting

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION

Curtis C. Wilkins—Chairperson
Zexia K. Barnes—Secretary
Missouri Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Curtis C. Wilkins—Presiding

1:15 p.m.

A Short, Homemade Videotape on Safety in the Chemistry
Lab

Rhonda Pogue,* Curtis Wilkins and Norman Hunter—
Western Kentucky University

1:30 p.m.

The Karlsruhe Congress

Robert Forsythe—Warren East High School and Norman
Hunter—Western Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.

Preference, Increased Student Involvement and Enhanced
Learning with Teacher-Prepared Objectives in Biology
Courses

J. G. Shiber—Prestonsburg Community College

2:00 p.m.

An Afternoon With Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Nobel
Grandmother, 1964

Norman H. Hunter—Western Kentucky University

2:15 p.m.

Revealing the Secret of the Arctic Bomb

Earl F. Pearson—Western Kentucky University

2:30 p.m.

Polymer Science: Anionic Polymerization

Jonathan West,* Trent Selby and Thomas Green—West-
ern Kentucky University

2:45 p.m.

Science Education Business Meeting

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Benjamin Malphrus—Presiding

8:45 a.m.

Implementing the Kentucky Education Reform Act at the
University Level

Benjamin Malphrus—Morehead State University

9:00 a.m.

Polymer Science: Suspension and Emulsion Polymeriza-
tion

Trent Selby,* Jonathan West and Thomas Green—West-
ern Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Inquiry-Based Scientific Learning: As the Pendulum Swings

R. Hyler, R. Hackney and K. Hackney—Western Ken-
tucky University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

PsYCHOLOGY SECTION

Mykol Hamilton—Chairperson
David Hogan—Secretary
California Room

Friday, 8 November 1991

78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Terry Barrett—Presiding a.m.
Jeff Smith—Presiding p.m.

8:00 a.m.
Impact of Educational Reform
Dan Hudson—Murray State University

8:15 a.m.

College Resident Hall Advisors Impact on Residents

Rachel L. Morrisette—Murray State University

8:30 a.m.

Impact of the Residence Halls on Freshmen

Jim Barnett—Murray State University

8:45 a.m.

Assessment of Treatment Approaches for Sexual Offenders

Lisa Oliver—Murray State University

9:00 a.m.

The Effectiveness of Rape Awareness Programs on the
Number of Reported Rapes

Tammie M. Jones—Murray State University

9:15 a.m.

The Effects of Divorce on Children

Lesa Jackson—Murray State University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Sexual Fulfillment in a College Population

Dawn Mattingly—Murray State University

10:15 a.m.

The Incidence of Hallucinations Across Sensory Systems
in the General Population

Terry R. Barrett—Murray State University

10:30 a.m.

The Effects of Physical Exercise on Dark Focus of Accom-
odation

Heather Huhn—Murray State University

10:45 a.m.

Night Work Effects

Beth Bullock—Murray State University

11:00 a.m.

Influences of Circadian Rhythms on Memory

Ronald Troy Tedder—Murray State University

11:15 a.m.

Semantic Priming in Deaf Children

Kirk Day* and Don Brown—Centre College

11:30 a.m.

Cognitive Differences in Musicians and Non-musicians

Patricia A. Liberti—Murray State University

11:45 a.m.

The Effect of Self-Esteem on Religious Procrastination

Susan Scherffius* and Don Brown—Centre College

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

1:30 a.m.

Premenstrual Dietary Shifts

Mary Perkins and Jack Thompson—Centre College

1:45 p.m.

Menstural Synchrony in College Females

Amy Wannemuehler—Murray State University

2:00 p.m.

Effects of Repeated Dopamine D1 Receptor Stimulation
on the Development of Behavioral Sensitization

Carmen Perkins, Shannon Fauver and Bruce Mattingly—
Morehead State University

2:15 p.m.

Effects of Repeated Dopamine D2 Receptor Stimulation
on the Development of Behavioral Sensitization

Stephanie Dawson, Gina Johnson and Bruce Mattingly—
Morehead State University

2:30 p.m.

Psychology Section Business Meeting

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
David Hogan—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

An Electroencephalographic (EEG) Study of Occipital Lobe
Brain Waves During Meditation and Relaxation

John Cecil—Bellarmine College

9:15 a.m.

Effects of Chronic Dopamine Receptor Stimulation on Do-
pamine Synthesis and Behavior

Tamara Hart, Jennifer James and Bruce Mattingly—
Morehead State University

8:30 a.m.

Effects of Selective Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptor An-
tagonists on the Development of Behavioral Sensitiza-
tion to Cocaine

Karen Lim—Morehead State University, Pat Robinette—
Colorado State University and Bruce Mattingly—More-
head State University

8:45 a.m.

Does Early Eye Opening in Rat Pups Affect Brain De-
velopment?

Nathan Wilson*—Asbury College, Tim Carbary and Phil
Kraemer—University of Kentucky

9:00 a.m.

Impaired Two-point Tactile Discrimination in Chronic
Alcoholics

Cindy Engly and Art Nonneman—Asbury College

9:15 a.m.

Do-it-yourself Individualized Materials for Statistics

Ronald L. Kuteskey—Asbury College

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 79

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

SocIOLOGY SECTION

Kurt Bergstrand—Chairperson
J. Allen Singleton—Secretary
Nevada Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Kurt Bergstrand—Presiding

10:00 a.m.

Scared Straight—Using Prison Inmates to Counsel High-
Risk Middle School Students: A Project Report

Marty Perreiah, Harry Seeger, IV, Mary Saffer and Eliz-
abeth Embry—Bellarmine College

10:15 a.m.

Do Long-Term Prisoners Have Mid-Life Crises? Impli-
cations For Adult Developmental Theory

Curtis R. Bergstrand—Bellarmine College and Nancy A.
Schrepf—Luther Luckett Correctional Complex

10:30 a.m.

The Relationship Between Drug Use and Level of Violence
Used When Committing Crimes: An Empirical Ex-
amination

Edgar Humphries—Bellarmine College

10:45 a.m.

Dysfunctional Family Background and Lowered Self-Es-
teem: Is the Relationship Inevitable?

Patty Payne—Bellarmine College

11:00 a.m.

Relative Deprivation Among the Children of Homeless,
Divorced, and Intact Families

Andrea Cohen—Bellarmine College

11:15 a.m. .

The Relevance of Herbert Spencer Today: A Conceptual
Examination

Timothy Brothers—Bellarmine College

11:30 a.m.

Stereotypes and the Female Athlete

Christy Halbert—Western Kentucky University

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

1:30 p.m.

The Tanning Industry in KY

J. Allen Singleton—Eastern Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.

The Everyday Life-World of the Street Person: An Eth-
nographic Analysis

William Mathis—Bellarmine College

2:00 p.m.

Louisville: A “Mecca” for the Homeless?

Bobbie Bilz, Andrew Brothers, Julie Smith—Bellarmine
College

2:15 p.m.

The Characteristics of Homeless Families In Louisville
Patty Snook—Bellarmine College

2:30 p.m.

Commitment in Intentional Communities
Shari Mattingly—Eastern Kentucky University
2:45 p.m.

Sociology Business Meeting

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION

Paul A. Weston—Chairperson
Matthew Byers—Secretary
Ohio Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Matthew Byers—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Insect Abundance on Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes and Okra
Mulched With Different Colored Plastic Sheetings

Patti L. Rattlingourd,* John D. Sedlacek, Bryan D. Price,
Monica McWilliams and Dietra W. Draper—Kentucky
State University

8:15 a.m.

Oviposition of Angoumois Grain Moth on Shelled Corn
Varying in Moisture Content

Paul A. Weston,* Tashawa L. Reaves and Patti L. Rat-
tlingourd—Kentucky State University

8:30 a.m.

Occurrence of Insects in On-Farm Stored Corn in Ken-
tucky

John D. Sedlacek,* Paul A. Weston, Bryan D. Price and
Patti L. Rattlingourd—Kentucky State University

8:45 a.m.

Is Aphid Feeding Affected on Endophyte Infected Tall
Fescue?

Herbert Eichenseer and Douglas Dahlman—University of
Kentucky

9:00 a.m.

KJAS

A Comparative Analysis of the Effects of Natural Insec-
ticides on Blatella germanica vs. Tenebrio molitor

Kristy Hixson—Moss Middle School

9:15 a.m.

The Freshwter Unionids Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionoidea)
of Kentucky

R. R. Cicerello*—Kentucky State Nature Preserves Com-
miss., M. L. Warren, Jr.—VA Polytechnic & State Uni-
versity and G. A. Schuster—Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity

9:30 a.m.

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.

Growth, Feed Conversion, and Protein Utilization of Male
Bluegill x Female Green Sunfish Hybrids Fed Isocaloric
Diets With Different Protein Levels

James H. Tidwell, Carl D. Webster and Julia A. Clark*—
Kentucky State University

10:15 a.m.

Winter Feeding and Growth of Channel Catfish Fed Diets
Containing Varying Percentages of Distillers Grains With
Solubles as a Total Replacement of Fish Meal

Carl D. Webster, James H. Tidwell and Laura S. Good-
game*—Kentucky State University

10:30 a.m.

An Overview of the Fishes of Kentucky: Tales of Chubbies,
Bubblers and Devil-Jack Diamond Fish

Brooks M. Burr—Southern Illinois University

11:00 a.m.

Later Developmental Stages of the Sawfish, Pristis perot-
teti

Madeline T. Oetinger—Kentucky Wesleyan College

11:15 a.m.

Movement and Exploitation of Catfishes and Smallmouth
Buffalo in Kentucky Lake, Kentucky and Tennessee

Tom J. Timmons—Murray State University

11:30 a.m.

Sex-specific Differences in Diet and Growth of Kentucky
Snubnose Darters (Pisces: Percidae)

Gordon K. Weddle—Campbellsville College

11:45 a.m.

Habitat Partitioning in a Russell Creek Darter Community

Gordon K. Weddle—Campbellsville College, Richie Kes-
sler*—University of Louisville and Roger Farmer—FDA
(Cincinnati)

12:00 p.m.

Lunch

NSF—RESEARCH EXPERIENCE FOR UNDERGRADUATES
University of Kentucky
Andrew Sih—Coordinator

1:00 p.m.

Sex and the Generation Gap: Effects of Young Adults on
the Mating Success of Older Water Striders

William Moore*—Eastern Kentucky University and An-
drew Sih—University of Kentucky

1:15 p.m.

Female Selection for a Condition-dependent Trait in the
Fathead Minnow, Pimephales promelas

Robin Rudd*—Berea College and Trey LaCharite—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

1:30 p.m.

Sulfuric Acid, Sunfish Smell and Selective Consumption
by Streamside Salamanders

Jim Willenbrink*—Morehead State University and An-
drew Sih—University of Kentucky

1:45 p.m.

Density-dependent Cannibalism Among Tetragoneuria
cynosura Larvae

Donna Kielman*— Kentucky State University, Kevin Hop-
per* and Philip Crowley—University of Kentucky

2:00 p.m.

Genetic Variability of the Northern Studfish (Fundulus
catenatus) From Three Central Kentucky Stream Sys-
tems

Laurel Montgomery* and Christine Barton—Centre Col-
lege

2:15 p.m.

Impact of Predation on Microhabitat Preferences of
Northern Studfish (Fundulus catenatus)

Natalie Jacobs* and Michael Barton—Centre College

General Papers—Section K

2:30 p.m.

Role of Vibrational Communication in Mating Behavior
of the Treehopper Spissistilus festinus (Homoptera:
Membracidae)

Randy E. Hunt—University of Kentucky

2:45 p.m.

Canopidae in Kentucky

Paul H. Freytag—University of Kentucky

3:00 p.m.

Bagworm Development and Feeding Preference on Ju-
niper Cultivars

Monte P. Johnson, Geoff $. Gilmore* and Daniel A. Pot-
ter—University of Kentucky

3:15 p.m.

Biology of Proterometra macrostoma (Trematoda: Azy-
giidae), an Intestinal Parasite of Sunfishes in Central
Kentucky

Melissa V. Kesler, Milton W. Riley and Gary L. Uglem—
University of Kentucky

3:30 p.m.

Zoology and Entomology Business Meeting

3:45 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Matthew Byers—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Constructed Wetlands for Treatment of Wastewater from
Single Family Dwellings

Matthew E. Byers*—Kentucky State University, Barbara
Porter—Lexington-Fayette Health Department and
George F. Antonious—Kentucky State University

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 81

8:15 a.m.

Biomonitoring of a Constructed Wetland Site

Barbara A. Ramey*—FEastern Kentucky University and
Howard G. Halverson—USDA Forest Service

8:30 a.m.

KJAS

Possible Phototoxicity Effects of Phenol on Daphnia
Ellen Air—Notre Dame Academy

8:45 a.m.

Activities of an Apparent Ant-mimic at Extrafloral Nec-
taries of Heliconia latispatha

Thomas C. Rambo—Northern Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

Predatory Behavior and Territoriality in Tropical Jumping
Spiders (Araneae, Salticidae) Associated with Heliconia
spp.

Stephen R. Skaggs—Northern Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Isolation of an Unknown Pathogen to Aedes triseriatus
(Culicidae)

Kenneth W. Blank,* Dennis Lye and Thomas Rambo—
Northern Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments
International C

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting
International B

11:00 a.m.

Impact of Teratocytes from Microplitis croceipes on the
Physiology of Heliothis virescens

Deqing Zhang,* Douglas L. Dahlman and Ulla E. Jarl-
fors—University of Kentucky

11:15 a.m.

Small Mammal Surveys in the Stanton and Morehead Dis-
tricts of the Daniel Boone National Forest

Les Meade—Morehead State University

11:30 a.m.

Use of the Zygodactylus Hand by Captive Woolly Mon-
keys (Lagothrix lagotricha)

Patrick Keesee and Brent White—Centre College

11:45 a.m.

The Bluegrass and Western Coal Field: Filter Barriers to
the Dispersal of Kentucky Amphibians and Reptiles

Les Meade—Morehead State University

12:00 p.m.

Growth of the Acanthocephalan, Monififormis monili-
formis (Bremser, 1811) Travassos, 1915, in the Labo-
ratory Rat

David F. Oetinger—Kentucky Wesleyan College

12:15 p.m.

Fostering Behavior of Lion-Tailed Macaques

Timothy T. Dick—Owensboro Community College

12:30 p.m.

Breeding Biology of a Southeastern Population of Tree
Swallows, Tachycineta bicolor

Denise Rouse Stephens and Blaine R. Ferrell—Western
Kentucky University

12:45 p.m.

Brazillian Catfish (Rhamuia) Culture

J. Raduz, D. Stiles,* W. Lewis and C. Kohler—Western
Kentucky University

COMPUTER SCIENCE SECTION

Richard A. Fink—Chairperson
Kenneth Cooper, Jr.—Secretary
Louisiana Room

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Richard Fink—Presiding

8:30 a.m.

Report on the Teaching of Education and Values From
the National Conference on Computing and Values

Sylvia Clark Pulliam—Western Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Spreading the Gospel of GAIGS: An Algorithm Visualiza-
tion System

Carol W. Wilson—Western Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

Trilogy: A Multi-Paradigm Programming Language

Art Shindhelm—Western Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

MIDI: A Musical Analog to Computer Network Com-
munication

John Crenshaw—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

11:00 a.m.

Computer Science Business Meeting

MATHEMATICS SECTION

Carroll G. Wells—Chairperson
Russell M. Brengelman—Secretary
Illinois Room

Friday, 8 November 1991
Russell M. Brengelman—Presiding

1:30 p.m.

The Scientific Method in Mathematics

Joseph F. Stokes—Western Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

Mathematics Avoidance: A Light-hearted Look at a Se-
rious American Problem

Russell M. Brengelman—Morehead State University

2:30 p.m.

82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-—2)

Applications of the Graphics Calculator in the College
Classroom

Jennifer Stevens—Owensboro Community College

3:00 p.m.

Subjective Probability

Walter Feibes—Bellarmine College

3:30 p.m.

Refreshments

International C

4:00 p.m.

Plenary Session

International B

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Carroll G. Wells—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Dirichlet Problem, Harmonic Measure, and Hardy Spaces—
A Quick Review

John S. Spraker—Western Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

Analysis of Rate-dependent Activation in Single Atrioven-
tricular Nodal Cells: An Extension Result

Richard Bowen—Asbury College

9:00 a.m.

Matrices in Cryptography

Carroll G. Wells—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

The Numerical Solution of Problems in Underwater
Acoustics Using a Finite Element Method

Mark P. Robinson*—Western Kentucky University and
Graeme Fairweather—University of Kentucky

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

11:00 a.m.
Mathematics Section Business Meeting

ENGINEERING SECTION

Bruce Walcott—Chairperson
Phillip Reucroft—Secretary
Hoosier Room

Saturday, 9 November 1991
B. L. Walcott and P. J. Reucroft—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Active Optimal Vibration Control Using a Dynamic Ab-
sorber

S. G. Tewani,* B. L. Walcott and K. E. Rouch—University
of Kentucky

8:15 a.m.

KJAS

An Application of “Unsteady” Aerodynamics by Use of a
Fixed Canard and a Grooved Wing to Create Lift

Susan Brundige—Henderson Co. High School

8:30 a.m.

Optimal Milling Process Stability Using Passive Dynamic
Absorber

K, J. Liu* and K. E. Rouch—University of Kentucky

8:45 a.m.

Industrial Marketing of Coal By-products

Alan D. Smith—Robert Morris College

9:00 a.m.

Seismic Analysis of the Brent-Spence Bridge

Issam E. Harik,* Meiwen Guo and David L. Allen—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

9:15 a.m.

Engineering Section Business Meeting

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments

International C

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

INDUSTRIAL SCIENCES SECTION

Estel M. Hobbs—Chairperson
Burtron H. Davis—Secretary
Texas Room

Industrial Science Symposium
Featuring Kentucky Mentors, Women in
Science, Mathematics and Engineering

Saturday, 9 November 1991
Burt Davis—Presiding

7:90 a.m.
Introductory Remarks

8:00 a.m.

Multiple Helix-Coil Transitions

Deborah J. Houpt and Donald B. Dupre—University of
Louisville

8:25 a.m.

Topics of Interest in Water Treatment

Katheryn D. Higgins—Louisville Water Company

8:50 a.m.

Underground Storage Tank Investigation at U.S. DOE
Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant Operated by Martin
Marietta Energy Systems, Inc.

Colleen J. Winkler—Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc.

9:15 a.m.

Microgravity Processing of Catalytic Materials

Phyllis Brusky—Batelle, Columbus, OH

9:40 a.m.

Industrial Science Section Business Meeting

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting

International B

11:00 a.m.

Environmental Aspects of Catalytic Cracking
Patricia K. Doolin—Ashland Oil, Inc.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 83

11:25 a.m.

Preparation of a Precipitated Iron Oxide for Fischer-
Tropsch Synthesis

Diane R. Milburn and Robert L. Spicer—Center for Ap-
plied Energy Research

11:50 a.m.

A Multi-Detector GC Technique for the Detailed Analysis
of Vapor-Phase Smoke

E. D. Alford, J. H. Lauterbach and J. E. Matiella—Brown
& Williamson Tobacco Corporation

12:15 p.m.

Use of Near Infrared Techniques in Determining Various
Properties of Motor Gasoline

Steven M. Maggard—Ashland Oil, Inc.

POSTER PRESENTATIONS
Florida Room
Friday 8:00 a.m.—-Saturday 2:00 p.m.

NSF YOuNG SCHOLARS
Western Kentucky University
Valgene Dunham—Coordinator

—

The Biochemical Characterization of the Proteins in
Flagella in Euglena gracilis
Amelia Alexander—Fulton County High School

2 RNA Sequencing of the Southern Bean Mosaic Virus
Manuel Amburgey—Letcher County High School

3 Brassica Genomic Library
Thomas Blackburn—Union County High School

4 The Comparison of Proteins in the Axolot] Salamander
During Non-regeneration and Regeneration
Jonathan Bradley—North Hardin High School

5 DNA Dot Quantitation Using Ethidium Bromide and
Hoeschst 33258
Shawn Campbell—Allen County-Scottsville High
School ‘

6 Isolating Large Molecular Weight DNA for the Pur-
pose of Making a Genomic Library of the Chick
Sarah Cottongim—Scott High School

7 Structure of Hair Cell Epithelium as Revealed in Plas-
tic Sections
April Dow—Eastern High School

8 RNA Sequencing of the Southern Bean Mosaic Virus
Genome
Josh Endicott—Henry Clay High School

9 Microscopic Examination of Euglenoid Flagellates
Tresie Fishback—Warren East High School

10 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis
of Wisconsin Fast Plants
Karie Gauze—East Carter High School
11 The Effect of Selenium on Isocitrate Dehydrogenase
in Tobacco Plants
Brian Grace—South Hopkins High School
12 The Effects of Lead Toxicity on Isocitrate Dehydro-
genase in Tobacco
Heather Henry—Beechwood School

13 Isolation of Hair Cell Death and Regeneration of the
Lateral Line System
Jennifer Jefferson—Oneida Baptist Institute

14 Transmission Electron Microscopic Investigation of
Euglena gracilis
Angela Jeffries—Metcalfe County High School

15 Spectrin-like Proteins in the Flagella and Cells of the
Euglenoid Euglena gracilis
Lawrence Johnson—Logan County High School

16 Toxicity of Selenium and Lead on Ribulose 1,5 Bis-
phosphate Carboxylase Concentration in Tobacco
Sondra Massey—Edmonson County High School

17 Biochemical Analysis of Paraxial Rod Proteins in Fla-
gella of Euglena gracilis
Julie Nihols—Glasgow High School

18 The Making of a Genomic Library Using Axoloth Tis-
sue
LaTonia Peters—North Hardin High School

19 The Effects of Lead Toxicity on Ribulose 1,5 Bisphos-
phate Carboxylase in Tobacco Plants
Keith Pollock—Atherton High School

20 The Effects of Selenium on Rubisco in Tobacco Plants
With Respect to Top and Bottom Leaves
Ginger Watkins—Franklin County High School

SECTIONAL POSTERS

21 Molecular Orbital Assignments of 3,4-Bis(amino)-3-cy-
clobutene-1,2-dione
B. J. Stigall, L. Bigham and J. L. Meeks—Paducah
Community College

22 KJAS
The Effects of Acid Preparation on Radish Plants
John Hafner—Southside Middle School

23 The Production of Activated Carbons From Coals by
Chemical Activation
Mant Jagtoyen,* Frank Derbyshire, John Stencel, Brian
McEraney and Michael W. Thwaites—University of
Kentucky

24 Impact of OBRA (Federal) Legislation on Dental Ser-
vices for Long-Term Care Facilities in Kentucky
Arthur Van Stewart and Bryan Harness—University
of Louisville, Ford Grant-University of Louisville/Univ
of Kentucky

25 A Chemical Analysis of the Enzyme “Catalase”
Jennifer M. Burnett—Southside Middle School

26 Inspiratory Duration is Altered by Arachidonic Acid
Activation of Diaphragmatic Receptors
K. M. Krause,* D. T. Frazier and W. R. Revelette—
University of Kentucky Medical Center

27 Study of Somatic Mutation in Nonproductively Rear-
ranged Kappa Immunoglobulin Genes
Manuel San* and Cheryl Dell—Berea College

28 Aggressive Behavior in Zigzag Salamanders, Plethodon
dorsalis
Martha P. Dahlgren* and Paul V. Cupp, Jr.—Eastern
Kentucky University

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING, 1991

PHYSICS

A nuclear hazard from an antique firearm. JOHN L.
MEISENHEIMER, Department of Chemistry and C. E.
LAIRD,* Department of Physics and Astronomy, Eastern
Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Although the era of the Kentucky Rifle (flintlocks) was
during the late 1700s and early 1800s, there are a number
of marksmen who still hunt and target-shoot with repro-
duction flintlock rifles. The guns are fired by a piece of
flint striking a frizzen that emits sparks, first resulting in
the burning of a primer powder, then the ignition of the
main powder charge in the barrel. Competition shooters
are constantly trying to improve and shorten the time of
the ignition sequence.

It has been found that in order to increase the amount
of sparks from the frizzen, some gunsmiths have faced the
frizzen with a non-steel substance that produces an abun-
dance of white-hot sparks when struck by a flint. We have
determined from the gamma-ray spectrum that this facing
material contains mostly uranium and its decay products.
It emits not only gamma radiation, but also x-rays and
alpha and beta particles. Therefore, these frizzens are a
danger to the shooters and to persons in their vicinity.
Since the process of creating sparks introduces a number
of small, radioactive particles into the air, the use of these
modified frizzens may be particularly hazardous with re-
spect to the potential to cause respiratory tract cancer.

Electroencephalographic (EEG) study of occipital lobe
brain waves during meditation and relaxation. JOHN
RAYMOND CECIL, JR,* Department of Biology, Bellar-
mine College, Louisville, KY 40205.

A pilot study demonstrated a unique brain wave with
characteristics of both alpha and theta waves. The hybrid
alpha-theta wave bursts had the following characteristics:
frequency from 6 to 9 Hz, amplitude greater than 10 wV
and less than 50 wV, and a duration of 1 second. It was
then hypothesized that a greater number of hybrid alpha-
theta wave bursts would be transmitted during meditation
than during relaxation. Subjects in the meditating group
were instructed to silently state the word “peace” on each
exhale. Those in the relaxation group were instructed to
simply relax without focusing on any particular word.
Electroencephalograms were recorded for 20 minutes for
all subjects. A between-groups design was used with six
subjects in the meditation (experimental) group and six
subjects in the relaxation (control) group. There were an
equal number of males and females of ages 17-23. A Narco
Biosystems Physiograph with a high-grain coupler and
EEG electrodes were used with the 10-20 International
System for Electrode Placement. Environmental condi-
tions were kept constant for each subject. A Mann-Whitney
statistical analysis showed that the differences in the mean

numbers of hybrid alpha-theta wave bursts from the medi-
tators (Y = 18) and relaxers (¥ = 1.5) were not significant
at a P < 0.05 level. Since the level of significance was P
< 0.10, further studies are warranted to examine whether
the meditative state can be scientifically validated using
electroencephalographic methods.

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Blooming and triggering patterns of Pleiostachya prui-
nosa (Marantaceae). AMY M. RACKE, Department of
Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, High-
land Heights, KY 41706.

Blooming and triggering patterns of the neotropical herb
Pleiostachya pruinosa were studied in the tropical rain-
forest of Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. This species
has a pollinating mechanism with a springlike style usually
triggered by a pollinator when it comes to feed. Flowers
were monitored from the time they opened until the style
was triggered. However, no insect or avian pollinators were
observed in the course of the study, but the flowers were
still triggered. The presence of sprouting seeds on and near
the plants would seem to indicate that these plants are also
self fertile. Those insects that did visit the plant did not
spring the trigger. Plants located in shaded areas bloomed
later and did not open so fully as those in open areas. They
also had a shorter time period between blooming and
triggering. On sunny days the flowers opened earlier than
on cloudy days.

Dry matter accumulation in bell pepper (Capsicum an-
num) plants grown in association with Azospirillum li-
poferum. CLOYD J. BUMGARDNER,* Science Depart-
ment, Pulaski County High School, Somerset, KY 42501,
and DAVID MARDON, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants were grown in
a controlled greenhouse environment. Surface sterile seeds
were planted in a pre-sterilized growth system and an
Azospirillum lipoferum (ALM) isolate added to the system
at a concentration of 5.5 x 10% cells per gram of growth
substrate. Pepper plants were removed from the growth
substrate at various stages of plant development and dry
matter accumulation was noted in the root, stem, foliar,
and fruit portions. At the six-leaf and first-bloom stages of
growth no substantial gain was noted in dry matter ac-
cumulation in roots, stems, and foliar portions of the plants
grown with added A. lipoferum (ALM+) over control
plants grown without added A. lipoferum (ALM—). Upon
maturation of the first fruit, ALM+ plants possessed less
dry matter in the root, stem, and foliar portions than ALM—
control plants but produced larger fruit containing sub-
stantially more dry matter than plants grown without A.
lipoferum association.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 85

Effect of Azospirillum lipoferum on establishment of
associative nitrogen fixing bacteria in the rhizospheral
growth substrate of bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants.
CLOYD J. BUMGARDNER,* Science Department, Pu-
laski County High School, Somerset, KY 42501, and DA-
VID MARDON, Department of Biological Sciences, East-
ern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

Bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants were grown in
pre-sterilized growth systems in which Azospirillum li-
poferum (ALM) was added at a concentration of approx-
imately 5.5 x 10° cells per gram of growth substrate.
Determination of numbers and genera of associative ni-
trogen-fixing bacteria (bacteria that fix nitrogen in the
absence of nodular structures on plant roots) established
in rhizosphere growth substrates was carried out at selected
stages of bell pepper growth. At each sampling time total
numbers of associative nitrogen-fixing bacteria were sub-
stantially higher in systems receiving added A. lipoferum
(ALM-+) than in those not receiving Azospirillum addition
(ALM-—). Although A. lipoferum persisted as the primary
nitrogen-fixing species present in systems to which it was
added, other nitrogen-fixing bacteria isolated on nitrogen-
free minimal salts media from both ALM+ and ALM—
systems include members of Azotobacter and Bacillus.

Microhabitat variability and the diatom community
structure in the bracts of six species of Heliconia. VICKI
MARTIN-KIER* and THOMAS C. RAMBO, Department
of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights, KY 41099.

The branch-bract fluid reservoirs of Heliconia spp. are
microhabitats known to support diatom communities.
Physical and chemical parameters were observed for the
microhabitats in the infloresences of six species of Heli-
conia at Sirena Station, Corcovado National Park, Costa
Rica. Chemical analyses, light level, and air temperature
data were collected for branch-bract fluids from Heliconia
latispatha, H. imbricata, H. imbricata x H. latispatha,
H. wagneriana, H. stilesii, and H. irrasa supsp. irrasa.
The diatom species in the branch-bract fluids were com-
pared to determine the effect of microhabitat variability
on diatom community structure and diversity.

Population density and resistance to invasion in the soil-
dwelling moss Dicranella heteromalla. JULIE S. DICK-
SON* and ROBIN W. KIMMERER, Biology Department,
Centre College, Danville, KY 40422.

Soil dwelling bryophytes are often considered to be
short-lived, opportunistic species temporarily occupying
disturbed soil. Such species are quickly outcompeted by
vascular plants. However, our data demonstrate that Di-
cranella heteromalla is a long-lived pioneer species that
persists on disturbed soil. How does this diminutive bryo-
phyte resist invasion and competitive exclusion by vascular
plants? The objectives of this study are to assess the role
of moss population density in resistance to invasion by
vascular competitors. Populations of D. heteromalla were
experimentally thinned to reduce shoot density and then

sown with seeds of Lactuca sativa. Germination and es-
tablishment of the seedlings were monitored. Seedling es-
tablishment on unthinned moss mats was minimal. Suc-
cessful invasion of D. heteromalla was significantly
increased by reduced population density.

Effects of simulated rain acidified by nitric acid on
Wisconsin fast plants (Brassica rapa). MARY K. MAS-
TORAKIS and JOE E. WINSTEAD,* Departments of Bi-
ology, Midwestern State University, Wichita Falls, TX
76308 and Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
42101.

Two different age groups of Brassica rapa plants grown
in a controlled environment were treated with simulated
nitric acid rain acidities of pH 4.5, 3.5, and 2.5, and com-
pared with controls (pH 5.6). Plant biomass significantly
increased and chlorophyll levels increased in all groups
treated with pH 3.5 solutions. Nitrogen percentages were
elevated in the tissues subjected to pH treatments of 3.5
and 2.5 when collectively compared to the controls. Trends
of reductions in sulfur incorporation in tissues formed un-
der the pH of 3.5 acidified by nitric acid were seen. The
growth-stimulating effects on the pH 3.5 group may be
attributed to nitrogen uptake and incorporation through
the foliage.

Slug dispersal of bryophyte propagules. CRAIG C.
YOUNG* and ROBIN W. KIMMERER, Biology Depart-
ment, Centre College, Danville, KY 40422.

Reports of animal dispersal of bryophyte propagules are
extremely limited. The role of terrestrial slugs in dispersal
of forest floor mosses was examined. Slugs are frequently
observed on moss mats on stumps and logs. Both asexual
propagules and sporophyte capsules become entrapped in
the slime secretions of slugs. Dispersal distance of propa-
gules was highly skewed and averaged 5.2 cm. Propagules
were carried as far as 30 cm from the source colony. We
conclude that slugs may be a significant disperser of mosses
in the field. Contact with slugs significantly increased the
probability of a propagule adhering to a substrate. Ninety-
five percent of the asexual propagules of Dicranum flagel-
lare adhered to vertical wood substrates in the presence
of slug secretions, but less than 10% of the propagules
adhered to dry wood. Slug secretions had no significant
effect on the germination and subsequent development of
D. flagellare propagules.

Species-area relationships among saxicolous bryophytes.
MELANIE J. DRISCOLL,* ROBIN W. KIMMERER, and
DONNA FELDKAMP, Biology Department, Centre Col-
lege, Danville, KY 40422.

Glacial erratic boulders are a characteristic feature of
the forests of the Adirondack region. Bryophyte species
richness and diversity varies considerably among these
granitic boulders. The objective of these studies was to
determine the environmental correlates of moss species
diversity. The bryophyte communities of 40 boulders vary-
ing in size and microtopography were intensively sampled.

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Slope, microtopographic class, elevation, size, and distance
to nearest boulders were measured for each of the boulders
sampled. Bryophyte species diversity was found to be in-
dependent of variation in any of these factors. These find-
ings contradict the species-area relationships predicted by
the theory of island biogeography. The data suggest that
frequent disturbance of the moss mats may reduce inter-
specific competition and maintain the community in a
non-equilibrium state. Small, frequent disturbances are
often recolonized by the local dominant, but larger patches
seem to initiate species change.

CHEMISTRY

Use of high neutron fluxes for the determination of
trace elements in biological tissues. D. J. VAN DALSEM,*
W. D. EHMANN, Department of Chemistry, W. R.
MARKESBERY, Sanders Brown Center on Aging, Uni-
versity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, and L. ROB-
INSON, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
37831.

Determination of trace element concentrations in bio-
logical tissues is important in central nervous system dis-
eases. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the fourth leading cause
of death in adults and will continue to be a leading cause
of death as the average age of Americans increases in the
years ahead. Trace element imbalances may be related to
either the etiology or the pathogenesis of AD. Of great
current interest is the concentration of aluminum (Al) in
AD brain tissue. Presently, the determination of brain Al
by any technique is beset with many problems. Studies
are underway at the University of Kentucky and Oak
Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) to develop a method
of isolating Al from other elements that present primary
reaction and spectral interferences in determining brain
Al by neutron activation analysis. Preliminary studies have
involved the activation of various test samples and stan-
dard reference materials in a thermal neutron flux density
of 5 x 10% n cm? s? at ORNL’s High Flux Isotope
Reactor (HFIR). Future studies call for the activation of
age-matched samples from AD and control brains after
development of a pre-irradiation chemical separation of
Al from interfering elements. In addition to Al, calcium
and manganese will also be determined in brain to study
possible interelement relationships in AD. Extra-neural
tissues such as kidney and liver will be examined to de-
termine if systematic imbalances are present in AD.

The thermal properties of some lipid components of
membrane. LIHUA WEI,* DAVID R. HARTMAN, MAR-
TIN R. HOUSTON, and WEI P. PAN, Department of
Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowing Green,
KY 42101.

The physical properties of a series of pure phosphati-
dylcholines have been studied by a variety of physical
methods including X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, and
spectroscopic techniques. Many substances, such as soaps
and phospholipids, do not undergo a direct transition on

heating from a crystalline form to a liquid. A number of
states intermediate between a crystal and liquid are found
to exist. These states have been variously called meso-
morphic, liquid crystalline, or anisotropic liquid. Phos-
phatidylcholine generally exists in the monohydrate form.
The thermal properties of a series of phospholipids from
natural sources—phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyletha-
nolamine, phosphatidylserine, and sphingomyelin—were
examined using differential scanning calorimetry and ther-
mogravimetric analysis linked to a Fourier transform in-
frared spectrophotometer. All the phospholipids examined
exhibited at least two mesomorphic states. The phospho-
lipids appear to exist in the form of hydrates. Phosphati-
dylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidyl-
serine are monohydrates; sphingomyelin is dihydrate.
Crystallization from different solvents altered the form of
liquid crystals.

Constructed wetlands for treatment of wastewater from
single family dwellings. MATTHEW E. BYERS, BAR-
BARA PORTER, and GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Ken-
tucky State University, Frankfort, KY, 40601 and Lexing-
ton Fayette Health Dept., Lexington, KY, 40508.

The need for wetland systems in Kentucky has been
established through data gathered by state and local gov-
ernmental agencies. These data indicate rural residents
typically have on-site septic treatment (or simply disposal)
as sewer is not an option. And due to adverse geological
factors including areas of modified to well developed Karstic
topography, areas of bedrock near the surface, and regions
having clayey soils, many of the estimated 633,000 on-site
systems are failed, resulting in non-point source water
pollution.

A location in Lexington Kentucky is currently being
studied as a representative wetland system. The study sys-
tem is a plastic lined trench 70 feet in length, 4 feet wide
and 18 inches in depth. The trench is filled with #2 rock
to approximately 14 inches, then capped with 5- and 6-
size rock to 18 inches. The water level is maintained at 14
inches. The inlet end of the system is fed wastewater from
the septic tank, water trickles through the rock bed where
the rocks provide a suitable substrate for benthic micro-
organisms to come in contact with the flowage and me-
tabolize the nutrients in the water. In addition, emergent
macrophytes (cat tails, Typha), have been planted as tubers
and their metabolism and that of their symbionts will
contribute to nutrient and pathogen removal.

The system has been sampled once monthly, during a
morning, mid-day and evening, from February through
October 1991. Samples were drawn from ports in the septic
tank, as well as the inlet, middle and discharge end of the
wetland system. Samples were tested for dissolved oxygen,
nitrate, ammonia, phosphate (total), biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), fecal coliform bacteria, total solids and
pH. Results to date indicate mean monthly effluent levels
for nitrate, ammonia, and total suspended solids of 25.1-
PPM NO,, 11.2-PPM NH, and 5.6-mg solids/liter, re-
spectively. Mean monthly effluent fecal coliform bacteria

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 87

were 632 colonies per 100-ml, with a 99.9% reduction from
septic tank. Mean monthly BOD (5-d) effluent was 3.3
mg/liter, with system efficiency of 98.3 percent reduction.
BOD upper levels for Fayette County discharge are 20-
mg/liter. This study has not involved a flawless system;
however, it has performed generally well.

COMPUTER SCIENCE

Spreading the gospel of GAIGS: an algorithm visualiza-
tion system. CAROL W. WILSON, Computer Science
Department, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
KY 42101.

GAIGS is a general algorithm visualization system de-
veloped by Tom Naps (NAPS@LAWRENCE.BITNET),
at Lawrence College, Appleton, WI. It is an excellent, easy-
to-use visualization tool that can be incorporated into
student laboratory experiences to allow the student to “‘vi-
sualize and explore the conceptual foundations of algo-
rithms instead of the code behind them.” Language in-
dependent, GAIGS reads data from a text file of snapshots
to “produce graphical pictures of nine abstract data struc-
tures: one-dimensional arrays, two-dimensional arrays,
linked lists, stacks, queues, binary trees, general trees,
graphs, and networks.” Creating a GAIGS snapshot text
file is as easy as “monitoring a program’s execution by
inserting tracer output statements.” Versions have been
developed to run on VaxStations under VMS, PC-com-
patibles, and Macintosh machines.

ENGINEERING

Seismic analysis of the Brent-Spence Bridge. ISSAM E.
HARIK and MEIWEN GUO, Department of Civil En-
gineering, and DAVID L. ALLEN, Kentucky Transpor-
tation Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
40506.

The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake has heightened con-
cern for large highway structures and particularly double-
decked bridges. There are two double-decked bridges that
cross the Ohio River from Kentucky to adjoining states.
These are the Brent-Spence Bridge that carries Interstate
75 in Northern Kentucky, and the Sherman-Minton Bridge
in Louisville. The purpose of this study is to perform a
seismic analysis of the Brent-Spence Bridge to determine
its behavior in a typical seismic event that may occur in
the Northern Kentucky area. Extensive analytical and ex-
perimental investigations will be conducted to determine
parameters of major interest in earthquake problems. These
are effective damping, three dimensional mode shapes,
and associated frequencies of the bridge vibration. These
parameters will be used in the seismic analysis to estimate
the possibility of partial or total bridge collapse due to
expected earthquake induced ground motion. The most
critical damage is the so called “span-loss” type of bridge
collapse (i.e., bridge span falling due to lack of support).
After determining the bridge components that are most
susceptible to a seismic event, various retrofitting schemes

will be studied, and the most feasible one will be recom-
mended.

GEOGRAPHY

Environmental and economic implications of the dis-
tribution of lakes and reservoirs in Kentucky. CLARA A.
LEUTHART,* Department of Geography, and HUGH T.
SPENCER, Department of Chemical Engineering, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Kentucky benefits from an abundance of water re-
sources. The entire northern boundary is formed by the
Ohio River, and major waterways drain from the interior
of the Commonwealth to the Ohio. Additional water re-
sources are found in the natural lakes and man-made res-
ervoirs. The differences in distributions of the lakes and
reservoirs have potential impact on the environment and
economy of the Commonwealth. These distributions and
potential impacts are the subject of this paper.

Mechanisms responsible for sinkhole flooding. THOM-
AS P. FEENEY* and NICHOLAS C. CRAWFORD, De-
partment of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Sinkholes naturally flood during periods of heavy pre-
cipitation. In urban areas, the degree of flooding is usually
magnified due to changes in land use that result in an
increase in the amount of impervious cover. In an attempt
to mitigate the flood impact, techniques such as zoning,
diversion of water to retention basins, and modification of
natural sinkhole drains via well installation are employed
where best suited. Flooding, however, continues to persist
in select sinkholes despite the presence of numerous drain-
age wells that were installed in an effort to increase the
sinks’ capacity to drain water to the karst aquifer below.
The purpose of this study was to identify the mechanism
responsible for sinkhole flooding in areas plagued by per-
sistent flooding. It was hypothesized that flood water is
derived from surface runoff that exceeds the drainage
capacity of the sinkhole, or that groundwater has risen
into the sinkhole from the cave system below. To test this,
the South Sunrise /Media Drive sinkhole in Bowling Green,
Kentucky, was studied by comparing the flood levels of
four historic events with those calculated by an empirical
runoff determination method. The volume of runoff gen-
erated by the 3-hour maximum rainfall intensity com-
pared very closely to the peak volume actually ponded in
the sinkhole, indicating that flooding was due to excess
surface runoff.

MATHEMATICS

Dirichlet problem, harmonic measure, and Hardy spac-
es—a quick review. JOHN SPRAKER, Department of
Mathematics, Western Kentucky University, Bowling
Green, KY 42101.

The relationship between harmonic measure, the Riesz
representation theorem, and Hardy spaces will be dis-
cussed. A few classical results will be stated.

88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Solving systems of equations using Lotus 1-2-3. EDGAR
N. HOWELL, Division of Business, Mathematics, and Re-
lated Technologies, Hazard Community College, Hazard,
KY 41701.

Last summer, a courseware unit was prepared to help
students of college algebra learn both algebraic and graph-
ical methods of solving systems of equations. The textual
material consists of three chapters whose titles are (1) Sys-
tems of Two Linear Equations, (2) Systems of Three Linear
Equations, and (3) Non-linear Systems of Equations Solved
by Graphing. Accompanying the text are several tem-
plates, created with the help of Lotus 1-2-3, Release 2.2,
requiring the user to enter only the coefficients and con-
stants for the algebraic solutions and the usual number of
x-values for the graphical solutions. The required 1-2-3
commands and the instructions for using the templates are
included in the textual material.

Subjective probability. WALTER FEIBES, Rubel School
of Business, Bellarmine College, Louisville, KY 40205.

What is meant by the statement, “In my judgment the
chance of getting this contract is .20”? Clearly, this is not
an experiment that can be repeated many times under
identical conditions. Hence, the long-term frequency ap-
proach of objective probability is not appropriate. This
leads to the consideration of subjective probability. The
basic behavioral axioms are considered with emphasis on
the assumptions of “coherence.” Violation of the coher-
ence axiom leads to the infamous money pump. A standard
lottery is introduced to assess discrete probabilities. Con-
tinuous random variables are assessed with a cumulative
distribution. The Ellsberg Paradox is used to show common
errors in assessing subjective probabilities. How good are
the assessed probabilities and do decision makers tend to
bias their subjective probability assessments? These prob-
lems are discussed with consideration of the quadratic,
logarithmic, and spherical “scoring rules.” An outline of
a more mathematically rigorous approach to subjective
probability is presented. It is shown that the behavioral
axioms of subjective probability lead to the Kolmogorov
axioms of objective probability. In short, Kolmogorov’s
axioms of objective probability are now theorems of sub-
jective probability.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS,
BIOCHEMISTRY, AND PHARMACOLOGY

Effect of GABA,, or glycine receptor blockade on in-
spiratory inhibitory reflexes elicited by pontine stimula-
tion. L. LING,* D. R. KARIUS, and D. F. SPECK, De-
partment of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
KY 40536.

Electrical stimulation of pontine respiratory group (PRG)
neurons had profound effects on the phrenic motor activ-
ity. Single shock stimulation of the PRG elicits a transient
inhibition of inspiratory motor activity; stimulus trains
produce premature inspiratory termination. The neuro-
transmitters involved in the inhibitory reflexes elicited by

the PRG stimulation have not been elucidated. The classic
central inhibitory transmitters, glycine and GABA, are
involved in many inhibitory reflexes. This study examined
the involvement of GABA, or glycine receptors in these
inhibitory reflexes elicited by the PRG stimulation.

Experiments were conducted in decerebrate, paralyzed,
and vagotomized cats. Electrical stimulation was delivered
through a tungsten microelectrode stereotaxically posi-
tioned in the right PRG. Control responses to PRG stim-
ulation were obtained from recordings of the left phrenic
nerve activity. After systemic injection of bicuculline or
strychnine (antagonists to GABA, or glycine receptors,
respectively), responses to stimulation were again record-
ed. Inspiratory termination elicited by PRG stimulation
persisted after antagonism of GABA, or glycine receptors.
The onset latency and duration of the transient inhibition
were not changed after administration of bicuculline, but
were significantly prolonged after strychnine. These data
suggest that neither receptor type is required in the in-
spiratory termination reflex and that GABA, or glycine
receptor mediated neurotransmission is not essential to the
transient inhibitory reflex. However, the marked changes
in the onset latency and duration of the transient inhibition
after strychnine suggest that glycine is involved in some
way in the transient inhibitory reflex.

Characterization of a 22 kDa protein from the dense
tubular system of human platelets. ERIC J. SCHEPERS,*
Department of Biology, Bellarmine College, Louisville,
KY 40205, and WILLIAM L. DEAN, Department of Bio-
chemistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Human platelets contain a Ca?*-ATPase in the dense
tubular system that regulates intracellular Ca!* levels and
resembles the cardiac muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca?*-
ATPase in functional properties. In platelets it has been
shown that a 22 kiloDalton (kDa) protein is phosphorylated
by cAMP dependent protein kinase which stimulates the
Ca?*-ATPase. This is similar to the phospholamban system
in cardiac muscle, yet it is clear that the platelet 22 kDa
protein is physically different from phospholamban. The
purpose of this experiment was to further characterize the
22 kDa protein that stimulates the platelet Ca?+-ATPase.
The internal membrane Ca?*-ATPase showed greatest ac-
tivity when purified from a 65%-80% glycerol gradient.
It was also found that some platelet proteins reacted with
a low molecular weight (M.W.) G-protein antibody, rap-
1b, in the 22 kDa range. This is significant for it shows
that the 22 kDa protein that stimulates the Ca?+ pump
could possibly be a G-protein. A two-dimensional Western
Blot control with unphosphorylated rap-1b G-proteins was
compared to a blot with the membrane phosphorylated
with cAMP dependent protein kinase. It was found that
a protein with a M.W. of 22 kDa and a pl of 5.3 was
phosphorylated. When radioactive [°?P] labeled ATP was
used for phosphorylation, autoradiography demonstrated
that rap-1b was phosphorylated along with two other pro-
teins with molecular weights of 25 kDa and pls of 5.2 and
4.9. These results indicate the rap-1b or other slightly

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 89

larger proteins are involved in stimulating the platelet
Ca?t-ATPase.

In vivo microvascular responses to blockade of endo-
thelium-derived relaxing factor production in rat skeletal
muscle. FENG LI* and IRVING G. JOSHUA, Department
of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Louisville,
Louisville, KY 40292.

The objective of this study was to compare the effects
of the L-arginine analogues, N°-monomethyl]-L-arginine
(L-NMMA) and NY-nitro-L-arginine (L-NO,-arg), on the
endothelium-dependent vasodilation in the rat skeletal
muscle microcirculation. Male, Sprague-Dawley rats were
anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (50 mg/kg, i-p.)
and the cremaster muscle was observed using in vivo tele-
vision microscopy. Both L-NMMA and L-NO,-arg specif-
ically block the basal and stimulated production of EDRF
in the rat cremaster muscle microcirculation. However,
the blockade effect of L-NMMA on the basal production
of EDRF was short-lived, lasting about 10 minutes. In
addition, L-NMMA only partially blocked the stimulated
production of EDRF by high concentrations of acetylcho-
line (Ach, =10~* M), an EDRF synthesis stimulator. L-NO,-
arg, on the other hand, specifically blocked the basal pro-
duction of EDRF for a period of 15 minutes and also
completely blocked the vasodilator effect of Ach up to 10°
M. Neither agent blocked the vasodilator effect of sodium
nitroprusside, an endothelium-independent vasodilator.
These data suggest that L-NO,-Arg is a better blocker of
EDRF production in rat skeletal muscle microcirculation.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

Preference, increased student involvement, and en-
hanced learning with teacher-prepared objectives in bi-
ology courses. J. G. SHIBER, Division of Biological Sci-
ences and Related Technologies, Prestonsburg Community
College, Prestonsburg, KY 41653.

Over one half of students enrolled in four biology courses
at Prestonsburg Community College (1990-1991) were
provided with sets of explicit instructional objectives that
they were expected to complete and learn each semester.
Objectives were prepared by their instructor and covered
each topic discussed. Three tests were given during the
semester strictly on material the objectives covered; at the
end the students answered a brief questionnaire concern-
ing their “feelings” and opinions about the objectives and
if they helped them to learn. Their final grades were com-
pared with students enrolled in other sections of the same
courses with traditional instruction and not using instruc-
tional objectives. Over 95% of the students completing the
questionnaire expressed a definite preference for instruc-
tional objectives in all biology courses, stating that they
were helpful in preparing for tests and learning the ma-
terial. Their comments were reinforced by and reflected
in the grades they earned, i.e., they had 9% more successful
grades (A’s, B’s, and C’s) and 8% fewer D’s and E’s than
students who did not use objectives.

Students’ final grades, their comments on the question-
naire, and their level of active involvement as observed
by the instructor—these indicate that the provision of
teacher-prepared objectives encourages a positive student
attitude and a feeling of more control over one’s grade.
Interest and confidence in learning the subject matter in-
crease and ultimately enhance student achievement.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Activities of an apparent ant-mimic at extrafloral nec-
taries of Heliconia latispatha. THOMAS C. RAMBO, De-
partment of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity, Highland Heights, KY 41099.

The extrafloral nectaries on bracts of Heliconia latispa-
tha (Heliconiaceae) attract a large variety of insects, in-
cluding mosquitoes, other dipterans, and ants. A dipteran
ant-mimic regularly appears at the nectaries. It is avoided
by mosquitoes and so may be a form of Batesian mimicry.
However, the ant-mimic is more likely to occur on buds
frequented by ants than on buds without ants and actively
attempts to approach feeding ants. This behavior indicates
that Wasmannian mimicry is a more likely explanation of
this mimicry.

Bluegrass Region and Western Coal Field: filter barriers
to the dispersal of Kentucky amphibians and reptiles. LES
MEADE, Department of Biological and Environmental
Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 40351.

The Bluegrass region and Western Coal Field act as
filter barriers that regulate the dispersal of amphibians and
reptiles. Several species and subspecies of the Kentucky
herpetofauna have colonized peripheral areas of the Blue-
grass or have a limited dispersal across this region. Such
distributional patterns are shown by Kentucky salaman-
ders (Ambystoma opacum, A. maculatum, Notophthal-
mus v. viridescens), frogs (Pseudacris brachyphona, P.
triseriata feriarum, Rana sylvatica, R. u. utricularia), liz-
ards (Eumeces fasciatus, Scincella lateralis), and snakes
(Carphophis a. amoenus, Lampropeltis getula nigra, Ag-
kistrodon contortrix mokasen, Crotalus horridus). These
organisms may have entered the Bluegrass along the Ken-
tucky River and Licking River drainages.

Selected species and subspecies of Kentucky herptiles
that have colonized peripheral areas of the Western Coal
Field or have a limited dispersal throughout this region
include salamanders (Eurycea bislineata, E. lucifuga), frogs
(Bufo americanus, Gastrophryne carolinensis, P. crucifer,
R. palustris), lizards (Cnemidophorus s. sexlineatus), and
snakes (Virginia valeriae elegans, Tantilla coronata, Lam-
propeltis c. calligaster).

Other species have a limited dispersal in both the Blue-
grass region and Western Coal Field. Four salamanders
(Desmognathus f. fuscus, Pseudotriton montanus diastic-
tus, P. r. ruber, E. |. longicauda) and four snakes (Storeria
o. occipitomaculata, S. d. dekayi x wrightorum, Diado-
phis punctatus, C. a. helenae) show such a distributional
pattern.

90 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Fostering behavior of lion-tailed macaques. TIMOTHY
T. DICK,* Owensboro Community College, Owensboro,
KY 42303.

Twin lion-tailed macaques were born in June 1989 at
Mesker Park Zoo in Evansville, IN. Due to the inability
of the mother to feed the twins (one male, one female),
the male was removed and supervised by a human sur-
rogate. As expected, the male exhibited human behavior
within 3 weeks, which is particularly unacceptable for an
endangered species. Therefore, the male was introduced
to an infantless female to serve as a surrogate mother. Over
a period of 5 months, the behavior of the male with the
surrogate mother and the behavior of the female with the
biological mother were compared. The results of this study
will be presented.

Isolation of an unknown pathogen to Aedes triseriatus
(Culicidae). KENNETH W. BLANK,* DENNIS LYE, and
THOMAS C. RAMBO, Department of Biological Sciences,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41099.

Attempts to isolate a pathogen of the mosquito Aedes
triseriatus have led to several findings. The pathogen af-
fects the mosquito in the fourth instar stage, whereas other
pathogens usually affect the first or second instar. The
pathogen does not turn the larvae milky white, but allows
them to retain normal pigmentation. The pathogen works
within 24 to 48 hours compared to the typical 72 hours of
most other known pathogens. The pathogen appears to be
a fastidious Gram (—) bacillus.

In attempts to isolate the pathogenic microorganism
from infected larvae, many microscopic organisms have
been observed. An amoebaflagellate has been isolated from
all stages of mosquitos, yet the organism does not appear
to be pathogenic. It may be a normal inhabitant of A.
triseriatus.

Predatory behavior and territoriality in tropical jumping
spiders (Araneae, Salticidae) associated with Heliconia spp.
STEPHEN R. SKAGGS, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,
KY 41099.

The distribution, predatory behavior, and territoriality
of tropical jumping spiders associated with two species of
Heliconia (H. latispatha and H. imbricata) were studied.

All studies were carried out at Estacion Sirena in Cor-
covado National Park, Costa Rica. Individual spiders from
six different species were marked and released at the points
they were collected. Spiders were monitored for several
hours each day for 3 weeks for interactions with prey and
for movements from or faithfulness to a particular plant
or area. The main prey item for all of these spiders was
ants. The effects of intraspecific and interspecific com-
petition were studied to determine the extent of territo-
riality among these spiders. Although some spiders stayed
on one plant up to 5 days there was not enough conclusive
information to state that these spiders maintain territories.

Small-mammal surveys in the Stanton and Morehead
districts of the Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky.
LES MEADE, Department of Biological and Environ-
mental Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead,
KY 40351.

With the cooperation of the U.S. Forest Service, Ken-
tucky Fish and Wildlife Resources, and Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission, a survey of rare, threatened, and
endangered plants and animals in the Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest was undertaken by the Nature Conservancy.
Fieldwork in the Morehead Ranger District began in May
1991. Previous studies in the Daniel Boone National Forest
were completed in the Somerset District (1988), Stanton
District (1989), Stearns District (1990), and Berea District
(1991). Small mammals were surveyed in the Morehead
District by using pitfall traps (32 oz. plastic cups) and snap
traps placed in selected habitats throughout national forest
lands. Major habitat types sampled during this study in-
cluded: open, mixed mesophytic forest; mixed mesophytic
forest with boulder talus; floodplain forest; swamp forest;
prairie sites; upland fields; and lowland fields with sedges,
grasses and buttonbush. Eleven species of mammals were
collected. These included four species of shrews (Sorex
fumeus, S. longirostris, S. hoyi, and Blarina brevicauda)
and seven species of rodents (Peromyscus leucopus, Rei-
throdontomys humulis, Synaptomys cooperi, Microtus
pennsylvanicus, M. ochrogaster, M. pinetorum, and Na-
peozapus insignis). Small mammals were sampled in the
Stanton District in similar habitats by using bottles and
pitfall traps. About 215 bottle sets (each with 5 bottles)
and 90 pitfall traps were used. Seven species of small
mammals were captured, including shrews (S. fumeus, S.
hoyi and B. brevicauda), moles (Parascalops breweri) and
rodents (P. leucopus, M. pinetorum, and N. insignis).
Dominant species collected in the national forest were B.
brevicauda, S. fumeus, and P. leucopus. Small mammals
found in the national forest near Morehead and Stanton,
but not collected during these research projects, included
Cryptotis parva, Ochrotomys nuttalli, Peromyscus ma-
niculatus, Mus musculus, and Tamias striatus.

Growth of the acanthocephalan Moniliformis monili-
formis in the laboratory rat. DAVID F. OETINGER, De-
partment of Biology, Kentucky Wesleyan College, Owens-
boro, KY 42302.

Eight 3-month-old male Sprague Dawley rats were each
fed, by pipet, twelve 4-month-old Moniliformis monili-
formis cystacanths obtained from three laboratory-infect-
ed Periplaneta americana. Rats were killed and necrop-
sied at weekly intervals. Fifty-three worms were recovered
(32 males, 21 females) by 58 days post infection. Each
group of worms was allowed to become turgid during 2
days in two changes of tapwater at room temperature;
proboscides were excised and trunks were fixed in AFA.
Proboscides were allowed to remain in tapwater for an-
other day and then fixed in absolute ethanol. They were
then cleaned and mounted in Euparol within 2 days. Pro-

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 91

boscides and hooks were traced as projected on a video
monitor to total enlargements of x 888 (proboscides) and
x 2,000 (hooks). Tracings were subsequently measured.
Trunks were processed as for routine wholemounts of acan-
thocephalans, except that they were measured, after hav-
ing been stained, in Petri dishes of 95% ethanol. Dishes
containing the worms were placed on the surface of an
overhead projector and projected onto a bulletin board
where outlines of the worms were sketched by pencil.
Sketches were measured by string and metric rule. During
a 58-day period, male and female M. moniliformis in-
creased in trunk length by approximately 7,000% and
15,000%, respectively. When data were tested by simple
linear regression analysis (length vs. age in days) there
were high Coefficients of Determination (0.98) for both
male and female worms. Use of volume approximations
or log transformations of data did not improve the math-
ematical descriptions of the results. There was no trend
toward increasing size (length or width) of the proboscides
of male or female M. moniliformis during a 58-day in-
fection period in the rat small intestine. Hooks were com-
parable in size to those of mature cystacanths. The validity
of reported sexual dimorphism in proboscis and hook mea-
surements is challenged by the results of this study.

GEOLOGY

Honokohau Bay and Pu u Nianiau stratigraphic sections,
Maui, of the East Chain Paired Volcano Sequence, Hawaii.
GRAHAM HUNT, Department of Geology, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

The Honokohau Bay volcanic section consists of three
volcanic series of Maui: (1) the Wailuku shield building
series, (2) the overlying lavas of the Honolua volcanic
series, and (3) the post erosional rocks of the Lahina vol-
canic series. The alkalic trachytes of the Honolua lavas are
underlain by a 10 meter thick, unnamed, pyroclastic unit
of yellow ash and tachylite, which overlies the pre-existing
tholeiitic lavas of the Wailuku volcanic series exposed at
the shoreline of Honokohau Bay of northwest Maui. Stud-
ies of the petrography and morphology of the Bay section
suggests that these volcanic rocks may be placed into a
genetic category similar to present day volcanic beach
processes of formation that are occurring at Kaimu Black
Sand Beach, Hawaii. Field studies by the author—(1) a
cinder cone, Pu u Nianiau, at the northwest flank of Ha-
leakala Crater, (2) Kaluanui road section of east Oahu,
and (3) the volcanics of the Kupianaha vent of Kilauea—
give data to indicate a similar stratigraphic history of evo-
lutionary change of the Hawaiian magma. The volcanic
activity of Honokohau Bay, Pu u Nianiau, east Oahu, and
Kilauea may be all part of the east line of a paired volcano
sequence caused by a bifurcating plume of the Hawaiian
mantle.

A new Kinderhookian ammonoid fauna from the Bor-
den Formation of northeastern Kentucky. CHARLES E.

MASON* and GREGORY A. DUKE, Department of Phys-
ical Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY
40351.

The Henley Bed of the Farmers Member of the Borden
Formation was studied along state highway 546 in Lewis
County, Kentucky. The sections examined are located on
the Vanceburg and Garrison 7.5 minute topographic quad-
rangles. The Henley is predominantly composed of an
argillaceous, mudshale with minor interbeds of siltstone.
It is underlain by the Sunbury Shale and overlain by the
Farmers Member. Fourteen (6-kg) samples collected at
the top and bottom of the sections and above and below
marker beds were broken down and washed through a 20
and 140 mesh sieve to collect macrofossils and microfossils,
respectively. The Lower Mississippian Kinderhookian-
Osagean boundary was found in the Henley Bed between
0.76 and 3.99 m above its base in the Garrison area. This
boundary is well defined on the basis of conodonts, with
the Siphonodella iosticha upper Crenulata-Zone repre-
senting the upper most Kinderhookian and Gnathodus
typicus-Zone representing the lower Osagean. Macrofos-
sils, occurring in the basal 12 cm, are the first ever found
in the Henley interval and represent a dysaerobic fauna,
being predominantly juveniles replaced with pyrite. Am-
monoids are the most abundant and diverse of the mollusk
dominated fauna, Protocanites being the only genus of
three to be identified with certainty to date. This is the
first Kinderhookian age ammonoid fauna found in Ken-
tucky and is its eastern most occurrence in North America.
Protocanites is found in midcontinent Kinderhookian rocks
for the first time.

Petrology of the Corbin Member of the Lee Formation
(Pennsylvanian) in east central Kentucky. ROBERT
THOMAS LIERMAN* and JOLENE HOWARD, De-
partment of Physical Sciences, Morehead State University,
Morehead, KY 40351.

In a study of the petrology of the Lower to Middle
Pennsylvanian Corbin Sandstone Member of the Lee For-
mation in east central Kentucky, major compositional dif-
ferences were noted between the exposures located at Ta-
ter Knob in Bath County and along U.S. 460 near
Frenchburg, Menifee County. Thin-sections of 25 samples
of the Corbin from Bath County (Tater Knob section) and
14 from Menifee County (Frenchburg section) were ex-
amined petrographically, and statistical comparisons of the
lithologies were made. Components were tabulated by
point-counting and included monocrystalline mineral
grains, such as quartz and feldspar; polycrystalline quartz
grains; rock fragments, including sedimentary, metamor-
phic, and chert; pore filling cements; interstitial pore spac-
es; and gain size. A statistical comparison of the two sec-
tions was made through the use of the Student t test. The
Tater Knob section was found to consist of both quartz-
arenites and sublitharenites; the Frenchburg section was
exclusively a sublitharenite. The Tater Knob samples had
higher percentages of sedimentary rock fragments; the

92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

Frenchburg samples had more metamorphic rock frag-
ments. Other compositional differences between the two
sections included the percent of straight and undulose
quartz, percent of polycrystalline quartz, percent of ce-
ment, interstitial pore space, and grain size. It is suggested
that these two sections represent separate, fluvial sandstone
bodies within the Lee Formation each with a different
source area, the Tater Knob section being a mature sand-
stone derived from reworked sedimentary/low grade
metamorphic rocks, and the Frenchburg samples appar-
ently derived from a metamorphic/plutonic igneous source
area.

Examination of clay mineral assemblages from Lower
Mississippian rocks in eastern and central Kentucky. ROB-
ERT THOMAS LIERMAN,* Department of Physical Sci-
ences, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 40851.

An examination was made of major components com-
prising shales and mudstones from Lower Mississippian
rocks in eastern and central Kentucky. These include the
black shales of the Sunbury and uppermost New Albany,
the green shales and mudstones of the Nancy and New
Providence members, and the Henley Bed of the lower

Borden Formation. This interval represents the deposition
of fine grained, clastic sediments in the deeper water por-
tions of the Borden delta complex as it prograded from
the northeast to the southwest.

Major components examined included the percent clay
and silt in each sample; the total percent of organic matter;
the types of clay minerals found in the <2 yp fraction; and
an estimation of the crystallinity of illite. Statistical analysis
of the distribution of these components demonstrates sev-
eral vertical trends: (1) a gradual increase in the percent
of clay and decrease in the percent of silt as one proceeds
up-section, (2) an increase in the percent of kaolinite and
chlorite up-section, and (3) a steady increase in the crys-
tallinity of Illite up-section. These vertical changes are
reflected horizontally as one proceeds from northeast to
southwest, in a basinward direction. Here, a decrease in
the percent of clay, and increase in silt can be seen, along
with a steady decrease in the percent of chlorite and ka-
olinite. This mirror image of clay/silt and kaolinite/chlo-
rite nicely reflects the operation of Wather’s Law in regard
to the textural and mineralogical components making up
these rocks.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 93-94

OUTSTANDING SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER AWARD
OUTSTANDING COLLEGE SCIENCE TEACHER AWARD
INDUSTRIAL SCIENTIST AWARD

Each year the Academy recognizes individuals for their
contributions in advancing science in the Commonwealth.
This year awards were given to the Outstanding Secondary
School Teacher, the Outstanding College Science Teacher,
and the Industrial Scientist.

OUTSTANDING SECONDARY SCHOOL
SCIENCE TEACHER

Mr. Joe Milam, who teaches Biology and Environmental
Science at Russellville High School, is the recipient of the
1991 Outstanding Secondary School Science Teacher
Award. Mr. Milam is a veteran teacher, teaching Biology
five years at Lewisburg High School, Environmental Sci-
ence eight years at Paducah Tilghman High School, and
A.P. Biology and Environmental Science for 13 years at
Russellville. For eight summers he taught environmental
education at Land Between the Lakes to high school stu-
dents and teachers and to elementary and college teachers
in a program funded by TVA. He is married to another
teacher, the former Chery! Mallory. Cheryl teaches at the
Russellville Middle School.

Mr. Milam has a B.S. degree in Biology and Agriculture
and a M.A. degree in Education with emphasis in ecology.
He has earned 24 hours above the Rank I. M. Milam’s
qualifications can be exemplified by a comment from one
of his nominators, “Joe is an exceptional person and teacher
because he is endowed with an abundance of knowledge
and common sense. Joe’s teaching methods go far beyond
strictly imparting knowledge to his students. He requires
his students to apply, analyze, and synthesize what they
learn. Seldom do they miss a day performing ‘hands-on’
tasks. Because learning is real and alive. Joe’s environ-
mental biology class at Russellville High School has tra-
ditionally been one of the most popular classes in the
curriculum although it is also one of the most demanding. ”
In addition to the evidence that Mr. Milam is a good
teacher, the Awards Committee was impressed by the out-
of-class activities and accomplishments of his students. Each
year he conducts a working day at LBL where his students
study such things as the “ABCs of plants, lichens, ecology
of animal tracks, and ways in which ecology can be in-
corporated into every aspect of the curriculum.” His stu-
dents have been winners in local, regional, and national
science fairs. One of Joe’s students described his classes in
this way, “In his two courses, environmental science and
A.P. Biology, he has challenged me to think and use what
I know, not just memorize what the book said. He is in-
terested in his students’ lives—their activities, feelings, and
goals for the future. Mr. Milam has been a great influence
on me. I only hope I encounter many other people like
him in my lifetime.”

Joe Milam not only finds time to be involved with his
students and their classes, he has also published an Envi-

93

ronmental Education Manual for the Paducah School Sys-
tem which was ranked as one to the tope ten publications
in the nation in this field, he developed and wrote programs
for the TVA sponsored, The Energy Sourcebook, and he
received state and national attention for his research on
the snail darter. Joe Milam demonstrates those character-
istics of a truly great teacher. He is capable of instilling
the love of knowledge in the minds of his high school
students.

OUTSTANDING COLLEGE SCIENCE
TEACHER

The award of the Outstanding College Science Teacher
was presented to Dr. Larry A. Giesmann, Associate Pro-
fessor of Biology, Northern Kentucky University, High-
land Heights, KY. Dr. Giesmann received his Ph.D. in
Botany from the University of Kentucky in 1972 and joined
the Biology faculty at Northern Kentucky University the
same year. He has remained in the Biology Department
at Northern Kentucky since that time except for 1982-
1985 when he served as Associate Dean of Arts and Sci-
ences. Dr. Giesmann holds the B.A. degree in Biology from
Susquehanna University. Over his career at Northern Ken-
tucky, Dr. Giesmann has taught a variety of General Bi-
ology and Botany courses with the upper division courses
being primarily in plant anatomy and plant morphology.
Additionally, he has developed and taught courses in Tech-
niques in Biological Sciences; Field Ecology for Elemen-
tary Teacher; Earth, Land, and Man; and Orientation to
College indicating his broad diversity.

Evaluations of Dr. Giesmann’s classroom teaching have
been consistently high. He has the reputation of being
hard but fair. In 1982 Giesmann was recognized as the
Outstanding Professor at NKU.

Dr. Giesmann has served on a wide array of University
committees, a few of which are: Chairman of Pre-medical /
Pre-dental Committee (over 100 NKU graduates have en-
tered medical school during his tenure), Chairman of Re-
tention Committee, Chairman of the SACS Self-Study
Committee on Institutional Effectiveness, and Vice Pres-
ident of the Faculty Senate. While teaching and perform-
ing University service Dr. Giesmann has found time to
publish and present numerous professional papers and pro-
grams. He has also found time to write several successful
grant proposals, the most recent two being a $60,000 NSF
Laboratory Improvement Grant and an Eisenhower Grant
to conduct a summer institute for high school teachers
during 1992.

Dr. Giesmann has been active in community service
with 45 presentations or science fair activities. Larry’s
activities have not been limited to his University not its
geographical region. Since 1982 he has served on the Gov-
ernor s Council on Science and Technology, he served on

94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(1-2)

the Kentucky Education Department Merit Rating Team
at Lafayette High School in Fayette County and on two
separate occasions he served on the State Science Advisory
Council. Dr. Giesmann is a dedicated, hard working sup-
porter of the Kentucky Academy of Science. From 1985-
1989 he served as Vice President, President-elect, Presi-
dent, and Past President. He currently serves as Chairman
of the Nominations, Elections, and Resolutions Committee.
It was through his efforts that we have the data base for
keeping up with our members.

One of Dr. Larry Giesmann’s recommenders summed
up the justification for this award when he wrote, “in
summary, Larry’s teaching record is characterized by out-
standing classroom teaching, accompanied by integrity,
concern for students, concern for the University and the
community, and innovation in carrying out his goals.”

INDUSTRIAL SCIENTIST AWARD

The 1991 recipient of the Industrial Scientist Award was
Dr. Lee T. Todd, Jr., of Lexington. Dr. Todd is the founder
of two Lexington-based high technology firms, Databeam
Corporation and Projectron, Inc. He currently serves as
Chairman and CEO of DataBeam Corp. and Vice Presi-
dent for Hughes Display Products. Hughes Display Prod-
ucts, a subsidiary of Hughes Aircraft, purchased Projec-
tron.

Projectron, Inc. is a highly successful design and man-
ufacturing operation producing cathode ray tubes for the
flight simulation industry. As a result of their acquisition
of Projectron, Inc., Hughes Display Products relocated its
operation to Lexington.

DataBeam Corporation manufactures teleconferencing
systems which use high resolution displays. The DataBeam
CT 100 Document Conferencing System is currently used
by the Department of Defense in the Strategic Defense
Initiative’s “Star Wars’ Program, by NASA in the Space
Shuttle Program, and by a large number of governmental
and private functions.

Dr. Todd is a native of Earlington, KY. He earned his
B.S. in electrical engineering from the University of Ken-
tucky. While at the University of Kentucky, Dr. Todd
received a Hertz Foundation Scholarship to attend the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he earned
his M.S. and Ph.D. in electrical engineering. While in
graduate school Dr. Todd was awarded 6 U.S. patents. In
1974 Dr. Todd joined the faculty of the Electrical Engi-
neering Department at the University of Kentucky and

taught nine years prior to founding the two private cor-
porations.

While at the University of Kentucky, Dr. Todd received
several teaching awards including the UK Alumni Asso-
ciation Great Teacher Award. He served on the University
Senate for 8 years and was faculty advisor for Omicron
Delta Kappa, National Student Leadership Fraternity.

Dr. Todd is very active in encouraging the formation
of other high technology companies and in the improve-
ment of the science and technology curriculum in Ken-
tucky schools and colleges. Toward that end Dr. Todd is
President of the Kentucky Science and Technology Coun-
cil, chairs the Kentucky EPSCoR Committee, serves on
the Georgetown College Board of Trustees, the Board of
Directors of the Kentucky Academy of Science, the Prit-
chard Committee for Academic Excellence, the Board of
Advocates for Higher Education, and the Board of the
University of Kentucky Research Foundation.

Dr. Todd holds eight patents in cathode ray tube tech-
nology. He has to his credit over 90 publications and pre-
sentations. In 1989 he was awarded the INC. Magazine
Entrepreneur of the Year Award.

Dr. Todd is a member and supporter of the Kentucky
Academy of Science serving on its board of directors and
on the Science and Government Committee.

He is married to the former Patricia Brantley, also of
Earlington; the Todd’s have two children aged 15 and 9.
Patricia is a former public school teacher and currently
serves as the Fayette County Community Co-Chair of the
Primary School Program for the Kentucky Educational
Reform.

Dr. Todd is a member of Calvary Baptist Church where
he has served as Chairman of the Deacons Board.

There is no question that Dr. Lee Todd deserves the
recognition as the 1991 Industrial Scientist. As one of his
nominators said, “Dr. Todd has done more than anyone I
know in Kentucky to further the awareness of the impor-
tance of science and technology in this state. ... He has
been personally responsible for raising significantly the
level of high technology in Kentucky.” Another nominator
commented, “Dr. Todd had been a leader in many areas:
in academia, in public service, and as an industrial entre-
preneur.” The fact that Dr. Todd established two high
tech companies is sufficient to warrant the award. Even
more significant is that he was instrumental in attracting
Hughes Display Products to locate in Lexington and help
advance the development of a “High-tech Triangle” in
Kentucky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(1-2), 1992, 95

NEWS AND COMMENTS

IMPORTANT PUBLICATION ANNUAL MEETING
Haragan, P. D. 1991. Weeds of Kentucky The 78th meeting of the Kentucky Academy
and adjacent states. A field guide. Universities of Science will be held at the Ashland Com-
of Kentucky Press, Lexington. 218 pp. ($29.00). munity College, Ashland, Kentucky, October
29-31, 1992.

95

AP Te ey =

toen ad Liat

Instructions for Contributors

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for publication in
the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of
interest to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be reviewed by
one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and once accepted, an attempt will
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The sequence of material in feature-length manuscripts should be: title page, abstract, bedy of
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1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and addresses, and
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_3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Materials and
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4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide
complete information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-—4) 1982 for style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume 43(3-
4) 1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numerals,
and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches. Line drawings
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The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all
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CONTENTS

Intermediate host sex and cysticercoid age: effect on size of adults of the
tapeworm, Hymenolepis diminuta (Cyclophyllidea). Ron Rosen .......

A preliminary survey of the small mammals on the Fort Knox (Meade,
Hardin and Bullitt counties), Kentucky, U.S. Army Facility. Jennifer
McGehee Marsh, Richard K. Kessler, and Robert A. Mattingly, Jr. ......

The combinatorial game “‘Chomp.”’ Charles H. Franke .............

Internal parasites in a small flock of lambs and ewes during the peripar-
turient period in 1987 in Kentucky. Eugene T. Lyons, Sharon C. Tolliver,
J. Harold Drudge, and Shelby Stamper ...................+-2255:

Observations on the common horse bot (Gasterophilus intestinalis) (Dip-
tera: Gasterophilidae): incomplete molting of a second instar specimen.
Eugene T. Lyons, Sharon C. Tolliver, and Shelby Stamper ............

Bark girdling by herbivores as a potential biological control of black locust
(Robinia pseudoacacia) in power-line corridors. James O. Luken, Steven

W. Beiting, Scott K. Kareth, Robyn L. Kumler, Jun H. Liu, and Craig A.
og Ld | Tet MMe UU RN NS ay a Ra gee URAL RENEE PUN TELA AL ye an Scena

Natural plant communities of Hopkins County, Kentucky. Julian Campbell
and Jeff Grubbs ee i ie ia Ss Be Oe eo aw aera oa

Selection methods for simple column PLA folding. Bill Janeway and Pa-
trichtt Castella is oO ie ae ik) ea Bie She ait eat ger Mirena tara ea ees ee

Use of fractal dimension to analyze meandering patterns in the Redbird

River of eastern Kentucky. Brenda J. Mellett, Robert W. Bosserman, and

BOMESVEL. TROND Eee aS ON 0 eit as aug al Ok Oks ne Ce ae
NOTES

New microcaddisfly (Trichoptera: Hydroptilidae) records for Kentucky.
Michael Ax Floyd is hoy Wee an Va cere Uneiane aAaa: atc Cmte ctv eee

Two additions to the known mushroom flora of Kentucky. Branley A.
BranSOR iO Ca Ee BENS CMa WANS SUI ARNE: Ca SN a UAC mac GAG aR

FORUM

DNA replication in plants: a review. Valgene L. Dunham and Lesa Dill
AGADEMY (AFFAIRS ijaic i250 25 fis a eRe apr te ea Jalil, by onan ae et neva
PROGRAM, ANNUAL: MEETING oie) Aleve sc peetabe, cage yaa celia: a peuiota let ae vas

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING,
1991

al ves la) lel wal he) eye ave. te ea) we) wim) wi witha lb) (cal lela per; pe diay \SAce ras eel el; a) im Liwt.vatelRenregte Mang!) si belbia) (6) \etoanh en Tare time

WAR Fee A RGSS ie vey eo Valve lia) dey.) (8 oie wie) oe elie), malatiet a) eatin ire aual gorse. cel m eh ce em

15

19

26

29

39

46

50

50

‘ox RANSACTIONS
"UF THE
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE

Vk
_/

Volume 53
Numbers 3-4
September 1992

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

GoveERNING BoarpD FoR 1992
Executive COMMITTEE

President: Douglas L. Dahlman, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546

President Elect: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biological Sciences, Georgetown College, Georgetown,
KY 40324

Vice President: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101

Past President: W. Blaine Early, Ill, Department of Biology, Cumberland College, Williamsburg, KY 40769

Secretary: Peter X. Armendarez, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Brescia College, Owensboro, KY
42301

Treasurer: David R. Hartman, Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101
Executive Secretary-ex officio: J. G. Rodriquez, P.O. Box 22313, Lexington, KY 40522
Editor, TRANSACTIONS-ex officio: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, KY 40475
Editor, NEWSLETTER-ex officio: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Lou-
isville, KY 40292

MEMBERS, GOVERNING BoARD

Bruce Mattingly 1992 Burtron H. Davis 1993
Estel M. Hobbs 1992 James E. Gotsick 1994
Lee T. Todd, Jr. 1992 Blaine R. Ferrell 1995
Ray K. Hammond 1993 Kimberly Ward Anderson 1995

AAAS Representative: Open
Chairman, KJAS: Open

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Editor and Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,

Chairman: Richmond 40475

Associate Editor: John T. Riley, Chemistry Department, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green

42101

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: John W. Thieret, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights 41076

Editorial Board: Douglas L. Dahlman, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40546

Gerrit Kloek, Department of Biology, Kentucky State University, Frankfort 40601

James E. O’Reilly, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40506

Steven Falkenberg, Department of Psychology, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond _
40475

All manuscripts and correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to the Editor. Authors must be members
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The TRANSACTIONS are indexed in the Science Citation Index. Coden TKASAT. ISSN No. 0023-0081.

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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 97-100

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1992
Volume 53
Numbers 3-4

Effects of Protein Level on Growth and Body Composition of
Hybrid Sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus X L. macrochirus)
Reared in Ponds

CarL D. WEBSTER, JAMES H. TIDWELL, LAuRA S. GOODGAME,
Jutia A. CLARK, AND DANIEL H. YANCEY

Aquaculture Research Center, Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Hybrid sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus x L. macrochirus) juveniles (3.4 g) were stocked into six 0.04 ha ponds
at a rate of 12,350 fish/ha and fed twice daily 1 of 2 diets containing either 32% or 38% protein. After 100
days, no significant differences (P > 0.05) in individual fish weight, percentage survival, food conversion,
or growth rate were found among treatments. Final individual fish weights were 49 and 48 g for fish fed
diets containing 32% and 38% protein, respectively. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in percentage
moisture and protein were found in fish fed either diet. However, percentage fat was significantly higher
(P < 0.05) in fish fed a diet containing 32% protein (18.7%) compared to fish fed a diet containing 38%
protein (12.6%). These data indicate that, when stocked at the rate of 12,350 fish/ha, hybrid sunfish can
utilize a 32% protein diet with similar growth rates as fish fed a diet containing 38% protein.

INTRODUCTION

The pay-lake industry (fee-fishing ponds) is
an important sector of the aquaculture indus-
try in many states, including Kentucky (1). Pay
lakes provide a source of income for the pond
owner, a source of food and recreation for the
public, and a market for producers of live fish.
The hybrid sunfish (female green sunfish, Le-
pomis cyanellus xX male bluegill, L. macro-
chirus) appears to have potential as a desirable
fish for the pay-lake industry.

Growth of green sunfish x bluegill (GS x
BG) hybrids has been reported to be higher
than that of either parental stock (2). The GS
x BG sunfish reach an acceptable catch-size
in a shorter period of time than channel catfish,
Ictalurus punctatus, a very popular pay-lake
fish (1).

Increasing the growth rate of GS x BG sun-
fish by feeding prepared diets is desirable.
Lewis and Heidinger (3) reported that, of the
sunfish crosses evaluated, only the GSxBG
sunfish is well suited to feeding prepared diets.

97

This is due primarily to the aggressive feeding
response the hybrid exhibits (4). This response
also increases the vulnerability to hook-and-
line capture by fisherman. Approximately 66%
of GS x BG sunfish stocked into a pond were
captured by hook-and-line after 18 hours of
angling (5). From a fisherman’s viewpoint, a
larger fish is desirable. Larger fish also are of
benefit to the fish producer and pay-lake op-
erator in that higher prices can be attained for
their products.

Because protein is the most expensive com-
ponent of a diet, knowledge about the protein
requirements of the fish is essential for the
formulation of nutritious, economical diets.
Various studies have shown that the percent-
age of protein required for optimum growth
varies with species (6-8). However, informa-
tion about the nutritional requirements for
GS BG sunfish is lacking. This impedes for-
mulation of a nutritionally complete diet and
limits the culture of the fish. Tidwell et al. (9)
reported that growth of GS x BG sunfish reared

98 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

in aquaria increased with increasing protein
levels. It is essential to know the minimum
protein requirements for optimum growth in
ponds. The objective of this study was to de-
termine the growth, food conversion, survival,
and body composition of fingerling GS x BG
sunfish fed two protein levels (832% and 38%)
reared in ponds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Diets.—Fish were fed 1 of 2 extruded diets
formulated by a commercial feed mill (Delta
Western, Indianola, Mississippi) to contain ei-
ther 32% or 38% protein. Diets were analyzed
for crude protein, fat, and moisture. Crude
protein was determined using macro-Kjeldahl,
crude fat was determined by the acid-hydro-
lysis method, and moisture was determined by
placing 2 g of the diet in a drying oven (95°C)
until constant weight (10). Chemical analysis
of the diets showed the 32% protein diet had
33.1 + 0.07% protein and 4.4 + 0.02% fat,
while the 38% protein diet had 37.8 + 0.02%
protein and 3.4 + 0.02% fat. Diets were stored
(—80°C) in plastic-lined bags until fish were
fed.

Grow-out.—Juvenile hybrid bluegill (fe-
male green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus X male
bluegill, L. macrochirus; average weight 3.4
+ 0.1 g) were stocked on 83 July 1991 in six
0.04-ha earthen ponds at the Aquaculture Re-
search Center, Kentucky State University, at
a rate of 12,350 fish/ha. Ponds were approxi-
mately 1.5 m deep and were supplied with
water from a reservoir which was filled by rain
runoff. Water levels in ponds were maintained
at a constant depth by periodic additions.

Fish were fed a fixed amount (0.92 kg/day)
of either a 82% or a 38% protein diet twice
(0900 and 1530) daily for 100 days. One-half
of the total amount was fed in each of the 2
feedings. Each treatment was replicated in 3
ponds. Diets were spread uniformly inside a
3.0-m diameter floating feeding ring in the
pond and the immediate surrounding area to
prevent a feeding “pecking order” from being
established. Rings were made from l-cm di-
ameter plastic pipe and had a 0.58-mm plastic
mesh skirt extending 20 cm below the water
surface.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) and temperature of
all ponds were monitored twice daily (0800
and 1480) by means of a YSI Model 57 oxygen

meter. When the DO level of any pond was
predicted (graphically) to decline to below 4.0
mg/liter, aeration was provided. Total am-
monia nitrogen (TAN) and nitrite were mea-
sured once weekly (at 1300) by means of a
Hach DREL/5 spectrophotometer, and pH was
measured once weekly (at 1300) using an elec-
tronic pH meter (Accumet 900, Fisher Scien-
tific). Through the duration of the study, these
water quality features were not significantly
different (P > 0.05) among treatments, and
means were (+SE): morning water tempera-
ture, 24.7 + 0.8°C; afternoon water temper-
ature, 25.8 + 0.4°C; morning DO, 7.2 + 0.3
mg/liter; afternoon DO, 10.4 + 1.0 mg/liter;
TAN, 0.25 + 0.15 mg/liter; nitrite, 0.03 +
0.02 mg/liter; pH, 8.85 + 0.23.

Harvest Data.—Fish were not fed 24 hours
prior to harvest and were harvested by seine
on 14 October 1991. Total number and weight
of fish in each pond were determined at har-
vest. Fifty fish were randomly sampled from
each pond and were individually weighed to
the nearest gram and measured (total length)
to the nearest 0.5 centimeter. Ten fish were
randomly sampled for analysis of body com-
position. Whole fish were homogenized in a
blender and analyzed for moisture, protein,
and fat. protein was analyzed using a LECO
FP-228 nitrogen determinator (11); fat was an-
alyzed by ether extraction; and moisture was
determined by drying in a convection oven
(95°C) until constant weight (10).

Food conversion ratio (FCR) and specific
growth rate (SGR) were calculated as follows:
FCR = total diet fed (kg)/total wet weight
gain (kg); SGR (%/day) = (In W, — In W,/T)
x 100, where W, is the weight of fish at time
t, W; is the weight of fish at time 0, and T is
the culture period in days.

Statistical Analysis.—Data were analyzed
using the SAS ANOVA procedure (12) for sig-
nificance. Differences between means were de-
termined by Duncan’s multiple range test. All
percentage and ratio data were transformed to
arcsine values prior to analysis (18).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There were no significant differences (P >
0.05) in individual fish length, individual fish
weight, survival, food conversion ratio (FCR),
specific growth rate (SGR), and yield (kg/ha)

EFFECTS OF PROTEIN ON Hysrip SUNFISH—Webster et al. 99

between GS x BG sunfish fed either a 32% or
38% protein diet (Table 1).

The lack of significant differences in weight
gain and food conversion in GS X BG sunfish
fed diets containing 32% and 38% protein sug-
gests that the diets may be within optimal range
for fish growth when fish are stocked at the
low rate used in the present study. It is not
known if a diet with a higher percentage of
protein (i.e., 45%) would have significantly im-
proved growth rates. Protein is the most ex-
pensive dietary component in finfish diets and
is a primary concern in diet formulation. Feed
producers desire to provide the minimum level
of protein in a diet that will supply essential
amino acids and nitrogen to support acceptable
weight gain in fish.

Growth rates for GS x BG sunfish cultured
in ponds are not currently available in the lit-
erature for comparison. The SGR reported in
this study (2.6) is somewhat higher than other
studies and other fishes. Tidwell et al. (9) re-
ported that hybrid bluegill fed a diet contain-
ing 35% protein had an SGR of 1.98. Specific
growth rates for other fish species have been
reported at 2.1 for channel catfish, Ictalurus
punctatus (14), 2.1 for chinook salmon, On-
corhynchus tshawytscha (15), 1.9 for blue cat-
fish, Ictalurus furcatus (16), and 0.7 for rain-
bow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (17). This
higher value may indicate that BG x GS hy-
brids have faster growth rates than more com-
monly reared species. Webster et al. (18) re-
ported an SGR value of 1.8 for pond-reared
channel catfish. Comparison of results of pro-
tein requirements from other studies is com-
plicated by different experimental conditions
including species, size and age of the fish used,
stocking density, protein quality, and varia-
tions in abiotic factors (e.g., water tempera-
ture) (19).

Growth data reported in the present study
may be confounded by the availability of nat-
ural foods present in the pond. Stocking density
in the present study was lower than intensive-
ly-stocked channel catfish ponds. Research
should be conducted on the optimum stocking
rates for GS x BG sunfish. With fewer fish
present in ponds, natural foods in the ponds
may have been utilized as food items. The high
FCR value (3.7) may indicate that the pre-
pared diets were not optimally consumed. Ju-

venile bluegill could feed on zooplankton and .

TaBLE 1. Average yield, individual fish weight, individ-
ual fish length, survival, food conversion ratio (FCR), and
specific growth rate (SGR) for hybrid bluegill fed diets
containing either 32% or 38% protein.!

Protein (%)
32 38
Yield (kg/ha) 522.5 + 5.58? 505.3 + 27.8
Indiv. fish weight (g) 49.1 + 1.68 43.5 + 2.08
Indiv. fish length (cm) 13.0 + 0.12 12.4 + 0.28
Survival (%) 94.87 +1542 92.00 + 3.118
FCR 3.72 + 0.042 3.87 + 0.20?
SGR 2.67 + 0.03? 2.55 + 0.052

‘Values are means + SE of three replications. Means within a row that
have the same superscript are not significantly different (P > 0.05).

benthic organisms to supplement the diet (20).
The high FCR may also indicate that the fixed
amount of diet fed per day was too high. How-
ever, in conducting feeding studies, diet should
not be limiting and feeding to excess is pref-
erable to underfeeding (19).

Whole-body composition analysis indicates
that diet did not affect percentage body pro-
tein in GS x BG sunfish (Table 2). No signif-
icant differences (P > 0.05) in percentage
moisture and protein were found between
treatments. Percentage protein averaged 63.3%.
Percentage fat of fish fed a diet containing 32%
protein was significantly higher (18.7%) than
fish fed a diet containing 38% protein (12.6%)
(P < 0.05). The level of digestible energy in
a diet affects the amount of food consumed by
fish and the ratio of energy to protein in the
diet will influence conversion efficiency of the
diet (21). A high ratio may increase fat de-
position in fish, whereas a low ratio will cause
protein to be used as an energy source. In the
present study, the higher percentage of fat in
fish fed a diet containing 32% protein may
indicate that this diet had a higher energy-to-
protein ratio for GS x BG sunfish than the diet
containing 38% protein. This would lead to the
increase in percentage fat reported in this study.

Formulation of a nutritious diet for GS x
BG sunfish will allow producers to feed the
most economical diet possible, while allowing
for optimal growth. The present study indi-
cates that a 32% protein diet appears to be
suitable for rearing hybrid bluegill juveniles in
ponds when stocked at 12,350 fish/ha. Protein
requirements may change if fish are stocked
at higher rates. Research into feeding diets with
various protein levels and higher stocking rates

100

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

TABLE 2. Whole-body composition (percentage moisture, protein, and fat) of juvenile hybrid bluegill at stocking and

fed diets containing either 32 or 38% protein.'

See eee eee

Diet (% Protein)

At stocking 32 38
Moisture (%) 77.05 + 0.25 73.64 + 0.268 73.99 + 0.40?
Protein (%)? 66.74 + 0.52 63.33 + 1.28? 63.93 + 3.21?
Fat (%)? 7.09 + 0.30 18.72 + 1.48 12.62 + 1.882

| Values are means + SE for three replications. Means in the same row with different superscripts were significantly different (P < 0.05).

2 Dry-weight basis.

should be conducted to more fully elucidate
protein requirements of GS x BG sunfish.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Eddie Reed, Steven Mims, and
Wendell Harris for their technical assistance,
and Paul Weston for use of his laboratory. We
also thank Sandra Hall for typing this manu-
script. This study was partially funded by a
USDA/CSRS grant to Kentucky State Univer-
sity under agreement KYX-80-91-04A.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Lopinot, A.C. 1972. Pond fish and fishing in Illinois.
Illinois Department of Conservation, Fisheries Bulletin 5,
Springfield, Illinois.

2. Cremer, M.C.,S. D. Mims, and G. M. Sullivan. 1984.
Pay lakes as a marketing alternative for Kentucky fish
producers. Research Bulletin No. 8, Kentucky State Uni-
versity, Frankfort, Kentucky.

3. Lewis, W. M. and R. C. Heidinger. 1971. Supple-
mental feeding of hybrid sunfish populations. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 100:619-623.

4. Lewis, W. M. and R. C. Heidinger. 1978. Use of
hybrid sunfishes in the management of small impound-
ments. Pp. 104-108. In G. D. Novinger and J. C. Dillard
(eds.) New approaches to the management of small im-
poundments. North Central Division, American Fisheries
Society, Special Publication 5, Bethesda, Maryland.

5. Brunson, M. W. and H. R. Robinette. 1986. Eval-
uation of male bluegill x female green sunfish hybrids for
stocking Mississippi farm ponds. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage.
6:156-167.

6. DeLong, D. C., J. E. Halver, and E. T. Mertz. 1958.
Nutrition of salmonid fishes. VI. Protein requirements of
chinook salmon at two water temperatures. J. Nutr. 65:
589-599.

7. Satia, B. P. 1974. Quantitative protein require-
ments of rainbow trout. Prog. Fish-Cult. 36:80-85.

8. Prather, E. E. and R. T. Lovell. 1973. Response of
intensively fed channel catfish to diets containing various
protein-energy ratios. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Assoc.
Game and Fish Comm. 27:455-458.

9. Tidwell, J. H., C. D. Webster, and J. A. Clark. In
press. Growth, feed conversion, and protein utilization

of female green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) x male blue-
gill (L. macrochirus) hybrids fed isocaloric diets with dif-
ferent protein levels. Prog. Fish-Cult.

10. AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 15th ed. AOAC,
Arlington, Va.

11. Sweeney, R. A. and P. R. Rexroad. 1987. Com-
parison of LECO FP-228 ‘nitrogen determinator’ with
AOAC copper catalyst Kjeldahl method for crude protein.
J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 70:1028-1030.

12. Statistical Analysis Systems. 1988. SAS/STAT user’s
guide. Release 6.03 Edition. SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.

13. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

14. Webster, C. D., J. H. Tidwell, and D. H. Yancey.
1991. Evaluation of distillers grain with solubles as a pro-
tein source in diets for channel catfish. Aquaculture 96:
179-190.

15. Fowler, L. G. 1990. Feather meal as a dietary
protein source during parr smolt transformation in fall
chinook salmon. Aquaculture 89:301-314.

16. Webster, C. D., J. H. Tidwell, and D. H. Yancey.
1992. Effect of partially or totally replacing fish meal
with soybean meal on growth in blue catfish (Ictalurus
furcatus). Aquaculture 103:141-152.

17. Tidwell, J. H., C. D. Webster, and R. S. Knaub.
1991. Seasonal production of rainbow trout, Oncorhyn-
chus mykiss, in ponds using different feeding practices.
Aquacult. Fish. Manage. 22:335-341.

18. Webster, C. D., J. H. Tidwell, J. A. Clark, and D.
H. Yancey. 1992. Effects of feeding diets containing 34
or 38% protein at two feeding frequencies on growth and
body composition of channel catfish. J. Appl. Aquacult. 1:
67-80.

19. Jauncey, K. and B. Ross. 1982. A guide to Tilapia
feeds and feeding. Institute for Aquaculture, Univ. of Stir-
ling, United Kingdom.

20. Brunson, M. W. and H. R. Robinette. 1982. Sup-
plemental winter feeding of hybrid sunfish in Mississippi.
Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeast. Fish Wildl. Agencies 36:157—
161.

21. Reis, L. M., E. M. Reutebuch, and R. T. Lovell.
1989. Protein-to-energy ratios in production diets and
growth, feed conversion and body composition of channel
catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. Aquaculture 77:21-27.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 101-108

Effects of Azospirillum lipoferum on Dry-Matter Accumulation and
Fruit Production in Greenhouse-Grown Bell Pepper

(Capsicum annum) Plants

CLoyp J. BUMGARDNER AND DaviID MARDON

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

The growth and fruit production of bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants grown in association with an
Azospirillum lipoferum isolate (ALM) were followed from the seedling stage of growth until the ripening
of the first fruit. Plants receiving supplemental nitrogenous fertilization (10-10-10 fertilizer), and grown in
association with ALM (ALM-+), produced fruit with substantially greater amounts of dry matter than those
of plants grown under the same conditions of nitrogen fertilization but without the ALM association (ALM — ).
ALM + plants receiving 0-20-20 non-nitrogenous fertilization and ALM + plants receiving no fertilizer during
the growth cycle developed sufficiently to produce fruit. ALM— plants grown under these same fertilizer
regimens did not. These data indicate the initial availability of nitrogen in the absence of ALM supplemen-
tation and in growth substrates receiving no nitrogenous fertilization was insufficient to support the growth

of plants into the generative phase.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Azospirillum contains 2 species,
A. lipoferum and A. brasilense, both of which
have been isolated from the rhizospheres of
herbaceous plants and mycorrhizal fungi
growing in nitrogen-deprived environments (1,
2, 3, 4). Both species are positive in the acet-
ylene reduction assay for dinitrogenase, de-
noting that the microbes are nitrogen-fixing,
preforming in casual association with plants
and fungi (5, 6).

When added to the rhizospheral region of
grasses, Azospirillum species have been shown
to significantly affect plant dry-matter accu-
mulation and nitrogen uptake (7, 8, 9, 10).
Studies utilizing sweet potato (Imomoea ba-
tatas) and tomato (Colanum esacalatum)
grown in association with A. lipoferum have
yielded results similar to the Azospiriilum-grass
studies noted above (11, 12). Although positive
effects have been noted on productivity of these
garden variety plants, no data are available
pertaining to bell pepper (Capsicum annum)
grown in association with A. lipoferum. There-
fore, the focus of this study was to determine
the effects of A. lipoferum supplementation on
dry matter and fruit production of greenhouse-
grown bell peppers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Test Organisms.—Azospirillum lipoferum
(ALM) used in this study were initially isolated

from the rhizospheral soil of Festuca arudi-
nacea growing on a coal surface-mined site in
Eastern Kentucky (4). The bell pepper seeds
used in this study were obtained from Ball Seed
Co. (West Chicago, Ill.) and were of the Better
Bell variety.

Bacterial Culture Medium.—Azospirillum
lipoferum (ALM) was maintained with bi-
monthly transfers on agar slants of the nitro-
gen-free sodium-malate media of Mardon and
Rothwell (4).

Growth System Design.—Rectangular pot-
ting structures were constructed from '-inch
plywood and designed for a holding capacity
of 6 liters. The interior was lined with a double
layer of autoclave bags and a single layer of
2.0-mm fiberglass netting suspended 4.0 cm
above the growth-system bottom to support the
growth substrate. Wooden partitions were in-
serted 4.0 cm from each end of the containers,
allowing even watering, aeration and fertiliza-
tion of the growing plants. Six liters of a 1:1:1
by volume mixture of perlite, vermiculite and
soil were passed through a 5.0-mm sieve to
remove large particles, placed into the growth
structures and the units sterilized in a gravity
type autoclave. Growth substrate samples from
each potting unit were removed with prester-
ilized 5.0-mm soil corers and aseptically in-
oculated into 10-ml tubes of Thioglycollate
medium (BBL). No evidence of growth in the
Thioglycollate medium after incubation at 385°C
for 14 days was indication of substrate sterility
(18).

101

102

Preparation of Cultures and Seeds.—The
ALM cells were grown on the nitrogen-free
minimal salts medium described above for 48
hours at 35°C. Cultures were washed 3 times
in sterile 0.85% saline and adjusted to a 80 Klett
reading on a Klett-Sumerson colorimeter (#66
red filter). Bell pepper seeds were surface ster-
ilized by immersion in a 3% sodium hypo-
chlorite solution for 10 minutes and aseptically
planted in the growth substrates approximate-
ly 15.0 mm below the growth substrate surface
in a configuration allowing 600 cm® for the
expansion of each plant rhizosphere. Then 3.7
liters of the Azospirillum suspension was even-
ly added to each growth system using a prester-
ilized sprinkler assembly. Numbers of viable
cells corresponded to approximately 5.5 x 108
CFU’s per gram of growth substrate as deter-
mined by replicate plating on the nitrogen-
free medium above and growth on 5% Sheep's
Blood Agar (Difco Laboratories, Detroit Mich-
igan).

Watering and Fertilization Regimens.—
When water was no longer visible in the bot-
tom of the growth system, '% liter of sterile,
distilled, deionized water was added to the
potting units. Fertilized plants included those
receiving supplemental nitrogenous fertiliza-
tion (10-10-10 fertilization) and those receiv-
ing supplemental non-nitrogenous fertilization
(0-20-20 fertilization). Additional plants were
grown to maturity with no supplemental fer-
tilization. Fertilized plants received 1 fertilizer
sample prior to plant blooming, further fertil-
ization was bi-weekly for the next 6 weeks and
once per week thereafter. One 10-10-10 fer-
tilizer aliquot contained 200.0 ml of a fertilizer
mixture consisting of 60.0 g of 10-10-10 fer-
tilizer, 1.0 g MgSO,-7H,0, 25.0 ml of a micro-
nutrient solution of (1.0 g H;BOs, 1.0 g FeSO,:
7H,O, 0.2 g MnCl,-4H,O, 0.2 g CoCl,-6H,0,
1.0 g ZnCl, and 1.0 g CaSO,:5H,O per liter),
and 15.0 g CaCO; per liter added to 800 ml
of sterile, distilled, deionized water. Growth
systems which were fertilized according to the
0-20-20 regimen received the fertilization mix-
ture above modified by the substitution of 30.0
g of 0-20-20 fertilizer for the 10-10-10 mixture.
All plants were placed on a daily 14-hour par-
tial photoperiod with supplemental light sup-
plied by fluorescent lights 1.0 m above all
growth systems. The average night tempera-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

ture was 23°C and the average day tempera-
ture 33°C.

Sampling of Plants and Microorganisms.—
At least 36 plants were sampled within one day
of entering each of the six-leaf, first-bloom and
first-fruiting stages of growth. These plants were
representative of each condition of supple-
mental nitrogen availability and plant growth
stage. Plants were divided into root, stem, fo-
liar and fruit portions, dried for 7 days at 110°C
in a drying oven and weighed on a Fisher
Scientific XA analytical balance. Microbial
samples from rhizosphere growth substrates
were obtained by aseptically washing the
growth substrate from the plant roots with ster-
ile 0.85% saline. This material was decimally
diluted in 9.0-ml blanks containing 0.85% sa-
line. One ml of each dilution was transferred
into triplicate plates containing nitrogen-free
medium, plate count agar (Difco) and 5%
sheep's Blood Agar (Difco). These plates were
incubated at 35°C and counted after 72 hr.
Azospirillum lipoferum was identified using
standard morphological and physiological tests
(14).

Statistical Analysis—The data were ana-
lyzed with an ANOVA statistical analysis pack-
age (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, N.C.) using the
VAX 6410 computer located on the Eastern
Kentucky University campus (Richmond, Ky.)

Nitrogen Content of Growth Substrates.—
The level of organic nitrogen present in the
growth substrates was determined according
to standard Kjeldahl analysis (15). Inorganic
nitrogen present in the growth substrates in
the forms of ammonium ion, nitrite ion and
nitrate ion were determined according to the
colorimetric procedures specified in the Man-
ual of Methods for General Bacteriology (16).

RESULTS

Plant Dry Weights.—All plant dry-weight
measurements fell within one + standard de-
viation from the mean.

Six-leaf Growth Stage.—The mean average
dry weights of root, stem and foliar portions
of pepper plants grown in association with
Azospirillum lipoferum (ALM+) did not dif-
fer significantly (P < 0.05) from corresponding
portions of control plants grown without the
A. lipoferum association (ALM —) (Fig. 1). No

EFFECTS OF AZOSPIRILLUM ON KENTUCKY PEPPERS—Bumgardner and Mardon

103

ae
Ree
eee

TOE

60

eee
ane pe
E 40 ie
E peas hacks
= tA o
D 35 oe

30
= a fe

20 ES z ey aS o

A. Se, y ced ALM+
15 aie = 2
“ : ALM-
Root Stem Foliage

Fic. 1.
at the six-leaf stage of growth.

plants at this stage of growth received any
supplemental fertilization.

First-bloom Growth Stage.—When sampled
at the first-bloom stage of growth and receiving
10-10-10 nitrogenous fertilization, no signifi-
cant difference (P < 0.05) was noted between
root, stem and foliage dry weights when ALM+
plants were compared with corresponding
ALM-— plants (Fig. 2). However, ALM~+ plants
at the first-bloom stage of growth receiving
0-20-20 non-nitrogenous fertilization possessed
substantially greater amounts of dry matter in
their roots (P > 0.05) , stems (P > 0.05) and
foliar (P > 0.05) portions than corresponding
ALM-~— grown plants (Fig. 3). This same trend
(ALM-+ plants possessing substantially greater
amounts of dry matter in root (P > 0.05), stem
(P > 0.05) and foliar (P > 0.05) portions than
ALM-— plants) was also noted in growth sys-
tems receiving no supplemental fertilization
(Fig. 4).

First-fruiting Growth Stage.—As indicated
in Figure 5, ALM+ plants receiving 10-10-10
fertilization produced fruit containing signif-
icantly greater amounts of dry matter (P >
0.05) than ALM— plants grown under con-

Mean average root, stem and foliage dry weights of ALM+ and ALM~— bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants

ditions of supplemental nitrogen additions.
However, total dry weight of the ALM+ plant
roots, stems and foliar portions did not differ
significantly (P < 0.05) from those of ALM—
plants grown under the same conditions of ni-
trogen availability. When both ALM+ and
ALM— plants were relegated to an 0-20-20
fertilization regimen, ALM-+ plants not only
possessed significantly greater amounts of dry
matter than ALM-— plants in the root (P >
0.05), stem (P > 0.05) and foliar (P > 0.05)
portions but also produced fruit. As can be seen
in Figure 6 comparable ALM— plants did not
mature sufficiently to produce fruit. This same
significant (P > 0.05) difference between
ALM-+ and ALM — plant dry weights and fruit
production can also be noted in plants receiv-
ing no supplemental fertilization (Fig. 7).

Establishment of ALM in Rhizosphere
Growth Substrates.—Azospirillum lipoferum
was established in, and isolated from, the rhi-
zosphere growth substrate of all ALM+ pep-
per plants at each sampling time. Furthermore
A. lipoferum was not isolated from ALM-rhi-
zosphere growth substrates of any sets of
ALM— grown plants.

104 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Dry Weight (mg)

Foliage

Fic. 2. Mean average root, stem and foliage dry weights of ALM+ and ALM— bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants
at the first-bloom stage of growth with 10-10-10 fertilization.

DISCUSSION ever, the predominant mechanism through

Beneficial results on crop production due to which the bacteria benefit the plant has yet to
inoculation of plant seeds with Azospirillum be elucidated. The 2 primary hypotheses pro-
have been noted over the last 2 decades. How- __ posed by researchers to account for the ben-

Dry Weight (mg)

Foliage

Fic. 3. Mean average root, stem and foliage dry weights of ALM+ and ALM— bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants
at the first-bloom stage of growth with 0-20-20 fertilization.

EFFECTS OF AZOSPIRILLUM ON KENTUCKY PEPPERS—Bumgardner and Mardon 105

WE

600

550

500

450

;

LESNAR

XX

Ne
ie

400

350

Dry Weight (mg)

<i eee
[es] Ra Reise ae,

300

|
)
:
/
;

250

200

Foliage

Fic. 4. Mean average root, stem and foliage dry weights of ALM+ and ALM— bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants

at the first-bloom stage of growth with no fertilizer added.

eficial effects on plant growth have been (1)
the Azospirillum providing nitrogen to the
plant via it’s nitrogen-fixing capabilities and
(2) the Azospirillum producing plant growth

hormones which stimulate plant development
(7).

Many investigators have shown that nitro-
gen is frequently a critical limiting nutrient in

3500
3000
fo) 7
£ 2500 =
# ee
g S
< 2000 ee
& z
eee a
1500 Epa
ET a
1000 :
Root Stem

ALM+

Y/ ALM-

Foliage Fruit

Fic. 5. Mean average root, stem, foliar and fruit dry weights of ALM+ and ALM— bell pepper (Capsicum annum)
plants at the first-fruiting stage of growth with 10-10-10 fertilization.

106

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

Dry Weight (mg)

600

400

200

Root Stem

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

RUE

ALM+

ALM-

Foliage Fruit

Fic. 6. Mean average root, stem, foliage and fruit dry weights of ALM+ and ALM~— bell pepper (Capsicum annum)
plants at the first-fruiting stage of growth with 0-20-20 fertilization.

soil for plant growth (17). Azospirillum lipo-
ferum (ALM) has beer implicated as a bac-
terium with the potential to asymbiotically fix
nitrogen in greater amounts than Azotobacter
paspali or other Azospirillum isolates cited in
the literature, and should nitrogen be depleted
from growth substrate through plant or mi-
crobial use Azospirillum may sometimes have
an advantage for survival by fixing atmospher-
ic nitrogen in sufficient excess that it may also
be used for growth by the plants (4). Intro-
duction of Azospirillum into plant rhizo-
spheres will often cause an increase in dry-
matter production of the plant with no
detectable increase in nitrogen concentration
in the plant tissues. This indicates possible in-
fluences of bacterially produced growth hor-
mones on plant development (18, 19). How-
ever in other plants such as Setaria italica (20),
wheat (21), sorghum (22), and maize (23) the
per cent nitrogen content of the plant tissues
did not increase indicating possible effects on
plant growth due to bacterially assimilated ni-
trogen (17). Thus, the increased amounts of
dry matter in all ALM+ plant portions sam-
pled in this study are in agreement with pre-
viously reported data indicating that increased
nitrogen availability increases dry-matter ac-

cumulation in both vegetative and generative
portions of certain Solanaceae (24, 25, 26).
In this study, sufficient nitrogen was avail-
able for all plants receiving supplemental 10-
10-10 fertilization to reach maturity and pro-
duce fruit. However, although the ALM+
plants grown with supplemental 10-10-10 fer-
tilization produced fruit with significantly (P
> 0.05) greater amounts of dry matter than
ALM-— plants grown under the same condi-
tions of nitrogen availability, the total dry
weights of these plants did not differ signifi-
cantly (P < 0.05). This partitioning of a greater
amount of plant dry matter into fruit is in
agreement with results obtained with pepper
plants grown under different levels of nitrogen
availability (26). In contrast to the nitrogen-
fertilized plants above, the ALM— plants in
this study receiving no supplemental nitrogen
fertilization (either the 0-20-20 fertilization
regimen or no added fertilizer) had only ap-
proximately 0.08 g of total nitrogen (organic
and inorganic) available per plant since this
amount was in the growth substrate for use
throughout the 22-week study period. ALM+
plants grown without added nitrogen or with
0-20-20 fertilization also had 0.08 g of nitrogen
per plant present in the growth substrate plus

EFFECTS OF AZOSPIRILLUM ON KENTUCKY PEPPERS—Bumegardner and Mardon

107

1800 =

1600

1400

1200

1000

Dry Weight (mg)

800

600

400 fssneoi a

200

Root Stem

Fey BS
ALM+
/ ALM-
Foliage Fruit

Fic. 7. Mean average root, stem, foliage and fruit dry weights of ALM+ and ALM — bell pepper (Capsicum annum)
plants at the first-fruiting stage of growth with no fertilizer added.

the nitrogen contained in the added ALM cells.
This raises a question whether the plants are
utilizing nitrogen from dead bacterial cells or
nitrogen fixed by live bacteria in the growth
system to explain the continued growth of
ALM-+ supplemented pepper plants. Azospi-
rillum lipoferum cells grown on nitrogen-free
minimal salts medium contain 4-5% nitrogen
by weight (27). The total calculated nitrogen
input into ALM-+ growth systems attributable
to all ALM cells initially placed into the sys-
tems was 0.01 g per plant for a total of 0.09 g
of available nitrogen for each plant to use for
growth if all ALM cells died and their nitrogen
was absorbed by the plants. Nitrogen may be
expected to account for approximately 3.2%
of the total dry weight of bell peppers and the
0.01 g of nitrogen input into the ALM+ sys-
tems via the ALM cells was by itself insufficient
to account for the approximately 3-fold dif-
ference in ALM+ and ALM— plant weights.
Although it has been suggested by Hartmann
et al. (27) that Azospirillum produces plant
growth hormones in association with plants this
has not been directly demonstrated in situ in
plant rhizospheres. In summary, although the
nitrogen for enhanced plant growth may have
come from bacterially (ALM) fixed nitrogen;

these data do not preclude the possibility that
ALM also may have produced growth modu-
lating chemicals resulting in enhanced plant
development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by the Eastern
Kentucky University Department of Biological
Sciences. Also, great thanks go to Kim Worley
of Somerset Community College for help in
preparing the graphical representations.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Dobereiner, J. and J. M. Day. 1976. Associative
symbiosis in tropical grasses: characterization of micro-
organisms and dinitrogen fixing sites. In Proceedings of
the first international symposium on nitrogen fixation.
Washington State University Press, Pullman.

2. Dobereiner, J., E. Mariel, and M. Nery. 1976. Eco-
logical distribution of Spirillum lipoferum. Can. J. Micro-
biol. 22:1464-1473.

3. Li, C. Y. and M. A. Castellano. 1987. Azospirillum
isolated from within sporocarps of the mycorrhizal fungi
Hebeloma crustuliniforme, Laccaria laccata and Rhizo-
pogon vinicolor. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 88:563-565.

4. Mardon, D. W. and F. M. Rothwell. 1985. An Azo-
spirillum isolate with high nitrogen-fixing capabilities from
a coal surface mined site. Trans. KY Acad. Sci. 46:33-35.

5. Nelson, L. M. and R. Knowles. 1978. Effect of ox-
ygen and nitrate on nitrogen fixation and denitrification

108

by Azospirillum brasilense grown in continuous culture.
Can. J. Microbiol. 24:1395-1408.

6. Neyra, C. A. and P. VanBerkum. 1977. Nitrate
reduction and nitrogenous activity in Spirillum lipoferum.
Can. J. Microbiol. 23:306-310.

7. Barbieri, P., T. Zanelli, E. Galli, and G. Zanetti. 1986.
Wheat inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense SP6 and
some mutants altered in nitrogen fixation and indole-3-
acetic acid production. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 36:87-90.

8. Okon, Y. 1985. Azospirillum as a potential inocu-
lant for agriculture. Trends in Biotechnol. 3:223-232.

9. Okon, Y., P. G. Heytler, and R. W. F. Hardy. 1983.
N, fixation by Azospirillum brasilense and its incorpora-
tion into host Setaria italica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 46:
694-697.

10. Smith, R. L., S. C. Shank, K. H. Quesenberry, M.
E. Tyler, J. R. Milan, M. H. Gaskins, and R. C. Littel.
1976. Nitrogen fixation in grasses inoculated with Spiril-
lum lipoferum. Science 193:1003-1005.

11. Crossman, S. M. and W. A. Hill. 1987. Inoculation
of sweet potato with Azospirillum. Hortscience 22:420-
422.

12. Hadas. R., and Y. Okon. 1987. Effect of Azospi-
rillum brasilense inoculation on root morphology and res-
piration in tomato seedlings. Biol. Fertil. Soils 5:241-247.

18. The United States Pharmacopeia. Unites States
Pharmacopeial Convention, Inc., Rockville, Md.

14. Kreig, N. R. and J. Dobereiner. 1984. Genus Azo-
spirillum Tarrand, Kreig, and Dobereiner 1979, 794". Pp.
94-104. InN. R. Kreig and J. G. Holt (ed.) Bergey's manual
of systematic bacteriology, Vol. 4. The Williams and Wil-
kins Co., Baltimore.

15. Quantitative Chemical Analysis. Harris, D. C. 1987.
W. H. Freeman and Co. New York.

16. Hanson, R. S. and J. A. Phillips. 1981. Chemical
composition. Pp. 328-364. In P. Gerhardt, R. G. E. Murray,
R. N. Costilow, E. W. Nester, W. A. Wood, N. R. Kreig,
and G. B. Phillips (ed.) Manual of methods for general
bacteriology, 1st ed. American Soc. Microbiol., Washing-
ton, D.C.

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17. Gutshick, V. P. 1978. Energy and nitrogen fixa-
tion. Bioscience 28:571-575.

18. Jain, D. K. and D. G. Patriquin. 1985. Charac-
terization of a substance produced by Azospirillum which
causes branching of wheat root hairs. Can J. Microbiol.
31:206-210.

19. Rai, S. A. and A. C. Gaur. 1982. Nitrogen fixation
by Azospirillum spp. and the effect of Azospirillum li-
poferum on the yield and nitrogen uptake of wheat crops.
Plant and Soil 69:233-238.

20. Kapulnik, Y., Y. Okon, J. Kigel, I. Nur, and Y. Henis.
1981. Effects of temperature, nitrogen-fertilization and
plant-age on nitrogen fixation by Setaria italica inoculated
with Azospirillum brasilense. Plant Physiol. 68:340-343.

21. Baldani, V. L. D., J. I. Baldani, and J. Dobereiner.
1983. Effects of Azospirillum inoculation on root infection
and nitrogen incorporation in wheat. Can. J. Microbiol.
29:924-929,

22. Kapulnik, Y., J. Kigel, Y. Okon, I. Nur, and Y. Henis.
1981. Effects of Azospirillum inoculation on some growth
parameters and N-content of wheat, sorghum and pani-
cum. Plant and Soil 61:65-70.

23. Hegazi, N. A., M. Monib, H. A. Amer, and E. S.
Shokr. 1983. Response of maize plants to inoculation with
Azospirillum and (or) straw amendment in Egypt. Can J.
Microbiol. 29:888-894.

24. Dolan, D. D. and E. P. Christopher. 1949. Effect
of modified fertilizer ration on yield of vegetables. Proc.
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25. Hedge, D. M. 1987. Effect of soil moisture and N
fertilization on growth, yield, N uptake and water use of
bell pepper (Capsicum annum L.). Gartenbauwissenschaft
52:180-185.

26. Hedge, D. M. 1987. Growth analysis of bell pep-
per (Capsicum annum L.) in relation to soil moisture and
nitrogen fertilization. Sci. Hort. 33:179-187.

27, Hartmann, A., M. Singh, and W. Klingmuller. 1983.
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creting high amounts of indoleacetic acid. Can. J. Micro-
biol. 29:915-923.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 109-112

Mulch Color Effects on Reflected Light, Rhizosphere
Temperature, and Pepper Yield

KARAN KAUL AND M. J. KASPERBAUER

CRS Plant and Soil Science Research, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 and
Coastal Plains Research Center, USDA-ARS, Florence, South Carolina 29502-3039

ABSTRACT

Peppers (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Lady Bell) were grown with white, blue, red and black plastic mulches
in trickle-irrigated field plots. Data were collected on rhizosphere temperature, spectral balance of reflected
light, and fruit yield. When plants were transplanted early (at the first “frost-free” date of spring), fruit
yields were highest over red mulch even though rhizosphere temperatures did not differ under red, black,
and blue mulches and were 24 + 0.5°C. However, plants grown over red mulch received more reflected
far-red light and higher far-red to red light ratios. When transplanting was delayed until about a month
after the frost-free date, highest yields were obtained with white mulch which kept rhizosphere temperature
near 25°C. Under red, blue, and black mulches, rhizosphere temperature was 28.5 to 29.3°C. It was concluded
that yields of peppers grown with different colored mulches were influenced by both rhizosphere temperature
and the relative amounts of far-red and red light reflected from the various mulches.

INTRODUCTION

Plastic mulches are used in a number of
horticultural crops to suppress weeds, conserve
soil moisture, and alter temperature in the rhi-
zosphere. Traditionally, plastic mulches are
black or white. Black plastic is often used to
warm soil early in the season, and white plastic
can moderate soil temperature in summer. Re-
cent studies of the effects of soil and mulch
colors revealed differences in plant growth in
response to spectral balance of reflected visible
[including red (R)] and near-visible [especially
far-red (FR)] light (4, 8).

Experiments conducted under controlled
environments have demonstrated that plants
respond differently to different colors of light,
such as R and FR (8). The ratio of FR photons
relative to R photons controls the equilibrium
of the phytochrome system (7), which regu-
lates a number of developmental responses,
such as stem elongation, leaf shape, shoot /root
biomass ratios and partitioning of photosyn-
thate among shoots, roots and fruits (6). The
responses of plants to FR/R ratio are indepen-
dent of the source of altered light [i.e., colored
light bulbs or colored filters below the bulbs
(3), sunlight reflected from green plants (5) or
upward reflection from different colored soils
(4, 8)].

Use of colored plastic mulches offers the pos-
sibility of using basic principles of photomor-
phogenesis to enhance plant productivity in

the field at a relatively low cost. In such a
system, plants will grow in sunlight and mulch-
es of the appropriate surface color will reflect
light of predetermined spectral balance up to
the plant where it will be absorbed by pho-
toreceptors, such as phytochrome, and result
in a desired plant response such as larger fruits
or an altered shoot/root biomass ratio (1, 2, 5,
9). The present study was undertaken to in-
vestigate the effects of different surface colors
of plastic mulches on spectrum of reflected
light and yield of field-grown green pepper
(Capsicum annuum L..). Possible influence of
planting date on effects of mulch colors was
also examined.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material

Seedlings (cv. Lady Bell) were started and
grown in 5-cm peat pots of potting soil (Ball
No. 2 potting mixture,! Ball Seed Co., West
Chicago, Illinois) in a polyethylene covered
greenhouse for six weeks before transplanting
to field plots. The day and night temperatures
in the greenhouse were maintained at 27 +
2%°C and 17 + 24°C, respectively.

‘Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guar-
antee or warranty of the product by Kentucky State Uni-
versity, USDA/CSRS or USDA/ARS and does not imply
approval to the exclusion of other products that may also
be suitable.

109

110

Experimental Design

For each experiment, 6-week-old seedlings
were transplanted to field plots on the Ken-
tucky State University research farm near
Frankfort. The soil was a Lowell silt loam (fine,
mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalfs). The plots were
plowed, and broadcast with 100 kg/Ha K,O
and 55 kg/Ha NH,NO,, Trickle irrigation tubes
and plastic mulches were placed before trans-
planting. The plastic panels were 4.2 m wide
so that the only light reflected up to the plants
would be from the indicated surface color. For
the early transplanting date, plants were trans-
planted during the second week of May (very
soon after the danger of frost was over). The
other set was transplanted during the second
week of June (after the soil had warmed).

Four replicated 15 x 4.2 m blocks were
prepared by placing trickle irrigation tubes 1.5
m apart throughout the length of each block
before placing the mulch. Within each block,
four 3 X 4.2 m plots were covered with 4 mil
black plastic mulch, and a 8 X 4.2 m plot was
left uncovered (i.e., bare soil). One of the
mulched plots remained black (unpainted)
while others were painted with oil-based ex-
terior paint to get white, blue, and red mulch
surfaces. The colors were randomized within
each block. Ten-cm diameter holes were cut
in the plastic mulch at 45 cm intervals in rows
that were 1.5 m apart. Peat pots containing
the transplants were hand set in these openings,
and were similarly spaced on the bare soil plots.
Fifteen plants (i.e., 5 plants in each of 3 rows)
were grown in each 3 X 4.2 m plot. All plots
were irrigated as needed, and bare soil plots
were weeded and cultivated as necessary.

Data Collection and Analysis

There were 6 harvests per plot at 10-day
intervals. Peppers were harvested when they
were at marketable size. All mulch color treat-
ments within an experiment were harvested
on the same dates. The fruits were classified
according to U.S. grade standards and grouped
as U.S. Fancy,’ “U.S. No. 1,” or “other.”
Weights in each class and the totals per plot
were recorded. Data are presented as mean
weight per hectare (under the experimental
conditions described there would be approxi-
mately 14,500 plants per hectare). Yield data
were analyzed by analysis of variance and mean
separation was done by Duncan’s procedure.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3—4)

Rhizosphere temperatures were taken 15 cm
away from the main stem 10 cm below the soil
surface using an Orion SA 250 portable meter
(Orion Research, Inc., Boston, MA) fitted with
a stainless steel temperature probe. Temper-
ature readings were taken in the middle of
each plot at 10:00 a.m. + 1 hr at least once per
week for the first 8 weeks after transplanting.
This period was selected because plant shading
of the soil surface was not a major factor, as it
was later.

Reflected light from each mulch color was
determined at solar noon +80 min on a cloud-
less day, using a LI-COR 1800 spectroradi-
ometer (LI-COR, Lincoln, Nebraska) with a
remote light collector on a 1.5-m fiber optic
probe. Upwardly reflected light was measured
at a point 10 cm above the mulch surface in
order to measure relative spectral differences
received by plants growing over the various
colors. Measurements were taken at 5-nm in-
tervals from 400 to 800 nm. The reflected light
was expressed as a percentage of incoming sun-
light at each measured wavelength. Far-red/
red light ratios in reflected light were calcu-
lated.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The yields from plants grown on bare soil
were lower than those from plants grown on
any of the plastic mulches, regardless of the
transplant date.

When transplanting was done soon after the
first frost-free date of spring (the second week
of May), the highest early harvest yield as well
as the highest total harvest yield were obtained
from the plants grown on red plastic mulch
(Table 1). The lowest yields, among the plants
grown on mulched plots, were obtained from
plants growing on white mulch (Table 1). The
yields from plants grown on blue and black
plastic mulch were intermediate between those
on red and white mulch (Table 1). However,
when transplanting was done after the soil had
warmed (the second week of June), the highest
early as well as total yield were obtained on
white mulch (Table 2).

The differences in yield responses to mulch
color between the early and late transplanting
dates suggest that early season soil warming
under dark colors (Table 8) may have favored
higher yields; whereas, excessive soil warming
under the dark colors later in the season may

MutcH EFFECTS ON PEPPER YIELD IN KENTUcKY—Kaul and Kasperbauer

TaBLE l. Effects of colored plastic mulches on yield of
May-transplanted peppers. Yields are expressed as metric
tons per hectare. Early harvest included the fruits picked
during the first three weeks of harvest. Within each col-
umn, entries followed by the same letter do not differ
significantly at the 5% level.

Early harvest Total harvest

U.S. Fancy U.S. Fancy

Mulch + US. + US.

color No. 1 Total No. 1 Total
White 3.19¢ 7.83d 12.62be 23.78b
Blue 5.08be 10.88bed 11.3lbed 24.36b
Red 10.73a 15.08a 23.20a 36.98a
Black 7.25ab 12.47abe 16.82ab 30.02ab
Bare soil 1.45c 4.35e 7.25cd 14.21c

have contributed to higher yields under lighter
colored mulches (i.e., white versus red, black
or blue).

Although comparison of yields from the two
transplanting dates (Tables 1 and 2) suggests
influence of soil temperature, it must be noted
that recent studies (4, 8) demonstrated signif-
icant differences in shoot and root growth when
plants were grown over different soil colors,
even when insulation panels kept soil temper-
atures constant below the various surface col-
ors. Those authors concluded that the FR/R
ratio in the upwardly reflected light over the
various soil surface colors acted through the
phytochrome system and played a major role
in plant development, especially in the relative
amount of photosynthate partitioned to various
parts of the plant.

In the present study, highest early season
yields from the May transplants were obtained
from plants grown over the red mulch (Table
1). This is consistent with the observations of
Decoteau et al. (2), who obtained higher to-

TaBLE 2. Effect of colored plastic mulches on yield of
June-transplanted peppers. Yields are expressed as metric
tons per hectare. Early harvest included the fruits picked
during the first three weeks of harvest. Within each col-
umn, entries followed by the same letter do not differ
significantly at the 5% level.

Early harvest Total harvest

US. Fancy U.S. Fancy

Mulch + US. + US.

color No. 1 Total No. 1 Total
White 21.08a 22.77a 29.58a 35.82a
Blue 12.04b 14.94b 16.39b 23.49b
Red 11.46b 14.36b 17.26b 25.23b
Black 11.31b 14.36b 14.50b 21.03b
Bare soil 4.06c 7.40c 6.53c 13.20c

111

TaBLe 8. Effect of mulch color on rhizosphere temper-
atures for about three weeks after the early and late trans-
planting dates. The temperature readings were taken 10
cm below the soil level. Within each column, entries fol-
lowed by the same letter do not differ significantly at the
5% level.

May 19 to June 3 June 13 to July 8

Mulch (mean of (mean of

color 7 readings) 5 readings)
White 20.2ab 24.8a
Blue 23.5be 28.5ab
Red 24.0c 28.5ab
Black 24.3c 29.3b
Bare soil 23.9c 27.2ab

mato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) yields
over red than over white or black plastic mulch.
At least part of the difference in pepper yield
in the present study appears to be related to
the differences in FR/R ratios received by the
plants. In previous investigations, modifica-
tions in plant growth patterns by very subtle
changes in FR/R ratios have been documented
in controlled environments (7) and in the field
(1, 5, 9). Nevertheless, it is apparent from our
results (Tables 1, 2 and 4) that change in FR/R
ratio is not the only factor determining pho-
tosynthate partitioning and yield. Likewise, the
highest amount of photosynthetically active
light (Table 4) did not always result in the
highest yields (Table 1). Also, higher soil tem-
perature in early season (Table 3) did not al-
ways result in higher early yields. For example,
although rhizosphere temperatures were not
significantly different under red, black and blue
mulches (Table 3), early yield on blue mulch
was significantly lower than that on red mulch
(Table 1). Thus, under field conditions, green
pepper yield appeared to be influenced by a

TaBLe 4. Effect of mulch color on upwardly reflected
light (10 cm above the surface). Data were collected at
solar noon + 30 min on a cloudless day. Data are means
of duplicate readings. The FR/R ratio in sunlight was
arbitrarily assigned a value of 1.00. Other ratios are relative
to that in sunlight.

Reflected light, 10 em above surface

Photosynthetic FR/R ratio
Mulch (400-700 nm) (relative to
color (as % of sunlight) sunlight)
White 42 1.00
Blue 8 1.05
Red 13 1.12
Black 6 1.08

112

combination of rhizosphere temperature, pho-
tosynthetically active light and spectral prop-
erties of reflected light, all of which are af-
fected by mulch color. Based on the results
presented, we conclude that appropriately col-
ored mulches can improve pepper productiv-
ity under field conditions. But the appropriate
color will vary depending upon the planting
conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded in part by Specific
Cooperative Agreement No. 58-43YK-8-0036
between Kentucky State University and USDA,
Agricultural Research Service and USDA/CSRS
research grant KYX-900-3378. We thank J.
Lamb, W. Sanders, M. Stone and L. Winkle
for technical assistance and S. Templeton and
E. Greer for help with the statistical analysis.
Administrative support of Drs. H. R. Benson,
P. G. Hunt and R. J. Barney is gratefully ac-
knowledged.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bradburne, J. A., M. J. Kasperbauer, and J. N. Mathis.
1989. Reflected far-red light effects on chlorophyll and

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-—4)

light-harvesting chlorophyll protein (LHC-II) contents un-
der field conditions. Plant Physiol. 91:800-803.

2. Decoteau, D. R., M. J. Kasperbauer, and P. G. Hunt.
1989. Mulch surface color affects yield of fresh market
tomatoes. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 114:216-219.

8. Downs, R. J., S. B. Hendricks, and H. A. Borthwick.
1957. Photoreversible control of elongation of pinto beans
& other plants. Bot. Gaz. 188:199-208.

4, Hunt, P. G., M. J. Kasperbauer, and T. A. Matheny.
1989. Soybean seedling growth responses to light reflected
from different colored soil surfaces. Crop Sci. 29:30-33.

5. Kasperbauer, M. J. 1987. Far-red light reflection
from green leaves and effects on phytochrome-mediated
assimilate partitioning under field conditions. Plant Phys-
iol. 85:350-354.

6. Kasperbauer, M. J. 1988. Phytochrome involve-
ment in regulation of the photosynthetic apparatus and
plant adaptation. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 26:519-524.

7. Kasperbauer, M. J., H. A. Borthwick, and S. B. Hen-
dricks. 1964. Reversion of phytochrome 730 (Pfr) to P660
(Pr) in Chenopodium rubrum L. Bot. Gaz. 125:75-80.

8. Kasperbauer, M. J. and P. G. Hunt. 1987. Soil color
and surface residue effects on seedling light environment.
Plant and Soil 97:295-298.

9. Kaul, K. and M. J. Kasperbauer. 1988. Row ori-
entation effects on FR/R light ratio, growth and devel-
opment of field-grown bush bean. Physiol. Plant. 74:415-
417.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 113-120

Knowledge and Attitudes of High School Students Toward
Medical Technology and Nursing

Donna S. BLACKBURN, MSN, RN aAnpb Larry P. ELLiott, PHD

Department of Nursing and Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky

ABSTRACT
The attitudes and knowledge of 810 Kentucky high school students toward medical technology and nursing
were examined to determine why students are not entering these fields. Data collection revealed significant
misconceptions and knowledge deficit about these professions. This research focuses on identification of
factors influencing attraction to, rather than attrition from, these health-care fields.

INTRODUCTION

There currently exists a shortage of health
care professionals in the United States, es-
pecially in the fields of nursing and medical
technology (1). Several theses have been ad-
vanced in an attempt to explain why this short-
age exists: lack of economic and personal in-
centives to become a medical technologist have
made the profession less competitive with oth-
er fields that offer greater rewards, such as
higher salaries, salary issues, such as bonuses
and perks, and more job recognition (2).

A 1990 study conducted by the Institute of
Medicine (IM), Washington, D.C., found the
demand for nurses far exceeded the supply (8).
Identified as the central issues influencing the
nursing shortage were: AIDS; an increasing ge-
riatric population; and advances in medical
technology. Another study on “the status of
health personnel” was submitted to Congress
and the President in the summer of 1990 by
the Department of Health and Human Ser-
vices (HHS). This report projects a decline in
the RN population in the US. after the year
2000 and predicts that the nursing shortage
could top 800,000 by 2020, swelling to 875,000
over the next 30 years (4). Though compre-
hensive, these studies, like others, only under-
score what practitioners already know—there
exists a critical shortage of nursing profession-
als.

An important factor which appears to influ-
ence today’s students when selecting a career
is salary. Snyder and Bonke (5) found that
freshman medical technology majors placed a
high priority on earning potential when se-
lecting a career. Salaries were addressed by
Castleberry et al. (6), who conducted a national

survey of wages for 9 positions that typically
exist in medical laboratories and found vari-
ations ranging from $19,822 to $27,040 per
year. Differences in salaries were found to vary
with the site, size and location of the labora-
tory. Hospital-based laboratories have higher
salaries and shift differentials than private lab-
oratories. They found salaries to be directly
proportional with hospital size, with hospitals
of less than 100 beds paying the lowest salaries.
Salaries were highest in the far west and north-
east regions and lowest in the central regions.
In a follow-up study (6), they found a 9.3%
vacancy rate for staff medical technologists.
The most common action taken to fill these
vacancies was to increase salaries.

The editors of Nursing 88 published a re-
port of 8,023 nurses who responded to a poll
addressing the nursing shortage and how it is
affecting nurses today (7). In evaluating their
present jobs, nurses cited salaries, benefits and
a minimum of every other weekend off im-
portant to them.

Stress and overtime have been identified as
factors adversely influencing health care work-
ers. Starzynski (8) found that the number of
extra hours worked was part of the reason why
medical technologists leave the hospital labo-
ratory. Although stress has been reported as a
problem in this field by Martin and Reyes (9),
they stated that good laboratory management
instead of crisis management could reduce
stress.

Little opportunity for advancement and the
fear of AIDS have been cited as other factors
for creating the current shortage in medical
technology. However Castleberry et al. (6)

113

114

reported that advancement for an entry-level
staff medical technologist to supervisor will
provide an increase in salary of $12,481, rep-
resenting a 63% raise. Working in a high-risk
environment, with the possibility of infection
by such microbes as the AIDS virus, has been
reported by Mass (2) as a negative factor de-
terring potential students from these health
care professions.

According to Farrell (10), demographers re-
ported a decline in the number of 18- to 24-
year-olds seeking college education. Indicators
suggested that the intellectually capable stu-
dents are pursuing other professions such as
business, medicine, pharmacy, and computer
science. These professions offer greater finan-
cial rewards, better working conditions, and a
more attractive lifestyle than most nursing po-
sitions (10).

As a result of a telephone survey of high
school guidance counselors in Massachusetts,
the authors agreed that guidance counselors
were a vital link to the recruitment of students
into nursing. Guidance counselors could be-
come excellent channels for marketing nursing
to students at crucial points in their vocational
development (11).

Notwithstanding these types of studies, re-
search must now be focused on examining the
factors influencing attraction to, rather than
attrition from, the profession. Research, cen-
tered on young adults contemplating entry into
the health care professions, would provide
baseline information for attracting and keep-
ing students. Measurements of knowledge about
and attitudes toward the profession would cer-
tainly help practitioners identify misconcep-
tions, attitudes, and concerns of individuals
considering nursing and medical technology as
professions. Research of this type would equip
the profession with the vehicle necessary to
combat the significant shortages now being ex-
perienced. Only through data analysis will re-
searchers be able to determine why students
are not entering these fields. Knowledge of this
information will help contribute to solving the
shortage of health care professionals, a short-
age which threatens our nation’s well-being.

The purpose of this study was to examine
the attitudes and knowledge of high school
biology students toward the medical technol-
ogy and nursing professions. Items pertaining
to health care, nursing and medical technology

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

careers, and student demographics were in-
cluded. Demographic information was used to
help identify characteristics of students ex-
pressing interest in health care professions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A survey questionnaire was designed by the
authors and submitted for review by a panel
of experts within the nursing and medical tech-
nology departments at Western Kentucky Uni-
versity. Items on the questionnaire were se-
lected based on data found in the review of
the literature. A five-point Likert scale was
selected for use with the items relating to nurs-
ing and medical technology. After this review
process, revisions were made and a final copy
developed and subjected to final review. The
survey instrument focused on 4 major areas:
(1) student demographics; (2) questions related
to health care; (3) knowledge about health care
professions; (4) attitudes toward health care
professions.

Based upon an established working relation-
ship with high school biology teachers across
the state, and the fact that Kentucky law re-
quires all high school students to complete one
unit of biology, high school biology students
were identified as the target group for this
study. Questionnaires were distributed and re-
turned through randomly selected biology
classes across the Commonwealth of Kentucky
in the Fall of 1989.

Initially, all of Kentucky’s 178 school su-
perintendents were contacted and asked to se-
lect a high school to participate in this study.
Only 52 superintendents (29%) responded and
agreed to participate. A letter was then sent to
the principals of the selected high schools ask-
ing them to administer the student question-
naire to a random group of 20 biology students
during the fall semester. Only 20 question-
naires were sent to each school to prevent large
school districts from biasing the data.

A postage-paid envelope was included in the
mailing for return of the completed question-
naires. At the beginning of the 1990 spring
semester, a follow-up letter was sent to those
schools that had not returned questionnaires.
A total of 810 questionnaires, representing 43
high schools, were ultimately returned. All data
were processed and analyzed using the Statis-
tical Analysis System (SAS) computer software
at Western Kentucky University.

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND NuRSING IN KENtucKy—Blackburn and Elliott

115

Fic. 1.

RESULTS

Data collected in this study spanned 6 of
Kentucky’s 7 state board and judicial districts
(Fig. 1). Though most schools surveyed were
classified as rural, 5 schools were classified as
urban due to the fact that each was located in
a city with a population of 50,000 or more
and/or was located within close proximity to
a large metropolitan area.

District I, located in the extreme western
part of the state, had 6 high schools partici-
pating, representing 14% of the total respon-
dents. District II had 9 schools participating,
representing 18% of the student responses. Dis-
trict III was represented by 6 schools (13.8%
of the respondents). District V has 7 schools
participating in this study, representing 14%
of the responses. The largest number of schools
(N = 10) from one district was from District
VI, representing 21.2% of the responses. Dis-
trict VII with 5 schools participating, account-
ed for 18.8% of the responses (see Table 1).

The final return of 810 completed question-
naires from 48 high schools represented a 77.5%
return rate. More than half of those responding
were female (57.7%), and most respondents
were Caucasian (85.1%).

When asked about grade-point average
(GPA), about half (49.6%) reported making A’s
and B’s, about one-third (33.5%) made B’s and
C’s, while the remaining students reported
making C’s or less. GPA’s in science courses
were reported as slightly lower: 44.1% indi-
cated making A’s and B’s, 40% made B’s and

Kentucky state board and judicial districts.

C’s, and the remaining students made less than
C's.

In terms of career choices, about one-fourth
of the respondents (25.4%) indicated they were
considering a career in the health-care field
when they graduated; 27% indicated they were
undecided about a career choice. Of those stu-
dents contemplating a health care profession,
15% reported they would consider medical
technology and 30.5% would consider nursing.
More than half (54.5%) indicated they were
interested in other health-care fields.

Only 28.2% of the students had immediate
family members employed in the health-care
field and these students were not more knowl-
edgeable about health careers than students
who do not have family members in this field.
Nearly all students (94.6%) said their parents
would support a decision to pursue a career in
the health-care field. The single most impor-
tant factor which would influence them to en-
ter the fields of medical technology or nursing
was salary (56.5%), with the remaining factors
listed in order of importance: opportunity for
advancement (16.1%), job security (13.7%),
flexible hours (7.3%) and status (6.5%). Nearly
half (45.5%) of the students stated they would
like more information about a career in med-
ical technology and nursing.

Each high school was contacted to see if the
curriculum offered a health careers course.
Nearly two-thirds (62.8%) of the schools of-
fered this course. Nearly half (48.8%) of these
health careers courses were offered though a

116 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

TaBLE 1. Demographic data by district.

District

1 2 3 5 6 7
Demographic N % N % N % N % N % N % Totals
Sex
Female 56 49.1 84 57.5 63 56.3 66 57.9 94 54.7 62 40.8 425
Male 38 33.3 59 40.4 47 42.0 45 39.5 68 39.5 oo 36.2 3812
No response 2D INO 8 BN we ily 0 AD LI TS
Totals 114 146 112 114 172 152 810
Ethnic origin
Afro-American 10 9.0 3 Be ASG t 6 1 06 1 Aeon
Caucasian 80 72.) 129 890 101 91.0 84 79.2 150 880 133 89.8 677
Oriental 4 3.6 3 2.0 By 1.8 Do 4.7 4 2.3 2 14 20
Spanish American 7 68 1 08 hk Of 1 1.0 & Bye) 0 O 15
American Indian LOU SOR A 2s eS Po es Se 8 oer Val eG; Sag Aen 0 eet eS
Totals lll 145 111 106 171 148 792
Overall grades
A’s and B’s 55 48.7 70 48.6 59 53.2 52 46.9 78 46.7 80 53.3 3894
B’s and C’s 31 27.4 04 37.5 388 34.2 386 32.4 62 37.1 46 30.7 267
Mostly C’s 18 15.9 ll 7.6 We 10 ~=—«9.0 fie TA? 12 80 £66
C’s and D’s 9 8.0 8 8&6 8) Pa 10 9.0 14 84 Be). 52
D’s and F’s SHOR OOD *) BAW 07 GOT igi oT. Meee Gee te go
Totals 113 144 lll lll 167 150 796
Science grades
A’s and B’s 41 36.6 57 (389.3 538 47.3 47 41.9 79 47.3 76 51.0 353
B’s and C’s 31 27.6 41 28.3 33 29.4 34 30.4 42 25.1 386 24.2 217
Mostly C’s 18 16.1 Zon Wie2 16 143 16 143 8 48 17 11.4 100
C’s and D’s 18 16.1 Wy NL a 4 3.6 10 «89 19 11.4 ll 74 79
D’s and F’s ea Se ee We Ei a) G43
Totals 112 145 112 112 167 149 797
Are you considering a career in a health-care field?
Yes 28 Rei) 89 26.9 33 30.0 21 19.8 Soneeo el! 46 30.9 202
No on 50:9 54 37.2 50 45.5 66 60.5 89 53.6 59 39:6 875
Undecided 27 24 15235 Oi 2 24.8) 2.2) 2052) 51S AA 20 oe
Totals 112 145 110 109 166 149 791
Of those students considering a health career, these professions were selected:
Medical Tech. 8 11.4 14 141 12 15.0 ll 18.0 26 22.6 15 15.2 86
Nursing Wy 1/2 25 25.3 ll 13.7 13 (21.3 17 +148 8 OO. Sy
Other a) Ua) EG TLS CD) TSE SB IL
Totals 70 99 80 61 115 99 524
Are any members of student’s immediate family employed in the health-care field?
Yes 26 23.4 43 30.1 28 205.5 380 27.0 04 32.9 43 30.0 224
No ueky 1S UCD CN es Ay OD) Oral NON TOO see
Totals lll 143 110 lll 164 144 783
Would parents support or discourage a decision to pursue a career in health care?
Support 106 938 138 945 105 946 108 964 158 935 143 96.0 758
Discourage hi lO le we BD a BA tn A BG ML Gee) 6 40 £42

Totals 113 146 111 112 169 149 800

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND NURSING IN KENTucKy—Blackburn and Elliott

TABLE 1.

———————————————— ee ee
District

Demographic N % N %

Factors which might influence students to choose medical technology or nursing:

Salary 62 56.9 Ws)” Silo7/
Advancement 19 17.4 2 mlieS
Flexible hours 7 64 il Ae
Job security I NG 26 17.9
Status Gs SEE Tae! 5.0
Totals 109 145

Would you like more information about a career in medical technology or nursing?

Yes 51 45.5 78 54.5
No 61 545 65 45.5
Totals 112 143

117
Continued.
3 5 6 7

N % N % N % N % Totals
60 55.0 63 57.2 98 60.1 88 58.3 446
15 13.8 21 19.1 26 16.0 22 146 128
6 5.5 iif 6.4 14 8.6 10 6.6 55
19 17.4 6 5.5 18 11.0 21 138.9 107
© 68 28 18 2? 48; 20-66
109 110 163 151 787
52 48.6 49 445 65 39.9 64 48.5 359
55 514 61 55.5 98 601 83 56.5 423
107 110 163 147 782

See eee eee eee
Totals vary due to no response to some items.

vocational school which was not always located
in close proximity. The enrollment ranged from
5 to 15 students with a mean in the single digits.

Students were asked to rate their level of
knowledge about and attitudes toward a career
in medical technology. The frequency count
and percentage for each response are present-
ed in Table 2.

Over half (56%) were unsure of the starting
salary for a medical technologist. Only half
(50%) of the students felt that a medical tech-
nologist has much status. Nearly half (48%) of
the respondents were unsure whether or not
medical technologists work too many hours. A
small percentage (11%) of the students thought
that this profession is not very stressful.

Over half (59%) of all respondents thought
there are many opportunities for advancement
in medical technology. About one-third (37%)
of the students agreed with the statement that
“there is too much risk of infection, e.g. AIDS.”
One-third (35%) of the respondents were un-
sure of the required training for a medical
technologist.

Over two-thirds (69%) of the students had
not been told they were too talented to enter
the field of medical technology. Nearly two-
thirds (62%) of the respondents knew which
science courses are necessary for preparation
to be a medical technologist. Over half (58%)
knew that physicians diagnose patient illnesses
based on the results of lab testing by the med-
ical technologist. Nearly two-thirds (62%) of
the students knew that medical technologists
are not employed only in hospitals. Most stu-

dents (84%) think this field gives one a chance
to help others. Nearly three-fourths (73%) be-
lieve this career is for those who like the sci-
ences and enjoy laboratory work.

Using chi square analyses, responses were
compared between those students considering
a career in medical technology and those who
were not or undecided. It was statistically sig-
nificant that those students considering med-
ical technology knew that the medical tech-
nologist does not work only with blood products
(x2 = 14.62, df = 4, P < 0.006); a medical
technologist has much status (x? = 14.99, df
= 4, P < 0.005); a medical technologist works
too many hours (x? = 18.07, df = 4, P = 0.001);
there are many opportunities for advancement
(x2 = 10.41, df = 4, P < 0.034); the field does
not require too much training (x? = 37.11, df
= 4, P < 0.00); a medical technologist uses
principles from science courses when doing lab
testing (v2 = 13.76, df = 4, P <= 0.008); a
medical technologist is not employed only in
hospitals (x? = 11.13, df = 4, P = 0.025); and
a career in medical technology gives you a
chance to help others (x? = 18.56, df = 4, P
< 0.001).

In addition to the demographic questions,
students were asked to rate their level of
knowledge about and attitudes toward a career
in nursing. Table 3 reports the frequency count
and percentage for each nursing item on the
questionnaire.

When asked about a nurse's main respon-
sibility, three-fourths (76%) were unsure or dis-
agreed. Over half of the respondents (62%)

118

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(38—4)

TaBLE 2. Frequency count and percentage for each medical technology item.

10. A med tech works only with blood products.
11. The starting salary is $20,000.
12. A med tech has much status.
13. A med tech works too many hours.
14. This profession is not very stressful.
15. There are many opportunities for advancement.
16. There is too much risk of infections, e.g., AIDS.
17. This field requires too much training.
18. You have been told “you are too talented to
enter the field of medical technology.”
19. A med tech uses principles from
microbiology, biochemistry, immunology,
genetics, and physiology when doing tests.
20. Physicians diagnose patient illnesses based
on the results of lab testing by med tech.
21. Med techs are employed only in hospitals.
22. A career in medical technology gives you a
chance to help others.
23. This career choice is for those who like
the sciences and enjoy laboratory work.

355 44 142 18
3898 49 283 35 97 12 23 3 Ql

243 30 350 43 134 17 64 8 Nis} @

Based on a five-point Likert-type scale, where 1 = strongly disagree (SD); 2 = disagree (D); 3 = undecided (U); 4 = agree (A); and 5 = strongly agree (SA).

Totals vary due to no responses to some items.

were unsure or disagreed with this statement.
asked about opportunity for advancement in
a nursing career, over half of the students (52%)
were unsure or disagree with this statement.
Nearly two-thirds of the students (63%) were
unsure or felt there is too much risk of infection
when working in this field.

Continuing education for nurses in Ken-
tucky is mandatory, but many of the respon-
dents (65%) were unaware of this requirement.
When asked if nurses use principles from sci-
ence courses when giving patient care, about
half of the students (49%) were unsure or dis-
agreed.

Approximately two-thirds of the students
(69%) disagreed with the statement that “nurs-
ing is a career primarily for women.’ The ste-
reotype of a female nurse is apparently not as
prevalent today. Over half (57%) consider
nursing a highly respected profession which
gives one a chance to help others (86%).

Using chi square analyses, responses were
compared between those students considering
a career in the health care field and those who
were not or undecided. A larger percentage of
students not considering a health career was
unsure of a nurse’s starting salary (x? = 16.38,
df = 4, P = 0.003). These same students were
much less aware that there are many oppor-

tunities for advancement in nursing (x? = 36.33,
df = 4, P < 0.00); Those respondents not con-
sidering a health career were less knowledge-
able about the science courses needed by the
nurse when giving patient care (x? = 15.89;
df = 4, P < 0.008). Those students not con-
sidering a health career thought that nursing
“requires too much training,’ when in fact a
student can complete an associate degree nurs-
ing program in two years (x? = 45.78, df = 4,
P = 0.00).

DISCUSSION

From the data collection it appears that most
students have a positive attitude toward nurs-
ing but have some knowledge deficit about the
career itself. Those students not considering a
health career, or who are undecided, have a
significantly greater knowledge deficit about
nursing than those who are considering a health
career field. Through dissemination of knowl-
edge, students will be better able to make an
informed decision about their career choice.
Students need information about educational
preparation and professional opportunities that
are available. Education of students is neces-
sary so that they understand that good aseptic
technique and the use of “universal precau-
tions” will promote little or no chance of in-

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY AND NuRSING IN Kentucky—Blackburn and Elliott 119
TABLE 3. Frequency count and percentage for each nursing item.
SA A U D SD
N % N % N % N % N %
24. A nurse’s main duty is giving medications. 40 5 155 19 158 20 321 40 132 16
25. This is a career primarily for women. 47 6 129 16 75 9 305 38 249 31
26. A nurse has too much responsibility. 41 5 187 17 245 31 3819 40 S56 7
27. A nurse has much status. 58 6 159 20 322 40 202 25 69 9
28. The starting salary for a nurse is $20,000. 30 4 112 14 499 62 121 15 42 5
29. There are many opportunities for advancement. 101 18 285 35 249 31 127 16 40 5
30. There is too much risk of infection, e.g., AIDS. 91 11 169 21 2538 381 280 28 63 9
31. This field requires too much training. 54 7 116 14 284 29 389 42 66 8
32. You have been told “you are too talented
to enter the field of nursing.” GC 7 Cy Tk 20 Ye) Sh OO wo
33. Continuing education is mandatory in Ky. 120 15 157 20 285 35 183 17 105 18
34. The nurse is a physician’s helper. 1G If iy BE IPS IG: wl @ Mh 5B
35. Nursing is a highly respected profession. 151 19 299 388 169 21 139 18 36 4
36. A career in nursing gives you a chance to
help others. 412 52 268 34 tS. @ li/aueny 2 18 3
37. A nurse uses principles from anatomy,
physiology, chemistry, and microbiology
when giving patient care. 155 20 244 31 311 39 55 «7 25 3

Ce ee ee ree eee ee eee ee eee
Based on a five-point Likert-type scale, where 1 = strongly disagree (SD); 2 = disagree (D); 3 = undecided (U); 4 = agree (A); and 5 = strongly agree (SA).

Totals vary due to no responses to some items.

fection when working in these fields. Targeting
the high school population is critical as we
confront the national shortage of nurses and
medical technologists.

Making health care professions desirable is
very important. Since salaries are continuing
to increase, this information should be shared
with students considering a health career.
Knowledge of monetary reward may provide
an incentive for advancement. Competitive
salaries as well as benefits need to be advertised
so that students will be attracted to these re-
warding professions. Other enticements in-
clude tuition reimbursement programs offered
by many employers and flexible schedules such
as the Baylor Plan which allows a nurse to work
Monday through Friday only or work two 12-
hour shifts each weekend with full pay and
benefits.

The students surveyed appear to have some
perception and knowledge of the field of med-
ical technology. Since laboratories are having
staffing shortages, it is imperative that medical
technologists and guidance counselors thor-
oughly articulate the totality of the field to
these students. Students need to be informed
that the medical technologist is an integral part
of the health care team and a critical link in
the diagnosis and treatment of patients. This
scientific discipline requires cognitive and
technical skills and allows for professional flex-

ibility into such fields as computing, health
care administration, education, research, and
consulting. The long-standing title “medical
technologist” might be replaced by a more
appealing title such as “clinical laboratory sci-
entist or specialist.”

The majority of health careers courses are
taught in the vocational school. By offering this
course at the high school, it would be more
readily accessible to interested students.

In view of the decline in the number of 18-
to 24-year-olds seeking college education, all
science-based professions will compete for a
dwindling number of students. If medical
technologists, nurses and guidance counselors
inform high school students about these inter-
esting and challenging professions, students will
have the knowledge about these health-care
fields when choosing a career.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported by a grant from
the Faculty Research Committee of Western
Kentucky University. Constructive input was
given by Dr. Mary Hazzard and Dr. Valgene
Dunham when we were developing our ques-
tionnaire. Last but not least we wish to ac-
knowledge the capable assistance of Mr. Rob-
ert Cobb, Academic Computing and Research
Services Project Consultant, who conducted the
statistical analyses of our data.

120

LITERATURE CITED

1. Coleman, B. 1989. Worker shortage weakens U.S.
health care system. AARP News Bulletin 30(8):4.

2. Mass, D. 1988. Medical technologists: a vanishing
breed? Lab. Manag. 26:51-53.

3. Legislative Research Committee. 1989. Nursing
shortage is called threat to nation’s health. Kentucky Ho-
rizons 1:3.

4. Bergman, E. 1990. RN population seen declining
after the year 2000. Amer. J. Nursing 90:97, 110.

5. Snyder, J. and B. Bonke. 1987. Preprofessional
medical technology student career planning and counsel-
ing. Lab. Med. 18:781-785.

6. Castleberry, B., A. Kuby, and B. Bryant. 1989.
Wages and vacancy survey of medical laboratory positions
in 1988. Lab. Med. 20:226-332.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

7. Editors of Nursing 88. 1988. Nursing shortage poll
report. Nursing 88 18:33-41.

8. Starzynski, G. 1988. Staffing: problems and solu-
tions in 19 New England laboratories. Med. Lab. Obs. 20:
51-54.

9. Martin, B. and E. Reyes. 1988. The low image of
MTsas professionals: reasons and solutions. Med. Lab. Obs.
20:31-32.

10. Farrell, J. 1988. The changing pool of candidates
for nursing. J. Prof. Nursing 4:145, 230.

11. King, P. and T. Sherman. 1990. Recruitment tar-
get: the guidance counselor connection. Nursing Manag.
21:38-9, 42, 44.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 121-126

Seasonal, Sexual, and Size Class Variation in the Diet of the
Kentucky Darter, Etheostoma rafinesquei
(Pisces: Percidae), in Middle Pitman Creek, Kentucky

GorDON K. WEDDLE

Department of Biology, Campbellsville College, Campbellsville, Kentucky 42718-2799

ABSTRACT

Food habits of Etheostoma rafinesquei were determined using monthly samples from Middle Pitman
Creek, KY (Aug 1986-Jul 1987). A total of 9,637 food organisms was identified from 153 adults (>29.9 mm
SL; 70 males, 83 females) and 15 juveniles (<30 mm SL). The predominant foods of adults and juveniles
were larval midges (Diptera, Chironomidae; 91.8 and 80.2% of the total, respectively) and microcrustaceans
(Cladocera, Copepoda, and Ostracoda; 4.2 and 16.0%). Seasonally important foods included dipteran pupae,
aquatic mites (Hydracarina), and larval Trichoptera. Significantly more food items were consumed during
autumn (Sep-Nov) and late spring (Apr-May) than in summer (Jul-Aug) and winter (Dec-Jan). Adult males
and females consumed similar numbers of food items during all periods of the year except Feb-May, when
females consumed statistically greater numbers of food items than males (F = 6.132, P < 0.001). This
difference is interpreted as evidence that females compensate for reproductive energy losses by augmented

feeding.

INTRODUCTION

The Kentucky darter, Etheostoma rafines-
quei Burr and Page, 1982, is endemic to the
lower Barren and upper Green river drainages
in southcentral Kentucky where it is common
in upland streams (1, 2, 3). Although this col-
orful fish was recognized as a distinct form long
before its original description (3), little is known
of its ecology or that of other species assigned
by Page (4) to the subgenus Nanostoma and
commonly known as snubnose darters. Six of
8 species of snubnose darter known to occur
in Kentucky (2) have been named in the last
10 years (3, 5, 6).

Published accounts of E. rafinesquei are lim-
ited to reports on reproductive biology (7, 8,
9, 10, 11), brief life history notes included in
species accounts (1, 2, 3, 12), and discussions
of zoogeography (2, 13). This report of food
habits is largely excerpted from my doctoral
dissertation on the life history of E. rafinesquei
(14).

In this study, I compare diets of juvenile and
adult E. rafinesquei and examine seasonal and
sexual variation in diets of adult fish. I discuss
sex-specific differences in diets of adults in the
context of differential expenditures of energy
on reproduction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Approximately monthly samples of E. rafi-
nesquei were collected from Middle Pitman

Creek (Green River drainage), Taylor Co., KY
(August 1986-July 1987). From August 1986
to June 1987, minnow seine collections were
made at the Kentucky Highway 289 bridge
(Station 1; 5.5 km NNW of Campbellsville).
Drought made it impossible to collect from this
site after June 1987, and a second site (Station
2; Salem Church Road bridge; 6 km NW of
Campbellsville, about 8 km downstream from
Station 1) was utilized for the July 1987 col-
lection.

Fish were fixed in 10% formalin and pre-
served in 70% ethanol. Formalin solutions were
buffered to pH 7.0 with calcium carbonate.
Specimens are housed in the fish collections of
the Department of Zoology at Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale and of the Biology
Department at Campbellsville College.

All collected adults and juveniles were sexed
by examination of external morphology and
gonads. Standard length (SL) was measured
with a vernier caliper (+0.05 mm); eviscerated
body weight (WT, blotted dry weight of al-
cohol-stored specimen with stomach, intestine,
liver, and gonads removed) was determined
with an analytical balance (+0.001 gm).

Stomachs were examined from 153 adult
and large yearling fish (>29.9 mm SL; 70 males,
83 females), 15 juveniles (<30.0 mm SL) col-
lected at Station 1 (August 1986-June 1987)
and Station 2 (July 1987), and 2 larval fish
(Station 2, June 1988). The number of food

121

122 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)
TRICHOPTERA CLADOCERA
1.3 1.7
OSTRACODA ACARINA OSTRACODA
2.6 8 8
COPEPODA
CLADOCERA 113 DIPTERAN PUPAE COPEPODA
: 1.2 2.2
21
OTHER
EPHEMEROPTERA 2
2.1
ACARINA
2.0
CHIRONOMIDAE CHIRONOMIDAE
80.2 91.8
Juveniles Adults
Fic. 1. Percent composition of diet for juvenile (<30 mm SL; n = 15) and adult (> 29.9 mm SL; n = 153) E. rafinesquei

from Middle Pitman Creek, Taylor Co., KY (Aug 1986-Jul 1987). Numbers represent % of total food items consumed.

items/stomach was recorded by counting whole
organisms or recognizable parts, such as head
capsules of midge larvae (Diptera: Chironom-
idae). Nematodes were not considered food
items, because they frequently parasitize chi-
ronomid larvae (15, 16). Many chironomid lar-
vae removed from stomachs of E. rafinesquei
contained nematode parasites, and I could not
be certain whether nematodes found in darter
stomachs were parasites or food.

Bivariate regression analysis (Pearson's
product moment correlations) was used to ex-
amine the relationship between WT and total
number of food items consumed. Following
the finding that WT was not significantly re-
lated to mean number of food organisms con-
sumed (r = —0.177, n = 158), individuals of
all sizes, except obvious juveniles, were lumped
for analyses. Two-way ANOVA was used to
examine temporal and sexual differences in
mean total numbers of organisms consumed.
Statistical analyses were performed using
BIOSTAT I (17). Hypotheses were rejected at
the 5% level. Normality of distributions was
determined by Kolmogoroy-Smirnov D tests.
ANOVA was used to determine equality of

means. Student-Newman-Keuls multiple range
tests (SNK) were used to compare means.

RESULTS

A total of 9,637 food items was identified
(August 1986-June 1987, Station 1; July 1987,
Station 2). The diet of E. rafinesquei (Fig. 1)
is similar to that reported for other benthic
percids (18). Adults (n = 153) and juveniles (n
= 15) consumed mostly chironomid larvae (91.8
and 80.2% of the total number of food items,
respectively; Fig. 1), but juveniles relied more
heavily on microcrustaceans than did adults
(16.0 and 4.7%, respectively). The smallest fish
examined (12.3 and 12.4 mm total length; June
1988, Station 2) consumed very small, presum-
ably first instar chironomid larvae (78.9% of
total) and microcrustaceans. The stomach of
one of these individuals contained a first instar
ephemeropteran naiad which was too small to
identify to family.

In every month, except January and Feb-
ruary, midge larvae were consumed by 90%
or more of examined fish (Table 1). When in-
dividuals with empty stomachs were excluded,
one or more midge larvae were found in 98.0%

123

Diet oF KENTUCKY DarTER—Weddle

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oS = = = = = = = — 0:0z G19 00S BPpoode.1}sO
(880) (0€'T) (90'0) (10) (OF T) (LZ'8) (883) (F9'T)
= 0'SZ 00F = = = 9G SFI Z OF eisy 8S PPP B1Q00pe[D
BIOBISNAT)
6 1nf g unf Or Aew OI dy oI 1eW ST 994 8 uef FT 09d 81 AON ST PO €T dag 8T 3ny A1080}e9

uisIues1I0 poo

‘yuo! Japun posi]
ale sazis ajduieg ‘yoeuioys 1od wislues10 pooj & Jo JaquINU UvoUT oY} oe slaquINU dNeyUeIeg ‘peiind90 A10Ba}e9 poo} YORa YOIYM UT syORUIO}s Jo aseJUBOIEd se
pequesaid are eyed ‘(L861 [D{-9861 B8NY) AM “0D s0jAey, “yoorD uewyig a[PPIN Wor; (TS WU 6 6Z<) tanbsauyps DWWOJSsOaYIq INpe JO syUaJUOD YORUIOYS =| ATAV],

124

TOTAL FOOD ITEMS

Y
y
,
y
,
y
y
,
y
y
y
Hy
y

MAIBBaeaas

O

WABaBVaas

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(8—4)

[] Males
| Females

4} Combined

ISN NNSA SASSY
LLABBRABABeeeesaay

=a
SSS NSNNSI

IN {D) J F

MONTH OF COLLECTION

Fic. 2. Seasonal variation in mean total number of food items consumed by adult E. rafinesquei (Middle Pitman
Creek, Taylor Co., KY; Aug 1986-Jul 1987). Open bar = males; closed bar = females; striped bar = sexes combined.

of adult stomachs. Copepod crustaceans were
also an important temporally stable food source,
occurring in 28.2% of the adult fish examined
and in every month except June. From August
to October, copepods were found in more than
50% of examined stomachs (Table 1). Although
chironomid midge larvae and copepods were
staples of the diet of E. rafinesquei, other food
organisms were seasonally important (Table 1).

Cladocerans and ostracods were important
foods, particularly during autumn (August-
November), when 54.4% of the sampled adults
consumed cladocerans and 32.9% consumed
ostracods (Table 1). Mites (Hydracarina) were
present in 84.6% of stomachs in September
(Table 1). Immature caddisflies and mayflies
were found in stomachs throughout the year
but, generally, were of low incidence (Table
1). More darters consumed caddisflies and
mayflies during spring and summer than in
autumn and winter (Table 1). Most often, the
caddisflies and mayflies found in stomachs were
small individuals not substantially larger than
chironomid larvae. During the period from
March-April, which coincides roughly with the
spawning season (9), 68.4% of adults consumed
small purse caddisfly larvae of the family Hy-
droptilidae. These were not found in stomachs
of adults during any other month of the year
and, presumably, could represent an important
dietary supplement during the spawning sea-
son. Dipteran pupae were most often con-
sumed during autumn and spring and were
particularly common in October (86.7%, Table
DE

The mean number of food items in stomachs
of adult fish was 59.2 (n = 153, SE = 5.5). The
greatest number of items found in any indi-
vidual was 357 (45.8-mm male collected in
November). The stomach of this individual
contained only chironomid midge larvae.
Empty stomachs were found only in fish col-
lected during December (n = 2) and January
(n = 4).

The mean number of food items found in
stomachs of adult fish varied significantly with
month of collection (Table 1 and Fig. 2; F =
8.019, P < 0.001). Stomachs of adult darters
contained significantly greater numbers of food
organisms (SNK) during autumn (September-
November) and late spring (April-May) than
in other seasons. During winter (December—
January) and mid-summer (July-August) feed-
ing was substantially and abruptly curtailed
(Fig. 2).

Adult males and females did not differ sig-
nificantly in total numbers of food items con-
sumed during the year (F = 0.238, P = 0.632)
but did differ in the numbers of items con-
sumed during the period from February to
May when females consumed more food items
than males (F = 6.132, P < 0.001). During
this period, the intensity of feeding was lowest
in February and increased to a maximum in
May (F = 3.156, P = 0.036; Fig. 2) in males
and females (F = 1.3876, P = 0.265). However,
males fed at declining rates during the first 8
months of the period (Fig. 2). During autumn
(August-November), males and females con-
sumed statistically similar numbers of food

Diet oF KENTUCKY DaRTER—Weddle

items (F = 0.542, P = 0.529), and feeding
intensity of both sexes increased to a maximum
in November (F = 8.780, P < 0.001).

DISCUSSION

Etheostoma rafinesquei is a benthic inver-
tivore feeding principally on chironomid lar-
vae and microcrustaceans. Similar diets have
been reported for other species of the subgenus
Nanostoma, including E. baileyi (19), E. coos-
ae (20), E. etnieri (21), E. pyrrhogaster (22),
E. simoterum (28), E. zonale (15, 24, 25, 26),
and E. zonistium (22).

Three species of the subgenus Nanostoma,
including E. baileyi (19), E. pyrrhogaster (22),
and E. zonistium (22), exhibit summer feeding
maxima. Spring feeding maxima have been
reported for E. etnieri (21) and E. simoterum
(23). Etheostoma rafinesquei appears most
similar to E. simoterum, exhibiting maximum
feeding intensity during autumn and spring.
Page and Mayden (23) concluded that winter
and summer declines in feeding were the result
of lessened activity during periods of extreme-
ly high or low water temperature. It is also
possible that autumn and spring increases in
feeding intensity mirror seasonal changes in
benthic macroinvertebrate abundance and
biomass (27). The absence or paucity of dip-
teran pupae in stomachs of summer- and win-
ter-collected-fish (Table 1) coupled with the
relatively high frequencies of occurrence of
pupae in stomachs of fish collected during Oc-
tober (86.7%), April (60.0%), and May (50.0%),
is interpreted as evidence that two major pe-
riods of dipteran emergence occurred. If, al-
though a tenuous assumption, this is true, then
low levels of feeding in summer and winter
may reflect low macroinvertebrate abun-
dances. The mid-summer decline in feeding
by adult E. rafinesquei observed during this
study (Fig. 2) may have been influenced by
drought during the summer of 1987, but be-
cause both years of my study (14) encompassed
an extremely dry period in Kentucky (pers.
comm., K. Ruhle, USGS), no baseline food hab-
it data are available for years of more typical
flow. Evidence that changes in discharge can
affect feeding has been presented by Clayton
(19) who reported relatively small numbers of
food items in stomachs of E. baileyi during his
spring samples and concluded that reduced
feeding was related to increased discharge.
Craddock (28) reported that feeding by band-

125

ed sculpin, Cottus carolinae, was curtailed
during periods of high discharge.

Periods of maximum food consumption by
adult E. rafinesquei generally coincided, as
should be expected, with periods of maximum
weight gain (Fig. 2, 14), but this was not true
for breeding adult females. During the spawn-
ing seasons of 1987 and 1988, females grew at
declining rates (14), but, during the spawning
season of 1988, they consumed significantly
more food items than males (Fig. 2). Differ-
ences in growth patterns of adult male and
female E. rafinesquei have been attributed, in
part, to differential expenditures of energy for
reproduction (14), but sex-specific differences
in adult size are not as large as should have
been expected based on numbers of eggs pro-
duced (9). Adult female E. rafinesquei appar-
ently compensate for energy expended on re-
production by increasing food consumption but
not sufficiently to recoup spawning-related en-
ergy losses completely.

Etheostoma rafinesquei is a multiple spawn-
ing fish for which clutch size and, presumably,
energy expenditures vary predictively during
the spawning season (9). If female E. rafines-
quei compensate for reproductive energy ex-
penditures by augmented feeding, numbers of
food items consumed should be positively cor-
related with clutch size and should vary pre-
dictively during the spawning season. Future
investigations of the cost of reproduction in
fishes will best further our understanding of
the evolution of reproductive strategies if es-
timates of feeding intensity are correlated with
simultaneous estimates of fecundity. Studies
that examine within season variation in batch
fecundity and feeding intensity will likely be
the most productive.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The body of this paper was originally draft-
ed as a chapter in my doctoral dissertation at
Southern Illinois University. I am indebted to
Brooks M. Burr, who served as chair of my
committee, for providing encouragement and
advice throughout the project, and for reading
earlier versions of the paper. Other committee
members including Ronald A. Brandon, Beth
Middleton, M. Ann Phillippi, and John B. Stahl
provided useful critiques of earlier versions of
the manuscript. I sincerely appreciate the ef-
forts of Roger Farmer, Richard Kessler, and
Pam Morris, who provided invaluable assis-

126

tance with field work. I thank Kelly Milby for
reading the manuscript and for providing sec-
retarial assistance. Financial support was pro-
vided by the Science Division and Faculty De-
velopment Committee of Campbellsville
College.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Burr, B. M. and L. M. Page. 1983. Etheostoma
rafinesquei. Page 685.5. In D. S. Lee, C. R. Gilbert, C. H.
Hocutt, R. E. Jenkins, D. E. McAllister, and J. R. Stauffer,
Jr. (eds.) Atlas of North American freshwater fishes. North
Carolina State Mus. Nat. Hist.

2. Burr, B. M. and M. L. Warren, Jr. 1986. A distri-
butional atlas of Kentucky fishes. Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission, Sci. Tech. Ser. No. 4. 398 pp.

3. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1982. Three new
species of darters (Percidae, Etheostoma) of the subgenus
Nanostoma from Kentucky and Tennessee. Occas. Pap.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ. Kansas No. 101. 20 pp.

4. Page, L. M. 1981. The genera and subgenera of
darters (Percidae, Etheostomatini). Occas. Pap. Mus. Nat.
Hist. Univ. Kansas No. 90. 69 pp.

5. Bailey, R. M. and D. A. Etnier. 1988. Comments
on the subgenera of darters (Percidae) with descriptions
of two new species of Etheostoma (Ulocentra) from south-
eastern United States. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. Mich-
igan No. 175. 48 pp.

6. Etnier, D. A. and R. M. Bailey. 1989. Etheostoma
(Ulocentra) flavum, a new darter from the Tennessee and
Cumberland river drainages. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool., Univ.
Michigan No. 717. 23 pp.

7. Stiles, R. A. 1974. The reproductive behavior of
the Green and Barren river Ulocentra (Osteichthyes: Per-
cidae: Etheostoma). Assoc. Southeast. Biol. Bull. 21:86-
87.

8. Weddle, G. K. 1990. Spawning orientation pref-
erences of the Kentucky snubnose darter: an in-stream
study of Etheostoma rafinesquei. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci.
51:159-165.

9. Weddle, G. K. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Fecundity
and the dynamics of spawning in darters: an in-stream
study of Etheostoma rafinesquei. Copeia 1991:419-435.

10. Winn, H. E. 1958. Comparative reproductive be-
havior and ecology of fourteen species of darters (Pisces-
Percidae). Ecol. Monogr. 28:155-191.

11. Winn, H. E. 1958. Observations on the reproduc-
tive habits of darters (Pisces-Percidae). Amer. Mid]. Nat.
59:190-212.

12. Kuehne, R. A. and R. W. Barbour. 1983. The
American darters. University Press of Kentucky, Lexing-
ton, Kentucky.

13. Burr, B. M. and L. M. Page. 1986. Zoogeography
of fishes of the lower Ohio-upper Mississippi basin. Pp.
287-327. In C. H. Hocutt and E. O. Wiley (eds.) The

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zoogeography of North American freshwater fishes. John
Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

14. Weddle, G. K. 1991. Life history of the Kentucky
snubnose darter, Etheostoma rafinesquei (Pisces: Perci-
dae), with emphasis on reproductive biology. Unpubl. Ph.D.
Dissertation. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Il-
linois.

15. Adamson, S. W. and T. E. Wissing. 1977. Food
habits and feeding periodicity of the rainbow, fantail, and
banded darters in Four Mile Creek. Ohio J. Sci. 77:164—
169.

16. LeSage, L. and A. D. Harrison. 1980. The biology
of Cricotopus (Chironomidae: Orthocladiinae) in an algal-
enriched stream: Part II. Effects of parasitism. Arch. Hy-
drobiol. /Suppl. 58:1-25.

17. Pimentel, H. A. and J. D. Smith. 1986. BIOSTAT
I. Sigma Soft, Placentia, California.

18. Page, L.M. 1983. Handbook of darters. TFH Pub-
lications Inc., Ltd., Neptune City, New Jersey.

19. Clayton, J. M. 1984. Population differences and
life history of the emerald darter, Etheostoma baileyi (Pi-
sces: Percidae). Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

20. O'Neil, P. E. 1981. Life history of Etheostoma
coosae (Pisces: Percidae) in Barbaree Creek, Alabama. Tu-
lane. Stud. Zool. Bot. 23:75-83.

21. Hicks, D. T. 1990. Distribution and life history
aspects of the cherry darter, Etheostoma etnieri (Osteich-
thyes: Percidae). Unpubl. M.S. Thesis. Tennessee Tech-
nological University, Cookville, Tennessee.

22. Carney, D. A. and B. M. Burr. 1989. The life
history of the bandfin darter, Etheostoma zonistium, and
the firebelly darter, Etheostoma pyrrhogaster, in western
Kentucky. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes No. 134. 16 pp.

23. Page, L. M. and R. L. Mayden. 1981. The life
history of the Tennessee snubnose darter, Etheostoma si-
moterum, in Brush Creek, Tennessee. II]. Nat. His. Surv.
Biol. Notes No. 117. 11 pp.

24. Cordes, L. E. and L. M. Page. 1980. Feeding
chronology and diet composition of two darters (Percidae)
in the Iroquois River system, Illinois. Amer. Midl. Nat.
104:202-206.

25. Forbes, S. A. and R. E. Richardson.
fishes of Illinois, 2nd ed. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.

26. Wynes, D. L. and T. E. Wissing. 1982. Resource
sharing among darters in an Ohio stream. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 107:294-304.

27. Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. The ecology of running
waters. Oxford University Press. Oxford, England.

28. Craddock, J. E. 1965. Some aspects of the life
history of the banded sculpin, Cottus carolinae carolinae,
in Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky. Unpubl. Ph.D.
Dissertation. University of Louisville, Louisville, Ken-
tucky.

1920. The

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(8-4), 1992, 127-182

New Distributional Records for Selected Species of
Kentucky Mammals

Les MEADE

Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Morehead State University
Morehead, Kentucky 40351

ABSTRACT
New distributional records are presented for 10 species of mammals from Kentucky; these include new
county records for Sorex hoyi winnemana, Sorex longirostris, Parascalops breweri, Myotis septentrionalis,
Lasionycteris noctivagans, Plecotus rafinesquii, Plecotus townsendii virginianus, Napaeozapus insignis,

Mustela nivalis and Spilogale putorius.

Six of these species are listed as endangered, threatened or rare by the United States Fish and Wildlife
Service and/or by the Endangered Species Committee of the Kentucky Academy of Science and Kentucky

Nature Preserves Commission (KAS-KNPC).

INTRODUCTION

New distributional records have been re-
corded in recent years for several small Ken-
tucky mammals. These records were observed
and photographed, collected by hand, or col-
lected with standard procedures; several spec-
imens were brought in by domestic cats. New
county records are listed below for Sorex hoyi
winnemana, S. longirostris, Parascalops brew-
eri, Myotis septentrionalis, Lasionycteris noc-
tivagans, Plecotus rafinesquii, P. townsendii
virginianus, Napaeozapus insignis, Mustela
nivalis and Spilogale putorius. These include
the first records of N. insignis and M. nivalis
for northeastern Kentucky, and verify the
presence of S. longirostris, P. rafinesquii and
P. t. virginianus in the region.

SPECIES ACCOUNTS
Pygmy Shrew, Sorex hoyi winnemana (Preble)

This shrew, formerly known as Microsorex
hoyi winnemana, was transferred to the Genus
Sorex by Diersing (1). Sorex hoyi winnemana
is listed in category C2 (Status Review) by the
United States Fish and Wildlife Service (2).
Barbour (3) and Barbour and Davis (4) re-
ported that a specimen found in the mammal
collection at the University of Kentucky was
labeled as “Ky., Dec. 30, 1904. S. hoyi? Mil-
ler.” Apparently, this specimen was collected
by Dr. Arthur Miller, but no collecting site or
other information were given. Guilday et al.
(5) reported that jaw and skull fragments of S.
hoyi were found in Pleistotocene deposits from
Welsh Cave in Woodford County. However,

the first recent specimens of S. hoyi with col-
lection data were collected at Bad Branch in
Letcher County (6). Harker et al. (7) included
records for Breckinridge, Greenup, Harlan,
Ohio and Warren counties. Additional records
have been reported for Breathitt County (Rob-
inson Forest) (8); McCreary and Pulaski coun-
ties (9); Bell, Boyle, Bullitt, Grayson, Jackson,
Madison, Rockcastle, Rowan and Wolfe coun-
ties (10); and Bath, Leslie, Menifee, Pike and
Wayne counties (11). New county records in
the MSU Vertebrate Collection included spec-
imens from Lewis County (2 mi N of Camp
Dix) and Morgan County (along Craney Creek,
nr. Craney) (Fig. 1).

Southeastern Shrew, Sorex longirostris
Bachman

The southeastern shrew was first collected
in Kentucky at Bernheim Forest in Bullitt
County (12). Barbour and Davis (4) added re-
cords for Caldwell, Calloway, Livingston and
Meade counties. Additional records are known
for Hardin County (headwaters of East Rhudes
Creek) and Henry County (nr. the Kentucky
River) (13); Carlisle, Franklin, Henderson,
Hickman, Knox and McLean counties (7); Bal-
lard and McCracken counties (Ohio River
floodplain) (14); Barren, Grayson, Hancock and
Ohio counties (8); Montgomery County (Foley
Hollow) (15); and Anderson, Bell, Breckin-
ridge, Fulton, Graves, Madison, Marshall, Met-
calfe, Morgan, Muhlenberg, Nelson, Oldham,
Rowan, Shelby, Washington and Whitley
counties (11). New county records in the MSU
Vertebrate Collection included specimens from

127

128

C

SS
SSN ey 5 BLOWS
Ne careety nace,

TAR Keele"

(GACT

hae
Sea Cae
SEROTEC ey acute
Myotis septentrionalis

Fic. 1. Distributional records for Sorex hoyi winnemana,
Sorex longirostris, Parascalops breweri and Myotis sep-
tentrionalis in Kentucky.

Bath County (Hog Hollow, .3 mi S of Cave
Run Dam) (Fig. 1).

Hairy-tailed Mole, Parascalops breweri
(Bachman)

This species was first reported for Kentucky
by Welter and Sollberger (16) based on spec-
imens found along Triplett Creek, nr. Clear-
field, Rowan County. Additional county re-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

cords have been reported for Harlan County
(Big Black Mountain) (17); Breathitt County
(Robinson Forest) (18); Rockcastle County (.5
mi SW of Morrill) (19); Bell and Carter coun-
ties (4); Pulaski County (nr. Plato) (20); and
Powell County (10). New county records in
the MSU Vertebrate Collection included spec-
imens from Elliott County (Ky 7, ca. .4 mi NE
of Newfoundland), Lewis County (Firebrick),
Letcher County (Bill Moore Branch) and Mor-
gan County (Ky 191, Cannel City) (Fig. 1).

Northern Long-eared Bat,
Myotis septentrionalis (Trouessart)

This species is sporadically found in Ken-
tucky caves and rock crevices. It is always found
in small numbers; however, while mist-netting
with Dave Fassler at Sloan’s Valley Cave near
Somerset in the fall of 1973, we netted 15-20
of these bats within an hour as they entered
the cave. Myotis septentrionalis is listed by
the Endangered Species Committee of the
Kentucky Academy of Science and Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission (KAS-KNPC) in
category S (Special Concern) (2). It was re-
ported by Barbour and Davis (4) from Breck-
inridge, Crittenden, Edmonson, Elliott, Jeffer-
son, Meade and Pulaski counties. Their Pulaski
County records coincide with those of Fassler
(20). Additional county records have been re-
ported for Bell County (Cumberland Gap Na-
tional Historical Park) (21); Franklin and Lee
counties (7); McCreary (22); Menifee County
(West Fork) (15); and Adair, Bullitt, Carter,
Estill, Jackson, Jessamine, Metcalfe, Montgom-
ery, Powell and Rockcastle counties (10). New
county records in the MSU Vertebrate Collec-
tion included specimens from Morgan County
(Mine Branch Cave) and Rowan County (Clack
Mountain Railroad Tunnel); specimens listed
by FWIS (Fish and Wildlife Information Sys-
tem) included new county records for Hen-
derson and Breathitt counties; specimens col-
lected by John MacGregor and James Kiser on
Big Black Mountain were new county records
for Harlan County (Fig. 1).

Silver-haired Bat,
Lasionycteris noctivagans (LeConte)

The silver-haired bat, an uncommon species,
is usually found in rock crevices at the mouth
of caves. Funkhouser (23) reported this species
from the Cumberland River in Bell County.

DIsTRIBUTION OF KENTUCKY MAMMALS—Meade

Welter and Sollberger (16) found a specimen
in Morehead, Rowan County. Barbour and Da-
vis (4) added records for Clark, Edmonson,
Jefferson and Pulaski counties. Their Pulaski
County records coincide with those of Fassler
(20). Bryan and MacGregor (24) reported ad-
ditional records for Carter, Harlan, Jackson,
Lee, Letcher and Rockcastle counties. Camp-
bell et al. (10) found a specimen in Powell
County. New county records in the MSU Ver-
tebrate Collection included specimens from
Menifee County (Murder Branch Cave), Mor-
gan County (Mine Branch Cave) and Lewis
County (2 mi N of Camp Dix) (Fig. 2).

Virginia Big-eared bat, Plecotus townsendii
virginianus Handley

This subspecies is rare in Kentucky and is
listed on the KAS-KNPC and federal lists as
Endangered (2). The first authentic Kentucky
record for this bat was given by Welter and
Sollberger (16). They found a single specimen
at X-Cave, Carter Caves State Park, Carter
County; the bat was examined and identified,
but subsequently escaped (25). Barbour (26)
reported specimens from a cave at Natural
Bridge State Park in Powell County; Barbour
(27) added records for Lee, Estill and Jackson
counties. Additional records have been re-
ported for Wolfe County (4), and Menifee,
Morgan and Rowan counties (10). A new coun-
ty record is known for Rockcastle County
(FWIS).

The original specimens for Menifee, Morgan
and Rowan counties were found during field
surveys that included myself, Harry Pawel-
cezyk, John MacGregor, Matt Meadows and John
Donahue. At the Clack Mountain Railroad
Tunnel in Rowan County, a single specimen
was found in the early 1980s. At Murder Branch
Cave in Menifee County, 3 bats were found
on 5 February 1982 and one on | February
1984; at Donahue Sandstone Cave in Morgan
County, 3 bats were found on 1 February 1984
and 2 on 17 March 1986 (Fig. 2).

Eastern Big-eared Bat, Plecotus rafinesquii
Lesson

This somewhat uncommon species is placed
on the KAS-KNPC list in category T (Threat-
ened) and on the federal list in category C2
(Status Review). It was first recorded for Ken-
tucky by Garman (28), after a specimen was

129

sees PX GER
Se aise
SS ar es

aad)

LX?
cA STAY
CAs to

CG vey
hen eS ag
ROE

ee Rea,
Nine urcaty area's

Py TT AAR pel Vere
Napaeozapus insignis

Fic. 2. Distributional records for Lasionycteris nocti-
vagans, Plecotus townsendii virginianus, Plecotus rafi-
nesquii and Napaeozapus insignis in Kentucky.

found in Bowling Green, Warren County.
Hamilton (29) reported a specimen from
Breathitt County (Quicksand). Additional
county records have been reported for Breath-
itt County (Robinson Forest) (26, 18); Edmon-
son County (Mammoth Cave National Park)
(30); Lee County (Old Landing) (25); Pulaski
County (Sloan’s Valley Cave; cave ca. 7.7 km
ESE of Somerset; and abandoned house 3.2 km

130

WSW of Ingle) (31, 20); Carter, Estill, Jackson,
Rockcastle and Wayne counties (4); Carlisle
County (7); McCreary County (22); Menifee,
Morgan, Powell and Rowan counties (10); and
Ballard County (32). New county records are
known for Adair, Barren, Clay, Floyd, Hart,
Jessamine, Laurel, Leslie, Letcher, Metcalfe,
Perry, Russell, Taylor, Wolfe and Woodford
counties (John MacGregor, U.S. Forest Service
document; FWIS records).

On 19 February 1982, a colony of 15 bats
was found in Rowan County at the Clack
Mountain Railroad Tunnel; on 1 February
1984, this site was revisited and 8 bats were
found. Another significant find was the dis-
covery of a larger population at Donahue
Sandstone Cave in Morgan County; this is one
of the largest known colonies that occurs in
Kentucky. In February of 1982, 61 specimens
of P. rafinesquii were found at Donahue Sand-
stone Cave; in February of 1984, 134 speci-
mens were counted; in January of 1986, 118
were identified. Other than big-eared bats, this
cave also provided shelter for Myotis lucifu-
gus, Eptesicus fuscus, Pipistrellus subflavus,
and Neotoma floridana magister (Fig 2).

Woodland Jumping Mouse,
Napaeozapus insignis (Miller)

This species was first reported for Kentucky
by Barbour (33, 17) based on specimens from
Harlan County (Big Black Mountain). Barbour
and Davis (4) listed additional records for Les-
lie and Elliott counties. The Elliott County
specimens were actually found in the Shop
Branch of Minor Creek on the Morgan-Rowan
County line in Rowan County; they were shown
to Dr. Barbour while he was in Morehead. Two
individuals were found while they were hi-
bernating beneath a small sandstone boulder
in a rock shelter. In 1979, Davis and Barbour
(34) reported new records from Bell County
(Cumberland Gap National Historical Park),
Letcher County (Letcher) and McCreary
County (Rock Creek; and Ky 92, at W side of
Big South Fork). Caldwell (6) collected spec-
imens at Bad Branch in Letcher County. Hout-
cooper (35) summarized all known records and
collected additional records from Breathitt
County (Robinson Forest), Madison County
(Berea College Forest), Menifee County (Red
River Gorge), Martin County (tributary of Tug
Fork, N of Warfield) and Wolfe County (Red

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

River Gorge). Campbell et al. (10) collected a
specimen in Lee County. New county records
in the MSU Vertebrate Collection included
specimens from Bath County (Glady Hollow),
Elliott County (Big Caney Creek), Lewis
County (2 mi N of Camp Dix) and Morgan
County (Craney Creek, nr. Craney) (Fig 2).

Least Weasel, Mustela nivalis Linnaeus

This species is known from 8 published re-
ports. It is listed on the KAS-KNPC list in cat-
egory S (Special Concern) (2). Specimens are
known from Letcher County (Letcher) (34);
Woodford County (Ky 1685, ca. 0.2 km N of
US 421) (36); and Madison County (Richmond)
(37). David (87) found six skulls in barn owl
pellets he examined in Madison County. The
recent discovery of this species in several coun-
ties indicates that the least weasel is probably
not endangered or threatened in eastern Ken-
tucky. New county records are based on spec-
imens in the MSU Vertebrate Collection from
Elliott County (Ky 7, ca. 0.4 mi NE of New-
foundland), Fleming County (nr. Ringos Mills),
Lewis County (2 mi N of Camp Dix) and Row-
an County (Clay Lick Boat Ramp); FWIS re-
cords from Harrison, Owen and Scott counties;
records from Jessamine and Fayette counties
(John MacGregor, pers. comm.); and a record
from North-Central 4-H Camp, Nicholas
County (Jennifer Lynn, pers. comm.) (Fig. 3).

Spotted Skunk, Spilogale putorius (Linnaeus)

The spotted skunk is a rare species in Ken-
tucky. It is included on the KAS-KNPC list in
category S (Special Concern) (4). Specimens
are known from Rowan County (16); Bell, El-
liott and McCreary counties (4); and Hender-
son County (nr. Ky 359, ca. 2 mi SW of Smith
Mills) (38). Harker, et al. (7) cited additional
records for Campbell and Martin counties.
Campbell et al. (10) reported specimens from
Knott, Laurel, Powell, Pulaski, Wayne and
Wolfe counties. A specimen on display at
Morehead State University is a new county
record for Morgan County (Fig. 3).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks and appreciation to John Mac-
Gregor, Harry Pawelczyk, Matt Meadows, John
Donahue, Tim Slone, Greg Eldridge, James
Kiser, Charles Mason, Ted Adams and former
mammalogy students at Morehead State Uni-

DISTRIBUTION OF KENTUCKY MAMMALS—Meade

Spilogale putorius

Fic. 3. Distributional records for Mustela nivalis and
Spilogale putorius in Kentucky.

versity for their assistance in the field; to John
MacGregor for access to FWIS records, U.S.
Forest Service records and field notes; to Bren-
da Hamm for help with additional FWIS re-
cords; and to Jennifer Lynn, North-Central 4-H
Camp, Carlisle, Kentucky for her observations.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Diersing, V. E. 1980. Systematics and Evolution of
the Pygmy Shrews (Subgenus Microsorex) of North Amer-
ica. J. Mamm. 61(1):76-101.

2. Warren, M. L., Jr., W. H. Davis, R. R. Hannan, M.
Evans, D. L. Batch, B. D. Anderson, B. Palmer-Ball, Jr.,
J. R. MacGregor, R. R. Cicerello, R. Athey, B. A. Branson,
G. J. Fallo, B. M. Burr, M. E. Medley and J. M. Baskin.
1986. Endangered, threatened, and rare plants and ani-
mals of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 47:83-98.

3. Barbour, R. W. 1956. A record of Microsorex hoyi
from Kentucky. J. Mamm. 37:438.

4. Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals
of Kentucky. Univ. Press Kentucky, Lexington.

5. Guilday, J. E., H. W. Hamilton, and A. D. McGrady.
1971. The Welsh Cave Peccaries (Platygonus) and as-
sociated fauna, Kentucky Pleistocene. Ann. Carnegie Mus.
43:249-320.

6. Caldwell, R. S. 1980. First records of Sorex dispar
and Microsorex thompsoni in Kentucky with distribution-
al notes on associated species. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 49:
46-47.

7. Harker, D. F., Jr., M. E. Medley, W. C. Houtcooper,
and A. Phillippi. 1980. Kentucky Natural Areas Plan.
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort.

131

8. Caldwell, R. S. and H. Bryan. 1982. Notes on dis-
tribution and habitats of Sorex and Microsorex (Insectiv-
ora: Soricidae) in Kentucky. Brimleyana 8:91-100.

9. Palmer-Ball, B., Jr., J. J. N. Campbell, M. E. Medley,
D. T. Towles, J. R. MacGregor, and R. R. Cicerello. 1988.
Cooperative inventory of endangered, threatened, sensi-
tive and rare species, Daniel Boone National Forest, Som-
erset Ranger District. Technical Report, Kentucky Nature
Preserves Commission, Frankfort.

10. Campbell, J. J. N., D. T. Towles, J. R. MacGregor,
R. R. Cicerello, B. Palmer-Ball, Jr., M. E. Medley, and S.
Olson. 1989. Cooperative inventory of endangered,
threatened, sensitive and rare species, Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest, Stanton Ranger District. Technical Report,
Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort.

11. Bryan, H. D. 1991. The distribution, habitat, and
ecology of Shrews (Soricidae: Blarina, Sorex, and Cryp-
totis) in Kentucky. J. Tenn. Acad. Sci. 66:187-189.

12. Barbour, R. W. 1956. Two new mammal records
from Kentucky. J. Mamm. 37:110-111.

13. Bryan, H. 1979. The occurrence of two species of
shrews in Central Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 40:41-
42.

14. Rose, R. K. and G. L. Seegert. 1982. Small mam-
mals of the Ohio River Floodplain in Western Kentucky
and adjacent Illinois. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:150-155.

15. Chadwick, J. W. and W. H. Davis. 1984. Notes
on Kentucky mammals: Myotis keenii and Sorex longi-
rostris. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:159.

16. Welter, W. A. and D. E. Sollberger. 1939. Notes
on the mammals of Rowan and adjacent counties in East-
ern Kentucky. J. Mamm. 20:77-81.

17. Barbour, R. W. 1951. The mammals of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. J. Mamm. 32:100-
110.

18. Barbour, R. W. and S. Hardjasasmita. 1966. A
preliminary list of the mammals of Robinson Forest,
Breathitt County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 27:85-
89.

19. Wallace, J. T. and R. Houp. 1968. Marginal record
of Parascalops breweri (Bachman) from Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 29:9.

20. Fassler, D. J. 1974. Mammals of Pulaski County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:37-43.

21. Barbour, R. W., W. H. Davis, and R. A. Kuehne.
1979. The vertebrate fauna of Cumberland Gap National
Historical Park. Final Report, National Park Service.

22. Barclay, L. A., Jr. and D. R. Parsons. 1983. An
endangered species survey of abandoned mine shafts in
the Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area,
Kentucky and Tennessee U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Nashville District.

23. Funkhouser, W. D. 1925. Wild life in Kentucky.
Ky. Geol. Surv., Frankfort.

24. Bryan, H. D. andJ. R. MacGregor. 1988. Bat notes
from Eastern Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 49:140.

25. Rippy, C. L. and M. J. Harvey. 1965. Notes on
Plecotus townsendii virginianus in Kentucky. J. Mamm.
46:499.

132

26. Barbour, R. W. 1957. Some additional mammal
records from Kentucky. J. Mamm. 38:140-141.

27. Barbour, R. W. 1965. The Western Big-Eared Bat.
Ky. Happy Hunt. Ground. 21:33.

28. Garman, H. 1894. A preliminary list of the ver-
tebrate animals of Kentucky. Bull. Essex Inst. 26:1-63.

29. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. 1930. Notes on the mammals
of Breathitt County, Kentucky. J. Mamm. 11:306-311.

30. Hall, J. S. 1963. Notes on Plecotus rafinesquii in
Central Kentucky. J. Mamm. 44:119-120.

31. Fassler, D. J. 1971. A range extension of Rafines-
que’s Big-eared Bat in Kentucky. Bat Res. News 12:41.

32. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. 1992.
Biological inventory of the Jackson Purchase. Kentucky
Nature Preserves Commission, Frankfort (In Preparation).

83. Barbour, R. W. 1941. Three new mammal records
from Kentucky. J. Mamm. 22:195-196.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

34. Davis, W. H. and R. W. Barbour. 1979. Distri-
butional records of Some Kentucky Mammals. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 40:111.

35. Houtcooper, W. C. 1982. Current distribution and
status of Jumping Mice (Zapodidae) in Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 43(3-4):97-102.

36. Prather, K. W. 1984. New distributional record
for Mustela nivalis in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:
76.

87. David, P.G. 1988. Further distribution of Mustela
nivalis in Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 49:37.

38. Richins, G. H. and R. D. Panke. 1976. Sighting
of an Eastern Spotted Skunk in Henderson County, Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 37:103.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 133-138

The Influence of pH, Salt Concentration, and Incubation
Time on Hatching Brine Shrimp Cysts

RosBEeRT M. Hoyt
Moss Middle School, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

AND

RoBerT D. Hoyt

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

The influence of pH, incubation time, and salt concentration on the hatching success of brine shrimp was
determined. Salt Lake, Australia brand brine shrimp were incubated at pH levels 6.5, 7.5, and 8.5, and the
number of cysts hatched after 24 and 36 hr in 28 ppt salt compared with the number hatched at 35 ppt
salt. Brine shrimp were incubated in a 28°C water bath at Western Kentucky University. Hatching success
was highly correlated with specific combinations of environmental variables. At 28 ppt salt, hatching was
greatest at pH 7.5 and least at pH 8.5, while at 35 ppt salt most hatched at pH 6.5 and fewest at 8.5. More
shrimp hatched in 28 ppt salt water than 35 ppt at all pH levels except one. Incubation time and hatching
success were strongly correlated with pH and salt concentrations. Maximum hatching success at longer
incubation times was correlated with non-optimal environmental conditions.

INTRODUCTION

The brine shrimp, Artemia, presently rep-
resents the most important and widely used
food organism for rearing marine larval fishes
and invertebrates for aquaculture or for re-
search (1). Most aquatic larvae cannot, or will
not, accept dry foods and must be fed live
organisms (2). Consequently, early efforts in
aquaculture and aquatic research were ham-
pered by inadequate and unsuitable food sup-
plies for young organisms. With the finding
that newly hatched brine shrimp represented
an excellent food source for larval aquatic or-
ganisms that could be easily cultured (3), sig-
nificant advances were made in the field of
aquaculture. As a result, the demand for brine
shrimp for fish rearing projects became so great,
that during the 1970s the demand exceeded
the available supply (4). Since then, tremen-
dous efforts have been directed to the biology
and culture of brine shrimp. Although a more
complete understanding of the biology and
culture of brine shrimp is now available, little
new information has been provided on its ecol-
ogy. Persoone and Sorgeloos (5) pointed out
that in spite of the increased interest in brine
shrimp, fewer than 50 published studies exist
on brine shrimp ecology.

Artemia is reported to occur naturally in
more than 80 kinds of saline environments on

all 5 continents (5). With such a broad geo-
graphic distribution, brine shrimp strains rep-
resent a wide spectrum of optimal ranges for
physical and chemical features of the environ-
ment (5). Therefore, the optimum environ-
mental conditions for maximum hatching and
rearing success must vary for different strains
of brine shrimp.

The objectives of this study were to deter-
mine the effects that different pH levels, salt
concentrations, and incubation times would
have on the hatching success of brine shrimp
from Salt Lake, Australia.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Two different salt concentrations were test-
ed, 28 parts per thousand (ppt) and 35 ppt.
Seven grams of reagent-grade sodium chloride
were dissolved in 250 ml tap water and added
to a 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask for 28 ppt solu-
tions while 8.75 g of salt were added to 250
ml water for the 35 ppt solutions. Brine shrimp
cysts (Argentemia Brand from Salt Lake, Aus-
tralia) were weighed in 0.20 g lots and placed
in 20 ml rubber-stoppered vials. The pH of
the salt solutions was determined with a Fisher
Accumet Model 900 pH meter and adjusted
with 1 N Sodium Hydroxide and 1 N Hydro-
chloric Acid. pH concentrations of 6.5, 7.5, and
8.5 were prepared in replicate for each salt

133

134

concentration. One 0.20 g sample of brine
shrimp cysts was added to each pH solution
and an air stone added to each flask. Brine
shrimp flasks were placed in a 28°C water bath
and the pH checked and adjusted every 12
hours over a 36 hour period from 8 a.m. Sat-
urday morning until 8 p.m. Sunday night. Salt
concentration trials were conducted on 15-16
February 1992 (28 ppt salt) and 22-23 Feb-
ruary 1992 (35 ppt salt).

After 24 hr incubation, 3, 1.0 ml samples
of each pH, salt solution were pipetted into 3
10.0 ml plastic petri dishes. Three ml of 10%
formaldehyde solution were added to each
brine shrimp sample to kill the hatched, swim-
ming nauplii. Grid fields were etched on the
bottom of the plastic petri dishes to allow for
individualized block counting. Brine shrimp
counts were made using a dissecting micro-
scope. Three life cycle stages were counted as
described by Sorgeloos (6). Non-hatched cysts
were counted but could not be reliably distin-
guished from hatched cyst cases. Pre-nauplius
E-1 stage (in which hatching had started with
the breaking of the cyst case but the organisms
had not separated from the shell), and E-2 and
Nauplius Instar I stages combined were count-
ed. Similar samples were taken and counted
from each pH salt solution after 36 hr incu-
bation.

Data were analyzed by intra- and inter-block
design ANOVA statistical treatment using the
Human Systems Dynamics, Statistical Analysis
Software package for Apple Computing Sys-
tem.

RESULTS

The total number of cysts and variously
hatched stages of brine shrimp averaged 360
per ml salt solution or per 0.8 mg of dry cysts.
The total number of cysts that had either ini-
tiated or completed hatching at 24 hr was es-
sentially the same as that observed at 36 hr at
pH 6.5 and 7.5 at 28 ppt salt (Figs. 1, 2). As
E-2 and Napulius Instar I stages increased from
24 to 36 hr, E-1 stages decreased proportion-
ally. However, at 35 ppt salt and pH 8.5, this
relationship was not observed as E-1 stages were
equal to or more numerous than E-2 and Nau-
plii stages after 24 hr.

Replicate Tests.—Replicate test data were
similar at pH 6.5 and 7.5 at both salt concen-
trations and incubation times, but significantly

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

different at pH 8.5 in 3 of the 4 comparisons
(Table 1).

Incubation Times.—No difference in
hatching (P > 0.05) was observed between 24
and 36 hr hatching times in 28 ppt salt water
at pH 6.5 (141 vs. 141, respectively) and pH
7.5 (202 vs. 210, respectively) (Table 2; Fig.
1). However, at pH 8.5, more cysts (P < 0.01)
hatched after 36 hr than at 24 hr (95 vs. 53,
respectively). In 35 ppt salt water, more cysts
(P < 0.01) hatched at 36 hr at all pH levels
than at 24 hr (Table 2; Figs. 1, 2).

pH Concentrations.—More cysts hatched at
pH 7.5 after 24 hr and 36 hr in 28 ppt salt
(Figs. 1, 2). Fewer (P < 0.01) hatched at pH
8.5 at both incubation times (Table 3; Figs. 1,
2). At 35 ppt salt, more cysts (P < 0.01) hatched
at pH 6.5 at both incubation times while fewer
(P < 0.05 and 0.01) hatched at pH 8.5 at both
times (Table 3; Figs. 1, 2).

Salt Concentrations.—More brine shrimp
(P < 0.01) hatched at 28 ppt salt than at 35
ppt at all pH levels except 6.5 (Table 4; Fig.
4)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The number of unhatched cysts remaining
following test treatments could not be used as
evidence of non-hatching since the number of
hatched cyst cases could not be reliably sep-
arated from unhatched eggs. This conclusion
was supported by more eggs remaining at 36
hr than 24 hr while the number of hatched
nauplii was greater at 36 hr than 24 hr.

The number of Instar I nauplii that hatched
per ml at 28 ppt salt at pH 7.5 in this study
was greater than that reported in the literature.
Kuwabara et al. (7), in establishing control
hatching rates of San Francisco Bay brand brine
shrimp, reported mean hatching rates of 172
nauplii per mg of dry eggs at 24 hr, 20 ppt
salt, pH 7-8, and 27°C water. Nauplii hatch
rates of 222/mg dry eggs were observed in this
study at 24 hr, 28 ppt salt, pH 7.5, and 28°C.
The findings of these 2 studies support the con-
tention that brine shrimp from different saline
environments will provide maximum hatching
efficiencies when incubated under conditions
similar to those of their native origin.

Replicate differences observed were limited
to pH 8.5 and occurred at both salt concen-
trations tested. These intra-level differences

HATCHING BRINE SHRIMP Cysts—Hoyt and Hoyt

200

100

100

NUMBER OF HATCHED BRINE SHRIMP / ml

135

Nauplii

24hr 36 hr 24hr 36 hr 24hr 36 hr
Dik. G59 Dili (eo Ol Sos)
28 ppt SA (bv

i -&-

=E-2 &
Nauplii

24hr 36 hr 24hr 36 hr 24hr 36 hr
iA Sod in CoS Il 35S)
Soy Sib v

Fic. 1.

Number of E-1, and combined E-2 and Nauplius Instar I stages of brine shrimp hatched per ml at pH 6.5,

7.5, and 8.5 after 24 and 36 hours at 28 and 35 ppt salt concentration.

appeared to result from the pH treatment and
not sampling inconsistencies. The poor hatch
rates observed at pH 8.5 for all treatments
supported this conclusion.

Incubation times recommended by com-
mercial vendors for culturing brine shrimp

varies by strain, ranging from 20 to 36 hr.
Kuwabara et al. (7) showed San Francisco Bay
brine shrimp to produce significantly better
hatches at 48 hr versus 24 hr with no additional
increase after 72 hr at 20 ppt salt. The trend
of this finding was similar to that in this study

136

TaBLE 1. Probability levels for replicate test comparisons
of numbers of E-1, E2, and Nauplii of brine shrimp hatched
at different pH’s, salt concentrations, and incubation times.

Salt Probability
pH ppt Time Comparison level
6.5 28 24 hr Trial 1 = 2 ns
7.5 28 24 hr Trial 1 =2 ns
8.5 28 94 hr Trial 1 < 2 0.01**
6.5 35 94 hr Trial 1 = 2 ns
5 85 24 hr Trial 1 =2 ns
8.5 35 24 hr Trial 1 = 2 ns
6.5 28 36 hr Trial 1 =2 ns
7.5 28 36 hr Trial 1 =2 ns
8.5 28 36 hr Trial 1 > 2 0.01**
6.5 35 36 hr Trial 1 = 2 ns
7.5 35 36 hr Trial 1 =2 ns
8.5 35 36 hr Trial 1 <2 0.05*

in 35 ppt salt water, significantly greater hatch-
es occurred at 36 hr over 24 hr. However, equal
or greater hatches were observed at each pH
tested at 24 hr in 28 ppt salt. It is not unlikely
that had Kuwabara et al. (7) tested for hatching

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

TaBLE2. Probability levels for comparisons of incubation
time effects on numbers of E-1, E-2, and Nauplii of brine
shrimp hatched at different pH’s levels and salt concen-
trations.

Salt Probability
pH ppt Comparison level
6.5 28 24 hr = 36 hr ns
UB 28 24 hr = 36 hr ns
8.5 28 24 hr < 36 hr 0.01**
6.5 35 24 hr < 36 hr 0.01**
7.9 35 24 hr < 36 hr 0.01**
8.5 35 24 hr < 36 hr 0.01**

at a combination of pH and salt concentrations,
the same or greater hatch success might have
been obtained in a shorter incubation time.
At optimum, or near optimum, culturing
conditions, the maximum number of cysts that
activated pre-emergent development had be-
gun to do so at 24 hr incubation time and did
not increase measurably by 36 hr. This con-
dition was observed at pH 6.5 and 7.5 in 28

(| = 28 ppt Salt
MR = 35ppt Salt
E
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ror
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fe
ep)
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‘=
oo
ao}
®
le
=
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ac
ue
°
o
2
E
S
a
Salt, ppt 28 35 28 35 28 35 28 35 28 35 28 35
6.5 7.5 8.5 6.5 7.5 8.5
24 Hours 36 Hours
Fic. 2. Total number of brine shrimp hatched per ml at pH 6.5, 7.5, and 8.5 at 28 and 35 ppt salt concentration after

24 and 36 hours.

HATCHING BRINE SHRIMP Cysts—Hoyt and Hoyt

TaBLE3. Probability levels for comparisons of pH effects
on numbers of E-1, E-2, and Nauplii of brine shrimp
hatched at different pH levels and salt concentrations.

Salt Probability
ppt Time Comparison level
28 24 hr pH 6.5 = pH 7.5 ns
298 4hr pH65>pH85 0.01%*
28 4hr pH7.5>pH85 0.01**
35 24 hr pH 6.5 > pH 7.5 0.01**
35 4hr pH65>pH85 0.05*
35 24 hr pH 7.5 > pH 8.5 0.05*
28 36 hr pH 6.5 < pH 7.5 0.01**
28 36hr pH65>pH85 0.01%*
28 36hr pH7.5>pH 8.5 0.01**
85 86hr pH65>pH75 0.01**
85 36hr pH65>pH 85 0.01**
85 386hr pH7.5>pH85 0.018*

ppt salt when the combined number of E-1,
E-2, and Nauplius Instar I individuals was sim-
ilar at 24 and 36 hr, although the proportion
of the different stages changed with time. At
pH 8.5 and all pH levels in 35 ppt salt; how-
ever, the total number of hatching stages in-
creased at 36 hr over 24 hr. This strongly sug-
gested that post-dormant activity is more
subject to environmental conditions than re-
sponsive to incubation time.

Of all the environmental variables that have
been studied in relation to the biology of brine
shrimp, pH has probably received most atten-
tion (8, 9, 10). pH serves as a fundamental
regulator of the transition between dormancy
(cyst) and metabolism (emerging nauplius) (8).
Acidification of pH down to 6.3 to 6.8 induces
a quiescent condition (9) while alkalinization
evokes normal metabolism (8) in a reversible
fashion. The mechanism behind pH control of
dormancy and pre-emergent development ap-
pears to relate to the disaccharide trehalose
which is directly controlled by pH shifts (9).

Recommended pH values for culturing brine
shrimp are as varied as temperature and salin-
ity, ranging from no recommended pH given,
to 7.5 to 8.5, to 8.5+. Of the pHs tested in this
study, different levels produced varying hatch-
ing success in relation to other environmental
variables. At 28 ppt salt, pH 7.5 proved to be
the most productive at both 24 and 36 hours
while pH 8.5 was the least productive. At 35
ppt salt; however, pH 6.5 was the most pro-
ductive at both incubation times with pH 8.5
again being the least productive. The relation-

137

TaBLE 4. Probability levels for comparisons of salt con-
centration effects on numbers of E-1, E-2, and Nauplii of
brine shrimp hatched at different pH levels and incubation
times.

pH Time Comparison Probability level
6.5 24 hr 28 ppt > 35 ppt 0.01**
7.5 24 hr 28 ppt > 35 ppt 0.01**
8.5 24 hr 28 ppt > 35 ppt 0.01**
6.5 36 hr 28 ppt = 35 ppt ns

eo 36 hr 28 ppt > 35 ppt 0.01**
8.5 36 hr 28 ppt > 35 ppt 0.01**

ship of pH and other environmental variables
has not gone unnoticed. Sorgeloos (2) reported
one of the key factors for successful hatching
of brine shrimp at low salinities was to increase
the pH range to 8 to 9. The reverse of this
pattern was observed in this study with the
lowest pH, 6.5, producing the greatest hatch
success at the higher salt concentration. Why
this low pH did not initiate dormancy as sug-
gested in the literature cited above cannot be
explained. A possible interaction might be re-
lated to oxygen concentration. Holliday (11)
reported oxygen content of water to be in-
versely related to salinity. Aeration in the in-
cubation procedures of this study were not al-
tered to accomodate this relationship.
Consequently, lowered oxygen availability at
the reduced pH level might have precluded
dormancy when interacting with the other en-
vironmental parameters operating. Obviously
the interacting influences of different environ-
mental variables alters the trehalase metabolic
pathway in ways as yet undescribed.

Salt concentration, like temperature, has
been shown to be interrelated with other en-
vironmental features in controlling brine
shrimp hatching. Persoone and Sorgeloos (5)
reported that there is no well-defined optimum
for salinity; however, for physiological reasons
it must be situated towards the lower end of
the salinity range. While brine shrimp are very
seldom found in waters less than 45 ppt salt,
their cysts hatch successfully at salt concentra-
tions as low as 5 ppt (2). San Francisco Bay
brine shrimp cysts will not develop until salt
levels fall below 85 ppt (5). However, natural
seawater (35 ppt) is mainly used to hatch cysts
and it has been reported that hatching rates
increase at lower salinities (2). Thus, commer-
cial vendors recommend salinities from 10 ppt

138

to 35 ppt for various brine shrimp strains. In
this study, 28 ppt was found to be superior to
sea water salt (35 ppt) in hatching Salt Lake,
Australia brine shrimp under all test conditions
except pH 6.5 at 36 hours.

Based on the observations made in this study,
brine shrimp hatching success is correlated with
pH, salinity, and temperature of the culture
water; non-optimum conditions producing
greater hatch success over longer time inter-
vals.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Beck, A. D., D. A. Bengtson, and W. H. Howell.
1980. International study on Artemia V. Nutritional value
of five geographical strains of Artemia: effects on survival
and growth of larval Atlantic silverside Menidia menidia.
Pp. 249-259. In G. Persoone et al. (eds.) The brine shrimp
Artemia, Proc. Intl. Symp. on the brine shrimp Artemia
salina. Corpus Christi, Texas. Universa Press, Wetteren,
Belgium.

2. Sorgeloos, P. 1980. The use of the brine shrimp
Artemia in aquaculture. Pp. 25-46. In G. Persoone et al.
(eds.) The brine shrimp Artemia, Proc. Intl. Symp. on the
brine shrimp Artemia salina. Corpus Christi, Texas. Uni-
versa Press, Wetteren, Belgium.

8. Seale, A. 1933. Brine shrimp (Artemia) as a satis-
factory live food for fishes. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 63:129-
130.

4. Royan, J. P. 1980. Laboratory and field studies on
an Indian strain of the brine shrimp Artemia. Pp. 223-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

230. In G. Persoone et al. (eds.) The brine shrimp Artemia,
Proc. Intl. Symp. on the brine shrimp Artemia salina.
Corpus Christi, Texas. Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium.

5. Persoone, G. and P. Sorgeloos. 1980. General as-
pects of the ecology and biogeography of Artemia. Pp. 1-
24. In G. Persoone et al. (eds.) The brine shrimp Artemia,
Proc. Intl. Symp. on the brine shrimp Artemia salina.
Corpus Christi, Texas. Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium.

6. Sorgeloos, P. 1980. Life history of the brine shrimp
Artemia. Pp. xiv—xxiii. In G. Persoone et al. (eds.) The
brine shrimp Artemia, Proc. Intl. Symp. on the brine shrimp
Artemia salina. Corpus Christi, Texas. Universa Press,
Wetteren, Belgium.

7. Kuwabara, K., A. Nakamura, and T. Kashimoto.
1980. Effect of petroleum oil, pesticides, PCB’s and other
environmental contaminants on the hatchability of Arte-
mia salina eggs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 25:69-
74.

8. Busa, W. B. and J. H. Crowe. 1983. Intracellular
pH regulates transitions between dormancy and devel-
opment of brine shrimp (Artemia salina) embryos. Science
221:366-368.

9. Hand, S. C. and J. C. Carpenter. 1986. pH-induced
metabolic transitions in Artemia embryos mediated by a
novel hysteretic trehalase. Science 232:1535-1587.

10. Hand, S. C. and E. Gnaiger. 1988. Anaerobic dor-
mancy quantified in Artemia embryos: a calorimetric test
of the control mechanism. Science 239:1425-1427.

11. Holliday, F.G. T. 1969. The effects of salinity on
the eggs and larvae of teleosts. Pp. 293-313. In W. S. Hoar
and D. J. Randall (eds.) Fish physiology, Vol. 1. Academic
Press, New York.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3—-4), 1992, 189-140

A New Species of the Genus Largulara (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)!

Pau. H. FREYTAG?

ABSTRACT

A new species from Venezuela is described in the Genus Largulara DeLong and Freytag, new status.

INTRODUCTION

While reviewing the leafhopper species of
Venezuela, a new species was found which is
closely related to Polana (Largulara) fantasa
DeLong and Freytag (1). These 2 species were
found to be different enough to be separated
from Polana as a separate genus.

I wish to thank Marco Gaiani and the late
Dr. F. Fernandez Yepes of the Universidad
Central de Venezuela (MIZA), Maracay, Ven-
ezuela for the loan of the material used in this
study.

RESULTS
Largulara DeLong and Freytag New Status

Polana subgenus Largulara DeLong and Frey-
tag 1972, p. 292. Type species: Polana fan-
tasa DeLong and Freytag.

Head narrower than pronotum, crown
rounded to face, striae transverse, ocelli on
crown closer to anterior than to posterior mar-
gin. Pronotum with lateral angles flared, ex-
tending beyond lateral margin of scutellum.
Forewing with small appendix and normal ve-
nation. Male genitalia with plates with long
tufts of hair, pygofer without processes, and
aedeagus with robust basal processes.

This genus can easily be separated from Po-
lana by having the head much narrower than
the pronotum, the unique male genitalia in-
cluding the broad aedeagus, long tufts of setae
on the genital plates, and the pronotum with
lateral angles flaring, much like some Mem-
bracidae.

' The investigation reported in this paper (No. 92-7-49)
is in connection with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station and is published with approval of the
Director.

? Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091.

Key to Species
1. Aedeagal shaft without processes (Fig. 6-
7), with pair of lateral spurs near middle.
iy aoa ele nical ni aSEEp es dja an elegans n. sp.
1’. Aedeagal shaft with pair of small, short,
bifid processes near middle ............
hd Galeria tis el as fantasa DeLong and Freytag

Largulara elegans new species
(Figs. 1-10)

Length of male 8 mm, head width 2.1 mm,
female unknown. Similar to fantasa but with
different male genitala.

Head narrower than pronotum, crown
broadly rounded, 2% times as broad between
eyes at base as median length. Pronotum with
flaring lateral angles.

Generally brown to yellow brown. Crown
with two small black spots on base, one behind
each ocellus. Pronotum with irregular black
markings just behind anterior margin. Scutel-
lum with black basal angles. Forewings with
yellow-brown transverse band just beyond tip
of clavus, apical cells smoky brown, costal area
and along base of transverse band, darker
brown. Ventral surface mostly yellow to yellow
brown.

Male genitalia: Genital plates longer than
broad, with 2 long tufts of setae, one laterally
at base and one at apex (Fig. 10). Pygofer
without processes, apical margin lobed (Fig.
9). Style broadened beyond middle, ventral
margin thickened, apex pointed (Fig. 8). Ae-
deagus with stout shaft, ventrally flattened, with
pair of spurs two-thirds distance from base,
basal processes stout, curving outward, then
back toward shaft, with spur near middle of
apical part (Figs. 6-7).

Holotype male, Venezuela—T. F. Amazo-
nas, 25-XI-4-XII-1984, Rio Bavia, 140 m.,
0°10’N, 66°10’W, E. Osuna and A. Chacon
(MIZA).

This species can be separated from fantasa
by the lack of processes on the aedeagal shaft
and the different and shorter spur on the basal
aedeagal processes.

139

140 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

=)" I nluin

5

LARGULARA

Fics. 1-5. Largulara elegans n. sp. 1. head, pronotum and scutellum, dorsal view, 2. head, facial view, 3. head,
pronotum and scutellum, lateral view, 4. crown (showing striae), dorsal view, 5. forewing. All drawn to the same scale,
except Fig. 4 which is twice magnification.

Mu
1 2 =

Fics. 6-10. Largulara elegans n. sp., male genitalia 6. aedeagus, ventral view, 7. aedeagus, lateral view, 8. style,

lateroventral view, 9. pygofer and genital plate, lateral view (setae not shown), 10. genital plate, ventral view. All
drawn to the same scale.

Polana (Largulara) elera DeLong and Frey- LITERATURE CITED
tag is not closely related to the 2 above species | Delong, D. M. and P. H. Freytag. 1972. Studies of
being placed in Largulara, so is redesignated the world Gyponinae (Homoptera, Cicadellidae). The Ge-

: the subgenus Parvulana in the genus Po- nus Polana. Arquivos de Zoologia, $. Paulo 22:239-324.
ana.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 141-153

Wetland and Riparian Flora of the Upper Green River Basin,
South-Central Kentucky

BrucE W. HOAGLAND! AND RONALD L. JONES

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Vascular plant collections of the wetland and riparian flora of the Upper Green River Basin yielded 500
species in 297 genera from 105 families. The greatest number of species belonged to the Asteraceae (59),
Poaceae (36), Cyperaceae (35), Fabaceae (23), and Lamiaceae (19). Exotic species represented 12% of the
flora. Several rare and other noteworthy species are Heteranthera dubia, Polygala cruciata, Sagittaria
brevirostra, Bartonia paniculata, Dichanthelium scoparium, Hymenocallis caroliniana, Quercus michauxii,
Q. phellos, Triadenum tubulosum, Viola lanceolata, Panax quinquefolius, Platanthera peramoena, Het-
eranthera reniformis, and Xyris torta. Six wetland habitat types in the region are described.

INTRODUCTION

This paper represents the first comprehen-
sive floristic study of the wetland and riparian
habitats of a major Kentucky river drainage
basin, the Upper Green River Basin (UGRB).
The significance of these wetland and riparian
habitats, the rapid loss, and the need for pres-
ervation have been well documented (1, 2, 3).
There have been previous studies in the UGRB
area by Murphy (4), Meijer et al. (5), and some
general collecting by various workers. This
study is the first to target the wetland and
riparian flora of the entire UGRB. Lack of
plant records from this region is readily evi-
dent from the distribution maps prepared by
Beal and Thieret (6). The Kentucky State Na-
ture Preserves Commission (KSNPC) (3) iden-
tified about 90 potential wetland sites involv-
ing about 2,500 acres in the UGRB using soil
maps, topographic maps, and aerial photo-
graphs. The UGRB continues to be heavily
impacted through agricultural development,
timber harvesting, and other disturbances.
Therefore, inventory of these wetland sites is
an urgent priority.

A few previous investigations have targeted
the wetland and riparian habitats of the High-
land Rim (7, 8, 9). In addition, there have also
been several more general floristic studies of
the Highland Rim that provide information on
wetland and riparian habitats (4, 10, 11, 12,
13). The vegetation of the Eastern Highland
Rim was summarized by McKinney (14) and

1 Current Address: Oklahoma Natural Heritage Inven-
tory, 2001 Priestly Ave. Building 605, Norman, Oklahoma
73019.

Smalley (15). Wetland studies from the Blue-
grass and the Shawnee Hills Sections of the
Interior Low Plateaus also provide some com-
parable information (3, 5, 16, 17). Several stud-
ies provide overviews of the flora and vege-
tation of these regions (18, 19, 20).

The objectives of this study were to: (1) doc-
ument the wetland and riparian flora of the
UGRB, (2) note the presence of rare or other
noteworthy species, and (3) compare the flora
with those of similar areas on the Highland
Rim and adjacent sections of the Interior Low
Plateaus. This paper is based on a Master's
thesis deposited at Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity (21).

Stupy AREA

The focus of this study was the UGRB in-
clusive of the main stem and tributaries (Fig.
1). The study area extended from the Green
River Reservoir, near Casey Creek, to the
headwaters of the Green River in Lincoln
County, encompassing about 108,000 hectares
in Lincoln, Casey, Adair, and Russell Counties.
Elevations in the region range from 305 m to
396 m. Temperature averages range from 2.8°C
in winter to 23°C in the summer, and total
annual precipitation is 127 cm (22).

The Green River originates in the Knobstone
Escarpment and Knobs Subsection of the Blue
Grass Section and flows onto the Greensburg
Upland Subsection of the Highland Rim Sec-
tion, all within the Interior Low Plateaus Prov-
ince (23). The great majority of the study site
is on the Highland Rim. The upper Green Riv-
er flows on a bed of Devonian New Albany
Shale in Lincoln County, and westward the

14]

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

142

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WETLAND FLora IN KENtucky—Hoagland and Jones

surface bedrock of the area is dominated by
Mississippian limestone, with exposed Borden
Formation prevalent in the drainage area (24).
The Staser-Taft-Landisburg Association, the
main soil association along the Green River, is
somewhat poorly to well drained, and occurs
on level floodplains and on gently sloping
stream terraces (22).

Braun (25) described the vegetation of the
UGRB region as a mosaic of “climax” types in
the Western Mesophytic Forest of the Missis-
sippian Plateau Section, and her account of the
wetlands of the region are summarized in the
following statements. Swamp forests occurred
on poorly drained flats and in shallow depres-
sions, with oak swamp in the wettest spots
(Quercus palustris, Q. bicolor, Q. michauxii,
and Q. phellos), and mixed swamp of oaks,
sweet gum, red maple, sour gum, and beech,
merging into wet beech woods on the wet to
moist areas. Forest openings had a variety of
swamp shrub and herbs, many being southern
or Coastal Plain species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Topographic and geologic quadrangles, soil
surveys, and KSNPC wetland inventory maps
were consulted to identify 21 study sites in the
UGRB. These sites were visited biweekly dur-
ing the 1988 field season, and incidental col-
lections were made throughout the study area.
Standard herbarium techniques were used in
collecting and preparing specimens. Voucher
specimens were deposited in the Eastern Ken-
tucky University Herbarium (EKU) and the
Berea College Herbarium (BEREA). Addition-
al records from the study area were obtained
by surveying collections at EKU.

Classification and nomenclature follow Kar-
tesz and Kartesz (26) except for the taxonomic
differences in Cranfill (27) and Beal and Thier-
et (6). Wetland sites are described using the
Cowardin et al. (28) classification scheme. Re-
gional and state distributions are based on sev-
eral sources (6, 29, 30, 31, 32), and on updated
information from the KSNPC (pers. comm.).
Rare species status is based on Warren et al.

(33).
RESULTS
Flora Summary

A total of 500 species in 297 genera from
105 families were collected in the Upper Green

143

River Basin (Table 1). Taxa consisted of 400
herbaceous plants, 86 trees and shrubs, and 14
woody vines. The greatest number of species
occurred in the Asteraceae, 59, Poaceae, 36,
Cyperaceae, 35, Fabaceae, 23, and Lamiaceae,
19. The genera with the largest number of
species were Carex, 19, Quercus, 11, Aster, 10,
Juncus, 9, and Solidago, 8. A total of 180 coun-
ty records are reported, based upon Beal and
Thieret (6). Exotic species amounted to 60 spe-
cies, or 12% of the flora. The greatest number
of exotic species belonged to the Poaceae, 9,
Fabaceae, 9, Asteraceae, 6, Brassicaceae, 5, and
Polygonaceae, 4. Three state-listed species are
reported. Representatives of more northerly
flora—Quercus bicolor, Q. palustris, Populus
grandidentata and Heteranthera dubia, and
more easterly floras—Magnolia acuminata,
Trautvetteria caroliniana, Stachys nuttallii,
Aster surculosus, and Trillium luteum are in-
cluded. Seven extraneous taxa with a primarily
Coastal Plain distribution also occur in the re-
gion. The great majority of species within the
basin are eastern, southern, and central U‘S.
species, well within the limits of their distri-
butions.

Rare, Coastal Plain, and Notable
Exotic Species

Kentucky rare species that were previously
documented from wetland and riparian hab-
itats of the study region are Heteranthera du-
bia, a Threatened species, from 5 counties, in-
cluding Adair; Lilium superbum, an
Endangered species, from 4 counties, includ-
ing Casey; Polygala cruciata, an Endangered
species, from 5 counties, including Russell; and
Sagittaria brevirostra, a Special Concern spe-
cies, from 14 counties, including Adair and
Casey (KSNPC, pers. comm.). During this study
a few stems of Heteranthera dubia were found
along Old KY 551, near Knifley, in Adair
County; Lilium superbum was not verified,
but a sterile Lilium specimen was found along
the South Fork of Green River in Lincoln
County; 6 individuals of Polygala cruciata were
found in association with Platanthera ciliaris
and Dichanthelium dichotomum in a
“perched” forested wetland at the head of the
Good Creek Drainage in Russell County; and
scattered individuals of Sagittaria brevirostra
were found in Casey and Adair County. Other
notable infrequent taxa in the region that are

144 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

TaBLE 1. An annotated floristic list for the Upper Green River Basin, Kentucky. Frequency of occurrence values
abbreviated and defined as: R = rare (5 or less individuals at 1 site), I = infrequent (6-30 individuals at 1-2 sites), F
= frequent (31-100 individuals at 3-6 sites), A = abundant (over 100 individuals at more than 6 sites). Counties denoted
as: A = Adair, C = Casey, L = Lincoln, R = Russell. New county records follow the county entry as (r). Community
association denoted as: 1 = unconsolidated shore, 2 = aquatic bed, 3 = emergent, 4 = scrub-shrub, 5 = forested wetland,
6 = mesic forest, 7 = roadside or disturbed, 8 = Riverine System. Exotic species are preceded by an asterisk. For
collections at EKY other than those of the first author, only the collector and county are given. KSNPC collectors R.

Hannan and L. Phillippe are abbreviated as H & P.

SPHENOPHYTA
Equisetaceae

Equisetum arvense L. I; L; 8.

LYCOPHYTA
Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodium digitatum A. Braun. I, L; 6.

PTERIDOPHYTA
Marsileaceae

Marsilea quadrifolia L. R; C; 3.
Ophioglossaceae

Botrychium dissectum Spreng. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.
B. virginianum (L.) Sw. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.

Osmundaceae

Osmunda cinnamomea L.. I; R(x); 5.
O. regalis L. 1; L(r), R(x); 5.

Adiantaceae
Adiantum pedatum L. I, C; 5.

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium platyneuron (L.) Oakes. I; C; 5.

Athyrium asplenoides (Michx.) A. A. Eaton. I; A; 5.

Athyrium pyconocarpon (Spreng.) Tidestrom. I; A; 5.

A. thelypteroides (Michx.) Desv. I; L; 6.

Onoclea sensibilis L. F; A(r), C(x), L(x), R(x); 5.

Polystichum acrostichoides (Michx.) Schott. A; A, C, R;
5), ©:

Thelypteridaceae
Phegopteris hexagonoptera (Michx.) Fee. F; C; 5.
Thelypteris noveboracensis (L.) Nieuwl. F; A; 5.
CONIFEROPHYTA
Cupressaceae
Juniperus virginiana L. F; A; 5.
ANTHOPHYTA
Magnoliopsida
Acanthaceae

Justicia americana (L.) Vahl. A; A(r), C; 4.
Ruellia strepens L. A; A; 5.

Aceraceae
Acer negundo L. A; C; 5
A. nigrum Michx. f. A; A, C, L; 5, 6
A. rubrum L. A; A, C, L, R; 5.
A. saccharinum L. A; A; 5.
A. saccharum Marsh. F; C, L; 6

Anacardiaceae

Rhus copallina L. F; A, C; 5.
(L.)

Toxicodendron radicans Kuntze. A; A, C, L, R; 5.

Annonaceae
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.
Apiaceae

Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz. F; A; 5.
Cicuta maculata L. A; A; 5.

Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) DC. F; A; 5.
*Daucus carota L. A; A, C; 7.

Osmorhiza claytonii (Michx.) Clarke. H & P (Casey).
*Pastinaca sativa L. R; A; 7.

Sanicula canadensis L. H & P (Casey).

S. gregaria Bicknell. F; L; 6.

S. smallii Bicknell. H & P (Casey).

S. trifoliata Bicknell. H & P (Casey).

Thaspium barbinode (Michx.) Nutt. I; C; 5.

Apocynaceae

Apocynum cannabinum L. I; A; 8.
Aquifoliaceae

Ilex opaca Ait. I; R; 5.

I. verticillata (L.) Gray. F; A, R, 5.
Araliaceae

Panax quinquefolia L. 1; C; 6.
Aristolochiaceae

Asarum canadense L. F; A; 5.

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias incarnata L. F, A(z), C; 3.
A. purpurescens L. F; L; 7.

A. syriaca L. F; A; 7.

A. tuberosa L. F; A, C, L; 7.

A. variegata L. H & P (Casey).

Asteraceae

*Achillea millefolium L. F; C; 7.
*Anthemis cotula L. I; C; 7.

Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britt. F; A, L; 3.
. ontarionis Wieg. I; C; 3.

. patens Ait. F; C; 6.

A. paternus Cronq. I; C; 5.

A. pilosus Willd. F; L; 3.

A. sagittifolius Wedemeyer. I; L; 6.
A. surculosus Michx. I; C; 7.
A
A
A
B

> >

. umbellatus Mill. I; R(x); 8.

. undulatus L. F; L; 6.

. vimineus Lam. F; C, L; 5.

idens aristosa (Michx.) Britt. F; A(r), C(x); 3.

WETLAND FL Lora IN Kentucky—Hoagland and Jones 145

TABLE 1.

B. cernua L. A; L(x), R(x); 8
B. frondosa L. F; C(r); 38.
B. tripartita L. I; C(x); 3.
*Carduus nutans L. F; A, C, L; 7.

Chrysopsis mariana (L.) DC. F; C; 3.
*Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. A; A; 7.
*Cichorium intybus L. A; A, C, L; 7.

*Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. F; A, C; 7.
Conyza canadensis (L.) Crongq. F; R; 5.

Coreopsis major Walt. F; C; 3.

*Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. F; C; 3.

Elephantopus carolinianus Willd. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.
Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC. I, C; 3.
Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. F; A; 3.

E. philadelphicus L. F; C; 3.

E. strigosus Muhl. F; A, C; 3.

Eupatorium coelestinum L. A; A, CG, R; 3, 5.

E. fistulosum Barratt A;. R(r); 5.

E. perfoliatum L. F; A(r), C(r); 5.

E. rugosum Houtt. F; A, C, L, R; 5.

E. serotinum Michx. F; C; 5.

Euthamia graminifolia (
Helenium flexuosum Raf. F; A(r), C(r), L(r); 3
Helianthus decapetalus L. I, L; 6.

H. tuberosa L. 1; C; 7.

Hieracium gronovii L. I; C; 6.

Krigia biflora (Walt.) Blake. I; C; 6.

Lactuca floridana (L.) Gaertn. A; A, C, L; 7.
Pyrrhopappus carolinianus (Walt.) DC. I; L; 6.
Rudbeckia fulgida Ait. I; C; 3.

R. hirta L. F; A, L; 8.

Senecio anonymus Wood. I, A; 3.

S. aureus L. F; C; 8.

Silphium trifoliatum L. F; C, L; 3.

Solidago caesia L. 1; C; 3.

. canadensis L. 1; C; 8.

. erecta Pursh. F; C; 5.

. flexicaulis I; A, C; 5.

. gigantea Ait. F; A, C, L; 3.

. nemoralis Ait. I; C; 8.

. rugosa Mill. I; R; 5.

. ulmifolia Muhl. F; A; 5.

*Taraxacum officinale Weber. Ay AGI @ gba Reale
Verbesina alternifolia (L.) Britt. F; C; 3.

NNnRNNHANN

Vernonia gigantea (Walt.) Trel. ex Bronner & Coville.

A; A, C, R; 8.
Xanthium strumarium L. A; A, C, L; 3.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens capensis Meerb. A; A(r), C, L; 5.
I. pallida Nutt. F; A, C; 5.

Berberidaceae

Jeffersonia diphylla (L.) Pers. F; A; 5.
Podophyllum peltatum L. A; C; 6.

Betulaceae

Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd. A; A, C, L; 4, 5.
Betula nigra |. F; A; 5.

Carpinus caroliniana Walt. A; A, C, L; 5.
Corylus americana Walt. F; C; 6.

L.) Nutt. ex Cass. F; A, C, L; 5.

Continued.

Bignoniaceae

Bignonia capreolata L. 1; C; 4, 5.
Campsis radicans (L.) Seem. ex Bureau. F; C; 5.

Brassicaceae

*Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. F; C; 3.

Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP F;. A, C(r), R; 5.
*C. hirsuta L. F; A; 5.

Dentaria laciniata Muhl. ex Willd. F; C; 6.
*Lepidium campestre (L.) R. Br. I, L; 7.
*Nasturtium officinale R. Br. F; A(x); 5.

Rorippa palustris (L.) Bess. F; A(r), C; 5.
Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. I; L; 3.

Buxaceae

Pachysandra procumbens Michx. I; A, L; 6.

Campanulaceae

Campanula americana L. F; A, C; 5.
Lobelia cardinalis L. AS A, C; 3.

L. inflata L. A; A, C,
L. puberula Michx. I; 5.
L. siphilitica L. F; A(r), C(x), L(x); 5.
L. spicata Lam. I; CG; 3.

Caprifoliaceae

*Lonicera japonica Thunb. A; A, CG; 5.
Sambucus canadensis L. I; C; 5.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench. F; C; 6.
Viburnum acerifolium L. R; C; 6.

V. dentatum L. var. scabrellum T. & G. R; C; 6.
V. prunifolium L. I; A, R; 5.

Caryophyllaceae

*Saponaria officinalis L. F; A; 7.
Silene virginica L. I; A; 6.
*Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. F; C; 5.
S. pubera Michx. F; C; 5.

Celastraceae

Euonymus americanus L. A; A, C; 5.

Ceratophyllaceae

Ceratophyllum demersum L. I, C;, 2.

Chenopodiaceae

*Chenopodium ambrosioides L. I, R; 5.

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta glomerata Choisey. I; R; 3.

C. obtusiflora HBK. F; A, L; 3.

*Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq. R; A; 1.

I. lacunosa L. F; A, C; 7.

I. pandurata (L.) G. F. W. Meyers. F; A; 7.

Cornaceae

Cornus florida L. A; A, C, L, R; 5.
C. amomum P. Mill. ssp. obliqua (Raf.) J. S. Wilson. F;
A E35.

Crassulaceae

Penthorum sedoides L. F; A(r), C; 3.
Sedum ternatum Michx. I; A; 5.

146

TABLE 1.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Continued.

eee eee eee eens aa

Cucurbitaceae

Sicyos angulatus L. I; R; 5.
Dipsacaceae

*Dipsacus sylvestris Huds. F; C; 7.
Ericaceae

Chimaphila maculata (L.) Pursh. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.

Monotropa uniflora L. F; L; 6.

Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. F; CG, R; 5.

Rhododendron periclymenoides (Michx.) Shinners. I;
R; 5.

Vaccinium corymbosum L. F; R; 5.

V. pallidum Ait. A; A, C, R; 5.

Euphorbiaceae

Acalypha virginica L. I, L; 6.

Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small F; L, R; 3.
Euphorbia commutata Engelm. I, A; 3.

E. corollata L. F; A, C; 8.

Fabaceae

Amorpha fruticosa L. 1; A; 5.

Amphicarpaea bracteata (L.) Fern. I, L; 3.

Apios americana Medic. I; C; 5.

Cassia fasciculata Michx. I, C; 5.

C. nictitans L. I; R; 5.

Cercis canadensis L. F; C; 6

Desmodium nudiflorum (L. ) DC. I; C; 3.

D. paniculatum (L.) DC. I; A; 3.

D. pauciflorum (Nutt.) DC. F; A, C; 3.

D. viridiflorum (L.) DC. I; R; 3.

Gleditsia triacanthos L. F; R; 5.

*Kummerowia stipulacea (Maxim.) Makino. F; A, R,
Sule

*Lathyrus latifolius L. I; A; 3.

*Lespedeza cuneata (Dumont-Cours.) G. Don. F; A,
C; 8.

*Medicago sativa L. F; L; 6.

*Melilotus alba Desr. A; A; 3.

*M. officinalis (L.) Desr. F; L; 6.

Psoralea psoralioides (Walt.) Cory. var. eglandulosa (Ell)
Freeman F; C; 3.

Strophostyles helvola (L.) Ell. I; C; 6.

*Trifolium campestre Schreb A; C; 7.

*T. pratense L. A; C; 7.

Vicia caroliniana Walt. I, C; 6.

*V. dasycarpa Tenore. F; A; 5.

Fagaceae

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. A;
Quercus alba L. A; A, C, L, R;
Q. bicolor Willd. F; A, C, R; 5.
Q. falcata Michx. I; A, L; 5, 6.
Q. marilandica Muenchh. I, R;
Q. michauxii Nutt. R; A; 5.

QO. muhlenbergii Engelm. I i Te 1,
Q. palustris Muenchh. F; A; 5.
QO. phellos L. F; A, BR; 5.

Q. rubra L. var. borealis (Michx. {.) Farw. F; CG; 5.
Q. shumardii Buckl. F; C, R; 5, 6.

Q. velutina Lam. F; C; 5.

Gentianaceae

Bartonia paniculata (Michx.) Muhl. R; A(r); 5.
Sabatia angularis (L.) Pursh. I; A(r), L(x); 8.
Obolaria virginica L. Shelton (Adair).

Geraniaceae
Geranium carolinianum L. I, A, 7.
Halogaridaceae

*Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vellezo) Verdcourt. R;
C(r); 2

Hamamelidaceae

Hamamelis virginiana L. I; L; 6.
Liquidambar styraciflua L. A; A, C, L, R; 5, 6.

Hippocastanaceae
Aesculus glabra Willd. F; A, L; 5, 6.
Hydrophyllaceae

Hydrophyllum canadense L. R; L; 5.
Phacelia purshii Buckl. F; C; 7.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum gentianoides (L.) BSP. I; C, L; 3.
H. mutilum L. F; A(x), C(x), L; 5.

*H. perforatum L. I; L; 5.

H. prolificum Michx. I, A; 5.

H. punctatum Lam. F; C; 3.

Triadenum tubulosum (Walt.) Gleason. I; A; 3.

Juglandaceae

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch. F; A, C, L; 5.
C. glabra (P. Mill.) Sweet. F; A; 5.

C. laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud. F; A, C; 5.

C. ovata (P. Mill.) K. Koch. F; A, C, L; 5, 6.
Juglans nigra L. I; L; 6.

Lamiaceae

*Glechoma hederacea L. A; C; 5.

Lycopus americanus Muhl. ex. Bart. A; A(z),
L. virginicus L. F; A(x), C(r), R(x); 5.
*Mentha X piperata L.* I; C(x); 3

Monarda fistulosa L. F; A; 7.

*Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. I; R; 8.
Physostegia virginiana (L.) Benth. R; C(r); 5
Prunella vulgaris L. F; A, C, L; 5.
Pycnanthemum flexuosum Schrad. I, A, C; 5.
P. pilosum Nutt. I; C; 6.

P. pycnanthemoides (Leavenw.) Fern. R; C; 6.

P. tenuifolium Schrad. I; A; 5.

Salvia lyrata L. F; C, L; 5.

Scutellaria incana Biehler. R; L; 6.

S. integrifolia L. I; A; 3.

S. laterifolia L. F; L; 6.

S. parvula Michx. R; L; 6.

Stachys nuttallii Shuttlw. ex Benth. H & P (Casey).
Teucrium canadense L. I; C, L; 3.

C(r); 3.

Lauraceae
Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume. F; A, L; 5, 6.
Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. F; A, L, R; 5, 6.

PE a Eee

WETLAND FLorA IN KeNtucKy—Hoagland and Jones 147

TaBLeE 1. Continued.

a = GE ee

Linaceae Platanaceae

Linum striatum Walt. I; C; 3. Platanus occidentalis L. F; A, C, L; 5.
Lyth

eames Polemoniaceae

Ammannia coccinea Rottb. I; A(r), L(r); 3.
Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. R; C; 3.

Phlox divaricata L. F; A, C; 5.
Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne. Lassetter (Casey). ©:

P. paniculata L. F; C, L;
Polemonium reptans L. I; A; 5.

Magnoliaceae

Liriodendron tulipifera L. A; A, C, L, R; 5, 6. Polygalaceae

Magnolia acuminata L. H & P (Casey). Polygala cruciata L. R; R; 5.
Nialuaceae P. sanguinea L. F; A, G; 3.

Hibiscus laevis All. R: C(r); 8. Polygonaceae

Lele GROSILANOS L. A; A(r), C(r); 8, 4. *Polygonum caespitosum Blume var. longisetum (de

Sida spinosa L. I; A; 3. Bruyn) A. N. Stewart. F;. C(r), L(x), R(r); 3, 5.
Melastomataceae P. pensylvanicum L. I; C, R(r); 5.

RRCHAaTEncAR ROS! *P. persicaria L. F; C; 3.

IR, eiaeinion IL, Re ke P. punctatum Ell. I; C, L, R(x); 5.

P. sagittatum L. F; C(x); 3.

Moraceae *Rumex conglomeratus Murr. I, C; 3.

*Morus alba L. I; R; 5. *R. crispus L. F; L; 1, 3.

M. rubra L. I: R; 5. R. verticillatus L. F; A, C; 3.
Nymphaeaceae Primulaceae

Nuphar luteum (L.) Sibtn. & Sm. A; A, C; 2, 4. Lysimachia ciliata L. Lassetter (Casey).
Nyssaceae *T. nummularia L. F; C(r); 3.

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. A; A, C, R; 5. L. quadrifolia L. 1; A(t), L(x); 5.
Oleaceae Ranunculaceae

Chionanthus virginicus L. R; C; 6. Actaea pachypoda Ell. R; L; 6.

Fraxinus americana L. F; A, C; 5, 6. Cimcifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. R; L; 6.

F. pennsylvanica Marsh. F; A, C; 5. Clematis virginiana L. I; C; 3.

Delphinium tricorne Michx. I; A; 5.

Onasracese Ranunculus abortivus L. F; A(z); 5.

Epilobium coloratum Biehler. I, C(x); 5. R. hispidus Michx. F; A, C; 5.

Ludwigia alternifolia L. F; A, C, L; 5. R. pensylvanicus L.f. I; C; 5.

L. decurrens Walt. F; A(z); 5. R. recurvatus Poir. I; A; 5.

L. palustris (L.) Ell. A; A(r), C, b; 3. Thalictrum pubescens Pursh. 1; A; 5.

Oenothera biennis L. F; A, C; 5. T. thalictroides (L.) Eames and Boivin. I; A; 5.

O. parviflora L. R; A; 5. Trautvetteria carolinensis (Walt.) Vail. H & P (Casey).

O. tetragona Roth. R; A: 5.
Orobanchaceae Rhamnaceae

Conopholis americana (L.) Wallr. I; A; 6 Rhamnus caroliniana Walt. I; C; 6.

Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart. F; A, C; 5, 6. Rosaceae
Oxalidaceae Agrimonia parviflora Ait. F; C, L; 6.

O. stricta L. F; A, L; 7. Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. F; C, R; 5, 6.
Pas ieane Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Ell. R; R; 5.

e Crataegus pruinosa (Wendl. f.) K. Koch. I; C; 6.

Corydalis flavula (Raf.) DC. I; A; }. Geum canadense Jacq. F; A, g 5, 6.

Dicentra cucullaria (L.) Bernh. I, A; 5. Potentilla norvegica L. 1; C; 5.

Sanguinaria canadensis L. I; R; 5. P. simplex Michx. F; C; 5.

Stylophorum diphyllum (Michx.) Nutt. I; A; 5. Prunus americana Marsh. I; C; 6.
Phytolaccaceae P. munsoniana Wright & Hedrick. I; A; 5.

P. serotina Ehrh. F; A, L; 5, 6.

P. , . .
hytolacca americana L. F; A; 7. Rosaicarolinaileals leo!

Plantaginaceae *R. multiflora Thunb. F; L; 6.
Plantago aristida Michx. R; A; 7. R. palustris Marsh. F; A, C; 3, 5.
*P. lanceolata L. F; L; 7. R. setigera Michx. I; A; 5.

P. rugelii Dene. F; C, L; 7. Spiraea tomentosa L. F; A; 3.

ee eee ee ee eee

148

Rubiaceae

Cephalanthus occidentalis L. A; A, C; 4.
Diodia teres Walt. F; A, C; 3.
D. virginiana L. F; A(r), C(r), L(x),
Galium aparine L. Shelton (Adair).
G. obtusum Bigelow. I; A(z); 5.

G. tinctorium L. F; A(x), C(x); 5.
Hedyotis caerulea (L.) Hook. F; C; 7.
H. purpurea (L.) T. & G. I; L; 6.
Mitchella repens L. F; A, C; 5.

Salicaceae

Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. I; A, CG; 5.

P. grandidentata Michx. I; L; 6.
Salix caroliniana Michx. F; A; 5.
S. nigra Marsh. F; C, L; 4, 5.

S. sericea Marsh. F; A, L; 5.

Saururaceae

Saururus cernuus L. A; A(r), C; 3, 5.
Saxifragaceae

Hydrangea arborescens L. 1; C; 6.
Scrophulariaceae

Agalinis purpurea (L.) Pennell. F: C: 7.
Aureolaria virginica (L.) Pennell F; R; 5.
Gratiola virginiana L. F; C(x); 3
*Kickxia elatine (L.) Dum. R; A; 5.
Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell. 1, A(r); 5.
Mimulus alatus Ait. A; A(x), C; 8.

M. ringens L. A; A(r), C(x); 3.
Penstemon calycosus Small. R; L; 6.
*Verbascum thapsus L. F; C; 7.

Solanaceae

Datura stramonium L. I; A; 7.
Physalis longifolia Nutt. I; C; 5.
Solanum americanum P. Mill. I; R; 5.
S. carolinense L. F; A, C, L; 7.

Tiliaceae

Tilia americana L. H & P (Casey).

Ulmaceae
Ulmus alata Michx. I; A, C; 5
U. americana L. F; A, G, oe 56
U. rubra Muhl. F; A, C, L; 5,
Urticaceae
Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Sw. F; L(x), C; 5.
Laportea canadensis (L.) Weddell. F; L; 5.

Pilea pumila (L.) Gray. F; R(x); 5.
Valerianaceae

Valerianella radiata (1.) Dufr. I, C; 3.
Verbenaceae

Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene. R; A(x); 8.
Verbena hastata L. F; A(z), C(r); 3
V. urticifolia L. F; C, R; 3, 5.

Violaceae
Viola lanceolata L. 1; A(r); 5.

R(r); 3, 5.

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

TaBLE l. Continued.

V. pubescens Ait. var. eriocarpa (Schwein.) Russell. I;
A; 5.

V. rostrata Pursh. I; C; 5.

V. sororia Willd. F; C; 6.

V. striata Ait. F; A, C; 5.

Vitaceae

Amelopsis cordata Michx. I; C; 5.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. A; A, C, L, R;
5, 6.

Vitis aestivalis Michx. I; A; 5.

V. cinerea Engelm. ex Millard. I; R; 5.

V. vulpina L. I, C; 5.

LILIOPSIDA
Alismataceae

Alisma subcordatum Raf. F; A, C; 3, 5.
Sagittaria australis (J. G. Sm.) Small. I; A; 3.
S. brevirostra Mack. & Bush. F; A(r), C(r); 8
S. calycina Engelm. Jeffries (Casey).

S. latifolia Willd. F; C(x); 8

Araceae

Acorus calamus L. A; A(r), C(x); 3.
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott. F; C; 5.
A. dracontium (L.) Schott. R; L; 6.

Commeliniaceae

*Commelina communis L. F; A; 8.

Cyperaceae

Carex complanata Torr. & Hook. I; C; 5.

C. crinata Lam. I, A(r); 5.

C. cristatella Britt. Jeffries (Casey).

C. digitalis Willd. I; C; 5.

C. frankii Kunth. I, L(x); 3.

. granularis Muhl. ex Willd. Jones (Casey).
. grayi Carey. I; A(r); 5.

. intumescens Rudge. I; R(r); 5

. lupulina Willd. F; A(x), C(x), L(x); 5.

. lurida Wahlenb. F; C, R(x); 5

rosea Willd. F; A; 5.

squarrosa L. F; A; 5.

stipata Muhl. ex Willd. I; C; 5.

swanii (Fern.) Mackenzie. I; C; 6.

torta Boott. R; C(r); 8.

tribuloides Wahlenb. F; A(r), C(x); 8.
umbellata Schkuhr. ex Willd. I; C; 5.
virescens Willd. I: C; 5.

. vulpinoidea Michx. Jones (Casey).
Cyperus esculentus L. I; A(r); 8.

C. flavescens L. I; L(x); 3.

C. pseudovegetus Steud. F; A(r), C(r); 3.

C. strigosus L. A; A(r), C(r), L, R(x); 8.
Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. & S. A; A; 1.

E. erythropoda Steud. I; A; 3.

E. ovata (Roth) R & S. A; A(r), C,
E. tenuis (Willd.) Schult. A; A, C,
Fimbristylis autumnalis (L.) R. &
Rhynchospora glomerata (L.) Vahl.
Scirpus atrovirens Willd. A; A, C, oe

AAAAANAAAAANANAANYA

WETLAND Fora IN KENTucKy—Hoagland and Jones 149

TABLE l.

S. pendulus Muhl. F; C, L; 8.
S. polyphyllus Vahl. I; A(x); 3
S. validus Vahl. A; A, C, L; 3.

R; C

S. cyperinus (L.) Kunth. I; A(r), C(r); 8.
Scleria oligantha Michx.

5)

; 5.

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea quaternata (Walt.) J. F. Gmel. I; R; 5.

Iridaceae

Iris cristata Soland. F; C; 6.

*I. pseudoacorus L. R; C(x); 3.

I. virginica L. F; A(x), C(x); 3, 4, 5.
Sisyrinchium angustifolium P. Mill. F; A; 5.

Juncaceae

Juncus acuminatus Ell. F; A(r), C, L; 3.

J. biflorus Ell. I; C; 3.

J. brachycarpus Engelm. A; A(r), C(r), L, R(r); 3.

J. diffusissumus Buckl. F; A(r), C(r); 3.

J. dudleyi Wieg. F; C(r); 3.

J. effusus L. Var. solutus Fern. & Wieg. A; A(r), C(r),
L; 3.

J. marginatus Rostk. I, C(r); 3.

J. tenuis Willd. A; A, C, L, R; 3, 6.

J. torreyi Coville. I; C(r); 5.

Luzula campestris (L.) DC. F; C; 5.

Lemnaceae

Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. F; A(r), C(r); 2.

Liliaceae

Allium cernuum Roth. F; C; 5.

*A. vineale L. F; A, L; 5, 6.

Erythronium americanum Ker-Gawl. F; C; 5.
*Hemerocallis fulva L. 1, A; 7.
Hymenocallis caroliniana (L.) Herb. R; A; 5.
Lilium sp. R; L; 5.

Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. I, C; 5.
Smilacina racemosa (L.) Desf. I; C; 5.
Trillium luteum (Muhl.) Harbison. I; R; 6.
T. sessile L. F; A; 5.

Uvularia perfoliata L. 1; L; 5.

Najadaceae

Najas guadalupensis (Sprang) Magnus. 1; L(r); 2.

Orchidaceae

Goodyera pubescens (Willd.) R. Br. I: A; 5.

Isotria verticillata (Muhl. ex Willd.) Raf. H & P (Casey).
Liparis liliifolia (L.) L. C. Rich. ex Lindl. H & P (Casey).
Platanthera ciliaris (L.) Lindl. R; R(r); 5.

P. flava (L.) Lindl. R; A(r); 5.

P. peramoena (Gray) Gray. I; A; 5.

Spiranthes cernua (L.) L. C. Rich. R; A; 3.

Poaceae

*A grostis gigantea Roth. I; L; 6.
A. perennans (Walt.) Tuckerm. F; A, C, L; 5.

Continued.

A. scabra Willd. F; A, L; 5.

Alopecurus carolinianus Walt. F; A; 5.

Andropogon virginicus L. F; C; 7.

*Anthoxanthum odoratum L. F; L; 6.

Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. F; A, C, L; 6.

*Bromus commutatus Shrad. I; C; 6.

Chasmanthium latifolium (Michx.) Yates. F; A, C, L;
5, 6.

Cinna arundinacea L. F; A, L; 5.

Dichanthelium acuminatum (Sw.) Gould & Clark. I:
A; 5.

D. clandestinum (L.) Gould. I, L; 6.

D. commutatum (Schultes.) Gould. I; C; 5.

D. dichotomum (L.) Gould. F; C, R; 5.

D. scoparium (Lam.) Gould. F; C; 5.

D. sphaerocarpon (Ell.) Gould. F; C; 5.

*Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beavu. F; A(r); 3.

Elymus virginicus L. F; A, C; 5.

*Festuca arundinacea Schreb. A; A, C; 5.

F. obtusa Biehler. I; A; 5.

Glyceria striata (Lam.) A. S. Hitche. A; A(r), C(r); 3.

*Holcus lanatus L. F; C, L; 5.

Hystrix patula Moench. I, L; 6.

Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. A; C; 3.

*Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) A. Camus. I; L; 5.

Muhlenbergia tenuiflora (Willd.) BSP. I; A; 5.

Panicum anceps Michx. I; A(z); 5.

P. laxiflorum Lam. I, A; 5.

P. rigidulum Bosc. ex Nees. I, C; 5.

Paspalum leave Michx. F; C; 6.

Poa autumnalis Mubhl. ex Ell. F; C; 5.

*P. pratensis L. A; A, C, L; 5, 6.

P. sylvestris Gray. F; A; 5.

*Setaria glauca (L.) Beav. F; A, C; 7.

*Sorghum halapense (L.) Pers. F; C; 7.

Tridens flavus (L.) A. S. Hitche. A; C; 7.

Pontederiaceae

Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM. R; A(x); 2.
H. reniformis R&P. R; A(r); 2.

Potamogetonaceae
Potamogeton foliosus Raf. I: C(r); 2.
Smilacaceae

Smilax bona-nox L. I; A; 5.

S. glauca Walt. F; A, L; 5, 6.

S. hispida Muhl. I; L; 6.

S. rotundifolia L. F; A, L, R; 5, 6.

Sparganiaceae

Sparganium americanum Nutt. F; A(r), C; 3, 4.
Typhaceae

Typha latifolia L. A; A(r), C, L(x); 8.
Xyridaceae

Xyris torta Sm. R; C(r); 5.

ene oe ene ree A et yo bth SRR es eS ee en

150

not currently listed by KSNPC are Panax quin-
quefolius, Viola lanceolata, Platanthera per-
amoena, Xyris torta, and Heteranthera reni-
formis.

New county records, based on Beal and
Thieret (6), were documented for several
Coastal Plain taxa. Hymenocallis caroliniana,
primarily distributed in the western one-third
of the state, was found in a forested wetland
in Adair Co. Bartonia paniculata, with scat-
tered records across southern Kentucky was
found in Sphagnum spp. clumps in a forested
wetland in Adair Co. Dichanthelium scopar-
ium, with scattered records across western and
southern Kentucky (J. Campbell, unpub. data),
was observed frequently in the forested wet-
lands of Casey County. Triadenum tubulo-
sum, previously documented from the Jackson
Purchase and several Highland Rim counties,
was found in an emergent wetland in Adair
County. Other Coastal Plain species previously
documented from this region include Polygala
cruciata, Quercus michauxii, and Q. phellos.
Calamagrostis cinnoides (Muhl.) Bart. was re-
ported from Casey County wetlands by Braun
(34) but was not verified during this study.

Three notable exotics were found in the
emergent wetland near the junction of US 127
and KY 70, at Liberty, in Casey County. Iris
pseudoacorus was known previously from some
counties adjacent to the Ohio River. Marsilea
quadrifolia was first collected from this site by
M. L. Branson in 1978. The only other known
site for the state was from the Inner Bluegrass
and it is thought to be extirpated. A recent
check of the population at Liberty indicates
that, although road construction has destroyed
a portion of the site, the plants are still thriving,
colonizing extensive areas along a slow-moving
stream, and producing abundant sporocarps.
Myriophyllum aquaticum, the third notable
exotic, has also been documented from Trigg
and Russell Counties and it should be moni-
tored because of its tendency to become a trou-
blesome aquatic weed.

Wetland Habitat Types

1. Vegetated Unconsolidated Shore Class.—
These habitats are composed of lake, pond, and
river sediments that are exposed along the mar-
gins by drawdowns or drought. Late summer
drawdowns lead to prolific colonization by
Eleocharis acicularis at lake sites in the Green
River Reservoir Wildlife Management Area

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(8-—4)

(GRRWMA). At other sites Cyperus flaves-
cens, Elecharis ovata, Ipomea hederacea,
Xanthium strumarium, Echinochloa crus-gal-
li, and other weedy species were found. No
rare or Coastal Plain species were found.

2. Aquatic Bed Class.—This community type
was typically found in deep-water habitats
lacking emergent vegetation. The only free-
floating plant noted was Spirodela polyrhiza,
and the dominant rooted and floating-leaved
plant was Nuphar luteum. Rooted submer-
gents included Ceratophyllum demersum,
Potamogeton foliosus, Najas quadalupensis,
and Ludwigia palustris. The only rare species
was Heteranthera dubia.

3. Emergent Wetland Class.— Wetland sites
dominated by herbaceous plants varied a great
deal from site to site, but were typically dom-
inated by sedges, grasses and rushes. Glyceria
striata and Leersia oryzoides were found at
nearly all emergent wetland sites, under light
to dense cover. Juncus brachycephalus, J. ef-
fusus, and J. tenuis, and other rushes were
also important species. Carex tribuloides, Cy-
perus strigosus, Eleocharis ovata, Scirpus
atrovirens and S. validus were sedges found
at most sites. Typha latifolia and Acorus cal-
amus often formed monotypic patches within
emergent wetlands. Dicotyledonous plants did
not dominate particular stands, but were often
important associates. Bidens cernua, Eupato-
rium coelestinum, Hibiscus moscheutos, Lo-
belia cardinalis, Ludwigia palustris, Mimulus
alatus, M. ringens, and Polygonum sagitta-
tum were included. Notable species were Sa-
gittaria brevirostra and Triadenum tubulo-
sum.

4, Scrub-Shrub Wetland Class.—Cephal-
anthus occidentalis was very common in areas
dominated by small woody plants, along with
Alnus serrulata, Salix nigra and S. sericea.
Herbaceous associates included many of the
same taxa found in emergent wetland com-
munities.

5. Forested Wetland Class.—Forested wet-
lands occurred on floodplains and on moist up-
land flats and slight depressions over poorly
drained soils. Sinkhole swamp forests were not
found in the region. The most prevalent can-
opy member in the forested wetland was Acer
rubrum. Betula nigra, Fagus grandifolia,
Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Liquidambar styra-
ciflua, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Nyssa syl-
vatica were common associates. Wetland oaks

WETLAND FLora IN KeENtucKy—Hoagland and Jones

present in the region were Quercus bicolor, Q.
palustris, and Q. phellos. Common shrubs in-
cluded Euonymus americana, Lindera ben-
zoin, Sambucus canadensis, Rhododendron
periclymenoides, Ilex verticillata, and Vaccin-
ium corymbosum.

The most common wetland ferns were On-
oclea sensibilis, Athyrium thelypteroides, and
Polystichum acrostichoides. Osmunda regalis
and O. cinnamomea were found at only one
site. Herbaceous plants common in wet forests,
some of which have standing water for pro-
longed periods, included Boehmeria cylindri-
ca, Carex grayjii, C. lurida, C. rosea, C. squar-
rosa, Cinna arundinacea, I mpatiens capensis,
I. pallida, Iris cristata, I. virginica, Juncus
effusus, Laportea canadensis, Mitchella re-
pens, and Dichanthelium dichotomum. Pla-
tanthera peramoena was frequently seen in
this habitat and Xyris torta was infrequent.
Rare or Coastal Plain species in these habitats
were Bartonia paniculata, Hymenocallis car-
oliniana, and Polygala cruciata.

Collection sites in the headwaters of the study
area were similar to mesic forest sites. Com-
mon graminoids at these sites included Carex
swanii, C. vulpinoidea, Cinna arundinacea,
Hystrix patula, and Juncus tenuis. Other me-
sic herbaceous elements included Actaea
pachypoda, Arisaema dracontium, A. tri-
phyllum, Chimaphila maculata, Cimicifuga
racemosa, Geum canadensis, Houstonia pur-
purea, Monotropa uniflora, Podophyllum pel-
tatum, Polemonium reptans, and Sanicula
canadensis.

6. Lower Perennial Emergent Class.—On
the main stem of the Green River, these sites
were almost entirely dominated by Justicia
americana. Associates were Bidens cernua, B.
frondosa, Cyperus strigosus, Eupatorium ru-
gosum, Pilea pumila, Polygonum caespito-
sum, P. pennsylvanicum, P. punctatum, So-
lanum americanum, and Verbena urticifolia.
Glyceria striata, Impatiens capensis, Juncus
effusus, Scirpus atrovirens, and S. pendulus
occurred in the streambed or near the water’s
edge, under thin canopies or on bankside
slumps.

DISCUSSION

Although the UGRB has been heavily dis-
turbed, it still has a relatively high species rich-
ness, with 500 species documented for wetland
and riparian habitats. The 180 new county re-

151

cords provide additional information on the
known distributions of aquatic and wetland
species in Kentucky. While most of the species
are intraneous, there is evidence of some in-
termixing of floras from different regions.
Quercus bicolor and Q. palustris are north-
central species, and the former species is near
the southerly limit of its range. These 2 wet-
land oaks are good indicator species for most
central Kentucky wetlands (5). Several Ap-
palachian species also occur in the area, and
others, Aesculus flava and Tilia heterophylla,
occur just outside the study area in northern
Casey County (KSNPC, unpub. data). In com-
paring this region to other similar sites on the
Interior Low Plateaus the occurrence of Coast-
al Plain species was of interest. The presence
of these extraneous species provides evidence
of the geographic affinities of these sites, and
on the extent of northward plant migrations
through the region.

The similarities and differences between the
flora of the UGRB and those of other sites on
the Highland Rim (4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13)
is summarized in the following account. A total
of 125 of the 253 species previously reported
for Casey County (4) were documented.
Twenty eight of the 31 species listed for the
upper Green River by Meijer et al. (5) were
found, and 131 of the 197 species listed for the
nearby Brodhead swamp (7) were collected.
The Highland Rim riparian and floodplain flo-
ras were generally similar in all of the studies,
with many of the same intraneous species in
the open water, drawdown, emergent, scrub-
shrub, and forested wetlands. Highland Rim
sites with sinkhole swamps and more persistent
open water sites (7, 8, 9, 11) tend to have a
higher percentage of Coastal Plain species, e.g.,
Quercus lyrata, Decodon verticillatus, and Itea
virginica, and higher numbers of floating-
leaved and submerged species, probably be-
cause of the longer existence of the habitat and
lesser disturbance.

Some similarities and differences with the
UGRB can also be noted in comparing wet-
lands in adjacent sections of the Interior Low
Plateaus. The lowlands of the Shawnee Hill
Section differed from the study area in having
more deep-water forested wetlands and in the
greater numbers of Coastal Plain species, e.g.,
Taxodium distichum and Fraxinus profunda
(18). Wetland sites elsewhere in the Knobs re-
gion (5, 19, 20) are generally very similar to

152

those reported for the study area. Bluegrass
wetlands are very infrequent and often asso-
ciated with sinking creeks or abandoned river
channels (16, 17), and are noted for the pres-
ence of Q. bicolor, and for several species not
yet found in the UGRB.

The wetland habitat types of the Upper
Green River Basin are thus not as high in spe-
cies richness as some other sites on the Interior
Low Plateaus, especially those with higher
numbers of southern species. However, some
rare species and some species of geographic
interest can still be found. Coastal Plain and
other extraneous species on the Interior Low
Plateaus are of interest from a phytogeograph-
ic standpoint, and it is only by further docu-
mentation of these occurrences that past and
present species distributions can be better un-
derstood.

There are several individual areas of high
species richness in the Upper Green River Ba-
sin, especially open to partially wooded sites
with seasonal standing water. These sites, how-
ever, are disappearing rapidly. The emergent
wetland at the junction of KY 70 and US 127,
virtually in downtown Liberty, was once a
highly rich area with a number of interesting
plants. Unfortunately, it has now been heavily
impacted by road construction. Continued
studies focusing on the location and monitoring
of these sites should therefore have high pri-
ority, in order to preserve what remains of the
wetland and riparian flora of south-central
Kentucky.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support for this study was provided by the
Marcia Athey Fund of the Kentucky Academy
of Science. Thanks are extended to to Dr. Wil-
liam Martin and Dr. Branley Branson for serv-
ing on the thesis committee, and to Dr. Ralph
Thompson for help with plant identifications.
The assistance of Barbara Jeffries and Frances
Carter in locating wetland sites in the region
was greatly appreciated.

LITERATURE CITED

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Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

2. Dahl, T. E. 1990. Wetlands losses in the United
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Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C.

8. Hannan, R. R., W. L. Fisher, and R. R. Cicerello.

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4, Murphy, G. W. 1970. A preliminary survey of the
flora of Casey County, Kentucky. Castanea 35:118-131.

5. Meijer, W., J. J. N. Campbell, H. Setser, and L. E.
Meade. 1981. Swamp forests on high terrace deposits in
the Bluegrass and Knobs regions of Kentucky. Castanea
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6. Beal, E. O. and J. W. Thieret. 1986. Aquatic and
wetland plants of Kentucky. Kentucky Nature Preserves
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8. Homoya, M. 1983. The upland sinkhole swamps
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9. Ellis, W. H. and E. W. Chester. 1989. Upland
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14. McKinney, L. 1989. Vegetation of the Eastern
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16. Bryant, W. S. 1978. An unusual forest type, hy-
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17. Meijer, W. 1976. Notes on the flora of the Sinking
Creek System and Elkhorn source areas in the Inner Blue
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84.

18. Harker, D. F., Jr., R. R. Hannan, M. L. Warren,
Jr., L. R. Phillippe, K. E. Camburn, R. S. Caldwell, S. M.
Call, G. J. Fallo, and D. VanNorman. 1980. Western
Kentucky Coal Field: preliminary investigations of natural
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19. Wharton, M. E. 1945. Floristics and vegetation of
the Devonian-Mississippian Black-shale region of Ken-
tucky. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Michigan, Ann
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20. Harker, D. F., Jr., R. R. Hannan, R. R. Cicerello,
W. C. Houtcooper, L. R. Phillippe, and D. Van Norman.

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1981. Preliminary assessment of the ecology and ecolog-
ical features of the Kentucky “Knobs” oil shale region.
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Commission, Frankfort, Kentucky.

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of the Upper Green River Basin, south-central Kentucky.
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T. G. Sparks, and O. Whitaker. 1961. Soil survey of Adair
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ecological /ecological natural landmarks of the Interior Low
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quadrangle, Lincoln County, Kentucky. Dept. of Interior,
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28. Cowardin, L. W., V. Carter, F. C. Colet, and E. T.
LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater
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and wetland plants of southeastern United States: mono-
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and wetland plants of southeastern United States: dicot-
yledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia.

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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 154-161

Characterization of a Freshwater Mussel (Unionidae) Community
Immediately Downriver of Kentucky Lock and Dam in the
Tennessee River

ANDREW C. MILLER AND BARRY S. PAYNE

Environmental Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199

AND

RICHARD TIPPIT
U.S. Army Engineer District, Nashville, P.O. Box 1070, Nashville, Tennessee 37202-1070

ABSTRACT

Data on community characteristics, density, recruitment rates, presence of endangered species, and pop-
ulation demography of dominant species of freshwater mussels (Family Unionidae) were obtained at selected
sites between RM 22.2 and 21.2 at a mussel bed immediately downriver of Kentucky Lock and Dam (RM
22.4) in the lower Tennessee River. The unionid fauna was dominated by 2 thick-shelled species, Amblema
plicata plicata (Say, 1817) (39.43%) and Fusconaia ebena (I. Lea, 1831) (39.41%). Six species each comprised
1 to 5% of the collection and 15 species each made up less than 1% of the collection. No federally listed
endangered species was found. The similarity of size structure of A. p. plicata and F. ebena suggested
interspecific similarity in temporal variation in recruitment. Species diversity (logs 392, 1.564-1.87) and even-
ness (0.629-0.811) were moderate at 6 sites where 10 quantitative 0.25-sq m samples were taken. Mean
unionid density ranged from 9.2—128.0 individuals/sq m (overall average was 63.0/sq m). The minimum
density required to sustain a reproductively viable population of an uncommon species is probably 2-3
individuals/100 sq m. Mean density of Corbicula fluminea (Muller, 1774) ranged from 6.0-26.4 individuals/
sq m, which was considerably less than values reported by Williams (1), who collected at a series of sites

between Kentucky Lock and Dam and the mouth of the Tennessee River in the mid 1960s.

INTRODUCTION

A rich, dense, and commercially harvestable
assemblage of freshwater mussels (Family
Unionidae) occurs downriver of Kentucky Lock
and Dam in the lower Tennessee River (1, 2,
3). Commercial fishermen consider the bed to
extend from the dam at RM 22.4 to RM 11.0,
although mussel distribution in this reach is
patchy (3). Thirty six species of unionids, in-
cluding 2 federally listed endangered species,
have been collected at this bed (3). This reach
of the lower Tennessee River has stable sand
and gravel substratum that is kept free of sed-
iment by continuous flow from Kentucky Dam.
Kentucky Lock and Dam is a multiple-purpose
project that was completed in September 1944.

From August 31 to September 3, 1990, a
survey was conducted to obtain data on com-
munity characteristics, density, recruitment
rates, presence of endangered species, and
population demography of dominant species
of freshwater mussels between RM 22.2 and

21.2, a dense section of the bed located im-
mediately downriver of the dam. The survey
was conducted at the request of the U.S. Army
Engineer District, Nashville as part of envi-
ronmental studies necessary before completion
of a second lock at Kentucky Lock and Dam.
Construction of the lower approach for this
new lock would require removal of about
59,000 cu yd (45,000 cu m) of sand and gravel,
which would eliminate some live bivalves and
their habitat. When commercial traffic enters
and exists this new lock they will pass closer
to valuable portions of the mussel bed than
they have in the past.

StuDy AREA

The Tennessee River originates at the junc-
tion of French Broad and Holston Rivers near
Knoxville, Tennessee and flows southwest into
Alabama, then north through Tennessee and
Kentucky to Paducah, Kentucky where it en-
ters the Ohio River at RM 933. The river is

154

UnIonip MussELs IN Kenrucky—Miller, Payne, and Tippit

155

KENTUCKY

RM 22.00

KENTUCKY
LOCK AND DAM

LEGEND
° QUALITATIVE SAMPLES

@—e—e QUANTITATIVE SAMPLES

Fic. 1.

1,050 km long with an average discharge of
1,834 cu m/s at Paducah (66 years of records
(4)). Much of the river consists of a series of
run-of-the-river reservoirs for navigation and
hydroelectric power. Kentucky Lock and Dam
is the last dam on the Tennessee River before
its confluence with the Ohio River.
Quantitative and qualitative samples were
obtained between RM 22.2 and RM 21.2,
mainly along the right descending bank (Fig.
1). Sediment at sites where quantitative sam-
ples were collected consisted mainly of gravel
(60.4-83.3%) with lesser amounts of sand (15.9-
38.9%) and fines (0.2-1.1%). Percentage or-
ganic matter ranged from 0.62-4.90% by
weight. Mussels were uncommon along the left
descending bank in the study area, and vir-
tually no mussels were found in the main chan-
nel. Sites were chosen to characterize areas that
were likely to be affected by proposed con-
struction of the second lock and movement of
commercial vessels. Our study area contained
one of the densest concentrations of mussels in

Study areas on the lower Tennessee River.

this river reach (3). The study area is within a
state mussel sanctuary located between RM
17.8 and 22.4 where commercial shell har-
vesting is prohibited.

METHODS

All sampling was accomplished by a dive
crew equipped with surface air supply and
communication equipment. Qualitative sam-
ples were obtained by three divers working
simultaneously. Each diver placed a specific
number of live mussels in each of four nylon
bags; five mussels were placed in the first bag
and 20 mussels were placed in each of three
other bags. Each diver collected approximately
65 live mussels (some shells and rocks were
inadvertently taken) for a total of about 185
mussels per site. Divers attempted to exclude
the Asian clam, Corbicula fluminea (Muller,
1774), from qualitative samples. If C. fluminea
was inadvertently collected, it was later elim-
inated from the sample. All mussels were
brought to the surface, counted, and identified.

156

TABLE 1.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Summary of relative species abundance and frequency of occurrence for freshwater mussels collected using

qualitative techniques at five study areas upriver of the I-24 Bridge (see Fig. 1) in the lower Tennessee River, 1990.

Total Total Species
Species mussels % sites % ran
Amblema p. plicata (Say, 1817) 1,880 39.43 274 95.47 ]
Fusconaia ebena (I. Lea, 1831) 1,879 39.41 959 90.24 9)
Quadrula p. pustulosa (I. Lea, 1831) 241 5.05 141 49.13 3
Quadrula quadrula (Rafinesque, 1820) 175 3.67 113 39.37 4
Obliquaria reflexa Rafinesque, 1820 165 3.46 82 28.57 5
Megalonaias nervosa (Rafinesque, 1820) 78 1.58 58 20.21 6
Cyclonaias tuberculata (Rafinesque, 1820) 59 1.24 51 Neeway u
Elliptio crassidens (Lamarck, 1819) 57 1.20 47 16.38 8
Elliptio dilatata (Rafinesque, 1820) 85 0.73 31 10.80 9
Ellipsaria lineolata (Rafinesque, 1820) 30 0.63 27 9.4] 10.5
Truncilla truncata Rafinesque, 1820 30 0.63 26 9.06 10.5
Potamilus alatus (Say, 1817) Di 0.57 23 8.01 12
Truncilla donaciformis (I. Lea, 1828) 26 0.55 22 7.67 13
Quadrula nodulata (Rafinesque, 1820) 18 0.38 18 6.27 14
Leptodea fragilis (Rafinesque, 1820) 17 0.36 17) 5.92 15
Tritogonia verrucosa (Rafinesque, 1820) 16 0.34 15 5.23 16
Pleurobema cordatum (Rafinesque, 1820) 12 0.25 9 3.14 17
Ligumia recta (Lamarck, 1819) 9 0.19 9 3.14 18
Lampsilis teres (Rafinesque, 1820) W 0.15 6 2.09 19
Anodonta imbecillis (Say, 1829) 4 0.08 4 1.39 20
Quadrula metanevra (Rafinesque, 1820) 3 0.06 8 1.05 21.5
Anodonta grandis Say, 1829 3 0.06 3 1.05 21.5
Lasmigona c. complanata (Barnes, 1823) 2 0.04 2 0.70 23

Total samples 287
Total mussels 4,768
23

Total species

Ten quantitative samples (that included C.
fluminea) were obtained at each of 6 sites 100
m apart (upriver to downriver in the center of
the bed) in the area that would be dredged for
lock construction. At each site ten 0.25-sq m
quadrats were positioned approximately 1 m
apart and arranged in a 2 by 5 matrix. A diver
excavated all substratum to a depth of 10-15
cm. Material was sent to the surface in a 20 L
bucket and transported to shore. Sediment was
screened through a sieve series (finest screen
with apertures of 6.4 mm). All live bivalves
were picked from the sediment and placed in
zipper-lock bags. Each bivalve was identified
and total shell length (SL) was measured to the
nearest 0.1 mm with a dial caliper.

RESULTS

Twenty three species and 4,768 freshwater
mussels were obtained in 287 qualitative col-
lections (Table 1). The fauna was dominated
by 2 thick-shelled species, Amblema plicata
plicata (Say, 1817) and Fusconaia ebena (I.
Lea, 1831), which represented 89.48 and
39.41% of the fauna and were taken in 95.47

and 90.24% of the samples, respectively. Six
species each comprised from 1 to 5% of the
collection, and 15 species each comprised less
than 1% of the collection. With the exception
of A. p. plicata and F. ebena, all other unionids
were taken in less than 50% of the samples; 14
species were found in less than 10% of the
samples. Thin- and moderately thick-shelled
species, Anodonta grandis Say, 1829, Ano-
donta imbecillis (Say, 1829), Lampsilis teres
(Rafinesque, 1820) and Leptodea fragilis (Raf-
inesque 1820), usually associated with fine sand
or silt, were uncommon and together com-
prised 0.65% of the assemblage. No live spec-
imens of two endangered species, Lampsilis
abrupta (Say, 1831) and Plethobasus cooper-
ianus (I. Lea, 1834), previously collected in
this river reach (3) were found.

A plot of cumulative species versus cumu-
lative individuals illustrates the relationship
between sampling effort and the ability to find
uncommon species. Although a total of 4,768
individuals and 23 species were taken (Table
1), after 1,200 individuals had been found, all
23 species were identified (Fig. 2). This figure

Unionip MussELs IN Kentucky—Miller, Payne, and Tippit

25
20

B15

wr

=

= 16

=

=

—}

i)
5
0

0 1000 2000

157

3000 4000 5000

Cumulative Individuals

Fic. 2. The relationship between cumulative species and cumulative individuals for qualitative samples.

suggests that finding additional species with
more sampling would be unlikely. If species
were present and not collected, they would
comprise less than 0.02% of the assemblage.
Mean unionid density at six sites ranged from
9.2 to 128.0 individuals/sq m (overall average
was 63.0 individuals/sq m). Mean density of

160

120

(oe)
(o)

Individuals / sq m

iN
(je)

C. fluminea ranged from 6.0 to 26.4 individ-
uals/sq m (Figure 3). Species diversity (log, 3026)
ranged from 1.54 to 1.87, and evenness ranged
from 0.629 to 0.811.

The A. p. plicata population ranged be-
tween 6 to 126 mm total SL (Fig. 4). The most
abundant mussels occurred in 2 size classes: 10

Unionidae
BOC. #fluminea

3 4 5 6
Site No.

Fic. 3. Total density (individuals/sq m) of unionids and Corbicula fluminea.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

158

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UNIONID MUSSELS IN KENTUCKY—Miller, Payne, and Tippit

to 50 mm (62% of the population) and 54 to
88 mm (33% of the population). Several over-
lapping cohorts were included within each of
these two SL ranges. A recently recruited co-
hort (probably the 1989 year class) had an ay-
erage SL of 14-18 mm. Mussels ranging from
20 to 46 mm SL probably represented 3 largely
overlapping cohorts. Two relatively abundant
cohorts were centered at 22-26 mm and 36-
44 mm SL, and an intermediate and less abun-
dant cohort was between 28 and 34 mm. In-
dividual cohorts could not be distinguished
among the moderately large mussels ranging
from 54 to 88 mm. The relative paucity of
mussels between 46 and 56 mm is probably
the consequence of 1 or 2 consecutive years of
poor recruitment. Individuals greater than 100
mm comprised less than 2% of the total pop-
ulation. Although A. p. plicata can exceed 100
mm total SL, few individuals appeared to sur-
vive long enough to attain this size. Because
the study area is within a mussel sanctuary,
population structure should be unaffected by
commercial harvest.

The size structure of F. ebena was similar
to that of A. p. plicata (Fig. 4). Fusconaia
ebena was characterized by two relatively
abundant and broad size classes, and each con-
sisted of multiple but indistinct cohorts. The
smaller of these 2 groups included mussels
ranging between 12 and 56 mm and comprised
72% of the population (compared to 62% in
the 10- to 50-mm range of A. p. plicata). Mus-
sels between 56 and 86 mm accounted for 28%
of the total collection (compared to 31% in the
56 to 86 mm range of A. p. plicata). Individuals
greater than 92 mm accounted for only 2% of
the population.

The similarity of size structure among the
2 most abundant species populations may re-
flect interspecific similarity in temporal vari-
ation in recruitment. The paucity of mussels
from 50 to 60 mm (relative to abundant size
classes above and below this size range) for
both populations could correspond to an in-
terspecific simultaneity of one or more poor
years of recruitment.

The low-density population of C. fluminea
consisted almost entirely of small individuals
between 4 to 138 mm, which probably represent
spring recruits (Fig. 4). Corbicula fluminea
usually exhibits spring and fall peaks of re-
cruitment (5) unlike native unionids that have

159

a single recruitment each year. Larger C. flu-
minea (18 to 24 mm) probably represent re-
cruitment from the fall of 1989. Stable and
thriving populations of C. fluminea sampled
during the late summer usually show 3 to 5
cohorts, including many individuals from 20
to 35 mm (5, and references cited therein).
The lack of complex size structure and large
individuals plus low density indicates a pop-
ulation supported by low recruitment with
subsequent poor survival.

DISCUSSION

The mussel assemblage in the reach of the
Tennessee River immediately downriver of
Kentucky Lock and Dam consisted almost en-
tirely of thick-shelled species such as A. p. pli-
cata, F. ebena, and Quadrula spp., and lesser
numbers of Elliptio spp., Megalonaias nervosa
(Rafinesque 1820), and Pleurobema cordatum
(Rafinesque 1820). Thin- and moderately thick-
shelled species (L. fragilis, Potamilus alatus
(Say, 1817), and Anodonta spp.) together com-
prised only 0.65% of the qualitative collection.
Within their range these thin-shelled species
are found in appropriate substratum in large
rivers (6, 7, 8). Each has multiple fish hosts (9)
and would be more common in this reach if
more suitable substratum and flow existed for
them. However, gravel and erosive flows at
high discharge stress thin-shelled species. If
present, few would reach adult size. There
would probably be more thin-shelled species
immediately downriver of the lock and dam
if maximum water velocities were less.

Our sampling was concentrated only in the
portion of the bed immediately downriver of
the lock and dam. Results of previous studies
(1, 2, 3, 10, 11) included samples taken down-
river of our study area. In 1985, Sickle (3)
reported collecting 36 species (34 living) at 51
sites between RM 22.4 and the mouth of the
Tennessee River. Species absent from our study
area that have been collected by ourselves and
others farther downriver include fairly com-
mon species such as Arcidens confragosus (Say,
1829) and Fusconaia flava (Rafinesque, 1820).
The slightly reduced richness immediately
downriver of the lock and dam (23 species),
compared with results of previously conducted
studies that included sites located farther
downriver, does not necessarily indicate a
change in richness through time. The slightly

160

more erosional characteristic of substratum
closer to the dam has probably greatly reduced
or eliminated some species. An examination of
data collected by the earlier workers (sum-
marized by Sickel, 3) indicates that community
composition at the mussel bed (RM 22.4 to
11.0) has remained relatively stable through
time regardless of completion of major hydro-
power dams in the watershed.

Total species richness in the study area is
similar to that at other mussel beds in large
rivers. At a mussel bed in the lower Ohio River
near Olmsted, Illinois, 23 species of freshwater
mussels were collected (12). In a survey of the
upper Mississippi River, Miller et al. (13) col-
lected over 15,000 bivalves in 667 qualitative
samples at 58 locations and identified 34 spe-
cies. However, total species richness at any one
location was usually between 15 and 25.

Mean unionid density at the 6 sites sampled
(9.2-128.0 individuals/sq m with an overall
average of 63.0 individuals/sq m) is within the
range of density data from other large river
mussel beds. In a survey of the upper Missis-
sippi River, Miller et al. (13) reported that total
mussel density ranged from 5.2 to 333.2 in-
dividuals/sq m at 16 sites (10 quantitative sam-
ples were taken at each). At half of those sites
total density was greater than 50 individuals/
sq m and at four sites it was greater than 100
individuals/sq m. At an inshore and offshore
site sampled in 1986 at RM 18.6 in the lower
Tennessee River (32 quantitative samples were
collected at each), total mussel density was
187.7 and 79.7 individuals/sq m, respectively
(14).

This bed is within the reported range of the
following federally listed endangered fresh-
water mussel species: Pleurobema plenum (I.
Lea, 1840), P. cooperianus, L. abrupta, Obova-
ria retusa (Lamarck, 1819), Potamilus capax
(Green, 1832), Plethobasus cicatricosus (Say,
1829), Cyprogenia stegaria (=irrorata) (Rafi-
nesque, 1820), and Epioblasma torulosa to-
rulosa (Rafinesque, 1820) (15). Two of these
species, P. cooperianus and L. abrupta, have
been collected in the lower Tennessee River.
Sickel (3) collected a single Plethobasus coo-
perianus at RM 20.6 and two at RM 20.7 (just
downriver of our study area) in 1985. This
species was found near the mouth of the river
at Paducah, Kentucky in 1931 by Ellis (as re-
ported by van der Schalie, 11). Sickel (3) re-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

ported 2 specimens of L. abrupta at RM 14.75
and 1 at RM 21.36 (16) (just within our study
area). In the latter survey a total of 9,367 mus-
sels were collected between RM 21.1 and 21.5.
This species was also collected by personnel of
the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1978 at RM
22.0 (within our study area) as reported by
Sickel (8).

Between RM 22.2 and 21.2 in the lower Ten-
nessee River, P. cooperianus and L. abrupta
are either absent or extremely uncommon (i.e.,
less than one individual per 5,000 unionids).
The relationship between cumulative species
and cumulative individuals (Fig. 2) illustrates
that it would be unlikely (although probably
not impossible) to find either of these species
in the study area. If individuals of these species
are present, they are probably not part of a
viable population. Miller et al. (17) found what
appears to be a viable population of P. cooperi-
anus at a mussel bed in the lower Ohio River
near Olmsted, Illinois. In the fall of 1990 they
obtained 2 live specimens in 3 samples of 200
individuals each. Plethobasus cooperianus
continues to exist in certain reaches of large
rivers in densities high enough to be easily
collected.

Based on our qualitative samples, the least
common species, Lasmigona complanata
complanata (Barnes, 1823), comprised 0.04
percent of the fauna. With an average of 63
mussles/sq m, the density of this uncommon
species would be 0.0252 individuals/sq m. A
density of 2-8 individuals per 100 sq meters
could be considered the minimum necessary
to sustain a reproductively viable population
of an uncommon unionid. Two uncommon
federally listed species, P. cooperianus and L.
abrupta, were collected previously in our study
area (3). However, these species are so uncom-
mon in this river reach that they probably can
not sustain themselves.

Williams (1) sampled the lower Tennessee
River between Kentucky Lock and Dam and
the Ohio River in the mid 1960s with an 8-ft
brail and a Peterson dredge. He estimated that
C. fluminea comprised 99.41% of the bivalve
community; densities ranged from 17 to 1,147
individuals/sq yd (20.3 to 1,372 individuals/
sq m). In the present survey, density of Asian
Clams ranged from 6.0 to 26.4 individuals/sq
m. Although quantitative data on C. fluminea
were not collected throughout the lower Ten-

Unionip MussELs IN KENTucky—Miller, Payne, and Tippit

nessee River, it appears that its densities in the
study area have diminished considerably since
the survey conducted by Williams (1). Physical
conditions in this river reach have not changed
since that survey (i.e., Kentucky Lock and Dam
was operational in September 1944). It is likely
that C. fluminea densities are now declining
to equilibrium conditions as suggested earlier
by Morton (18).

Turbulence, increased suspended sediments,
and benthic scour caused by passage of com-
mercial vessels entering and exiting the new
lock could negatively affect freshwater mussels
and their habitat (19). Results of additional
study after the second lock has been completed
will provide data on long-term trends in the
bivalve fauna, as well as effects of construction
and operation of the second lock.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Studies were funded by the U.S. Army En-
gineer District, Nashville. Divers were Larry
Neill, Brad Bole, Robert Warden, and Dennis
Baxter from the Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA). Assistance in the field was provided by
Dr. John Jenkinson, TVA, and Dr. Jim Sickel,
Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky.
The authors appreciate constructive comments
by anonymous reviewers. Permission was
granted by the Chief of Engineers to publish
this information.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Williams, J. C. 1969. Mussel fishery investigations,
Tennessee, Ohio and Green Rivers. Project Completion
Report for Investigations Projects Conducted Under the
Commercial Fisheries Research and Development Act of
1964. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Kentucky De-
partment of Fish and Wildlife Resources.

2. Isom, B. G. 1969. The mussel resource of the Ten-
nessee River. Malacologia 7:397-425.

3. Sickel, J.B. 1985. Biological assessment of the fresh-
water mussels in the Kentucky Dam Tailwaters of the
Tennessee River. Contract Report to Kentucky Division
of Water.

4. Tom, S. G., C. J. Sholar, and D. D. Zettwoch. 1986.
Water resources data for Kentucky, water year 1986. U.S.
Geol. Surv. Water Data Ret. KY-86-1.

5. McMahon, R. F. 1983. Ecology of an invasive pest
bivalve, Corbicula. Pp. 505-561. In W. D. Russell-Hunter,

161

(ed.) The mollusca (Volume 6): ecology. Academic Press,
Orlando, Florida.

6. Murry, H. D. and A. B. Leonard. 1962. Handbook
of Unionid Mussels in Kansas. Museum of Natural History,
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.

7. Parmalee, P. W. 1967. The fresh-water mussels of
Illinois. Illinois State Museum Popular Science Series 8:1-
108.

8. Starrett, W. C. 1971. A survey of the mussels
(Unionidae) of the Illinois River: a polluted stream. IIl.
Nat. Hist. Sur. Bull. 30:266-403.

9. Fuller, S. L.H. 1974. Clams and mussels (Mollusca:
Bivalvia). Pp. 215-273. In C. W. Hart, Jr., and S. L. H.
Fuller (eds.) Pollution ecology of freshwater invertebrates.
Academic Press, New York.

10. Ortmann, A. E. 1925. The Naiad-fauna of the
Tennessee River System below Walden Gorge. Amer. Mid.
Nat. 9:321-871.

11. van der Schalie. 1939. Additional notes on the
naiades (fresh-water mussels) of the lower Tennessee Riv-
er. Amer. Midl. Nat. 22:452-457.

12. Payne, B. S. and A. C. Miller. 1989. Growth and
survival of recent recruits to a population of Fusconaia
ebena (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in the lower Ohio River. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 121:99-104.

13. Miller, A. C., Payne, B. S., Hornbach, D. J., and D.
V. Ragland. 1990. Physical effects of increased com-
mercial navigation traffic in the Upper Mississippi River:
phase I studies. Technical Report EL-90-3, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

14. Way, C. M., Miller, A. C., and B. S. Payne. 1989.
The influence of physical factors on the distribution and
abundance of freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in
the lower Tennessee River. Nautilus 103:96-98.

15. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Endangered
and threatened wildlife and plants. 50 CFR 17.11 & 17.12
(July 15, 1991). Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240.

16. Sickel, J. B. 1987. Survey of freshwater mussels in
the Kentucky Dam Tailwater at the site of the proposed
Reed Crushed Stone Barge Facility. Prepared for Reed
Crushed Stone Company, Inc., Gilbertsville, KY 42044.

17. Miller, A. C., Payne, B. S., and T. S. Siemsen. 1986.
Description of habitat of the endangered mussel Pletho-
basus cooperianus. Nautilus 100:14-18.

18. Morton, B. 1979. Freshwater fouling bivalves. In
Proceedings, First International Corbicula Symposium,
Texas Christian Univ. Res. Found. :1-14.

19. Rasmussen, J. L. 1983. A summary of known navy-
igation effects and a priority list of data gaps for the bi-
ological effects of navigation on the upper Mississippi Riv-
er. Prepared for the U.S. Army Engineer District, Rock
Island, by US Fish and Wildlife Service. Contract NCR-
LO-83-C9, Rock Island, IL.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 162-164

A Note on Derivations and Modules of Quotients

PauL E. BLAND!

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT
Let 7 be a hereditary torsion theory on Mod-R. If M is a right R-module with derivation 6, then 6 has a
unique extension to the module of quotients of M if and only if the torsion submodule of M is a 6-module.
Moreover, if R is a differntial ring, the ring of quotients of R is a differential ring if and only if the torsion

ideal of R is a 6-ideal.

INTRODUCTION

In (5), Lambek indicated that if d: R > R
is a derivation on a ring R, d can be extended
uniquely to a derivation D: Q(R), — Q(R),
where Q(R) is the complete ring of quotients
of R. Tewari (8) showed previously that this
could be accomplished when R is a commu-
tative ring. The purpose of this note is to show
that this result holds in the more general setting
of a hereditary torsion theory on Mod-R. More
specifically, if 7 is a hereditary torsion theory
on Mod-R and M is a module with derivation
6, then 6 has a unique extension to the module
of quotients of M if and only if the torsion
submodule of M is a 6-module. From this it
follows that if R is a differential ring, then the
ring of quotients of R with respect to 7 is a
differential ring if and only if the torsion ideal
of R is a 6-ideal. We also show that if the filter
of right ideals of R associated with T is a 6-filter,
then any derivation 6 on a right R-module M
has a unique extension to the module of quo-
tients M.

Throughout this note, R denotes an associa-
tive ring with identity and our attention will
be confined to a hereditary torsion t on Mod-
R, the category of unital right R-modules. If
7 is such a torsion theory on Mod-R, the to-
pologizing and idempotent filter of right ideals
associated with 7 is denoted by F(R). The read-
er can consult (3) or (7) for the general results
and terminology on torsion theory and recent
results on derivations can be found in (1), (2)

and (6).
DISCUSSION

If 7 is a hereditary torsion theory on a Mod-
R, the module of quotients of M is given by

1 This work was supported by Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity’s released-time program.

Q,(M) = lim Hom,(K, M/T(M)), where T(M)
keF(R)

denotes the torsion submodule of M. Elements
of Q,(M) are equivalence classes [f] of R-linear
mappings where 2 mappings are equivalent if
they agree on some K € F(R). There is a ca-
nonical R-linear mapping ¢:M > Q,(M) which
is the canonical map 7:M > M/T(M) followed
by the injective mapping k:M/T(M) > Q,(M)
defined by k(x) = [f,] where f,:R —- M/T(M):r
— XI,

An additive mapping 6:R > R such that 6(rs)
= 6(r)s + r6(s) for all r, s © R is said to be a
derivation? on R and a ring with such a der-
ivation is said to be a differential ring. If M is
a right R-module and R is a differential ring
with derivation 6, then an additive mapping
6’:M — M such that 6’(mr) = 6'(m)r + md(r)
for all m € M and all r € R is said to be a
derivation on M. To simplify notation we will
use 6 to denote both a derivation on R and a
derivation on a module M. The context of the
discussion should make it clear which is being
considered and should cause no confusion. If
M is a right R-module with derivation 6, then
a submodule of N of M is said to be a 6-module
if (N) CN.

Let + be a torsion theory on Mod-R and
suppose that R is a differential ring with der-
ivation 6. If M is a right R-module with deri-
vation 6, then 6 is said to extend uniquely to
Q.(M) if there exists a unique derivation 6*:
Q,(M) > Q,(M) such that 6* od = n° 6. Now

2 The motivation for the definition of a derivation on a ring R comes from
the differentiation formulas for the sum and product of two functions. If R
is an integral domain with derivation 6, then the complete ring of quotients
of R, is the field of fractions of R. In this case, the unique existence of 6 to

b — ad(b)

6
Q(R) referred to by Lambek in [5] is given by i(2) = ae

162

DERIVATIONS AND MODULES OF QuOTIENTs—Bland

suppose 6*:Q_(M) > Q,(M) is such an extension
of 6:M — M. Since ker ¢ = T(M), 0 = 6* o
o(T(M)) = @° 6(T(M)) and so k © 9 6(T(M))
= 0. Hence n(6(T(M))) = 0 and so 6(T(M))
ker n = T(M). Thus, T(M) being a 6-module
is necessary for such an extension to exist. The
following shows this condition is also sufficient.

Lemma 1.—Let 7 be a hereditary torsion
theory on Mod-R and suppose that R is a dif-
ferential ring with derivation 6. If M is a right
R-module with derivation 6, there is at most
one derivation 6*:Q,(M) > Q,(M) such that 6*
op = G°0.

Proof.—Let 6,* and 6,* be derivations on
Q.(M) such that 6,*°¢ = 6,*°¢6=@06. If
6,* # 6,*, there is a q € Q,(M) for which (6,*
— 6,*)(q) # 0 and so suppose k € (¢(M):q)* €
F(R). Since 6,;* — 6,*:Q(M) > Q,(M) is an
R-linear mapping, if m € M is such that ¢(m)
= qk, then (6,* — 6,*)(q)k = (6;* — 62*)(qk)
= (6,* — 6,*)(¢(m)) = 0. Hence (6,* — 6,*)(q)K
= 0 and so (6,* — 6,*)(q) is a non-zero torsion
element of Q,(M). But Q,(M) is torsion free
and so it must be the case that 6,* = 6,*.

Lemma 2.—Suppose 7 is a hereditary tor-
sion theory on Mod-R and let R be a differ-
ential ring with derivation 6. Suppose also that
M is a right R-module with derivation 6 such
that T(M) is a 6-module. If q € Q,(M) and K
= ((M), q), then the mapping 6,:K > Q,(M)
defined by 6,(r) = ¢ © 6(m) — g(r) is a well
defined R-linear mapping, where m € M is such
that ¢(m) = ar. ;

Proof.—Let r, s € K and suppose m, m,, m,
€ M are such that ¢(m) = q(r + s), 6(m,) =
qr and ¢(m,) = qs. Then m — m, — m, € ker
¢@ = T(M) and so since T(M) is a 6-module, ¢
© 6(m) = ¢° 6(m,) + @°6(m,). Thus 6,(r + s)
= ~°6(m) — qd(r + s) = f° d(m,) + $2 6(m,)
— qgd(r) — qd(s) = B,(r) + 8,(s). Finally if r €
K and s € R, let m, n € M be such that ¢(m)
= qrs and ¢(n) = qr. Since ¢(m) = ¢(ns), it
follows that ¢ o 6(m) = ¢ ° d(ns). Hence £,(rs)
= ¢° 6(m) — gd(rs) = ¢ © d(ns) — qd(rs) =
o(d(n)s + nd(s)) — q(d(r)s + r6(s)) = (¢ © 4(n)
+ q6(r))s = B,(r)s.

Theorem 1.—Let 7 be a hereditary torsion

theory on Mod-R and suppose R is a differ-

3 If N is a submodule of a right R-module M and x €
M, then (N : x) = {r © R|xr € N}.

163

ential ring with derivation 6. If M is a right
R-module with derivation 6 such that T(M) is
a 6-module, then 6 can be extended uniquely
to Q.(M).

Proof.—lf q € Q,(M), then K = (¢(M) : q)
€ F(R) and so 6, as defined in Lemma 2, de-
termines an equivalence class 6*(q) = [8,] in
Q(Q.(M)) = QM). (We will identify ele-
ments of Q.Q.(M)) with those of Q,(M) because
of this isomorphism.) We claim that 6* is a
derivation which uniquely extends 6 to Q,(M).

First, let’s show that 6*° 6 = 0° 6. If m €
M, then 6* o ¢(m) = [6ym)]. Thus if r € R,
Borm(t) = 60 S(mr) — dmx) = $(6(m)r +
m6(r)) — (m)6(r) = 0 6(m)r. Hence it follows
that [Byun] = @ ° 6(m) and so 6*¥ 06 = 056.

Finally, let’s show that 6* is a derivation on
Q,(M). If qu, qo € Q,(M), then 6*(q; + qe) =
[Ba + gal and so let K, = ((M) : q;) and K, =
(o(M) : gp). Ifr€K, M Ky € F(R), then Bai + q2(r)
= ¢°6(m) — (q; + qz2)6(r) where ¢(m) = (q,
+ qo)r. Next suppose that m,, m, € M are such
that ¢(m,) = qyr and ¢(m,) = gor. Then be-
cause T(M) is a 6-module, ¢ ° 6(m) = ¢ 0° 6(m,)
+ ge dm’). Hence By, « a(t) = $ © d(m,) —
qid(r) + $° d(m,) — qz6(r) = Bai(r) am oleal ie)
Consequently, 6*(q, + qz) = 6*(q,) + 6*(qo).
Next let q € Q,(M) and r € R. If s€ K = ((¢(M)
:q): 1) € F(R), B,.(s) = 6° 6(m) — qrd(s) where
o(m) = qrs. Hence £,,(s) = @ © 6(m) — qd(rs)
+ qd(rs) — qrd(s) = B,(rs) + q(d(r)s + 14(s))
— grils) = B,(rs) — q6(r)s = (B,(r) + a8(r))s
Therefore B,, = Bg, + qd(r) on K and so 6*(qr)
= 6*(q)r + qé(r). Lemma 1 shows uniqueness
and so the proof is complete.

Corollary 1.—If M is a torsion free right
R-module with derivation 6, then 6 has a unique
extension of Q.(M).

Proof.—T(M) = 0 is a 6-module.

Corollary 2.—If R is a differential ring with
derivation 6, then Q,(R) is a differential ring
with derivation extending that of R if and only
if T(R) is a 6-ideal.

Proof.—When R is viewed as an R-module,
Theorem 1 shows that R has a differential mod-
ule of quotients Q.(R) with derivation 6*. If q
€Q,(R) andr €R, then 6*(qr) = 6*(q)r + qé(r).
We must show that if q), qo € Q,(R), then
5*(qide) = 6*(qi)de + q16*(q2). If qu, a2 € Q,(R)
and r € (@(R) : qiqz) 1 (O(R) : qo) € F(R), then
Boiga(t) = p°6(s) — qiq26(r) where #(s) = qiqpr.
But $0 4(s) = 6* 0 p(s) = 6*(qiqor) and so Bqiqa(r)

164

= d*(qiqor) rE qq20(r) = 6*(qi)qor aly qi6*(qor)
— qiq.d(r) = 6(qy)qor + q,(6*(qo)r + qsd(x))
— qiqsd(r) = (6*(qi)q2 + qi6*(qo))r. Thus
6*(qiqo) = 6*(qi)qg2 + q,6*(qz) and so Q,(R) is
a differential ring.

If R is a differential ring with derivation 6,
then F(R) is said to be a 6-filter if every right
ideal K of F(R) is such that 6(K) € K. The
result of the next theorem allows one to look
within the ring itself to investigate the possi-
bility of extending a derivation 6 on a module
M to its module of quotients.

Theorem 2.—Let 7 be a hereditary torsion
theory on Mod-R and suppose that R is a dif-
ferential ring with derivation 6. If F(R) is a
6-filter, then every derivation on a right
R-module has a unique extension to its modules
of quotients.

Proof.—In view of Theorem 1, it suffices to
show that if M is a right R-module with der-
ivation 6, then T(M) is a 6-module. Let m €
T(M) and suppose that K € F(R) is such that
mK = 0. If k € K, then 0 = 6(mk) 6(m)k +
m06(k). But 6(k) € K and so mé(k) = 0. Therefore
6(m)k = 0 and so it follows that 6(m)K = 0.
Hence 6(m) € T(M).

A hereditary torsion theory 7 with torsion
class J is said to be a TTF theory if J is closed
under direct products. In this case J is also a
torsion free class for a hereditary torsion theory
uw. It is well known that if 7 is a TTF theory,
there exists an idempotent ideal I in R such
that J = {K|K JI, K a right ideal of R}. (See
(4) for details.) For example, if R is a left per-
fect ring, the Lambek torsion theory t whose
torsion class is given by J = {M|Hom, (M,
E(R)) = 0} isa TTF theory where E(R) denotes
the injective hull of R.

The following theorem shows that if 7 is a
TTF theory, then unique extensions of deri-
vations to modules of quotients always exist.

Theorem 3.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6. If t is a TTF theory and M
is a module with derivation 6, then 6 can be

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

extended uniquely to the module of quotients
of M.

Proof.—Let I be the idempotent ideal of R
such that F(R) = {K|K 2 I, K a right ideal of
R} and J = {M|MI = O}. If r € I = F, then

r= 2) st; where s,t € 1 for i= 1, 2,..., 0

=a st) = > dist) = - Db O(si)t;

sr Se))l| S Ie Hoe I is a 6-ideal. if M is a
module with derivation 6, then T(M)I = 0.
Now suppose m € T(M) and r € I. Then 0 =
6(mr) = 6(m)r + md(r) and so 6(m)r = 0 be-
cause 6(r) € I. Hence it follows that 6(m)I = 0.
But I € F(R) and so 6(m) € T(M). Thus 6(T(M))
C T(M) and the result follows from Theorem
Me

and so 6(r

As a final observation, let R be a Boolean
ring with derivation 6 and suppose that 7 is a
torsion theory on Mod R. If K is an ideal of R
and r € K, then r = r? € K? and so K C K?.
Hence, K = K? and so every ideal of R is
idempotent. Thus, as we have seen in the proof
on Theorem 3, 6(K) C K. Hence the filter F(R)
is a 6-filter and so by Theorem 2, any derivation
6 on a module M can be extended uniquely to
its module of quotients.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bresar, M. and J. Vukman. 1990. On left derivations
and related mappings. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 110:7-16.

2. Chaung, C. 1990. On compositions of derivations
of prime rings. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 108:647-652.

3. Golan, J. 1986. Torsion theories. Longman Scien-
tific and Technical. copublished with John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York.

4. Jans, J. 1965. Some aspects of torsion. Pacific J. of
Math. 15:1249-1259.

5. Lambek, J. 1966. Lectures on rings and modules.
Blaisdell Publishing Company, Toronto and London.

6. Nowicki, A. 1989. Derivations satisfying polynomi-
al identities. Collog. Math 57:35-48.

7. Stenstrom, B. 1975. Rings of quotients. Springer-
Verlag, New York, Berlin.

8. Tewari, K. 1960. Complexes over complete algebra
of quotients. Can. J. Math. 17:40-47.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 165-169

FORUM
Woundfins

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

Sand is nothing if not a harbinger of magical
memories. The slightest gnash of it beneath
the feet, as this afternoon in a child’s playbox
next to my house, causes me to pause in watch-
ful reflection. A cholla forest may emerge un-
noticed in the night. I know that deserts are
on the march, relentlessly, they say, snuffing
out rosebeds and wheatfields as they move. I
wonder about those conclusions, however, for
I do not believe that I shall live long enough
to witness the invasion of Kentucky by the sand
dunes of Phoenix. Yet, desert things have ways
of conspiring to distil reason. Shadowy forms
emerge into the daylight where they are seen
for what they really are.

Most men live, perhaps, their entire lives
without being smitten even once by magical
instants, instants that carry the mind away from
its confining bone deep into the wellsprings of
glistening water and the rise of mountain rang-
es. The desert plays tricks like that, even on
minds that are ever watchful lest miracles pass
without being noted. Like beauty in a multi-
tude of eyes, eliciting a different picture for
each nerve, the scenes that waft from desert-
scapes make for wary, uncertain watchers.
There is, I am certain, a reason for that: the
vast lack of water. But vastness is relative. Wa-
ter is everywhere evident; it subtends the great
boles of chollas and saguaros; it slides down
the hoary mountains and percolates into the
sand; and it comes to the surface as springs,
pools, and streams. Sometimes it falls from the
air. Its cycles are all pervading, inexorable.

During many summers of various scientific
excursions in American deserts, I have been
served up a number of magical instants, some
of them too personal to even contemplate out-
side the confines of my head. Other instants,
precisely of the type at which I have been
hinting, have been so unique that the reader
will probably never be able to experience them,
since I am certain that most readers would
never imagine themselves in the body of an-
other animal, least of all a small desert fish.

“And in that heaven of all their wish,” says
the poet Rupert Brooke, “there shall be no
more land, say fish.” He had desert fishes in
mind, all right, and if he had extended his
thinking a little more, desert-loving biologists,
too, for they, like poets, are an alembic of
survivorship, and although others may have
had similar experiences they will never be the
same. And sentience expressed at public gath-
erings by poets will not, by necessity, elicit the
same response when given in private by sci-
entists hardened by experimental design. To
compound all that, Iam hyperthyroid, causing
me to suffer more than most desert travelers.
Yet, as I think back on many of my experiences
in the aridlands, perhaps it is my physiological
condition that heightened the relationship be-
tween the desert and I. I am sure of that when
I think back to the Virgin River.

Exactly what constitutes a river is a moot
question in the desert. Sometimes, when the
mountain storms send torrents cascading
downward, they are raging personifications of
destruction, carrying everything before them.
At other times they whimper inches deep over
the cast sand, flotsam from those same moun-
tains. In its passage to the lowlands, insinuating
its way through the tulmultousness of Zion
Canyon before making a crook to dive into
Arizona and Lake Mead, the Virgin river is a
true paradox. As hot as bath water through
much of the year, in winter its pools often
freeze to the bottom. Bridges span its channel,
and people despoil its waters. Yet, in spite of
all that, the Virgin is a last refuge for a certain
desert fish, the three-inch woundfin minnow.

Exactly why we were intent on driving 2,000
miles to meet this little creature is of no great
importance to this essay. During many years,
our scientific ventures have carried us to all
parts of the American deserts, and we have
had reason to become acquainted with nearly
all the fishes that continue their struggle for
existence, and even some that have since suc-
cumbed to the environmental blunders of men.

165

166

On the particular day that we eased out of
Utah through Arizona and into Nevada, the
milky-looking streamlet, nearly parched out of
existence by the overbearing sun and attending
drought startled us by way of its spareness. We
decided to wade all the way to Lake Mead.

Why the idea germinated in my head, Iam
uncertain. I recall becoming momentarily diz-
zy, nearly faint, because of the hyperthyroid-
ism and the extreme heat. As I lay supine be-
neath a bridge while my wife bathed my face
with water, I fancied myself a fish floundering
in a sun-struck pool, and the notion just popped
into my head. To the seasoned world traveler,
a wading trip down a sand-clogged stream of
hot water will not seem a vast journey; it may
even seem like a looking-glass journey, full of
stuff and nonsense. But to us, who had to march
the return eleven miles we convered in going
in mid-July, it was not nonsense. Previous dis-
coveries of mummified bodies along South-
western rivers had graphically impressed us.
Beside the fact that I dehydrate easily, the
Virgin River does not make a beeline journey
to the lake. Instead, it twists and turns like a
reptile, and straight-line distances are often
misleading. Heat death along such rivers is not
exactly uncommon. Like most stretches of
aquatic byways in the Southwest, sparsely
clothed by tamarisk and scattered cotton-
woods, rivers are not for vehicular traffic. Heat
stroke might carry a man away long before an
ambulance can arrive.

My redheaded wife mentioned these things
with dark-eyed anxiety in the shade of the
bridge, her toes wriggling in the shallow water.
We had what we needed from the endangered
woundfins. We tied our shoes to our belts, left
the pickup where it was parked, and turned
our faces south and set off. The dry hills mocked
us. As the minutes passed, I fancied myself
caught up in inexorable change, as if giant
glaciers were melting to the north, sending
their silvered waters sluicing into hidden ba-
sins. But I also felt the innervating heat bearing
down, pulling me toward underground cav-
erns beneath the sand. My head swam and the
land danced. Make no doubt about it, this was
an ancient battleground, rich in unwritten hu-
man history, richer still in earth history, wit-
ness to mountain building, the transformation
of forests to desert. We were walking where
three-toed horses had gamboled; I breathed the

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

air of centuries, smelled the sulfureous volca-
noes that exploded into oblivion, and my head
swam. The woundfins touched their busy
mouths to our skins, and I traced the multi-
colored layers of time through the loess.

We came upon a Model T frame projecting
from a bank of sediments; we found a box that
proclaimed “Dynamite” and a black-and-yel-
low centipede. In the shallows, the multi-col-
ored particles rolled slowly downstream, rem-
nants of old mountains streaming slowly
downstream that would be retarded in their
trip by Boulder and other dams—retarded, not
stopped. I felt like a sand pebble myself, mov-
ing inexorably toward the mother sea, for ev-
erything eventually returns to whence it came.
Man’s architecture has the appearance of eter-
nity, but it, too, will follow the mountains, the
dams will erode away, release their hoard of
sand, and the cities, when will the cities erode?
We build on granite but it is water that makes
the desert tolerable, and it is water that carries
it away. The Anasazi and the People of the
Morning Star and the swift runners of the old
forest—and we of the latest attempt—all
learned that water is something that cannot be
abused in a land under the control of sun and
wind. There is defiance, but in the end those
elements are in command, and as I finally diz-
zily dropped to my knees, my brain reeling as
from a peyote-induced vision, I lifted up my
eyes to the sky, and raised my arms. I knew
at once what the ancients knew, that we can
not trap desert water forever, that the desert
was not meant to be an Eden for man, and for
all our ingenuity of pipes and well-oiled gears
that whirr in the megaliths blocking the way,
sand is not the mother of living things, nor
shall it ever be; there is nothing suspicious re-
spiring in its depths.

But what had we learned, as living concre-
tions of water and, yes, even traces of sand that
move so godlike through the wastelands of
earth, what had we intended to learn in our
long escape from the confines of gills? I, in my
hoarded wisdom of many years, was certainly
a moving desert parching slowly in the sun,
giving admonitions to the kingdom of my own
control. The sand upon which I knelt, grinding
into the living flesh, reminded me that moun-
tains fall, a minuscule expansion of the cosmos
that send meteors crashing and which, upon
inspiration, draw them back again.

FORUM

William Blake, contemplating the pale fa-
cade of innocence in the 18th century, thought
he could discern the world in a grain of sand
and, during a moment of weird understanding,
find heaven hiding in the petals of flowers.
There is deeper insight in those poetics than
Blake realized, the cyclical punctuation of
mountains reared up by the expenditure of
enormous energy to grains of sand and the
subsidence of those in the sea, the partitioning
of the parts in snail shells and the slithering of
eels, and the return to mountains again. The
poet may have seen in those crystalline planes
the spruce casting needles to the wind that end
up rolling in the waters of the Virgin. What-
ever his thoughts, Blake's mind may have trav-
eled enormously with his grain of sand, feeling
the heavy foot of the great reptiles and the
smothering of Cretaceous skies. In the rise of
mountains and the drying out of the heartlands
of America, sand became the common curren-
cy of the environment. The day of the forest
was over, replaced by spiny water tanks that
awaited the coming of man.

Years later, we camped on the banks of the
same Virgin River we had hiked, in Zion, with
snow frosting the highlands above us. We were
alone, my wife and I, encased in down jackets
and mittens. The cold river had a peculiar
greenness to it, the kind of color dissolved iron
gives water, and the leafless trees produced a
swishingly musical sound in the crisp air. Our
boots crunched the hoarfrost on the ground.
In a tiny embayment, where the currents had
dropped a load of brown, decaying leaves,
whirligig beetles made slow circles on the sur-
face and brilliant silver flashes exposed them-
selves against the stark bottom. We knew them
for what they were.

Resting there with their clear fins spread as
if for aerial flight, the males’ nuptial colors
already beginning to show, was a congress of
familiar slender forms. They were woundfins,
of course, experts of the narrow, shallow chan-
nels, that had nibbled our toes on the long trek
south. We could tell by the pink blotches at
the base of the fins that colorless spherules,
coded for life in an antilife place, were now
swelling and maturing within their delicate
bodies. The chemical messengers, interacting
with the lengthening of days, were racing
through them, preparing the fish for one ex-
uberance of sex, and they were simply biding

167

their time until the day when the temperature
was right. Fishes are slaves to temperature.

As scientists, we wondered aloud if the males
would develop their bridesgroom colors if we
artificially warmed them, or was it that the
spring festivals were running in internal rivers?
We decided it was experimentation—all sci-
entists call up that term when they control
things—and netted a dozen or so of the min-
nows and put them in a gallon jar. We did not
expect instantaneous results, of course. We ex-
pected to see some changes during a week’s
time, perhaps, or ten days. We placed them,
river water and all, in the back of our trailer.
Then we sat down to a meal of—paradoxi-
cally—frozen perch lorn so far from the sea.
Connections are tenuous, but the web includes
us all.

Thus, because of our hunger and thirst, we
did not pay proper attention to our captives.
The overhead lamps cast light into the jar and
the propane heater soon had us cozy enough
to remove our jackets. One brief inspection
demonstrated that the fish were hovering mid-
way up in the water column. Sleep overtook
US.

I do not know why I awakened so early the
next morning. It was predawn. The light out-
side was preternatural, without substance. I
heard flipping, liquid sounds in the rear of the
trailer and got up to inspect those environs.
The males had brilliant red patches now, and
they were chasing the females around the cir-
cular container, flicking the surface with their
tails. I sat down to watch. The fish ignored me.
“Life,” they whispered. These were not gold
fish born in a tank. These were citizens of the
sandstorm, ancient respondents to drought and
interminable heat. They were end products
and descendents of the Ice Ages, wafted about
by giant waters, and partitioned, finally, by
their genetics and adaptations to this particular
river basin. The stamp of time was upon them.

“Tm not here to interfere,” I said.

They executed to perfection their ancient
drives while I watched. Quivering tail to tail
and eye to eye, the clouds of milt and golden,
magical spherules falling away like living rain.
In their finely tuned brains and pituitary glands,
the environment of the trailer had paralleled
nature, and they felt—well, perhaps they didn't
think about it at all. I watched the tiny amor-
phous eggs fall to the bottom, undulating gent-

168

ly back and forth from the currents set up by
the parents. They had made their brave at-
tempt to keep the species going, even if in a
vitreous world with narrow boundaries. In a
proper habitat, most of the eggs would never
give rise to schools of adults; native waters are
full of tooth and claw, and fungus lurks ev-
erywhere. But a billion years had gone into
the perfection of those living bubbles, and the
unbroken chain of feathered and furry things
that came up with them.

“It’s time to be on your own,’ I told the
adults as I carried the jar back to the river.
“This is a good place to weather the centuries
until the next ice ages.”

With fresh water, we kept the eggs with us
for the next five days. They held for us the
kind of history that spells out what earth is all
about. We were, fish and humans, all cousins
that share in the same glorious, unbroken code.
In fish and soaring golden eagles riding the
high thermals, and on the breakfast plate be-
fore me, I contemplated myself in an unrisen
form, a form that still paddles in the oxygenless
swamps of the netherlands waiting, perhaps,
to emerge when my ilk has finished. Often I
have felt the wrath of developers and dam
builders when I have written about conser-
vation and endangered fishes. Representatives
of powerful interests have scorned my name
for helping to hold up projects to protect three-
inch fishes. Those interests fail to consider, it
seems, anything but green-tinted paper in
which are embedded multicolored fibers. They
would eliminate these rare creatures and their
magical spheres and replace them with more
trustworthy species, like catfish and bass, to
insure that they do not, by some nebulous mir-
acle, perhaps, change their form into some-
thing that challenges engineers directly—a tet-
rapod, perhaps, capable of emerging again
from the water to devour what we have
wrought. We believe in life, though, and hav-
ing been on such intimate terms with the
woundfins in our youth, we felt obliged to re-
turn the eggs—dark eyes now whirling within
the transparent casements—to the flowing riv-
er. I felt a little contrite with myself—more
contrite than the engineers who had erected
the great dam in the coils of the desert.

In the summer, on the glassy surface of Lake
Mead, we hear the roar of motors and the shrill
laughter of bronzed young Americans, sounds

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

that are altogether reminescent of great cities
to the east. They are, of course, mobile cities.
Self assured. When seen from high places, man’s
gatherings seem like schools of fishes gathering
for some stereotyped behavior that may or may
not carry on into the future. The voices, those
of the mechanical things, I mean, are irritants.
Even the cars searching through the camp-
grounds at night are irritants, probably also to
the tiny woundfins we released into the Virgin.

The sound of silence is like music to the ear
of skilled biologists sojourning in the desert,
easily distinguished from the silence of great
cities and buildings, like poetry in the rustlings
of unseen things in the undergrowth and wing-
beats of moths in from the night, and they take
them in with their breathing without marking
in their consciousness. But there is no silence
quite so profound as that encountered at air-
ports, when nothing singing in the trees or
splashing in the algal ridden shallows is dis-
cernible. In the dark of night, a single jet
screams beneath the stars, paying out a long,
white, whispy tail that gradually dissipates in
the long, red rays of the morning star. Up
there, we know, is a true desert, forever fishless.

At those times, when those people-deserts
crowd oppressively in upon my small space, I
think back to our river stroll. We talk of the
omnipotent heat, the nibbling woundfins, and
the endless desert sand driven by the hot wind.
And as we speed through the uninhabited high
places, peering down like senseless ascetics from
a snowy mountain, the desert lifts its spiny
arms upward imploringly.

They say more dams are planned to prevent
the escape of water, to allow the growth of
already overgrown cities like Phoenix and
Tempe. They will grow, it is true, but there is
a limit to growth—Chaco Canyon and its great,
silent kivas attest to that, and so do the potshard
pieces excavated and carried upward into the
sun by ants. That man has tried to conquer the
desert is obvious. Yet, those attempts were not
couched in the same terminology, nor predes-
tined in the same well-oiled machinery as we
now encounter. Like a plague, these new at-
tempts level mountains to ground level or ex-
cavate lake basins where none have been be-
fore. Those same thoughts, I believe in my
heart, must have occured before the simplest
engines evolved.

The wind is coming up in the west. The

FORUM

serene, clear air has vanished before the on-
slaught of scarifying clouds of sand like the
breath of a furnace in a prodigious mill. In the
trailer, we find, sand has sifted through the
tightly closed windows. The buildings in the
cities must take note of that, must enter it into
the calculations. Mountains have simply given
up a little more of their form and stature to

169

reappear in another guise. The sun has not so
far to rise to clear the surface, nor we so far
to go to slide down the other side. Sand is the
final explanation of all that has risen or will
ever rise in the desert. It will eventually clasp
us all—men and water, and woundfin min-
nows—in the deep embrace that makes for the
exuberance of life that will surely follow.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 170-171

NOTES

Host occurrence of Phoradendron leucarpum in the
Lexington-Blue Grass Army Depot, Blue Grass Facility,
Madison County, Kentucky.—The Lexington-Blue Grass
Army Depot (LBAD), Blue Grass Facility, near Richmond,
Kentucky, is bordered on the west by U.S. 421-25, on the
north by Ky. 52, on the east by Ky. 374, and on the south
by Ky. 499. The LBAD, Blue Grass Facility constitutes a
significant area to inventory for the presence of American
mistletoe (Phoradendron leucarpum) as part of a con-
tinuing survey of mistletoe-infested host trees in Madison
County, Kentucky. Security clearance and permission from
the land manager were necessary to gain entrance to the
highly restricted LBAD, Blue Grass Facility.

This survey represents the first in-depth documentation
and collection of mistletoe for a specific area in Kentucky,
although individual mistletoe site occurrences have been
reported for Kentucky counties (Garman, Woody Plants
of Kentucky, Bull. Ky. Agri. Stat. 169:3-62, 1913; Braun,
Annotated Catalog of Spermatophytes of Kentucky, 1942;
Reed and Reed, Castanea 16:7-15, 1951; Wharton and
Barbour, Trees & Shrubs of Kentucky, The University
Press of Kentucky, 1973). All host tree species with visible
signs of mistletoe parasitism, i.e., cankers, branch swell-
ings, die-back, and clumps, were recorded from March
26-April 5, 1988. A representative mistletoe voucher with
a twig from each host species was collected and deposited
in the Berea College Herbarium (BEREA).

Phoradendron leucarpum (Raf.) Rev. & M. C. Johnston
(Viseaceae) became the correct nomenclatural combina-
tion for American mistletoe in 1988 after a vote by the
Committee for Spermatophyta (Reveal and Johnston, Tax-
on 38:107-108, 1989). Prior combinations used in state and

Fic. 1. Lexington-Blue Grass Army Depot, Blue Grass
Facility, Madison County (Adapted from McDowell, Gra-
bowski, Jr., and Moore, Geologic Map of Kentucky, U.S.
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.).

regional manuals, P. flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. and P. seroti-
num (Raf.) M.C. Johnston, should be treated as synonyms.
American mistletoe is a woody, evergreen, dioecious, ob-
ligate hemiparasite on various deciduous shrubs and trees.
The distributional range extends eastward from New Mex-
ico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas through the south-
eastern states to Florida and northward to southern New
Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania and extreme southern
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri (Wiens, Brittonia 16:
11-54, 1964; Mohlenbrock, The Illustrated Flora of Illi-
nois: Flowering Plants Nightshades to Mistletoe, Southern
Illinois University Press, 1990).

The LBAD, Blue Grass Facility was initially constructed
as the U.S. Military Reservation Blue Grass Ordnance De-
pot in April 1942 and began official operations in October
1942. It serves primarily as a storage and maintenance
depot for chemical weapons and conventional ammunition
and as a multiple land use area for agricultural grazing,
forestry, and wildlife resources. The LBAD, Blue Grass
Facility consists of 5,907 ha with 4,856 ha in 16 tracts of
varying sizes, which are leased for livestock grazing and
limited hay production through the Agricultural Outleas-
ing Program. Lake Vega, a 54.6 ha reservoir, supplies
water for the depot and is a part of the Fish and Wildlife
Management Program (Anonymous, Public Affairs Office,
LBAD, Lexington, 1987).

The LBAD, Blue Grass Facility is situated in the Outer
Bluegrass Physiographic Region, 1 of 6 sections of the
Western Mesophytic Forest Region of Braun (Deciduous
Forests of Eastern North America, Hafner Press, 1950).
The forest at the depot may be classified as the sugar
maple-black walnut type on moist sites, the oak-hickory
type and oak-ash type on dry sites, and the red cedar-
black locust on drier sites based on upland forest types and
environmental relationships of moisture, pH, topography,
and slope aspect from Campbell (Gradients of Tree Com-
position in the Central Hardwood Region, Proceedings,
Central Hardwood Forest Conference VI, p. 325-346,
1987). Total scattered oak-hickory-ash-red cedar wood-
land approximates 175 ha with 100 ha of wildlife wooded
areas, and 75 ha of small woodlots with 10 ha reforested
(Anonymous, Forest Management Plan, Lexington-Blue
Grass Depot, Blue Grass Facility, 1970).

Elevations within the LBAD, Blue Grass Facility range
from 259 m in the Muddy Creek and Viny Fork system
to 312 m on ridgetops (Fig. 1). The topography consists
of rolling hill terrain with 2-12% slopes and broad ridges
of Upper Ordovician limestones, dolomitic limestones, and
calcitic shales of the Drake and Ashlock Formations. A
small area in the extreme southeastern portion near Speed-
well consists of Lower Silurian calcitic dolomites and mud-
stones of Brassfield Dolomite of Lower Silurian age and
Middle Devonian dolomites and dolomitic limestones
(Greene, Richmond South Quadrangle, Kentucky, GQ-
479, 1966; Greene, Moberly Quadrangle, Kentucky, GQ-
664, 1968). Four general forest soils mapped within the

170

NOTES

TaBLE 1. Host occurrence of American mistletoe (Phora-
dendron leucarpum) at the Lexington-Blue Grass Army
Depot, Blue Grass Facility, Madison County, Kentucky.

Tree species Total Percentage
Prunus serotina 903 49.15
Juglans nigra 321 17.47
Ulmus americana 246 13.39
Fraxinus americana 124 6.75
Gleditsia triacanthos 95 ull
Robinia pseudoacacia 79 4.30
Celtis occidentalis 19 1.03
Acer saccharum 18 0.98
Carya ovata 14 0.76
Maclura pomifera 11 0.60
Acer rubrum 4 0.22
Quercus muehlenbergii 1 0.06
Aesculus glabra 1 0.06
Acer saccharinum il 0.06
Totals: 14 1837 100.00

LBAD, Blue Grass Facility are the Lawrence-Mercer-Rob-
ertsville Association of broad flats and alluvial drainage-
ways, the Beasley-Brassfield-Otway Association of narrow
ridges and side slopes, the Shelbyville-Mercer-Nicholson
Association of level and wide ridgetops and slopes, and
the Lowell-Faywood-Cynthiana-Rock Outcrop Associa-
tion of wide ridgetops and moderate side slopes (Newton,
McDonald, Preston, Richardson, and Sims, Soil Survey of
Madison County, Kentucky, USDA, Soil Conservation Ser-
vice, 1973).

Most mistletoe-infested trees occurred in pastures and
fields, woodlands, fencerows, woodlot edges, and bunker
areas in open terrain on ridges, rolling hills, and upper
slopes. A total of 1837 mistletoe-infested trees were doc-
umented from 14 host-tree species at the LBAD, Blue Grass
Facility. Prunus serotina, Juglans nigra, and Ulmus
americana accounted for over 80 percent of all host trees
(Table 1). Aesculus glabra was documented as a host tree
for the first time in Kentucky.

171

Appreciation is extended to Billye M. Haslett, Land
Manager, LBAD, Blue Grass Facility, for permission to
conduct this study and for providing depot literature ref-
erences. Thanks are given to Security Personnel, Charles
Abney and Gary Langford, for transportation, and special
thanks to Mack Harrison for transportation and his keen
eyes for sighting even the smallest mistletoe clusters.—
Ralph L. Thompson, Biology Department, Berea College
Herbarium, Berea, Kentucky 40404.

Occurrence of the Northern Studfish, Fundulus
catenatus (Storer), in Northeastern Kentucky.—Ken-
tucky populations of the northern studfish, Fundulus ca-
tenatus, are mainly found in several drainages in south-
central Kentucky. Specimens are known from the upper
Barren, upper Green, middle Cumberland, Dix and Salt
rivers. However, this species is also known from the Lick-
ing and Big Sandy river drainages (Burr and Warren, Ky.
Nat. Pres. Comm. Sci. Tech. Ser. 4, 1986). Burr and War-
ren (1986) reported specimens from Rockhouse Fork (Ma-
goffin County), Licking River and Cave Run Lake (Rowan
County), and Middle Creek (Floyd County). Their Rowan
County specimens were collected by students in my ich-
thyology class at MSU; these specimens were found in
Warix Run, Cave Run Lake and in the Licking River at
US 60, near Farmers. Additional records in the MSU Ver-
tebrate Collection are for specimens from the Licking
River at Moores Ferry (Bath County), Grassy Creek (Mor-
gan County), Payton Fork, ca. 1 mi S of Grassy Creek
(Morgan County), and Abbott Creek at KY 1428 (Floyd
County). Specimens from Bath, Rowan and Morgan Coun-
ties frequent the Licking River Drainage; those from Ab-
bott Creek are in the Big Sandy Drainage. Perhaps this
species was introduced by bait-bucket transfer, or perhaps
it occurs in this region as a group of relict populations.—
Les Meade, Department of Biological and Environmental
Sciences, Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky
40351.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(3-4), 1992, 172

NEWS AND COMMENTS

ANNUAL MEETINGS

The 78th meeting of the Kentucky Academy
of Science will be held at the Ashland Com-
munity College, Ashland, Kentucky, October
29-31, 1992. The 79th meeting is scheduled
for Georgetown College, October 22-24, 1998,
and will sponsored jointly by Georgetown Col-
lege and the Toyota Motor Corporation.

IMPORTANT PUBLICATION

Browne, Edward T. and Raymond Athey.
1992. Vascular Plants of Kentucky. An An-
notated Checklist. University Press of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, 180 pages ($20.00). The
publication of this important book unfortu-
nately did not occur until Mr. Athey’s demise.
Since the work lists over 3,000 plant species
and varieties, providing geographic distribu-
tion by physiographic region for each form,
the book should be of great interest to anybody
interested in the flora of Kentucky, from sys-
tematists to flower lovers. Raymond Athey was,
of course, a great benefactor of the Kentucky
Academy of Science, and he will be missed by
the scientific community.

WESTINGHOUSE SCIENCE TALENT SEARCH
SCHOLARSHIPS FOR 1992
In the 51st Westinghouse Science Talent
Search, only one Kentucky student—Nandini
Nagarajin from Ballard High School—made it

to the semifinalist level, and none appeared on
the finalist list. The 40 finalists will share in a
$205,000 scholarship pool: one $40,000, one
$30,000, one $20,000, three $15,000, four
$10,000 awards, and 30 $1,000 awards. Above
and beyond the financial assistance, however,
these are very prestigious awards. Five former
winers have won the Nobel Prize, and countless
others have made outstanding contributions to
various areas of science.

Scientists in Kentucky are, perhaps, remiss
in not directing more attention to high school
students. It is embarrassing that only one of
our students made it as far as the semifinals.
We need to do more to encourage our budding
scientific minds into a competitive mode of
thinking, to reward imaginative and creative
minds with assistance (personal, institutional,
financial) in developing legitimate research
projects at their high schools. We should follow
the progress of individual students all the way
to fruition of their efforts. I personally would
like to see more Kentucky kids in those semi-
finalist and finalist lists, and perhaps a winner
or two upon the podium. We have nothing to
lose and everything to gain for our efforts.

Information concerning the Westinghouse
Science Scholarships can be obtained from Sci-
ence Service, 1719 N Street NW, Washington,
D.C. 20036.

172

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 53(8-4), 1992, 1738-180

Abstracts, 84-92

Academy Affairs, 62-66

Acalypha virginica, 146

Acanthaceae, 144

Acarina, 122

Acer negundo, 36, 144

A. nigrum, 144

A. rubrum, 80, 34, 55, 144, 150, 171
var. trilobum, 35

A. saccharinum, 36, 144, 171

A. saccharum, 30, 34, 144, 171

Aceraceae, 144

Achillea millefolium, 144

Acorus calamus, 148, 150

Actaea pachypoda, 147, 151

Adiantaceae, 144

Adiantum pedatum, 144

Adonata spp., 159

Aedes triseriatus, unknown patho-

gen to, 90

Aereolaria laevigata, 34

Aesculus flava, 151

A. glabra, 146, 171

Agalinis purpurea, 148

Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen, 89

Agrimonia parviflora, 147

Agrostis gigantea, 149

A. perennans, 149

A. scabra, 149

Algorithm visualization system, 87

Alisma subcordatum, 36, 148

Alismataceae, 148

ALLEN, DAVID L., 87

Allium cernuum, 149

A. vineale, 149

Alnus serrulata, 145, 150

Alopecurus carolinianus, 149

Amblema plicata plicata, 154, 156,

158, 159
Ambystoma maculatum, 89
A. opacum, 89
Amelanchier arborea, 147
Amelopsis cordata, 148
American bittern, 32
Ammannia coccinea, 147
Amorpha fruticosa, 146
Amphibians, dispersal of, 89
Amphicarpaea, 146
Amsonia tabernaemontanum var.

gattingeria, 36
Anacardiaceae, 144
Andropogon gerardii, 35
A. scoparius, 35
A. virginicus, 149
Annonaceae, 144
Annual Meeting Program, 67-92
Anodonta grandis, 156
A. imbecillis, 156
Antennaria plantanginifolia, 34
Anthemis cotula, 144
Anthophyta, 144
Anthoxanthum odoratum, 149

INDEX TO VOLUME 53

Antique firearm, nuclear hazard
from, 84
ANTONIOUS, GEORGE F., 86
Ant-mimic, and Heliconia latispa-
tha, 89
at extrafloral nectaries, 89
Apiaceae, 144
Apios americana, 146
Apocynaceae, 144
Apocynum cannabinum, 144
Aquifoliaceae, 144
Arabidopsis, 57
Araceae, 148
Arachnida, 123
Araliaceae, 144
Arcidens confragosus, 159
Arisaema dracontium, 148, 151
A. triphyllum, 148, 151
Aristolochiaceae, 144
Aronia melanocarpa, 147
Artemia, 1338
Arundinaria gigantea, 36, 149
Asarum canadense, 34, 144
Asclepiadaceae, 144
Asclepias incarnata, 144
A. purpurescens, 144
A. syriaca, 144
A. tuberosa, 144
A. variegata, 144
Ascyrum hypericoides, 34
Ash, white, 26
Asimina triloba, 144
Aspleniaceae, 144
Asplenium platyneuron, 144
Aster lataeriflorus, 35, 144
. ontarionis, 35, 36, 144
. patens, 144
. paternus, 144
. pilosus, 144
. sagittifolius, 144
. simplex, 35
spp., 35
. surculosus, 1438, 144
. umbellatus, 144
. undulatus, 34, 144
. vimeneus, 35, 144
Asteraceae, 141, 144
Athryium pyconocarpon, 144
Athyrium asplenoides, 144
Athyrium thelypteroides, 144, 151
Aureolaria virginica, 148
Azospirillum lipoferum, 84
effect of on nitrogen fixing bac-
teria, 85
effects of on dry-matter accumu-
lation, 101-108
effects of on fruit production, 101-
108
in Capsicum annum, 101-108
in green-house grown bell pepper
plants, 101-108

>> PRPS SRDRD DDD

173

Balsaminaceae, 145
Baptisia leucantgha, 36
Barbarea vulgaris, 145
Bark girdling, as a potential biolog-
ical control, 26-28
biological control of black locust,
26-28
by herbivores, 26-28
in power-line corridors, 26-28
of black locust, 26-28
Bartonia paniculata, 141, 146, 150,
151
BEITING, STEVEN W., 26
Bell pepper, 85
dry matter accumulation in, 84
Azospirillum lipoferum in, 101-
108
dry-matter accumulation in, 101-
108
fruit production in, 101-108
Berberidaceae, 145
Betula nigra, 36, 145, 150
Betulaceae, 145
Bidens aristosa, 144
B. cernua, 145, 150, 151
B. frondosa, 35, 145, 151
B. tripartita, 145
Bignonia capreolata, 145
Bignoniaceae, 145
Bird-voiced treefrog, 32
Bittern, American, 32
Bittern, least, 32
Black cherry, 26
Black locust, 26-28
bark girdling of, 26-28
in power-line corridors, 26-28
BLACKBURN, DONNA S., 118
BLAND, PAUL E., 162
BLANK, KENNETH W., 90
Blarina brevicauda, 5, 7, 90
Blooming patterns, of Pleiostachya
pruinosa, 84
Blue catfish, 99
Bluegill, 97
Bluegrass Region, and Kentucky
amphibians and reptiles, 89
Boehmeria cylindrica, 35, 36, 148,
151
Borden Formation, new Kinder-
hookian ammonoid fauna from,
91
of northeastern Kentucky, 91
BOSSERMAN, ROBERT W., 46
Botrychium dissectum, 144
B. virginianum, 144
Bot, common horse, 19-25
Brachyelytrum erectum, 34
Brain waves, Electroencephalo-
graphic study of, 84
BRANSON, BRANLEY ALLAN, 50,
165
Brassica napus, 52

174 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

B. rapa, 85

Brassicaceae, 145

Brent-Spence Bridge, seismic anal-
ysis of, 87

Brine shrimp, influence of incuba-
tion time on, 133-138

influence of pH on, 133-138
influence of salt concentration on,

133-138

Bromus commutatus, 149

B. purgans, 34

Bryophyte propagules, slug dispersal
of, 85

Bryophytes, saxicolous, 85-86

Bufo americanus, 89

Bullitt County, 5

Bumelia lanuginosa, 35

BUMGARDNER, CLOYD J., 84, 85,
101

Buxaceae, 145

BYERS, MATTHEW E., 86

Calamagrostis cinnoides, 150

Campanula americana, 145

Campanulaceae, 145

CAMPBELL, JULIAN, 29

Campsis radicans, 145

Caprifoliaceae, 145

Capsicum annum, 84, 85, 109
Azospirillum lipoferum in, 101—

108

Cardamine bulbosa, 145

C. hirsuta, 145

Carduus nutans, 145

Carex, Section Montanae, 34

Carex complanata, 148

C. crinata, 35, 148

C. cristatella, 148

C. debilis, 35

C. digitalis, 34, 148

C. frankii, 148

. glaucodea, 36

. granularis, 148

gravida, 35

grayii, 35, 148, 151

hirsutella, 35

intumenscens, 36

intumescens, 148

. laxiflora, 34

louisianica, 35

lupulina, 36, 148

lurida, 148, 151

. projecta, 35

. rosea, 35, 148, 151

squarrosa, 148, 151

stipata, 148

. swanii, 148, 151

torta, 148

. tribuloides, 36, 148, 150

. typhina, 36

umbellata, 148

. virescens, 148

vulpinoidea, 148, 151

. wildenovii, 34

AADAOD AIM OAPAMA AVS CQ GO OV) (012)

Carphophis amoenus amoenus, 89
C. amoenus helenae, 89
Carpinus caroliniana, 34, 145
Carya aquatica, 30, 35
. cordiformis, 146
. glabra, 34, 146
_ illinoensis, 30, 35
. laciniosa, 35, 38, 146
. ovata, 36, 146, 171
. spp., 30, 34
. tomentosa, 34, 36
Caryophyllaceae, 145
Cassia fasciculata, 146
C. nictitans, 146
Catfish, blue, 99

channel, 99
CECIL, JOHN RAYMOND, JR., 84
Celastraceae, 145
Celtis laevigata, 35
C. occidentalis, 171
Cephalanthus, 37
C. occidentalis, 36, 148, 150
Ceratophyllaceae, 145
Ceratophyllum demersum, 36, 145,

150

Cercis canadensis, 26, 146
Chaerophyllum procumbens, 144
Chamaesyce maculata, 146
Channel catfish, 99
Chasmanthium latifolium, 36, 149
Chenopodiaceae, 145
Chenopodim ambrosioides, 145
Cherry, black, 26
Chimaphila maculata, 146, 151
Chinook salmon, 99
Chionanthus virginicus, 147
Chipmunk, eastern, 5, 7
Chironomidae, 122, 123

QAQQAAS

“Chomp’, 9-14
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum,
145

Chrysopsis mariana, 145

Chubsucker, lake, 32

Cicadellidae, 139

Cichorium intybus, 145

Cicuta maculata, 35, 144

Cimcifuga racemosa, 147, 151

C. rubifolia, 34

Cinna arundinacea, 35, 149, 151

Circaea canadensis, 34

Cirsium discolor, 145

Cladocera, 122, 123

CLARK, JULIA A., 97

Clay mineral assemblages, from
Lower Mississippian rocks, 92

in eastern and central Kentucky,

92

Clematis virginiana, 147

Cnemidophorus sexlineatus sexli-
neatus, 89

Colanum esacalatum, 101

College Science Teacher Award, 93

Combinatorial Game, 9-14

Commelina communis, 148

C. virginica, 35

Commeliniaceae, 148

Common horse bot, 19-25

Communities, natural plant, of Hop-
kins County, 29-38

Coniferophyta, 144

Conopholis americana, 147

Constructed wetlands, for treatment
of wastewater, 86

Convolvulaceae, 145

Conyza canadensis, 145

Cooperia curticei, 16

C. spp., 16

Copepoda, 122, 123

Copperbelly watersnake, 32

Corbicula fluminea, 154, 155, 157—
160

Coreopsis major, 145

Cornaceae, 145

Cornus amomum ssp. obliqua, 145

Cornus florida, 34, 145

C. obliqua, 36

C. stricta, 35

Cortalus horridus, 89

Corydalis flavula, 147

Corylus americana, 34, 145

COSTELLO, PATRICIA, 39

Cottonmouth, 32

Cottontail, 26

Cottontail rabbit, 27

Cottontail, eastern, 5, 7

Crassulaceae, 145

Crataegus pruinosa, 147

CRAWFORD, NICHOLAS C., 87

Crenulata-Zone, 91

Crotonopsis elliptica, 35, 36

Crustacea, 123

Cryptotaenia canadensis, 36, 144

Cryptotis parva, 90

Cucurbitaceae, 146

Culicidae, 90

Cunila origanoides, 34

Cuphea viscosissima, 147

Cupressaceae, 144

Cuscuta glomerata, 145

C. obtusiflora, 145

Cyclonaias tuberculata, 156

Cyclophyllidea, 1-4

Cyperaceae, 141, 148

Cyperus esculentus, 148

C. flavescens, 148, 150

C. pseudovegetus, 148

C. strigosus, 148, 150, 151

Cypress minnow, 32

Cyprogenia irrorata, 160

C. stegaria, 160

Cysticercoid age, effect of size of
adult tapeworms, 1-4

Danthonia spicata, 35
Darter, Kentucky, 121-126
Datura stramonium, 148
Daucus carota, 144
DEAN, WILLIAM, 88

Decodon verticillatus, 37, 151
Delphinium tricorne, 147
Dentaria laciniata, 145
Denthonia spicata, 36
Derivations of Quotients, 162-164
Desmodium nudiflorum, 34, 146
D. paniculatum, 146
D. pauciflorum, 146
D. spp., 35
D. viridiflorum, 146
Desmognathus fuscus fuscus, 89
Diadophis punctatus, 89
Diatom community structure, mi-
crohabitat variability and, 85
Dicentra cucullaria, 147
Dichanthelium acuminatum, 149
D. clandestinum, 149
D. commutatum, 149
D. dichotomum, 148, 149, 151
D. scoparium, 141, 150
D. sphaerocarpon, 149
DICKSON, JULIE S., 85
DICK, TIMOTHY T., 90
Dicranella heteromalla, population
density in, 85

resistance to invasion in, 85
Dicranum flagellare, 85
Didiplis diandra, 36
DILL, LESA, 51
Diodia teres, 35, 148
D. virginiana, 36, 148
Dioscorea guaternata, 149
Dioscoreaceae, 149
Diospyros virginiana, 36
Dipsacaceae, 146
Dipsacus sylvestris, 146
Diptera, 19-25, 123
Dipteran pupae, 122
Dirichlet problem, 87
DNA replication, a review, 51-61
DNA replication, in plants, 51-61
DRISCOLL, MELANIE J., 85
DRUDGE, J. HAROLD, 15
Dry-wet fluctuating forest, 34
DUKE, GREGORY A., 91
DUNHAM, VALGENE L., 51

Eastern chipmunk, 5, 7

Eastern cottontail, 5, 7

Eastern harvest mouse, 5-6

Echinochloa crusgalli, 36, 149, 150

Eclipta prostrata, 145

Effects of simulated rain, on Wis-
consin fast plants, 85

EHMANN, W. D., 86

Elecharis ovata, 150

Electroencephalographic study,
during meditation and relaxa-
tion, 84

of occipital lobe brain waves, 84

Eleocharis acicularis, 148, 150

E. erythropoda, 148

E. obtusa, 37

E. ovata, 148, 150

INDEX TO VOLUME 53

E. quadrangulata, 36
E. tenuis, 36, 148
Elephatopus carolinianus, 145
ELLIOTT, LARRY P., 113
Ellipsaria lineolata, 156
Elliptio crassidens, 156
E. dilatata, 156
E. spp., 159
Elymus glabriflorus, 35
E. virginicus, 35, 36, 149
Ephemeroptera, 122, 123
Epifagus virginiana, 147
Epilobium coloratum, 147
Epioblasma torulosa torulosa, 160
Equisetaceae, 144
Equisetum arvense, 144
Erechtites hieracifolia, 145
Erianthus alopecurioides, 35
Ericaceae, 146
Erigeron annuus, 145
E. philadelpicus, 145
E. strigosus, 145
Erythronium americanum, 149
Etheostoma baileyi, 125
E. coosae, 125
E. etniere, 125
E. pyrrhogaster, 125
E. rafinesquei, in Middle Pitman
Creek, 121-126

variation in diet of, 121-126
E. simoterum, 125
E. zonale, 125
E. zonistium, 125
Eumeces fasciatus, 89
Euonymus americanus, 145, 151
Eupatorium coelestinum, 145, 150
E. fistulosum, 145
E. perfoliatum, 145
E. rugosum, 34, 145, 151
E. serotinum, 35, 145
E. spp., 35
Euphorbia commutata, 146
E. corollata, 146
Euphorbiaceae, 146
Eurycea bislineata, 89
E. lucifluga, 89
E. longicauda longicauda, 89
Euthamia graminifolia, 145
Ewes, internal parasites, 15-18

Fabaceae, 141, 146

Fagus, 35

F. grandifolia, 30, 34, 146, 150

FEENEY, THOMAS P., 87

FEIBES, WALTER, 88

FELDKAMP, DONNA, 85

Festuca arundinacea, 149

F. obtusa, 149

Filter barriers, and Kentucky am-
phibians and reptiles, 89

Fimbristylis autumnalis, 148

Fish eggs, 123

FLOYD, MICHAEL A., 50

Forestiera acuminata, 36

175

Forest, dry-wet fluctuating, 34
mesic, 34
moderately dry, 34
moist, 34
subxeric, 34
xerohydric, 34
Forum, 165-169
Fostering behavior, of lion-tailed
macaques, 90
Fractal dimension, use of to analyze
meandering patterns, 46-49
FRANKE, CHARLES H., 9
Fraxinus americana, 26, 34, 147, 171
F. pennsylvanica, 35, 147, 150
F. profunda, 151
F. quadrangulata, 34
F. spp., 38
F. tomentosa, 35
Freshwater mussel, of Kentucky Lock
and Dam, 154-161
on Tennessee River, 154-161
FREYTAG, PAUL H., 189
Frogs, 89
Fundulus catenatus, occurrence of
in Northeastern Kentucky, 171
Fusconaia ebena, 154, 156, 158, 159
F. flava, 159

GABAA, effect of on inspiratory in-
hibitory reflexes, 88

GAIGS, an algorithm visualization
system, 87

Galium aparine, 148

. circaezans, 34

G. concinnum, 34

G. obtusum, 35, 148

G. pilosum, 35

G. tinctorium, 148

G. triflorum, 34

Game, combinatorial, 9-14

Gasterophilidae, 19-25

Gasterophilus intestinalis, incom-
plete molting of a second instar,
19-25

Gastrophryne carolinensis, 89

Gentianaceae, 146

Geraniaceae, 146

Gernaium carolinianum, 146

Geum canadense, 147, 151

Giesmann, Larry A., 93

Glechoma hederacea, 146

Gleditsia aquatica, 35

G. spp., 38

Gleditsia triacanthos, 35, 146, 171

Glyceria striata, 35, 149, 150, 151

Glycine receptor blockade, effect of
on inspiratory inhibitory reflex-
es, 88

Gnathodus typicus-Zone, 91

Golden mouse, 5-6

GOODGAME, LAURA S., 97

Goodyera pubescens, 149

Gratiola virginiana, 148

Great blue heron, 32

Q

176 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Grebe, pied-billed, 32
Green River Basin, riparian flora of,
141-153
wetland flora of, 141-153
GRUBBS, JEFF, 29
GUO MEIWEN, 87

Haemonchus contortus, 16-17

Halogaridaceae, 146

Hamamelidaceae, 146

Hamamelis virginiana, 146

Hardin County, 5

Hardy spaces, 87

HARIK, ISSAM E., 87

Harmonic measure, 87

HARTMAN, DAVID R., 86

Hedyotis caerulea, 148

H. purpurea, 148

Helenium flexuosum, 145

Helianthus decapetalus, 145

H. microcephalus, 34

H. spp., 35

H. tuberosa, 145

Heliconia, 85

H. imbricata, 85, 90

H. imbricata, x H. latispatha, 85

H. irrasa subsp. irrasa, 85

H. latispatha, 85, 90

ant-mimic and, 89
extrafloral nectaries of, 89

H. stilesii, 85

H. wagneriana, 85

Hemerocallis fulva, 149

Heron, great blue, 32

Heteranthera dubia, 141, 148, 149,
150

H. reniformis, 141, 149, 150

Hibiscus laevis, 147

H. militaris, 36

H. moscheutos, 147, 150

Hieracium gronovii, 145

High neutron fluxes, for determi-
nation of trace elements, 86

Hippocastanaceae, 146

HOAGLAND, BRUCE W., 141

Holcus lanatus, 149

Homoptera, 139

Hopkins County, natural plant com-
munities of, 28-38

Horse bot, common, 19-25

House mouse, 5-6

Houstonia purpurea, 151

H. tenuifolia, 34

HOUSTON, MARTIN R., 86

HOWARD, JOLENE, 91

HOWELL, EDGAR N., 88

HOYT, ROBERT D., 133

HUNT, GRAHAM, 91

Hybrid sunfish, effects of protein
level on growth and body com-
position, 97-100

Hydracarina, 123

Hydrangea arborescens, 148

Hydrastis canadensis, 34

Hydrophyllaceae, 146

Hydrophyllum canadense, 146

Hydroptila grandiosa, 50

H. perdita, 50

H. sandersoni, 50

Hydroptilidae, 50

Hymenocallis caroliniana, 141, 149-

151

H. diminuta, 1-4
cysticercoid age, 1-4
intermediate host sex, 1-4

Hypericaceae, 146

Hypericum denticulatum var. re-
cognitum, 35

. gentianoides, 146

. mutilum, 146

. perforatum, 146

. prolificum, 146

. punctatum, 146

. tubulosum, 35

Hystrix patula, 149, 151

DTItTTIt

Ictalurus furcatus, 99

I. punctatus, 99

Ilex decidua, 36

I. opaca, 144

I. verticillata, 144, 151

Imomoea batatas, 101

Impatiens capensis, 35, 145, 151

I. pallida, 145, 151

Industrial Science Award, 93

Insecta, 123

Intermediate host sex, effect of size
of adult tapeworms, 1-4

Internal parasites, in lambs and ewes,
15-18

Ipomoea hederacea, 145, 150

I. lacunosa, 145

I. pandurata, 145

Iridaceae, 149

Iris cristata, 149, 151

I. pseudoacorus, 149, 150

I. virginica, 35, 149, 151

Isotria verticillata, 149

Itea virginica, 151

JANEWAY, BILL, 39

Jeffersonia diphylla, 145

JONES, RONALD L., 141

JOSHUA, IRVING G., 89

Jugandaceae, 146

Juglans nigra, 34, 146, 171

Juncaceae, 149

Juncus acuminatus, 37, 149

J. biflorus, 149

J. brachycarpus, 149

J. brachycephalus, 150

J. difusissumus, 149

J. dudleyji, 149

J. effusus, 36, 150, 151
var. solutus, 149

J. marginatus, 149

J. tenuis, 149, 150, 151

J. torreyi, 149

Juniperus virginiana, 144
Justicia americana, 144, 151

KARETH, SCOTT K., 26
KARIUS, D. R., 88
KASPERBAUER, M. J., 109
KAUL, KARAN, 109
Kentucky darter, in Middle Pitman
Creek, 121-126
variation in diet of, 121-126
Kentucky mammals, new distribu-
tional records for, 127-132
KESSLER, RICHARD K., 5
Kickxia elatine, 148
KIMMERER, ROBIN W., 85
Kinderhookian ammonoid fauna,
from the Borden Formation, 91
Krigia biflora, 145
KUMLER, ROBYN L., 26
Kummerowia stipulacea, 146

Lactuca floridana, 145
L. sativa, 85
Lady Bell pepper, 109
LAIRD, C. E., 84
Lake chubsucker, 32
Lakes and reservoirs, distribution of,
87
economic implications of, 87
environmental implications of, 87
in Kentucky, 87
Lambs, internal parasites, 15-18
Lamiaceae, 141, 146
Lampropeltis calligaster calligaster,
89
L. getula nigra, 89
Lampsilis teres, 156
Laportea canadensis, 36, 148, 151
Largulara, new species of, 139-140
L. elegans, 139, 140
Lasionycteris noctivagans, 127-129
Lasmigona complanata complana-
ta, 156
Lathyrus latifolius, 146
Lauraceae, 146
Least bittern, 32
Leersia lenticularis, 35
L. oryzoides, 36, 149, 150
L. virginica, 36
Lemming, southern bog, 5-6
Lemnaceae, 149
Lepidium campestre, 145
Lepidoptera, 123
Lepomis cyanellus, 97-100
L. macrochirus, 97-100
Leptodea abrupta, 160
L. fragilis, 156, 159
Lespedeza capitata, 35
L. cuneata, 146
L. intermedia, 36
L. spp., 35
LEUTHART, CLARA A., 87
Liatris squarrosa, 35

LIERMAN, ROBERT THOMAS, 91,

92
Ligumia recta, 156
Liliaceae, 149
Liliopsida, 148
Lilium, 53
L. sp., 149
L. superbum, 148
Limnobium spongia, 36
Linaceae, 147
Lindera benzoin, 26, 34, 146, 151
Lindernia dubia, 148
LING, L., 88
Linum striatum, 147
Lion-tailed macaques, fostering be-
havior of, 90
Liparis liliifolia, 149
Lipid components, thermal proper-
ties of membrane, 86
Liquidambar, 35, 36
L. styraciflua, 30, 146, 150
Liriodendron, 35
L. tulipifera, 34, 147, 150
LIU, JUN H., 26
Lizards, 89
LI, FENG, 89
Lobelia buberula, 145
L. cardinalis, 145, 150
L. inflata, 145
L. siphilitica, 145
L. spicata, 145
Locust, black, 26-28
Lonicera japonica, 34, 145
Lotus 1-2-3, solving systems of equa-
tions using, 88
Ludwigia alternifolia, 147
L. decurrens, 147
L. palustris, 147, 150
L. spp., 36
LUKEN, JAMES O., 26
Luzula campestris, 149
Lycophyta, 144
Lycopodiaceae, 144
Lycopodium digitatum, 144
Lycopus americanus, 146
L. rubellus, 36
L. virginicus, 35, 146
LYE, DENNIS, 90
LYONS, EUGENE T., 15
Lysimachia ciliata, 147
L. nummularia, 147
L. quadrifolia, 147
Lythraceae, 147

Maclura pomifera, 171

Magnolia acuminata, 143, 147

Magnoliaceae, 147

Magnoliopsida, 144

Malvaceae, 147

Mammals, new distributional rec-
ords for Kentucky, 127-132

on Fort Knox, 5-8
MARDON, DAVID, 84, 85, 101
MARKESBERY, W. R., 86

INDEX TO VOLUME 53

Marmota monax, 27
MARSH, JENNIFER MCGEHEE, 5
Marsilea quadrifolia, 144, 150
Marsileaceae, 144
MARTIN-KIER, VICKI, 85
MASON, CHARLES E., 91
MASTORAKIS, MARY K., 85
MATTINGLY, ROBERT A., JR., 5
Meade County, 5
MEADE, LES, 89, 90, 127, 171
Meandering patterns, in Redbird
River, 46-49
Medicago sativa, 146
Medical technology, attitudes of high
school students toward, 113-120
knowledge of high school students
toward, 1138-120
Megalonaias nervosa, 156, 159
MEISENHEIMER, JOHN L., 84
Melastomataceae, 147
Melilotus alba, 146
M. officinalis, 146
MELLETT, BRENDA J., 46
Mentha x piperata, 146
Mesic forest, 34
Microcaddisfly, new records for
Kentucky, 50
Microhabitat variability, and the di-
atom community structure, 85
Microstegium vimineum, 149
Microtus ochrogaster, 5, 7, 90
M. pennsylvanicus, 90
M. pinetorum, 5, 7, 90
M. spp., 27
Microvascular responses, in rat skel-
etal muscle, 89
to blockade of endothelium-de-
rived relaxing factor produc-
tion, 89
Milam, Joe, 93
MILLER, ANDREW C., 154
Mimulus alatus, 36, 148, 150
M. ringens, 148, 150
Minnow, cypress, 32
Minnow, stargazing, 32
Mitchella repens, 34, 148, 151
Moderately dry forest, 34
Modules of Quotients, 162-164
Moist forest, 34
Moles, 90
Monarda bradburniana, 34
M. fistulosa, 35, 146
Moniezia spp., 16
Moniliformis moniliformis, growth
of in the laboratory rat, 90-91
Monotropa uniflora, 146, 151
Moraceae, 147
Morus alba, 147
M. rubra, 34, 147
Mouse, eastern harvest, 5-6
golden, 5-6
house, 5-6
prairie deer, 5-6
white footed, 5-6

177

Mudsnake, 32
Muhlenbergia cf. bushii, 35
M. frondosa, 36
M. tenuiflora, 149
Mulch color effects, on pepper yield,
109-112
on reflected light, 109-112
on rhizosphere temperature, 109-
112
Mus musculus, 5-6, 90
Mushroom flora, new additions to, 50
of Kentucky, 50
Mussel, freshwater, of Kentucky Lock
and Dam, 154-161
freshwater, on Tennessee River,
154-161
Mustela nivalis, 127, 130, 131
Myotis septentrionalis, 127, 128
Myriophyllum aquaticum, 146, 150

Naematoloma capnoides, 50

N. sublateritum, 50

Najadaceae, 149

Najas quadalupensis, 149, 150

Nanostoma, 125

Napaeozapus insignis, 127, 129, 130

Napeozapus insignis, 90

Nasturtium officinale, 145

Natural plant communities, of Hop-

kins County, 29-38

Nematodirus spathiger, 16-17

N. spp., 16

News and Comments, 94, 172

Northern studfish, occurrence of in

Northeastern Kentucky, 171

Notes, 170-171

Notophthalmus viridescens virides-

cens, 89

Nuclear hazard, from an antique

firearm, 84

Nuphar luteum, 36, 147, 150

Nursing, attitudes of high school stu-
dents toward, 113-120

knowledge of high school students
about, 113-120

Nymphaea odorata, 36

Nymphaeaceae, 147

Nyssa aquatica, 30, 37

N. sylvatica, 34, 35, 147, 150

Nyssaceae, 147

Obliquaria reflexa, 156

Obolaria virginica, 146

Ochrotomys nuttalli, 5-6, 90

Oenothera biennis, 147

O. parviflora, 147

O. tetragona, 147

Oesophagostomum columbianum,
16

OETINGER, DAVID F., 90

Oleaceae, 147

Onagraceae, 147

Oncorhynchus mykiss, 99

O. tshawytscha, 99

178 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Onoclea sensibilis, 35, 144, 151
Ophioglossaceae, 144
Orchidaceae, 149
Orobanchaceae, 147
Orthotrichia cristata, 50

O. nr. curta, 50

Oryza sativa, 52

Osmorhiza claytonii, 144
Osmunda cinnamomea, 144, 151
O. regalis, 144, 151

O. spp., 35

Osmundaceae, 144

Ostertagia circumcincta, 16

O. spp., 16

O. trifurcata, 16

Ostracoda, 122, 123

Ostrya virginiana, 34
Oxalidaceae, 147

Oxalis stricta, 147
Oxydendron arboreum, 34, 146

Pachysandra procumbens, 145
Panax quinquefolius, 34, 141, 144,
150
Panicum acuminatum var. fascic-
ulatum, 36
. agrostoides, 36
. anceps, 149
clandestinum, 35
commutatum, 34
dichotomum, 34
. joorii, 35
. laxiflorum, 149
. longiligulatum, 35, 36
. rigidulum, 149
. spp., 35
PAN, WEI P., 86
Papaveraceae, 147
Parascalops breweri, 90, 127, 128
Parasites, internal, in lambs and ewes,
15-18
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 35, 148
Paspalum leave, 149
Pastinaca sativa, 144
Pathogen, to Aedes triseriatus, 90
PAYNE, BARRY S., 154
Peltandra virginica, 36
Penstemon calycosus, 148
Penthorum sedoides, 145
Pepper yield, mulch color effects on,
109-112
Perilla frutescens, 146
Periplaneta americana, 90
Peromyscus leucopus, 5-6, 90
P. maniculatus, 90
P. maniculatus bairdii, 5-6
Petrology, in east central Kentucky,
91-92
of the Corbin Member, 91-92
of the Lee Formation, 91-92
Phacelia purshii, 146
Phegopteris hexagonoptera, 144
Phlox divaricata, 147

aa la-a- ala Ma ia- ala

P. paniculata, 147

P. pilosa, 35

Phoradendron flavescens, 170

P. leucarpum, 170-171

host occurrence of, 170-171
in Lexington-Bluegrass Army De-

pot, 170-171

P. serotinum, 170

Phragmites australis, 36

Phyla lanceolata, 148

Physalis longifolia, 148

Physostegia virginiana, 146

Pied-billed grebe, 32

Pilea pumila, 148, 151

Pine vole, 5, 7

Pinus virginiana, 34

PLA folding, selection methods for,
39-45

PLA folding, simple column, 39-45

Plant communities, of Hopkins
County, 29-38

Plantaginaceae, 147

Plantago aristida, 147

P. lanceolata, 147

P. rugelii, 147

Platanaceae, 147

Platanthera ciliaris, 143, 149

Platanthera flava, 149

P. peramoena, 141, 149-151

Platanus occidentalis, 26, 36, 147

Plecoptera, 123

Plecotus rafinesquii, 127, 129-130

P. townsendii virginianus, 127, 129

Pleiostachya pruinosa, blooming and
triggering patterns of, 84

Plethobasus cicatricosus, 160

P. cooperianus, 160

Pleurobema cooperianus, 160

P. cordatum, 156, 159

P. plenum, 160

Poa autumnalis, 35, 149

P. pratensis, 149

P. sylvestris, 149

Poaceae, 141, 149

Podophyllum peltatum, 34, 145, 151

Polana fantasa, 139

P. (Largulara) fantasa, 139

Polemoniaceae, 147

Polemonium reptans, 147, 151

Polygala cruciata, 141, 148, 147, 150,
151

P. sanguinea, 147

Polygalaceae, 147

Polygonaceae, 147

Polygonatum biflorum, 34, 149

P. caespitosum, 151

var. longisetum, 147

hydropiperoides, 36

pensylvanicum, 147, 151

persicaria, 147

punctatum, 147, 151

sagittatum, 147, 150

spp., 36

virginianum, 35

TID

Polystichum acrostichoides, 34, 144,
151

Pontederiaceae, 149

Pontine stimulation, and inspiratory
inhibitory reflexes, 88

Population density, in Dicranella
heteromalla, 85

Populus deltoides, 148

P. grandidentata, 148, 148

P. heterophylla, 36

Porteranthus stipulatus, 34

PORTER, BARBARA, 86

Post oak, 34

Potamilus alatus, 156, 159

P. capax, 160

Potamogeton foliosus, 149, 150

Potamogetonaceae, 149

Potentilla norvegica, 147

P. simplex, 147

Power-line corridors, black locust in,
26-28

Prairie deer mouse, 5-6

Prairie vole, 5, 7

Primulacedae, 147

Probability, subjective, 88

Program, Annual Meeting, 67-92

Proteocephalata, 1

Protocanites, 91

Prunella vulgaris, 146

Prunus americana, 147

P. munsoniana, 147

Prunus serotina, 26, 147, 171

Pseudacris brachyphona, 89

P. crucifer, 89

P. triseriata feriarum, 89

Pseudophyllidea, 1

Pseudotriton montanus diastictus,
89

P. ruber ruber, 89

Psoralea psoralioides var. eglandu-
losa, 146

Pteridophyta, 144

Pycnanthemum flexuosum, 146

P. pilosum, 146

P. pycnantahemoides, 146

P. spp., 35

P. tenuifolium, 146

Pyrrhopappus carolinianus, 145

Quadrula metanevra, 156

Q. nodulata, 156

Q. pustulosa pustulosa, 156

Q. quadrula, 156

Q. spp., 159

Quercus alba, 30, 34, 36, 146

Q. bicolor, 35, 38, 143, 146, 151, 152
Q. coccinea, 34

Q. falcata, 34, 146

Q. heterophylla, 34

Q. imbricaria, 35

Q. lyrata, 35, 36, 151

Q. macrocarpa, 35, 38

Q. marilandica, 34, 146

Q. michauxii, 30, 35, 143, 146, 150

Q. muhlenbergii, 146, 171
Q. pagoda, 30, 34-36
Q. palustris, 35, 36, 143, 146, 151

Q. phellos, 36, 141, 143, 146, 150,

151
Q. rubra, 34
var. borealis, 146
Q. shumardii, 38, 146
Q. spp., 30
Q. stellata, 34, 36
Q. velutina, 30, 34, 146
Quotients, derivations of, 162-164
modules of, 162-164

Rabbit, cottontail, 26, 27

RACKE, AMY M., 84

Rainbow trout, 99

RAMBO, THOMAS C., 85, 89, 90

Rana palustris, 89

R. sylvatica, 89

R. utriacularia utricularia, 89

Ranunculaceae, 147

Ranunculus abortivus, 147

R. flabellaris, 36

R. hispidus, 147

R. pensylvanicus, 147

R. recurvatus, 147

Redbird River, meandering patterns
in, 46-49

Redbud, 26

Reflected light, mulch color effects
on, 109-112

Reithrodontomys humulis, 5-6, 90

Reptiles, dispersal of, 89

Resistance to invasion, in Dicranella
heteromalla, 85

Rhamnaceae, 147

Rhamnus caroliniana, 147

Rhexia mariana, 147

R. virginica, 147

Rhizosphere temperature, mulch -

color effects on, 109-112
Rhododendron periclymenoides,
146, 151
Rhus copallina, 144
R. glabra, 26
R. radicans, 34-36
Rhynchospora corniculata, 36
R. glomerata, 148
Riccia fluitans, 36
Robinia pseudoacacia, 26-28, 171
Rodents, 90
Rorippa palustris, 145
Rosa carolina, 147
R. multiflora, 147
R. palustris, 147
R. setigera, 147
Rosaceae, 147
ROSEN, RON, 1
Rotala ramosior, 147
Rubiaceae, 148
Rudbeckia fulgida, 145
R. hirta, 145
Ruellia strepens, 36, 144

INDEX TO VOLUME 53

Rumex conglomeratus, 147
R. crispus, 147
R. verticillatus, 147

Sabatia angularis, 146

Sacicolous bryophytes, species-area
relationships among, 85-86

Sagittaria australis, 148

S. brevirostra, 141, 143, 148, 150

S. calycina, 148

S. latifolia, 148

Salamanders, 89

Salicaceae, 148

Salix caroliniana, 148

S. nigra, 36, 148, 150

S. sericea, 148, 150

Salmon, chinook, 99

Salvia lyrata, 146

Sambucus canadensis, 145, 151

Sanguinaria canadensis, 147

Sanicula canadensis, 144, 151

S. gregaria, 144

S. smallii, 144

S. trifoliata, 144

Saponaria officinalis, 145

Sassafras, 26

S. albidum, 26, 34, 146

Saururaceae, 148

Saururus cernuus, 35, 148

Saxifragaceae, 148

SCHEPERS, ERIC J., 88

Scincella lateralis, 89

Scirpus atrovirens, 148, 150, 151

S. cyperinus, 149

S. pendulus, 149, 151

S. polyphyllus, 149

S. validus, 149, 150

S. oligantha, 149

Scrophulariaceae, 148

Scutellaria incana, 146

S. integrifolia, 146

S. lateriflorus, 35

S. laterifolia, 146

S. parvula, 146

Secondary School Teacher Award,
93

Sedum ternatum, 145

Seismic analysis, of the Brent-Spence
Bridge, 87

SEITHER, CRAIG A., 26

Senecio anonymus, 145

S. aureus, 145

Setaria glauca, 149

SHIBER, J. G., 89

Short-tailed shrew, 5, 7

Shrews, 90

Shrew, short-tailed, 5, 7

Shrimp, brine 133-138

Sicanthelium scoparium, 149

Sicyos angulatus, 146

Sida spinosa, 147

Silene virginica, 145

Silphium trifoliatum, 145

Silvilagus floridanus, 27

179

Simulated rain, acidified by nitric
acid, 85
Sinkhole flooding, mechanisms re-
sponsible for, 87
Siphonodella iosticha, 91
Sisymbrium officinale, 145
Sisyrinchium antustifolium, 149
SKAGGS, STEPHEN R., 90
Slug dispersal, of bryophyte propa-
gules, 85
Small mammals, 5-8
Small-mammal surveys, in Daniel
Boone National Forest, 90
Smilacaceae, 149
Smilacina racemosa, 149
Smilax bona-nox, 149
S. glauca, 149
S. hispida, 149
S. rotundifolia, 149
Smooth sumac, 26
Snakes, 89
Solanaceae, 148
Solanum americanum, 148, 151
S. carolinense, 148
Solidago caesia, 34, 145
S. canadensis, 145
S. erecta, 34, 145
S. flexicaulis, 145
Sorex fumeus, 90
S. gigantea, 145
S. nemoralis, 35, 145
S. rugosa, 145
S. ulmifolia, 145
Sorex hoyi, 90
S. hoyi winnemana, 127, 128
S. longirostris, 90, 127-128
Sorghastrum nutans, 35
Sorghum halapense, 149
Southern bog lemming, 5-6
Sparganiaceae, 149
Sparganium americanum, 149
S. spp., 36
Species-area relationships, among
saxicolous bryophytes, 85-86
SPECK, D. F., 88
SPENCER, HUGH T., 87
Sphagnum, spp., 35, 150
Sphenophyta, 144
Spicebush, 26
Spiders, associated with Heliconia
spp., 90
predatory behavior in, 90
territoriality in, 90
tropical jumping, 90
Spilogale putorius, 127, 130, 131
Spiraea tomentosa, 147
Spiranthes cernua, 149
Spirodela polyrhiza, 149, 150
Spirometra mansonoides, |
Spotted sunfish, 32
SPRAKER, JOHN, 87
Stachys nuttallii, 143, 146
STAMPER, SHELBY, 15
Stargazing minnow, 32

180 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53(3-4)

Stellaria media, 145
S. pubera, 145
Stenanthium gramineum, 35
Storeria dekayi dekayi x wrightor-
um, 89
S. occipitomaculata occipitomacu-
lata, 89
Stragraphic sections, Hawaii, 91
Honokohau Bay, 91
Maui, 91
Pu u Nianiau, 91
Strongyloides papillosus, 16
Strophostyles helvola, 146
Strophostyles umbellata, 35
Studfish, Northern, 171
Stylophorum diphyllum, 147
Styrax americana, 36
Subjective probability, 88
Subxeric forest, 34
Sumac, smooth, 26
Sunfish, green, 97
hybrid, 97-100
spotted, 32
Surveys, small-mammal, 90
Sweet potato, 101
Sycamore, 26
Sylvilagus floridanus, 5, 7, 26-27
Symphoricarpos occidentalis, 34
S. orbiculatus, 145
Synaptomys cooperi, 5-6, 90

Tamias striatus, 5, 7, 90
Tantilla coronata, 89
Taraxacum officinale, 145
Taxodium distichum, 30, 37, 151
Teacher-prepared objectives, en-
hanced learning, 89
in biology courses, 89
increased student involvement, 89
preference, 89
Tenebrio molitor, 1, 2, 3
Tephrosia virginiana, 35
Teucrium canadense, 146
Thalictrum pubescens, 147
T. thalictroides, 147
Thaspium barbinode, 144
Thelypteridaceae, 144
Thelypteris noveboracensis, 144
T. palustrus, 35
Thermal properties, of lipid com-
ponents of membrane, 86
THOMPSON, RALPH L., 171
THORP, JAMES H., 46
TIDWEL, JAMES H., 97
Tilia americana, 148
T. heterophylla, 151

Tiliaceae, 148

Todd, Lee T., Jr., 94

TOLLIER, SHARON C.,, 15

Tomato, 101

Toxicodendron radicans, 144

Trace elements, high neutron fluxes
for determination of, 86

in biological tissues, 86

Trautvetteria carolinensis, 143, 147

Treefrog, bird-voices, 32

Triadenum tubulosum, 141, 146, 150

Tribolium castaneum, 1

Tribolius confusum, 1

Trichoptera, 50

Trichostrongylus axei, 16

Trichostrongylus colubriformis, 16-
17

T. spp., 16

Trichuris ovis, 16

T. spp., 16

Tricoptera, 122, 123

Tridens flavus, 149

Trifolium campestre, 146

T. pratense, 146

Triggering patterns, of Pleiostachya
pruinosa, 84

Trillium luteum, 143, 149

T. sessile, 149

Triticosecale, 52

Tritogonia verrucosa, 156

Trout, rainbow, 99

Truncilla donaciformis, 156

T. truncata, 156

22 kDa protein, characterization of,
88

22 kDa protein, from the dense tu-
bular system of human plate-
lets, 88

Typha latifolia, 149, 150

T. spp., 36

Typhaceae, 149

Tyromyces chioneus, 50

Ulmaceae, 38, 148

Ulmus alata, 34, 148

U. americana, 35, 148, 171

U. rubra, 148

Unionidae, 154

Upper Green River Basin, riparian

flora of, 141-153

wetland flora of, 141-153

Urticaceae, 148

Uvularia perfoliata, 149

U. sessilifolia, 35

Vaccinium arboreum, 34
V. corymbosum, 146, 151
V. pallidum, 146
Valeriananceae, 148
Valerianella radiata, 148
VAN DALSEM, D. J., 86
Verbascum thapsus, 148
Verbena hastata, 148
V. urticifolia, 148, 151
Verbenaceae, 148
Verbesina altaernifolia, 145
Vernonia gigantea, 145
Viburnum acerifolium, 145
V. dentatum var. scabrellum, 145
V. prunifolium, 145
Vicia caroliniana, 146
. dasycarpa, 146
. lanceolata, 141, 148, 150
. pubescens var. eriocarps, 148
. rostrata, 148
. sororia, 148
. striata, 148
Violaceae, 148
Virginia valeriae elegans, 89
Vitaceae, 148
Vitis aestivalis, 148
V. cinerea, 148
V. vulpina, 148
Voles, 27
Vole, pine, 5, 7

prairie, 5, 7

3335

Wastewater, constructed wetlands

for, 86
treatment of, 86

Watersnake, copperbelly, 32

WEBSTER, CARL D., 97

WEDDLE, GORDON K., 121

WEI, LIHUA, 86

Western Coal Field, and Kentucky
amphibians and reptiles, 89

White ash, 26

White-footed mouse, 5-6

WILSON, CAROL W., 87

WINSTEAD, JOE E., 85

Woodchuck, 27

Woodwardia areolata, 35

Woundfins, 165-169

Xanthium strumarium, 145, 150
Xerohydric forest, 34
Xyridaceae, 149

Xyris torta, 141, 149-151

YANCEY, DANIEL H., 97
YOUNG, CRAIG C., 85

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CONTENTS

Effects of protein level on growth and body composition of hybrid sunfish
(Lepomis cyanellus x L. macrochirus) reared in ponds. Carl D. Webster,
James H. Tidwell, Laura S. Goodgame, Julia A. Clark, and Daniel H. Yancey

Effects of Azospirillum lipoferum on dry-matter accumulation and fruit
production in greenhouse-grown bell pepper (Capsicum annum) plants.
Cloyd J. Bumgardner and David Mardon ...............+++++++++>

Mulch color effects on reflected light, rhizosphere temperature, and pepper
yield. Karan Kaul and M. J. Kasperbauer ..............--+-+++-+---

Knowledge and attitudes of high school students toward medical tech-
nology and nursing. Donna S. Blackburn and Larry P. Elliott .........

Seasonal, sexual, and size class variation in the diet of the Kentucky darter,

Etheostoma rafinesquei (Pisces: Percidae), in Middle Pitman Creek, Ken-
tucky.:; Gordon Ki: Weddle: 23555. eo ee ois ayes cies Seay ee een on

New distributional records for selected species of Kentucky mammals.
es Meade 5c ee Be an Reale Cate ale tint oy RUE Ua On cu ag oa en

The influence of pH, salt concentration, and incubation time on hatching
brine shrimp cysts. Robert M. Hoyt and Robert D. Hoyt ............

A new species of the genus Largulara (Homoptera: Cicadellidae). Paul H.
| rca 21 ete ren SRT cae! crit EAN ae RUMI MRR AA PI ME DAN Miers Re Mine n eo

Wetland and riparian flora of the Upper Green River Basin, south-central
Kentucky. Bruce W. Hoagland and Ronald L. Jones ................

Characterization of a freshwater mussel (Unionidae) community imme-

diately downriver of Kentucky Lock and Dam in the Tennessee River.

Andrew C. Miller, Barry S. Payne and Richard Tippit ................

A note on derivations and modules of quotients. Paul E. Bland .......
FORUM

Woundfins. Branley Allan Branson ............-.6 0.0500 e eee ences
NOTES

Host occurrence of Phoradendron leucarpum in the Lexington-Blue Grass

Army Depot, Blue Grass Facility, Madison County, Kentucky. Ralph L.

THOMPSOR os Oe i Ey SEY A ache cate aan tah el eh ai 7a as SN euanerte

Occurrence of the northern studfish, Fundulus catenatus (Storer) in north-
eastern Kentucky. Les Meade .............. 0000 eee eee tenes

NEWS AND COMMENTS (oir) oc i iad ae he oto adledtah or deat tee Yo gue a oneal col

97

101

109

113

121

127

133

139

141

154

162

165

Se RE ee ee! ee eee

Ee ey EE NS Me Cae Ae, SORES Sie aN ree TE ee

SS et ee eS ee

TRANSACTIONS
OF THE

ACADEMY OF
BQiIENCE

SMITH
JUN | 4 ~

ER RARIES

Volume 54
Numbers 1-2
March 1993

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914
GoveERNING BoaRD FOR 1993
Executive COMMITTEE

President: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown, KY 40324

President Elect: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY

42101

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Past President: Douglas L. Dahiman, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546-

0091

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42301

Treasurer: David R. Hartman, Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY Mt

42101

Treasurer-Elect: Julia H. Carter, Wood Hudson Cancer Research Laboratory, Inc., 931 Isabella Street, New-

port, KY 41071

Executive Secretary-ex officio: J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexing- i

ton, KY 40546-0091

Editor, TRANSACTIONS-ex officio: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky

University, Richmond, KY 40475

Editor, NEWSLETTER-ex officio: Vincent DiNoto, Natural Science Division, Jefferson Community College,

SW, Louisville, KY 40201

MEMBERS, GOVERNING BOARD

Burtron H. Davis ; 1993 Blaine R. Ferrell -. 1995

Ray K. Hammond 1993 Patricia K. Doolin 1996
James E. Gotsick 1994 David E. Hogan 1996
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Chairman, KJAS: Valgene L. Dunham (1994)

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Editor and Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,

Chairman: Richmond 40475

Associate Editor: John T. Riley, Chemistry Department, Western Kentucky University, Bowlinu Green |
42101

Index Editor: Varley E. Wiedeman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: Robert Naczi, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
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TRANSACTIONS of the

KENTUCKY

ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1993
Volume 54
Numbers 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 1-6

Reproduction, Age and Growth Analysis of Paddlefish,
Polyodon spathula, in the Falls of the Ohio
National Wildlife Conservation Area

DEKE T. GUNDERSEN

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oak Creek Laboratory of Biology,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97330

AND

WILLIAM D. PEARSON

Water Resources Laboratory, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

The status of paddlefish populations at the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky is in question.
This is due to habitat alteration, commercial fishing and high levels of PCBs being detected in the reproductive
tissues of paddlefish from this area. Information on age, growth and sex of paddlefish collected from the
Falls area was obtained between May 1988 and October 1989, to better evaluate the status of these populations.
Paddlefish were captured with large mesh gill nets. Stranded paddlefish (54% of total) were also captured
by hand and with dip nets shortly after the closing of McAlpine Dam. All fish were sexed and measured for
total lengths, and the dentary bone of each fish was removed for age determinations. A total of 33 paddlefish
were collected (20 males and 13 females). Most of the fish collected (70%) were between the ages of 6 and
12. The rate of growth of paddlefish appeared to be rapid for the first 3 years since lengths of 90 cm were
possible by the third year. Only 3 of the females collected had ovaries with large egg masses. Additional
measures may be needed to ensure the continued survival and well-being of paddlefish populations in this

area.

INTRODUCTION

The paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) is a
primitive chondrostean which is found pri-
marily in large rivers of the Mississippi River
drainage and a few rivers that run directly into
the Gulf of Mexico (1). It is of particular in-
terest to ichthyologists because of its great age,
and the existence of just 2 living species (the
second, Psephurus gladius in China) and 2
known fossil species in the family Polyodon-
tidae. Within the last 100 years, paddlefish have
undergone restrictions in range and there have
been substantial declines in populations in some
major river systems (1, 2, 3). It appears that
habitat alteration and destruction, and com-

mercial fishing pressure have played a big part
in causing the decline of this species in many
large rivers (1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8).

The main stem of the Ohio River extends
981 miles from its source in Pittsburgh, Penn-
sylvania to its confluence with the Mississippi
River, and the Falls of the Ohio is the only
area along the mainstem which has a riffle-run
habitat since establishment of navigation pools
(9). This area harbors an abundant and diverse
fish community (10) and may be a refuge for
many fish which are either threatened or of
special concern, including the paddlefish (11).
The status of paddlefish in this area is ques-
tionable due to a number of factors, one of

2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

TABLE 1. Dates, sex, total lengths and age of paddlefish
collected from the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville,
Kentucky.

Total length Age

Date collected Sex (em) (yrs)
5/5/88 M 111.0 6
M 124.5 9

F 117.0 ll

5/6/88 M 126.0 12
M 116.0 17

F 127.0 12

F 132.0 16

5/10/88 F 113.0 7
5/11/88 M 100.0 7
5/31/88 M 104.0 6
M 105.0 6

M 110.0 8

M 111.0 8

M 125.0 15

F 131.0 10

F 130.0 16

6/3/89 M 106.0 7
F 131.5 13

F 134.0 17

F 139.0 17

7/3/89 F 90.0 3
8/3/89 M 100.0 6
M 105.5 d

M 103.0 9

M 122.0 10

M 101.0 11

M 120.0 11

M 129.0 18

F 103.0 U

F 101.0 9

F 119.0 9

EF 124.0 12

10/13/89 M 50.0 2

which is illegal harvesting of paddlefish from
this area by commercial fishermen in order to
obtain the highly sought roe of females that is
used to produce american caviar. In the early
1980s trade limitations with Iran reduced im-
ports of Caspian Sea caviar and increased the
demand for paddlefish roe which brought fish-
ermen as much as $65/kg (5). Other factors
affecting paddlefish populations in this area are
hydroelectric power generation, flood control,
maintenance of the 9-foot navigation depth
and low-flow augmentation which have mod-
ified natural flow regimes, periodically causing
fluctuations in flow and water levels. These
fluctuations in flow and water levels have
trapped fish and their eggs in isolated pools
and stranded them on the exposed streambed
and shoreline areas (9). High levels of PCBs
have also been detected in the reproductive
tissues of paddlefish collected from this area

(12, 13), raising questions about the reproduc-
tive success of the species.

METHODS

Paddlefish were collected from the Falls of
the Ohio River, near Louisville, Kentucky dur-
ing May through September 1988 and May
through September, 1989 between Ohio River
miles 604.6 and 606.5. Paddlefish were cap-
tured with gill nets (30-60 m in length, 1.8 m
deep, and 5-13 cm bar measure mesh). Both
multi- and monofilament nets were used.
Stranded paddlefish were also captured by
hand, and with dip nets shortly after the clos-
ing of McAlpine Dam, which usually occurs
during summer and fall months. A total of 16
paddlefish were collected in 1988 (Table 1).
Using gill nets, 3 paddlefish were captured on
May 5, 4 on May 6, 1 on May 10 and 1 on
May 11. Following a dam closure, 7 paddlefish
were collected on May 31. A total of 17 pad-
dlefish were collected in 1989. Using gill nets
4 paddlefish were collected on June 8 and one
on July 3. Following a dam closure on August
3, 11 paddlefish were collected. On October
10, 1 paddlefish was collected from McAlpine
Lock, during a lockchamber rotenone collec-
tion.

Immediately after capture, all fish were
measured (total lengths) and fillets and gonads
were removed for determination of PCB con-
centrations (13). The dentary bone was also
removed for later age determinations. Age de-
terminations using dentary bones were carried
out in a manner similar to the procedure de-
scribed by Adams (14). Skin and excess tissue
were removed from all dentary bones, and the
bones were allowed to dry before any further
preparations. Approximately 15 sections were
made from each dentary bone at the point
where it bends toward the middle. Sections
were cut with a Dremel rotary cutting tool and
an abrasive cutoff disk. They were then mount-
ed on glass slides with epoxy resin. Sections
were ground with various polishing stones, un-
til growth rings could be seen clearly. Sections
were examined under a dissection microscope
with xylene added to each section to enhance
the definition of growth rings.

RESULTS
A total of 33 paddlefish were collected from

the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville,
Kentucky, with 20 (61%) being males and 13

THE PADDLEFISH IN KENTUCKY—Gundersen and Pearson 3

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AGE

Age frequency plot of all paddlefish collected from the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky

(represented by clear bars), including the frequency of males (striped bars), and females (solid bars).

(39%) females (Table 1). The range in total
length for all fish collected was from 50.0 cm
to 189.0 cm, with a mean total length of 113.9
cm. :

Figure 1 shows the frequency of paddlefish
collected in each age class. All fish collected
were between the ages of 2 and 18 years with
none being collected at 4, 5 or 14 years of age.
The majority of fish collected (70%) were be-
tween the ages of 6 and 12. The youngest male
and female were 2 and 3 years old, respec-
tively. There were 3 males older than 12, with
the oldest being 18 years of age. In comparison,
there were 5 females older than 12, with the
oldest two being 17 years.

The rate of growth for paddlefish collected
from the Falls of the Ohio River (Fig. 2) ap-
pears to be rapid for the first 3 years since the
fish attain lengths of 50.0 cm in the first 2 years
of growth, and 90.0 cm in the third year. Fish
examined in the 129.0 cm to 134.0 cm lengths
were in their sixteenth to eighteenth year, in-
dicating that growth from 90.0 cm to approx-
imately 130.0 cm required about 138-15 years.

In age classes where both females and males
were collected, females tended to be larger
than males (Fig. 3).

Female paddlefish have generally been re-
ported to reach sexual maturity at 10-12 years
and males at 7-9 years (1), although Hoffnagle
and Timmons (15) reported earlier maturation
ages of 8 and 6 years in Kentucky Lake. Based
on these numbers and observations of repro-
ductive tissue, 70% of the males and 69% of
the females collected were sexually mature.
Large egg masses were found in 3 of the fe-
males collected and one had ovaries in which
eggs were in the early stages of development.
All other females had immature ovaries which
were associated with large fat bodies. The tes-
tes of males collected were also associated with
dense fat bodies.

DISCUSSION

More than half of the paddlefish (54%) were
collected after being stranded in shallow pools
following the closing of McAlpine Dam (31
May 1988 and 8 August 1989). New operation

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

150

100

TOTAL LENGTH—(cm)
3

0)

0 4. 8

procedures for McAlpine Locks and Dam have
been put into effect by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers in order to minimize fish strand-
ing (9). It appears that these measures have
reduced the number of smaller fishes being
stranded, but larger fishes, like the paddlefish
are still susceptible to being stranded. Addi-
tional measures may be needed to reduce the
numbers of large fish being stranded. Adult
paddlefish are due special consideration as fish
of special concern (11) and as the ones con-
tributing to reproduction in the population (5).

Adams (14) reported that otoliths and den-
tary bones were best suited for aging younger
paddlefish and that age determinations of older
fish were subject to more variability. Vari-
ability in total length for each age class of
paddlefish collected from the Falls of the Ohio
River was greatest in fish that exceeded 8 years
of age. Age determinations became progres-
sively difficult as annuli on sections of dentary

12 16
AGE IN YEARS

Fic. 2. Age length plot of paddlefish collected from the Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky.

20

bones of older paddlefish became crowded and
difficult to distinguish from neighboring bands.
The majority of paddlefish collected from the
Ohio River were between the ages of 6 and
12, which appears to be somewhat low com-
pared to other studies. Russell (1) reported that
where paddlefish populations are sustained by
sexually mature adults, most fish collected range
from 7-18 years of age. Bronte and Johnson
(5) and Hoffnagle and Timmons (15) also re-
ported a high frequency of younger fish being
collected from Kentucky Lake and Lake Bark-
ley, in Kentucky, suggesting that through com-
mercial and sports fishing, many individuals
are harvested before being able to contribute
to reproduction. This could certainly be the
case for paddlefish populations at the Falls of
the Ohio River, where commercial fishermen
have been observed fishing for paddlefish with
large mesh gill nets. In addition to this, many
paddlefish and their eggs are stranded by dam

THE PADDLEFISH IN KENTUCKY—Gundersen and Pearson

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AGE

Fic. 3. Bar graph showing total lengths of male (solid bars) and female (striped bars) paddlefish collected from the
Falls of the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky, in which both sexes were collected at each age class.

closures, particularly when these closures occur
during the spawning season (9).

Length and age determinations of paddle-
fish from the Falls of the Ohio River indicated
that total lengths of 90.0 cm were possible in
the first 8 years of growth. This is consistent
with the findings of Adams (14) who reported
the rate of growth for paddlefish to be rapid
for the first 8 years. Russell (1) reported values
of mean total lengths from various studies on
paddlefish, ranging from 71.0 cm to 94.0 cm.
Growth rates for paddlefish from the Falls of
the Ohio River were at the upper end of the
range reported by Russell, which might indi-
cate that a plentiful food supply exists for
younger paddlefish at the Falls. This early rap-
id growth rate may be misleading, however,
since only | individual was collected in year
class III, and one at year class II. The low
number of younger paddlefish collected was
probably due to the use of large mesh gill nets
(5-13 cm bar measure mesh), and it is possible
that only the fastest growing members of age
class II and III were collected.

Only 3 of the females collected from the
Falls of the Ohio River contained mature ova-
ries. According to Houser and Bross (16), Pur-
kett (3), and Bronte and Johnson (5), it is not
unusual to observe few or no gravid females
in samples containing sexually mature fish. This
is indicative of present theories suggesting that
paddlefish do not spawn every year (1, 14).
Purkett (3), suggested that warming water
temperatures (50°F), and a rise in river levels,
may be necessary to promote spawning. All 3
gravid females were collected in May of 1988.
In the spring of 1988, warming water tem-
peratures were accompanied by an initial rise
in river levels, providing the above suggested
spawning conditions. In the spring of 1989 wa-
ter levels in the Ohio River were high and
stayed that way until mid summer, suggesting
that both water temperature and falling high
river levels may be necessary to facilitate
spawning of Ohio River paddlefish. The high
percentage of sexually mature paddlefish col-
lected suggests that a suitable number of in-
dividuals exist that can contribute to repro-

6 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

duction in the population. Bronte and Johnson
(5) found that few paddlefish caught by com-
mercial fishermen in Kentucky Lake and Lake
Barkley were sexually mature. They suggested
that this was due to commercial fishing re-
moving individuals before they were able to
contribute to reproduction. Hoffnagle and
Timmons (15) also considered the paddlefish
population of Kentucky Lake to be overex-
ploited. We have observed commercial fish-
ermen in the area using large mesh gill nets
(18-15 cm bar measure mesh) and this large
mesh size may be capturing only the older
members of local paddlefish populations.

The U.S. Congress has designated 566.6 ha
of the Falls area of the Ohio River as a Wildlife
Conservation Area (WCA). Within this area
paddlefish are supposed to be protected re-
flecting on their questionable status in this area
(9). Pearson and Pearson (4) suggest that al-
though paddlefish populations in the Ohio Riv-
er appear to have increased since 1970, the
persistence of a fishery for the roe of female
paddlefish may be slowing or even reversing
the recovery of local populations. Our results
suggest that an adequate food supply exists for
paddlefish in this area based on their initial
rapid growth rates. A total of 33 fish collected
appears to be a low number based on numerous
attempts to capture paddlefish over a 16-month
period. This may be partially attributed to the
location and/or time of year selected for sam-
pling. High concentrations of PCBs have been
detected in the roe of these paddlefish and it
is possible that this is affecting their reproduc-
tive success (12). Additional information is
needed in this area along with information on
movements and distribution of paddlefish pop-
ulations in the Ohio River.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Russell, T. R. 1986. Biology and life history of the
paddlefish—a review. Pp. 2-21. In J. G. Dillard, L. K.
Graham, and T. R. Russell (eds.) The paddlefish: status,
management and propagation. North Central Division
American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 7.

2. Larimore, R. W. 1950. Gametogenesis of Polyodon
spathula (Walbaum): a basis for regulation of the fishery.
Copeia 1950:116-124.

8. Purkett, C. A. 1961. Reproduction and early de-
velopment of the paddlefish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 90:
125-129.

4, Pearson, W. D. and B. J. Pearson. 1989. Fishes of
the Ohio River. Ohio J. Sci. 89:181-187.

5. Bronte, C. R. and D. W. Johnson. 1985. Growth of
paddlefish in two main stream reservoirs with reference
to commercial harvest. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 46:28-32.

6. Carlson, D. M. and P. S. Bonislawsky. 1981. The
paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) fisheries of the Midwestern
United States. Fisheries 6(2):17-27.

7. Pasch, R. W. and C. M. Alexander. 1986. Effects
of commercial fishing on paddlefish populations. Pp. 46-
53. In J. G. Dillard, L. K. Graham, and T. R. Russell (eds.)
The paddlefish: status, management and propagation. North
Central Division American Fisheries Society Special Pub-
lication No. 7.

8. Sparrowe, R. D. 1986. Threats to paddlefish habitat.
Pp. 36-45. In J. G. Dillard, L. K. Graham, and T. R. Russell
(eds.) The paddlefish: status, management and propaga-
tion. North Central Division American Fisheries Society
Special Publication No. 7.

9. Pearson, W. D. and M. A. Froedge. 1989. Stranding
of fishes below McAlpine Dam on the Ohio River. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 50:183-201.

10. Pearson W. D. and L. A. Krumholz. 1984. Dis-
tribution and status of Ohio River fishes. ORNL/Sub/79-
7831/1. Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 401 pp.

11. Williams, J. E., J. E. Johnson, D. A. Hendrickson,
S. Contreras-Balderas, J. D. Williams, M. Navarro-Men-
doza, D. E. McAllister, and J. E. Deacon. 1989. Fishes
of North America endangered, threatened, or of special
concern. Fisheries 14:2-20.

12. Gundersen, D. T. 1990. Partitioning of polychlor-
inated biphenyls (PCBs) in muscle and reproductive tissues
of paddlefish at the Falls of the Ohio River. Unpubl. M.S.
Thesis. University of Louisville, Kentucky.

13. Gundersen, D. T. and W. D. Pearson. 1992. Par-
titioning of PCBs in the muscle and reproductive tissues
of paddlefish, Polyodon spathula, at the Falls of the Ohio
River. Bull. Environm. Contam. & Toxicol. 49(8):455-462.

14. Adams, L. A. 1942. Age determination and rate
of growth in Polyodon spathula, by means of the growth
rings of the otoliths and dentary bone. Amer. Midl. Nat.
28:617-630.

15. Hoffnagle, T. L. and T. J. Timmons. 1989. Age,
growth and catch analysis of the commercially exploited
paddlefish population in Kentucky Lake, Kentucky-Ten-
nessee. N.A.J. Fish. Mgmt. 9(3):316-826.

16. Houser, A. and M. G. Bross. 1959. Observations
on the growth and reproduction of the paddlefish. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 88:50-52.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 7-12

Applications of Thermal Analysis in the
Physical Chemistry Laboratory!

WEI-PING PAN, JEFF TIMMONS, AND ANGELA F. ARNOLD

Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101

ABSTRACT

Thermal Analysis, the principal study of Western Kentucky University’s Physical Chemistry Laboratory,
encompasses several facets of research which familiarize the student with its importance within the industrial
setting as well as throughout other fields of science. Through the utilization of today’s most advanced
equipment, hands-on experimentation, and lecture feedback, the student performs 3 laboratory procedures
involving the thermal decomposition of calcium oxalate, the phase transitions of ammonium nitrates, and
the enthalpies of combustion by calorimetry. These experiments are designed to demonstrate fundamental
laws of thermodynamics which coincide with lecture material. The course thus provides valuable pre-
professional experience which will be beneficial to future career placement.

INTRODUCTION

Thermal analysis involves studying the
changes in energy content, mass, and related
changes in entropy when a substance is sub-
jected to temperature change (1). Many in-
dustrial firms study the thermal properties of
such substances as: metals (2), tobacco (8),
polymers (4), and coal (5). Since thermal anal-
ysis is used in industry it is important that it
be included in academic curricula (6). Besides
physical chemistry, methods of thermal anal-
ysis can be beneficial in engineering, biology,
mineralogy and environmental science courses
(7). This paper includes the application of ther-
mal analysis in a senior-level physical chem-
istry laboratory course, as well as a review of
the experiments performed. ~

DISCUSSION

The Western Kentucky University physical
chemistry lab contains the following instru-
ments for thermal analysis: a thermogravi-
metric analyzer, a high temperature differ-
ential scanning calorimeter, a high pressure
differential scanning calorimeter, an adiabatic
bomb calorimeter, and an isoperibol bomb cal-
orimeter. Over the course of a semester, 3 ex-
periments involving thermal analysis were car-
ried out. They were designed to demonstrate
fundamental laws of thermodynamics which
are central to the lecture segment of the course.
Each experiment required approximately 5

1 Part of this work was presented at the 17th NATAS
Annual Conference, October 1988.

hours of laboratory work. The 8 experiments
are:

Thermal Decomposition of Calcium Oxalate

The thermal decomposition of calcium ox-
alate monohydrate (CaC,0,:H,O) was mon-
itored using a DuPont 951 thermogravimetric
analyzer as well as additional data obtained
from a Stanton-Redcroft DSC 1500 high tem-
perature differential scanning calorimeter. For
both analysis methods, the decomposition was
monitored using 3 different dynamic atmo-
spheres (nitrogen, air, and carbon dioxide).
When calcium oxalate (approximately 20 mg)
was heated from 25°C to 1,000°C at a rate of
20°C/min, 3 sequential (decomposition) re-
actions were observed (1):

CACO, = CaCOng 2 LO, (0)
CaC,0,,) a CaCO,,) =f: CO.) (2)
CaCO;,) = CaO,,) ste COx(2) (3)

In all atmospheres, the dehydration reaction
(eq. 1) occurred at relatively the same tem-
peratures (80°C) and was accompanied by the
same weight loss (approx. 12%) (Fig. 1). Re-
actions involving the decomposition of Ca-
C,04,) to CaCO, and CO,) were unaffected
by the nitrogen, air, and the carbon dioxide
atmospheres. A portion of the TG curve (in
air) is nonuniform, indicating a secondary ox-
idation reaction. This is due to the oxygen in
the air converting the carbon monoxide re-
leased to carbon dioxide (1). This secondary
oxidation reaction releases heat into the sur-

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

TGA

Weight (2)

0 100 200 300 400 500

Temperature (°C)

Fic. 1.

roundings, which increases sample tempera-
ture rapidly while the furnace temperature
continues to increase at a constant heating rate
(20°C/min). When the secondary reaction is
complete, the sample cools to the temperature
of the furnace and the decomposition contin-
ues to completion.

The release of carbon dioxide in equation 3
occurs at a similar temperature in nitrogen and
air, 751°C and 770°C, respectively (the differ-
ence may be due to the fact that the air con-
tains approximately 325 ppm of carbon diox-
ide). Yet, in the presence of a carbon dioxide
atmosphere this reaction did not occur until
the temperature reached 951°C. Based on Le
Chatelier’s principle, it can be postulated that
the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will shift
the equilibrium toward the left until the tem-
perature is high enough to overcome the stress
(an excess of CO.) on the system (1). This dif-
ference in reaction temperatures is due to the
fact that the release of carbon dioxide is a
reversible reaction (eq. 3).

The percent weight lost corresponding to

Carbon Dioxide

Nitrogen

1100
DuPont 1090

600 700 800 900 1000

TG heating curves for calcium oxalate in nitrogen, air and carbon dioxide.

each reaction along the decomposition profile
is also obtained. These percentages remained
relatively constant regardless of the composi-
tion of the reaction atmosphere. It is also pos-
sible to determine that the reactions occur at
a one-to-one mole ratio. The stoichiometry of
each reaction can then be used to obtain the
amount of reaction products. For example: the
experimental data revealed a 12.28% (2.440
mg) weight loss for the first reaction. The the-
oretical values of 2.447 mg of water compared
to 12.33% weight loss are in excellent agree-
ment, having a difference of less than one-half
per cent. Thus, this experiment is an excellent
example of the application of stoichiometry,
Le Chatelier’s principle, and the thermody-
namics of chemical reactions.

Further information on the decomposition
of calcium oxalate is obtained from the DSC
curve, under similar conditions. A DSC curve
will show if a reaction is endothermic or exo-
thermic and determines the enthalpy change
(AH). For this system, in each atmosphere, the
loss of water is endothermic and has approx-

THERMAL ANALYSIS IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY—Pan, Timmons, and Arnold 9

DSC

Heat Flow

196 deg C
439 J/g

783 deg C
1.05 KJ/g

485 deg C
-1.42 KJ/g

100 200 300 400

500

600 700 800 900 1000

Temperature °C

Fic. 2. DSC heating curve for calcium oxalate in air.

imately the same enthalpy change (approx. 439
J/g). A change in enthalpy: (—1.42 KJ) oc-
curred during loss of carbon monoxide (eq. 2)
in the atmosphere containing air. The reaction
is also endothermic under both nitrogen and
carbon dioxide atmospheres: the AH values are
230 J/g and 238 J/g, respectively. However,
in air we obtained a AH of —1.42 kJ/g, in-
dicating an exothermic reaction (Fig. 2).

The energy produced during the secondary
oxidation of CO discussed earlier is actually
the product of the endothermic reaction from
the loss of carbon monoxide combined with
the exothermic reaction between the carbon
monoxide and oxygen. Yet, because the exo-
thermic reaction occurs so quickly and pro-
duces so much more heat than the endothermic
reaction consumes, the DSC only records the
net heat value. This is an example of the im-
portance of using combined techniques, in this
case comparing the TGA curve with the DSC

curve, to determine information about the re-
actions that can only be determined from the
DSC. The energy, 1.00 + 0.04 kJ/g, associated
with the formation of carbon dioxide in equa-
tion 3 shows little variation no matter which
atmosphere is used.

Phase Transitions of Ammonium Nitrates

The phase transitions of ammonium nitrate
crystals (analytical reagent, Mallinckrodt, Inc.)
were studied using the DuPont 910 DSC in a
nitrogen atmosphere. Approximately 15 mg of
ammonium nitrate were placed in the alu-
minum sample dish which was then sealed. An
empty sealed aluminum dish was used as a
reference. The ammonium nitrate was heated
(5°C/min) from 25°C to 160°C and then cooled
(1°C/min) back to ambient temperature. The
flow rate of nitrogen gas was 50 ml/min during
the entire run including heating and cooling
processes. The DSC curve for ammonium ni-

10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

Sample: NH4N03

Sizes 16. 1MG

Rates 5/1DEG/MIN Ne
Program Interactive DSC V3.0
16

Sic

Date: 21-Nov-88 Time: 13:24:35
Files TGAAAB. 53 TAA. 01
Operator: CLOSED
Plotted: 17-Feb-89

7: 56: 08

<« Cooling Stage

Heat Flow (mW)

-4

Heating Stage »>

30 40 50 60 70 60

Temperature (°C)

90 100 110 120 130 140
DuPont 1090

Fic. 3. DSC heating and cooling curves for ammonium nitrate in nitrogen.

trate contains a total of 5 peaks, 3 heating and
2 cooling peaks (Fig. 3). The 3 endothermic
peaks have maxima at 55.9°C, 89.4°C, and
131.8°C, respectively. According to Mathews,
Pareonagr and Straveley, the first peak in-
volves the transition of the orthorhombic 2
(phase 4) to the orthorhombic 1 (phase 3) con-
figuration (8, 9). It is proposed by Griffith,
Sharma and Roy that this transition may shift
from 55°C to 32°C, in a wet sample, depending
upon the amount of water in the sample (10,
11). It was also observed that the baseline shift-
ed during heating after the first phase transi-
tion. This suggests that the specific heat of the
sample had possibly been altered by the for-
mation of a metastable phase 3 (12, 18). The
phase transition of phase 3 to phase 2 took place
at the second endothermic peak and is due to
the transition of the orthorhombic 1 form to
the tetragonal form. It should be pointed out
that whether the 4 > 3 > 2 transformation or
the 4 — 2 transformation takes place has not
been completely determined (10, 11, 12, 13,

14). In this experiment no attempt was made
to justify which transformation actually oc-
curred. The third endothermic peak corre-
sponds to the 2 — 1 phase transition and is due
to the transition of the tetragonal form to the
cubic form. Upon cooling, 2 exothermic peaks
were observed in the DSC curve. There was
no indication of any exothermic process ac-
companying the 3 — 4 transition. Phase 2 ap-
parently transforms directly to phase 4. This
behavior correlates to the large difference in
specific volume between phase 2 (4) and phase
3 (10).

This experiment demonstrates that as heat
is added, the transitions which occur in am-
monium nitrate crystals arise from an orien-
tational disorder (8, 9). For example, the crys-
tals began in an orthorhombic configuration
which is highly specific (8, 9). The crystals then
change to a tetragonal form which has 2 com-
pletely different orientations (8, 9). These 2
orientations allow more freedom of movement
within the lattice compared to the orthorhom-

THERMAL ANALYSIS IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY—Pan, Timmons, and Arnold 1]

TaBLE 1. Transition temperature, enthalpies and entro-
pies of ammonium nitrate.

Transition Temp. (°C) AH (J/g) AS (J/mol K)
4-3 55.9 22.0 onl
37> 2 89.6 15.3 3.4

9 => II 131.89 51.2 10.21

IL = 2 121.39 —50.0 —
2->4 47.0 — 20.1 —

bic form and also allow the molecule to become
more ordered. Ammonium nitrate has, in fact,
12 different orientations in its cubic form and
more degrees of transitional freedom than any
of the other forms observed (8, 9).

The change in entropy (AS) is calculated
using the formula: AS = AH/T, at constant
pressure conditions. Entropy is defined as a
measure of the randomness that exists in a sys-
tem. The cubic system requires the most en-
ergy; therefore, the greatest extent of disorder
is reflected in peak 3 (which is the formation
of the cubic structure). The AS for this tran-
sition was equal to 10.2 J/mol K, compared to
5.16 J/mol K and 8.4 J/mol K for peak 1 and

2, respectively. The transition enthalpies, en-
tropies and reaction temperatures found from
the TGA and DSC curves for ammonium ni-
trate have been compiled in Table 1.

A TGA curve for ammonium nitrate was
also given to students in this experiment to
allow them to use combined techniques, TGA
and DSC when interpreting data. From the
TGA data, it was concluded that no thermal
decomposition (as in calcium oxalate) was ob-
served before the melting point (169°C). The
results from the TG curve provided evidence
that phase transitions are occurring rather than
thermal decomposition.

Enthalpies of Combustion by Calorimetry

This experiment involved the determination
of heat content for a set of coal samples of
different rank by means of calorimetry. Three
different calorimeters were used which re-
quired the application of 2 different measuring
principles (14). To measure the energy ex-
changed, 3 experimental modes of operation
were employed: isoperibol, adiabatic, and

BSc

SUB BITUMINOUS B

Heat Flow (mW)

HIGH VOLATILE
BITUMINOUS A

160 200 240 280 320 360
Temperature (°C)

ANTHRACITE

400 440 480 520 S60 600
DuPont 109

Fic. 4. DSC heating curves for anthracite subbituminous B and high volatile bituminous coal in oxygen.

12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

scanning of the surroundings (15). The calo-
rimeters used were the Parr 1241 and the Leco
AC-300 calorimeters (adiabatic and isoperibol
mode, respectively) which monitor time-de-
pendent temperature differences, and the
DuPont 910 HPDSC (the scanning mode),
which monitors only a local temperature dif-
ference (14). The experimental procedures and
sample preparation for using an adiabatic bomb
calorimeter, an isoperibol bomb calorimeter,
and a HPDSC are specified in ASTM method
D2015, D3286 and in Hassel’s paper (16).

The different modes of operation are char-
acterized by the relationships between the
temperature of the measuring system, Ty, and
the temperature of the surroundings, T, (15).
In the isoperibol mode (15), the temperature
of the measuring system changes by heat ex-
change with the surroundings until an equi-
librium is established. T,, is a function of time
and T, is maintained at a constant value by
an external source. In the adiabatic mode (15),
no heat exchange occurs between the measur-
ing system and the surroundings. In the scan-
ning mode, a twin calorimeter was used (in
contrast to the single calorimeter of both the
isoperibol and adiabatic operations). In such
cases, the temperature of the surroundings re-
mains constant whereas the measuring system,
actually composed of 2 separate measuring sys-
tems, is heated linearly with time (15). Each
of the 2 separate measuring systems has a con-
trolled heater which brings it to a temperature
identical to that of the other measuring system.
The desired heat measurement is obtained from
the difference in energy inputs into the 2 sys-
tems. The HPDSC also enables the operator to
investigate the nature of the substance being
analyzed by providing the thermal history of
the sample. In the case of coal analysis, the 2
peaks seen on the thermalgram (Fig. 4) cor-
respond to the heat loss associated with the
combustion of aliphatic (the first peak) and
aromatic (the second peak) portions of the coal.
The data gave some indication of the relative
structure of the coal (aliphatic versus aro-
matic).

Overall, Western Kentucky University’s
Physical Chemistry laboratory offers an in-
depth and challenging approach to the study
of thermal analysis. By providing the necessary

equipment for appropriate comparative stud-
ies, students are provided with hands-on ex-
perience that is invaluable educationally, and
later, professionally. The experimental design
of the laboratory described gives each student
an excellent experience with up-to-date equip-
ment, as well as investigating theoretical laws
and properties that have previously been dis-
cussed in lecture. Exposure, challenge, and in-
sight are the educational advantages and the
student will reap the benefits.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Wendlandt, W. W. 1986. Thermal Methods of
Analysis, 3rd ed. Wiley, New York.

2. Winberly, J. W., A. B. Carel, and D. K. Cabbiness.
1982. Automated method for measuring the thermal deg-
radation of Polyvinyl Chloride. Anal. Lett. 15:89-100.

3. Baker, R. R. 1984. Use of evolved gas analysis in
studying tobacco pyrolysis. Anal. Proc. 21:12-18.

4. Turi, E. A. 1981. Thermal characterization of poly-
meric materials. Academic Press, New York.

5. Serageldin, M. A. and W. P. Pan. 1983. Coal anal-
ysis using thermogravimetry. Thermochim. Acta. 17:1-14.

6. Turi, E. A. 1988. The future of thermal analysis.
Thermochim. Acta. 135:11-17.

7. Earnest, C. M. 1978. Experiments involving ther-
mal methods of analysis for undergraduate chemistry lab-
oratories. J. Chem. Educ. 55:331-335.

8. Mathews, G. P. 1985. Experimental physical chem-
istry. Charendon Press, Oxford.

9. Parsonage, N. B. and L. A. K. Straveley. 1978. Dis-
order in crystals. Charendon Press, Oxford.

10. Griffith, E. J. 1963. Phase transitions of the am-
monium nitrate-magnesium nitrate system. J. Chem. and
Eng. Data. 8:22-25.

11. Sharma, S. K. and H. Roy. 1967. Effect of inor-
ganic additives on the phase transition (IV = III) of am-
monium nitrate. Technology 4:3-6.

12. Langfelderova, H. 1982. Study of the influence of
experimental conditions on the DSC curve of ammonium
nitrate (20-140°C). Thermochim. Acta. 56:358-359.

13. Konkoly-Thege, I. 1977. Phase transformation of
ammonium nitrate by thermal factors and inoculation. J.
Therm. Anal. 12:197-205.

14. Dellien, I. 1982. DSC study of the phase trans-
formations of ammonium nitrate. Thermochim. Acta. 55:
181-191.

15. Hemmington, W. G. and E. Hohne. 1984. Calo-
rimetry: fundamentals and practice. Weinheim, Dearfield
Beach, Florida.

16. Hassel, R. L. 1973. Heat content of coal. DuPont
thermal analysis application brief. TA-55.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 13-16

Factors Affecting Amphibian Use of Road-rut Ponds in
Daniel Boone National Forest

MICHAEL D. ADAM AND MICHAEL J. LACKI

Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT

Road-rut ponds are being established throughout much of Daniel Boone National Forest (DBNF), Kentucky,
to promote breeding habitat for forest-dwelling amphibians. However, quantitative data are lacking on
species use and habitat features associated with ponds preferred as breeding sites. We surveyed 106 road-
rut ponds in DBNF, April 1992. Eight amphibian species were observed using ponds. Discriminant function
analysis (DFA) demonstrated pond selection by amphibians to be significantly different from random (P <
0.0001). Pond use was positively related to surface area and depth, with surface area loading as the most
important variable. The DFA model assigned ponds into use categories significantly better than chance (P
< 0.005), but was less effective with an independent data set (P > 0.05). Road-rut ponds are potentially

important habitat for forest-dwelling amphibians.

INTRODUCTION

Many species of amphibians use woodland
ponds for breeding, feeding, and residing. His-
torically, amphibians in eastern Kentucky
probably utilized natural ponds created by large
uprooted trees or by the damming of tribu-
taries by large fallen trees (J. R. MacGregor,
US. For. Serv., Daniel Boone Natl. For., pers.
comm.). With large trees uprooting less fre-
quently in mature woodlands, particularly on
public lands managed under multiple-use sys-
tems, amphibians must find alternative sources
of water to complete their reproductive cycles.
Road-rut ponds are common throughout Dan-
iel Boone National Forest (DBNF), Kentucky,
due to old dirt or gravel roads left behind fol-
lowing completion of timber harvests. Ruts left
by vehicle traffic become filled with water,
producing both temporary and semi-perma-
nent bodies of water.

Data bases identifying habitat requirements
of amphibians have been slow to develop (1).
This is especially disconcerting given the ap-
parent decline in amphibian populations
worldwide (2, 3, 4). To date, only one study
has examined the use of road-rut ponds by
forest-dwelling amphibians (5). Because these
ponds may be potentially important in main-
taining viable populations of some amphibian
species, and amphibians are now looked upon
as important biological indicators (6), an as-
sessment of road-rut pond use by amphibians
should aid in the identification of important
habitat features provided by this forest re-
source. By examining a suite of habitat vari-

13

ables for a number of road-rut ponds, we tested
the null hypothesis that pond preference by
amphibians was independent of pond dimen-
sions and properties.

StupDy AREA AND METHODS

The study area was located in the Stanton
Ranger District of DBNF in Lee and Wolfe
counties, Kentucky. The DBNF encompasses
over 271,000 ha and is located adjacent to the
Cumberland Escarpment, within the Cum-
berland Plateau physiographic region (7).
Mixed mesophytic forest covers much of DBNF
(8), with timber management implemented
throughout the forest (9).

Road-rut ponds were surveyed from 8 to 21
April 1992. Data were collected on 106 ponds,
with the data partitioned into 70 (Wolfe Coun-
ty) and 36 (Lee County) ponds for model de-
velopment and validation, respectively. All
ponds were located on old logging roads which
received little vehicular traffic. A series of hab-
itat variables was measured at each pond, in-
cluding: length (m), width (m), depth (m), dis-
tance to other ponds (<5 m, 5-10 m, >10 m),
detrital coverage of pond subsurface (%), and
water clarity (1 = clear, 2 = cloudy, 3 = mur-
ky). Length and width were used to calculate
pond surface area (m7).

All amphibian species within a pond were
recorded, with use determined by the presence
of egg masses, larvae, or adults. Ponds were
assigned to 1 of 3 use categories for analysis:
(1) no species present, (2) only 1 species pres-
ent, and (3) multiple (=2) species present. Each

14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

TaBLE1. Frequency of occurrence for amphibian species
found in road-rut ponds in DBNF, Kentucky, 1992.

Frequency of occurrence
(No. ponds)

Species Wolfe County Lee County

Spotted salamander

Ambystoma maculatum 4] 14
Four-toed salamander

Hemidactylium scutatum 4 0
Red-spotted newt

Notophthalmus viridescens V7 6
American toad

Bufo americanus 1 0
Fowler’s toad

Bufo woodhousei fowleri 0 il
Mountain chorus frog

Pseudacris brachyphona 25 13
Pickerel frog

Rana palustris 0 1
Wood frog

Rana sylvatica 28 iby

pond was a separate location and no pond was
surveyed more than once to assess use.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and
principal component analysis (PCA) were used
initially to identify important habitat vari-
ables. The PCA was run on the correlation
matrix because of the different units of mea-
sure among the variables examined (10). Nat-
ural log transformations were applied to vari-
ables where homogeneity of variance
assumptions were not met. Detrital coverage
was arcsine transformed to correct for depar-
tures from normality. Multicollinearity effects
were examined using regression analysis, with
a variance inflation factor (VIF) of <3 re-
quired to retain variables for model develop-
ment.

Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was
used to construct and evaluate the model pre-
dicting amphibian pond use from among the
categories of use delineated above. The as-
sumption of homogeneity of covariance ma-

trices was tested (11). Standardized canonical
coefficients were obtained for variables using
canonical discriminant analysis. Classification
outcomes were generated with DFA and tested
using Cohen’s kappa statistic (12). The model
was validated using the independent data set
from Lee County, by producing classification
outcomes of the independent data and eval-
uating these with a kappa statistic test. All sta-
tistical analyses were run on PC SAS programs
(13).

RESULTS

Eight species of amphibians used road-rut
ponds with Ambystoma maculatum, Rana syl-
vatica, Pseudacris brachyphona, and Notoph-
thalmus viridescens occurring most frequently
(Table 1). Differentiation between egg masses
of the Jefferson salamander (A. jeffersonian-
um) and the spotted salamander (A. macula-
tum) was not possible in the field, so these
species were pooled into A. maculatum since
it is the more common species in eastern Ken-
tucky (J. R. MacGregor, U.S. For. Serv., DBNF,
pers. comm.). For Wolfe County, ponds in-
habited by multiple species were most com-
mon (54%), with single species (28%) and emp-
ty ponds (23%) observed less frequently. Data
for Lee County showed a more equitable dis-
tribution among groups, with multiple-species
ponds still most common (44%) and single spe-
cies (22%) and empty ponds (33%) present to
a lesser extent.

Significant variation among road-rut pond
use categories was found with ANOVA for the
variables surface area, depth, and detrital coy-
erage (Table 2). Four variables loaded heavily
on the first principal component, including the
above 3 and water clarity. This component
accounted for 41.7% of the variation present
in the data set. No variable was found with a
VIF = 3, indicating multicollinearity to be
absent.

TABLE 2. Univariate significance level, PCA loading, variance inflation factor (VIF), and standardized canonical
coefficient (SC) for variables used in discriminating road-rut pond use groups, DBNF, Kentucky, 1992.

Variable P-value PCA loading VIF SC
Surface area 0.0001 0.546 1.54 1.039
Depth 0.0005 0.554 1.56 0.538
Detrital coverage 0.0548 —0.413 1.16 —0.152
Water clarity 0.4514 0.441 1.26 — 0.806

AMPHIBIAN UsE OF Roap-RutT Ponps—Adam and Lacki 15

The DFA model showed road-rut pond use
by amphibians to be significantly different from
random (Wilk’s Lambda = 0.54, F = 5.83, P
< 0.0001), with group means on the canonical
axis demonstrating multispecies ponds (0.79)
to be separate from single species (— 0.85) and
empty ponds (— 1.08). Size of standardized ca-
nonical coefficients suggested surface area to
be the most significant variable for distinguish-
ing among road-rut pond use groups, with
depth and water clarity also contributing to
group separation (Table 2). Use of road-rut
ponds was positively related with surface area,
depth, and water clarity, and negatively as-
sociated with detrital coverage (Table 3). Wa-
ter clarity and detrital coverage exhibited in-
consistent patterns, being significant for some
procedures but not others (Table 2), restricting
interpretations based on these 2 variables.

The test of homogeneity of within covari-
ance matrices was not significant (x? = 13.5,
P > 0.05), so a pooled matrix was used for
classification of observations among pond use
groups. Classification outcomes for the obser-
vations used to develop the model demonstrat-
ed an assignment to road-rut pond use groups
significantly better than chance (K = 0.32, Z
= 3.02, P < 0.005). However, when validated
with the independent data from Lee County,
the model was unable to provide a significant
improvement in classification (K = 0.07, Z =
0.50, P > 0.05). The most efficient assignments
of observations occurred for the multiple-spe-
cies use group with both data sets (Table 4).

DIsCUSSION

Surface area, depth and, to a lesser degree,
water clarity were important features for the
selection of road-rut ponds by amphibians in
DBNF. In general, ponds in which multiple
species were found were larger in area, deeper,
and had better water clarity than ponds not
used, or used by only 1 species. Area appeared
to be the most important factor in pond usage.
This pattern makes intuitive sense, as larger,
deeper ponds would be expected to support
more individuals and species. Further, larger
ponds are also less likely to dry up before egg
maturation, increasing the likelihood of suc-
cessful reproduction (14). Shallower ponds were
probably used when availability of larger ponds
was limited in relation to the spatial distribu-
tion of species.

TABLE 3. Means and standard deviations (SD) for vari-
ables used in discriminating road-rut pond use groups,
DBNF, Kentucky, 1992. Units of measure for variables
are outlined in the text. Sample sizes are in parentheses.

Pond-use

group Variable Mean SD

No species Surface area 4.66 10.0
(n = 16) Depth 0.10 0.04
Detrital coverage 0.65 0.26
Clarity 188 0.81
Single species Surface area 2.42 2.81
(n = 16) Depth 0.09 0.03
Detrital coverage 0.75 0.18
Clarity 1.56 0.63

=2 species Surface area 116 813.9
(n = 88) Depth 0.13 0.04
Detrital coverage 0.62 0.18
Clarity 1.60 0.68

These data suggest that road-rut ponds were
an important habitat component for amphib-
ians in DBNF. Isolated ponds have been found
to be important for sustaining amphibians in
other ecosystems (14, 15, 16, 17). Continued
maintenance and/or development of road-rut
ponds in DBNF is recommended, although
better information is needed on the impor-
tance of spatial distribution among ponds, and
the link between pond use and actual repro-
ductive success, e.g., eggs tracked to adult am-
phibians, needs to be verified. Limiting the
volume of vehicular traffic on these roads in
DBNF during late winter-early spring should
improve the chance of success for spring-
breeding amphibians in these localities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank J. R. MacGregor, U. S. For. Serv.,
DBNF, for logistic advice and assistance with
the identification of egg masses. This study was
funded by the Department of Forestry, Uni-

TaBLE 4. Road-rut pond classification outcomes for DFA
model determining amphibian use of road-rut ponds,
DBNF, Kentucky, 1992.

Assigned correctly (%)
Data set No species Single species 22 species

Model development

(n = 70) 31.3 25.0 89.5
Model validation
(n = 36) 33.3 0.0 75.0

16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

versity of Kentucky. This investigation (No.
92-8-136) is connected with a project of the
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and
is published with the approval of the Director.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Gibbons, J. W. 1988. The management of amphib-
ians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America: the
need for an environmental attitude adjustment. Pp. 4-10.
In R. C. Szaro, K. E. Severson, and D. R. Patton (eds.)
Management of amphibians, reptiles, and small mammals
in North America. Proc. of the Symposium, USDA For.
Serv., Tech. Rep. RM-166.

2. Barinaga, M. 1990. Where have all the froggies
gone? Science 247:1033-1034.

3. Phillips, K. 1990. Where have all the frogs and
toads gone? BioScience 40:422-424.

4, Wyman, R. L. 1990. What’s happening to the am-
phibians? Conserv. Biol. 4:350-352.

5. MacGregor, J. R. 1992. Species of amphibians (and
a few other taxa) found using road rut ponds on DBNF.
Daniel Boone National Forest, USDA For. Serv., Berea,
Kentucky.

6. Beiswenger, R. E. 1988. Integrating anuran am-
phibian species into environmental assessment programs.
Pp. 159-165. In R. C. Szaro, K. E. Severson, and D. R.
Patton (eds.) Management of amphibians, reptiles, and
small mammals in North America. Proc. of the Sympo-
sium, USDA For. Serv., Tech. Rep. RM-166.

7. McGrain, P. 1983. The geologic story of Kentucky.
Kentucky Geol. Survey, Univ. Kentucky, Lexington, Spe-
cial Publ. 8, Series XI.

8. Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern
North America. Hafner, New York, New York.

9. Daniel Boone National Forest. 1991. The Daniel

Boone National Forest Kentucky. Gen. Rep. to the Public
for 1990, Southern Region, USDA For. Serv., Winchester,
Kentucky.

10. Rexstad, E. A., D. D. Miller, C. H. Flather, E. M.
Anderson, J. W. Hupp, and D. R. Anderson. 1988. Ques-
tionable multivariate statistical inference in wildlife hab-
itat and community studies. J. Wild]. Manage. 52:794-
798.

11. Morrison, D. F. 1976. Multivariate statistical
methods. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.

12. Titus, K. J., A. Mosher, and B. K. Williams. 1984.
Chance-corrected classification for use in discriminant
analysis: ecological applications. Amer. Midl. Nat. 111:1-7.

13. SAS Institute Inc. 1988. SAS/STAT User’s Guide,
Release 6.03 Edition. Cary, North Carolina.

14. Semlitsch, R. D. 1987. Relationship of pond dry-
ing to the reproductive success of the salamander Am-
bystoma talpoideum. Copeia 1987:61-69.

15. Sexton, O. J., and C. Phillips. 1986. A qualitative
study of fish-amphibian interactions in 3 Missouri ponds.
Trans. Missouri Acad. Sci. 20:25-35.

16. Dodd, C. K., Jr. and B. G. Charest. 1988. The
herpetofaunal community of temporary ponds in North
Florida Sandhills: species composition, temporal use, and
management implications. Pp. 87-97. In R. C. Szaro, K.
E. Severson, and D. R. Patton (eds.) Management of am-
phibians, reptiles, and small mammals in North America.
Proc. of the Symposium, USDA For. Serv., Tech. Rep.
RM-166.

17. Moler, P. E., and R. Franz. 1988. Wildlife values
of small, isolated wetlands in the southeastern coastal plain.
Pp. 234-241. In R. R. Odom, K. A. Riddleberger, and J.
C. Ozier (eds.) Proceedings of the third southeastern non-
game and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Dept.
Nat. Resour., Athens, Georgia.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 17-21

A Simple Method for Isolating Soybean
(Glycine max L. Merr.) cv. Fayette Regenerates of
Parental Genotypes

M. M. RAHMAN

Plant & Soil Science, Community Research Services, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Immature embryos of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cv. Fayette were used with the objective of
isolating regenerates of parental genotypes from embryogenic calli cultures. Immature embryos of field-
grown soybeans were placed onto a basic medium supplemented with various concentrations of
6-benzylaminopurine, indole-3-butyric acid, a-naphthaleneacetic acid, kinetin and indole-3-acetic acid. All
media induced organogenesis with varying degree. Fully developed plantlets were planted in the field and
their mature seeds were harvested. Cytological examination of the progenies of regenerates had varying
number of chromosomes. Morphologically, there were no observable differences between the control plants

and the surviving progenies of the regenerates.

INTRODUCTION

Much effort has been devoted to soybean
(Glycine max (L.) Merr.) tissue culture to
achieve in vitro plant regeneration (1). There
are recent reports of in vitro plant regeneration
in which multi-media manipulations, in con-
junction with various growth hormones, were
needed for shoot and root development (1, 2,
3).
Although both somatic and embryogenic
plant cells contain identical genetic informa-
tion, genetic instability is normal in plants gen-
erated in vitro (4, 5). With 1 or 2 exceptions
(6, 7), these variabilities are neither novel nor
useful for agricultural crops (8).

Unlike Datura stramonium L. (9) and Ni-
cotiana sylvestris L. (10), the trisomic, double
trisomic, etc. plants in soybean are morpho-
logically indistinguishable from their disomic
sibs (11, 12). Therefore, cytological examina-
tion of the chromosomes is needed to differ-
entiate between euploidy and aneuploidy re-
generates of soybean.

This study describes a simple procedure to
regenerate a large number of soybean plants
of parental genotype from immature embryos
without multi-media manipulation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Media.—A basic medium (13) supplement-
ed with 1.0-5.0 mg liter~! 6-benzylaminopu-
rine (BAP), 0.2-1.0 mg liter~! indole-3-butyric
acid (IBA), 0.5-1.0 mg liter~! indole-3-acetic

17

acid (IAA), 0.2-1.0 mg liter~! kinetin (Kn), and
0.5-1.0 mg liter! a-naphthaleneacetic acid
(NAA) in various combinations was used. The
pH was adjusted to 5.8 before autoclaving for
15 minutes at 1 kg cm~?. Twentyfive ml of
media were poured into 20 x 100 mm ster-
ilized plastic Petri dishes.

Plant Materials.—About 4-5 mm long, im-
mature soybean embryos of cv. Fayette were
extracted from surface sterilized pods of field-
grown plants and transferred to the Petri dishes
containing various culture media. For each
treatment there were 25 Petri dishes. Each
Petri dish contained 2 immature embryos.

After 6 to 7 weeks calli obtained from these
immature embryos were transferred to the
same respective media. The cultures were in-
cubated at 26 + 1°C with 16 h of light (68
uMol s~! m~2 PAR) supplied with Vitalite
(Dura Test Corporation) and 8h of darkness.
This experiment was repeated 3 times.

Regenerates. After 6 weeks in the freshly
prepared media (14), the calli began to show
signs of organogenesis. The number of plant-
lets differentiated from those calli varied from
1 to 11 (Fig. 1). When the plantlets were ap-
proximately 2 cm tall, they were carefully sep-
arated from the calli and transferred to sepa-
rate plastic culture vessels containing 50 ml of
fresh identical medium. After reaching about
8-10 cm in length, the regenerates were trans-
ferred to plastic pots containing regular green-
house potting mixture (Promix). The plantlets
were covered with transparent plastic bags to

18 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

Fic. 1.

maintain high humidity. The plantlets were
grown in growth chambers under the same
temperature and light conditions as that of
immature embryo culture, and watered as
needed. After 3 weeks, the plastic bags were
removed. After 4 weeks the regenerates were
transplanted to the field (mid July). The plants
were spaced 20 cm apart with 60 cm between
rows. The plantlets were grown to maturity,
and the resulting seeds were collected from
individual plants for next year’s plantings.
Cytogenetics.—Fifteen seeds from each of
3 randomly selected regenerates from each
treatment were used to study the changes in
number and/or aberration of chromosomes in
the harvested plants. The seeds were germi-
nated, and roots were fixed, squashed and
stained (15). Three to 4 cells from each root
sample were examined microscopically.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results presented here include means of
the pooled data of 3 experiments.

Table 1 summarizes the percentage of shoot
and root differentiation from calli cultured in
media supplemented with various combina-

Root and shoot differentiation from soybean calli. Embryoid marked with arrow.

tions and concentrations of plant growth hor-
mones. It has been reported that various con-
centrations of BAP stimulated shoot
differentiation (15) and IBA alone induced
rooting (2). In the present study, the BAP and
IBA combination was found to be superior in
inducing shoot as well as root differentiation.
Regardless of the concentration of IBA, the
calli in the media containing 5.0 mg~! BAP
did not show any response (Table 1), and began
to degenerate within 2-3 weeks. This suggest-
ed toxicity of BAP at this concentration.

In a previous study, high concentrations of
NAA (21.4 uM-60.0 uM) stimulated embryo-
genesis (16). In the present study, however,
NAA, in combination with Kn, induced shoot
and root differentiation (Table 1). The auxin,
IAA, is known to cause embryogenesis (16) and
induce shoot development (17). The auxin, IAA
and Kn in all concentrations induced root and
shoot differentiation, but the extent was quite
limited (Table 1).

The number of chromosomes counted in the
progenies of regenerates is presented in Table
2. Thirty six per cent of the mitotic cells had
varying number of chromosomes, ranging from

=

Fic. 2. Mitotic chromosomes of soybean seedlings. (a) Normal chromosome complement: (control) 2n = 40 (x 1,800).
Chromosome number of regenerates: (b) Normal chromosome number, 40 (x 1,800); (c) Irregular chromosome number,
36 (x 1,800); (d) Irregular chromosome number, 27 (x 1,800); (e) Irregular chromosome number, 19 (x 1,800).

20 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

TABLE 1. Root and shoot differentiation from immature
embryos of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) cv. Fayette
calli.

cent Percent
calli calli Percent
with with calli Mean number
Treatments root shoot with root shoots & roots/
(mg~') only only & shoot callus & SE
BAP IBA
1.0 0.2 32.00 48.67 19.338 8.69 + 0.43 c*
1.0 0.5 26.66 22.00 48.67 6.87 + 0.31b
1.0 10 19.33 27.388 53.33 816 +0.14a
2.0 0.2 38.00 45.33 16.67 6382 + 0.46b
2.0 0.5 $1.83 46.67 2400 417 + 0.22c
2.0 10 38267 48.00 19.33 428 + 0.4lc
5.0 0.2 0 0 0 0
5.0 0.5 0 0 0 0
5.0 1.0 0 0 0 0
NAA _ Kn
0.5 10 15.33 1400 0 0
1.0 10 20.67 12.67 0 0
IAA Kn
0.5 0.2 45.33 38.67 15.33 369 + 0.4le¢
0.5 0.5 65.33 17.33 16.00 3.67 +0.3le
0.5 10 59.33 26.67 14.00 3.62 + 0.49¢
1.0 0.2 36.67 4400 12.67 409 + 0.44¢
1.0 0.5 36.67 36.67 12.00 389+ 0.39¢
1.0 10 4400 32.67 1400 362+ 0.49¢c

* According to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test means with same letters are
not significantly different among themselves.

19 to 37, and 64 per cent of the cells underwent
normal meiosis (2n = 40) (Fig. 2). In vitro
regenerates display genetic instability (5) and
these are exhibited by the progenies (8). Since
regenerates with chromosomal irregularities

TaBLE 2. Number of chromosomes observed in the root
tips of the progenies of soybean (cv. Fayette) regenerates.

Number of chromosomes Number
Treatments of cells
(mg!) 10-20 21-25 26-39 40-40 >40 observed
BAP + IBA
OR en Ol2: 3 45 2 95 0 145
1.0 + 0.5 i) 17 4 1138 0 139
1.0 + 1.0 5 3 1 175 0 184
2.0 + 0.2 iil 8 7 132 0 154
2.0 + 0.5 iL 16 8 117 0 153
2.0 + 1.0 16 19 21 132 0 188
IAA + Kn
0.5 + 0.2 29 32 29 73 0 163
0.5 + 0.5 19 30 27 79 0 155
Os) se ILO PNT 23 18 73 0 14]
1.0 + 0.2 19 37 16 78 0 152
1.0 + 0.5 40 39 18 60 0 157
1.0 + 1.0 27 31 16 79 0 153
Total 208 300 167 #8 1,206 QO 1,881

would not reach maturity (8), these chromo-
somal aberrations were of no consequence.

Moreover, in 2 years of field trials no no-
ticeable morphological differences between the
control plants and regenerates were oberved
(unpublished data). The soybean is an obli-
gately self-pollinated crop. Therefore, any gross
morphological mutations would be expressed
within the progeny. Since there were no ob-
servable morphological differences, these re-
generates may be assumed to be of parental
genotypes.

The method outlined here is a simple pro-
cedure which may be used to obtain a large
number of regenerates of parental genotypes
without multi-media manipulation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was supported by the USDA
Cooperative State Research Service grant to
Kentucky State University under agreement
KYX10-90-12P. Administrative support of Drs.
H. R. Benson and R. J. Barney is thankfully
acknowledged. Mention of a trade name does
not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the
product by Kentucky State University and
USDA/CSRS and does not imply approval to
the exclusion of other products that may also
be suitable.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Hildebrand, D. F., G. C. Phillips, and G. B. Collins.
1985. Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.). Pp. 283-308. In
Y. P. S. Bajaj (ed.) Biotechnology in agriculture and for-
estry 2. Crop I. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

2. Mante, S., R. Scorza, and J. Cordts. 1989. A simple,
rapid protocol for adventitious shoot development from
mature cotyledons of Glycine max cv. Bragg. In Vitro Cell
Develop. Biol. 25:385-388.

3. Wright, M. S., S. M. Koehler, M. A. Hinchee, and
M. G. Carnes. 1986. Plant regeneration by organogenesis
in Glycine max. Plant Cell Rep. 5:150-154.

4. Bennici, A. and F. D'Amato. 1978. In vitro regen-
eration of Durum wheat plants 1. Chromosome numbers
of regenerated plantlets. Z. Pflanzenzuchtg. 81:305-311.

5. D'Amato, F. 1985. Cytogenetics of plant cell and
tissue cultures and their regenerates. CRC Crit. Rev. Plant
Sci. 3:73-112.

6. Scowcraft, W. R. and P. J. Larkin. 1982. Soma-
clonal variation: a new option for plant improvement. Pp.
159-178. In I. K. Vasil, W. R. Scowcraft, and K. J. Frey
(eds.) Plant improvement and somatic cell genetics. Aca-
demic Press, New York.

7. Krishnamurthi, M. 1982. Disease resistance in sug-

ISOLATING SOYBEAN PARENTAL GENOTYPES—Rahman 2]

arcane developed through tissue culture. Pp. 160-168. In
A. Fujiwara (ed.) Plant tissue culture. Jap. Assoc. Plant
Tissue Culture. Tokyo.

8. Vasil, I. K. 1988. Progress in the regeneration and
genetic manipulation of cereal crops. Biotech. 6:397—402.

9. Blakeslee, A. F. 1922. Variation in Datura due to
changes in chromosome number. Am. Nat. 56:16-31.

10. Goodspeed, T. H. and P. Avery. 1939. Trisomic
and other types in Nicotiana sylvestris. Genetics. 36:381-
458.

11. Palmer, R. G. 1976. Chromosome transmission
and morphology of three primary trisomics of soybean
(Glycine max). Canadian J. Genetics. 18:131-140.

12. Gwyn, J.J.and R. G. Palmer. 1989. Morphological
discrimination among some aneuploids of soybean (Gly-
cine max (L.) Merr.): 2. Double trisomics, tetrasomics. J.
Hered. 80:209-213.

13. Phillips, G. C. and G. B. Collins. 1980. Somatic
embryogenesis from cell suspension cultures of red clover.
Crop Sci. 19:323-826.

14. Palmer, R. G. and H. Heer. 1973. A root tip squash
technique for soybean chromosomes. Crop Sci. 13:389-
391.

15. Wright, M. S., D. V. Ward, M. A. Honchee, M. G.
Barnes, and R. J. Kaufmann. 1987. Regeneration of soy-
bean (Glycine max L. Merr.) primary leaf tissue. Plant
Cell Rept. 6:83-89.

16. Barwale, U. B., H. R. Kerns, and J. M. Widholm.
1986. Plant regeneration from callus of several soybean
genotypes via embryogenesis and organogenesis. Planta
167:473-481.

17. Widholm, J. M. and S. Rick. 1983. Shoot regen-
eration from Glycine canescens tissue cultures. Plant Cell
Rep. 2:19-20.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 22-27

Seasonal Changes in Abundance of Kentucky Cottontails

WILLIAM M. GIULIANO! AND CHARLES L. ELLIOTT

Wildlife Program, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

AND

JEFFERY D. SOLE

Upland Game Program, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

The pellet-plot technique and spotlight surveys were employed to estimate seasonal changes in cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) abundance on 5 wildlife management areas in Kentucky, from 20 November
1988 to 20 November 1989. Rabbit populations ranged from 0.2 to 6.0 rabbits per hectare, and fluctuated
seasonally, possibly due to dispersal and changes in reproductive performance. Local rabbit populations may
be limited by the amount of preferred rabbit habitat available, frequency of harassment, and the effects of
an endophyte-infected tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) diet.

INTRODUCTION

In Kentucky, as well as much of the rest of
North America, the eastern cottontail (Sylvila-
gus floridanus) is pursued by thousands of
sportsmen each year (1, 2, 3). However, cot-
tontail numbers appear to be declining
throughout a large part of their range (1, 4,
5), including Kentucky (6). These declines ap-
pear to be due to changes in land-use. How-
ever, other human related activities may also
be important (5, 7).

The objective of this study was to determine
and compare the seasonal changes in abun-
dance of cottontail rabbits on 5 wildlife man-
agement areas (WMAs) in Kentucky.

METHODS

The study was conducted on 5 WMAs op-
erated by the Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources: Central Kentucky
WMA (CKWMA; Madison County), Clay
WMA (CWMA; Nicholas County), Yellow-
banks WMA (YWMA,; Breckinridge County),
Taylorsville Lake WMA (TLWMA; Spencer
County), and Lloyd WMA (LWMA; Grant
County). The WMaAs consisted of a mosaic of
hardwood forests, agricultural fields typically

' Present address: Department of Range and Wildlife
Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas
79409.

22

planted in corn (Zea mays) or sunflowers (He-
lianthus spp.), fencerows, and fields of various
plant successional stages (7).

Population levels at each WMA were de-
termined using the pellet-plot technique (8) in
conjunction with an average daily cottontail
rabbit defecation rate of 350 + 4.5 pellets/
rabbit/day (9). Two hundred, 1 m? plots,
marked with wooden surveyors stakes, were
placed 10 m apart along randomly located
transects running through all major habitat
types (forests, agricultural fields, fencerows, and
regenerating fields) at each WMA. Fecal pel-
lets were counted and removed from plots ev-
ery 4-to-8 weeks between 20 November 1988
and 20 November 1989, to determine seasonal
changes in population levels at each WMA.

Roadside spotlight surveys (10, 11) were
conducted every 4-to-8 weeks at each WMA
to determine relative abundance of rabbits
among seasons and WMaAs. These surveys were
conducted by driving a set route through each
WMA starting approximately % hour after
sunset, and counting the number of rabbits
seen per km driven.

RESULTS

Cottontail rabbit density estimates, based on
pellet-plot analysis, were determined for each
WMA from January to November 1989. These
values were combined to determine mean den-
sities for all WMAs over the same period (Fig.

COTTONTAIL RABBITS IN KENTUCKY—Giuliano, Elliott, and Sole 23

5 oO

7)

RABBITS PER HECTARE

MAY

JUL SEP NOV

1989

= CKWMA + YWMA * TLWMA * CWMA *<LWMA ~* MEAN

Fic. 1.

Seasonal changes in cottontail rabbit density on Central Kentucky Wildlife Management Area (CKWMA),

Clay (CWMA), Yellowbanks (YWMA), Taylorsville Lake (TLWMA), and Lloyd Wildlife Management Areas (LWMA),

and mean based on pellet-plot surveys.

1). Wide seasonal fluctuations in density were
observed. Average annual rabbit densities
(+range) were: CKWMA = 2.13 + 0.08;
CWMA = 2.45 + 0.03; YWMA = 3.12 + 0.04;
TLWMA = 2.92 + 0.04; LWMA = 1.50 +
0.02; and mean = 2.42 + 0.04 rabbits/ha, re-
spectively.

Based on the Friedman Rank Sums Test (12),
Lloyd WMA had a significantly lower mean
annual rabbit density (P < 0.01) than both
YWMA and TLWMA. Differences in rabbit
densities were not significant (P > 0.05) be-
tween other WMAs.

Seasonal indices of rabbit abundance were
determined at each WMA using spotlight sur-
veys from January to November 1989. These
values were combined to generate a mean in-
dex for all WMAs (Fig. 2). Wide fluctuations
in abundance were observed among seasons at
all WMAs. Average annual rabbit indices (rab-

bits seen per km + SD) were: CKWMA = 0.40
+ 0.34; CWMA = 0.38 + 0.32; YWMA = 0.66
+ 0.38; TLWMA = 0.30 + 0.35; LWMA =
0.21 + 0.26; and mean = 0.39 + 0.21.

Comparing the 2 methods, similar seasonal
trends in rabbit abundance were observed us-
ing both the pellet plot (Fig. 1) and spotlight
survey (Fig. 2) data.

DISCUSSION

Rabbit densities in the study areas ranged
from 0.2 to 6.0 rabbits per ha; seasonal fluc-
tuations in abundance were evident from both
the pellet plot and spotlight survey data (Figs.
1, 2). Both techniques indicated a low in rabbit
populations during February-March, increas-
ing to a peak in July-September. Based upon
the life-history of cottontails, this trend was
expected. Cottontail populations on the WMAs
were generally lowest in late-winter, the season

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

RABBITS SEEN PER KILOMETER

0
JAN

MAR

MAY
1989

JUL SEP NOV

— CKWMA + YWMA * TLWMA * CWMA *<~LWMA * MEAN

Fic. 2. Relative cottontail rabbit abundance on Central Kentucky Wildlife Management Area (CKWMA), Clay
(CWMA), Yellowbanks (YWMA), Taylorsville Lake (TLWMA), and Lloyd Wildlife Management Areas (LWMA), and

mean based on spotlight surveys.

when rabbits exhibit high mortality rates. Mor-
tality in cottontail populations at this time ap-
pears to be primarily due to harvest, predation,
and exposure to adverse climatic conditions
(1). This mortality, coupled with a lack of re-
productive activity (13), generally leaves the
population at its lowest annual level. From
March-July, populations on all WMAs in-
creased sharply. This was the result of the onset
of reproductive activity and more favorable
climatic conditions (1, 7, 13).

The cottontail populations peaked in July-
September on the study areas, and then began
to decline. This may have been due to a variety
of factors. While cottontails in the southeast
will breed through October or November (14),
the number of litters produced per female and
the number of offspring per litter begin to de-
cline after July-August (13, 15, 16). Bittner
and Chapman (17) concluded that reproduc-
tive performance in cottontails was a function

of density, i.e., as population levels increase
reproductive performance declines. Dispersal
by young animals also appears to be an im-
portant factor regulating population levels (1,
18, 19), as is the availability of succulent veg-
etation (20).

McWherter (21) reported densities of 1.68
rabbits per ha during March; 2.08 rabbits per
ha in August; and 2.64 rabbits per ha in De-
cember at Land Between the Lakes in Stewart
County, Tennessee, just a few km south of the
Kentucky border. Chapman et al. (1), in a re-
view of published cottontail research, reported
rabbit densities as high as 20 per hectare, al-
though densities were typically lower. Density
estimates from this study (Fig. 1) fall within
the range described by Chapman et al. (1).
Comparisons to other studies in Kentucky were
not possible because of a lack of comparable
density data.

The spotlight surveys (Fig. 2) and the pellet-

CoTTONTAIL RABBITS IN KENTUCKY—Giuliano, Elliott, and Sole 25

plot technique (Fig. 2) showed similar seasonal
trends in population levels. However, there
were inconsistencies in density estimates ob-
tained. These differences were postulated to
be due to problems associated with each tech-
nique.

Problems associated with the pellet-plot
technique are typically due to fecal pellets de-
grading or being lost, and, thus, not counted
(22). Degradation and loss of pellets is facili-
tated by rain, humidity (28, 24), and destruc-
tion by invertebrates (25). Other pellet-plot
problems arise from clumped distributions of
pellets and variable defecation rates (26). Be-
cause of these potential sources of error, the
density estimates obtained using the pellet-plot
technique were probably conservative.

The variability in population estimates based
on spotlight surveys is primarily due to weath-
er (27). Newman (11) found that increased
wind and moonlight reduced the number of
rabbits observed during roadside counts. Pre-
cipitation and temperature also appear to af-
fect roadside counts (28).

Seasonal fluctuations in rabbit abundance at
each WMA followed similar trends. However,
there were differences in the degree of fluc-
tuation between WMaAs.

In March, CKWMA had the highest relative
rabbit density (Fig. 1), but by July its popu-
lation ranked next to last. The population had
only increased five-fold, as compared to the
rabbit populations at the other WMAs, which
increased at least ten-fold. This did not appear
to be related to habitat quality. Preferred rab-
bit habitat (i-e., old fields and edge) were abun-
dant at Central Kentucky WMA compared to
the other WMAs (7). The change in rabbit
density at the CKWMA may have been the
result of frequent disturbance by dog-training
activities associated with hunting clubs utiliz-
ing the area from late-spring through fall.

Data indicated that LWMA had a signifi-
cantly lower rabbit density (P < 0.01) than
both YWMA and TLWMA (Fig. 1). This may
have been related to the relative amounts of
preferred habitat (ie., old field and edge)
available at each WMA. Only 138.5% of LWMA
was composed of preferred rabbit habitat (7),
while both YWMA and TLWMA consisted of
at least 35.3% preferred habitat. The amount
of endophyte-infected tall fescue (Festuca
arundinacea), a common pasture grass at
LWMaA as well as at all other WMAs, may also

have been impacting (lowering) rabbit popu-
lation levels.

The fungal endophyte (Acremonium ceono-
phialum), which infects much of the tall fescue
within Kentucky (29), has been shown to re-
duce survival and reproductive rates in cot-
tontails as well as many other species (30, 31,
32). Tall fescue comprised approximately 69%
of the food items identified in Kentucky rabbit
diets (7). Frequent dog-training activities may
also be limiting rabbit numbers at LWMA.

Current management practices at each
WMA vary greatly, but all are based on the
multiple use/species concept. Management
practices used on the WMaAs include: selective
cutting, prescribed burning, disking, mowing,
food plots, brushpile construction, and limited
hunter harvest. These practices are used to
maintain or increase habitat types and to reg-
ulate wildlife densities.

Based on habitat availability and current
management practices, rabbit populations
should thrive on the CKWMA. However, pop-
ulation levels remain moderate and may begin
to decline if the rabbits continue to be fre-
quently disturbed by dog-training activities,
particularly during the breeding season.

Increased urbanization and more intensive
agricultural practices can reduce the avail-
ability of suitable rabbit habitat through de-
struction and fragmentation (1, 5). Based on
mail-carrier roadside rabbit counts, Sole (6)
reported that the cottontail population in Ken-
tucky has been declining since 1969. This de-
cline may be due to changes in land-use, as
they relate to rabbit habitat quality. Urban
land in Kentucky has increased 6.0% since 1982
(33). Similar long-term declines have been re-
ported in Illinois (4, 5). These declines appear
to be related to land-use. Urban lands typically
support few rabbits (1, 5) and an increase in
this type of land-use may be detrimental to
rabbit populations in Kentucky. A 1.1% in-
crease in pasturelands, a preferred rabbit hab-
itat, and a decrease of 1.2% in forestlands and
1.9% in croplands (33), generally unfavorable
rabbit habitats, may offset some of the detri-
mental land-use changes occurring within
Kentucky (7).

The data from this one-year study cannot
be related to these findings. A longer-term study
is needed to relate population levels to habitat
availability.

In summary, Kentucky rabbit populations

26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

on 5 WMaAs ranged from 0.2 to 6.0 rabbits per
ha, fluctuating seasonally apparently due to
dispersal and changes in reproductive perfor-
mance. Local rabbit populations may be lim-
ited by the amount of preferred habitat (i-e.,
old fields and edge) available and the fre-
quency of harassment. YWMA and TLWMA
exhibited relatively high rabbit densities, and
under current management schemes should
continue to favor cottontails. CWMA and
CKWMaA had relatively moderate densities.
Both of these WMAs should continue to sup-
port populations at current levels. However,
due to dog-related harassment problems there
is the potential for a rabbit population decline
at the CKWMA. LWMaA exhibited the lowest
relative rabbit density, and under the current
habitat management plan should remain un-
favorable to rabbits.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was funded by Pittman-Robert-
son Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration monies
in cooperation with the Kentucky Department
of Fish and Wildlife Resources, P-R Project
W-45-21, and the Wildlife Program, Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky
University. We thank Steve Bonney, Buford
Clark, Mark Cramer, Jimmy May, Steve
McMillen, Dewey Mullins, Billy Pointer, Paul
Rose, and Marcia Schroder of the Kentucky
Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources,
and Sonny Milby and Gary Roloff of Eastern
Kentucky University for help with data col-
lection.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Chapman, J. A., J. G. Hockman, and W. R. Edwards.
1982. Cottontails. Pages 83-123. In J. A. Chapman and
G. A. Feldhamer (eds.) Wild mammals of North America.
Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, Maryland.

2. Alabama Game and Fish Division. 1987. Compar-
ison of the sixteen member states of the Southeastern As-
sociation of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: hunting seasons,
bag limits, harvest totals and man-days of hunting pressure.
Unpubl. Report.

8. Schaaf, L. E., J. D. Sole, T. Edwards, J. Phillips, M.
Price, and E. Schneider. 1990. Hunter/harvest survey
and deer hunter survey 1989. Kentucky Dept. Fish and
Wildl. Resource. and Urban Res. Inst. Louisville, Kentucky.

4, Bailey, J. A. 1968. Regionwide fluctuations in the
abundance of cottontails. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Nat. Re-
sourc. Conf. 33:265-277.

5. Edwards, W. R., S. P. Havera, R. F. Labisky, J. A.

Ellis, and R. E. Warner. 1981. The abundance of cot-
tontails in relation to agricultural land use in Illinois (U.S.A.)
1956-1978, with comments on mechanism of regulation.
Proc. World Lagomorph Conf. 1:761-789.

6. Sole, J. D. 1990. Quail and rabbit roadside survey.
P-R Proj. W-45-22. Kentucky Dept. Fish and Wildl. Res.

7. Giuliano, W. M. 1990. Food habits, habitat utili-
zation, and abundance of the eastern cottontail rabbit in
Kentucky. M.S. Thesis. Eastern Kentucky Univ., Rich-
mond.

8. White, G. C. and L. E. Eberhardt. 1980. Statistical
analysis of deer and elk pellet-group data. J. Wildl. Man-
age. 44:121-131.

9. Cochran, G. A. and H. J. Stains. 1961. Deposition
and decomposition of fecal pellets by cottontails. J. Wildl.
Manage. 25:432-435.

10. Hendrickson, G. O. 1939. Inventory methods for
Mearns cottontail. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 4:209-215.

11. Newman, D. E. 1959. Factors influencing the win-
ter roadside count of cottontails. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:
290-294.

12. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

13. Chapman, J. A., A. L. Harman, and D. E. Samuel.
1977. Reproductive and physiological cycles in the cot-
tontail complex in western Maryland and nearby West
Virginia. Wildl. Monogr. 56:1-73.

14. Pelton, M. R. and E. E. Provost. 1972. Onset of
breeding and breeding synchrony by Georgia cottontails.
J. Wildl. Manage. 36:544-549.

15. Pelton, M. R. and J. H. Jenkins. 1971. Productivity
of Georgia cottontails. Proc. Ann. Conf. Southeastern As-
soc. Game Fish Comm. 25:261-268.

16. Johnson, L. W. 1973. A model for the synchronous
breeding of the cottontail. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Illinois, Ur-
bana.

17. Bittner, S. L. and J. A. Chapman. 1981. Repro-
ductive and physiological cycles in an island population
of Sylvilagus floridanus. Proc. World Lagomorph Conf.
1:182-208.

18. Howard, W. E. 1960. Innate and environmental
dispersal of individual vertebrates. Am. Mid]. Nat. 63:152-
161.

19. Gibb, J. A. 1977. Factors affecting population den-
sity in the wild rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.), and
their relevance to small mammals. Pages 33-46. In B.
Stonehouse and C. Perrins (eds.) Evolutionary ecology.
Univ. Park Press, Baltimore, Maryland.

20. Ecke, D. H. 1955. The reproductive cycle of the
Mearns cottontail in Illinois. Am. Midl. Nat. 53:294-311.

21. McWherter, G. R. 1991. Estimating abundance
of cottontail rabbits using live trapping and visual surveys.
M.S. Thesis. Univ. Tennessee, Knoxville.

22. Flinders, J. T. and J. A. Crawford. 1977. Com-
position and degradation of jackrabbit and cottontail fecal
pellets, Texas High Plains. J. Range Manage. 30:217-220.

23. Robinette, W. L., R. B. Ferguson, and J. S. Gash-
wiler. 1958. Problems involved in the use of deer pellet
group counts. Trans. N. Am. Wildl. Conf. 23:411-425.

COTTONTAIL RABBITS IN KENTUcKy—Giuliano, Elliott, and Sole 27

24. Wallmo, O. C., A. W. Jackson, T. L. Hailey, and
R. L. Carlisle. 1962. Influence of rain on the count of
deer pellet groups. J. Wildl. Manage. 26:50-55.

25. Lord, R. D. 1963. The cottontail rabbit in Illinois.
Illinois Dept. Conserv. Tech. Bull. 3:1-94.

26. Neff, D.J. 1968. The pellet-group count technique
for big game trend, census, and distribution: a review. J.
Wildl. Manage. 32:597-614.

27. Greathouse, T. E. 1950. Evaluation of census
methods for cottontail rabbits. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Michi-
gan, Ann Arbor.

28. Fafarman, K. R. and R. J. Whyte. 1979. Factors
influencing nighttime roadside counts of cottontail rabbits.
J. Wildl. Manage. 43:765-767.

29. Siegel, M. R., M. C. Johnson, D. R. Varney, W. C.
Nesmith, R. C. Buckner, L. P. Bush, P. B. Burrus, T. A.
Jones, and J. A. Boling. 1984. A fungal endophyte in tall
fescue: incidence and dissemination. Phytopathology 74:
932-936.

30. Sadler, K.C. 1980. Of rabbits and habitat: a long
term look. Pennsylvania Game News 51:4-7.

31. Varney, D. R., M. Ndefru, S. L. Jones, R. Newsome,
M. R. Siegel, and P. M. Zavos. 1987. The effect of feeding
endophyte infected tall fescue seed on reproductive per-
formance in female rats. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 87C:
171-175.

32. Zavos, P. M., D. R. Varney, J. A. Jackson, M. R.
Siegel, L. P. Bush, and R. W. Hemken. 1987. Effect of
feeding fungal endophyte (Acremonium ceonophialum)-
infected tall fescue seed on reproductive performance in
CD-1 mice through continuous breeding. Theriogenology
27:549-559.

33. SCS (Soil Conservation Service). 1990. Kentucky
fact sheet—National Resources Inventory (NRI). U.S.D.A.
Soil Conserv. Serv., Lexington, Kentucky.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 28-29

Note on the Lorentz Transformation

P. L. Corio
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506

ABSTRACT

A simple derivation of the Lorentz transformation is presented. The derivation shows explicitly that the
invariance of the velocity of light is a consequence of the fact that velocities transform projectively.

There have been many derivations of the
Lorentz transformation at various levels of so-
phistication (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). The following
demonstration is based on similar assumptions,
but differs sufficiently in certain details that it
may be of interest.

Consider 2 right-handed coordinate systems
(xyz) and (x’y’z’) with their axes parallel, mov-
ing relative to each other in the positive x-di-
rection with uniform velocity v. We shall as-
sume that the units of measure are the same
in the 2 systems, and that the origins O, O'
coincide at t = t’ = 0, when a spherical light
pulse emanates from their common origin.
Since the speed of light is the same in all ref-
erence systems, the equations of the wave fronts
in the 2 systems at subsequent times are

KOE ONE ct 2 ameat> 0)
Koy Seaz/e = aeete —.0);

(1)
(2)

Assuming that the transformation relating the
primed and unprimed variables is linear, it
follows that the quadratic form in the left-
member of equation (1) is proportional to the
quadratic form in the left-member of equation
(2). A straightforward argument (3) shows that
the proportionality factor is +1, so that

x2 + y? + 72 = e7t2 x2 + Vieg

+ 2 — ct, (3)

The axes traverse to the velocity are not in
relative motion, so that (3) y = y’, z = Zz’.
Substituting into equation (3) and rearranging,

we obtain

3S ap CAS = 3 oe CA,

(4)

This equation admits a simple geometrical in-
terpretation if we consider 2 points, P = (x’,
ct), Q = (x, ct’) in a real, 2-dimensional eu-
clidean space, and imagine that P is trans-
formed into Q. Equation (4) then states that
the squares of the distances of P and Q from

28

the origin are equal. Such a transformation
must be real and orthogonal, so that the co-
ordinates of Q can be related to those of P by
the equations

x = x’cos 8 — ct sin 6,

ct’

(5)

where 0 is an angle to be determined presently.
Equations (5) can be solved for x’ and t’,
provided cos 6 # 0:

x’sin 8 + ct cos 6,

x
: + ct tan 0,
cos 0

xX

t’

(6)

x
—tan # + :
c cos 0

We shall see that the condition cos 6 # 0 cor-
responds to the fact that v cannot equal +c or
=€.

To determine 6, we first note that

dx’ is dx’ /dt
Ciguatera
a (Ox’ /dx)(dx/dt) + dx'/dt (7)
(dt' /Ox)(dx/dt) + dt'/dt
Using equations (6), we find that
ie x + csin 0 (8)

(x/c)sin 6 + 1”

where x = dx/dt, x’ = dx'/dt’. Relative to the
primed system, O’ is at rest, so that x’ = 0,
whereas relative to the unprimed system its
velocity is x = v. Substituting into equation (8)
we get sin 6 = —v/c, so that cos 6 = +(1 —
v*/¢2)1/2 = +\/1 — B. We take the plus sign
from the consideration that with v = 0 and the
axes coincident, equations (6) must reduce to
x = x’, t =t’. Therefore,
(di ie XS Vl

“a eye "

».4

THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION—Corio 29

t — xv/c?
= 10
0-8" ne
oe ree pg eV
Se Smee ie (11)

Some interesting results can be deduced from
equation (8) irrespective of 0, so long as cos 0
# 0. Firstly, equation (8) shows that velocities
transform projectively, whereas the coordi-
nates transform linearly. In fact, it is the pro-
jective transformation (8) that ensures the in-
variance of the velocity of light. For if we set
x = +c or —c, then x’ = +c or —c, and
conversely. Finally, if we set x’ = x, and solve
the resulting quadratic equation, we find that
+e and —c are the only projective invariants.

The preceding derivation produces no new
result, but it seems simpler in some respects
than others, and has the advantage of focusing

attention upon the transformation of the ve-
locities, the heart of the principle of invari-
ance.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Sears, F. W. and R. W. Brehme. 1968. Introduction
to the theory of relativity. Addison-Wesley, Reading.

2. Lieber, L. R. 1936. The Einstein theory of relativ-
ity. Rinehart, New York.

3. Moller, C. 1952. The theory of relativity. Oxford,
London.

4. Jackson, J.D. 1962. Classical electrodynamics. Wi-
ley, New York.

5. Resnick, R. 1968. Introduction to special relativity.
Wiley, New York.

6. Einstein, A. 1905. Annal. der Phys., 17:891. A trans-
lation of this article is available in The principle of rela-
tivity (Methuen, London, 1923), which has been reprinted
by Dover Publications, New York.

7. Pauli, W. 1958. Theory of relativity. Pergamon,
New York.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 30-31

NOTE

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana, Ebenaceae) and
Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum, Berberidaceae):
Proximate Analysis of Their Fruits.—We give here a
proximate analysis (Table 1) of two of the best-known
indigenous, fleshy fruits of eastern United States, the Amer-
ican persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) (Fig. 1) and the
mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) (Fig. 2). We collected
ripe persimmons and mayapples in Campbell County,
Kentucky, in summer and fall 1991.

The first of these, the persimmon (Fig. 1), is a member
of the largely tropical ebony family (Ebenaceae); its genus
is of commercial importance primarily for a prized, Old
World wood, ebony, and for a widely cultivated fruit tree,
Japanese persimmon (D. kaki). Our species, although usu-
ally a small to medium-sized deciduous tree, can attain a
height of 125 feet and a trunk diameter of 30 inches. Found
in fencerows, old fields, and woods, Diospyros virginiana
ranges from Connecticut to Iowa, south to Florida and
Texas (Little, 1971, U.S.D.A. Misc. Publ. 1146; Skallerup,
1953, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 40:211-224).

Persimmon fruits, more or less globose or somewhat
oblate (ca. 2.5-7.5 cm in diameter), are orange to red-
purple or even dark red when ripe and usually contain
several flattened, brown seeds. In our collection (n = 13)
the average fruit weight was 11.1 g, with 1-8 seeds per
fruit (ave. = 4). The seeds constituted ca. 43% of the total
fruit wet weight.

Although folk wisdom dictates that persimmons must
be frosted or frozen to remove the intensely puckery qual-
ity (caused by tannins), such is not necessarily the case,

some trees ripening their saccharine fruits as early as mid-
August. Various birds and mammals—including hu-
mans—feed upon the fruits, which may be eaten out of
hand or made into pudding, syrup, vinegar, or preserves
(Fletcher, 1915, U.S.D.A. Farm. Bull. 685; Gibbons, 1962,
Stalking the Wild Asparagus, David McKay Co., New
York). According to Church and Church (1989, Food Val-
ues of Portions Commonly Used, 15th ed., Lippincott,
Philadelphia), the “persimmon” (probably the Japanese
species, although this is not specified) has an unusually
high carbohydrate content, 33.6%. In our study, the fruits
of the American species had an average carbohydrate con-
tent of 26.0%. This high value is uncommon in fruit, but
comparable to passion fruit (23.3%), custard-apples (25.2%),
bananas (23.4%), and sapotes (33.8%) (Church and Church,
op. cit., 1989). A high sugar content may account for the
reportedly long length of preservability of the fruit (Gib-
bons, op. cit., 1962).

The mayapple (Fig. 2), an unmistakable, herbaceous
and rhizomatous species of the barberry family (Berber-
idaceae), grows, often in large clones, in woods and mead-
ows from Quebec to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.
Although the rhizomes and other parts of the plant, in-
cluding the green fruits, are poisonous, the ripe fruits are
considered edible (Ernst, 1964, J. Arnold Arb. 45:1—-35).

Mayapple fruits, green-yellow to yellow when ripe (mid-
to late summer), are many-seeded and about the size and
shape of a hen’s egg. Our collection (n = 48) had an average
weight of 13.4 g per fruit, with 34.3% of the total weight
being made up of seeds and attached arils. Though de-

2a

Figs. 1,2. Fig. 1. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). a. Fruiting branch, b. fruit viewed from above. Vertical line =
4 cm. Fig. 2. Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). a. Distal portion of plant in flower, b. fruit. Vertical line = 5 cm.

30

NOTE oll

TABLE 1. Proximate analyses of fruits of persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum);
figures are averages.

Persimmon Mayapple Persimmon?

Fruit weight (g) 11.1 + 0.714 (n = 18) 13.4 + 0.8? (n = 48) 25
% water 71.1 + 0.484 (n = 11) 94.7 + 0.2? (n=1) 64.4
% lipid 1.67 + 0.16? (n = 3) 0.03 + 0.012 (n = 6) 0.4
% ash 0.64 + 0.04? (n = 8) 0.34 + 0.04? (n = 6) 0.4
% protein 0.60 + 0.084 (n = 5) 0.88 + 0.17? (n = 5) 0.8
% carbohydrate (calculated) 26.0 4.0 33.6
« SEM.

® Values are those given in Church, C. F., and H. N. Church. 1989. Food Values of Portions Commonly Used, 15th ed. Lippincott, Philadelphia. Species

was unidentified.

scribed by Asa Gray as “mawkish, eaten by pigs and boys,”
they may be used raw or for excellent preserves, especially
a luscious” marmalade (Fernald and Kinsey, 1958, Edible
Wild Plants of Eastern North America, Harper, New York).
We found mayapples to have an extremely high water
content, higher even than watermelon (92%), grapefruit
(91%), “melons” (90%), or papayas (89%). However, sev-
eral vegetables have comparably high water contents, e.g.,
cucumber (96%), summer squash (94%), and sweet green
peppers (92%) (Church and Church, op. cit., 1989).

In our laboratory, proximate analyses were performed
on freshly collected ripe persimmons and mayapples, un-

peeled and with seeds removed. Water content was cal-
culated as a percent difference from fresh weight after
drying at 100°C for 24 hr. Percent lipid was determined
by ether extraction of the dried samples. Protein analysis
was done using micro-kjeldahl methodology and a nitrogen
conversion factor of 6.25. For mineral content, samples
were ashed at 600°C in a muffle furnace. Carbohydrate
content was estimated by subtraction of water, lipid, and
mineral content from original net weights.—Debra K.
Pearce and John W. Thieret, Department of Biological
Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,
Kentucky 41099.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1998, 32-35

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SEVENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Ashland Community College
Ashland, Kentucky
29-31 October 1992

MINUTES OF THE GOVERNING BOARD MEETING
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
29 OcTOBER 1992

Present: Presiding—Douglas L. Dahlman, J. G. Rodri-
guez, Charles Boehms, Blaine Ferrell, Val Dunham, Larry
Elliott, Jim Gotsick, Blaine Early, David Hartman, Estel
Hobbs, and William P. Hettinger. Ben Harmon and George
Livingston, Ashland Community College—members of the
Local Arrangement Committee.

President Dahlman called the meeting to order at 1:05
p.m. in a meeting room at the Ashland Plaza Hotel. The
Minutes of the August 29, 1992, meeting were approved.

President’s Report

Local Arrangement Representatives Ben Harmon and
George Livingston reported on details concerning dis-
play boards, refreshments near the vending area and the
commercial exhibit area.

About 150 banquet places are expected.

e A spouse tour program was announced, as was an Ash-
land refinery tour and an Ashland Oil traveling exhibit.

Awards

Larry Elliott announced the winners for the 4 KAS
awards. They were:

e Distinguished Scientist—Marcus T. McEllistrem, Uni-
versity of Kentucky

Industrial Scientist—Karl Russ, United Catalysts Inc.,
Louisville

Outstanding College-University Science Teacher—Cur-
tis C. Wilkins, Western Kentucky University
Outstanding Secondary Science Teacher—Andrea L.
Warren, Franklin-Simpson High School, and Samuel
Thomas Hunt, Montgomery County High School, were
co-recipients

Future Meetings

Discussion of each site was as noted.

1993: 22-23 October, Georgetown College with Toyota
as co-hosts—Charles Boehms

1994: Paducah Community College—Blaine Early; Jim
Meeks is contact

1995 or 1996: Bowling Green—KAS/Tenn. Academy—
Charles Boehms

1999: Lexington—Blaine Early and Planning Commit-
tee

32

Program 1992

There are 191 papers, 53 from undergraduates and 36
poster displays.

Treasurer's Report

e Membership dues income showed a significant drop. Dis-
cussion followed on the need to invoice on yearly basis.
KAS may have to operate in a deficit situation. —

e See Treasurer's Report—Appendix A.

Cash Advances

The Executive Secretary discussed the need for cash
advance required by Blue Grass Mailing Service and to
Executive Secretary to pay for postage. The Governing
Board approved the motion to issue a total of $1,000 for
both of these expenses (details to be worked out by the
Treasurer and the Executive Secretary).

Mentor Program

The Executive Secretary stated it was prudent to set up
a separate bank account for the Mentor Program. Motion
passed.

Secretarial Services

Gwyn Ison petitioned for an increase of $1.00 per hour
for a total of $8.50 per hour. Motion passed. New rate to
begin January 1, 1998.

Commercial Vendors and Museum Exhibit

The Executive Secretary expressed concern that only
seven vendors would exhibit (see Appendix B). In addition
we invited Donald Chestnut, University of Kentucky Ge-
ologist and Paleontologist, to display his exhibit and pro-
posal for the Kentucky Museum of Natural History.

Hettinger Award Winners

The annual AAAS awards for the Kentucky Junior Acad-
emy of Science winners will be known as the KAS-William
P. Hettinger Award. Bill Hettinger expressed his appre-
ciation for naming the program after him.

APPENDIX A: TREASURER’S REPORT

Kentucky Academy of Science
1992

Starting Balance (January 1, 1992). $72,175.28

Income (below) -...........::.------ +27,033.08

Expenses (on page 2)... — 20,922.24
Ending Balance (September 30, 1992)............

Income—1992

Membership Dues.........................
Regularcinetn sao te.
iLtie (Gil) NOC

Institutional Memberships ........

Corporate Memberships..............

Library Subscriptions...................

Page Charges and Abstracts...

Annual Meeting—1992_......
Bixdnibitsis sce eee se ie
Registration and Banquet...

Interest Income ..............-:eeeeese

$5,082.00

770.00
1,189.00

1,193.07
1,359.36

Griffith Memorial Trust—
1992 ($133.88) eee
Endowment Fund Gifts..............
Life Membership...
Mentor Program...
Miscellaneous... eee

KJAS-AAAS—1992..0
INJAVAS == cles
Printing teres en
Tramsactions oo...
Newsletter (Secr.) 0.0...
Other (Exec. Secr.) 0...
NEM tO Tneeaeeeteh hain te

$8,978.56
1,425.96
73.01
0.00

Professional Services (CPA)......
Annual Meeting 1991
C. Nelson .........................
Printing Ae
Executive Inn...

2,055.18
495.00
63.04

116.72

0.00
0.00

23.20

Postage .................
Vice President...
Postage and Print...
Executive Secretary ...................
ostage ei oh is ea ee ee
Secretarial Services...

105.17

1,258.97
692.90
230.10

64.87

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 33

$78,286.12

$5,082.00

6,400.00
5,950.00
1,963.60
3,120.00
1,959.00

2,552.43

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.05

$27,033.08

$ 2,500.00
1,774.42
120.00
10,477.53

575.00
2,613.22

116.72
0.00
0.00
0.00

61.48
23.20
105.17

2,246.84

Meetings, Executive and

193.80
114.86
$20,922.24
Kentucky Academy of Science Foundation
Endowment Fund—1992
Starting Balance (January 1, 1992). $25,846.23
Life Memberships (61).......... $21,350.00
Endowment... 4,496.23
MD © ora eS ee ee Pens tay + 1,076.68
Transfer from KAS...................
Life Member Increase....... 0.00
GPRS ere emer 0.00
Direct Gifts to Endowment... 0.00
Life Memberships... 0.00
Interest
Bank Account 170.44
(C) Dama ares 906.24
EXPOSES ee Es Leama Deen amb tals 0.00
Transfer to KAS for Life
Memberships (61) 1992...
Ending Balance (September 30, 1992)... $26,922.91
Life Memberships (61).......... $21,350.00
Emdowme ntl ..000----c--c-ccceesseeeceeensee-- 5,572.91
Botany Fund—1992
Starting Balance (January 1, 1992)... $15,695.73
(Principal—$13,488.42; Interest—$2,207.31)
| 0 Vex0y 0 oY syseeneneieeet e oememeneren 7 Soiree a Oe +594.45
Interest
Bank Account ........... $141.33
GD ii ae eee 453.12
Donato 0.00
EGXDEMSES fs. 5 ol en ee eee — 1,615.00
Grant—M. D. Delong............. 1,615.00
Ending Balance (September 30, 1992) ........... $14,675.18
(Principal—$13,488.42; Interest—$1,186.76)
Marcia Athey Fund—1992
Starting Balance (January 1, 1992)... $58,120.51
(Principal—$54,572.79; Interest—$3,547.72)
AMC OME Seo en ee + 2,506.28
Interest
Bank Account ........-.ce $195.37
CDE i 2 SRE es 2,310.91
FE XIDET SCS ee eee 8 ee ee ene eae ear —3,241.00
Grants
M. Stinson ee $ 391.00
2,850.00
Ending Balance (September 30, 1992)... $57,385.79

(Principal—$54,572.79; Interest—$2,813.00)

34

Corporate A ffiliates—1992

DataStream Imaging
Systems, Inc.

Dow Corning Corporation

The BFGoodrich Company

Brown and Williamson
Tobacco Corporation

All-Rite Pest Control

Alltech Biotechnology
Center

First Security Banks

Corhart Refractories
Corporation

Kentucky Electric Steel
Corporation

Group Financial Partners,
Inc.

Ashland Oil, Inc.

E. I. Du Pont de Nemours
& Company Wurtland
KY Plant

Estron Chemical, Inc.
The Rexroth Corporation
Pneumatics Division

Westvaco

GAF Chemicals
Corporation

Hoechst Celanese
Corporation Engineering
Plastics Division

International Business
Machines Corp.

The Humana Foundation
Inc.

Citizens Fidelity Bank &
Trust Company

Air Products & Chemicals,
Inc.

Rohm and Haas Kentucky
Inc.

United Catalysts Inc.

Wood Hudson Cancer
Research Laboratory, Inc.

Island Creek Corporation

Litton Industrial
Automation

MPD, Inc.

C & I Engineering, Inc.

Proctor & Gamble

DataBeam Corporation

3M

ISP Chemicals

Date
paid

3/30/92
4/24/92
3/25/92

3/30/92

8/5/92

5/8/92

8/11/92

3/25/92

4/7/92

3/25/92

6/27/92

3/30/92
4/14/92
4/20/92
4/7/92

1991

100.00

250.00

200.00

250.00

250.00

Amount

$ 1,000.00
100.00

250.00

$100.00

250.00

2,000.00

200.00

100.00

500.00

250.00

100.00

250.00

100.00
250.00
100.00
500.00

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

Contributions from Colleges and Universities—1992

Kentucky Wesleyan College
Georgetown College
Bellarmine College

Berea College

Brescia College
Campbellsville College
Kentucky State University
Transylvania University
Midway College

Sue Bennett College
University of Kentucky
Murray State University
Centre College

Lees College

Morehead State University

Eastern Kentucky
University

Northern Kentucky
University

Alice Lloyd College

Western Kentucky

University
University of Louisville
Thomas More College
Spalding University
Cumberland College
Union College

Date

paid
3/9/92
3/17/92

1991

$250.00
1/30/92
3/2/92
3/9/92
4/7/92
3/2/92
3/17/92
3/2/92
3/2/92
4/14/92
9/16/92
50.00
(1990)
3/9/92

7/8/92

3/2/92
50.00
(1990)

5/15/92
3/17/92
3/9/92
5/22/92
3/9/92
100.00

APPENDIX B: COMMERCIAL EXHIBITORS

e Miami Computer Supply, Inc., Dayton, OH

e MPD, Inc., Owensboro, KY

e Parco Scientific Co., Vienna, OH

e Swift, Cincinnati, OH

e Preiser Scientific, Louisville, KY
e Fisher Scientific, Cincinnati, OH
e B&B Microscopes, Ltd., Warrendale, PA

Raymond Athey Estate Trust

Amount

$100.00

500.00

100.00
100.00
250.00
500.00
100.00
100.00
100.00

1,000.00

500.00
100.00

500.00

500.00

500.00

500.00
500.00
100.00
100.00
250.00

The Executive Secretary reported on the status of the
trust. The Paducah business was expected to sell by mid-
October. The property in Decatur, Illinois, has not sold,
being hindered by a large mortgage (see Appendix C).

KJAS Report

e Dr. Val Dunham, Director, represented KJAS at the
annual meeting of the Kentucky Science Teachers As-
sociation (KSTA), 22-24 October 1992. Dr. Dunham made
a presentation to the KSTA board concerning KJAS in-
cluding: a. benefits for teachers and students and b. pos-
sible cooperative efforts with KSTA and Kentucky Sci-

ence Olympiad (KSO).

ACADEMY AFFAIRS 35

e Discussion is needed by the KAS board on the possibilities
of having the annual KJAS Symposium in conjunction
with KSO after 1993. Current KSO events include lab
skills. KJAS would maintain research presentations (oral
presentations and posters) and Science Bowl, if desired.
The KSO will be meeting next year at Male High School
in Louisville during April.

The 1993 KJAS annual meeting will be in April at West-
ern Kentucky University.

Election

The results of the election of officers were announced
as follows:

e Candidates for Vice-President—Robert Creek won over
Marcus T. McEllistrem.

e Candidates for Representative-at-Large—Valena Hurt

won over Vincent A. DiNoto.

Candidates for Representative from the Division of So-

cial Sciences and Science Education—David E. Hogan

won over Jim Murray Walker.

Candidates for Representative from the Division of

Physical, Mathematical and Computer Sciences—Patri-

cia K. Doolin and Jerry D. Cook tied. (The Governing

Board voted to break the tie and Patricia Doolin was

elected.)

¢ Candidates for Treasurer—Julia H. Carter won over An-
gela R. Keith.

GOVERNING BOARD MEETING
OcToBER 1992

President Dahlman presided. The meeting was called
to order at 12:10 p.m.

New Editor

An invitation will be extended to Vince DiNoto to be-
come the new Newsletter Editor for the year 1993. The
expectation to be expressed to him is that he attend all
Governing Board meetings.

Format of Newsletter

To increase readability, the cover page should highlight
the Contents.

Membership Dues

A discussion led by the Executive Secretary on mem-
bership dues expressed the concern that confusion exists
relative to billing of dues. The motion was made and
approved as follows:

1. Two general types of memberships will exist: Annual
and Life.

2. Dues are payable by January 1 for that year. Dues paid
after February 1 will not receive the Transactions be-
cause the number ordered from the publisher is pre-
contracted by that date.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 36-59
PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE SEVENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING

Ashland Community College

Ashland, Kentucky
29-31 October 1992

Governing Board

Executive Committee

University of Kentucky

Georgetown College

President Douglas L. Dahlman
President Elect Charles N. Boehms
Past President W. Blaine Early, III

Cumberland College

Vice-President

Larry P. Elliott

Western Kentucky University
Secretary Peter X. Armendarez

Brescia College

Treasurer David R. Hartman
Western Kentucky University

Executive Secretary

J. G. Rodriguez

University of Kentucky

Editor, Transactions Branley A. Branson
Eastern Kentucky University

Editor, Newsletter Varley E. Wiedeman
University of Louisville

Division Representatives and At Large Members

Estel M. Hobbs (1992) Ashland Petroleum Company
Bruce A. Mattingly (1992) Morehead State University
Lee T. Todd (1992) DataBeam Corporation
Burtron H. Davis (1993) Center for Applied Energy Research
Ray K. Hammond (1993)

James E. Gotsick (1994) Morehead State University
Kimberly Ward Anderson (1995) University of Kentucky
Blaine R. Ferrell (1995) Western Kentucky University

AAAS/NAAS Representative
William P. Hettinger, Jr. (1995)
Chairperson, KJAS

Centre College

Valgene L. Dunham (1994) Western Kentucky University

Local Arrangement Committee

Ashland Community College
Ben Harman, Co-Chairman
George Livingston, Co-Chairman
Charles Dassance
Charles Howes
Tony Newberry

36

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING OW

Hossein Mohebbian
Ted Shields

Ashland Oil Incorporated
Estel M. Hobbs

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
78TH ANNUAL MEETING

Ashland, Kentucky

PROGRAM SUMMARY

Thursday Evening Activities at the
Ashland Plaza Hotel

Thursday, 29 October 1992

1:00-4:00 p.m.

Executive Board Meeting, Hotel Conf. Rm.

2:00-7:00 p.m.

Registration, Hotel Lobby

6:00-7:00 p.m.

Interest Sessions
Legacy of Jesse Stuart, Dr. James M. Gifford, Ballroom
A; Kentucky Museum of Natural History, Dr. Donald
R. Chestnut, Jr., Ballroom C

7:00-9:00 p.m.

Reception, Ballroom B

Friday, 30 October 1992

All portions of the meeting except the
banquet will be held in the
Ashland Community College Main Building

7:30 a.m.—6:00 p.m.

Registration, Main Bldg. Lobby

8:00 a.m.-5:30 p.m.

Poster Exhibits, Room A106

8:00 a.m.-5:30 p.m.

Vendor Exhibits, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.-10:30 a.m.

Comm. Coll. Science Faculty, Room 305

10:30 a.m.-12:00 noon

Comm. Coll. Biology Faculty, Room 303

10:30 a.m.—12:00 noon

Comm. Coll. Chemistry Faculty, Room 304

10:30 a.m.-12:00 noon

Comm. Coll. Physics Faculty, Room 305

8:00 a.m.—12:00-noon

Sectional Meetings
Section C—Chemistry, Room L275; Section G—Phys-
iology and Biophysics, Room 205; Section H—Science
Education, Room 204; Section K—Zoology and Ento-
mology, Room 302; Section Q—Agriculture, Room A222

9:00 a.m.—9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

12:00 noon-1:00 p.m.

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.-2:15 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium—A231

Presiding: Douglas L. Dahlman—President, Kentucky
Academy of Science

Welcome: Dr. Charles Dassance, President, Ashland Com-
munity College

Announcements: Dr. George Livingston, Chairman, Local
Arrangement Committee

Plenary Presentation: The Research University in the
1990's: Partnerships with K-12 Education, Businesses,
and Government

Dr. Lee Magid, Vice President for Research and Graduate
Studies, University of Kentucky

2:15 p.m.-2:45 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.-5:00 p.m.

Sectional Meetings
Section B—Botany and Microbiology, Room 301; Sec-
tion C—Chemistry, Room L275; Section D—Geogra-
phy, Room 222; Section E—Geology, Room 221; Section
G—Physiology and Biophysics, Room 205; Section H—
Science Education, Room 204; Section I—Psychology,
Room 321; Section K—Zoology and Entomology, Room
302; Section Q—Agricultural Science, Room A222; Sec-
tion R—Industrial Science, Room L269

6:30 p.m.-7:15 p.m.

Presidents’ Reception (Hosted by Ashland Oil Corp.), Ash-
land Oil

7:15 p.m.-9:00 p.m.

Annual Awards Banquet, Ashland Oil

Darwinism in American Politics: What Goes Around
Comes Around—Dr. Gene Krisky, College of Mt. St.
Joseph

Saturday, 31 October 1992
8:00 a.m.—1:00 p.m.
Registration, Main Lobby

8:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.
Scientific Posters, Room A106

38 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

8:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.
Vendor Exhibits, Student Lounge

8:00 a.m.—9:30 a.m.

Sectional Meetings
Section A—Anthropology, Room 219; Section B—Bot-
any and Microbiology, Room 301; Section C—Chem-
istry, Room L275; Section F—Physics, Room 220; Sec-
tion I—Psychology, Room 321; Section K—Zoology and
Entomology, Room 302; Section N—Engineering, Room
L269; Section Q—Agricultural Science, Room A222

9:30 a.m.—10:00 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.-11:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:00 a.m.-11:15 a.m.

Science Olympiad Performance, Bell County High School,
Auditorium

11:15 a.m.-12:00 a.m.
Sectional Meetings, Rooms same as above

12:00 noon-1:00 p.m.

Lunch, On your own

1:15 p.m.-end

Sectional Meetings, Rooms same as above

Note: KJAS

Each spring the Kentucky Junior Academy of Science
holds an Annual Spring Symposium. The 58th Symposium
was held at Eastern Kentucky University on April 24-25,
1992. Activities at this meeting included the presentation
of Science Projects by KJAS members, Science Bowl com-
petition and Lab Skills competition. The winners of each
division of the Science Projects presentations are invited
to present their work at the annual meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science. A KJAS precedes the title of
each of the papers given by these young scientists.

SESSION—COMMUNITY COLLEGES

Community Colleges Science Faculty
Room 305

Friday, 30 October 1992

10:00 a.m.

General Session, Room 305

10:30 a.m.

Break-out Sessions
Biology, Room 303; Chemistry, Room 304; Physics, Room
805

SECTION A—ANTHROPOLOGY SECTION

James F. Hopgood—Chairman
Jim Murray Walker—Secretary
Room 219

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Jim Murray Walker—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Parsees and Gabars: Racial Mixing or Plasticity?

Jim Murray Walker—Eastern Kentucky University

8:15 a.m.

The Rhetoric of Myth in Ritual Space at a Complex Rock
Art Site in Chaco Canyon

Robert Vallier—University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

8:30 a.m.

Early Christian Celtic Artwork

Iain Barksdale—Madisonville Community College and
Henderson Community College

8:45 a.m.

An Analysis of Selected Artifacts Recovered from the Bat-
tlefield at Cumberland Church, Virginia, 1865

Doug Rigsby—Ashland Community College

9:00 a.m.

Chaos, Entropy, and Social Construct: The Use of Physics
to Help Explain Some Human Institutions

Rex McDonald—Eastern Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Researching an American Iconic Movement: An Update

James F. Hopgood—Northern Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:30 a.m.
Library Research is Easier Than Fieldwork?
Cara E. Richards—Transylvania University

11:45 a.m.
A New Slant on Acculturation
Mary Carol Hopkins—Northern Kentucky University

12:00 noon

Network Strategies and Economic Change on an English
Speaking Caribbean Island

Gina Meyer (Undergraduate)—Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity; sponsored by James Hopgood

12:15 p.m.

Shawnee Indian Ethnicity

Sharlotte Neely—Northern Kentucky University

12:30 p.m.

The Vertical Economy of a Mexican Peasant Community:
A Model for Understanding Persistence and Change

T. D. Murphy—Northern Kentucky University

12:45 p.m.

Anthropology Section Business Meeting

SECTION B—BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

David Taylor—Chairperson
Landon McKinney—Secretary
Room 301

Friday, 30 October 1992
Landon McKinney—Presiding

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 39

2:30 p.m.

KJAS

The Effects of Acid Rain on Lolium Perenne

Jonathan Ashby—Warren Central High School; sponsored
by Ronica Shuffitt

2:45 p.m.

KJAS

The Effectiveness of Various Toilet Bowl Cleaners on E.
coli

Joanna Durham—Warren Central High School; sponsored
by Ronica Shuffitt

3:00 p.m.

Influence of Pesticide Treatment on Mycoflora Populations
in High Moisture Bin Stored Shelled Corn

Bryan D. Price, John D. Sedlack, and Paul A. Weston—
Kentucky State University

3:15 p.m.

Polytaenia nuttalii (Parsley: Apiaceae) in Kentucky and
Tennessee

Edward W. Chester—Austin Peay State University and
Eugene Wooford—University of Tennessee at Knoxville

3:30 p.m.

Inhibitory Effects of Acidic Minesoil on the Sericea Les-
pedeza/Bradyrhizobium Symbiotic Relationship

G. R. Cline and Z. Ngewoh Senwo—Kentucky State Uni-
versity

3:45 p.m.

Comparison of Flagellar Motion in Selected Euglenoid
Algae (Euglenophyceae)

Nancy Dawson, Amy Baker, Brad Weaver, and David
Pittman—Western Kentucky University

4:00 p.m.

Tissue Culture Studies of Castanea dentata

Larry A. Giesmann—Northern Kentucky University

4:15 p.m.

Flora of Kentucky Projects—Can There Be Order Out of
Chaos? :

Ronald Jones—Eastern Kentucky University

4:30 p.m.
Flora of Kentucky Discussion

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Landon McKinney—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

A Floristic Study of the Only Known Site for Drosera
brevifolia in Kentucky

J. Richard Abbott (Undergraduate) and R. L. Thompson—
Berea College

8:15 a.m.

Botanical Survey of the Redbird Purchase Unit, Daniel
Boone National Forest

Julian Campbell—The Nature Conservancy and Allen
Risk—University of Tennessee

8:30 a.m.
The Kentucky Natural Areas Inventory, 1988-1992

Tom Bloom and Marc Evans—Kentucky State Nature Pre-
serves Commission

8:45 a.m.

Somatic Embryogenesis in Tissue Cultures of Pinus stro-
bus

L. Catherine Mahl and K. Kaul—Kentucky State Univer-
sity

9:00 a.m.

Natural Areas Inventory of the Jackson Purchase

Marc Evans and Landon McKinney—Kentucky State Na-
ture Preserves Commission

9:15 a.m.

Botany and Microbiology Section Meeting

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:30 a.m.

Effects of Light Environment on Growth and Yield of
Field-Grown Okra

Edith Greer and K. Kaul—Kentucky State University and
M. J. Kasperbauer—USDA/ARS

11:45 a.m.

Niche Partitioning between Gap-colonizing Bryophytes

Craig C. Young (Undergraduate) and Robin W. Kim-
merer—Centre College

12:00 noon

Ecological Consequences of Asexual Reproduction in the
Forest Floor Bryophyte, Dicranum flagellave

Robin W. Kimmerer—Centre College

12:15 a.m.

Rare Plant Inventory of the Jackson Purchase

Landon E. McKinney and Marc Evans—Kentucky State
Nature Preserves Commission

12:30 a.m.

Comparative Sulfur Levels of Juniperus virginiana in Re-
spect to Leaf Tissues and Geographic Location

Joe E. Winstead—Western Kentucky University

SECTION C—CHEMISTRY

Nancy Flachskam—Chairperson
Ted Shields—Secretary
Room L275

Friday, 30 October 1992
Ted Shields—Presiding

8:30 a.m.

Synthesis and Analysis of Sulfonium Salts

Robert C. Molloy and Tom Green—Western Kentucky
University

9:00 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

9:15 a.m.

Behavior of Fuel Blends Containing Limestone

40 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

T. C. Roth, J. T. Riley, and W. P. Pan—Western Kentucky
University

9:30 a.m.

Application of the Determination of Total Aromatics in
Petroleum Products by SFC

Paula C. Wiseman—Ashland Petroleum

9:45 a.m.

Determination of Chlorine Release Profile from Coal

Combustion and Pyrolysis by TG/1C Technique

Tony D. Shao and Wei-Ping Pan—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

10:00 a.m.

Analysis of Sulfur Compounds in Petroleum via Sulfonium
Salts and NMR

Jo Ann Wood, Ben Harris, and Tom Green—Western Ken-
tucky University

10:15 a.m.

Rapid Analysis of Moisture in Coal

Stuart Burris and John T. Riley—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

10:30 a.m.

A Study of Coal Sulfur Forms Using Thermal Analytical
Techniques

BuCheng Wang and John T. Riley—Western Kentucky
University and DeXiang Zhang—Huainan Mining In-
stitution (P.R.O.C.)

10:45 a.m.

Characterization of Aliphatic Sulfur in Coal

John T. Riley, BuCheng Wang, Mingshe Zhu, and L. Mi-
chelle Lewis—Western Kentucky University

11:00 a.m.

Thermal Analysis of Polymer Composite by TG-F7ZR

Or Zhang and Wei-Ping Pan—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

11:15 a.m.

DSC and DTA Comparisons to the AOCS Titer Method

Erik Hutchinson and Wei-Ping Pan—Western Kentucky
University

11:30 a.m.

Hydrogen Bond Directed Molecular Recognition in Or-
ganic Crystals

Dan Adsmond and Margaret Etter—Morehead State Uni-
versity

11:45 a.m.

Determination of Nitrates in Consumer Beverages by Ion
Chromatography

Beverly Campbell and Wei-Ping Pan—Western Kentucky
University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

On the Cobalt (1120) Surface as a Template for Hydro-
carbon Chain Formation in Fischer Tropsch Synthesis

Yon-Tae Je(x) and Audrey L. Companion—University of
Kentucky

3:00 p.m.

Acid Insoluble Ash as a Marker in Nutrient Digestibility
Studies

Jeff Stidam, Joe L. Werth (Undergraduates), Charles An-
derson, and John T. Riley—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

3:15 p.m.

Mineral Analysis in Animal Digestibility Studies

L. Michelle Lewis, Joe L. Werth, Stuart Burris, Tawana
Woods (Undergraduates), Charles Anderson, and John
T. Riley—Western Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

Soot Analysis in Southeast Kentucky

Howard C. Van Woert, Jr., and Timothy J. Bailey (Un-
dergraduate)—Southeast Community College

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Ted Shields—Presiding

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:30 a.m.

Analysis of First-Order Kinetic Data by a Differential
Technique

Li Jing Sun, Koorosh Zaerpoor (Undergraduates), and Lee
Roecker—Berea College

11:45 a.m.

Azide Trapping During the Base Hydrolysis of the Pent-
ammine-Dimethylsulfidecobalt(III) lon—Evidence for
a Dissociative Mechanism

Regina Hicks (Undergraduate) and Lee Roecker—Berea
College

12:00 noon

Synthesis and Reactivity of Cobalt(III) Complexes Coor-
dinated by Monodentate and Bidentate Thioether Li-
gands

Lee Roecker—Berea College

12:15 p.m.

Development of HPLC-EC Methodology to be Used in
the Determination of the Daily Pattern of Brain Oc-
topamine Levels in Leucophaea maderae

Maya Siddiqui, Chris Pergrem (Undergraduate), Laura
Lee Wilson (Undergraduate), Darwin B. Dahl, and Blaine
R. Ferrell—Western Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

Determination of Fat Oxidation Products by FTNMR

De Chen, David Hartman, and Tom Green—Western
Kentucky University

4:00 p.m.

Kinetic Controls on Limestone Dissolution During Early
Stages of Karst Aquifer Development

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 4]

Christopher Groves—Western Kentucky University and
Alan D. Howard—University of Virginia

4:15 p.m.

Thermal Analysis of Montomorillonite/Pyrrole During
Pyrolysis and Combustion

Terri Brown (Undergraduate), Qi Zhang, Mingzu Zhang,
and Pei Gu—Western Kentucky University

4:30 p.m.

Video/ Workbook Modules for the Metric and Apothecary
Systems

Joanne Kendall and James Newton—Prestonburg Com-
munity College

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Nancy Flachskam—Presiding

8:30 a.m.

Transition Metal Catalyzed Peptide Formation—Prelim-
inary Results

Richard Reznik, G. Ferrell Long (Undergraduate), and
Dewey Mortan III (Undergraduate)—Ashbury College
and Sam Riffell—Baylor University

8:45 a.m.

Lithium, Boron, and Fluorine Proton-Induced Gamma-
Ray Emission Analysis of Separated Micas

J. David Robertson—University of Kentucky, M. Darby
Dyar—University of Oregon, and Eric S. Meadows (Un-
dergraduate)—Western Virginia Wesleyan

9:00 a.m.

Electron Reactivity of the Elements

Howard C. Van Woert, Jr., and Timothy J. Bailey (Un-
dergraduate)—Southeast Community College

9:15 a.m.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Reactivity of a Urea De-
rivative Coordinated to Cobalt(III)

Billy Helton (Undergraduate) and Lee Roecker—Berea
College and Anthony C. Willis and Alan M. Sargeson—
Australian National :

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

SECTION D—GEOGRAPHY

Adrian A. Wasserman—Chairperson
James M. Bingham—Secretary
Room 222

Friday, 30 October 1992
Adrian A. Wasserman—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

Downtown Isn’t There Anymore: Change and Abandon-
ment in Covington’s Central Business District

Edwin T. Weiss, Jr.—Northern Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

The Parke County, Indiana, Covered Bridge Festival: A
Geographical Analysis

James L. Davis—Western Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

Toward Automated Adaptive Estimation of Dynamic Spa-
tial Models

Stuart A. Foster—Western Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

Alternative Methods for Controlling Travel Demand: Glas-
gow, Kentucky

Melanie Neuber—Western Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

An Analysis of Traffic Congestion in Tompkinsville, Ken-
tucky

Keirsten Jaggers—Western Kentucky University

4:00 p.m.

Regional Wind Patterns in the Contiguous United States

Conrad T. Moore and Celia Campbell—Western Ken-
tucky University

SECTION E—GEOLOGY

Thomas R. Lierman—Chairman
Graham Hunt—Secretary
Room 221

Friday, 30 October 1992
Graham Hunt—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:30 p.m.

Business Meeting of Geology Section

2:45 p.m.

Interpretive Center, Falls of the Ohio State Park, Indiana

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville and Troy Mc-
Cormick—Falls of the Ohio State Park

3:00 p.m.

Chronostratigraphy of the Big Eddy Section, Mile 605,
Ohio River

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville

3:15 p.m.

Louisville/Jeffersonville Formations in the Crescent Hill
Area, Louisville, Kentucky

Graham Hunt and Tom Flood—University of Louisville

3:30 p.m.

Fracture Traces and Ground Water Occurrences in the
Inner Blue Grass Region in Central Kentucky

C. Taylor—U.S. Geological Survey

3:45 p.m.

Sedimentary Record of Quaternary Sea-Level Fluctua-
tions in San Salvador, Bahamas

Deborah W. Kuehn—Western Kentucky University

42 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

4:00 p.m.

Changes in Coal Composition during Cleaning by Oil Ag-
glomeration

Kenneth W. Kuehn—Western Kentucky University

4:15 p.m.

Vertebrate Fossil Collection of the Owensboro Area Mu-
seum

Malcolm T. Sadler (Undergraduate) and James X. Cor-
gan—Austin Peay State University and Kathy H. Ol-
son—Owensboro Area Museum

4:30 p.m.

Field Trip

SECTION F—Puysics

John Christopher—Chairman
Vincent DiNoto—Secretary
Room 220

Saturday, 31 October 1992
John Christopher—Presiding

9:00 a.m.
Learning at a Distance: Astronomy As A Lab Science
Raymond C. McNeil—Northern Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Dropping Cow Magnets Down Conducting Tubes

F. Dudley Bryant—Western Kentucky University and D.
Ray Carpenter—Virginia Military Institute

9:30 a.m.

Detecting Low-Amplitude Periodic Signals by Additive
Sampling

Chris Graney—Jefferson Community College-Southwest
and Joel Gwinn—University of Louisville

9:45 a.m.

The Kentucky Space Grant Consortium—Space for Ken-
tucky in the Space Age

T. Bohuski, R. Hackney, K. Hackney, C. Kupchella, and
R. Scott—Western Kentucky University

10:00 a.m.

Two-Year College Physics Faculty Development Work-
shops

L. Stamper—Owensboro Community College

10:15 a.m.

Break

10:30 a.m.

Application of Polarization in Biophysics and Astrophysics

Jason E. McCoy, B. Wieb Van Der Meer, and Richard L.
Hackney—Western Kentucky University

10:45 a.m.

Computer-Assisted Laboratory Exercises For College
Physics

Linda S, Stamper—Owensboro Community College and
Richard L. Hackney and Karen R. Hackney—Western
Kentucky University

11:00 a.m.

Sputtering Rate of Copper From Sparsely Coated Silicon

Islamshah Amlani and Doug Harper—Western Kentucky
University and Jim Arps and Robert Weller—Vander-
bilt University

11:15 a.m.
Physics Section Business Meeting

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Vincent DiNoto—Presiding

11:30 a.m.
Consortium of Physics Alliances

12:00 noon
Lunch, on your own

1:00 p.m.

Demonstration of the Physics Infomall CD-ROM

Vincent DiNoto—Jefferson Community College-South-
east

1:15 p.m.

Formation of Excimers of Fluorescein Dyes

Ajay K. Mukhopadhyay—Southeast Community College

1:30 p.m.

Are All 486 Computers and Operating Systems the Same?

James L. Meeks and Larry Bigham—Paducah Community
College

1:45 p.m.

Noise Effects in Photometric Measurements Using CCDs

M. Lowry, B. Peters, M. Pentecost (Undergraduates), R.
Scott, R. Hackney, K. Hackney, and M. Binion—West-
ern Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

Chaotic Dynamics—Personal Computer Investigations of
Features in the Bifurcation Diagrams of Simple Non-
Linear Oscillators

T. Nordmeyer, M. Troutman, J. Travelstead (Undergrad-
uates), R. Hackney, K. Hackney, and J. Chamberlin—
Western Kentucky University

2:15 p.m.

MAP—A Program to Explore the Logistic Map

Sean Molley (Undergraduate), Richard Hackney, and John
Chamberlin— Western Kentucky University

2:30 p.m.

Astronomy as a Role Model Promoting Student Involve-
ment in General Studies Science Classes

R. Scott, K. Hackney, R. Hackney, P. Campbell, and T.
Bohuski—Western Kentucky University

2:45 p.m.

Making the Oscilloscope Work in the Introductory Physics
Laboratory

M. Robinson, K. Hackney, R. Hackney, R. Scott, and S.
Boddeker (Undergraduate)—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

3:00 p.m.

PHOTON—A Program for Monte-Carlo Simulation of Dif-
fraction Patterns as a Sequence of Photon Events

M. Pentecost (Undergraduate), R. Hackney, K. Hackney,
D. Bryant, and D. Harper—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 43

SECTION G—PuHysIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS,
AND PHARMACOLOGY

William W. Farrar—Chairperson
Dexter Speck—Secretary
Room 205

Friday, 30 October 1992
William W. Farrar—Presiding

10:15 a.m.

KJAS

A Comparative Analysis of the Teratogenic Effects of In-
creased Amounts of Ethyl Alcohol vs. “Near Beer” on
the Embryonic Development of Chicken Embryos

Meuay Oulay—Warren Central High School; sponsored
by Ronica Shuffitt

10:30 a.m.

KJAS

A Comparative Analysis of the Teratogenic Effects of an
Aqueous Nicotine Solution vs. an “Aqueous Cigarette”
Solution on the Embryonic Development of Chicken
Embryos

Kristy Hixson—Warren Central High School; sponsored
by Ronica Shuffitt

11:00 a.m.

Effects of Cyclic Energy Restriction on Body Weight Re-
duction in Oophorohysterectomized Fisher 344 Rats
C. Wang, C. J. Lee, and A. Babalmoradi—Kentucky State

University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

Hybridization of Animal DNA Polymerase Probes to a
Soybean cDNA Library

Valgene L. Dunham and Hope L. Guenthner—Western
Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

Non-NMDA Neurotransmission in the Medial Nucleus
Tractus Solitarius (mNTS) is Not Involved in All Affer-
ent-Evoked Inspiratory Termination Reflexes

Diane R. Karius, Dexter F. Speck, and Liming Ling—
University of Kentucky

3:15 p.m.

KJAS

A Chemical Analysis of the Enzyme Catalase

Jenny Burnette—Paris High School—KJAS Winner; spon-
sored by Randall Sale

3:30 p.m.

KJAS

The Combined Effects of Acid Rain and Heavy Metal
Pollution on Artemia Salinas

Caryn Birchard—Paris High School—KJAS First Place;
sponsored by Randall Sale

3:45 p.m.

The Effect of Weightlessness (Zero-Gravity) on Cardiac
Function

Thomas E. Bennett and Thomas A. Schurfranz (Under-
graduate)—Bellarmine College and George M. Panta-
los—University of Utah

4:00 p.m.

Effect of Angular and Spectral Distribution of Light on
the Computation of Aquatic Primary Production

Elaine Young (Undergraduate), B. R. Anderson, and H.
R. Kobraei—Murray State University

4:15 p.m.

Computation of Aquatic Primary Production in Kentucky
Lake

Tiffany Taunton (Undergraduate), H. R. Kobraei, and B.
R. Anderson—Murray State University

4:30 p.m.

Cell Wall-degrading Enzyme Activities and Pathogenicity
of Fusarium solani on Soybeans

Kristine DeStefano (Undergraduate) and Margaret G.
Richey—Centre College

4:45 p.m.

The Bdelloida Rotifer as a Model of Aging: An Inexpensive
Investigative Screening Test for Exploratory Aging Re-
search

William P. Hettinger, Jr.—Russell, KY

5:00 p.m.

Investigation of the Programmed Aging Hypothesis: The
Effect of Several RNA and Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
on the Life Span of the Rotifer

William P. Hettinger, Jr—Russell, KY

SECTION H—ScIENCE EDUCATION

Zexia K. Barnes—Chairperson
Ben Malphrus—Secretary
Room 204

Friday, 30 October 1992
Zexia K. Barnes—Presiding

9:00 a.m.
Refreshments, Student Lounge

9:30 a.m.

Fast Plant Physiology—Experimental Classroom Appli-
cations for the “Wisconsin Fast Plants,” Brassica rapa

Robert Creek and Kim Alexander—Eastern Kentucky
University

9:45 a.m.

A Revolutionary Classroom Tool: Historical Perspectives
on the “Wisconsin Fast Plants’”’

Kim Alexander and Robert Creek—Eastern Kentucky
University

10:00 a.m.

Remembrance of Things Past: College Student’s Memories
of Elementary School Science

Robert Boram, Lola Aagaard, and Zexia Barnes—More-
head State University

44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

Kentucky UV-B Monitoring Network: Opportunities for
Student Research

John Guyton—Murray State University and Benjamin K.
Malphrus—Morehead State University

3:00 p.m.

Chemistry Labs for Nursing Students: Developing Clas-
sification and Scientific Method Process Skills

Zexia Barnes, Richard Hunt, and H. Wade Cain—More-
head State University

3:15 p.m.

A New Approach to Teaching Chemical Information at
Morehead State University

Wade Cain—Morehead State University

3:30 p.m.

Assessing Group Problem Solving

Joyce Saxon—Morehead State University

3:45 p.m.

Development of an Advanced Topics Science Course at
the Secondary School Level

Robert Forsythe—Warren East High School

4:00 p.m.

KJAS

The Effects of Environment on the Biodegradability of
Trash Bags, Newspapers, and Paper Sacks

Nathan Stocke—Henderson South Junior High School;
sponsored by Susan Mueller

4:15 p.m.

Using Bio Sci II and LinkWay in an Introductory Biology
Course

Dan Rogers—Somerset Community College

4:30 p.m.

A Homemade Video of Acid-Base Titration

Kelly Boggs, Norman W. Hunter, and Curtis C. Wilkins—
Western Kentucky University

5:00 p.m.

Investigation of the Programmed Aging Hypothesis: The
Effect of Several RNA and Protein Synthesis Inhibitors
on the Life Span of the Rotifer

William P. Hettinger, Jr.—Russell, KY

SECTION I—PsyCHOLOGY

David Hogan—Chairperson
Jeff Smith—Secretary
Room 321

Friday, 30 October 1992

David Hogan—Presiding

2:45 p.m.

Personality Factors and Verbal Hallucinations in Normals
Terry R. Barrett—Murray State University

3:00 p.m.

Psychological Effects of Dance

Tracy Adams (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

3:15 p.m.

Gender Differences and Stress

Leisa Capo (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

3:30 p.m.

The Effects of Weather on Mood

Anthony Collins (Undergraduate)—Murray State Univer-
sity

3:45 p.m.

Task Influences on Time Perception

Dwayne Coon (Undergraduate)—Murray State Universi-
ty.

4:00 p.m.

Personality Types, Exercise Habits, and Anxiety

Susan Hart (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

4:15 p.m.
The Relation Between Self Esteem and Partner Selection
Lisa Holland (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

4:30 p.m.
Fantasy Process, Dissociation and Child Abuse
Tammie Jones (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

4:45 p.m.

Psychopathic Personality in Headaches: Cause or Conse-
quence?

Mari Littlefield (Undergraduate)—Murray State Univer-
sity

5:00 p.m.

The Effects of Leadership Styles on University Professors

Christina Moore (Undergraduate)—Murray State Univer-
sity

Saturday, 31 October 1992
David Hogan—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

The Effects of Color on Arousal and Recall

Reginald Schultz (Undergraduate)—Murray State Uni-
versity

8:15 a.m.

Discrimination in the Employment Interview

Adrey Vaughan (Undergraduate)—Murray State Univer-
sity

8:30 a.m.

Characteristics of a Coupon User

Lisa Webb (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

8:45 a.m.

Drug Abuse, STDs, and Birth Control—A Community
College Survey

J. G. Shiber and N. V. Anosike—Prestonsburg Community
College

9:00 a.m.

Evaluation of an Instrument for Measuring Howard Gard-
ner’s Multiple Intelligences Concept

Francis H. Osborne, Brian E. Newton, and Alan Smith—
Morehead State University

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 45

9:15 a.m.

KJAS

The Effects of Flueoxitine Hydrochloride on Inner Group
Aggression and Memory Retention in Mus Musculus

Phonesavane Lianekhammy—Warren Central High
School; sponsored by Ronica Shuffitt—Moss Middle
School

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:15 a.m.

A Comparison of Measures of Anxiety to Predict Achieve-
ment

Robert E. Simpson—Western Kentucky University

11:30 a.m.

Goal Setting in Sports

Mark Whitaker (Undergraduate)—Murray State Univer-
sity

11:45 a.m.

Depression Reduction and Imagery Vividness Training

Susan Wilkins (Undergraduate)—Murray State University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:30 p.m.

Acquisition of Stimulus Equivalence through Instructional
Feedback

Derek Kren and Tim Wolery—Asbury College

1:45 p.m.

Role of Dopamine D1-D2 Receptor Interactions in the
Development of Behavioral Sensitization

Karen Lim, Don Matthews, and Bruce Mattingly—More-
head State University

2:00 p.m.

Behavioral and Biochemical Effects of Dopamine D2 Re-
ceptor Stimulation <

Tamara Hart, Tracey Ellison (Undergraduate), and Bruce
Mattingly—Morehead State University and James Row-
lett and Mike Bardo—University of Kentucky

2:15 p.m.

Cocaine-Induced Behavioral Sensitization: Effects of D1
Receptor Blockade

Carmen Perkins, Kristin Rase (Undergraduate), and Bruce
Mattingly—Morehead State University

2:30 p.m.

Relationship Between Field Dependence/Independence,
Personality Style, and Science Grades

Jennifer Curran and Deborah Schember—Asbury College

2:45 p.m.

Relationship Between Learning Style and Performance in
an Introductory Psychology Course

Mini Mamak, Allison K. Gould, and Francis H. Osborne—
Morehead State University

3:00 p.m.

Sexual Attitudes and Religiosity

Larry Wayne Reid and Nobuyori Ohshima—Asbury Col-
lege

3:15 p.m.

Taste Expectancies

Deanna Simpson—Asbury College

3:30 p.m.

Incubation and Writing: Are Interruptions in the Writing
Process Productive?

Paul Marchbanks (Undergraduate) and Don Brown—Cen-
tre College

3:45 p.m.

Classroom Ecology and Academic Performance

Sarah Bishop and Don Brown—Centre College

SECTION K—ZooLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Matthew Byers—Chairperson
Monte Johnson—Secretary
Room 302

Friday, 30 October 1992
Matthew Byers—Presiding

9:45 a.m.

KJAS

The Effect of Varying Concentrations of Sulphuric Acid
on the Population and Developmental Stages of Dro-
sophila melanogaster

Ben Campbell—Warren Central High School; sponsored
by Ronica Shuffitt—Moss Middle School

10:00 a.m.

Clock Control of Circadian Changes in Ommatidial Struc-
ture in the Cockroach, Leucophaea maderae

Zhuming Zhang and Blaine R. Ferrell—Western Kentucky
University

10:15 a.m.

Distribution and Status of Amphibians in the Northern
Tier Counties of Kentucky

Paul J. Krusling—Cincinnati Museum and John W. Fer-
ner—Thomas More College

10:30 a.m.

Growth, Body Composition, and Organoleptic Evaluation
of Channel Catfish Fed Diets Containing Various Per-
centages of Distillers Grains with Solubles

Laura S. Goodgame, James H. Tidwell, and Carl D. Web-
ster—Kentucky State University and Peter B. Johnson—
USDA

10:45 a.m.

Steatitis in Snapping Turtles, Chealydra serpentina

Russell E. Moore (Undergraduate) and Paul V. Cupp—
Eastern Kentucky University

11:00 a.m.

Factors Affecting the Investigatory Behavior of the North-
ern Water Snake, Nerodia sipedon

Eric Pridemore (Undergraduate) and Roy Scudder-Da-
vis—Berea College

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

46 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:30 p.m.

Sense Organ Recruitment in Early Behavior Formation of
Larval Fathead Minnows

Robert Hoyt and Hanan Abdul-Rahim—Western Ken-
tucky University

2:45 p.m.

Impact of Potential Competitors on Shelter Preferences in
Madtour Catfishes

Ashley Walton (Undergraduate) and Michael Barton—
Centre College

3:00 p.m.

Zoology and Entomology Business Meeting

3:15 p.m.

Break

3:30 p.m.

Insect Populations on Potatoes as Influenced by Different
Colored Plastic Mulches

Patti L. Rattlingourd, John D. Sedlacek, Bryan D. Price,
and Dietra N. Draper (Undergraduate)—Kentucky State
University and Monica M. Williams—Western Hills High
School

3:45 p.m.

Insect Populations on Okra as Influenced by Different Col-
ored Plastic Mulches

Monica M. Williams—Western Hills High School and John
D. Sedlacek, Patti L. Rattlingourd, Bryan D. Price, and
Dietra N. Draper (Undergraduate)—Kentucky State
University

4:00 p.m.

Insect Populations on Sweet Potatoes as Influenced by Dif-
ferent Colored Plastic Mulches

Dietra N. Draper (Undergraduate), John D. Sedlacek, Pat-
ty L. Rattlingourd, and Bryan D. Price—Kentucky State
University and Monica M. Williams—Western Hills High
School

4:15 p.m.

Ovipositional Stimuli of Angoumois Grain Moth, A Lep-
idopteran Pest of Stored Grains

Paul A. Weston, Jacqualine Perkins (High School), and
Patti L. Rattlingourd—Kentucky State University

4:30 p.m.

Pesticide Impact on Populations of Insects in Stored Shelled
Corn

John D. Sedlacek, Paul A. Weston, Bryan D. Price, and
Patti L. Rattlingourd—Kentucky State University

4:45 p.m.

Kentucky Pesticide User Practices and Alternatives 1990

Monte P. Johnson—University of Kentucky

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Matthew Byers—Presiding

8:15 a.m.

The Dragonflies and Damselflies (Insecta: Odonata) of Buck
Creek, Pulaski County, Kentucky, with Ecological Ob-
servations

Randall G. Payne and Guenter A. Schuster—Eastern Ken-
tucky University

8:30 a.m.

A Two-Year Biomonitoring Study of a Constructed Wet-
land Treating Acid Mine Drainage

B. A. Ramey—Eastern Kentucky University and H. G.
Halverson—USDA Forest Service

8:45 a.m.

A Preliminary Study of Digenetic Trematode Cercariae
From the Snail, Helisoma trivolvis, at Owsley Fork Res-
ervoir

Jose M. Ilagan, Marichelle Asuncion, Jessica K. Starnes,
and Audrey d’Souza (Undergraduates)—Berea College

9:00 a.m.

In vitro Culture of Microplitis croceipes Teratocytes and
the Production of Teratocyte Secretory Products

Eric Schepers, D. Dahlman, and Deqing Zhang—Univer-
sity of Kentucky

9:15 a.m.

Microplitis croceipes Teratocytes Regulate Protein Syn-
thesis in Heliothis virescens Larvae

Deqing Zhang—University of Kentucky and D. L. Dahl-
man

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:30 a.m.

Gene Expression in Drosophila melanogaster: Right-left
Correlation of Wing Venation

Lynn A. Ebersole—Northern Kentucky University

11:45 a.m.

Behavioral and Physiological Stress Responses of Fathead
Minnows and Northern Studfish to a Predator

Judith Johnson, James Martin (Undergraduates), and
Christine Barton—Centre College

12:00 noon

Behavioral Responses of Northern Studfish to Visual and
Chemical Cues From a Bass

Caroline Sinex (Undergraduate) and Christine Barton—
Centre College

SEcTIONS L AND M—CompuTER SCIENCE
AND MATHEMATICS

Richard A. Rink—Chairman of Computer Science
Russel M. Brengelman—Chairman of Mathematics
Art Shindhelm—Secretary of Mathematics
Room L284

Saturday, 31 October 1992

Russel M. Brengelman—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 47

3:00 p.m.

The Tangram—A Manipulative of Geometric Interest

Carroll G. Wells—Western Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

The Numerical Solution of a Nonlinear Schrodinger Equa-
tion Using a Finite Element Method

Mark P. Robinson—Western Kentucky University and
Graeme Fairweather—University of Kentucky

3:30 p.m.

Object-Oriented Simulation—An Overview

John Crenshaw—Western Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

Teaching Fuzzy Logic—Why? When? Where?

Art Shindhelm—Western Kentucky University

SECTION N—ENGINEERING

Keith Rouch—Chairman
Issam Harik—Secretary
Room L269

Saturday, 31 October 1992
Keith Rouch—Presiding

9:00 a.m.

Gold - Silicon Eutectic Die Bonding in Micro-Electronic
Components

Alan A. Johnson—University of Louisville

9:15 a.m.

The Brent-Spence Bridge: Will it Survive the Big Earth-
quake?

Issam E. Harik, Meiwen Guo, and David L. Allen—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium
11:15 a.m. zi

Stress Evaluation of Welded Steel Bridges on Coal-Haul
Routes

Keith J. Hogan, Issam E. Harik, and Theodore Hopwood
Il—University of Kentucky

11:30 a.m.

Unattented High-Resolution Earthquake Data Collector

Robert J. Dugan—University of Kentucky

11:45 a.m.

Torsional Analysis Procedures for Drive System Vibration

John R. Baker and Keith Rouch—University of Kentucky

SECTION Q—AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Robert J. Barney—Chairperson
Room A222

Friday, 30 October 1992
Robert J. Barney—Presiding

10:30 a.m.
The London Planetree—Origins and Nomenclature
James M. Martin—Western Kentucky University

10:45 a.m.

Herbicide Leaching in Vegetable Culture

M. E. Byers, G. F. Antonious, T. Baker (Undergraduate),
and D. L. Tyess (Undergraduate)—Kentucky State Uni-
versity

11:00 a.m.

Herbicide Runoff Losses in Vegetable Culture

M. E. Byers, G. F. Antonious, and D. L. Tyess (Under-
graduate)—Kentucky State University

11:15 a.m.

Soil and Water Conservation in Vegetable Culture Under
Three Management Regimes

M. E. Byers, G. F. Antonious, D. Hilborn, and R. Cal-
houn—Kentucky State University

11:30 a.m.

Sustainable Management Practices in Vegetable Culture:
Influence on Yield

M. E. Byers, G. F. Antonious, R. Calhoun, and D. Hil-
born—Kentucky State University

11:45 a.m.

KJAS

Can Corn Yields Be Increased By Sidedressing Sulfur Fer-
tilizer?

Lisa Powell—South Henderson Jr. High School; sponsored
by Susan Mueller

1:00 p.m.
Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.
Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

A Simple Method for Isolating Uniform Soybean (Glycine
max (L.) Merr.) cv. Fayette

M. M. Rahman—Kentucky State University

3:00 p.m.

Factors Affecting the Performance of Stocker Cattle Dur-
ing the First 30 Days of a Receiving Program

B. R. Pratt, D. G. Britt, and M. Judge—Eastern Kentucky
University

3:15 p.m.

Leaching Rates of Three Soil Medias in a Floating Hy-
droponic System

G. L. Janicke, T. M. Hughes, and D. G. Barkley—Eastern
Kentucky University

Saturday, 31 October 1992

8:00 a.m.

Repeatabilities of Pelvic Area Measurements Between and
Within Technicians With Varying Levels of Experience

Gordon F. Jones and Steven B. Fitzner—Western Ken-
tucky University

8:15 a.m.

Swine Breed Differences in Agglutination Titers Following
Vaccination With Sheep Red Blood Cells and Pasteu-
rella Multocida (Serotype A)

Gordon F. Jones, Ken J. Stalder, and Cheryl D. Davis—
Western Kentucky University

48 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

8:30 a.m.

Equidistant Plant Spacings and Yield Components of Bush
Snap Beans

Jac Widodo, Timothy P. Hafner, and Elmer Gray—West-
ern Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Effects of Planting Date, Mulch Application, Seeds/Hill,
and Hill Spacings on Seedling Emergence and Plant
Survival of Bush Snap Beans

Elmer Gray and Naysa M. Call (Undergraduate)— West-
ern Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

Use of Soybean Meal, Raw Soybeans, and Heat-Treated
Soybeans As Protein Supplements With and Without
Niacin for Dairy Cows in Early Lactation

James L. Pierce (Undergraduate), Daniel E. Aguilar, Jodie
A. Pennington, and David R. Hartman—Western Ken-
tucky University

9:30 a.m

Refreshments, Student Lounge

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, Auditorium

11:15 a.m.

Study of Soy Protein Products in Milk Replacers and Early
Weaning Diets for Pre-ruminant Calves

Mark C. Barrow and David A. Stiles—Western Kentucky
University

11:30 a.m.

Evaluation of Early Weaning Diets for Baby Pigs

David A. Stiles, Mark C. Barrow, and Ken Stalder—West-
ern Kentucky University

11:45 p.m.

Composting Fractions of Municipal Solid Waste

L. B. Hughes and R. M. Schneider—Western Kentucky
University

SECTION R—INDUSTRIAL SCIENCES

Estel M. Hobbs—Chairperson
Burtron H. Davis—Secretary
Room L269

Friday, 830 October 1992
Estel Hobbs—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, Auditorium

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Student Lounge

2:45 p.m.

Auto/Oil Air Quality Improvement Research Program Re-
sults

Estel M. Hobbs—Ashland Petroleum Company

3:00 p.m.

Meeting 1995 Specifications for Reformulated Gasolines

Jamie M. Kersey, Charles Allen Johnson, Howard F. Moore,
and Maurice M. Mitchell, Jr.—Ashland Petroleum Com-
pany

3:15 p.m.
Oxygenates in Gasoline by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
Brian K. Wilt and Steven M. Maggard—Ashland Oil

POsTER PRESENTATIONS

1. Formation of Mixed Crystals from p-Methylbenzoic
Acid and p-Methoxybenzoic Acid
Polly J. Shrewsbury (Undergraduate)—Centre Col-
lege and Carolyn P. Brock—University of Kentucky

2. Qualitative Organic Chemistry on Computers
Ted C. Shields—Ashland Community College

3. Flacks, Hacks, and Quacks: Trends in Politicizing Sci-
ence
Ted C. Shields and Jon P. Shoemaker—Ashland Com-
munity College

4. The Allelopathic Effect of Juglans nigra and Synthetic
Juglone on the Germination and Growth of Solanum
lycopersicum
Jonathan Fellows (High School)—duPont Manual High
School

5. Survey of Animal Waste Management Practices in the
Barren River Area
Alvin Bedel, O. W. Dotson III, and David A. Stiles—
Western Kentucky University and Ruthi Steff—Mam-
moth Dave RC & D

6. Development and Evaluation of Constructed Wet-
lands for the Waste Management of Large Scale An-
imal Production Units
O. W. Dotson III, Ray Johnson, David Stiles, and Al
Bedel—Western Kentucky University and Susan Mc-
Pherson and Kenneth York—Soil Conservation Ser-

vice

7. Factors Influencing Provision of Dental Services to the
Homeless
Arthur Van Stewart and Eric T. Veal—University of
Louisville

8. Kentucky Survey of Nursing Home Administrators’
Perceptions of Current Dental Service Programs
Arthur Van Stewart and Bryan G. Harness—Univer-
sity of Louisville and Keith Knapp—LIFE SPAN/
University of Louisville and Jackie Fischer—Price
Counseling

9. Perceived vs. Actual Nutritional Status of Southern
Rural Elders
Martha Marlette, Susan Templeton, and Chung Ja
Lee—Kentucky State University

10. The Combined Effects of Acid Rain and Heavy Metal
Pollution on Artemia salinas
Caryn Birchard (High School)—Paris High School
11. Do Anti-Estrogens have Anti-Angiogenic Activity?
A. Gagliamdi, H. Hadd, and D. C. Collins—V.A. Med-
ical Center
12. Anti-Angiogenic Activity of Suramin
D.C. Collins and A. Gagliamdi—V.A. Medical Center
13. Agriculture in General Education
Linda G. Brown and David M. Coffey—Western Ken-
tucky University
14. Evaluation of Distillers Dried Grains with Soblules as

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 49

an Ingredient in Diets for Pond Culture of the Fresh-
water Shrimp Macrobrachium rosenbergii
J. H. Tidwell, D. C. Webster, and J. A. Clark—Ken-
tucky State University and L. R. DAbramo—Missis-
sippi State University

15. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Method for
Studies of Fungi on American Holly Roots, Ilex opaca,
Using Microwave Silver Staining and Hexamethyldi-
silazane (HMDS) Drying
Beverly Giammara, Nancy Esarey (Undergraduate),
Varley Wiedeman, and Marilyn Day—University of
Louisville and Jacob Hanker—University of North
Carolina

16. The Effect of an Income Compensated Price Change
on Soft Drink Consumption in the Rat
Ngozi Kanu (Undergraduate), Amy Woeste (Under-
graduate), Louis Noyd, and David E. Hogan—North-
ern Kentucky University

NSF Young Scholars Program
Western Kentucky University
Valgene Dunham, Director

17. Short-term Effects of Selenium on Rubisco Activity in
Nicotiana tabacum
Emily Bellew—Fulton County High School
18. Negative Staining and Immunogold Labelling of Fla-
gella of Euglena gracilis
Andrew Bentley—Lafayette High School
19. The Short-term Effects of Cadmium on Rubisco Ac-
tivity in Nicotiana tabacum
Benjamin Campbell—Warren Central High School
20. Restriction Mapping of cDNA Inserts from B. napus
Carson Coatney—Hopkinsville High School
21. Ultrastructural Study of the Alga, Euglena gracilis,
Revealed by Transmission Electron Microscopy
Jennifer Duball—Muhlenberg South High School
22. Screening for Spectrin and Tubulin Proteins in Eu-
glenoid and Trypanosoma Cells and Flagella
Mark Fannin—Paintsville High School

23. Expressed Protein Differentiation in Regenerating
Neuromasts of Ambystoma mexicanum
Jonathan Fellows—duPont Manual High School

24. Amino Acid Composition of the VPg Protein from
Southern Bean Mosaic Virus
Joy Greer—Louisville Male Traditional High School

25. Protein Expression During Regeneration of the Tail
of the Axolotl Salamander
Keri Hunter—Pikeville High School

26. The Short Term Effects of Selenium on Isocitrate De-
hydrogenase Activity in Nicotiana tabacum
Robert Jennings—McLean County High School

27. Restriction Mapping of cDNA Clones from B. napus
Brock Jordan—Scott High School

28. Optimal Conditions of Gentamicin Treatment for Hair
Cell Destruction in the Chick Cochlea
Rebecca Massie—Lewis County High School

29. Analytical Studies of Flagellar Motion in Selected Eu-
glenoid Algae
Rachel Phillips—Metcalfe County High School

30. Isolation of the Paraflagellar Body from Euglena grac-
ilis
Sarah Richter—Calloway County High School

31. Site-directed Mutagenesis of the Southern Bean Mo-
saic Virus Protease
Cammie Rinehart—Greenwood High School

32. Effects of Cadmium and Selenium on Tobacco Rubis-
co Levels Determined by Rocket Immunoelectropho-
resis
Amy Turner—Monroe County High School

33. Effects of Cadmium on the Isocritrate Dehydrogenase
Activity in the Tobacco Plant
Brian Vanhoose—Russell High School

34. A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Ethidium Bro-
mide and H83258 (Hoescht fluorochrome) in Dot
Quantitation Assay of DNA
Aaron Wenger—South Oldham High School

35. A Study of High Transformation Efficiency
Holly Willet—Union County High School

36. Optional Conditions for DNA Precipitation
K. T. Williams II—Webster County High School

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL MEETING, 1992

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Agricultural composting of fractions of municipal solid
waste. LUTHER B. HUGHES, JR.* and ROBERT M.
SCHNEIDER, Department of Agriculture, Western Ken-
tucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

After 5 yr of study, an ongoing composting project in
Bowling Green, KY, has demonstrated a successful method
of reduction of an important fraction of municipal solid
waste. Approximately 20,000 yd? of leaves have been pro-
cessed annually on a well-drained site on the Western
Kentucky University Farm. With grinding and regular
“turning” of windrows of the composting leaves to insure

good aeration and no offensive odors, a mulch-like product,
well received by the public, has been produced. Analysis
of the product showed that concentration of all heavy
metals was well below established standards of concern.
This project has clearly demonstrated that agriculture can
play an important role in reducing the amount of munic-
ipal solid waste going into landfills and, by this process,
can save a community of 50,000 people over $200,000 in
disposal costs.

Agriculture in general education. L. G. BROWN* and
D. M. COFFEY, Department of Agriculture, Western
Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

The need for increased agricultural literacy in the Unit-
ed States has been recognized, even by the National Re-
search Council. In an effort to improve agricultural literacy
among college students, Western Kentucky University of-
fers “The Science of Agriculture,” a 3 credit-hour course
that partially fulfills the university-wide general education
requirement for at least 9 credit-hours of natural-science
instruction. The wide cross-section of majors who enroll
in this course are exposed to biological and chemical con-
cepts that are fundamental to understanding agronomy,
horticulture, and animal science. Additionally, world food
supply, agriculture’s history, and contemporary agricul-
tural issues are presented. Course content, a profile of
students recently enrolled in the course, course format,
and student response are discussed in this paper.

Development and evaluation of constructed wetlands
for waste management of large scale animal production
units. O. W. DOTSON, III,* RAY JOHNSON, AL BE-
DEL,* and DAVID STILES, Department of Agriculture,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101;
SUSAN MCPHERSON and KENNETH YORK, USDA-
SCS, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

A long-term monitoring study of constructed wetlands
for the management of large-scale swine units (1,200 and
1,700 sows) was developed. This multi-disciplinary (WKU-
Agriculture, Biology, and Chemistry; Kentucky Division
of Conservation and Division of Water-NPS; and USDA-
Soil Conservation Service) effort will attempt to monitor
the adjacent streams, groundwater, and animal waste la-
goons as well as the artificial wetlands for a baseline period
of 1 yr and for the succeeding 5 yr. Biological review of
the streams will include algae, invertebrate and vertebrate
populations, and chemical analyses of water (N, P, K, solid,
pH, BOD, coliform, and other mineral elements per USDA-
SCS recommendation for wetlands). Wetland plant ma-
terial and influent and effluent wastewater (as it moves
from cell to cell) will be studied. Evaluation of these data
will confirm the benefits of constructed wetlands for an-
imal waste management. Data and observations should aid
in construction and correct management of Kentucky’s
constructed wetlands.

Effects of planting dates and cultural practices on emer-
gence and survival of bush snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris).
NEYSA M. CALL* and ELMER GRAY, Department of
Agriculture, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
KY 42101.

Seedling emergence is a critical stage in the life cycle
of beans. Emergence is influenced by soil moisture and
temperature, by soil crusting and compaction, and by dis-
eases and insects. In 1991 and 1992, experiments were
conducted to compare the effects of planting dates (bi-
weekly, 15 May-15 Jul), seeds per hill (1, 2, and 4), hill
spacings (1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 in), and mulching (none vs.
approximately 1 in leaf mulch) on the emergence and
survival of “Blue Lake 274’ bush snap beans. Data were
obtained on percentages of seedling emergence and plant

survival at 4 wk after planting and at maturity. Although
emergence in various treatments equaled or exceeded the
reported germination (85%) for the seeds, average emer-
gence percentages were variable and lower for the years
and treatments. Emergence percentages were as follows:
overall (52%); planting dates—15 May (65%), 1 Jun (51),
15 Jun (47), 1 Jul (58), and 15 Jul (44); seeds per hill—1
(54%), 2 (52), and 4 (51); hill spacings—1 in (55%), 2 in
(54), 4 in (52), 8 in (50), and 16 in (52); and mulching—
none (52%) and 1 in (52). Overall plant survival percent-
ages were 48 at 4 wk and 46 at maturity. The treatment
effects were not conclusive. Emergence and survival ap-
peared to be slightly higher for early plantings, closer
spacings, and single plants per hill. Planting date and mulch
application appeared to influence other plant character-
istics including pod yield. Soil moisture at planting and
subsequent rainfall were critical to plant emergence.

Equidistant plant spacing and yield components of bush
snap beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). WIDODO, TIMOTHY
P. HAFNER, and ELMER GRAY,* Department of Ag-
riculture, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
KY 42101.

‘Blue Lake 274’ and ‘Kentucky Wonder 125’ bush snap
beans were compared at four equidistant spacings (8, 6,
9, 12 in) in 1989 and 1990 at Bowling Green, KY. The
total aboveground plant material was separated into veg-
etative and pod yields. Pods were further divided into
hulls and seeds. Pods/plant, seeds/plant, and seeds/pod
were counted. Performance was significantly higher for
‘Kentucky Wonder 125’ than for “Blue Lake 274’ for total
yield and all of the components except vegetative yield
and pods/plant. Spacing treatments differed significantly
for total yield and for all components except seeds/pod.
Likewise, the linear relationship between plant spacing
and yield was positive and significant for total yield and
for all components except seeds/pod. Total plant yield and
all components, except vegetative yield, were significantly
higher in 1989 than 1990. None of the years < spacings
or cultivars < spacings interactions was significant; how-
ever, the cultivars x years interactions were significant
for total yield and for several components. Contrary to
previously reported research results, these two determinate
cultivars exhibited significant plasticity in individual plant
response to spacing. The premise for increasing yield
through higher population densities is that determinate
snap beans have little developmental plasticity.

Evaluation of early weaning diets for baby pigs. DAVID
A. STILES,* MARK C. BARROW, and KEN STALDER,
Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Eleven litters of crossbred pigs were offered one of three
diets at 15 d of age while still nursing. The treatments
were: high milk product prestarter (20% crude protein and
7% fat), high soy protein replacer (22% crude protein and
10% fat), and a commercial prestarter (M) (22% crude
protein and 7% fat). In trial I, weights were recorded at

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING ol

days 15 and 29. The pigs were weaned at 29 d. Average
daily gains and feed intake while nursing the sow were
259 and 72 g, 290 and 86 g, and 295 and 90 g, respectively,
for milk product starter, soy protein starter, and com-
mercial prestarter. No differences (P > 0.05) were ob-
served. During the 7 d postweaning period (29-36), the
following growth and feed intakes, respectively, were ob-
served: 240 and 304 g (milk product starter); 182 and 259
g (soy protein starter); and 272 and 295 g (commercial
prestarter). There were no significant differences (P >
0.05). In trial II, with fewer litters, pigs were weaned from
the sow as early as 15 d. Growth appeared reduced on the
soy protein diet. Pig health was good and normal growth
was observed. High soy protein diets for baby pigs merit
further study.

Herbicide leaching in vegetable culture. MATTHEW
E. BYERS, GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, TRACY L. BA-
KER,* and DEBBIE L. TYESS, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, KY 40601.

The use of herbicides to control weeds on erodible lands
may reduce the need for tillage and help sustain the soil
bank. However, herbicide leaching may affect ground-
water quality. The purpose of this study was to determine
if clomazone (2-(2-chloropheny!)methyl-4,4-dimethy]-3-
isoxazolidinone), a selective herbicide, was a threat to
groundwater under the experimental conditions. Cloma-
zone was applied at 1.1 kg/ha to plots (12.5 x 72 ft) on
a 10% slope, with lowell silt loam soil, and to which pepper
transplants were planted. Plots had either fescue strips,
black plastic mulch, or no-mulch as soil treatments. Cloma-
zone was monitored using tension lysimeters located at the
top, middle, and bottom of each plot, and within each
location were placed at three depths, 1, 2, and 5 ft. Samples
were drawn monthly. Sampling followed rigorous QA/QC
procedures. Extraction was liq/liq using hexane. Analysis
was by GC-NPD and GC-MS. Clomazone was found in
<2.0 ppb for 1 and 2 ft and <0.25 ppb for 5 ft during
the July sampling (1st sampling post-application). All levels
diminished to <0.25 ppb by September. Fescue strips re-
duced runoff but increased infiltration of clomazone rel-
ative to BP and NM. Although leaching occurred, con-
centrations were very low. Impact at such levels to exposed
organisms is unknown.

Herbicide runoff losses in vegetable culture. MAT-
THEW E. BYERS, GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, DEBRA
L. TYESS,* and DEBRA HILBORNE, Kentucky State
University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

The use of herbicides may be compatible with sustain-
able agriculture to reduce tillage and therefore erosion.
But herbicide may be lost in runoff water. The purpose
of this study was to determine if clomazone, (2-(2-chlo-
rophenyl)methy]-4,4,dimethyl-3-isoxazolidinone), was lost
in runoff water, under the experimental conditions, and
at what levels. Clomazone was applied at 1.1 kg/ha to
plots (12.5 x 72 ft) on a 10% slope, with lowell silt loam
soil. Influence of two crops (peppers and pumpkins) and

three soil treatments—fescue strips, black plastic mulch
(BP), and no mulch (NM)—was determined by assigning
treatments (2 x 3 factorial) to blocks (RCBD). The ex-
periment was replicated three times. Runoff was caught
and measured in tipping buckets and samples were col-
lected within 12 hr of last rainfall event. Samples were
extracted using hexane; analysis was by GC-NPD and GC-
MS. In the field, losses decreased over time from 175.7,
2,380.7, and 4,100.3 mg/ha after the first rainfall after
spraying in June, to 0, 0.183, and 2.267 mg/ha by Sep-
tember in the fescue, BP, and NM plots, respectively.
Concentrations after spraying were 0.00595, 0.00805, and
0.329 ug/ml and by September were 0, 3.3 x 10-°, and
0.000417 ug/ml for fescue, BP, and NM, respectively. NM
plots consistently lost more clomazone to runoff; fescue
strips reduced runoff. Impact at detected levels is un-
known.

London planetree—origins and nomenclature. JAMES
M. MARTIN, Department of Agriculture, Western Ken-
tucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

The London planetree (Platanus x acerifolia), isa wide-
ly planted street tree in Europe and the U.S. However, its
origins are obscure and its nomenclature is confused. Based
on powerful circumstantial evidence, the most cogent the-
ory is that it originated as a chance crossing of the sycamore
(P. occidentalis) and the oriental planetree (P. orientalis)
in the Oxford Botanic Garden about 1670. The specimen
of the original London plane tree in the Sherard Herbar-
ium at Oxford University has notes by Jacob Bobart Jr.,
curator of the Botanic Garden in the late 17th century,
referring to the tree as Platanus inter orientalem et oc-
cidentalem media and describing characters somewhere
between P. occidentalis and P. orientalis. This was the
first mention of the tree. The original tree is no longer
extant, but a 200-yr-old specimen propagated by a cutting
from it is on the Magdalen Campus at Oxford. The type
specimen is in the herbarium at the Berlin Botanic Garden.
Willdenow named it Platanus xacerifolia in 1805. Pri-
ority was denied to Brotero’s P x hybrida because of con-
fusing identification of his type specimen. The use of the
name P. x hispanica by the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew
is incorrect as this plant is considered a seedling of P.
x acerifolia.

Repeatabilities of cattle-pelvic-area measurements be-
tween and among technicians with various levels of ex-
perience. GORDON F. JONES* and STEVEN B. FITZ-
NER, Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

There has been some concern recently about the ability
of technicians to accurately measure and rank prospective
replacement heifers and herd bulls for pelvic area. Two
studies were conducted to determine the repeatabilities
between and among technicians with various levels of ex-
perience in measuring pelvic areas. In both studies, pri-
miparous yearling heifers were measured for pelvic height
and width to determine pelvic area. In each study, tech-

02 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

nicians included a veterinarian with several years expe-
rience in reproductive physiology practice and Western
Kentucky University students with various levels of ex-
perience in rectal examinations. In the first study, the
veterinarian used both the “Krautmann-Litton” pelvim-
eter and the “Rice” pelvimeter; in the second study, the
veterinarian used only the “Krautmann-Litton” pelvim-
eter. In both studies, the students used a “Rice” pelvimeter.
Coefficients of correlation and Spearman's coefficients of
rank correlation were calculated to determine repeatabil-
ities between and within technicians. In the first experi-
ment, the correlations between technicians for pelvic area
ranged from 0.66 to 0.92 and Spearman’s rank correlations
between technicians ranged from 0.65 to 0.92. In the sec-
ond, the correlations between and among technicians for
pelvic area ranged from 0.78 to 0.97 and Spearman’s rank
correlations between and among technicians ranged from
0.77 to 0.95. These results show clearly that cattle breeders
can become proficient at measuring the pelvic area of
heifers and bulls and in ranking them for selection pur-
poses.

Soil and water conservation in vegetable culture under
three soil management practices. D. HILBORN,* G. AN-
TONIOUS, M. BYERS, and R. CALHOUN, Kentucky
State University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

Runoff and sediment yield during 1992 from an exper-
imental area of 10% slope support results of earlier studies
that concluded soil erosion is a serious problem. The pres-
ent study involved testing three soil management systems
including fescue strips, black plastic mulch (BP), and no-
mulch (NM) in side-by-side comparisons to determine best
management system in conserving soil and water. Pepper
transplants or pumpkin seeds were planted in USLE std.
plots (n=18). Runoff water and sediment were sampled
using tipping buckets at the bottom of each plot. Runoff
varied with rainfall amounts, which varied from 0.82 to
4.44 in rain per runoff event. No significant differences (P
= (0.05) were observed between the amount of runoff water
per average event in NM treatment (10,071 liter/ha) and
BP (12,172 liter/ha); significant reduction in runoff (1,550
liter/ha) was clear in plots having fescue strips. Sediment
yield was 2,833 in NM treated plots, 995 in BP, and 6-kg/
ha in fescue plots. Pumpkin provided an apparently good
ground cover (prostrate crop). During heavy rains, runoff
below the canopy of pumpkin plants removed 9.92 kg
sediment/ha in comparison to 69.43 kg sediment loss in
pepper planted plots. A mulch treatment is recommended
as a soil-bank stabilizing treatment for vegetable farming
on erodible lands. Fescue strips are highly recommended.

Study of soy protein products in milk replacers and early
weaning diets for pre-ruminant calves. MARK BARROW
and DAVID STILES,* Department of Agriculture, West-
ern Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Jersey and Holstein bull calves (5J and 2H/trt) were
offered one of three treatments: treatment 1—all-milk
product (M) milk replacer offered for 42 d; treatment 2—

soy (S) based milk replacer (% of protein from soy protein)
also fed for 42 d; and treatment 3—a pelleted pre-starter
(P). The treatment 3 group was fed the all-milk liquid
replacer (at 10% of body weight per day) until 21 d, when
they were weaned to the dry pellets (22% CP). Overall
(56 d) average daily gains were not different (P > 0.10)
with M—0.327 kg/d, S—0.277 kg/d, and P—0.295 kg/d.
Overall feed intake was not different. The calves fed the
pellets did gain more slowly (P < 0.10) for the period (21-
42 d) when weaned from liquid replacer to pellets than
the calves fed the all-milk product replacer. The high soy
milk replacer diet and the pelleted prestarter appear to
be viable alternatives for feeding dairy calves but need
further study.

Survey of animal waste management practice in the
Barren River area, Kentucky. ALVIN BEDEL,* O. W.
DOTSON, III,* DAVID STILES, RAY JOHNSON, and
RUTHIE STEFF, Department of Agriculture, Western
Kentucky University, and RC&D-SCS USDA, Bowling
Green, KY 42101.

The Barren River area with its karst topography has the
potential for polluting ground water from animal waste
disposal. A survey instrument was developed to collect
information on waste disposal methods of livestock pro-
ducers in Allen, Barren, Butler, Edmonson, Hart, Logan,
Simpson, and Warren counties. An attempt was made to
include all livestock producers in those counties. There
were 360 survey instruments sent to producers (response
rate, 33%); 86 farms had dairy animals, 22 farms a swine
enterprise, and 39 farms a beef enterprise. Livestock num-
bers ranged from six cows per farm to 7,500 hogs per farm.
The most common method of waste disposal was a lagoon
(27%) and then hauling from a stack pad (21%). The most
important single purpose of animal waste application was
for improving soil fertility (42.1%), but a combination of
emptying the facility and as a part of a fertility program
was the most often cited (45.8%). Concentration of manure
measured by animals per acre ranged from 0.58 on the
beef and dairy farms to 2.68 on the beef farms. In addition,
59 responses (52%) agreed to allow us to visit their farms
and take samples.

Sustainable management practices: influence on yield.
RHONDA J. CALHOUN,* MATTHEW E. BYERS,
GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, and DEBRA J. HILBORN,
Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

An acceptable vegetable yield, reduced soil erosion, and
water conservation are determining factors used to qualify
a specific procedure as the best management practice
(BMP). The limited resource farmer must be able to obtain
low-budget maintenance while producing acceptable veg-
etable yields. This research is part of a larger study in-
cluding pesticide dissipation and conservation of soil and
water to determine the BMP among tested systems. The
yields of pumpkin and pepper as influenced by three soil
treatment systems—black plastic mulch (BP), fescue strips,

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 53

and no-mulch (NM)—were determined. Eighteen plots (72
x 12.5 ft) were located on a 10% slope. The experiment
was replicated three times. Crops were harvested over a
3-yr period, weighed, and graded. An ANOVA was con-
ducted and year, treatment, date, and row effects were
noted. Overall mean yields of peppers were 5.0, 3.3, and
3.7 and pumpkin were 88.7, 42.7, and 57.9 kg/7.3 m row
for BP, fescue, and NM treatments, respectively. In both
pumpkin and pepper yield data, year 1 was affected by
fescue competition. This problem was corrected by in-
creasing row width from 24 to 48 in. It has been deter-
mined that BP produced the most acceptable yields of the
three systems, but, relative to fescue, was not the best for
soil or water conservation. Plastic and installation equip-
ment is expensive and may not be considered an option
with respect to limited resource farming operations.

Swine breed differences in agglutination titers following
vaccination with sheep red blood cells and Pasteurella
multocida (serotype A). GORDON F. JONES,* K. J.
STALDER, and C. D. DAVIS, Department of Agriculture,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

An investigation into genetic differences in the humoral
immune response of swine following vaccination with a
sheep red blood cell solution (SRBC) and a commercially
prepared Pasteurella multocida (serotype A) bacterin in
(PmA) was conducted on 150 pigs. This study also eval-
uated the humoral immune response of pigs to a non-
pathogen (SRBC) and a known pathogen to swine (PmA).
The pigs were from 10 litters born in spring and 6 litters
born in summer 1991 consisting of crossbred Hampshire
x Yorkshire (n = 91), purebred Yorkshire (n = 42), and
Hampshire (n = 17). Individual pigs were vaccinated at
5 and 8 wk of age with 2 ml of a 5% SRBC solution and
1 ml of a killed PmA bacterin. At 11 wk 8 ml of blood
was collected from each animal and serum prepared to

determine antibody titer levels against the two antigens
by agglutination methods. Results indicate that breed of
pig affected the immune response against both PmA (P <
0.01) and SRBC (P < 0.02), with the Hampshire x York-
shire crossbred pigs having higher titer levels against the
PmA than either Hampshire or Yorkshire purebred pigs.
The purebred Yorkshire pigs were not statistically different
from either the purebred Hampshire or the Hampshire x
Yorkshire crossbred pigs in their antibody response to SRBC;
however, the Hampshire x Yorkshire crossbred pigs were
higher than the Hampshire pigs. A low positive correlation
of 0.27 was found between the pigs’ antibody responses
to PmA and SRBC. Results suggest that further studies
into breed differences of the immune response in swine
are warranted. Results also suggest that further studies are
needed to evaluate sheep red blood cells as a suitable
antigen when conducting research to analyze the immune
response in swine.

Use of soybean meal, raw soybeans, and heat-treated
soybeans as protein supplements for dairy cows in early
lactation with and without niacin. JAMES L. PIERCE,*
DANIEL E. AGUILAR, JODIE A. PENNINGTON, and
DAVID R. HARTMAN, Department of Agriculture,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Fifty-six cows from day 10 to day 150 postpartum were
utilized to measure the effects of soybean meal (SBM), raw
soybeans (RS), and heat-treated soybeans (HTS) with ni-
acin (+N) and without niacin (—N) on milk, 4% fat cor-
rected milk (FCM), solid corrected milk (SCM), dry matter
intake (DMI), % fat, % protein (% PRO), % lactose (%
LAC), body weight (BWT), and body condition score (BCS)
based on 1-100.

Overall, HTS and SBM yielded greater production and
DMI than RS. Niacin improved both milk production and
DMI in these early lactation cows.

FCM SCM DMI % % % BWT
Milk (Ibs/week) FAT PRO LAC Ibs BCS
SBM 444 412 408 371 3.63 3.00 5.01 1,315 46
RS 377 353 350 338 3.53 2.94 5.07 1,275 45
HTS 439 414 4ll 357 3.61 3.01 5.12 1,308 43
P 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.077 0.009 0.001 0.001 0.114
+N 435 41] 407 367 3.60 2.99 5.12 1,309 45
—N 401 378 375 346 3.57 2.98 5.01 1,292 44
P 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.429 0.540 0.001 0.138 0.850

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Comparison of flagellar motion in selected euglenoid
algae (Euglenophyceae). NANCY S. DAWSON,* AMY
BAKER, BRAD WEAVER, and DAVID PITTMAN, De-
partment of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowl-
ing Green, KY 42101.

Selected taxa of euglenoid organisms were video-taped,
utilizing video-enhanced Nomarski differential interfer-

ence contrast microscopy, and were analyzed to deter-
mined characteristic flagellar movement. Patterns of fla-
gellar wave propagation were determined primarily during
cell swimming. Typically, phagotrophic species such as
Peranema possess two emergent flagella, one projecting
anteriorly and propagating asymmetric, helical, sinusoidal
waves, and one directed posteriorly, remaining closely ap-
pressed to the cell body with no noticeable motion. Os-
motrophic euglenoids such as Distigma propagate rapid

04 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

helical waves along the anteriorly directed flagellum and
slow, paddle-like planar waves in the shorter, recurved
flagellum. Photosynthetic euglenoids such as Euglena have
a single emergent flagellum, which appears to function
like the anteriorly directed flagellum of phagotrophic and
osmotrophic genera. Preliminary designations of function-
ally homologous flagella will be made, and details of the
flagellar system and nature of heterodynamic motility in
this group of algae will be presented.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) method for studies
of fungi on roots of American holly (Ilex opaca) using
microwave silver staining and hexamethyldisilazane
(HMDS) drying. BEVERLY GIAMMARA, Graduate Pro-
grams and Research, NANCY ESAREY,* VARLEY
WIEDEMAN, and MARILYN DAY, Department of Bi-
ology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292; and
JACOB HANKER, Biomedical Engineering, University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599.

The determination of fungi, invasive or non-invasive,
on American holly root is time-consuming and difficult.
For this study, selected specimens were obtained from
Bernheim Forest and fixed with 4% formaldehyde/1%
glutaraldehyde on site. Since silver stains are known to
stain fungi selectively, a newly developed microwave sil-
ver stain (Sigma Diagnostics HT 100) was used. The spec-
imens were further processed through a dehydration series,
followed by HMDS drying to retain good structural in-
tegrity. This allowed fungal presence to be determined by
light microscope followed by SEM using back-scattered
electron imaging in the reverse polarity mode. Fungi was
easily located on the same large specimen due to the Z
contrast of the silver. These same areas of the root con-
taining fungi were then cut under a light microscope and
further embedded in Epon-Araldite. Quick polymeriza-
tion was achieved by using 15 min microwave at 50 power
level. Semi-thin sections (1 um) and ultra-thin sections (70
nm) were obtained using ultramicrotomy and examined
by SEM or Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). This
new method allows determination of the presence of pen-
etrating fungi and preservation of internal structure of
both fungi and root.

CHEMISTRY

Analysis of Fat Oxidation by FT-NMR. DE CHEN,*
DAVID HARTMAN, and JOHN REASONER, Depart-
ment of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowl-
ing Green, KY 42101.

Fats and oils are a major source of calories in the Amer-
ican diet. Frying in fat or oil is a method of cooking
commonly used for manufacture and preparation of foods.
The fat serves as a heat transfer medium and as an im-
portant ingredient of the fried food, providing flavor, en-
ergy, and essential fatty acids. Edible oils are easily oxi-
dized when used for frying. Oxidation originates with
double bonds present in unsaturated fatty acids. High res-
olution fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance (FT-

NMR) spectroscopy has found increasing use in biochem-
istry. One pure fat, triolein, was heated at 160°C in the
presence of air. Samples were taken for FT-NMR analysis
at 4, 10, 20, 25, and 85 hr. Proton, carbon-13, and several
types of two-dimensional FT-NMR spectra were obtained
using a JEOL 270 Mhz instrument. The spectra suggests
initial oxidation occurs by an allyl free radical mechanism
facilitating the formation of epoxide and peroxide prod-
ucts.

Formation of mixed crystals from p-methylbenzoic acid
and p-methoxybenzoic acid. POLLY J. SHREWSBURY*
and CAROLYN P. BROCK, Department of Chemistry,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Conditions for the formation of solid solutions of mol-
ecules were given by Kitaigorodskii (Mixed crystals, 1984):
the molecules must be geometrically similar, and crystals
of the pure compounds must have unit cells of the same
symmetry and of similar dimensions. A series of para-
substituted benzoic acids, R=H, CH;, OCH, Cl, and Br
were studied. X-ray powder diffraction patterns of the
pure compounds were compared with patterns of crystals
grown from 1:1 (molar basis) solutions in ethanol of the
ten possible pairs of compounds. Two substances, p-meth-
ylbenzoic acid (toluic acid) and p-methoxybenzoic acid
(anisic acid), were selected for further study. Toluic and
anisic acids appear to form mixed crystals. The unit cell
constants and the habit of crystals grown from toluic/anisic
acid solutions are similar to, but not the same as, the cell
constants and the habit of pure anisic acid. An NMR spec-
trum of crystals alike in shape and unlike crystals of pure
anisic acid confirmed the presence of both toluic and anisic
acids in a ratio of ca. 1:4. A solid solution is formed even
though only one of Kitaigorodskii’s three conditions is met.
The toluic and anisic acid molecules differ by only one
atom; presumably, the methyl group on the toluic acid,
or guest, molecule substitutes for the slightly larger me-
thoxy group on the anisic acid, or host, molecule. The
dimensions and symmetries of the unit cells of the pure
compounds, however, are not the same; the arrangements
of the molecules in the two structures are very different.

The cobalt (1120) surface as a template for hydrocarbon
chain formation in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. YON-TAE
JE* and AUDREY L. COMPANION, Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

An explanation is proposed for the observations of Geer-
lings, Zonnevylle and de Groot (Surface Science 241: (1991)
302, 315. 1991) that longer hydrocarbon chains grow on
the zigzag, grooved cobalt (1120) surface during Fischer-
Tropsch reactions, while on stepped (1012) and smooth
(0001) surfaces mainly Cl fragments are observed. Mo-
lecular orbital calculations show that the zigzag troughs
on this surface may act as templates favoring CO disso-
ciation and skeletal carbon chain formation, and that such
events do not occur on stepped and smooth surfaces. Some
speculations are offered on the nanotechnological design
of “custom” templates for hydrocarbon synthesis.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING ta }D)

ENGINEERING

Gold-silicon eutectic die bonding in microelectronic
components. ALAN A. JOHNSON, Speed Scientific School,
University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

The gold-silicon eutectic alloy (19.1 at % Si) is widely
used for die bonding in microelectronics. When such an
alloy is solidified using a cooling rate less than 5°C sec”,
the resulting solid contains nearly pure Au and nearly pure
Si. Higher cooling rates give a mixture of gold silicide
(AusSi) and Au. The Au,Si dissociates into Au and Si by
a surface nucleated reaction accompanied by extensive
cracking caused by a volume change. The reaction front
moves at about 0.03 mm yr~! at room temperature. A die
bonding alloy frequently cools at a rate greater than 5°C
sec !. Die bonds must therefore frequently contain Au,Si.
It is predicted that the Au,Si dissociation reaction will be
found to cause failure in such bonds after several years in
service.

Stress evaluation of welded steel bridges on coal-haul
routes in Kentucky. KEITH J. HOGAN,* Department of
Civil Engineering, THEODORE HOPWOOD, II, Ken-
tucky Transportation Center, and ISSAM E. HARIK, De-
partment of Civil Engineering, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40506.

Kentucky's transportation system as well as the coal
industry rely heavily on highway bridges in order to link
to their respective destinations. In Kentucky, coal haulers
are permitted to carry overloads above the normal legal
weight limits on specific roads designated as “extended-
weight coal-haul routes.” Many extended-weight coal-haul
routes incorporate bridges of welded steel construction.
Those bridges contain welded details (connections) that
are prone to fatigue cracking if subjected to severe loading
conditions. To determine whether the permitted overloads
constitute a fatigue hazard to the bridges, live-load strain
applications on those bridges are monitored at fatigue-
prone welded connections. Strain applications are mea-
sured using strain gages attached adjacent to the connec-
tions of interest, typically those anticipated to be subjected
to the highest live load stress. The strain gages are mon-
itored using “set-and-forget’’ data loggers that monitor and
classify the strain data unattended for periods of up to
several weeks. The collected data are provided as stress
histograms showing the number of load applications versus
the occurring stress. Based on these stress measurements,
extensive fatigue analyses and evaluation will be made in
order to determine if the bridge superstructure has sus-
tained significant fatigue damage. Consequently, this study
will provide a greater assurance of structural integrity as
well as an extended inspection period from 2-5 yr if the
results can prove to be safe.

The Brent-Spence Bridge: will it survive the big earth-
quake? ISSAM E. HARIK* and MEIWEN GUO, De-
partment of Civil Engineering, and DAVID L. ALLEN,
Kentucky Transportation Center, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40506.

The Brent-Spence Bridge, a double-decked bridge, is a
key component on interstate I-75 over the Ohio River
connecting Covington to Cincinnati. The bridge was built
in the early 1960s prior to the implementation of stringent
seismic design codes. The bridge has not yet been subjected
to a big earthquake. After the Loma Prieta earthquake of
17 Oct 1992 and the collapse of the elevated double decked
section of I-880 in Oakland, CA, The Federal Highway
Administration commissioned the seismic evaluation of all
double-decked bridges located in seismically active regions.
The Brent-Spence Bridge is located in a region influenced
by the seismically active New Madrid and the Wabash
seismic zones. The development of detailed mathematical
computer models of the Brent-Spence Bridge are pre-
sented, and the behavior of the various structural com-
ponents is evaluated. The bridge model was subjected to
ground motions under maximum credible earthquake con-
ditions. The bridge will resist the maximum credible earth-
quake within the elastic range of the structural components
without damage.

Unattended high-resolution earthquake-data collector.
ROBERT J. DUGAN, College of Engineering, University
of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Earthquakes that stimulate earth motion sensors pose
special problems in trying to analyze the signals produced.
The event happens at a totally unpredictable time: day-
time, nighttime, weekends, holidays. Event recorders are
therefore slow ink tracings on paper strips. Analyzing such
signals demands far greater resolution than is now com-
monly available. A data collection system is described that
was designed to continuously monitor earth motion signals.
The system operates completely unattended and collects
data in digital form at a rate sufficiently rapid to recreate
the original signal well enough for seismologists to analyze
the real time waveform or the frequency spectrum via
Fourier transform. Off-the-shelf hardware and “stream-
ing” software are used. Unique system requirements and
the custom control software are described. Special prob-
lems relating to unattended remote sites connected by
modem to a master station are explored.

GEOLOGY

Chronostratigraphy of the Big Eddy Section, Mile 605,
Ohio River. GRAHAM HUNT, Department of Geography
and Geosciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, 40292.

Many detailed studies over the past few centuries have
greatly extended our geologic data base of the well known
Silurian/Devonian rocks exposed at the Falls of the Ohio,
in Clarksville, Indiana. However, because of the recent
drawdown of the water levels at the McAlpine Dam, there
is new evidence for the disconformable contact of the
lower Coral Zone of the Jeffersonville Limestone and the
underlying Halysites beds of the Louisville Limestone of
the Middle Silurian Age at Mile 605 of the Ohio River,
herein, referred to as the Big Eddy section.

Some previous workers of the type locality of the Jef-

36 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

fersonville Limestone, Kindle and Butts of the Whirlpool
section and Perkins of the Railroad Bridge section, have
all pointed out the inability to examine the water covered
disconformable contact of rocks of probable Ludlovian/
Emsian Age, located near the Big Eddy section of this
study.

- At the base of the Big Eddy section, a 1 meter thick
section of coarse grained, dolomitic limestone consists
mainly of whole and broken coral—stromatoporoidal fos-
sils in a very sharp contact with the Silurian/Devonian
unconformity. Samples of in situ, upright and mound-like
stromatoporoids were collected along with recumbent ru-
gose corals for age determinations. Some recumbent and
elongate coralla were oriented mainly in an east-west ori-
entation indicating possible tidal activity in late Early De-
vonian time.

Some beds of the Jeffersonville Limestone are charac-
terized by carbonaceous partings and flakes usually asso-
ciated with vertical N 10 deg. E striking calcite infilled
fractures. The Jeffersonville Limestone is petroliferous in
recent cuts on the nearby highways. Structure contours
suggest the location of a N 30 deg. E striking anticline of
local extent, at Mile 605, Ohio River. At this location the
strikes of vertical joint sets of N 10 deg. E, N 40 deg. W,
and N 88 deg. W are found. Because there are structurally
related fractures associated with specific structures such
as faults and folds, the fractures associated with the faults
will strike parallel to the faults.

Interpretive Center, Falls of the Ohio State Park, In-
diana. GRAHAM HUNT, Department of Geography and
Geosciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292,
and TROY McCORMICK, Indiana Department of Nat-
ural Resources, Falls of the Ohio State Park, New Albany,
IN 47150.

The Falls of the Ohio State Park lies along the north
shore of the Ohio River in Clarksville, Indiana. The park
contains approximately 68 acres of land but lies within the
Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area,
which includes 1,404 acres of Federally protected land
and water. The park was established in 1990, after several
attempts to preserve and protect the area. As the 20th
Indiana State Park, the Falls of the Ohio will specialize in
natural interpretation and education. The focal point for
both the Federal and State properties will be a 16,000
square foot interpretive center that is planned to open in
1993. Situated on the bluff, overlooking the Ohio River
and Devonian fossil beds, the interpretive center will cre-
ate a center for research, study, education, and under-
standing of the Falls of the Ohio and surrounding region.

As the only exposed bedrock along the 981 miles of the
Ohio River, the rapids, called the Falls, proved to be a
natural navigational hazard to explorers and early trav-
elers. The “Falls” are actually a series of cascading rapids
that drop twenty-six feet in elevation, in a two and one-
half mile stretch of the river. The significance of the site
to early scientists and researchers was clearly evident as

the Falls still provides 220 acres of exposed Devonian fossil
beds. More than 600 species of fossils have been identified
at the Falls with two-thirds being “type” specimens de-
scribed for the very first time. Recent drilling for the
interpretive center has added new geologic data to our
study.

Fossils from the Haney Limestone, (Mississippian)
Christian County, Kentucky. MALINDA WASHER
POWELL,* Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071,
and JAMES X. CORGAN, Austin Peay State University,
Clarksville, TN 37044.

The Haney Limestone, of Chesterian age, is well ex-
posed along Forbes Creek in northeastern Christian Coun-
ty. Fossils, abundant in many horizons, include brachio-
pods, such as Atrypa and Athyris, that characterize Late
Mississippian faunules everywhere. They also include rarer
taxa referable to the trilobite genus Palladin, the blastoid
genus Pentremites, and the bryozoan genus Archimedes.
The trilobite is Palladin chesterensis. Tentative specific
identifications of bryozoan and echinoderm taxa suggest
that further study of the Haney Limestone will yield many
new distributional records for southern Kentucky. At pres-
ent, a lack of modern revisionary work precludes the easy
identification of meaningful species-group taxa.

The Vertebrate Fossil Collection of the Owensboro Area
Museum of Science and History, Owensboro, Kentucky.
MALCOLM T. SADLER* and JAMES X. CORGAN, Aus-
tin Peay State University, Clarksville, TN 37044.

The Owensboro Area Museum of Science and History
has a diverse collection of Quaternary vertebrate fossils
from sites in north central Kentucky and adjacent Indiana.
Well-documented specimens represent four Pleistocene and
Recent localities. Two Pleistocene sites are under the wa-
ters of the Ohio River. One yields a mammoth tooth plus
poorly preserved or difficult to identify remains of modern
cattle. It is a mixed Pleistocene-Recent site. Another un-
derwater site yields both mammoth and mastodon in abun-
dance and is entirely Pleistocene. A young Bison bison
bison bull is the only fossil from the third underwater site.
This subspecies first appears about 4,000 years ago. Thus
this site is Recent. It may predate modern populations. At
the fourth site, river bluff sediments yield a poorly pre-
served elephantine tusk. Efforts to recollect or further doc-
ument two additional pachyderm sites are on-going but
vexing. The first is a spring site just south of Owensboro.
We cannot gain access to the land. The second troublesome
site, in Union County, was discovered by an amateur ar-
chaeologist. It is proving difficult to relocate this locality.
In addition to these six sites for which some geographic
data are available, the Owensboro Area Museum of Science
and History has specimens from five other Pleistocene
vertebrate sites that cannot be precisely located. All are
pachyderms, either mastodons or mammoths. Specimens
are useful for display but do not contribute to paleogeo-
graphic knowledge.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING o7

HEALTH SCIENCES

Effects of cyclic energy restriction on body weight re-
duction in oophorohysterectomized Fisher 344 rats. C.
WANG,* C. J. LEE, and A. BABALMORADI, Human
Nutrition Research, Community Research Service, Ken-
tucky State University, Frankfort, NY 40601.

To study the effect of cyclic energy restriction on body
weight reduction, oophorohysterectomized Fisher-344 fe-
male rats (13 mo old, 8/group) were assigned to consume
for 4 mo a control diet freely (C4), 4 mo an energy-
restricted diet at 60% of the average intake of C4 group
(R4), 2 mo the restricted and 2 mo the control (R2C2), 2
mo the control and 2 mo the restricted (C2R2), 2 cycles
of 1 mo the control and 1 mo the restricted (C1R1C1R1),
or 2 cycles of 1 mo the restricted and 1 mo the control
diet (RIC1R1C1). The control diet contained 50 g Ca, 40
g P, 5 g Mg, and 200 g protein per kg. The energy-
restricted diet was formulated so that 60 g provided only
60% of the energy, but the same amounts of other nutrients
except carbohydrate as 100 g of control diet. When switched
from the restricted diet to the control diet, rats of R2C2,
RICIRIC1, and CIR1CIR1 consumed greater amounts
of food than the R4 group. Weight loss during the second
cycle was greater than for the first cycle for CIRICIR1
and RICIRI1C1 groups, but weight loss of RICIR1C1
group during the third month was similar to that of C2R2
(with no prior restriction) during the same month. Cyclic
energy restriction caused similar reduction in body weight
as first time energy restriction when animal age and ex-
perimental conditions were maintained the same. These
suggest that weight loss does not necessarily get harder
each time in individuals with repeated weight loss and
regain.

Factors influencing provision of dental services to home-
less persons in Kentucky. ARTHUR VAN STEWART and
ERIC T. VEAL,* Department of Orthodontic, Pediatric,
and Geriatric Dentistry, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, KY 40292.

Dental health indices for most Americans have im-
proved significantly during the last 4 decades. Among the
most underserved are the homeless, who represent an es-
timated 5-7% of the total population. The purpose of this
research project was to examine factors associated with
dental services for homeless persons as represented by 70
adults seen at an urban health care center. The study
obtained data by means of patient interviews, dentist in-
terviews, clinical observations, and review of the medical
records during the period: 25 May 1992 to 31 Jul 1992.
The study showed that only 114 of the 1,386 clients (8.2%)
sought dental care. Other findings reveal that 34 (49%)
presented with a chief complaint of oral/dental pain. The
second most common chief complaint reported was a per-
ceived need to have missing teeth replaced. Only three
(4.3%) visited the dental clinic for “a routine dental check-
up. Patient services most often included full diagnostic

examination (62 individuals [90%]); 29 (44%) patients had
dental extractions; 4 (6%) received “simple” restorations;
and 18 (27%) were treated for partial or complete eden-
tulism, while only one patient (> 1%) received periodontal
treatment. During the period studied, no endodontic or
fixed prosthodontic procedures were undertaken. Data
suggest that ca. 28 (41%) of the patients could have re-
ceived additional treatment if (a) the patients could have
been seen on a more regular basis, (b) additional dental
equipment was available, (c) funds to cover laboratory
fees could have been obtained, and/or (d) the volunteer
dentists could extend their hours of service to the clinic.

Kentucky survey of nursing home administrators’ per-
ceptions of current dental service programs. ARTHUR
VAN STEWART, BRYAN G. HARNESS,* KEITH
KNAPP, and JACKIE FISCHER, Department of Orth-
odontic, Pediatric, and Geriatric Dentistry, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

During 1990-1991 the ULSD Gerontological Studies
Program conducted a comprehensive survey of dental con-
sultants serving the Commonwealth’s 300+ long-term care
facilities (nursing homes). Results were reported at the
1991 KAS meeting in Owensboro, KY, and also at a number
of national and international meetings. This year’s project
is a companion study that sought to examine the same
series of problems and concerns as the 1990-1991 study
but as seen from the perspective of the chief administrators
of the nursing homes. The research design included the
use of a panel of experts to help edit the survey instrument,
the use of follow-up rounds of inquiry for those failing to
respond to the initial request for information, and data
management/interpretation techniques following proce-
dures used in the earlier study. Using a cognitive dissidence
approach, the study sought to reveal differences and sim-
ilarities in professional perspective. A nine-page (42 item)
questionnaire was sent to the top administrative leaders
of all licensed nursing homes in Kentucky (ca. 1992). The
findings represent the first organized research effort in the
United States to examine the health care system for de-
livering oral health services to geriatric patients as seen
from the perspective of the professional long-term health
care administrator. This research was reported at the 1992
Health Sciences Center Research Day Program. Findings
from the study also will be reported at selected national
and international professional meetings and conferences
in the coming months.

PHYSICS

MAP—A program to explore the logistic equation. SEAN
MOLLEY,* RICHARD HACKNEY, and KAREN HACK-
NEY, Department of Physics and Astronomy, and JOHN
CHAMBERLIN, Department of Chemistry, Western Ken-
tucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

The word “chaos” is defined as “extreme confusion or
disorder.” Classical Newtonian science has traditionally
tended to deal with systems that can be modeled linearly

58 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

or at least to avoid those which become chaotic. However,
we are discovering that non-linear behavior pervades ev-
ery branch of natural science and that the “friendly” more
easily modeled linear systems are in fact the oddities. Fur-
thermore, we are learning of a surprising order behind the
facade of apparent randomness: order out of chaos. The
mathematics of “chaos theory” or “non-linear dynamics’
has become a common thread weaving many disciplines
together. Many natural systems require the continuous
expression provided by nonlinear differential equations,
which can become extremely complicated. Graphical anal-
ysis and numerical integration with the aid of a micro-
computer have made these systems tractable. In addition,
it sometimes happens that the essential behavior of a dif-
ferential system can be reduced to a one-dimensional map-
ping. “Single-humped” mappings have been shown by
Feigenbaum to exhibit a universal type of behavior. There-
fore, the careful study of such a mapping, besides having
intrinsic mathematical worth in itself, aids in the under-
standing of more complex differential systems. The pro-
gram MAP, written by Richard Hackney, is designed to
allow the exploration of the most celebrated of these maps,
the logistic equation: X,,,; = mX,(1 — X,). Slight modi-
fications in the program would allow similar study of any
other one-dimensional map. Discussion will center on the
capabilities of the program, such as production of “time”
series, bifurcation plots and values, sequencing, and chaos.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS,
BIOCHEMISTRY, AND PHARMACOLOGY

The bdelloid rotifer as a model of aging. An inexpensive
investigative screening test for exploratory aging research.
W. P. HETTINGER, JR., Russell, KY 41169.

Many hypotheses of aging are presently under investi-
gation, and exposure to biologically active molecules has
been shown to affect life span. To accelerate such studies,
an inexpensive, reliable, short-term aging screening test
was developed. The bdelloid rotifer, a micro-aquatic an-
imal, was selected for the test, based on many criteria,
including the fact that it is a multi-cellular animal (1,000
cells), has a very short and reproducible life span (21 d at
31°C), and is of constant genetic character. The micro-
aquatic factor was likewise considered most important, as
it facilitated exposure of an animal to a well-controlled,
but broadly variable environmental concentration of ad-
ditives such as RNA and protein synthesis inhibitors. The
fact that the animal is syncyial also served to enhance the
likelihood of minimizing any internal concentration gra-
dients. It also reduced the need for expensive treating
molecules or those in short supply, and test equipment cost
was very low. Six colonies (10 animals each) were always
used as a reference standard, and similar numbers were
used at each level of chemical concentration. In a typical
case, an average increase of about 3.2 mean d in life span
for the six colonies indicates a 95% probability that the
treatment positively affected life span. Approximately 80
person hours are required to evaluate one chemical at four
levels of concentration; e.g., 100, 10, 1.0, and 0.1 ug/ml.
Usually 1 to 5 mg of chemical suffice for the study.

Investigation of the programmed aging hypothesis. The
effect of several RNA and protein synthesis inhibitors on
the life span of the rotifer. W. P. HETTINGER, JR., Rus-
sell, KY 41169.}

An accelerated aging test (21 days at 31°C) employing
the rotifer, has been previously described. These micro-
aquatic animals were then exposed to a number of DNA,
RNA, and protein synthesis inhibitors over a broad con-
centration range. These inhibitors were chosen on the
premise that if a program exists, it should be expressed by
readout leading to specific RNA and protein syntheses.
Retardation of the readout of DNA in RNA synthesis, and
possibly protein synthesis should therefore increase life
span.

It was recognized, however, that such inhibitors might
adversely affect other vital life processes. Therefore at best,
an optimum concentration range was to be anticipated.

Eukaryotic RNA and protein synthesis inhibitors in-
cluded Actinomycin-D (Act-D), Acridine Orange (AO),
Chromomycin-A8 (CA-3), Puromycin (PO), Cyclohexi-
mide (CHN), Tetracycline (TCY), and Streptomycin (SM).
Non-inhibiting molecules, of related interest, Fluorode-
oxyuridine, Colchicine, Carbenicillin, Chloramphenicol,
Pyran, and Penicillin were also tested.

For some of the RNA inhibitors, life span increased, and
then fell off as did egg laying and hatching with increasing
concentration of inhibitor. Non-inhibitors did not affect
life span, but DNA inhibitors Fluorodeoxyuridine and Col-
chicine as expected, did inhibit egg laying and hatching.

The equation proposed in terms of inhibitor concentra-
tion for the data observed where life span increased is as
follows.

A life span observed (days increase in average life span)
= A life span increase due to inhibitor

— A life span loss due to inhibition of life
support reactions in the presence of the
inhibitor and as concentration increased.

]

= /A\ . (ee
nae Foye Tl

1
K/X+1 A max; jf."
appears to fit the data, where A obs. is the increase or
decrease in life span observed compared to the standard
colony in mean days as the concentration of inhibitor is
varied, K, is a proposed dissociation constant for inhibition
or reduction related to readout of the aging program, K;,
a similar const. for inhibiting other life functions, A maxging
the increase anticipated if the aging program is blocked,
A max;;. the negative mean life of other vital functions
which are required to sustain life. In other words, A max, is.
relates to the amount of days that life is cut short because
certain life-sustaining readouts are also inhibited. X is the
concentration in meg/ml of inhibitor.

For RNA synthesis inhibitors, a significant increase in
life span at optimum concentration was observed for Strep-

+ Research done at University of Miami, Coral Gables,
FL, and Gerontology Research Center, Baltimore, MD.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 59

tomycin (4.1 days, P = 0.001) at 1 mcg/ml; Acridine
Orange (2.7 days, P = 0.03) 0.5 meg/ml; Tetracycline (3.1
days, P = 0.1) meg/ml; Actinomycin (2.2 days, P = 0.1)
0.06 mcg/ml; Acridine Orange plus Streptomycin (5.1
days, P = 0.01) 1 mcg/ml; Chromomycin-A3 (0.5 days) 1
mceg/ml; Cycloheximide (0.7 days) 1-10 mcg/ml; and Pu-
romycin (0.0 days). For three inhibitors for which egg
laying and hatching data was available, K, and K, could
be estimated, and therefore A max, could be determined
by extrapolation to very large values of X. Asa result based
on data observed, it was estimated to be an increase of 13
to 15 days or an increased life span of 62% to 71%. The
results lend good support to the hypothesis that aging is
programmed.

SOCIOLOGY

Drug abuse, STDs, and birth control—a community
college survey. J. G. SHIBER* and N. V. ANOSIKE, Di-
visions of Biological Sciences & Social Sciences, Prestons-
burg Community College, Prestonsburg, KY 41653.

Biology students (n = 517) at Prestonsburg Community
College were surveyed on drug abuse, sexually-transmitted
diseases (STDs), and birth control to identify their edu-
cational needs and get an idea of knowledge and attitudes
of the local population on these topics. Seventy-one per
cent of the students have known someone addicted to a
drug through intentional abuse, and 55% unintentionally,
mainly via prescriptions; 41% were pressured to try drugs—
about half “experimented”; and 90% believe a drug prob-
lem exists in eastern Kentucky, primarily with marijuana,
alcohol, and stimulants. Sixty per cent of the respondents
also believe there is a problem here with STDs, especially
gonorrhea and genital herpes. Forty-one per cent have
known people with STDs. Although 92% had some know]-
edge of STDs, mainly through school and reading, many
had heard of neither lymphogranuloma venerum & chan-
croid (34%) nor granuloma inguinale (24%). Fifty per cent

/

of “myths” related dwelled on AIDS transmission. Fifty-
seven per cent of the students related availability of birth
control measures to increased incidence of STDs, chiefly
(1) people mistakenly think such measures effectively pro-
tect against STDs and (2) measures have lessened fear of
pregnancy, thus encouraging increased sexual activity and
promiscuity. Sixty-two per cent believe certain measures,
especially condoms and abstinence, offer some protection;
46% would recommend condoms, alone or combined with
other measures, to someone dear. The “Pill” rated most
effective with 42%, followed by abstinence, sterilization,
and condoms. Least effective choice(s) was coitus inter-
ruptus (withdrawal), then rhythm, spermicides, and con-
doms.

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

Distribution and status of amphibians in the northern
tier counties of Kentucky. PAUL J. KRUSLING,* of Cin-
cinnati Museum of Natural History, Cincinnati, OH 45202,
and JOHN W. FERNER, Department of Biology, Thomas
More College, Crestview Hills, KY 41017.

Twenty-four species of amphibians have been recorded
from Boone, Campbell, and Kenton counties in Kentucky.
Although this region has traditionally been classified as
part of the Outer Bluegrass physiographic province, the
effects of glacial activity have contributed to the added
diversity of species. In addition, the Ohio River is an ef-
fective barrier to northern and southern range expansion.
The study extended from Aug 1991 to Aug 1992. Rep-
resentative surveyed habitats included springs and ravines
in the glaciated regions and an Acer rubrum/Quercus
palustris flood plain depression forest. Significant new
county records include Ambystoma maculatum, A. jef-
fersonianum, Plethodon glutinosus, and Notophthalmus
viridescens. Comparison was made with historical and re-
cent collections to determine any changes in status of am-
phibian populations.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 60-62

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AND
OUTSTANDING TEACHER AWARDS, 1992

DIsTINGUISHED COLLEGE/ UNIVERSITY
SCIENTIST AWARD

Dr. Marcus T. McEllistrem, Professor of Physics and
Astronomy at the University of Kentucky, is the recipient
of the 1992 Distinguished College/University Scientist
Award. Dr. McEllistrem received his B.A. degree from
Saint Thomas College and Masters and Doctorate from
the University of Wisconsin. In 1957, Dr. McEllistrem
joined the faculty of the Physics and Astronomy Depart-
ment at the University of Kentucky. During his illustrious
career, Dr. McEllistrem has been given many awards and
honors by his colleagues: University Research Professor at
UK, Distinguished Professor of the College of Arts and
Sciences of UK, Program Officer of the National Science
Foundation, Chair of the University Senate at UK, Fellow
of the American Physical Society, and Invited Lecturer at
numerous international conferences. An outstanding ser-
vant for the cause of science, he has served as a member
of Kentucky NSF/EPSCoR Committee and as Chair of
the Kentucky Statewide Subcommittee for DOE/EPSCoR.

Dr. McEllistrem had a leading role in proposing, de-
signing, and constructing the Van De Graaf Accelerator
Laboratory at UK, and has been the principal investigator
and director of the nuclear physics project which has been
continuously funded by NSF grants since 1963. Dr.
McEllistrem is recognized as a world leader in neutron
scattering reactions and their interpretation. His work in
nuclear astrophysics has provided new insight into the
determination of the age of the universe. Dr. McEllistrem
has encouraged many others to utilize the accelerator fa-
cility and has given freely of his time and efforts to develop
other colleagues’ research. These programs vary from the
production of short-lived radionuclides for radiopharma-
ceuticals to his recent colloborative studies of methods for
detecting narcotics and explosives. Currently, he is collab-
orating with Ann Arbor Nuclear Corporation by leading
experimental research at UK’s accelerator in the devel-
opment of a neutron activated metal detector, which po-
tentially could be used in airport detection systems.

While doing extensive research, Dr. McEllistrem always
makes time for students. He has taught and advised stu-
dents in physics at all levels. Student ratings have been
uniformly high. He has advised several undergraduate
students involved in the research program at the accel-
erator laboratory and has guided numerous graduate stu-
dents through the Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics.

Dr. McEllistrem has spent much time contributing to
the scientific and educational development of young sci-
entists. It is this selfless attitude that has made him re-
spected and admired by his colleagues. Most importantly
he is a gentleman and a scholar. Professor McEllistrem has
made great contributions to science and technology in
Kentucky by being a gifted and dedicated teacher while
compiling an impressive record in the area of service and
research.

60

INDUSTRIAL SCIENTIST AWARD

The 1992 recipient of the Industrial Scientist Award is
Mr. Karl Russ of Louisville. Mr. Russ is a leader in catalytic
research. He has been involved in catalyst development
and research at United Catalysts, Inc., where he is Vice-
President and Manager of the Technical Department. Mr.
Russ has led the successful implementation of the labo-
ratory research effort, the pilot plant development work,
and the introduction of the catalysts into the marketplace.
He has been responsible for the research and development
of a number of catalysts used in a wide variety of chemical
processes, including hydrogenation of fats and fatty chem-
icals for margarine, shortening and steric acid; conversion
of methane to hydrogen and ammonia for the refining and
fertilizing industries; as well as other dehydrogenation pro-
cesses.

Mr. Russ is a native of Louisville, Kentucky, and earned
his bachelor’s degree in Chemistry from Bellarmine Col-
lege. He has actually been involved in catalyst develop-
ment and research since 1960 at United Catalysts, Inc.,
when he first worked as a technician before completing
his bachelor’s degree in 1966. He has held positions of
increasing responsibility since he joined the company. He
became a group leader in the Development Department
in 1966 and the manager of the Development Department
in 1972. In 1973, he became manager of New Products
Research and his responsibilities expanded in 1974 when
he became manager of the Technical Department. He was
promoted to his present position in 1979. Even though he
is responsible for the activities of several hundred em-
ployees, Mr. Russ has remained active in research. A mea-
sure of this success is three patents he holds in catalyst
manufacturing. He has worked closely with many com-
panies such as pharmaceutical companies that have de-
veloped catalysts which are kept confidential. Mr. Russ is
also responsible for solving problems encountered in the
use of the catalysts supplied by his company to its many
customers. The interactions with these customers, and his
on-site visits to United Catalysts., located in several foreign
countries (Japan, Germany, India, etc.), illustrate his true
role as an international industrial scientist whose labora-
tory represents large multinational companies as well as
numerous smaller ones.

Mr. Russ is a member of the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, the American Chemical Society, the
Kentucky Academy of Science, and the Tri-State Catalysis
Club. Not only is he a greater supporter of these scientific
activities, he encourages members of his staff to also be
active in these endeavors.

One nominator stated that “Mr. Russ is an impressive
industrial researcher and administrator exemplified by the
astounding growth of United Catalysts, Inc., particularly
during the past 15 years.” In the international arena of
catalyst manufacturer and users, Mr. Russ is also a well
known figure. Another nominator stated that “for this im-

AWARDS 61

portant Industrial Scientist Award to be bestowed on Mr.
Russ, it is well deserved and well earned, and is a fitting
example and inspiration to our young people seeking to
develop careers in science in Kentucky.”

OUTSTANDING COLLEGE UNIVERSITY
SCIENCE TEACHER

The award for the Outstanding College University Sci-
ence Teacher is presented to Dr. Curtis C. Wilkins, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry at Western Kentucky University. Dr.
Wilkins received his bachelor’s degree from Wisconsin
State College and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from
Michigan State University. He taught at West Virginia
Wesleyan College before joining the Chemistry Depart-
ment at Western Kentucky University in 1965. He has
remained in that position except for 1982-1983 when he
was a Visiting Professor of Chemistry at Texas A&M.

Although his credentials in teaching physical chemistry
are excellent, he also excels at teaching general (freshman)
chemistry. Dr. Wilkins teaches over 100 students each
semester in both lecture and laboratory courses. These
students’ evaluations affirm that he is always well prepared,
gives excellent examples, and is always considerate of his
students. Even though his expectations for excellence from
his students are high, he is well liked and appreciated by
these students, especially when they realize how well pre-
pared they are for the upper level chemistry courses. Pro-
fessor Wilkins has developed computer programs and
practice exams to aid students in understanding nomen-
clature. He has published a number of papers in the Journal
of Chemical Education and given presentations at local,
regional, and national meetings of the American Chemical
Society. He is currently collaborating on the production
of TV cassette tapes for pre-laboratory instruction. He has
received external funding to particularly improve chem-
istry teaching. One of his nominators summed up the jus-
tification for his consideration for this prestigious award
when he wrote, “If you are looking for someone who does
an outstanding job of communication of information to
students, does an outstanding job of building a rapport
with his students, actively supports his profession and is
respected by his students and colleagues alike, then Curtis
is the best person to receive the award.” Another supporter
commented, “When she was reintroduced to chemistry by
Dr. Wilkins to prepare her to do graduate work, she found
a clear, thorough, rigorous course. Professor Wilkins ex-
emplified every quality I admire in a professor—patience,
a sense of humor, a strong love of his subject area, a will-
ingness to work with students individually, and an endur-
ing belief in fairness and equal opportunity. His labs are
safe and effective in reinforcing abstract concepts from
lectures; his tests are demanding, yet well-formed. How
could any student not thrive in such an environment?”

OUTSTANDING SECONDARY SCHOOL
SCIENCE TEACHER

Ms. Andrea L. Warren, Chairperson of the Science De-
partment of Franklin-Simpson High School, is the co-re-

cipient of the 1992 Outstanding Secondary School Science
Teacher Award. Ms. Warren has been described as a “hands-
on’ teacher whose students participate in class because
much is expected of them. Her classroom is a laboratory
where updated equipment and resource material are avail-
able for the students.

Ms. Warren has an A.S. Degree from Broward Com-
munity College, a B.S. Degree from Barry University, and
a Master’s Degree in Education with emphasis in science.
She keeps current in science education by attending meet-
ings and workshops. Also, Ms. Warren has worked in the
rain forests of Belize and participated in an exchange trip
to Russia. Among her many memberships in scientific and /
or educational organizations is her position on the Ken-
tucky Department of Education Science Curriculum De-
velopment Cominittee and Kentucky/Department of Ed-
ucation Integrated Curriculum Development Committee.
Because of her activities, she brings to her students an
excitement for learning and the learning process that serves
as an excellent example to younger faculty. Ms. Warren
does not take the shortcuts available to the secondary
teacher. She emphasizes writing and critical thinking in
the classroom and is willing to “pay the price” in the
evaluation time required to grade such student endeavors.
This is evidenced by one of her student’s comments who
stated, “From beads and strings, to microscopes hooked
up to the television, she found a way to help me understand
even the toughest concepts. For high schoolers, going out
into the middle of the hallway during class to join hands
and form protein models was fun. In addition to reading
assignments, our AP labs required time outside of class,
weekly essays, field trips and ‘a lab alive’ project. Our field
trips included a water analysis of our local water source
and a week-long stay at Dauphin Island, Alabama, where
we studied marine biology.”

Ms. Warren emphasizes the need for good relationships
between the school and the community. Several local in-
dustries have donated equipment to the school as a result
of Ms. Warren’s efforts. She is currently in the process of
establishing an outdoor laboratory.

Ms. Warren’s outstanding attribute is her ability to com-
municate excitement for her subject to her students both
in and out of the classroom. A veteran biology teacher
pays her the highest compliment by stating “she is one of
the best examples of a dedicated teacher I have known.”

OUTSTANDING SECONDARY SCHOOL
SCIENCE TEACHER

Mr. Samuel Thomas Hunt, Science Department Chair
of Montgomery County High School, is the co-recipient
of the 1992 Outstanding Secondary School Science Teach-
er Award. Mr. Hunt received his Bachelor’s Degree of
Science in Biology from Morehead State University in
1973. That same year he joined the Montgomery County
Junior High School staff as a science instructor. In 1977
he became a biology instructor in General Biology, Special
Topic Biology, Advanced Placement Biology and a Pho-
tography instructor. During the 1990-1991 school year,

62 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(1-2)

he was promoted to his present position of chairman. His
colleagues and students agree that he has developed into
a master teacher.

His teaching includes “hands on” learning using indi-
vidual and innovative team lab projects, suggestions for
home projects with families, and group problem solving.
Mr. Hunt was ahead of his time in the classroom as he
was teaching with performance events in mind for students
before it was included in the assessment process of KERA.
He promotes collaboration with the vocational school by
incorporating the work of chemistry, physics and elec-
tronics classes into its curriculum. Just recently, he initiated
work with the health and physical education teachers to
eliminate overlapping of subject matter being taught in
health and biology.

Because Mr. Hunt attends state and national meetings
for science teachers, as well as local and state workshops
relative to his field, he has much to share with his students.
With his proficient presentation skills and effective use of

teaching aids/materials/equipment, he provides quanti-
tative in-service activities for teachers. He has evaluated
the science program K through 12 and has infused new
enthusiasm for teaching science across all levels of the
Montgomery County School System. He initiated a science
newsletter allowing teachers to exchange ideas regarding
teaching science. He encourages teachers to join profes-
sional science teaching organizations and attends the meet-
ings faithfully himself.

“Mr. Hunt is an outstanding teacher, leader, organizer,
and staff person who puts the interests of students first and
covets little recognition” one nominator stated. Another
nominator commented, “Mr. Hunt teaches self-discipline,
goal setting, analytical thinking, team concepts, environ-
mental concern and a sound foundation in the sciences.”
The committee was impressed by the comment of one of
his students who paid him the ultimate compliment when
she stated, “I’m considering going into the science field
and wouldn’t mind being a biology teacher like Mr. Hunt.”

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1993, 63

NEWS AND COMMENTS

ANNUAL MEETINGS

The 79th meeting of the Kentucky Academy
of Science will be at Georgetown College (co-
host: Toyota), 23-24 October 1993. Future
meetings are planned at Paducah Community
College (1994) and Western Kentucky Uni-
versity (combined meeting with the Tennessee
Academy) either in 1995 or 1996.

NOTEWORTHY PUBLICATIONS

Schumann, Walter. 1993. Handbook of
rocks, minerals, and gemstones. Houghton Mif-
flin, New York. $18.95 paper; $35.00 cloth.
This beautiful little book, surfeited with color
photographs (over 600) of each rock, mineral
or gemstone, is an excellent contribution that
will be thoroughly enjoyed by any rockhound.

63

Pasachoff, J. M. and Donald H. Menzel.
1992. Stars and planets. Houghton Mifflin,
New York. $24.95. This is yet another welcome
addition to the Peterson Field Guide series. It
is heavily illustrated with sky charts and ex-
cellent color photographs, and a rather com-
prehensive overview of the solar system. The
text is very informative for both novices and
professionals.—Branley Allan Branson

KENTUCKY ADVOCATES FOR HIGHER
EDUCATION

Your editor was one of the finalists for the
first Acorn Award. I guess you might say he
was in the hunt with the rest of the squirrels
but, alas, no acorn.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(1-2), 1998, 64

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF ABSTRACTS
FOR THE TRANSACTIONS AND ANNUAL MEETING!

not on. your typewriter or word processor must be
carefully drawn by hand with black ink.

9. Scientific names should be underlined. Spell out ge-

. Abstracts must be 250 words or less. neric names the first time they are used; afterwards,

2. Abstracts must be on white bond paper (8.5 x 11 these names should be abbreviated to the first letter

inches) with black type. Abstracts must have margins (+ period) when followed by a specific name (unless

of 1 inch top, bottom, left and right. Abstracts must confusion results with another abbreviated generic
not exceed one page. name in the abstract).

. The title, authorship, address, and text must be double 10. In the upper right-hand corner of the abstract, type

spaced in ordinary type.

. Use a short and specific title.

. The address should contain the name of the author's
department(s), the name of the university or company,
the name of the city, the name of the state (use stan-

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

in capitals the names of the section to which your
paper belongs:

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS
BIOCHEMISTRY AND

dard 2-letter abbreviations (e.g., IN, OH, KY, TN) EMTS SE ee
and the zip code, all in ordinary type. COM EULER SCIENCE gee
_ Use standard, well-known abbreviations when the use "NC!NFFRING SS
of abbreviations is necessary. ee ee
GEOLOGY SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION

. When using abbreviations for compounds, spell out
the name in full at the first mention and follow with
the abbreviation in parentheses; use the abbreviation
thereafter. Do not abbreviate compounds in the title
of the abstract.

. Any special symbols, such as Greek letters, that are

HEALTH SCIENCES
INDUSTRIAL SCIENCES

SOCIOLOGY
ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY

MATHEMATICS

11.

12.

Poor preparation of an abstract may result in the ab-
stract not being published.

For publication in the Transactions, please submit the
following to Dr. Robert F. C. Naczi, Department of
Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University,

1 Some sections prepare abstracts to be distributed at
the Section meetings. Contact the Section Secretary for
guidelines.

Highland Heights, KY 41076: Abstract prepared as
described above. A check for $15.00 made out to Ken-
tucky Academy of Science (to cover publication costs).

64

Instructions for Contributors

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for publication in
the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of
interest to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be reviewed by
one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and once accepted, an attempt will
be made to publish papers in the order of acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed double spaced
_ throughout on good quality white paper 8% x 11 inches. NOTE: For format of feature articles
and notes see Volume 43(3-4) 1982. The original and one copy should be sent to the Editor and
the author should retain a copy for use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units shall be used
for all measurements. The basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all manuscripts.
The Style Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the Handbook for
Authors of the American Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, and
_ a Manual of Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful guides in matters of style, form, and
spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication should be underlined.
All authors must be members of the Academy.

_The sequence of material in feature-length manuscripts should be: title page, abstract, body of
the manuscript, acknowledgments, literature cited, tables with table headings, and figure legends
and figures.

1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and addresses, and
any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.

2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It
should be complete in itself without reference to the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Materials and
Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, Acknowledgments, and Literature Cited. All tables and
figures, as well as all literature cited, must be referred to in the text.

4. All references in the Iiteratiwe Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should provide
complete information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-—4) 1982 for style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume 43(3-
4) 1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numerals,
and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches. Line drawings
in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8% x 11 inches. Pho-
tographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily. All figures should
be numbered in Arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an appropriate legend. It is
strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps Toward
Better Scientific Illustrations’’ published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas 66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all
_ literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive alterations
on the galley proofs are expensive and costs will be borne by the author. Reprints are to be ordered
when the galley proofs are returned by the Editor.

CONTENTS

Reproduction, age and growth analysis of paddiefish, Polyodon spathula,
in the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area. Deke T.
Gundersen and William D. Pearson ............ 000000 beeen

Applications of thermal analysis in the physical chemistry laboratory. Wei-
Ping Pan, Jeff Timmons, and Angela F. Arnold ...................-.

Factors affecting amphibian use of road-rut ponds in Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest. Michael D. Adam and Michael J. Lacki ...............

A simple method for isolating soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) cv. Fayette
regenerates of parental genotypes. M. M. Rahman .................

Seasonal changes in abundance of Kentucky cottontails. William M. Giu-
liano, Charles L. Elliott, and Jefferey D. Sole ...................5.4..

Note on the Lorentz Transformation. P. L. Corio ..................
NOTES

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana, Ebenaceae) and mayapple (Podophyllum

peltatum, Berberidaceae): proximate analysis of their fruits. Debra K.

Pearce and dohit:W:) Thieret. 20.2056) 2 EO ain ieee tae oe a
ACADEMY ‘APFAIR Sin ee ea es Bisel SN aan er RTE CSU eal ee
PROGRAM, ANNUAL, MEETING ©.) 330 65. ei ON re ay a

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AA he PA ARTE ca MS AU AC Ne I waite ae Ea Mati li AV MRR RC TER RT MG UNL aAC gE

NEWS AND COMMENTS) (ei Soi Ske eM Oe atic es huelie eke tarot beeen cleans

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF ABSTRACTS FOR THE TRANSACTIONS
AND ANNUAL MEETING (0006 sic ic 02)5 oy fie Weebly oc atceire waite testa) oie tebe) ctl te te eet

13

17

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28

JTRANSACTIONS
"OF THE

PcENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF
SCIENCE

Volume 54
Numbers 3-4
September 1993

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

GoverninGc Boarp For 1993
ExecutivE COMMITTEE

President: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown, KY 40324

President Elect: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101

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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1993
Volume 54
Numbers 3-4

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 65-72

The Influence of Mulching Materials and Nitrogen
Application Method on Growth and Yield of
Yellow Crookneck Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.)

WENWEI JIA, WLODZIMIERZ BRES, LESLIE A. WESTON, AND
ROSELEE HARMON

Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546-0091

ABSTRACT

The influence of nitrogen application method and selected mulching materials on the growth and yield
of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L. ‘Dixie’) was investigated in the summer and fall of 1990. Black plastic,
clear plastic and latex spray mulch treatments were compared to bareground. Ammonium nitrate was applied
to mulching treatments (1) as a single broadcast application (112 kg N/ha) at planting or (2) a 56 kg N/ha
application broadcast at planting plus 56 kg N/ha applied through drip irrigation four weeks later. Total
yields were greater for the late spring season crop compared to the fall crop due to increased mosaic viral
disease incidence in the fall which resulted in smaller plants with reduced yields. Early and total yields were
greatest for plants grown on black plastic mulch. Highest overall fruit numbers were obtained using black
plastic mulch in the spring and black or clear plastic mulch in the fall. Fruit size was similar in all treatments.
Latex spray mulch provided little residual ground coverage and resulted in no differences in yield or other
observations when compared to the bareground control. Weed suppression was greatest with black or clear
plastic mulch. Use of clear plastic mulch also resulted in decreased rate of incidence of mosaic viral disease
6 weeks after planting. Nitrogen application methods had no effects on yield or fruit number in either spring
or fall experiments.

area (7). Reported benefits of plastic mulch use
include alteration of soil temperature (4, 10,
19), conservation of soil moisture (18), modi-
fications of growth environment (20, 25), and
improved weed control (9, 19).

Latex spray mulch (LSM) is a relatively new
development in which styrene—butadiene latex
is applied as a black or white liquid spray using
a CO,-pressurized sprayer (1). A solid latex
mulch layer is formed after the latex spray
dries on the soil surface.

Trickle irrigation is often an important com-
ponent of plasticulture technology for water
and fertilizer application (18, 21). Recently, it
has been shown that nitrogen (N) may be suc-

INTRODUCTION

Yellow crookneck squash (Cucurbita pepo
L.) is a high-value spring- or summer-seeded
crop with excellent potential for fresh market
production in Kentucky. In Kentucky, squash
is usually transplanted through plastic mulch
or direct-seeded into bareground raised beds
without plastic. Use of black or clear plastic
mulch is becoming increasingly popular for
cucurbit crop production since mulch use max-
imizes production and return per unit of land

The investigation reported in this paper (92-10-102) is
in conjunction with a project of the Kentucky Agricultural

Experiment Station and is published with approval of the
director.

65

cessfully applied to a crop through the trickle
irrigation line (22, 23, 24), in a process known

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-—4)

as fertigation. Some information is currently
available regarding the effect of nitrogen ap-
plication through fertigation upon zucchini
growth and yield and suggests that increased
plant growth and yields were associated with
trickle irrigation and plastic mulch usage (22,
24).

Mosaic viral infection can be a severe prob-
lem limiting the production of summer squash
in the southern United States (2, 12). Mosaic
viruses affecting summer squash are common-
ly transmitted by aphids and sweet potato
whitefly (16, 17). In the southern United States,
whitefly has caused millions of dollars in losses
to growers (16). It is extremely difficult to gain
acceptable control of nonpersistent viruses us-
ing approved insecticide spray programs (5,
8). However, various mulching materials pro-
vide some level of deterrence to aphids thereby
reducing the incidence of mosaic virus on yel-
low summer squash (6, 12).

Limited information is available regarding
the influence of latex mulching material and
fertigation on yellow crookneck squash growth.
Therefore, the influence of two nitrogen ap-
plication methods and selected mulching ma-
terials on summer squash growth and yield,
weed suppression, and viral disease incidence
was evaluated over two growth seasons in Ken-
tucky.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiments were conducted in the summer
and fall of 1990 at the University of Kentucky,
Horticulture Research Farm in Lexington,
Kentucky. ‘Dixie’ crookneck squash was field
seeded by hand on 21 June (late spring crop)
and 15 August 1990, (fall crop), and upon
emergence was thinned to one plant per 30
cm of row. Each plot contained 15 plants.
Treatments were arranged as a 2 x 4 factorial
within a randomized complete block design
with 4 replications. Nitrogen treatments eval-
uated included (1) the recommended rate of
112 kg N/ha (ammonium nitrate) broadcast at
planting and (2) a 56 kg N/ha application
broadcast at planting plus 56 kg N/ha applied
through trickle irrigation four weeks later.
Trickle lines were 1.25 cm in width, 8 mil
thickness and emitted up to 757 liter /min/ha.
Mulching treatments were compared toa bare-
ground control and included (1) clear polyeth-
ylene film, (2) black polyethylene film, and (3)

black liquid latex spray mulch (LSM) (BASF
Co., Raleigh, NC). All polyethylene mulches
were established before direct seeding and were
120 cm wide by 32 wm thick except LSM,
which was applied as recommended with a
CO, pressurized sprayer at a rate of 118 ml
per 900 cm? soil surface immediately after
seeding. A standard herbicide (trifluralin) was
applied at 1.12 kg/ha between beds before
planting for preemergence weed control.

In each experiment, squash seedling emer-
gence was estimated at 7 days after seeding
by counting the number of seedlings emerged
per plot in comparison to number of seeds
planted. Squash seedling height was also mea-
sured for 5 plants randomly selected from each
plot at 4, 5 and 6 weeks after seeding in the
spring or 3, 4 and 5 weeks after seeding in the
fall. Fruit set was monitored on a weekly basis,
with the percentage of plants forming fruit
recorded per plot. Weed suppression provided
by mulches was visually evaluated for each
treatment at three weeks after seeding in the
spring crop. Percentage of ground covered by
grass or broadleaf weeds was estimated in the
space within the mulched area 60 cm to the
left or right of the squash row in each plot.

During the fall, leaf area (LICOR, Model
LI 6000) fresh weight and whitefly infestation
(number of adult whiteflies per leaf) were eval-
uated 4 and 6 weeks after planting on the
fourth youngest fully-expanded leaf collected
from 5 plants randomly selected from each
plot. At six weeks after planting, chlorophyll
content was analyzed from 5 leaf discs per
treatment using DMF extraction (11). In ad-
dition, viral incidence (percentage of infected
plants based on 15 plants/plot) was deter-
mined. Viral severity (a visual rating of viral
infection) was also determined for 5 plants per
plot.

The summer crop was harvested 3 times
weekly from 80 July to 16 August 1990. The
fall crop was harvested twice weekly from 24
September to 11 October. Fruit number and
weight were recorded for each plot. Data are
presented as early (first week), midseason (sec-
ond week) and total harvests for both experi-
ments. Treatment effects on all measured pa-
rameters were tested using appropriate analysis
of variance for factorial experiments and Bart-
lett’s tests were performed to check for ho-
mogeneity of variance. Mean separations were

MULCH AND NITROGEN APPLICATION EFFECT ON SQUASH— Jia et al. 67

performed where appropriate using Fisher’s
protected LSD tests. Data for spring and fall
experiments are presented separately since sea-
sonal effects did not allow for combination of
data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Influence of Mulch or Nitrogen Treatment
on Seedling Emergence.—The emergence of
squash seedlings was influenced by mulching
treatments. In the summer, seedling emer-
gence under black and clear mulch at 7 days
after seeding was 100% and 96%, respectively,
whereas emergence of seedlings under LSM or
in the control was delayed, with only 50%
emergence by this date (data not presented, P
> 0.01). Increased seedling emergence under
plastic mulches was possibly due to altered soil
temperature and moisture level encountered
under plastic mulching materials (18, 19); but
these features were not measured. The LSM
mulch was applied at suggested rates and
blackened the soil surface at the time of ap-
plication but by one week after application
ground coverage was sparse and non-uniform
in both experiments, and effects upon soil tem-
perature and moisture were probably minimal
in comparison to the polyethylene mulching
materials. Nitrogen treatment had no effect on
seedling emergence at 7 days after planting
(data not presented).

Influence of Mulch or Nitrogen Treatment
on Plant Size and Fruit Set.—Squash seed-
lings over clear and black plastic mulch were
taller than those grown under LSM or the bare-
ground control in both spring and fall plantings
(Fig. 1). Averaged over both N treatments,
five-week-old seedlings under black mulch
were approximately 22% taller than those un-
der clear mulch, and 45% taller than those
under LSM and control treatments in the late
spring experiment. In the fall crop at four weeks
after seeding, plants grown under black mulch
were approximately 10% taller than those
grown under clear mulch and 35% taller than
those in both LSM and bareground treatments.
In the fall, 93% of the plants exhibited fruit
set in black mulch plots by 26 days after plant-
ing (data not presented). Within clear mulch
plots, 78% of plants had fruit at this date, while
30% and 38% of plants had fruit in LSM and
control plots, respectively. Nitrogen applica-
tion methods had no effect on plant growth or

TaBLE 1. Influence of mulching treatments averaged over
N application method on leaf fresh weight and leaf area
from squash four and six weeks after planting in August
of 1990.

6 weeks

Leaf
fresh

4 weeks

Leaf

fresh Leaf

weight Leaf area weight area
Mulch type (g) (cm?) (g) (cm?)
Clear 10.5 = 203.7 26.1 642.7
Black 7.6 158.2 25.4 654.5
LSM 3.5 99.1 16.7 462.0
Control 3.1 90.7 16.4 459.1
LSD (0.05) Pell 69.9 2.1 224.4
Significance:
Mulch OK RK eK *
Nitrogen NS NS NS NS
Mulch x Nitrogen NS NS NS NS

NS, *, **, *** Nonsignificant or significant at P = 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001,
respectively.

“Fresh weight and leaf area means are based upon 20 samples collected
per treatment. The fourth youngest fully expanded leaf was randomly selected
from 5 plants per plot over four replications.

fruit set in either experiment. In the fall ex-
periment, mulching treatment had a signifi-
cant impact on leaf size of the fourth youngest
leaf evaluated in 4- and 6-week-old plants.
Seedlings grown under polyethylene mulches
exhibited up to 50% greater leaf area and 60%
greater fresh leaf weight than those in LSM or
control treatments (Table 1). In warm weather
conditions, polyethylene mulches may provide
a more suitable rooting environment, thus en-
hancing nutrient or water absorption, and im-
proving overall plant growth (18). Nitrogen
application method had no effect on seedling
growth up to six weeks after planting (Table
a0)
Mulching Effects on Weed Control.Weed
control among mulching treatments was sig-
nificantly different as estimated by visual rat-
ings 3 weeks after planting. The percentage of
ground cover by annual grass weeds averaged
39% for the LSM and 45% for the bareground
treatments, while broadleaf weeds covered ap-
proximately 0.5% of LSM plots and 2% of bare-
ground plots (Table 2). In comparison, there
were no weeds under black plastic mulch with-
in 60 cm of the squash row at three weeks after
planting. At this point in the season, clear plas-
tic mulch provided excellent weed suppres-
sion, although some weed growth under the
plastic occurred later in the season. These find-
ings were not unexpected, since colored poly-
ethylene mulching materials have proven to

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

SPRING CROP

WEEKS AFTER PLANTING

LSD(.05)

FALL CROP

4 5

WEEKS AFTER PLANTING

68
: HEIGHT(cm)
MULCH TYPE
—<- CLEAR
70 cod 2 BLACK malasteaeetsteteteiisisscteniecceetine sete
+ LSM
-—2- CONTROL
LSD(.05)=1
10
4
HEIGHT(cm)
0
10 Te eh cae ee RR en ee ie be
(@)
3
ane, Il

spring and fall crops.

be highly effective in suppressing weed growth
if the mulching material remains intact (9, 19).
LSM provided poor ground coverage after ap-
plication and effects upon weed suppression
were minimal compared to the bareground
treatment. Nitrogen application treatment had
limited effects on grass weed growth within
mulched plots three weeks after planting, with
growth slightly increased in plots receiving a
split application of N and fertigation versus a
single broadcast application.

Incidence of Viral Disease.—Mosaic virus

The effect of mulching material averaged over nitrogen application method on squash seedling height in the

appeared late in the summer planting and in-
fection was sporadic (data not presented).
However, in the fall crop, mosaic viral infec-
tion was severe and the crop was seriously af-
fected. Viral infection was due to a complex
of mosaic viruses attacking the summer squash.
Clear mulch treatments resulted in reduced
viral incidence early in the fall growing season,
with the control and LSM treatments exhib-
iting increased viral infection, as measured by
visual ratings of viral incidence and viral se-
verity (Table 3). Leaf chlorophyll content was

MULCH AND NITROGEN APPLICATION EFFECT ON SQUASH—/Jia et al. 69

TaBLe2. Influence of mulching and nitrogen application
method on the percentage of ground covered by weeds
three weeks after planting summer squash in June 1990.

Ground covered
0

Nitrogen
application (kg/ha) Mulch type Grass'_ Broadleaf”
INP Clear 0.0 0.0
Broadcast Black 0.0 0.0
LSM 27.8 0.5
Control 41.3 1.8
56 + 56 Clear 0.0 0.0
Broadcast Black 0.0 0.0
plus Trickle LSM 49.3 0.5
Control 48.0 1.8
LSD (0.05) 13.5 1.4
Significance:
Mulch KK kK
Nitrogen * NS
Mulch x Nitrogen NS NS

NS, *, **, *** Nonsignificant or significant at P = 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001,

respectively.

“ Grass weeds included giant foxtail, barnyardgrass and large crabgrass.

» Broadleaf weeds included common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed, ivy-
leaf morning glory, galinsoga and prickly sida.

generally reduced in leaf samples collected
from 6-week-old squash in LSM and control
plots in comparison to clear polyethylene mulch
treatments. Seedlings grown in polyethylene
mulch treatments may have resisted viral in-
fection more effectively due to their increased
size and vigor as compared to unmulched con-
trols. The clear plastic mulch may also exhibit
some increased reflectivity, leading to reduced
attractancy of whiteflies which are carriers of
mosaic virus, to the mulching surface in com-
parison to black polyethylene or bareground.
Lamont et al. (12) reported reduced viral in-
cidence in plastic mulching materials with alu-
minum reflective strips. Interestingly, the
number of whiteflies located on virally infect-
ed leaves in the control was up to three times
greater than numbers observed on leaves of
polyethylene grown plants (Table 3). This may
be due to the attraction of whitefly to the color
yellow (15) which was evident from reduced
chlorophyll content in the control and LSM
treatments. By seven weeks after planting,
however, plants in all mulch treatments in the
fall experiment were also severely infected with
mosaic virus. Lamont et al. (12) also observed
that various mulching treatments only delayed
the onset of mosaic virus in summer squash.
Mulching and Nitrogen Treatment Effect
on Fruit Number, Weight and Yield Re-

sponse.—Total yield and fruit numbers were
significantly greater (P = 0.01) in the summer
season crop than in the fall crop (Figs. 2, 3).
Although seasonal effects may have influenced
yield, this was most likely due to increased viral
disease incidence in the fall, which resulted in
smaller plants (Fig. 1) with reduced yields.
Mulching treatments had a significant effect
on yields in both fall and late spring crops.
Early, mid-season and total yields were great-
est for plants grown on clear or black plastic
mulches (Figs. 2, 3). Highest fruit numbers
were also obtained using black plastic mulch.
Yields produced with clear plastic were re-
duced compared to black plastic treatments,
but significantly greater than those of LSM or
bareground treatments. This is consistent with
the findings of Bhella (3), Coffey and Ramsey
(7), and Motsenbocker and Bonanno (14), who
also reported increased yield and early pro-
duction of other cucurbit crops when mulched
with polyethylene materials. In both experi-
ments, squash plants produced with plastic
mulches were larger, flowered earlier and pro-
duced up to 50% greater overall yield. Fruit
size was similar in all treatments. The modified
growth environment and improved long term

TaBLe 3. Influence of mulching treatments averaged over
N application method on viral disease incidence in fall-
grown summer squash six weeks after planting.

Chloro- Number of _ Viral

phyll white- inci-
content _ flies*/ dence” Viral

Mulch type (mg/g) leaf (%) severity‘
Clear 9.7 50) Se. O50
Black 9.3 3.3 90.0 0.53
LSM 6.1 COPS 9510 0:60
Control 5.8 IN... Ors — Oxes
LSD (0.05) 3.6 SLO 2210 OMG
Significance:
Mulch KK * aeKK *

Nitrogen NS NS NS NS
Mulch x Nitrogen NS NS NS NS

* All measurements were taken from squash plants 6 weeks after planting.
Leaf tissue for chlorophyll and whitefly analysis was collected from the fourth
youngest fully expanded leaf from 5 plants per plot and the means presented
were the averages of 20 samples.

> Viral incidence was calculated from visual ratings of 15 plants per plot
and represents the percentage of infected plants in each plot.

© Viral severity was based on a 0 to 1 scale where 0 = no infection and
1 = complete infection. The index was calculated by obtaining a visual leaf
rating (1-5 rating, 1 = slight infection and 5 = complete infection) x Number
of affected leaves/ Number of measured leaves x 5. Viral index ratings were
calculated for five randomly selected plants per plot and means presented
were the averages of 20 samples.

NS, *, **, *** Nonsignificant or significant at P = 0.05, 0.01, or 0.001,
respectively.

70 Trans. KENTtucKy ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

; YIELD (M Ton/ha)

| MULCH TYPE
(ZJ BLACK

| EEG CLEAR
Rd LSM

| E4) CONTROL

MIDSEASON

SPRING HARVEST

MIDSEASON

FALL HARVEST

Fic. 2. The effect of mulching material averaged over nitrogen application method on squash yield in the spring and

fall crops.

weed control provided by the presence of black
polyethylene mulches most likely resulted in
improved yield. Weed suppression was also
greater in late season under black plastic
mulches than clear (data not presented). The
lack of extensive ground coverage provided by
the suggested rate of LSM mulch and its de-
terioration over the course of the season likely
accounted for the limited effect of this material
on seedling growth or subsequent squash yields.

Higher usage rates of LSM may be indicated.
Split applications of nitrogen had no effect on
seedling growth, yield or fruit number in ei-
ther summer or fall plantings (data not pre-
sented). Preplant levels of soil N, along with
N provided through broadcast application,
were adequate to support squash growth and
may account for the lack of observed N treat-
ment effect. Depending upon early season
market prices, the use of black polyethylene

MULCH AND NITROGEN APPLICATION EFFECT ON SQUASH—Jia et al.

am

FRUIT NUMBEP/ha (X1000)

500

MULCH TYPE
| (Z BLACK
HH} CLEAR
| BRXd LSM

[4 CONTROL

400

300

200

Wararararerereerereree ees
TATU}

100 setae eee ecco ree nace ee ecnsenecstecseececeenrerererscerssetesnsece] JL Arsewtancccerererers Poeiererecscetereresssetsene yl JS ELETTIOOOP To.
0 Ep
EARLY MIDSEASON TOTAL
SPRING HARVEST
FRUIT NUMBER/ha (X1000)

500

100

MIDSEASON

OL?
C <<<)
PTT

FALL HARVEST

Fic. 3. The effect of mulching material averaged over
spring and fall crops.

mulch may result in enhanced profitability in
the summer or fall squash crop.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded in part by U.S.D.A.
Cooperative State Research Service Grant No.
86-CRSR-2864 and 88-34262-3419. Any find-
ings, conclusions or recommendations ex-
pressed in this publication are those of the au-
thors and do not necessarily reflect the view of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The au-

nitrogen application method on squash fruit number in the

thors would like to express their appreciation
to Darrell B. Slone and Dean E. Knavel for
their technical assistance.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Audette, J. L. and E. G. Pole. 1989. Latex spray
mulch—available mulching system. Proc. Natl. Agr. Plas-
tics Congr. 21:1-7.

2. Baldwin, R. E. 1989. Problems with summer squash.
The Vegetable News Virginia 44:1-3.

U2 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

3. Bhella, H. S. 1984. The effect of trickle irrigation
and plastic mulch on zucchini. HortScience 19:410-411.

4, Bonanno, A. R. and W. J. Lamont. 1987. Effect of
polyethylene mulches, irrigation method, and row covers
on soil and air temperature and yield of muskmelon. J.
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of plant viruses. Ann. Rev. Ent. 2:239-354.

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D. R. Summer. 1977. Reflective film mulches, millet
borers and pesticides: effects on watermelon mosaic virus,
insects, nematodes, soil borne fungi and yield of yellow
summer squash. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 102:11-15.

7. Coffey, D. L. and P. W. Ramsey. 1987. Sequential
cropping of vegetables on black plastic. Tennessee Farm
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transmitted disease complex of the desert southwest. Calif.
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10. Hopen, H. J. 1965. Effects of black and transpar-
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11. Inskeep, W. P. and P. R. Bloom. 1984. Extinction
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12. Lamont, W. J., K. A. Sorensen, and C. W. Averre.
1990. Painting aluminum strips on black plastic mulch
reduces mosaic symptoms on summer squash. HortScience
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18. Liss, H. and B. L. Pollack. 1975. A comparison of
trickle and sprinkle irrigation of peppers on polyethylene
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14. Motsenbocker, C. E. and A. R. Bonnano. 1989.
Row cover effects on air and soil temperatures and yield
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16. Natwick, E. T. and D. Alfonso. 1985. Polyester
covers protect vegetables from whitefly and virus disease.
Calif. Agri. 4:21-22.

17. Price, J. F., D. J. Schuster, and D. E. Short. 1987.
Recent advances in managing the sweet potato whitefly
on poinsettia. Univ. of Florida, Bradenton, GCREC Re-
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fects on soil conditions and musk-melon response. Proc.
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perature and plant responses to paper and plastic protec-
tors on cantaloupes. Hilgardia 30:247-266.

20. Sheldrake, R. 1967. Plastic mulches. Cornell Univ.
Ext. Bull. 1180:1-8.

21. Shoji, G. 1977. Drip irrigation. Scientific Amer.
237:62-68.

22. Smittle, D. A. and E. D. Threadgill. 1982. Re-
sponse of squash to irrigation, nitrogen fertilization and
tillage systems. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 10:437-440.

23. Stansell, J. R. and D. A. Smittle. 1980. Effects of
irrigation regimes on yield and water use of snap bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.). J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 105:869-
873.

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irrigation regimes on yield and water use of summer squash.
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1960. Plastic mulching, principles, and benefits. Conn.
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Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 73-75

Differential Filters

PAUL E. BLAnp!

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

If 6 is a derivation on a ring R and is a topologizing filter of right ideals of R, then # is said to be a
differential filter if for every right ideal K € R, there is a right ideal I € R such that 6(I) C K. We show that
if R is a differential filter of right ideals in a ring R, then every derivation on a right R-module M has a
unique extension to its module of quotients. The main purpose of this paper is to show that differential filters
exist for rings which satisfy the descending chain condition on right ideals in 8%. This leaves open the more
interesting question regarding the existence of differential filters for general associative rings with identity.

INTRODUCTION

A derivation” 6 on a ring R is an additive
mapping 6:R — R such that 6(rs) = 6(r)s +
r6(s). A ring R together with a derivation is
called a differential ring. If M is a right R-
module, then an additive mapping 6’: M > M
such that 6’(mr) = 6’(m)r + md(r) is said to be
a derivation on the module M. 6 will be used
to denote both a derivation on a ring R and a
derivation on a module M. The context of the
discussion should make it clear which is being
considered and should cause no confusion.

A filter ® of right ideals in a ring R is a non-
empty collection of right ideals of R which
satisfy the following two conditions:

l. If KER and x €R, then (K: x)? € #.
2. If K€ Rand 1 isa right ideal of R such that
(I: x) € ® for each x € K, then I € HR.

It is well known [6] that if # is such a filter in
R, then # forms a fundamental system of
neighborhoods for 0 € R in a topology J on R
which makes R into a topological ring. More-
over, conditions 1 and 2 can be shown to imply
that:

38. FL KER, thenIN KER.

4. If 1© R andI C K where K is a right ideal
of R, then K € .

If I, K€ ®, then IK € XR.

5.

' This work was supported by Eastern Kentucky's re-
leased time program.

> The motivation for the definition of a derivation on a
ring R is the formula for the derivative of the sum of two
functions and the formula for the derivative of the product
of two functions.

STf K is a right ideal of R, then so is (K:x) = {r€R |
xr € K}.

73

Conditions 8 and 4 justify calling ®t a filter of
right ideals in R.

If 7 is a hereditary torsion theory on Mod
R, the category of right R-modules, and is
the associated filter of right ideals of R, the
module of quotients Q,(M) of a right R-module
M is given by the direct limit

Q,(M) = lim Hom,(K, M/T(M))

where K € 8 and T(M) is the torsion submodule
of M. Each element of Q,(M) is an equivalence
class of R-linear mappings where two map-
pings are equivalent if they agree on some K
€ §t. There is a canonical R-linear mapping
: M > Q.(M) which is the canonical surjection
n: M > M/T(M) followed by the injective map
k: M/T(M) > Q,(M) which is defined by k(x)
= [f,] where f,:;K >- M/T(M):r > xr, K€ ®.
Now let R be a differential ring with derivation
6 and suppose that 6:M > M is a derivation
on the right R-module M. A derivation
6*:Q.(M) > Q,(M) is said to extend the deri-
vation 6:M > M to Q.(M) if the diagram

is commutative. We have shown in[1]that such
a derivation 6 on M has a unique extension to
Q,(M) if and only if the torsion submodule
T(M) of M is a 6-module, that is, if and only
if 6(T(M)) © T(M). We now define a differ-
ential filter ® in a ring R with derivation 6 to
be a filter in R such that for each K € ft there
is an I € ® such that 6(I) C K. The reader can
consult [4] or [6] for the standard results and
terminology on torsion theory, while recent

74 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

results on derivations can be found in [2], [3]

and [5].

DISCUSSION

The following proposition shows that if 9 is
a differential filter in R, then every derivation
on a module has a unique extension to its mod-
ule of quotients.

Proposition 1.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6 and suppose that is a dif-
ferential filter in R. If 6 is a derivation on a
right R-module M, then 6 has a unique exten-
sion to the module of quotients of M.

Proof.—We know from the remarks above
that it suffices to show that 6(T(M)) © T(M).
If m € T(M), there is a K € # such that mK =
0. Since ® is a differential filter, there is an I
€ ® such that 6(1) C K. But I MN K € ®, and so
if k €1 A K, then 0 = 6(mk) = 6(m)k + mé(k)
= 6(m)k since mé(k) = 0. Thus, 6(m)(I N K)
= 0 and so 6(m) € T(M). Hence, 6(T(M)) € M.

We now turn our attention to the existence
question for differential filters. We show that
under certain conditions, if is a filter in a
ring R with derivation 6, then there exists a
differential filter , such that #, G R. Con-
sequently, by Proposition 1, we can conclude
that every derivation on a module M can be
extended uniquely to the module of quotients
Qs(M) of M where 6(7) is the hereditary tor-
sion theory induced by §;.

If n is a positive integer, 6" will denote 6
composed with itself n times while 6° will de-
note the identity mapping on R. 6 is an ad-
ditive mapping but not necessarily a derivation
on R when n # 1.

Proposition 2.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6 and suppose that I is a right
ideal of R. If x € I and r € R, then for each
integer n = 0, 6*(x)d"-*(r) € ZKp d(I) for k =
(ee eee 1

Proof.—If n = 0, then k = O and so
d*(x)6"-(r) = xr € 1 = ZK, (1). Now make the
induction hypothesis that the Proposition is true
for n = N and all k such that 0 = k = N. Note
Ebert ke NOOO Gite (a exON 7 (Ree —
Zo Si(I). Hence, the Proposition holds for n =
N + l and k = 0. Next suppose the Proposition
holds for n = N + land k whereO =k = N
and let’s show that the Proposition holds for n
=N+landk+ 1. Nowif 0 <k <N, then

d*(x)6N—K(r) € DE S(I) by our induction hy-
pothesis. Thus, we see that 6(6*(x)6N—(r)) €
d(2K S(T) G Bee! d(I). But 6(6*(x)6N—*(r))
= OT ORONT a). =P OSG) GNSS) aml
6*(x)ON*+1—k(r) € ZEo 4(I) since by assumption
the Proposition is true for n = N + 1 and k
where 0 = k = N. Now Zo (I) © Zh! G(T)
and so 6*(x)6N*!—(r) € ZG! 6i(I). Hence, it fol-
lowst that 0S" (ON tte) G0 a G0 eek)
€ ZK%! 6 (1). Thus, the Proposition is true for
n=N+1andk+ 1 whereO0 < k <N.
Hence, it follows that the Proposition holds for
n=N+landk=0,1,2,...,N+1. The
Proposition now follows by induction.

Corollary 1.—If x € land r € R, then 6"(x)r
€ Di» 6(I) for every integer n = 0.
Proof.—Let k = n in Proposition 2.

Proposition 3.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6. If lis a right ideal of R, then
so is Zo 6i(I).

Proof.—This follows immediately from
Corollary 1 and the fact that for any integer

n = 0, 6" is an additive mapping.

Proposition 4.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6. If lis a right ideal of R, then
"(M129 (1: 6(x))) © (22o (I): x) for each x €
R and all integers n = 0.

Proof.—Using an inductive proof similar to
that of Proposition 2, we can show that if I is
aright ideal of R and x €R, then for any integer
n = 0,r€ Mo (1: 6(x)) implies that 6"~*(x)6*(r)
€ Zo O(I) for k = 0, 1, 2,..., n. Thus, when
k = n we see that r € M9 (I: 6i(x)) gives x6(r)
€ Dh OI). Whence, 6"(r) € (Zo 6"(I) : x).

The following proposition is an analog of
the well-known Leibniz formula for the nth
derivative of the product of two functions.

Proposition 5.—If R is a differential ring
with derivation 6 and x, y € R, then 6"(xy) =

Zo Qumoae

Proof.—The proof follows easily by induc-
tion and the fact that () sr f iy ia

F zs ' for any integer n = 0 and any integer

DIFFERENTIAL FILTERS—Bland U5

k such that 0 < k S

n!

n where (2) =
k!(n — k)!

We now assume that the right ideals in R
satisfy the descending chain condition. For ex-
ample, if R is an Artinian ring, this condition

holds.

Proposition 6.—Let R be a differential ring
with derivation 6 and suppose that the right
ideals of a filter # satisfy the descending chain
condition. Then R; = {K € # | there is an I €
such that 61) € K for all integers n = 0}
is a differential filter in R.

Proof.—First let’s show that , is a filter.
Suppose K € #; and that x € R. If I is a right
ideal in # such that 6"(1) € K for all n = O,
then J © K where J is the right ideal 272, 6i(I)
given in Proposition 3. Now (I: 6(x)) € ® for
each j = 0 and so since the right ideals in R
satisfy the descending chain condition, No (1:
6(x)) € R. By Proposition 4, 6°(M}-o (I: 6
EG (Zz, Ol): x) and so if S = N20:
HS) S ONO a (aCes)) S Oxy Cex
(ZP_ 6(I): x) © (K:x) for all n = 0. Thus, we
have found a right ideal S in ® such that 6"(S
€ (K:x) for all n = O. Therefore, (K : x) € K,.

Next suppose that I is a right ideal of R and
let K € ; be such that (I: x) © ®, for all x € K.
We must show that I € #;. Since (I: x) € #, for
each x € K there is an I, € # such that 6"(I,)
€ (I: x). Thus, x6"(I,) € I for each x € K and
all integers n = 0. If B= ON, I,, then B is in
Wt because the right ideals in ® satisfy the de-

scending chain condition. Hence, K6"(B) € I
for each n = 0. Since K € §,, there is a right
ideal A € ® such that 6"(A) C K for each integer
n = 0. Now AB € & and so if xy € AB where

x € A and y €B, then, by Proposition 5, 6"(xy)

= Qo (2004 Now 6°~ (x) € 6"—-*(A)

C K and 6*(y) € 6*(B) where k = 0, 1, 2,...,
n. Hence, 6"~*(x)6*(y) € K6(B) C I for each k
such that 0 < k < n. Thus, 6"(xy) € I and from
this it follows easily that 6"(AB) C I for each
integer n = 0. Consequently, I € ;.

Finally, let’s show that R,; is a differential
filter. If K € ,, there is an I € ® such that 6"(I)
€ K for all integers n = 0. Thus, if J = 22)
6(I), then J € R since J 2 I. Now by construc-
tion, 6(I) C J for each integer n = 0 and so
J€R;. But 6) © K and so & is a differential
filter. Incidentally, #; # @ since J € R; and so
the proof is complete.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bland, P. 1992. A note on derivations and modules
of quotients. Trans. Ky. Acad. of Sci. 53:162-164.

2. Bresar, M. and J. Vukman. 1990. On left derivations
and related mappings. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 100:7-16.

3. Chaung, C. 1990. On compositions of derivations
of prime rings. Proc. Amer. Math. Soc. 108:647-652.

4. Golan, J. 1986. Torsion theories. Longman Scien-
tific and Technical. Copublished with John Wiley and Sons
Inc., New York.

5. Nowicki, A. 1989. Derivations satisfying polyno-
mial identities. Collog. Math. 57:35-48.

6. Stenstrom, B. 1975. Rings of quotients. Springer-
Verlag, New York, Berlin.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 76-81

Comparison of the Preliminary Results of the Nationwide
Urban Runoff Program with the Results of a
Louisville, Kentucky Runoff Assessment

JENNIFER MCGEHEE MARSH

Biology Department, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky

ABSTRACT

First flush (first 20 minutes) and composite (first 3 hours) samples of stormwater runoff were collected
during a one year period (1991-1992) from 6 sites in the Louisville metropolitan area, Kentucky. Each
collection was analyzed for organic and inorganic compounds, pesticides, nutrients, dissolved solids, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity, alkalinity, conductivity, hardness, pH and temperature. The toxicity of the water was
then determined by bioassay of fathead minnows (Pimphales promelas Rafinesque).

One of the objectives of the study was to compare the toxicity of Louisville’s runoff with that of cities
involved in the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP). The results of the NURP study showed that
all 13 metals on the U.S. EPA’s priority pollutant list were in the runoff samples. Louisville’s runoff contained
high levels of these metals, but none exceeded criteria. Organic priority pollutants were detected in Louisville’s
runoff less frequently and at lower concentrations than in the cities participating in the NURP study. However,
it exceeded criteria in amounts of lindane, endrin, methoxychlor, 2,4-D, and in one collection, DDT. Coliform
bacteria were present in high levels in both NURP and Louisville's runoff. Nutrient concentrations were
higher in Louisville’s runoff than in the NURP cities.

INTRODUCTION

Nonpoint sources of pollution (NPS) are
probably the most important water-quality is-
sue today (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). This is
particularly true when the interrelationship
between the management of hazardous wastes,
groundwater contamination, and abandoned
toxic waste dumps is considered.

Pollution in urban runoff includes air pol-
lutants that have settled in streets, erosion from
construction sites that is contaminated with
construction chemicals such as pesticides, pe-
troleum products, solvents, asphalt, acids, and
salts, deicing chemicals, litter, and animal re-
fuse (4). Increased amounts of impervious sur-
faces in urban areas also dramatically increase
the amount and speed of urban runoff.

The effects of urban nonpoint sources of pol-
lution are being felt and in some cases are
pronounced (10). Nonpoint sources of pollu-
tion are degrading vulnerable waters where
they have caused increased turbidity and algal
growth, and are also suspected as a source of
increased counts of fecal bacteria that are flow-
ing into streams after storms (11). Estimations
of as much as 90% of total suspended solids
and 80% of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
are believed to have been generated by urban
runoff at some locations (12). Results of the
U.S. EPA’s National Urban Runoff Program

76

(138, 14) showed that lead, zinc, and copper
were detected in 75% of all samples, and chro-
mium and arsenic were found in over half of
all runoff sampled.

New U.S. EPA regulations (15) are requiring
that cities test to determine the magnitude of
urban NPS problems and to develop plans to
capture and treat stormwater runoff. These
regulations require that nonpoint sources of
pollution become point sources when they en-
ter storm sewers. In addition, the U.S. EPA is
requiring all cities with more than 100,000
people to obtain permits to discharge storm-
water runoff to streams and lakes. Cities that
carry out industrial activities, such as landfills,
wastewater treatment plants, vehicle care and
maintenance, and airports, must also obtain
U.S. EPA permits. New construction sites of
more than 5 acres will require permits as will
industries which produce or process energy,
chemicals, and metals, treat or store hazardous
waste or have hazardous waste disposal sites,
build ships, manufacture paper or lumber, and
facilities that leave material exposed to storm-
water.

Municipalities had to submit Part One ap-
plications to the U.S. EPA by the end of 1992.
This application covers management strate-
gies, such as developing wet-weather moni-
toring programs to quantify sources of pollut-

URBAN RUNOFF IN KENTUCKY—Marsh

ants during storm events, and generating site
maps that can be used to locate illegal con-
nections to storm sewers and stormwater out-
falls. It also includes a summary of historical
data on leaks and spills (15).

Within a year of completing the Part One
application, cities will have to submit Part Two
applications. The major aspects of this appli-
cation are the assessment of pollution loadings
through wet-weather sampling and computer
modeling, and the development of strategies
to manage runoff from residential and com-
mercial areas, landfills and key industries, con-
struction sites, and illegal discharge into storm
sewe!s.

METHODS

A field monitoring program was designed
and conducted during 1991 and 1992, to col-
lect first-flush stormwater from 6 drainage ba-
sins within Jefferson County, Kentucky (Great-
er Louisville Area). The samples collected were
of rainwater which had accumulated on sur-
faces and was delivered to a nearby storm drain.
After these samples were analyzed for chem-
ical composition (Table 1), bioassays were per-
formed using fathead minnows (Pimphales
promelas Rafinesque) in sequential dilutions
of the sample water. Finally, an LCs , or the
concentration of runoff that was lethal to 50%
of the test fish, was calculated for each sample
using the Trimmed Spearman-Karber statis-
tical method (16).

The watersheds included in the study sites
were selected to provide a range of urban con-
ditions. Sampling locations were selected so as
to be spatially distributed throughout each land
use setting and to be unbiased with respect to
known or suspected local problem areas.

Land use in the residential (R,) watershed
is typical medium density single family dwell-
ings. This site has a soil type that allows good
infiltration. The R, subbasin is a low density,
residential area with large houses on small lots.
Landscape and lawn care companies are com-
mon throughout the year and new house con-
struction, as well as additions on existing hous-
es, is also ongoing.

The Strip Commercial (SC,) subbasin is a
long, narrow catchment on a main highway
into the city. It is heavily congested with shop-
ping centers, car lots, and traffic. A second Strip
Commercial (SC,) has the same geographic

TABLE l.

U0

Water quality constituents measured in first

flush and composite samples. Dissolved oxygen, pH, and
water temperature were also recorded daily throughout

each bioassay.

Dissolved oxygen pH
Water temperature Air temperature
Specific conductance Alkalinity
Hardness Turbidity
Biochemical oxygen Chemical oxygen
demand (BOD) demand (COD)
Fecal coliform Fecal streptococcus
Oil and grease Surfactants
Nitrite Nitrate
Organic nitrogen Ammonia
Orthophosphorus Total phosphorus

Total dissolved solids
Total volatile
suspended solids

Volatile organic
carbon (VOC)

Total suspended solids

Organic carbon (TOC)

Phenol Lindane
Endrin Methoxychlor
Chlordane Toxaphene
2,4-D 2,4,5-TP
Arsenic Barium
Beryllium Cadmium
Calcium Chlorine, residual
Chromium Copper
Cyanide Iron

Lead Magnesium
Mercury Nickel
Selenium Silver

Zinc

layout and the same traffic patterns as the SC,
but is in the east end of the city. An area with
heavy commuter traffic, it has just undergone
extensive road expansion.

The Central Business District (CBD) catch-
ment is in a typical high-density downtown
(metropolitan) area. It is in the middle of the
city's medical complex and is also a heavily
congested traffic area. Impervious coverage is
estimated at 98%.

The Light Industrial (LI) subbasin drains a
watershed that includes a truck manufacturing
plant and a large distribution center. Popula-
tion density is sparse but the manufacturing
plant causes episodic traffic congestion and the
distribution center receives mainly large-truck
traffic. A railroad mainline and several spurs
run through the watershed.

During the study period, 72 samples were
obtained at drain outfalls during the first 20
minutes of each storm’s runoff (first flush) and
over the first 3 hours of selected storms (flow

78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

weighted composite). The method for collect-
ing the first-flush storm runoff was constant
time-constant volume, recommended by the
U.S. EPA (17), in which samples of equal vol-
ume were taken at equal increments of time
and combined to make an average sample. To
prepare the composite samples, water was col-
lected for the duration of the storm event or
the first 3 hours, whichever was shorter, and
sample aliquots were combined according to
each sample’s percentage contribution to the
total storm event. Sampling at each of the out-
falls followed a dry period of at least 96 hours
and were of storms 0.1 inches or greater, as
required by the U.S. EPA (17).

Sampling was conducted during a variety of
storm events of differing duration, intensity
and antecedent conditions, and during all sea-
sons of the year. Climatic conditions were re-
corded during each rain and between rains.

Water quality may be characterized by lit-
erally thousands of properties, elements, and
compounds. For some water-quality issues, the
choice of target variables is a simple task, as
in the substances relevant to the issues of nu-
trient enrichment and sedimentation and the
chemicals present in acidification and salinity,
all of which are of limited number and rela-
tively inexpensive to analyze. On the other
hand, the selection of target variables for the
issue of organic contamination is much more
difficult because of the large number of sub-
stances to consider and their high cost of mea-
surement. The selection of organic target com-
pounds is further complicated by the fact that
there are an estimated 60,000 synthesized or-
ganic compounds currently being manufac-
tured, with an unknown number of byproducts
and degradation products (19). Because health
and environmental concerns are primarily as-
sociated with synthetic rather than naturally
occurring organic compounds, analyses of the
former were emphasized.

The timing and duration of collections were
established as a compromise between achiev-
ing a snapshot’ of conditions and observing
a wide range of conditions over each season.
Because the study was an assessment (as op-
posed to monitoring), collections were periodic
rather than continuous.

Analyses

A prescribed set of study approaches and
protocols for sample collection and handling,

laboratory analyses, and quality assurance were
followed so that the data collected could be
interpreted on a nationally consistent set of
water quality constituents (17, 18). Training
sessions and discussions about protocols were
held to ensure that standard procedures were
followed.

Characterization of base neutral and acid
compounds, organochlorine pesticides and
PCBs, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
were according to the EPA’s Methods 625, 608,
and 624, respectively (17). Methods used for
determining organic and inorganic substances
were those recommended by U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) Techniques of Water Resources
Investigations (20).

Because many chemical, biological, and
physical reactions or processes can occur in
samples between sampling and analysis, re-
sulting in losses of organic contaminants or
formation of artifacts, recommended preser-
vation techniques were conducted (21). Sam-
ples were immediately chilled and stored in
the dark to prevent or decrease biological ac-
tivity and to slow chemical reactions and loss
of volatile compounds. A portion of each sam-
ple was preserved with HCl, decreasing the
pH to less than 2, to prevent biodegradation
of aromatic VOCs.

Digestions for total recoverable metals were
performed by adding 5% 6 M HCI to the water
sample and heating to just below boiling to
reduce the volume by 20%. The sample was
then brought back to its initial volume using
a solution of 5% 6 M HCI in nanopure water.

Sampling at each of the outfalls followed a
dry period of at least 96 hours and was of
storms 0.1 inches or greater, as required by the
U.S. EPA (17). Data that were generated from
the water analyses were used to compare the
toxicity of the runoff with that of the cities
which participated in the preliminary Nation-
wide Urban Runoff Program (Table 2).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The NURP study consisted entirely of chem-
ical analyses and did not include bioassays. For
this reason, it was not possible to compare
Louisville’s effluent toxicity results with those
of other cities. However, it was possible to com-
pare results of the chemical analyses.

The results of the NURP study (18, 14)
showed that the heavy metals (copper, lead,
and zinc in particular) were the most prevalent

URBAN RUNOFF IN KENTUCKY—Marsh 79

TaBLE2. Cities participating in the National Urban Run-
off Program (NURP) and their U.S. EPA regions.

Location U.S. EPA Region

Boston, MA (2) I
Durham, NH II
Long Island, NY II
Lake George, NY II
Rochester, NY II
Washington, DC Ill
Baltimore, MD Ill
Winston-Salem, NC IV
Myrtle Beach, SC IV
Knoxville, TN IV
Tampa, FL IV
Champaign-Urbana, IL V
Lansing, MI Vv
Detroit, MI V
Ann Arbor, MI V
Milwaukee, WI V
Little Rock, AR VI
Austin, TX VI
Kansas City, KS/MO VII
Denver, CO VI
Rapid City, SD VIII
Salt Lake City, UT VII
San Francisco, CA IX
Fresno, CA IX
Eugene, OR xX
Bellevue, WA X

priority pollutants. All 13 metals on U.S. EPA’s
priority pollutants list were detected in the
urban runoff samples, and copper, lead, and
zine were found in 91% of the samples. Fresh-
water acute criteria were exceeded by copper
concentrations in 47% of the samples, and by
lead in 23%. Regarding human toxicity, the
most significant pollutants were lead and nick-
el, and for human carcinogenesis, arsenic and
beryllium.

The exceedances noted above do not nec-
essarily imply that an actual violation of stan-
dards existed. Rather, the enumeration of ex-
ceedances serves as a screening function to
identify those heavy metals whose presence in
urban runoff warrants high priority for further
evaluation.

Unusually high concentrations of copper and
zinc can indicate acid rain effects on material
used for gutters, culverts, and roofing. The
southern, southeastern, and northwestern
regions of the country seemed to be the most
susceptible to negative aquatic life effects due
to heavy metals. It is quite plausible that acid
rain could increase the level of pollutants in
urban runoff and may transform them to more
toxic and more easily assimilated forms. Al-

TABLE 8. Percent of collections which either contained
measurable amounts (P) or exceeded Federal criteria limits
(E) of twenty constituents. Both first flush (F) and com-
posite (C) samples were analyzed from fifteen storm events.

Constituent %P %E
(F) Total Phos 100 100
(C) Total Phos 100 100
(F) SO4 100 100
(F) Chloride 100 86
(F) Copper 67 0
(C) Copper 53 0
(F) Iron 100 40
(C) Iron 100 20
(F) Lead 16 0
(C) Lead 8 0
(F) Zinc 93 0
(C) Zine 93 0
(F) Beryllium 18 0
(F) Mercury 31 0
(C) Mercury 15 0
(F) Chromium 92 0)
(C) Chromium 58 0
(C) Cadmium 08 0
(F) Arsenic 18 0
(F) Antimony 29 0
(F) Silver 08 0
(F) Selenium 07 0
(F) Lindane 53 47
(F) Endrin 18 18
(F) Methoxy 63 63
(F) 24D 100 08
(F) 245TP 18 0
(F) DDT 08 08
(F) Phenol 45 0
(F) Xylene Sf 0
(F) Fecal Coliform 100 17
(F) Fecal Strep 100 08

though Louisville runoff contained high levels
of these metals, no samples exceeded Federal
criteria (Table 8).

The organic priority pollutants were de-
tected in the Louisville runoff less frequently
and at lower concentrations than the heavy
metals in the cities participating in the NURP
study. Sixty three of a possible 106 organics
were detected in NURP samples. The most
commonly found organic was the plasticizer
bis (2-ethylhexl) phthalate (22%), followed by
the pesticides 0-BHC (20%). Neither of these
products were found in the analyses of Louis-
ville’s runoff. In the category of human car-
cinogens, the NURP study found that lindane,
chlordane, penanthrene, pyrene, and chrysene

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

TaBLE 4. Federal criteria for 8 constituents which exceeded the limits, and the maximum, minimum, and mean of

each constituent at each collection site.

Federal

Constituent criteria R,
Total phos (mg/1) 0.01 mg/1 -
*
*
Copper (mg/1) 10 pg /] =
*
*
Iron (mg/1) 3 pg/] be
*
*
Lead (mg/1) 50 ug/l]
*
*
Chloride (mg/1) 10 mg/1 11.0
1.6
6.3
Sulfate (mg/1) 1-3 mg/1 19.0
G2
13.1
2,4-D (ug/l) 100 yg /1 4.4
4.4
4.4
Lindane (ug/1) 0.01 ug/] 0.02
0.02
0.02
Endrin (ug/1) 0.003 ug/l] 0.04
0.04
0.04
Methoxychlor (ug/1) 0.03 ug/1 0.08
0.08
0.08

* Samples lost.

exceeded criteria. Of those chemicals, Louis-
ville’s runoff contained excess amounts of lin-
dane; however, it also carried concentrations
of endrine, methoxychlor, and 2,4-D, which
exceeded criteria (Table 4). In addition, one
sample from the R, collection site not only
contained DDT, but the concentration ex-
ceeded criteria. NURP concluded that occur-
rences of organic pollutants tend to be site
specific and this was borne out by the DDT,
the extremely high levels of lindane, endrin,
methoxychlor, and 2,4-D at the R, and SC,
sites, the presence of phenol at the LI, R,, and
R, sites, and xylene at the SC, and R, sites.
Coliform bacteria were present at high lev-
els in the NURP urban runoff and Louisville’s
as well (Table 3). Coliform bacteria exceeded
U.S. EPA water-quality criteria during and im-

R, SC, SC, LI
0.21 0.37 0.78
0.21 0.24 0.72
0.21 0.31 0.75 x
0.025 0.026 0.059 *
0.017 0.019 0.015 =
0.021 0.023 0.037 *
5.97 6.17 4.42 1.21
2.32 Iogal 4.24 1.21
4.15 3.94 4.33 1.21
0.055 0.06 0.08 *
0.055 0.06 0.06 *
0.055 0.06 0.07 +
340.0 130.0 1100.0 51.0
88.0 60.0 70.0 37.0
214.0 95.0 585.0 44.0
91.0 68.0 37.0 38.0
23.0 6.5 12.0 11.0
57.0 37.25 19.5 24.5
0.26 0.62 276.0 *
0.26 0.14 0.59 +
0.26 0.38 138.0 *
0.02 0.06 0.37 *
0.02 0.04 0.14 *
0.02 0.05 0.26 if
0.03 0.04 0.05 *
0.03 0.02 0.03 a
0.03 0.03 0.04 -
0.08 0.08 1.21 ig
0.08 0.05 0.19 *
0.08 0.07 0.7 *

mediately after storm events in many of the
surface waters, with counts typically in the tens
to hundreds of thousand per 100 ml during
warm weather conditions. However, the NURP
analyses, as well as current literature (4, 22,
23), suggest that fecal coliform may not be the
most appropriate indicator organism for iden-
tifying potential health risks when the source
is stormwater runoff.

Nutrients were generally present in the
NURP sites, but with a few individual excep-
tions, concentrations did not appear to be high.
This was not the case in Louisville, where total
phosphorous concentrations exceeded criteria
in 100% of the samples.

Total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations
in the NURP urban runoff were fairly high.
Although there is no formal water quality cri-

URBAN RUNOFF IN KENTUCKY—Marsh 81

terion for TSS relating to either human health
or aquatic life, the nature of suspended solids
in urban runoff is different from other types
of runoff, being higher in minerals and man-
made products (tire and street surface-wear
particles) and somewhat lower in organic par-
ticulates. Also, the solids in urban runoff are
more likely to have other contaminants ad-
sorbed onto them.

Significant causes of habitat disruption de-
termined by the NURP study were the phys-
ical aspects of urban runoff, erosion, and scour.
Specific changes in fish diversity were studied
incidently in some of the subwatersheds and
were considered to be due to urbanization. Sev-
eral of the projects identified possible problems
in the sediment because of the buildup of pri-
ority pollutants contributed wholly or in part
by urban runoff. It was recommended that
both of these areas be the subjects of more
study after each city has completed its initial
water quality assessment.

LITERATURE CITED

1. U.S. EPA. 1984. Report to Congress: NPSP in the
United States. Office of Water Programs, Water Planning
Division, Washington, DC.

2. Marsalek, J. and H. Y. F. Ng. 1989. Evaluation of
pollutant loadings from urban NPS: methodology and ap-
plications. J. Great Lakes Res. 15:444-451.

3. Seager, J. and L. Maltby. 1989. Assessing the impact
of episodic pollution. Hydrobiologia 188:633-640.

4. Thompson, P. 1989. Poison runoff. Natural Re-
sources Defense Council, Inc., USDA Soil Conservation
Service, New York.

5. Badics, R. 1990. Huron River pollution abatement
project education program. Urban Nonpoint Source Pol-
lution and Stormwater Management Symposium, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington.

6. Field, R. and R. Pitt. 1990. Urban storm-induced
discharge impact. Water Env. and Tech. 3:47-49.

7. Latimer, J. S., E. J. Hoffman, G. Hoffman, J. L.
Fasching, and J. G. Quinn. 1990. Sources of PHCs in
urban runoff. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 52:1-21.

8. Ochmba, P. B. O. 1990. Massive fish kills within
the Nyanza Gulf of Lake Victoria, Kenya. Hydrobiologia
208:93-99.

9. Ohio River Valley Sanitation Commission. 1990.
Assessment of nonpoint source pollution of the Ohio River.
ORSANCO. Cincinnati, Ohio.

10. Austin, Texas. 1988. Modeling studies for the city
of Austin stormwater monitoring programs. Austin, Texas.

11. Irwin, R. 1988. Impacts of toxic chemicals on
Trinity River fish and wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Fort Worth, Texas.

12. Texas Water Commission. 1986. NPS water pol-
lution control for the State of Texas, recommendations for
the future. Nonpoint Source Advisory Committee, Austin,
Texas.

13. U.S. EPA. 1983a. Results of the Nationwide Urban
Runoff Program, Vol. 1, 2, and 3. Water Planning Division,
Washington, DC.

14. U.S. EPA. 1983b. Results of the Nationwide Urban
Runoff Program, Vol. 1, Final report. Water Planning
Division, Washington, DC.

15. Code of Federal Regulations. 1990. Title 40, Parts
100-149. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC.

16. Hamilton, M.A., R. C. Russo, and E.V. Thurston.
1977. Trimmed Spearman-Karber method for estimating
median lethal concentrations in toxicity bioassays. Env.
Sci. Tech. 11:714-719.

17. U.S. EPA. 1986. Development of standard meth-
ods for the collection and analysis of precipitation. Envi-
ronmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincin-
nati, Ohio. EPA 600/$4-86/024.

18. U.S. EPA. 1987. Comprehensive experimental de-
sign plan to relate pollutant sources to acidic deposition.
Atmospheric Sciences Research Laboratory, Research Tri-
angle Park, North Carolina. EPA/600/S3-86/070.

19. Shackleford, W. M. and D. M. Cline. 1986. Or-
ganic compounds in water. Environ. Sci. and Techn. 20:
652-657.

20. Wershaw, R. L., M. J. Fishman, R. R. Grabbe, and
L. E. Lowe (eds.) 1987. Methods for the determination
of organic substances in water and fluvial sediments. USGS
Techniques of Water Resources Investigations, Book 5,
Chapter A3, U.S.G.S. Redmond, Washington.

21. Ward, J. R. and C. A. Harr (eds.) 1991. Methods
for collection and processing of surface water and bed
material samples for physical and chemical analyses. USGS
Techniques of Water Resources Investigations, Book 1,
Chapter D3, U.S.G.S. Denver, Colorado.

22. Pitt, R. and P. Bissonnette. 1984. Bellvue urban
runoff program summary report. Special publication for
the EPA, nationwide Urban Runoff Program, Bellvue,
Washington.

23. Novotny, V. and G. Chester. 1989. Delivery of
sediment and pollutants from NPS: a water quality per-
spective. J. Soil and Water Conserv. 44:568-576.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1998, 82-86

Rules for Reaction Mechanisms

P. L. Corio
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055

ABSTRACT

Several rules governing the structure of reaction mechanisms are developed and illustrated by a number
of examples. Their simplicity notwithstanding, these rules may be used as an aid in the construction of
reaction mechanisms, or as tests for the consistency of a given mechanism. The application of these rules to
the solution of practical problems presented by certain mechanisms is also discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Reaction mechanisms are subject to some
simple rules (1, 2) that are useful in the con-
struction of reaction mechanisms, and in de-
termining whether a given mechanism is con-
sistent. These rules provide relations among the
following parameters: p, the number of reac-
tants; 7, the number of products; v, the number
of independent conservation conditions; x, the
number of chemical components; 1, the num-
ber of intermediates; and n, the number of
independent reactions. Except for n and p, these
definitions may be quickly recalled by allit-
eration: p for reactants, a for products, x for
components, c for intermediates.

A consistent mechanism satisfies the equa-
tions (1, 2).

R= oF iw a 6 =i se PD. (1)

The first equality follows from the fact that
the sum p + 7, that is, the sum of reactants
and products, is obtained by subtracting the
number of intermediates from the total num-
ber of components in the mechanism. Simi-
larly, on subtracting the number of indepen-
dent conservation conditions from the number
of components, we obtain the number of in-
dependent reactions, which may also be char-
acterized as the number of degrees of freedom,
or as the number of independent, first-order
differential equations required to define the
kinetics.

It is assumed that the reaction under con-
sideration occurs in a closed system without
mass-energy conversion, and admits an inter-
pretation in terms of a mechanism with a finite
number of independent steps. Beyond this,
however, the system may be arbitrary: the re-
action may be homogeneous or heterogeneous,
its kinetics simple or complex. Equations (1)
are independent of all details of the reaction.

82

When the mechanism is given p, 7, x, and
t, can be determined by inspection, but n and
v must be determined algebraically. As an il-
lustration, consider the mechanism for the gas
phase reaction of nitric oxide and chlorine:

NO + Cl, 2 NOC, (2)
NOCI, + NO — 2NOCI. (3)

Evidently x = 4, p = 2, t = 1, andi = 1, so
that the first of equations (1) is satisfied. To
verify the second we must determine n and ».
We first number the components | through 4
in the order NO, Cl,, NOCI,, NOCI, and write
out the conservation conditions for nitrogen,
oxygen, and chlorine:

[NO] + [NOCI,] + [NOC]] = c,
[NO] + [NOCI,] + [NOC]] = cz,
2[Cl,] + 2[NOCI,] + [NOC] = cs,

where cj, Cs, C3 are constants equal to the initial
values of the left-hand members. Clearly c, =
Cy, so that there can be at most two indepen-
dent conservation conditions; but to see the
general rule, we write out the 3 X 4 matrix of
coefficients determined by the left-handed
members:

The value of v is the rank of this matrix, that
is, v is the number of rows (or columns) in the
nonvanishing determinant(s) of greatest order
contained in the matrix. Now the first 2 rows
are equal, so that every 8 X 3 determinant in
the matrix is zero, which means v < 3. The
determinant of the 2 <x 2 matrix in the lower
left-hand corner is not zero, so that vy = 2. Note
that although there are three distinct atoms, v

REACTION MECHANISM RULES—Corio 83

< 3. In general, if N denotes the number of
the distinct atoms, then the number of inde-
pendent conservation conditions is less than or
equal to N + 1 or N, according as there is or
is not a charge conservation condition.

With x = 4 and pv = Q, it follows that n = 2,
but we can compute the value of n indepen-
dently as follows. Rewrite the reaction equa-
tions in the following algebraic form, ordering
the components as before, but transposing
products to the left-hand members:

NO + Cl, — NOCI, = 0,
NO + NOCI, — 2NOCI = 0.

The rank of the matrix of coefficients, namely,

Wiel 50)
IO ved 947) *

is the number of independent reactions. In this
case, n = 2 so that equations (1) are satisfied.
Note that forward and reverse steps of a re-
versible reaction must be written as a single
mechanistic step, since such steps are depen-
dent.

For mechanisms with a sizable number of
distinct atoms, or numerous mechanistic steps,
the determination of v or n can be considerably
simplified by row or column operations, as dis-
cussed in texts on algebra (3). In the following
examples we cite the values of v and n without
writing out the appropriate matrices, leaving
these computations as exercises for the reader.

EXAMPLES

1. A proposed mechanism (4) for the gas
phase decomposition of ozone is

O; 2 O, + O, (4)
O; a O ai 20s, (5)

in which atomic oxygen is an intermediate.
Equations (1) are satisfied since xk = 3, p + «
=2,1=1,n=2,andpyp=1.

2. Hexachlorocyclopentadiene couples (5)
to bis-(pentachlorocyclopentadieny]) in a suit-
able solvent, and a suggested mechanism is

CiCl. ap CuCl 2 GaGGnGi, (6)
C;Cl,-CuCl ad C;Cl; aF CuCl,, (7)
2C;Cl; > CyoChio, (8)

in which C;Cl,-CuCl and C;Cl; are interme-
diates. Since kx = 6,n =v =8, p= =1=2,
equations (1) are satisfied.

3. The following mechanism for the gas
phase decomposition of nitric acid (6) is also
consistent.

HNO, = HO + NO,, (9)

HO + HNO; > HO + NOs, (10)
NO, + NO; > NO, + NO+0,, (11)
NO + NO; — 2NO,. )

(12

There are 7 components, 4 independent re-
actions, 3 intermediates (HO, NO, NOs), 1 re-
actant, 3 products, and 3 independent conser-
vation conditions.

4. The classical chain mechanism for the gas
phase reaction of hydrogen and bromine (7)
also conforms to equations (1):

Br, + M=2Br + M, (13)
Br + H, @ HBr + H, (14)
lel ar Bg) eo lelele oP lee, (15)

Here, k=5,7 = 1, p =t_ =v =2,n=3. Note
that the first step leaves M chemically intact,
so that M is not counted among the compo-
nents. Bromine molecules could serve the func-
tion of M, but bromine would be counted as
a component by virtue of its dissociation in the
first step, not by assuming the collisional func-
tion of M.

5. Equations (1) also apply to photochemi-
cal reactions, but a photon of energy is not
counted as a component of the mechanism
anymore than thermal energy would in ther-
mal reactions. For example, a frequently cited
mechanism for the depletion of ozone in the
atmosphere is

O; + hy > O, + O, (16)
©; + hy OO; (17)
O + O; > 20,. (18)

The third step is equal to the first step minus
the second, so that n ¥ 3. In fact, n = 2, and
with xk = 8, vy =t = p = z = 1, equations (1)
are satisfied.

A mechanism may have any number of de-
pendent steps, but the number of independent
mechanistic steps must satisfy equations (1).

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

Dependent steps contribute to the kinetics, and
are sometimes essential to the mechanism, as,
for instance in the unimolecular, cyclical con-
version of isomers:

Naa (BSG Gay M10)

There are only 2 independent reactions, but
omission of any one reaction would fail to dis-
close the cyclic nature of the mechanism.

STOICHIOMETRIES AND MECHANISMS

The values of p and z can also be obtained
from the observed stoichiometry (8). The stoi-
chiometry for the decomposition of nitric acid,
for instance, is

4HNO; > 4NO, + 2H,O + On,

which yields p = 1, 7 = 8.

There is one point (1, 2), however, that needs
to be carefully noted in the case of catalyzed
reactions, namely, that although catalysts do
not appear in the net stoichiometric equation,
each catalyst must be counted once in the sum
p +. Asan illustration, consider the oxidation
of V°* and by Fe®*, which is catalyzed by
cupric ion (9). The stoichiometry is

Cu2*
—= Vi" + Fe2*.

(20)

Weer ap lee (21)

Since there is one catalyst, the value or p + 7
is 4 + 1 = 5. Hence a consistent mechanism
must satisfy k = 5 +.=n + pv. The proposed
mechanism (10)

Vere Cueva i Cuue

Cuip si Mert = Hesiects Cucam (22)

with Cut as an intermediate, v = 4 (mass and
charge), n = 2, and x = 6, is therefore consis-
tent.

The observed stoichiometric relation also
implies a certain number, p,, say, of conser-
vation conditions, but the value of », is, in gen-
eral, less than or equal to the value of v. For
example, the stoichiometry of an isomerization
A > B has pv, = 1, since the conservation con-
ditions are multiples of each other. But a mech-
anism for the isomerization may take place in
several steps involving the rupture and for-
mation of bonds, and in such steps additional
conservation conditions may come into play.
In general, therefore,

vy. =v=N,orN +], (23)

where, as before, N denotes the number of
distinct atoms in the system. It can be shown
(2) that in the case of a catalyzed reaction,
each catalyst is to be counted once in the com-
putation of v,. Thus, for the stoichiometry (21),
mass and charge conservation yield 3 conser-
vation conditions, so that, with one catalyst, v,
=8+ 1=4. In this case, pv, = ».

REPRESENTATIVE PROBLEMS

Equations (1) can be used to construct in-
teresting problems of an investigative nature.
The following examples illustrate the sort of
problems that can be generated.

Problem 1.—The following mechanism (10)
has been proposed for the thermal decompo-
sition of ethylene oxide:

CH,CH,O — CH,CHO + H,

CH,CHO — CH, + CO,
CH,CH,O + CH, — CH,CHO + CH,,
CH,CHO + CH; — stable products.

(a) How many new products are generated in
the final step of the mechanism? (b) How many
products are there in the right member of the
stoichiometric relation? (c) What might the
stable products be?

Solution.—(a) There are three intermedi-
ates (H, CH;, CH,CHO), three conservation
conditions, and four independent reactions. It
follows that k = n + vy = 7. The mechanism
exhibits six components explicitly, so that the
final step can only generate one new product.

(b) Since x = 7, andu = 3, the value of p +
m7 =k — c= 4, Since p = 1, we must have +
= 8, namely CO, CH,, and the new product
formed in the last step.

(c) Since at most one new product is formed
in the last step, it would be impossible to form
formaldehyde and ethylene, or allene and wa-
ter, or methanol and acetylene; but carbon
monoxide and ethane, or methane and ketene
could be formed in that step. If we suppose
only one product formed in the final step, seven
possibilities are acetone, propanal, propylene
oxide, cyclopropanol, trimethylene oxide,
1-propene-l-ol, and 1-propene-2-ol. In arriv-
ing at these results, we have used the fact that
the coefficients of the components in a mech-
anistic step are necessarily integers.

It should be noted that the mechanism makes

REACTION MECHANISM RULES—Corio 85

no provision for the depletion of hydrogen at-
oms. One possibility is CH; + H > CH. This
reaction is a dependent reaction, being the
third reaction minus the first. Since it is a de-
pendent reaction, it can be added to the mech-
anism without altering the values of n, x, p, 7,
t, v; it will, however, contribute to the kinetics.

Problem 2.—How would the results of Prob-
lem 1 be altered if hydrogen atoms are elim-
inated by the reaction 2H > H,?

Solution.—(a) We now have five indepen-
dent reactions, three conservation conditions,
three intermediates, and seven explicit com-
ponents; hence x = 8, so only one new product
is generated in step 4.

(b) With x = 8,1 =38, and p = 1, the number
of products in the stoichiometric relation is 7
=k — p—.t=4, namely, H;, CO, CHy, and
the new product formed in step 4.

(c) In addition to the possibilities already
mentioned in Problem 1, the stable products
in step four could be molecular hydrogen, car-
bon monoxide, and ethylene, or molecular hy-
drogen and methy] ketene.

Problem 3.—The uncatalyzed photochem-
ical decomposition of iodomethane conforms
to the stoichiometry

INCE => Helsh = Gye, = yeh,
4. Gal = Cal, <> Sh.

How many components are there in a mech-
anism with ten independent steps? How many
intermediates?

Solution.—According to the observed stoi-
chiometry, p + a = 7, and pv, = 3, so that « =
7 +.1=n + vp. Now, according to equation
(23), v equals 3 or 4. If vy = 8, a ten-step mech-
anism must have 13 components and 6 inter-
mediates. If vy = 4, a ten-step mechanism must
have 14 components and 7 intermediates.

Problem 4.—A certain reaction is initiated
by three reactants, but analytical difficulties
make the determination of the number of
products uncertain. Other experimental evi-
dence suggests there are eight components.
How many possible products are there?

Solution.—From the given data, x = 8, p =
3, and the first of equations (1) gives 8 = 3 +
a + u, or, 7 + 1 = 5. Now the number of
intermediates can be zero, but there must be
at least one product, so that the possible values
of 7 and ce summing to 5 are (z, t) = (5, 0), (4,

IN (es, BA), (SB) Cy Oy Wows; ge =, 2h By
or l.

Problem 5.—Show that the following mech-
anism is inconsistent.

C,H, — 2CHs,
CH, + C,H, — CH, + C,Hs,
C,H; > C,H, + H,
C,H, + H ~ C,H; + Hg.

Solution.—The mechanism has 7 compo-
nents, three intermediates, four independent
steps, and two mass conservation conditions.
The mechanism is inconsistent, since x = 7,
but n + »y = 4 + 2 =6. If the independent
reaction

C,H; ap lel — (Galale,

is appended to the mechanism, equations (1)
will be satisfied.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The preceding examples and problems il-
lustrate the usefulness of equations (1) in the
study of reaction mechanisms. It should be em-
phasized, that a mechanism conforming to these
equations need not be the correct mechanism
for the reaction under investigation. On the
other hand, a mechanism that does not con-
form to equations (1) must be accordingly
modified.

The rules embodied in equation (1) may be
regarded as a concise way of using the concepts
of stoichiometry, intermediate, conservation
conditions, etc. in a consistent manner. With
mechanisms containing few steps these rules
have usually been implicitly observed, but they
must be taken into account explicitly when
dealing with mechanisms containing many
steps and many components. Examples of the
application of these rules to complex mecha-
nisms, and some theoretical relations of a more
technical nature are given elsewhere (2, 11).

LITERATURE CITED

1. Corio, P. L. 1984. Stoichiometric relations, mech-
anisms, and steady states. J. Phys. Chem. 84:1825-1833.

2. Corio, P. L. 1989. Topics in current chemistry.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 150:249-283.

3. Birkhoff, G. D. and S. MacLane. 1977. A survey of
modern algebra, 4th ed. MacMillan, New York.

4. Benson, S. W. and A. E. Axworthy. 1957. Mecha-

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

nism of the gas phase, thermal decomposition of ozone. J.
Chem. Phys. 26:1718-1726.

5. Roberts, C. W., D. H. Haigh, and W.G. Lloyd. 1960.
A kinetic study of the coupling of hexachlorocyclopenta-
diene to form bis-(pentachlorocyclopentadieny]). J. Phys.
Chem. 64:1887-1891.

6. Johnston, H. S. 1966. Gase phase reaction rate the-
ory. Ronald, New York.

7. Frost, A. A. and R. G. Pearson. 1961. Kinetics and
mechanism, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.

8. Corio, P. L. 1970. Mass conservation and multiple
stoichiometries. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 32:51—56.

9. Ashmore, P. G. 1963. Catalysis and inhibition of
chemical reactions. Butterworths, London.

10. Crocco, L., I. Glassman, and I. E. Smith. 1959.
Kinetics and mechanism of ethylene oxide decomposition
at high temperatures. J. Chem. Phys. 31:506-510.

11. Corio, P. L. and B. G. Johnson. 1991. Conditions
for reaction mechanisms. J. Phys. Chem. 95:4166—4171.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 87-92

A Survey of Small Mammals in the Morehead Ranger
District, Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky

JAMES KIsER AND LES MEADE

Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Morehead State University,
Morehead, Kentucky 40351

ABSTRACT

In 1991, a survey of rare, threatened and endangered plants and animals in the Morehead Ranger District,
Daniel Boone National Forest (DBNF) was undertaken as a cooperative effort between the U.S. Forest Service
and The Nature Conservancy (TNC), with further cooperation from the Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources, Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, and Morehead State University.

Small mammals were surveyed by using pitfall traps and snap traps placed in selected habitats throughout
national forest lands and private lands adjacent to the DBNF. Bats were collected with mist nets during the
summer and fall, and in December, they were surveyed at hibernacula. Twenty-two species of mammals
were captured and observed. These included 4 species of shrews, 7 species of rodents and 11 species of bats.
Dominant species captured in the Morehead Ranger District of the DBNF were Blarina brevicauda, Sorex
fumeus, Peromyscus leucopus, Myotis lucifugus, Myotis septentrionalis, Pipistrellus subflavus and Eptesicus

fuscus.

INTRODUCTION

A survey of rare, threatened and endan-
gered plants and animals in the Morehead
Ranger District, Daniel Boone National Forest
(DBNF) was undertaken in 1991, as a coop-
erative effort between the U.S. Forest Service
and The Nature Conservancy (TNC), with ad-
ditional support from the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Ken-
tucky State Nature Preserves Commission and
Morehead State University (1). Similar studies
in the DBNF were also completed by coop-
erative effort in the Somerset (2), Stanton (3),
Stearns (4) and Berea (5) Ranger Districts. Ear-
lier mammal surveys in eastern Kentucky by
Welter and Sollberger (6), and Fassler (7), also
included records from the Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest. Other surveys by Hamilton (8),
Barbour (9), and Barbour and Hardjasasmita
(10) reported mammals from adjacent regions.

Fieldwork in the the Morehead Ranger Dis-
trict occurred between May and December of
1991. Small mammals and bats were surveyed
in selected habitats throughout national forest
lands, and private lands adjacent to the DBNF.
Twenty-two species of small mammals were
collected; these included 4 species of shrews
(Sorex fumeus, S. hoyi, S. longirostris and
Blarina brevicauda), 7 species of rodents
(Peromyscus leucopus, Reithrodontomys hu-
mulis, Synaptomys cooperi, Microtus penn-
sylvanicus, M. ochrogaster, M. pinetorum and

87

Napaeozapus insignis) and 11 species of bats
(Eptesicus fuscus, Myotis lucifugus, M. leibii,
M. sodalis, M. septentrionalis, Lasionycteris
noctivagans, Pipistrellus subflavus, Lasiurus
borealis, L. cinereus, Plecotus rafinesquii and
P. townsendii virginianus).

Small mammals previously documented in
the Morehead Ranger District, but not col-
lected during this research project, included
Cryptotis parva, Parascalops breweri, Och-
rotomys nuttalli, Peromyscus maniculatus,
Mus musculus and Tamias striatus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Small mammals were surveyed by using pit-
fall traps (960 ml plastic cups) and snap traps
(mouse and museum special traps). Pitfall trap-
ping was conducted at 17 sites in a variety of
habitats, including mesophytic forest (usually
with abundant boulder talus), open meso-
phytic forest, prairie sites, upland fields, low-
land fields, swamp forest (MSU Sphagnum
Swamp) and floodplain forest. Snap traps were
placed at 9 sites, including mesophytic forest
(adjacent to boulder talus and logs), prairie
sites, upland fields, lowland fields and swamp
forest. These efforts results in 97,417 trap nights
of sampling time, although leaf litter reduced
the effective trapping time during late fall.

Pitfall traps were partially filled with 10%
formalin (9:1 ratio of water to formaldehyde)
so that complete specimens could be obtained.

88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-—4)

When formalin was not used, specimens were
quickly devoured by carrion beetles. Pitfall
traps were set by using a posthole digger and
were placed in areas where signs of mammal
activity were noticed, or in suitable habitats,
and were checked at 1-2 week intervals. Snap
traps were placed in similar areas and baited
with peanut butter. They were checked on a
daily basis and set out for 4-5 day intervals.
Additional records of small mammals were ob-
served while walking, or were found as road
kills. All specimens collected with traps, and
usable road kills, were deposited in the More-
head State University Vertebrate Collection.
Collection sites surveyed for small terrestrial
mammals were as follows:

(1) Kendrick Ridge, 5.3 km E of KY 36. Menifee Co.,
Ky. Scranton Quadrangle.

(2) Lowland fields along Beaver Creek, ca. 5.8 km E of
KY 36. Menifee Co., Ky. Scranton Quadrangle.

(3) Botts Fork, 1.0 km E of Brushy Fork. Menifee Co.,
Ky. Scranton Quadrangle.

(4) Murder Branch, 0.32 km W of Murder Branch Cave.
Menifee Co., Ky. Ezel Quadrangle.

(5) Craney Creek, FS 947 nr. Craney, ca. 0.48 km N of
Cave Run Lake. Morgan Co., Ky. Wrigley Quadran-
gle.

(6) Black Cave Hollow, Craney Creek. Rowan Co., Ky.
Wrigley Quadrangle.

(7) Murder Branch, boulder talus site, 5.8 km from KY
1274 on FS 1074. Menifee Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

(8) Prairie site, KY 1274, ca. 3.2 km S of KY 519. Rowan
Co., Ky. Bangor Quadrangle.

(9) Prairie site, KY 1274, ca. 6.4 km S of KY 519. Rowan
Co., Ky. Bangor Quadrangle.

(10) Zilpo Campground, Cave Run Lake. Bath Co., Ky.
Bangor Quadrangle.

(11) Hog Hollow, 0.48 km S of dam at Cave Run Lake.
Bath Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quadrangle.

(12) Hog Hollow, 0.81 km SW of dam at Cave Run Lake,
nr. end of FS 1062. Bath Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quad-
rangle.

(13) Floodplain forest at oxbow lake, Minor Clark Fish
Hatchery. Rowan Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quadrangle.

(14) Glady Hollow, FS 906. Bath Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quad-
rangle.

(15) Tater Knob, FS 918B. Bath Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quad-
rangle.

(16) Mud Lick Youth Camp, 1.3 km NE of Olympia
Springs. Bath Co., Ky. Olympia Quadrangle.

(17) MSU Sphagnum Swamp, KY 1722 ca. 4.8 km W of
Farmers. Rowan Co., Ky. Farmers Quadrangle.

(18) FS 977, ca. 2.1 km S of KY 799. Rowan Co., Ky.
Cranston Quadrangle.

(19) FS 977, ca 3.2 km S of KY 799. Rowan Co., Ky.
Cranston Quadrangle.

(20) Floodplain forest on island, North Fork of Triplett
Creek, 0.81 km S of Cranston. Rowan Co., Ky. Cran-
ston Quadrangle.

(21) Amburgy Rock Rd. (FS 964), 0.32 km N of FS 16.
Rowan Co., Ky. Morehead Quadrangle.

(22) Triangle Tower Rd. (FS 12), ca. 0.48 km NE of radio
tower. Rowan Co., Ky. Morehead Quadrangle.

Preliminary fieldwork indicated that most
of the rare and endangered species of bats in
the Morehead area were associated with caves
and shelters of clifflines. Thus, a special effort
was made to census the bats and other animals
of these habitats. During the summer months,
we surveyed clifflines, recorded species local-
ities, and recorded locations of shelters and
caves that were found. We returned to many
of these sites and mist-netted for bats during
the summer and early fall. Mist nets were
placed in potential foraging regions in front of
sandstone shelters and limestone caves, along
clifflines, and across streams, pipeline corri-
dors, and logging roads. Two or three nets were
set up at selected sites before dark and left in
place until bat activity stopped. All collected
bats were examined with regard to species,
age, sex and reproductive maturity; specimens
were then marked on their wings with correc-
tion fluid and released. Recaptures were easy
to identify because of the white spot. Mist-
netting sites with captured bats were as follows:

(1) Murder Branch Gap, 5.6 km from KY 1274 on FS
1074. Menifee Co., Ky. Bangor Quadrangle.

(2) Leatherwood Cove Area, along pipeline corridor nr.
Scale Ladder Hollow. Menifee Co., Ky. Bangor
Quadrangle.

(83) Beaver Creek, ca. 3.5 km E of KY 36. Menifee Co.,
Ky. Scranton Quadrangle.

(4) Craney Creek, nr. Craney, ca. 0.16 km N of Cave
Run Lake. Rowan-Morgan Co. line. Wrigley Quad-
rangle.

(5) Head of Mine Branch, off FS 933. Morgan Co., Ky.
Bangor Quadrangle.

(6) North Fork of Triplett Creek, ca. 0.32 km S of Cran-
ston. Rowan Co., Ky. Cranston Quadrangle.

(7) Skidmore Sandstone Shelter, FS 1227A, ca. 1.6 km
W of mouth of Skidmore Creek. Menifee Co., Ky.
Salt Lick Quadrangle.

(8) Triplett Creek, 0.81 km E of Becky Branch. Rowan
Co., Ky. Morehead Quadrangle.

(9) Mud Lick Area, along pipeline corridor, ca. 0.81 km

SMALL MAMMALS IN KENtTucKYy—Kiser and Meade 89

N of Mud Lick Youth Camp. Bath Co., Ky. Olympia
Quadrangle.

(10) Licking River at KY 801, 0.81 km S of US 60. Rowan-
Bath Co. line. Farmers Quadrangle.

(11) Oxbow Lake, 0.48 km SW jet. of US 60 and KY 801.
Rowan Co., Ky. Farmers Quadrangle.

(12) Leatherwood Creek Area, SE corner of Chestnut Cliffs.
Menifee Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quadrangle.

(18) Triangle Tower No. 11, Shelter on FS 12A. Rowan
Co., Ky. Morehead Quadrangle.

(14) Murder Branch Cave. Menifee Co., Ky. Ezel Quad-
rangle.

(15) Spaws Creek, ca. 2.4 km SW of Open Fork. Menifee
Co., Ky. Ezel Quadrangle.

(16) Menifee County Park. Menifee Co., Ky. Scranton
Quadrangle.

(17) Mine Branch Cave. Morgan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

In December, we examined shelters and all
known caves of the Morehead District for hi-
bernating bats. Many of the sandstone shelters
examined were picked from biological evalu-
ations of timber sales. Only one cave, Ellington
Pit Cave, was not completely explored because
the 50-foot pit required special expertise to
enter. Shelters and caves with hibernating bats
included the following:

(1) Risk Cave, Triangle Tower. Rowan Co., Ky. More-
head Quadrangle.

(2) Clack Mountain Railroad Tunnel. Rowan Co., Ky.
Morehead Quadrangle.

(3) Old House Creek Cave. Rowan Co., Ky. Haldeman
Quadrangle. f

(4) Hardin Cave No. 1. Rowan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-

rangle.

(5) Hardin Cave No. 2. Rowan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

(6) Ellington Pit Cave. Rowan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

(7) Pickett Branch Pit Cave. Rowan Co., Ky. Bangor
Quadrangle.

(8) Silver-haired Cave. Rowan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

(9) Dock Hollow Cave. Menifee Co., Ky. Scranton Quad-
rangle.

(10) Skidmore Sandstone Shelter. Menifee Co., Ky. Salt
Lick Quadrangle.

(11) Clifton Creek Iron Mines. Menifee Co., Ky. Scranton
Quadrangle.

(12) Murder Branch Cave. Menifee Co., Ky. Ezel Quad-
rangle.

(13) Cold Cave Pit Cave. Menifee Co., Ky. Ezel Quad-
rangle.

(14) Spaws Creek Cave. Morgan Co., Ky. Ezel Quadran-
gle.

TaBLE 1. Species of small mammals collected in the
Morehead Ranger District with pitfall traps in 1991. Trap-
ping success rate was calculated as a percentage of traps
that captured specimens.

Species Number Sites Success rate

Sorex fumeus 137 14 18.00
Blarina brevicauda 106 14 13.93
Peromyscus leucopus 32 12 4.20
Sorex hoyi winnemana 16 9 2.10
Sorex longirostris 8 3 1.05
Napaeozapus insignis 6 ) 0.79
Microtus pinetorum 1 1 0.13
Microtus ochrogaster 1 1 0.18

Totals 307 17 40.33

(15) Mine Branch Cave. Morgan Co., Ky. Bangor Quad-
rangle.

(16) Mine Branch Sandstone Shelter. Morgan Co., Ky.
Bangor Quadrangle.

(17) Donahue Sandstone Cave. Morgan Co., Ky. Bangor
Quadrangle.

(18) Shooting Range Cave. Bath Co., Ky. Salt Lick Quad-
rangle.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 374 small mammals and 224 bats
were captured during the summer and fall of
1991. Trapping with pitfall and snap traps
reached its peak in early summer between May
15 and July 1. Heat and dryness probably
slowed mammal activity in late summer. Ad-
ditional trapping in September and October
produced only small numbers of mammals.

Species of small mammals collected in the
Morehead Ranger District with pitfall and snap
traps in 1991 are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

TaBLE 2. Species of small mammals collected in the
Morehead Ranger District with snaptraps in 1991. Trap-
ping success rate was calculated as a percentage of traps
that captured specimens.

Success

Species Number Sites rate
Peromyscus leucopus Qi a 3.21
Blarina brevicauda 22 5 2.62
Microtus pennsylvanicus 8 4 0.95
Reithrodontomys humulis 3 2 0.36
Synaptomys cooperi 2 2 0.24
Microtus ochrogaster 2 1 0.24
Microtus pinetorum 2 1 0.24
Sorex longirostris 1 1 0.12

Totals 67 9 7.98

90 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

TABLE 3. Major habitats surveyed and associated species of small mammals in the Morehead Ranger District.

Species

Sorex fumeus

Blarina brevicauda
Peromyscus leucopus
Sorex longirostris

Sorex hoyi winnemana
Napaeozapus insignis
Microtus pinetorum
Microtus ochrogaster
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Reithrodontomys humulis
Synaptomys cooperi

> | >
ds |

A = Open, mixed mesophytic forest.

B= Mixed mesophytic forest with boulder talus.
C = Floodplain forest.

D = Swamp forest.

E = Prairie sites.

F = Upland fields.

G = Lowland fields.

Trapping success rate for small mammals was
calculated as a percentage of the traps that
produced specimens. Eleven species of small
mammals were captured, but only 3 species
(Sorex fumeus, Blarina brevicauda and Pero-
myscus leucopus) were abundant. Seven spe-
cies (Sorex hoyi winnemana, S. longirostris,
Reithrodontomys humulis, Microtus pineto-
rum, M. ochrogaster, Synaptomys cooperi and
Napaeozapus insignis) were somewhat rare in
the Morehead area. Only 1 of these species
(Sorex hoyi winnemana) was listed by Warren
et al. (11) as endangered, threatened or rare.
However, S. h. winnemana was captured in
all 4 counties of this region, and is probably

TABLE 4. Species of bats mist-netted in the Morehead
Ranger District in 1991. RS = number of reproductive
sites.

Species Number _ Sites RS
Lasiurus borealis wy I
Eptesicus fuscus Sl lil
Pipistrellus subflavus S710
Myotis septentrionalis 42 9)
Myotis lucifugus 71
Plecotus rafinesquii 9

Myotis sodalis 2
Lasionycteris noctivagans 2
Plecotus townsendii virginianus 1
Myotis leibii 1
Lasiurus cinereus 1

Totals

SS] [2 & SO i Cu ed CuI) Cx

bo
bo
>
—
~]
_
iw)

Habitats
C D E F G
xX Xx XxX

XxX xX xX x Xx
xX xX xX x xX
xX xX x

Xx
x
x
xX

x

more common in the DBNF than currently
known.

Major habitats surveyed and associated spe-
cies of small mammals in the Morehead Rang-
er District are presented in Table 3. Mixed
mesophytic forest with boulder talus, lowland
fields and upland fields included the greatest
species diversity; open mesophytic forest,
floodplain forest and prairie regions contained
the fewest species. Blarina brevicauda and
Peromyscus leucopus occurred in all habitat
types. Sorex hoyi winnemana and N. insignis
were restricted to mesophytic forest with boul-
der talus. Sorex fumeus was only found in
forested areas. Microtus pennsylvanicus, M.
ochrogaster, R. humulis and Synaptomys
cooperi were occupants of fields. Sorex lon-
girostris was found in swamp forest and moist
fields. Microtus pinetorum inhabited meso-
phytic forest and fields.

Species of bats mist-netted in the Morehead
Ranger District are given in Table 4. Eleven
species were captured during this study, but
only 5 species (Lasiurus borealis, Eptesicus
fuscus, Pipistrellus subflavus, Myotis lucifu-
gus and M. septentrionalis) were common.
Plecotus rafinesquii was occasionally captured
in the Morehead Ranger District. Five addi-
tional species (Myotis sodalis, M. leibii, Ple-
cotus townsendii virginianus, Lasionycteris
noctivagans and Lasiurus cinereus) were rare-
ly found; however, all of these bats, except P.

SMALL MAMMALS IN KENTUCKy—Kiser and Meade 91

TaBLE 5. Major habitats surveyed and associated species of bats mist-netted in the Morehead Ranger District.

Species A

Lasiurus borealis
Eptesicus fuscus
Pipistrellus subflavus
Myotis septentrionalis
Myotis lucifugus
Plecotus rafinesquii
Myotis sodalis
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Plecotus townsendii virginianus xX
Myotis leibii

Lasiurus cinereus

wx xX
KKK KM MM]

A = Sandstone cliffline.

B = Sandstone cliffline with sandstone cave/rock shelter.
C = Sandstone cliffline and logging road.

D = Ridgetop pond and adjacent gravel road.

E = Deep woodland ravine.

F = Mouth of limestone cave.

G = Stream /river corridor.

H = Oxbow in riparian forest.

I = Bottomland forest with pipeline corridor.

t. virginianus, migrate northward during the
warmer parts of the year. Myotis sodalis, M.
leibii and Plecotus townsendii virginianus
were listed by Warren et al. (11) as endan-
gered; Plecotus rafinesquii was listed as threat-
ened (T) and Myotis septentrionalis was listed
as special concern (S). Reproductive sites were
also recorded for 7 of the 11 species captured;
these sites were based on the capture of lac-
tating females and immature specimens.
Major habitats surveyed and associated spe-
cies of bats mist-netted in the Morehead Rang-
er District are given in Table 5. Five species
(Lasiurus borealis, Eptesicus fuscus, Pipis-
trellus subflavus, Myotis septentrionalis and
M. lucifugus) were found in a variety of hab-
itats. Along sandstone clifflines, usually in areas
with sandstone caves or rock shelters, all 5 of
these species were very common. Six other spe-
cies were only captured in 1-2 habitats; these
included Plecotus rafinesquii, P. townsendii
virginianus, Myotis sodalis, M. leibii, Lasio-
nycteris noctivagans and Lasiurus cinereus.
Plecotus rafinesquii, P. t. virginianus and M.
sodalis were also captured along sandstone cliff-
lines; L. noctivagans was captured at the mouth
of a limestone cave; M. leibii was mist-netted
in a deep woodland ravine; and L. cinereus
was collected along a stream corridor.
Species of bats found during a winter cave
survey in the Morehead Ranger District are

Habitats
D E F G H I
xX xX xX X x
xX xX x xX
XxX xX xX
Xx Xx x
xX xX xX xX
Xx
x
xX
x

given in Table 6. Only 6 species were found
during this winter survey, and 4 of these (Pip-
istrellus subflavus, Eptesicus fuscus, Myotis
lucifugus and Plecotus rafinesquii) accounted
for 98.3% of the bats found. Two other species
(Myotis septentrionalis and Lasionycteris
noctivagans) were rarely observed, and hi-
bernating individuals of Myotis sodalis, M. lei-
bii, Lasiurus borealis and Plecotus townsendii
virginianus were not found. However, P. t.
virginianus has been previously found at three
sites in the Morehead Ranger District during
winter surveys (12).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks and appreciation to John Mac-
Gregor, Tom Biebighauser, Dave Manner,
Peggy Measel and Kathryn Huie (U.S. Forest
Service); Steve Bonney, Dave Yancy and Bren-

TaBLE 6. Species of bats found during a winter cave
survey in the Morehead Ranger District in December 1991.

Species Number Sites
Pipistrellus subflavus 290 14
Eptesicus fuscus 4] 13
Plecotus rafinesquii 64 5
Myotis lucifugus 114 4
Myotis septentrionalis 4 2
Lasionycteris noctivagans 5 eee

Totals 518 18

92 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

da Hamm (Kentucky Department of Fish and
Wildlife Resources); Robert Kiser (Kona,
Letcher Co., Ky.); Julian Campbell (The Na-
ture Conservancy) and Richard Hannan (Ken-
tucky State Nature Preserves Commission). The
cooperative effort of these individuals and or-
ganizations made this project possible.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Campbell, J. J. N., S. A. Bonney, J. D. Kiser, L. E.
Kornman, J. R. MacGregor, L. E. Meade, and A. C. Risk.
1992. Cooperative inventory of endangered, threatened,
sensitive and rare species, Daniel Boone National Forest,
Morehead Ranger District. Kentucky State Nature Pre-
serves Commission, Frankfort.

2. Palmer-Ball, B., Jr., J. J. N. Campbell, M. E. Medley,
D. T. Towles, J. R. MacGregor, and R. R. Cicerello. 1988.
Cooperative inventory of endangered, threatened, sensi-
tive and rare species, Daniel Boone National Forest, Som-
erset Ranger District. Kentucky State Nature Preserves
Commission, Frankfort.

3. Campbell, J. J. N., D. T. Towles, M. R. MacGregor,
R. R. Cicerello, B. Palmer-Ball, Jr., M. E. Medley, and S.
Olson. 1989. Cooperative inventory of endangered,
threatened, sensitive and rare species, Daniel Boone Na-
tional Forest, Stanton Ranger District. Kentucky State Na-
ture Preserves Commission, Frankfort.

4. Campbell, J. J. N., A. C. Risk, V. L. Andrews, B.
Palmer-Ball, Jr., and J. R. MacGregor. 1990. Cooperative
inventory of endangered, threatened, sensitive and rare
species, Daniel Boone National Forest, Stearns Ranger Dis-

trict. Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission,
Frankfort.

5. Campbell, J. J. N., J. E. Flotemersch, J. R. Mac-
Gregor, D. Noe, A. C. Risk, M. D. Studer, and D. T. Towles.
1991. Cooperative inventory of endangered, threatened,
sensitive and rare species, Daniel Boone National Forest,
Berea Ranger District. Kentucky State Nature Preserves
Commission, Frankfort.

6. Welter, W. A. and D. E. Sollberger. 1939. Notes
on the mammals of Rowan and adjacent counties in eastern
Kentucky. Jour. Mamm. 20(1):77-81.

7. Fassler, D. J. 1974. Mammals of Pulaski County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35(1-2):37-48.

8. Hamilton, W. J., Jr. 1930. Notes on the mammals
of Breathitt County, Kentucky. Jour. Mamm. 11:306-311.

9. Barbour, R. W. 1951. The mammals of Big Black
Mountain, Harlan County, Kentucky. Jour. Mamm. 32:
100-110.

10. Barbour, R. W. and S. Hardjasasmita. 1966. A
preliminary list of the mammals of Robinson Forest,
Breathitt County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 27(3-
4):85-89.

11. Warren, M. L., Jr., W. H. Davis, R. R. Hannan, M.
Evans, D. L. Batch, B. D. Anderson, B. Palmer-Ball, Jr.,
J. R. MacGregor, R. R. Cicerello, R. Athey, B. A. Branson,
G. J. Fallo, B. M. Burr, M. E. Medley, and J. M. Baskin.
1986. Endangered, threatened, and rare plants and ani-
mals of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 47(3-4):83-98.

12. Meade, L. E. 1992. New distributional records for
selected species of Kentucky mammals. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 53(8—4):127-182.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 93-97

Observations on Long-term Effects of Sedimentation on
Freshwater Mussels (Mollusca: Unionidae) in the
North Fork of Red River, Kentucky

RONALD E. Hour

Division of Water, Water Quality Branch, Ecological Support Section,
14 Reilly Road, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Mussel surveys and observations in the Wild River segment of the north fork of Red River, Kentucky, in
1986 and 1991, are compared to a 1980 survey. Mussel community dynamics have changed through time
according to the tolerances of individual species to chronic sedimentation. Observed recruitment and con-
tinued increases in numbers of Elliptio dilatata, Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, Lasmigona costata and Pleu-
robema coccineum indicates the highest tolerances to sedimentation. Actinonaias ligamentina has remained
relatively stable in numbers since 1980. Alasmidonta marginata, Strophitus undulatus, Fusconaia flava,
Lampsilis siliquoidea and Lampsilis cardium have experienced the greatest declines and appear to be among
the most intolerant to sedimentation. Tritogonia verrucosa, Lampsilis fasciola, Obovaria subrotunda, Alas-
midonta viridis and Potamilus alatus, though never abundant, are now very low in numbers and could
disappear. Amblema plicata and Ligumia recta have not been observed alive since 1980. The community
composition is changing to mussel species that have less-specific habitat requirements and a broader selection

of host fishes.

INTRODUCTION

The aquatic biota and water-quality con-
ditions in the north fork of Red River in eastern
Kentucky was initiated in 1976 by the Division
of Water Quality (1). The purpose was to gath-
er background physical, chemical and biolog-
ical data in the headwaters of the North Fork
before the first permitting of surface coal min-
ing in the watershed (Fig. 1). A permanent
biological monitoring site was established at
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) gaging dam
downstream from Hazel Green in 1978. That
site remains a part of the Basic Water Moni-
toring Program (BWMP) network for the Di-
vision of Water (DOW). Additionally, a survey
of freshwater mussels twelve miles down-
stream in the Wild River segment was pub-
lished as part of a long-term monitoring strat-
egy for the drainage (2). The accumulated data
presented here are the continuation of the
monitoring program.

Mussel surveys from the same stream or
stream sites in Kentucky over extended time
periods are mostly confined to larger rivers (3,
4). The reasons are evident, since larger streams
often contain unique mussel assemblages, in-
cluding commercially valuable and rare and
endangered species. The need to protect those
resources through water-quality standards is
the impetus for those endeavors. That need

93

also extends to smaller streams over the state
which serve as refugia for many large river
species and /or headwater endemics which form
the basis for continued monitoring.

Published literature for the drainage follow-
ing the 1980 mussel survey includes Branson
and Batch (5), who surveyed gastropods and
sphaerican clams of the drainage, and Birge et
al. (6), who conducted a study in the south and
middle forks Red River to establish numerical
values on iron and chloride concentrations for
the protection of aquatic life. A biological sur-
vey of the south and middle forks was also
conducted in 1985 by DOW (7) to assess the
effects of oil-brine wastes on aquatic life.

Study Site

The north fork of Red River originates in
mountainous and heavily forested Wolfe
County, Kentucky. Selective logging and
farming in the headwater tributaries were the
only influences affecting water quality prior to
1980. The entire area is underlain by Middle
Pennsylvanian aged coal, along with shale and
sandstone of the Lee and Breathitt formations
(8). In the mid-reaches of the north fork, the
stream was eroded through sandstones into old-
er Mississippian aged siltstone, clay and shale
formations, creating impressive sandstone
arches, cliffs and boulders. A 14.6 kilometer

94 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

Figure 1.
North Fork Red River,

Kentucky and Tributaries
Rose Creek

Gillmore Creek

Lacy Creek
Hazel Green

124.6 km

or ed SITE LOCATION

USGS
Gaging Dam

: < km 116.9

110.2 km

KY 746

WILD RIVER
SEGMENT

95.5 km

KY 715
Fic. 1. North fork Red River, Kentucky and tributaries.

SEDIMENT EFFECTS ON MussELS—Houp 95

segment of the north fork between Kentucky
highway 746 bridge and highway 715 bridge
was designated a Kentucky Wild River in 1972
and is located upstream from Red River Gorge,
an area of exceptional natural beauty. Mussel
habitats in the wild river segment are not well
defined but are typical of the mussel habitats
found in the north fork. The best habitats were
most often located in small shoals and up-
stream and downstream from riffles where var-
ious combinations of substrates (i.e., boulders,
rubble, cobble, gravel, pebbles and sands) have
accumulated to form suitable mussel habitats.
Mussels were found scattered throughout the
substrate so that mussel densities seldom ex-
ceeded 4 individuals per square meter.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The entire length of the wild river segment
of the north fork was waded and hand sampled
for mussels in all surveys with the exception
of some deep bedrock pools. Mussel surveys
began in early May at the downstream bound-
ary (715 bridge) and moved upstream as time
and stream conditions permitted. Visits to the
study area were designed to include all seasons.
In general, mussel habitats throughout the wild
river segment are separated by bedrock runs,
pools or large boulders weathered from adja-
cent cliffs. Those geological features helped to
delineate sampling areas. Mussels were found
in the substrate by visual sighting or looking
for small light colored patches of substrate set-
tled around individuals from expelled mate-
rials (mostly clays) siphoned from the water
column. Vertical movements of mussels up and
down into the substrate incorporate some of
the materials in the substrate around them.
Quantitative monitoring of mussels at fixed sites
in order to observe vertical movements over
time was conducted using a method described
by Houp (9). Further, a technique introduced
by the author after the first mussel survey was
used in larger sampling areas. That method
involved inserting wire stake flags into the sub-
strate beside located mussels to prevent re-
counting and to expedite sampling efforts. Lo-
cated mussels were removed, identified,
counted, and returned to the substrate. Mussels
used for confirmations were transported live
in plastic jugs and later returned to the same
locations. Photographs taken of the sample ar-
eas before the wire stakes were removed proved
useful in relocating mussel concentrations or

distributions within selected areas. A few sites
contained shells collected from muskrat mid-
dens which were searched for new species and
voucher material. Mussel voucher collections
are catalogued and stored in the DOW Mollusk
Collection, located at 14 Reilly Road, Frank-
fort, Kentucky. Nomenclature used for the
identification of freshwater mussels follows
Turgeon et al. (10).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sediment Sources.—In 1982, lighter sus-
pended materials were observed accumulating
in despositional areas within the wild river seg-
ment. Retention ponds at mining sites in the
headwaters tributaries were designed to keep
heavy sediments from entering the drainage.
In spite of that, excessive sands had arrived in
the upper wild river segment by 1984. The
sources of the heavier sediments were even-
tually associated with mining activities by ob-
serving waste coal mixed with sands that were
deposited along stream banks during higher
flows. Another sediment source, and a large
contributor, was located by accident during
1984, when the author happened upon a stream
relocation project on lower Lacy Creek. In that
instance, the land owner had used earth mov-
ing equipment to create a new stream channel
then filled and leveled the old meandering
channel thereby consolidating a pasture pre-
viously divided by the stream. The small stream
size (3-5 meters wide) enabled a quick com-
pletion and was not detected soon enough to
be considered by the proper regulatory pro-
gram. Surface mining has decreased, but still
continues in the headwaters. Also, land distur-
bances from accelerated logging, along with
some farming, and bed-load sands continue to
flush downstream during high flows.

In the sandstone streams of eastern Ken-
tucky, some shell erosion is observed in most
older mussels as a natural consequence of age
and time. However, excessive sands carried by
high flows are very erosive to all mussels ex-
posed to flow. Vannote and Minshall (11) noted
that an influx of sediments appeared to be re-
sponsible for a shift in predominant species in
the Salmon River Canyon, Idaho, a western
stream with several habitat features compa-
rable to the Red River.

Faunal Increases.—Actinonaias ligamen-
tina has remained stable with slight increases
in numbers (Table 1). According to the vertical

96 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3—4)

TaBLE 1. The total numbers of living freshwater mussels
found in the (wild river segment) North Fork Red River,
Kentucky.

Species 1980 1986 1991

1. Alasmidonta marginata 91 26 #8624

2. Strophitus undulatus & 6 &

3. Elliptio dilatata 67 81 114

4. Lasmigona costata 55 46 69

5. Fusconaia flava A, 21 10
6. Lampsilis siliquoidea 87 16 11
7. Ptychobranchus fasciolaris Sl BI BIL
8. Lampsilis cardium 27 28 12
9. Alasmidonta viridis ify» 3 6
10. Tritogonia verrucosa 17 ll 8)
11. Lampsilis fasciola 16 18 4
12. Actinonaias ligamentina 13 11 15
13. Obovaria subrotunda 9 0 1
14. Amblema plicata 9 0 0
15. Ligumia recta 4 0 0
16. Pleurobema coccineum 0 3 17
17. Potamilus alatus 0 4 1
Totals ol7 «6377 )~=— 8875

movement patterns observed during this study,
this particular mussel, long considered brady-
tictic (12) is probably tachytictic. While others,
such as Elliptio dilatata and to a lesser extent
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, Lasmigona cos-
tata and Pleurobema coccineum, appear to be
the least affected by sedimentation and have
gained in numbers over the years. The increas-
es in some mussels are closely related to the
behavioral and morphological features of each
species. For example, morphologically, all of
the species that increased in numbers are nar-
row and enlongated and tend to migrate deep-
er into the substrate for longer periods of time.
Also, they are all tachytictic (summer breed-
ers), which aligns their reproductive periods
with low flows of summer and minimal sedi-
mentation. When those species are in a si-
phoning position they orient parallel with the
flow (i.e., posterior ridges facing downstream),
exposing the least amount of shell surface to
the water column. Wilson and Clark (13) sug-
gested that flatter shell forms were better
adapted for burrowing in coarse substrates and
swifter currents of headwater streams. Also,
Huehner (14) found that Elliptio dilatata had
no substrate preferences in the field of labo-
ratory.

Faunal Declines.—Since the 1980 survey,
Alasmidonta marginata (the predominant
species at that time) along with Strophitus un-

dulatus, Lampsilis siliquoidea and Fusconaia
flava have shown the greatest declines in num-
bers observed (Table 1). Others, such as Alas-
midonta viridis, Tritogonia verrucosa, Lamp-
silis fasciola, Obovaria subrotunda, and
Potamilus alatus, were never numerous and
now are so scarce that extripation from the
north fork could occur. Amblema plicata and
Ligumia recta have not been observed since
1980. The reasons for the declines in those
species appears to be a behavioral tendency of
not completely burrowing under the substrate
and tilting upward while in a siphoning posi-
tion, exposing more shell surface to the water
column. Morphologically, most of those species
have broader posterior slopes and ridges. More
importantly, a bradytictic reproductive period
for those mussels contributed to their declines
by coinciding with higher flows of later winter
and spring when reproduction occurs. A clear
separation between the species that have de-
clined (brachytictic) as opposed to those that
have increased in numbers (tachytictic) is an
indication of how chronic sedimentation can
gradually alter community composition by be-
ing synchronous with higher spring flow con-
ditions and the reproductive life cycles of cer-
tain mussel species.

Shell erosion, reproductive failure, and hab-
itat losses are examples of the direct effects
that accelerated sedimentation have on native
mussels. However, from the increases in num-
bers observed for some species (Table 1), it is
doubtful that chronic sedimentation would
eliminate the entire mussel community. It does
indicate that the community composition is
changing to mussel species that have less spe-
cific habitat requirements and a broader se-
lection of host fishes. Further, the host fishes
are also changing in response to sedimentation
due to loss or reductions in their habitats. The
indirect effects on mussels through the losses
of their host fishes is far more long term and
difficult to document. If fish habitats (i.e.,
spawning areas) are eliminated the potential
exists to extirpate several mussel species. Fish
collections at the BWMP site and in the study
site now reflect significant reductions and/or
losses in some fish species and age group losses
in others. Both are attributed to past spawning
failures and/or habitat losses from the effects
of sedimentation (15, 16, 17, 18).

The Kentucky Nature Preserves Commis-

SEDIMENT EFFECTS ON MussELS—Houp 97

sion (KNPC) (19) has reported the presence of
3 individuals of Simpsonaias ambigua at a sin-
gle site in 1988. However, extensive searches
for that secretive mussel were not successful
during the last survey.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to show my appreciation to the fol-
lowing people for help in the field over the
past years: Stephan Porter, Sherri Evans, Char-
lie Roth, Cliff Schneider, Parrish Roush, Don
Walker and my son, George Wesley Houp. I
am grateful to Karen Smathers for providing
invaluable assistance with fieldwork and iden-
tifications in the 1990 survey. Her knowledge
and enthusiasm is much appreciated. My son
Ronald E. Houp, along with Lee Colten, Julie
Duncan and Ken Cooke were most generous
with their time and knowledge of computers.
I also want to thank Steve Ahlstedt, Tennessee
Vally Authority for providing positive en-
couragement and constructive comments on
the manuscript. Also, Bob Logan, Commis-
sioner, Department for Environmental Protec-
tion, Bob Ware, Assist. Dir. DOW, and Jack
Wilson, Dir. DOW for their positive support.
I thank them all.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Kentucky Division of Water Quality. 1980. Bio-
logical survey of the Red River in Eastern Kentucky. Tech-
nical Report No. 1:1-33. z

2. Houp, R. E. 1980. A survey of the mussels of the
Red River (Wild River segment) in eastern Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 41:55-56.

8. Williams, J.C. 1969. Mussel fishery investigations,
Tennessee, Ohio, and Green rivers. Final report. Murray
State University Press, Murray, Kentucky.

4. Williams, J. C. and G. A. Schuster. 1982. Mussel
fishery investigations of the Ohio River mile 317.0 to mile
981.0 U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, Louisville District.
Kentucky Dept. of Fish and Wildl. Res., Div. Fish. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Regions III and IV.

5. Branson, B. A. and D. Batch. 1982. The Gastropoda

and Sphaerican clams of the Red River, Kentucky. Veliger
24:200-204.

6. Birge, W. J., J. A. Black, A. G. Westerman, T. M.
Short, D. M. Bruser, and E. D. Wallingford. 1985. Rec-
ommendations on numerical values for regulating iron and
chloride concentrations for the purpose of protecting
warmwater aquatic life in the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky. Memorandum of Agreement No. 5429. Ky. Nat.
Res. and Environmental Protection Cabinet.

7. Kentucky Division of Water. 1990. South Fork Red
River drainage biological and water quality investigation
for stream use designation. Tech. Rept. 26:1-55.

8. McDowell, R. C., G. T. Grabowski, Jr., and S. L.
Moore. 1981. Geologic map of Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Surv.,
Lexington.

9. Houp, R. E. 1987. A method used to monitor en-
dangered freshwater mussels and their habitat conditions
at water quality trend sites in a Kentucky stream system.
Bull. North American Benth. Soc. 4:127.

10. Turgeon, D. D., A. E. Bogan, E. V. Coan, W. K.
Emerson, W. G. Lyons, W. L. Pratt, C. F. Roper, A. Schel-
tema, F. G. Thompson, and J. D. Williams. 1988. Com-
mon and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from
the United States and Canada: mollusks. Amer. Fish. Soc.
Spec. Publ. 16:1-277.

11. Vannote, R. L. and G. W. Minshall. 1982. Fluvial
processes and local lithology controlling abundance, struc-
ture, and composition of mussel beds. Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. 79:4103-4107.

12. Utterback, W. I. 1915. The Naiades of Missouri.
Amer. Mid. Nat. 4:1-200.

13. Wilson, D. B. and H. W. Clark. 1914. The mussels
of the Cumberland River and its tributaries. U.S. Bur. Fish.
Doc. 781:1-63.

14. Huehner, M. K. 1987. Field and laboratory de-
termination of substrate preferences of unionid mussels.
Ohio J. Sci. 87:29-32.

15. Kentucky Division of Water. 1981. Basic water
monitoring program collections, Station No. 04PRI027.

16. Kentucky Division of Water. 1982. Basic water
monitoring program collections, Station 04PRI027.

17. Kentucky Division of Water. 1986. Basic water
monitoring program collections, Station 04PRI027.

18. Kentucky Division of Water. 1991. Basic water
monitoring program collections, Station 04PRI027.

19. Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission. 1988. Red
River Sorting Sheet No. 32.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 98-102

A Comparison of Math Attitudes among Various
Groups of Students

Amy C. KING AND PatTrIictA S. COSTELLO

Department of Mathematics, Statistics, and Computer Science, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475-3133

ABSTRACT

Many comparisons have been done among students in the United States and other countries concerning
their aptitudes and attitudes toward mathematics. This study was performed to compare the attitudes among
several diverse groups in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. A group of 639 subjects was selected, ranging
from grade school to college. From the sample it was found, as would be expected, that those students in
advanced college math courses and those in the more advanced groups in the high schools had a better
attitude than those in remedial classes. However, it was noted that the students in grades 5 through 8 had
a better attitude toward math than students in the remedial college math classes. In addition, males had a
better attitude toward math than females. Since the sample was somewhat restricted, a follow-up of more
randomly selected students throughout the Commonwealth of Kentucky is planned in order to more carefully
determine the level at which this negative attitude towards mathematics starts; if there is a difference between
the attitudes of males and females; and if there is a distinction in the different geographic regions of the

state.

INTRODUCTION

There have been many studies concerning
aptitudes and attitudes of students in different
countries toward mathematics. Recently a for-
mer student at Eastern Kentucky University,
Judy Mayes Mings (1), compared attitudes be-
tween Japanese and American students. As in
the Mings paper, the authors used the Aiken
Revised Mathematics Attitude Scale (2). A sim-
ilar test was conducted to compare the atti-
tudes of several groups of students within the
Commonwealth of Kentucky. The results of
the survey showed a good attitude from stu-
dents in both more advanced college and high
school mathematics classes. This was expected.
However, grades 5 through 8 exhibited a better
attitude when compared to the remedial level
at college. These findings are unclear. This was
a preliminary survey to highlight any out-
standing differences, and the authors are
currently preparing a follow-up of randomly
selected students throughout the entire Com-
monwealth of Kentucky to determine when
this negative attitude towards mathematics be-
gins to form. Are there significant differences
in males and females? Does it make a differ-
ence in what section of Kentucky one lives?
Why do certain students take such a minimum
number of mathematics courses in high school
that it is necessary for them to enroll in the
remedial mathematics classes at the college
level?

98

Inasmuch as the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky is on the cutting edge of the reform
movement in education, additional informa-
tion concerning areas which need restructur-
ing would be beneficial.

METHODS

Questionnaires were obtained as follows:
(a) College classes taught at Eastern Kentucky
University by the first author; (b) high school
mathematics classes in Jackson, Jessamine, and
Laurel counties in Kentucky, taught by former
students of the first author; (c) grade school
students (5 through 8) from Jackson County;
(d) several introductory level college courses
taught by colleagues at Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity.

The 639 subjects included 88 students in
grades 5-8 from Jackson County, 95 Geometry
students from Jessamine County, 45 high school
students from Jackson County, 114 high school
students from Laurel County, 6 Remedial Math
students from Jessamine County, and 291 col-
lege students from Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity. Since some of the questionnaires were in-
complete, not all of the students were used in
the analysis. The Geometry students came from
a Basic Geometry class, an Average Geometry
class, a Regular Geometry class, and an Ac-
celerated Geometry class (all freshman). The
college classes consisted of MAT 090 (Basic
Mathematics), MAT 093 (Basic Descriptive

MatTH ATTITUDES IN KENTUCKY—King and Costello

TABLE 1.
Class Sample size
Basic geometry 13
Average geometry 26
Regular geometry 24
Accelerated geometry 31
Remedial math 6
Jackson County High School 38
Laurel County High School 106
Grades 5-8, Jackson County 82
MAT 090 45
MAT 093 52
MAT 095 83
MAT 108 10
MAT 223 20
MAT 353 13
MAT 414 6
CSC 104 44

Geometry), MAT 095 (Basic Algebra), MAT
108 (Trigonometry), MAT 223 (Calculus and
Analytic Geometry III), MAT 353 (Differential
Equations), MAT 414 (Introduction to Anal-
ysis), and CSC 104 (Computer Literacy with
Software Applications). MAT 090, 093, and
095 are all remedial Math classes. The data
were collected during 1989-1990.

For the measure of attitude, the Aikens’ Re-
vised Math Attitude Scale (2) was utilized. Each
questionnaire consisted of 20 statements, 10 of
which were positive and 10 negative. The re-
spondent was to indicate, on a 5-point scale,
the extent of agreement or disagreement. In-
cluded were positive statements such as,
“Mathematics is very interesting to me, and I
enjoy math courses.” Negative statements in-
cluded items such as “I am always under a
terrible strain in math class.” The 5 choices to
each statement were: strongly agree (SA), agree
(A), undecided (U), disagree (D), and strongly
disagree (SD). These were scored as follows:
SA = 5, A= 4, U = 8, D = 2, and SD = 1.
The positive statements received positive scores
and the negative statements received negative
numbers. The total scores ranged from a pos-
sible 40, indicating a high positive attitude, to
—A0O, a negative attitude. In an experiment by
Adwere-Boamah, Miller, and Kahn (3), using
the Aiken attitude scale (2), this instrument
was found to be of high reliability for students
from a white suburban area. The students
polled for the Kentucky experiment should
form a comparable set, as they were from a
mixture of rural and suburban communities.

39

Means and standard deviations for Aikens Math Attitude Scale for each class.

Mean Standard deviation

7.462 18.738
—3.962 20.895
8.417 18.337
12.871 17.231
0.167 9.867
7.000 14.245
7.736 16.825
8.756 16.247

— 2.822 20.761
—4.404 18.553
—13.229 19.419
13.100 11.628
15.550 12.800
25.462 6.476
28.167 7.305
—5.028 23.108

In addition, each student indicated their
grade level and sex, and a like/dislike scale of
mathematics. Here, the subject noted the de-
gree of like or dislike of mathematics on a scale
of 1 to 7. One meant like and seven a dislike.
This scale was used to check against a possible
misinterpretation of the responses to the Aiken
questionnaire (2).

RESULTS

As previously mentioned, the attitude scale
was scored with the highest and lowest possible
scoring being 40 (good attitude toward math)
and —40 (bad attitude toward math), respec-
tively. The data were analyzed using the sta-
tistical computer package SAS on a VAX 2340
computer. A three-way analysis of variance
with no interactions was performed using
PROC GLM (4) with the Aiken score as the
dependent variable, and the classes, grade lev-
el, and sex as the main effects. The only sig-
nificant main effect was the classes, (F = 4.39;
df = 13,474; P = 0.0001). Since this was the
case, the model was reduced to the one-way
analysis of variance with the Aiken score as
the dependent variable and classes as the main
effect, (F = 11.38; df = 15,583; P = 0.0001).
Tukey-Kramer multiple comparisons were also
performed with an experiment-wise error rate
of 0.05. This analysis concluded that the av-
erage Aiken scores for MAT 414, 3538, 228, and
Accelerated Geometry were all significantly
larger than the average Aiken scores for MAT
090, MAT 093, MAT 095, CSC 104, and Av-
erage Geometry. In addition, the average Ai-

100

TABLE2. Meansand standard deviations for Aikens Math
Attitude Scale for each grade.

Sample Standard

Grade size Mean deviation

Grade 5 17 13.529 17.256
Grade 6 20 14.350 14.046
Grade 7 33 5.045 16.386
Grade 8 9 0.383 15.427
High school freshmen 73 9.329 15.727
High school sophomores 49 3.082 20.467
High school juniors 83 6.771 18.026
High school seniors 20 8.550 17.449
College freshmen 128 ee e992 21R025
College sophomores SQ =1E00 Beeily/
College juniors 82 3.125 20.017
College seniors 22 13.773 21.450

ken score for grades 5-8 were significantly
larger than the average Aiken scores for MAT
090, MAT 093, MAT 095, and CSC 104, and
the average Aiken score for the high school
students from Laurel County was significantly
larger than the average Aiken scores for MAT
093, MAT 095, and CSC 104. Finally, the av-
erage Aiken score for MAT 095 was signifi-
cantly lower than the average Aiken score for
MAT 108, Regular Geometry, Basic Geometry,
high school students from Jackson County, as
well as MAT 414, 353, 223, Accelerated Ge-
ometry, grades 5-8, and high school students
from Laurel County (as was previously men-
tioned). The sample sizes, means and standard
deviations for each group are contained in Ta-
ble 1.

Although the variables sex and grade level
were not significant in the three-way analysis

TABLE 3.
Class Like 1 2
Basic geometry 21.4 14.3
Average geometry 11.5 3.8
Regular geometry 13.6 27.3
Accelerated geometry 16.1 29.0
Remedial math 0.0 20.0
Jackson County HS 5.8 26.3
Laurel County HS 17.7 22.1
Grades 5-8, Jackson Cty 7 26.8
MAT 090 10.6 14.9
MAT 093 9.4 9.4
MAT 095 7.1 4.8
MAT 108 10.0 20.0
MAT 223 10.5 42.1
MAT 353 33.3 53.3
MAT 414 50.0 16.7
CSC 104 10.9 10.9

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

of variance model, they were each significant
when a one-way analysis of variance was per-
formed. When the variable sex was the main
effect (F(1,510) = 9.02, P = 0.0028) males had
a significantly higher average Aiken score than
females. (For males, N = 229, = 6.100 +
18.438. For females, N = 283, « = 0.742 +
21.312). This was probably due to the fact that
the classes CSC 104, MAT 090, MAT 093, and
MAT 095 each contained approximately twice
as many females as males and also had low
average Aiken scores. Grades 5-8, MAT 2238,
and MAT 358, which had higher average Ai-
ken scores, also had more males than females.

When the variable grade level was the main
effect, (F = 7.04; df = 11,504; P = 0.0001),
college freshmen had a significantly lower av-
erage Aiken score than students from grades
5, 6, and 7; high school freshmen, sophomores,
juniors, and seniors; and college seniors. This
is probably due to the fact that all but 3 college
freshmen were enrolled in CSC 104, MAT 090,
MAT 098, and MAT 095 (all these courses had
low Aiden scores). The sample sizes, means and
standard deviations for each grade are con-
tained in Table 2.

The results of the like/dislike scale are given
in Tables 3, 4, and 5, for each class, sex, and
grade, respectively. These results support the
conclusions reached by the use of the Aiken
attitude test. The chi-square test for equal pro-
portions, performed using PROC FREQ (5),
indicated that there was a significant differ-
ence in the proportion of male and female
students who chose each possible score, (x? =

Percentages from the like/dislike scale for each class.

3 4 5 6 7 Dislike
Toll 35.7 14.3 0.0 7.1
er 23.1 Toll 26.9 19.2
9.1 27.3 9.1 4.5 9.1
16.1 19.4 12.9 6.5 0.0
20.0 20.0 20.0 0.0 20.0
Dalat 23.7 15.8 5.3 2.6
20.4 16.8 14.2 1.8 7.1
19.5 12.2 9.8 7.3 7.3
12.8 Bs 1 8.5 8.5 17.0
9.4 22.6 15.1 17.0 17.0
6.0 14.3 19.0 16.7 32.1
50.0 10.0 10.0 0.0 0.0
36.8 10.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
6.7 6.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
33.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

MaTH ATTITUDES IN KENTucKY—King and Costello 101
TABLE 4. Percentages from the like/dislike scale for each sex.
Sex Like 1 2 3 4 5 6 u Dislike
Male 12.1 21.6 21.1 16.4 13.8 7.8 7.3
Female 15.3 16.7 11.8 17.1 13.2 8.0 17.8

20.221; df = 6; P = 0.003). The most noticeable
difference was that 17.8% of the females in-
dicated a dislike score of 7 as compared to 7.3%
of the males.

Chi-square tests were not valid for class or
grade level, since too many of the expected
cell counts were smaller than 5. To rectify this
for the variable class, Basic Geometry, Re-
medial Math, and MAT 108 were eliminated
since these classes were so small, and the classes
MAT 223, 353, and 414 were combined, since
they contained students with similar scores on
the Aiken attitude test. For the variable grade
level, grades 5 through 8 were combined as
well as high school juniors and seniors. In ad-
dition, for both class and grade level, the like/
dislike categories of 1 and 2 were combined
as well as the categories of 6 and 7. Once these
modifications were made, the chi-square test
for equal proportions indicated that there was
a significant difference in the proportion of
students in the different classes who chose each
possible score, (x? = 145.344; df = 40; P <
0.0005), as well as a significant difference in
the proportion of students in the different
grades who chose each possible score, (x? =
64.252; df = 28; P < 0.0005). The most no-
ticeable differences for the variable class is the
high percentage of Regular Geometry (40.9%),
Accelerated Geometry (45.2%), Laurel County
High School (39.8%), grades 5-8 (43.9%), and

MAT 223, 358, 414 (67.5%) students who chose
a Like score of 1 or 2, as well as the high
percentage of Average Geometry (46.2%), MAT
093 (34.0%), MAT 095 (48.8%), and CSC 104
(34.8%) who chose a Dislike score of 6 or 7.
The most noticeable differences for the vari-
able grade, is the high percentage of grades
5-8 (44.3%), high school freshmen (36.1%), high
school juniors and seniors (36.7%), college
sophomores (38.7%), and college seniors (54.6% )
who chose a Like score of 1 or 2, as well as
the high percentage of college freshman
(34.9%) and college sophomores (35.5%) who
chose a Dislike score of 6 or 7. It is particularly
interesting that the college sophomores seemed
to either really like or really dislike Math.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

As noted in the introduction, this study was
of a preliminary nature, in order to highlight
differences in attitudes between males and fe-
males, and at different levels and ages. Many
questions have been raised. From our restrict-
ed sample, there is a significant difference in
attitude towards mathematics between stu-
dents in advanced college and high school math
classes versus remedial college mathematics
classes. In addition, students in grades 5 through
8 had a better attitude towards mathematics
than the students in remedial college mathe-
matics classes. Further, this study indicated

TABLE 5. Percentages from the like/dislike scale for each grade.

Grade Like 1 2
Grade 5 23.5 23.5
Grade 6 28.6 38.1
Grade 7 12.9 19.4
Grade 8 0.0 30.0
High school freshmen 9.7 26.4
High school sophomores 14.3 18.4
High school juniors 14.8 19.3
High school seniors 28.6 19.0
College freshmen 8.5 10.1
College sophomores 22.6 16.1
College juniors 9.4 21.9
College seniors 27.3 27.3

3 4 5 6 v Dislike
11.8 5.9 5.9 5.9 23.5,
14.3 19.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
25.8 6.5 19.4 12.9 3.2
10.0 30.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
20.8 19.4 15.3 5.6 2.8
12.2 16.3 12.2 14.3 12.2
17.0 23.9 13.6 3.4 8.0
14.3 19.0 9.5 0.0 9.5
10.1 17.1 19.4 10.9 24.0

OF 6.5 9.7 12.9 22.6
18.8 18.8 6.3 9.4 15.6
22.7 4.5 4.5 0.0 13.6

102

females disliking mathematics more than did
males; however, there were more females than
males in the remedial classes.

The study points up the need to obtain a
more complete random sample throughout the
Commonwealth of Kentucky to further ex-
plore differences which have here been noted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Academic Com-
puting Services of Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity for their assistance in typing the data and
for the use of their VAX 2340 computer. Fur-
ther, we thank Judy Mayes Mings for furnish-
ing us with a copy of her paper comparing
Math attitudes between Japanese and Ameri-
can students.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

LITERATURE CITED

1. Mings, J. M. 1989. Math attitudes: a comparison
between Japanese and American students. Unpublished
paper. Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Ken-
tucky.

2. Aiken, L. R., Jr. 1963. Personality correlates of at-
titude toward mathematics. J. Ed. Res. 6:476-489.

3. Adwere-Boamah, J., D. Muller, and G. Kahn. 1986.
Factorial validity of the Aiken—Dreger mathematics atti-
tude scale for urban school students. Ed. Psyc. Measur. 46:
233-236.

4, SAS Institute Inc. 1989b. SAS/STAT user’s guide,
Version 6, 4th Ed. Vol. 2. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North
Carolina.

5. SAS Institute Inc. 1989a. SAS/STAT user’s guide,
version 6, 4th Ed., Vol. 1. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North
Carolina.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 103-107

Deadlock Detection in Computer Database Systems:
An Algorithm of Complexity O(N)

JoHN H. CRENSHAW

Department of Computer Science, Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT
Deadlock detection is an important process in many computer software systems which involve multitasking.
Deadlock detection in a database systems environment is described, along with some traditional methods of
implementation. A new algorithm is defined which can perform this task in O(N) time.

INTRODUCTION

A deadlock condition is the cessation of ac-
tivity caused by 2 or more objects operating
or applying forces against other objects in a
system. In computer science, the term is gen-
erally used to describe a condition in which
two or more tasks become inactive because
each task requires one or more resources for
which another task has exclusive rights. If each
such task is in a wait-state until a desired re-
source becomes available, then a deadlock re-
sults.

For example, in an operating system where
several jobs share the physical resources, job A
may have gained possession of a printer and 2
of the 4 tape units, and is now requesting one
more tape unit. If job B has possession of the
other 2 tape units and is requesting the printer,
the result is a deadlock between these 2 jobs.
A deadlock is often diagramed (Fig. 1) as a
directed graph where each node represents a
job and each directed edge (X, Y) represents
the state in which job X is waiting for a re-
source possessed by job Y.

A computer deadlock as defined above could
involve many more jobs than simply the 2
shown in Figure 1. Whenever a deadlock oc-
curs, the control system must detect that it
exists and then take measures to break the im-
passe and permit normal processing to contin-
ue.

In recent years, databases have been utilized
by governments, private and public corpora-
tions, and scientific laboratories to permit rapid
accessing and modification of large amounts
of information which are critical to those in-
stitutions. When these databases are accessed
by several different individuals at one time, a
deadlock situation is a distinct possibility. Date
(1) said that as many as 10% of all such accesses

result in a deadlock. Even if his figures are off
by a factor of 10, the potential for costly tie-
ups of computer systems is very real and must
be addressed.

This paper discusses the issues involved with
deadlock detection in a database environment,
the detection methods used in the past, and
the standards used to measure the efficiency
of detection methods. Finally, a new algorithm
for deadlock detection is described and shown
to be O(N) where N is the number of concur-
rently running jobs.

DISCUSSION

In computer databases, the primary unit of
information is called a Record. A record, such
as a Physical-Sighting, may be composed of
several Fields such as date, place, time, Object-
Sighted, etc., but the discussion here will be
limited to handling information at the record
level only. A particular job or task is referred
to as a Transaction. Thus, in a given database,
there may be several different transactions ac-
cessing the same or different records during a
given time period.

In order to maintain the integrity of the
database, a transaction will not be permitted
to change a record without first gaining exclu-
sive control of that record. This process is re-
ferred to as Locking. If Transaction A has
locked Record R then Transaction B is not
permitted access to Record R. If Transaction
B requests Record R, then B must wait until
A finishes and releases the lock it possesses on R.

Figures 2 and 3 illustrate 2 states of a da-
tabase system. In Figure 2, there is no deadlock
even though several transactions are waiting;
transaction B is still operating normally. In
Figure 8, however, a deadlock has occurred

103

104

Fic. 1. Two transactions in deadlock.

because transactions B, C, and E are all waiting
for records locked by others in the group.

Figures 1-3 are examples of directed graphs
referred to in the literature as Wait-For Graphs.
A given computer system is in a deadlock sit-
uation if and only if its current Wait-For graph
contains a Cycle. A Cycle is a closed path from
any node X passing through one or more nodes
before returning to node X. Each edge in the
path must follow the directional orientation of
the existing edges in the graph. For example,
the deadlock of Figure 3 corresponds to the
Cycle {B, C, E, B}. There is no cycle in the
other direction {B, E, C, B}.

The classical techniques for detecting dead-
lock require the construction of the Wait-For
graph and then searching that graph for cycles.

An early algorithm (2) for detecting cycles
in a directed graph required the construction
of the Adjacency Matrix, A, for the Wait-For
graph. A(I, J) = 1 if there is an edge from node
I to node J. Otherwise, A(I, J) = 0. If Y is
computed to be the Kth power of A, then it
can be shown that Y(I, J) = the number of
different paths of length K from I to J. It then
follows that a Wait-For graph will not have
any cycles if there exists a value K between 1
and N such that Y(I, J) = 0 for all I and J.

Algorithm 1

Input.—A directed graph G = (V, E) rep-
resented by its adjacency matrix, A, which is

ee -B

E. ie (Ss

Fic. 2. Four transactions with no deadlock.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-—4)

Fic. 8. Four transactions with a deadlock (B, E, C).

N X N where N is the number of vertices or
nodes.

Output.—A message saying whether or not
G contains a cycle.

Method.—

1. Set Y=A.

2. Set K = I.

3. While Y <> 0 and K < N do

4. Set Y = Y*A

5. If Y = 0 then display “There is no cycle
in G”

else display “There is a cycle

in G”

This algorithm is very elegant but extremely
slow. Using the standard Big-O measure for
representing the speed of an algorithm, the cost
of computing the product of 2 N x N matrices
is O(N®). Thus, the cost of computing the Nth
power of a matrix, A, is ((N*). The total cost
of utilizing this algorithm for deadlock detec-
tion is even higher since the Adjacency Matrix
itself must be constructed from the Wait-For
graph before the algorithm may be applied.

Aho (8) formalized a much faster algorithm
which is still referenced by many texts (4) and
researchers (5) as a standard method for de-
tecting deadlocks. In Aho’s presentation, the
emphasis was on finding the strongly con-
nected components of a directed graph. A
strongly connected component is any set of
nodes such that there exists a path from any
node to any other node in that set. Thus, if
there is a strongly connected component in the
Wait-For graph, there must be a cycle involv-
ing the nodes in that component.

Algorithm 2
Input.—A directed graph G = (V, E) rep-
resented by a set of adjacency lists L(v) where
each L(I) is a linked list of all nodes connected
to vertex I.

DEADLOCK DETECTION IN DATABASE SySTEMS—Crenshaw

Output.—A list of the strongly connected
components of G. If any component is not nil,
then a cycle is present in G.

Method.—

Main algorithm:

1. Set COUNT = 1

2. For all v in V mark v as “new.”

3. Clear STACK.

4. While there exists a vertex v marked as
“new perform SEARCHC(v)

5. End.

SEARCHC(v) procedure:

Mark v as “old.”

. Set DFNUMBER[v] = COUNT.

. Add one to COUNT.

. Set LOWLINK[v] = DFNUMBER{[v].

. Push v onto STACK.

. For each vertex w on L[v] do step 7.

If w is marked “new”

then do
8. Perform SEARCHC(w);
9. Set LOWLINK[v] = MIN-
(LOWLINK[v],LOWLINK[w)).
else do

iO} If DFNUMBER[w] < DFNUM-

BER[v] and w is on STACK
then LOWLINK[v] = MIN-
(DFNUMBER[w], LOW-
LINK[v])

ll. If LOWLINK[v] = DFNUMBER[v]
then one strongly connected com-
ponent has been found. Stack con-
tains the nodes. Print STACK con-
tents and clear STACK for search
for next component.

NSU wWNE

Aho’s fundamental algorithm requires
O(max(N, E)), where N is the number of nodes
and E is the number of edges in the Wait-For
graph. Since, in our application, each node
could be waiting on at most one other node,
there would be a maximum of N edges so the
efficiency reduces to O(N). The algorithm re-
quires the use of 2 additional vectors and a
Stack, all of size N. A procedure internal to
the algorithm is recursive of order N also. Fi-
nally, there is again the overhead problem of
constructing the necessary graph data struc-
tures before beginning to execute this algo-
rithm.

The method to be defined and described in

105
TaBLe 1. Locking matrix data structure.
Locked Record Trans. # which
Transaction # record(s) waiting for has locked it

Tl A,D J T7
ue C,E

T3 B C T2
T4 D Tl
T5 G C T2
T6 F A Tl
T7 Tp Ik

this paper seeks to utilize data structures al-
ready in existence and knowledge of the state
of the system in order to achieve a simpler and
less costly algorithm. While it is probably not
possible to create an algorithm whose Big(O)
measure is better than O(N), the algorithm to
be described will be shown to be O(N) with
less processing needed prior to and during the
algorithm execution.

First of all, it is necessary to have a clear
idea of the data structures required in main-
taining the locks on the records. Table 1 illus-
trates a typical structure for this purpose. Each
row represents an active transaction. The first
column shows the transaction number: T1-TN.
The second column shows the records cur-
rently locked, if any, by that transaction. The
third column shows which record, if any, that
transaction is waiting for. In Table 1, the rec-
ords in columns 2 and 3 are denoted by capital
letters A-Z. Finally, column 4 contains the
number, Ti, of the transaction which has locked
the record listed in column 8. If column 3 is
blank, then so is column 4. For example, the
third row of Table 1 shows that Transaction
T3 has locked record B and is waiting for rec-
ord C which has already been locked by Trans-
action T2.

This data structure is very easy to maintain.
New locks may be added and removed quick-
ly. Information about which transactions are
active and which are waiting can be obtained
directly from the structure.

Some database systems perform detection
only after a fixed time has elapsed; a deadlock,
if it exists, may have been created soon after
the last detection was performed, with the re-
sult being that nothing productive has oc-
curred during the intervening period of time.
In the algorithm to be described here, detec-
tion is to be initiated every time a lock request
is denied. By performing the detection pro-

106

cedure whenever a lock request is denied, the
system guarantees that a deadlock will never
go undetected. The algorithm is designed to
take advantage of the fact that no deadlock
can be in existence prior to the current request,
and if a deadlock is created, it must include
the current request as one of the participating
nodes.

The logic of the algorithm can be simply
stated as follows: Starting with the transaction
whose locking request has been denied, push
onto a stack the number of each transaction
which has locked a record for which the pre-
viously stacked transaction is waiting. If this
chain of waiting transactions ever includes the
starting transaction again, then a cycle has been
detected. If not, then no cycle exists and nor-
mal database processing may continue. The
algorithm is described more formally below:

Algorithm 3

Input.—A directed graph G = (V, E) rep-
resented by its locking matrix as illustrated in
Table 1. In general, the locking matrix is a
2-dimensional array, LM, with N rows and 4
columns. Column 1 is the transaction number,
Column 2 is the list of records locked by that
transaction, Column 3 is the record the trans-
action is waiting for, and Column 4 is the trans-
action which has locked the record being wait-
ed for. The transaction, T, which has just been
denied a requested lock.

Output.—A message as to whether or not a
deadlock occurs.

Method.—

1. Set TARGET = T.

2. Push T onto STACK.

8. Set T to be the transaction which has a
lock on R.

4, Repeat steps 5-7 while

(T is waiting on a record) and

(T <> TARGET)

Set R to be the record T is waiting on.

Push T onto STACK.

Set T to be the transaction which has

a lock on R

8. If T = TARGET then Deadlock exists.
STACK contains all transactions on the
deadlock cycle.

SU ISRION

Using Table 1 as an example, suppose Trans-
action T7 has locked records J and L as shown,

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

and then makes a request for record F. Since
F is locked by T6, the request is denied and
the detection algorithm is performed. Trans-
actions T7, T6, and T1 are then pushed onto
the stack. The loop at step 4 terminates when
Transaction T7 is processed again and pushed
onto the stack. Thus, step 8 indicates a cycle
is present.

Similarly, suppose Transaction T7 has locked
J and L as shown, and then requests record E.
Since E is locked by T2, the request is denied
and the detection algorithm is performed.
Transaction T7 is pushed onto the stack. Since
Transaction T2 is not waiting on any record,
the loop at step 4 terminates and step 8 shows
that there is no deadlock.

To evaluate the Big(O) complexity of this
algorithm, each step must be evaluated sepa-
rately. Step 1 is O(1). Steps 2 and 6 are both
O(1) because a Push operation on a stack inserts
an element into the first position with no search
or traversal of a list being necessary. Steps 3
and 7 are also O(1) because the locking Table
can be accessed directly in column 4 to obtain
the number of the transaction which has locked
record R. Step 5 is O(1) because, once again,
the locking matrix permits a direct access in
column 3 to discover the record number which
transaction T is waiting on. Finally, step 4 de-
fines a loop which is O(N) since there are at
most N transactions to be looked at and no
transaction other than the Target will be ex-
amined more than once.

Therefore, the algorithm itself is O(N), re-
quiring only the locking matrix which is main-
tained by the locking subsystem of the data-
base management system and an integer stack
as additional data structures.

SUMMARY

Deadlock detection is an essential compo-
nent of database systems. Without reliable
deadlock detection a computer system could
become idle and remain that way for an in-
definite period of time. The method of de-
tecting deadlock described in this paper runs
in O(N) time and does not require the con-
struction of additional data structures as Aho’s
(3) does.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Date, C. J. 1983. Database—a primer. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts.

DEADLOCK DETECTION IN DATABASE Syst—EMs—Crenshaw 107

2. Berztiss, A. T. 1975. Data structures—theory and 4. Kroenke, D. M. 1988. Database processing: fun-
practice. Academic Press, New York, New York. damentals, design, implementation. Science Research As-

3. Aho, A. V. 1975. The design and analysis of com- _sociates, Chicago, Illinois.
puter algorithms. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachu- 5. Stonebraker, M. 1988. Readings in database sys-

setts. tems. Morgan Kaufmann, Palo Alto, California.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 108-111

Somatic Embryogenic Response of Soybean
(Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Genotypes to Culture Media

M. M. RAHMAN

Plant and Soil Science, Community Research Service, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Tissue-culture protocols for soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) regeneration vary widely. In this study,
immature embryos of 7 soybean genotypes of different maturity groups were evaluated for their ability to
regenerate plantlets in 3 different culture media. Regenerable calli and organogenesis were obtained from
all genotypes in all media, but the frequency of regeneration was greatly influenced by the genotypes, culture
media, and their interactions. Though genotype was found to be a determinant factor, the culture media
also influenced regeneration. It appeared that optimal media for in vitro soybean regeneration varied with

genotypes.

INTRODUCTION

In vitro propagation protocols have been de-
veloped for many soybean (Glycine) species,
including Glycine max (L.) Merr., using var-
ious explants (1, 2, 3, 4). Since culture media
is a source of variation (6, 7), the principal
barrier to soybean regeneration via tissue cul-
ture is the lack of nutrient medium which would
maximize routine regeneration of various ge-
notypes. The formulation of nutrient media
such as MS (8), B5 (9), and L2 (10) was a major
advance regarding the nutritional require-
ments of in vitro cultures. Notwithstanding the
nutritional advancements, there is no consen-
sus about the optimal culture medium/media
for in vitro soybean regeneration.

Many studies provide evidence that geno-
type exerts direct influence upon organogen-
esis (11, 12, 2). Since soybean regeneration in
vitro is difficult, several nutrient media such
as MS (8), B5 (9), and L2 (10), etc. and various
explants, such as leaves (15), cotyledonary nodes
(1, 11), protoplasts (4), immature embryos (12),
etc. are used to induce regeneration. Conse-
quently, it is difficult to determine which cul-
ture medium/media and explant(s) combina-
tion is most suitable to induce routine
organogenesis to particular soybean genotypes.

Since the basic constituents of media differ

Abbreviations: BAP: 6-benzylaminopurine; IBA: In-
dolebutyric acid; 2,4-D: 2,4-dichlorophexyacetic acid; NAA:
Naphthaleneacetic acid; IAA: Indoleacetic acid; Kn: Ki-
netin.

from one another, this study is an attempt to
determine the organogenic responses of diver-
gent groups of soybean genotypes to widely
used culture media supplemented with differ-
ent plant growth regulators. This information
is considered important to initiate a protocol
for developing a medium /media which would
consistently regenerate soybean plants from a
wide range of genotypes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Media.—Treatments consisted of MS, B35,
and L2 basal media supplemented with one of
the following plant growth regulators/com-
binations: BAP (2.0 mg liter) + IBA (1.0
mg 'liter)); 2,4-D (2.0 mg liter); NAA (11.0
mg 'liter) and IAA (2.0 mg“ liter) + Kn (2.0
mg 'liter)) were used. The pH was adjusted to
5.8 before autoclaving for 15 minutes at 120°C
1 kg cm. Twenty-five milliliters of media
were poured into 20 x 100 mm sterilized plas-
tic petri dishes.

Plant Materials.—Soybean seeds were ob-
tained from the U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture Soybean Germplasm Collection Centre at
Urbana, Illinois. The genotypes, Adams, Cen-
tury, Columbia, Lincoln, Sloan, Wayne, and
Williams-82 were chosen because of their abil-
ity to produce multiple shoots, and represent
different maturity groups (1, 11).

Immature embryos, 4 to 5 mm in length,
were extracted from the seeds of surface ster-
ilized pods of field grown plants. The imma-
ture embryos were removed from their em-

108

SOYBEAN EMBRYOGENIC RESPONSE TO MEDIA—Rahman

TaBLE 1. Plantlet means of seven soybean genotypes cul-
tured in three different culture media.

Media
Genotype MS BS 12

Adams 8.06A; a 6.67B; a 6.72B; a
Century 6.06A; b 5.89A; ab 6.19A; ab
Columbia 6.42A;a 5.28A; ab 4.25C; ab
Lincoln 7.42A;a 5.69B; b 6.97A; a
Sloan 5.11A;b 4.47B; cd 5.314; b
Wayne 4.64B; c 4.23B; c 5.33A; b
Williams-82 5.14B; ab 3.72C; c 6.22A; ab
x for medium 6.12 5.18 5.85

Within rows, means followed by a different uppercase letter differ according
to Duncan’s new multiple range test (P < 0.05). Within columns, means
followed by a different lowercase letter differ according to Duncan’s new
multiple range test (P < 0.05).

bryo sacs and placed onto the various culture
media. Each petri dish contained three im-
mature embryos of one genotype. Each treat-
ment consisted of 10 petri dishes. The cultures
were incubated at 25 + 1°C with 16 hr of light
(68 uMol s!M~? PAR) supplied by Vitalite
(Dura Test Corporation, N.J.). Results are the
combined means of three repeated experi-
ments.

Beginning with the eighth week, callus tis-
sues were examined under 10 magnification
to observe for the signs of differentiation (em-
bryoid formation). Callus tissue that was sus-
pected to be embryogenic was selected. To
initiate regeneration callus sections which
showed embryogenic morphology were sev-
ered and transferred to freshly prepared iden-
tical medium. Since the main objective was to
determine the effect of genotype and media
on regeneration, and since there is ample ev-
idence about embryogenic callus initiation from

109

immature embryos, no score of such calli in-
duction was recorded. Individual cultures were
scored for regeneration of plantlets. Each re-
generation was traced to an individual im-
mature embryo of a genotype.

The experimental! design was a 7 genotypes
x 3 media x 4 growth regulators factorial
replicated three times. The experimental data
were analyzed as split-split plot. The main plot
was the media, hormone X media and media
X genotypes were the sub-plots.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Immature embryos of all seven soybean ge-
notypes were induced to plantlet regeneration
via somatic embryogenesis by the three cul-
tural media (Table 1). Induction of somatic
embryogenesis was affected by genotypes, cul-
tural media and their interaction (P < 0.001;
ANOVA is not presented here). Significant dif-
ferences in plantlet regeneration were detect-
ed among the genotypes grown in MS, B5, and
L2 media. Genotype was the most important
determining factor regarding plantlet regen-
eration.

Table 1 represents the overall responses of
seven soybean genotypes to 3 culture media
whose basic constituents differed from one an-
other. Comparison of the genotypes across the
media reveals that a specific genotype, except
Century, responded differently to a specific
medium. Genotypic variation in organogenesis
has been reported in soybean (1, 11), Alyce-
clover (7), and Cereals (6). Though B5 medium
was considered to be better for in vitro soybean
regeneration (6a), plantlets regenerability in
the present study was found to be best in MS

TaBLE 2. Plantlet means of seven soybean genotypes in three culture media supplemented with various plant growth

regulators.
Plant growth regulator (mg~')

Genotype BAP (2.0) + IBA (2.0) IAA (2.0) + Kn (2.0) 2,4-D (2.0) NAA (11.0)
Adams 7.56B; a 5.37C; a 9.04A;a 6.30B; a
Century 7.70A;a 4.59B; abc 7.30A; b 2.59C; cd
Columbia 5.52B; b 4.63B; abc 7.63A; b 4.81B; b
Lincoln 8.07A; a 5.18B; a 9.07A; b 2.44C; cd
Sloan 6.18A; b 4,.26B; be 5.67A;¢c 3.74B; c
Wayne 5.387A; b 2.29C; d 3.85B; d 2.19C; cd
Williams-82 5.85A; b 2.13C; d 4.37B; d 3.89B; be
¥ of hormones 6.61 4.08 6.13 3.71

Within rows, means followed by a different uppercase letter differ according to Duncan’s new multiple range test (P < 0.05). Within columns, means
followed by a different lowercase letter differ according to Duncan’s new multiple range test (P < 0.05).

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

Fic. 1. In vitro soybean plant regeneration. (a) Embryogenic callus derived from immature embryos. 2 x actual size.
(b) Somatic embryoid which developed into plantlets 10x actual size. (c) Regenerated plantlets 2 actual size.

medium (Table 1). In comparing the organo-
genic capability of a medium across the ge-
notypes L2 was found to be superior. This fur-
ther confirmed that genotypes exert influence
in regeneration, and optimal medium for re-
generation varies with genotypes.

The callus culture from which the somatic
embryoids originated were off-white to cream
coloured and friable (Fig. 1a). Calli that were
compact, greenish or yellowish in colour pro-
duced neither embryoids nor showed any sign
of differentiation.

In almost all cases, the somatic embryoids
grew in clusters (Fig. 1b) as did the plantlets
(Fig. lc). Though the regenerates phenotypi-
cally seemed to be normal, 45-65% died before

they reached 4-5 cm in height. Careful sep-
aration of clustered regenerates at early stages
of growth (2-3 cm) did not promote their sur-
vival. Such demise of regenerates was neither
associated with any particular genotypes nor
confined to any particular medium. High pro-
portional death of regenerates could be an in-
dication of somaclonal variants.

Besides genotypes, plant growth hormones
in the culture media also affected plantlet re-
generation. Table 2 presents the genotypic re-
sponses to plant growth hormones added to
culture media. Statistically genotypes, hor-
mones and their interactions were significant
(P < 0.01; ANOVA not presented here). Com-
parison of the genotypes across the growth hor-

SOYBEAN EMBRYOGENIC RESPONSE TO MEDIA—Rahman

mones shows that the cultivars responded dif-
ferently to any one growth regulator. However,
comparison within the column across the ge-
notypes revealed that hormone combination
BAP + IBA and 2,4-D were equally effective
in inducing organogenesis. Though 2,4-D is
reported to produce morphologically abnor-
mal and non regenerable somatic embryos (12),
in the present study the use of low concentra-
tion of 2,4-D (2.0 mg!) enhanced regenera-
tion. Plantlet regeneration of some genotypes
were better in BAP + IBA combination than
2,4-D and vice versa (Table 2). The overall
advantage of BAP + IBA over 2,4-D, however,
was not that great.

In this study there was a strong indication
that not only genotype affected regeneration,
but also the culture medium/media. There-
fore, it seemed that the optimal medium /me-
dia for soybean regeneration in vitro culture
was dependent upon genotypes as well as the
nutrient media.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research is supported by the USDA Co-
operation State Research Service grant to Ken-
tucky State University under agreement
KYX10-90-12P. Mention of a trade name does
not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the
product by Kentucky State University and
USDA/CSRS and does not imply approval to
the exclusion of other products that may also
be suitable.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Barwale, U. B., H. R. Kerns, and J. M. Widholm.
1986. Plant regeneration from callus cultures of several
soybean genotypes via embryogenesis and organogenesis.
Planta 167:473-481.

111

2. Lippman, B. and G. Lippmann. 1962. Induction
of somatic embryos in cotyledonary tissue of Glycine max
L. Merr. Plant Cell Rep. 3:215-218.

8. Parrott, W. A., E. G. Williams, D. F. Hildebrand,
and G. B. Collins. 1989. Effect of genotype on somatic
embryogenesis from immature cotyledons of soybean. Plant
Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 16:15-21.

4. Dhir, S. K., S. Dhir, and J. M. Widholm. 1991.
Plantlet regeneration from immature cotyledon proto-
plasts of soybean (Glycine max L.). Plant Cell Rep. 10:
39-43.

5. Hymowitz, T., N. L. Chalmers, S$. H. Costanza, and
M.M. Saam. 1986. Plant regeneration from leaf explants
of Glycine clandestine Wendl. Plant Cell. Rep. 3:192-
194.

6. Bregitzer, P. 1992. Plant regeneration and callus
type in barley: effects of genotype and culture media. Crop
Sci. 32P 1108-1112.

7. Hildebrand, D. F., G. C. Phillips, and G. B. Collins.
1986. In Y. P. S. Bajaj, (ed.) Biotechnology in agriculture
and forestry, Vol. 2, Crop 1. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

8. Wofford, D. S., D. D. Baltensperger, and K. H. Que-
senbery. 1992. In vitro culture responses of alyceclover
genotypes on four media systems. Crop Sci. 32:261-265.

9. Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962. A revised me-
dium for rapid growth and bioassay with tobacco tissue
cultures. Physiol. Plant. 15:473-497.

10. Gamborg, O. L., R. A. Miller, and K. Ojima. 1968.
Nutrient requirements of suspension culutes of soybean
root cells. Exp. Cell. Res. 50:151-158.

11. Phillips, G. C. and G. B. Collins. 1979. In vitro
tissue culture of selected legumes and plant regeneration
from callus culture of red clover. Crop Sci. 19:59-64.

12. Barwale, U. B., M. M. Meyer, Jr., and J. M. Wid-
holm. 1986. Screening of Glycine max and Glycine soja
genotypes for multiple shoot formation at the cotyledonary
nodes. The. Appl. Genet. 72:423-428.

13. Ranch, J. P., L. Oglesby, and A. C. Zielensky. 1985.
Plant regeneration from embryo derived tissue cultures of
soybean. In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. 21:653-658.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 112-135

FORUM

History of the Kentucky Academy of Science,
1914-1992

TED M. GEorGE*

Department of Physics and Astronomy, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky 40475

INTRODUCTION

At this writing (1992), the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence (KAS) is in its 78th year of continuous operation. It
is the largest scientific organization in the Commonwealth
and embraces some 22 different disciplines of science.
Membership is open to anyone who has an interest in
science and includes citizens of Kentucky as well as many
individuals outside the state. The Academy is an affiliate
of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence (AAAS). KAS has cooperated with the national acad-
emy since the early days.

The Kentucky Academy has changed drastically since
those early days as, indeed, has science, our country, and
the world. As far as is known, those early pioneers of the
Academy have all deceased. Therefore, much of the his-
tory must be read from their writings. Also, much help
can be obtained from present members who have been
active in the Academy for many years.

The objectives of the Academy are to encourage sci-
entific research, to promote the diffusion of scientific
knowledge, and to unify the scientific interests of the Com-
monwealth.

The Academy holds an annual meeting in which con-
current sectional meetings are held; there is also an annual
business meeting, a banquet, and general sessions intended
to stimulate the interests of all scientists. The Academy
sponsors the Kentucky Junior Academy of Science (KJAS)
that is conducted by and for students at the pre-college
levels. KJAS sponsors a statewide spring symposium each
year. KAS awards research funds generated by endow-
ments, institutional or corporate affiliations and the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science Foundation (KAS Foundation).

The Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science
is the official publication of the Academy. The journal is
published semiannually and is sent to all members in good
standing. It publishes results of original research and serves
as the official record of the Academy. All papers undergo
a review process and conform to the high standards of
nationally respected journals. Information in the Trans-
actions is distributed widely through interlibrary-ex-
change programs, international abstracting services, and
the distribution of reprints. A newsletter that contains items
of general interest and official announcements is distrib-
uted to the members at least twice a year.

* Present address: 5212 Smartt Dr., Nashville, Tennessee
37220.

What are the origins of this Academy which began so
long ago? In the archives of the University of Kentucky
there is a letter, dated 13 Nov. 1912, addressed to R. H.
Spahr, Assistant Professor of Physics at State University
(present day University of Kentucky) from E. W. Gudger
of North Carolina Normal School which gives data about
the North Carolina Academy of Science. There is a similar
letter from Wilbur Nelson of the Tennessee Academy in
the same month. Also, there are letters from the Indiana,
Illinois and Michigan academies dated Nov. 1914 (1).

The call for organization that was issued to all scientists
in Kentucky is as valid today as when it was first penned
(probably in the spring of 1914). For this reason, it is
reproduced here in toto.

Call for Organization of the
Kentucky Academy of Science

The advantages and necessities of a State Academy of
Science for the state of Kentucky, such as exist in at least
seventeen other states, viz.: Wisconsin, Kansas, Iowa, In-
diana, Minnesota, Nebraska, California, Ohio, Illinois,
Michigan, Colorado, Utah, Oklahoma, Maryland, Ten-
nessee, North Carolina and New York, are too numerous
to mention in this brief space. Science is essentially mu-
tualistic—successes in one branch are hailed with delight
by those interested in other branches. A discovery made
in one may be the stepping stone to future achievements
along another branch of science. At present it is difficult
for one person to keep abreast with the discoveries and
achievements in one branch of science alone. Thus, you
obtain from the diversified program the grain from the
chaff—that of which the author of the paper has made a
special study requiring months or even years.

Then the value of submitting results for discussion, of
discussing others’ results, of broadening the scientific mind,
of mutual stimulus and encouragement, of personal edu-
cation by coming in contact with fellow workers. Then,
also, the value to the community at large, giving them
that which is best and most useful from the various branch-
es, in the form of publications and otherwise, must not be
overlooked.

In many cases they have served as scientific advisors,
governmental or otherwise, to the states in which they
exist. As expert non-partisan investigators, they have linked
science to the problems of everyday life, suggesting leg-
islation for the betterment of human welfare in industry,
public health, sanitation and social conditions. The results
are that the past quarter of a century has witnessed a more
rapid progress than any equal period in the world’s history.

112

HistoRY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

Another reason for such an organization is the oppor-
tunity for acquaintance and the establishment of good
fellowship among the laborers in this line of work. This
in itself would be sufficient.

The State’s interests are promoted in a number of ways
by the co-operation of these people who are interested in
the welfare of its citizens. This service may be political,
literary, scientific or social, but after all they have in com-
mon the encouragement of the individual to nobler efforts
and benefit to the community.

The membership shall in the main consist of Active
Members, Nonresident and Corresponding Members and
Honorary Members. Everyone in the State of Kentucky
interested in any of the following subjects is urged to join
the proposed Association whether teacher or businessman:
Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Geography, Geology,
Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Medicine, Engineering, So-
cial and Economic Science, Agriculture and Anthropology.

The meeting for the Organization of the Kentucky
Academy of Science will be held at the State University
of Kentucky, Lexington, April 10th and 11th, 1914. More
details and the announcement of a program will be made
later.

The Committee on Organization appointed by the Ken-
tucky Association of Colleges and Universities, urgently
invites any criticism or suggestions from anyone interested.

R. H. Spahr, State University, Chairman
F. L. Rainey, Central University
Garnett Ryland, Georgetown College

The above call for organization was supported by 44 names

(2).

The First Meeting and Papers Presented

Dr. P. P. Boyd, of State University, at the request of the
Committee on Organization called the meeting to order.
A motion was offered that a Kentucky Academy of Science
be organized and duly incorporated under the laws of the
state. Dr. Boyd was elected permanent chairman for the
organizational meeting and Dr. Charles Robinson of the
University of Louisville was elected secretary. A commit-
tee was appointed to confer on a constitution and by-laws
for the proposed organization. This committee was com-
posed of Messrs. Spahr, Ryland, Rainey, W. M. Anderson,
and Lloyd (38).

The following papers and addresses were then present-
ed:

Dr. J. W. Pryor of State University, “Some Interesting
Features of the Ossification of Bones,” with many illus-
trations by lantern slides.

Dr. N. F. Smith, Professor of Physics, Central University,
Danville, “Theories of Thermal and Electrical Conduc-
tivity.”

Dr. Joseph H. Kastle, Director of the Kentucky Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. “The Significance of the Sci-
entific Work of the Experiment Station to the Agricultural
Prosperity of the State.”

113

Dr. Stanley Coulter, Purdue University, La Fayette,
Indiana. Address: “Science and the State.”

At the conclusion of the program, the Committee on
Constitution reported a constitution and bylaws which were
read and adopted unanimously, after some slight modifi-
cation—see Appendix I (4).

The Nominating Committee reported the following
nominations for officers:

For President, Joseph H. Kastle, Experiment Station
For Vice-President, N. F. Smith, Central University
For Secretary, Garnett Ryland, Georgetown College
For Treasurer, W. M. Anderson, University of Louisville

It was moved, seconded, and unanimously carried that
these nominees be elected as officers of the Academy for
the ensuing year.

Prof. Coulter was nominated and unanimously elected
as an honorary member of the Academy.

The motion was offered and carried that a vote of thanks
be extended by the Academy to the Organization Com-
mittee, and especially to Mr. Spahr, for its efforts in bring-
ing about the organization.

It was also moved and carried that the Academy extend
a vote of thanks to the speakers on the program, and
especially to Prof. Coulter for his somewhat lengthy trip
in order to address the meeting.

(Signed): Chas. J. Robinson, Secretary (4).

The Second Annual Meeting and
Papers Presented

The second annual meeting was called to order by Pres-
ident J. H. Kastle in the Chemistry Lecture Hall of the
State University on Saturday 15 May 1915, at 9:30 a.m.
The report of the treasurer W. M. Anderson showed a
balance on hand of two dollars. The secretary showed that
the roll of members contained the names of 60 persons
who had indicated a desire to be charter members of the
Academy, but that seven of these had left the state (5).

The Membership Committee nominated 65 persons for
active memberships, 11 for corresponding memberships
and Professor Dayton C. Miller for Honorary Membership,
all of whom were duly elected. The papers presented were:

“Relation between Matter and Radiant Energy.” N. F.
Smith, Centre College, Danville, Ky.

“Faulting in North Central Kentucky.” A. M. Miller,
University of Kentucky.

“The Removal of Mineral Plant Food by Drainage Wa-
ters.” J. S. McHargue, Experiment Station, Lexington.

“The Translocation of the Mineral Constituents of the
Seeds of Certain Plants during Growth.” G. D. Buckner,
Experiment Station, Lexington.

The Academy then adjourned to the Phoenix Hotel for
lunch and reassembled at 2:30 in the Physics Lecture Room.
Dr. Dayton Miller, Professor of Physics, Case School of
Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio, by special invitation of
the Academy, delivered an illustrated address on “The
Science of Musical Sounds” (6).

114

The Third Annual Meeting

By the third meeting 6 May 1916 in the Department
of Physics, University of Kentucky, fiscal affairs had im-
proved over that of the previous years:

From Garnett Ryland, Treasurer ............ $ 8.80
Amounts collected as dues and initiation fees... _76.00

Totals, cayenne es cols 2a gee ee enpicen ee ae gate 84.80
Total disbursements ....................... 26.50
Balers Gm lang! ...0scrccocueseseansnnvc: $58.30

(Itemized statement and vouchers filed) (7).

The first resolutions of record were made this third
meeting by Professor A. M. Miller of the University of
Kentucky (8).

RESOLVED. That the Kentucky Academy of Science
heartily approves the move to substitute the Centigrade
thermometer scale for the Fahrenheit scale in all govern-
ment publications, and endorses the bill to that effect now
pending in Congress, H.R. 528.

RESOLVED. That the Secretary transmit a copy of
this resolution to the Thermometer Committee, A.A.A.S.,
Bureau of Standards, Washington.

Membership in the Academy

It is interesting to observe the evolution of the concept
of membership in the Academy. In the original constitu-
tion (Appendix I) (9), there were 3 classes of members,
Active, Corresponding, and Honorary. Active members
were residents of Kentucky who were interested in sci-
entific work. Dues were one dollar per year. Corresponding
members were persons who were actively engaged in sci-
entific work but were not Kentucky residents. They had
duties and privileges of active members but could not hold
office. Honorary members were those who had acquired
special prominence in science and were not residents of
Kentucky. They were not to exceed 20 in number at any
time.

For election to any class of membership the candidates
must have been nominated in writing by 2 members, | of
whom must know the applicant personally; receive a ma-
jority vote of the Committee on Membership and a three-
fourths vote of the members of the Academy that are
present at any session or, in the interim between meetings
of the Academy, the unanimous vote of the members of
the council, present or voting by letter (9).

The early Academy seemed to be quite vigilant to pre-
vent unworthy persons from entering the Academy! In-
deed, in the minutes of the 1933 meeting we find that 33
people were elected but that 16 did not qualify (10)! In
the 1934 minutes the names of 4 persons who did not
qualify that year were actually listed (11)! Understand-
ably, the record does not show why these people did not
qualify. Could it be that when they say “elected” we would
mean nominated? When they say “did not qualify” could
that mean simply that they had not paid their dues?

In the 1987 revision of the constitution (Appendix II),
it was formalized what had actually been in practice for
many years (12). Presently, the requirements for mem-

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

bership are simply an interest in science and payment of
annual dues. In the 1987 revision of the constitution, the
classes of membership are: Regular, Life, Student, Hon-
orary, Emeritous, Corporate Affiliate, and Institutional Af-
filiate. Regular Membership is the same as active but is
not restricted to citizens of Kentucky. Life members pay
one single fee. Student members must be college students
and Honorary members are the same as before except that
they may be residents of Kentucky. Emeritous members
are members who are retired from active service. Cor-
porate and Institutional Affiliates are business, industrial
or academic institutions who support the aims and pur-
poses of the Academy.

Affiliation with AAAS

At the eighth annual meeting in May 1921, KAS for-
mally accepted affiliation with The American Association
for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (13). There had
been prior collaboration, since abstracts of papers pre-
sented at the 1916 meeting were published in the 14 July
1916 issue of Science (the official journal of AAAS). This
practice continued until in 1923 when the editor of Science
informed the secretary, A. M. Peter, that he could no
longer continue this arrangement because of the limitation
of space in the journal (14). The affiliation has continued
to this day. Over the years, KAS has maintained a rep-
resentative to AAAS and the collaboration continues.

The Transactions of the
Kentucky Academy of Science

Loss of an outlet for the publication of their papers
forced the issue of publication. Willard Rouse Jillson, State
Geologist, was president for the 1923-1924 term. He saw
that the Academy did not have the funds to underwrite a
new journal; therefore he agreed to put up the money out
of his own pocket. Five hundred copies of the first volume
were printed at a cost of over $600, which would average
to about $1.25 per copy. Each member was entitled to one
free copy. Inasmuch as the treasury at that time had only
about $100, each member was encouraged to buy as many
extra copies at $1.25 as they could to help defray the cost
of printing (14). Ultimately, W. R. Jillson paid $242 and
the Academy paid the rest (15).

Williard Rouse Jillson graduated from Syracuse Uni-
versity in 1912, took a Master’s Degree from the University
of Washington and did additional graduate work at Chi-
cago and Yale. He wasa very prolific writer. In his memoirs
(16), he stated that he wrote 91 books, published 31 state
maps, delivered 42 public addresses in this country and
abroad, published 391 paper bound pamphlets, 121 his-
torical articles, and 29 newspaper articles! In the early
days of the Academy, he contributed much—not only did
he father the Transactions but he also contributed many
presentations at the annual meetings. Not only was he
interested in geology but he was very active in Kentucky
history as well. He wrote articles for the Filson Club and
the Kentucky Historical Society. He was president of the
latter organization in 1958-1959.

Alfred M. Peter was a founding member of the Acad-

HisToRY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

emy who also performed yeoman’s service in the early
days. In 1915, he was elected secretary of the Academy
and served in that capacity for 18 years. He edited the
Transactions from 1918 to 1949 and continued to help in
an unofficial capacity for many more years.

We know something about Mr. Peter from a eulogy
given at his death by Alfred Brauer of the University of
Kentucky. “He was born in Lexington in 1857. He grad-
uated from State College with the degree of Bachelor of
Science in 1880. He was then appointed Assistant Professor
of Chemistry at State College and was also appointed As-
sistant Chemist for the Kentucky Geological Survey. He
obtained his Master’s degree in 1885 [not stated, but prob-
ably from State College]. He was awarded an honorary
Doctor of Science from his Alma Mater in 1913” (17).

In the early editions of the Transactions (volumes one
through six), deceased members of the Academy were
recognized in the journal just before the membership list.
It was stated:

IN MEMORIUM

They have crossed the river and are resting in the shade
of the trees.

Following this statement was a list of deceased members.
This statement is attributed to Stonewall Jackson as his last
words on his deathbed after the battle of Chancellorsville
by Bartlett's Quotations (18). No meaning has ever been
attributed to Jackson’s words as he was delirious at the
time he spoke them. What was the appeal to editor Willard
Rouse Jillson (editor of Volume 1) and subsequent editors
(A. M. Peter and Ethel Caswell)? (Caswell was secretary
to Peter and apparently not a member of the Academy
[19].) An evidence of southern sentiment? (Jillson was from
New York.) A reference to the river Styx in greek my-
thology? This statement of Jackson’s was discontinued in
1938, Volume 7.

A. M. Peter was instrumental in the founding of the
Kentucky Junior Academy of Science (KJAS) in 1933, an
early attempt to interest high school students in science.
Peter showed his interest in this organization by giving an
annual award for the best effort by a student (17).

Volume 1 was printed in 1924 and covered the ten years
from 1914 to 1923. After that, the Transactions were
printed at intervals of 2 or 3 years until Volume 9, printed
in 1941, where an attempt was made to publish quarterly
each year in order to get papers into print in a timely
manner. This proved to be rather difficult because of the
scarcity of money and/or papers. At various times after
that, quarterly issues were sometimes combined into semi-
annual issues. Beginning with Volume 24 in 1963, semi-
annual publication was adopted and continued with 1 or
2 exceptions to the present. (Numbers 1 and 2 were com-
bined, as were 3 and 4.)

Editors of the Transactions had a difficult and de-
manding job. Many long hours were spent of their own
free time in order to produce the Transactions. All honor
must go to them for their labors for the Academy, and
they are listed with appreciation in Appendix III. The

115

TaBLe 1. Composition of membership, 1917.
Agriculture and agronomy
Animal husbandry
Astronomy

Bacteriology

Biology

Botany, entomology and zoology
Chemistry

Electrical engineering
Forestry

Geology

Horticulture

Mathematics

Meteorology

Microscopy

Mining engineering
Psychology

Physics

Physiology

Philosophy

Unclassified

bo
CONF BRDWODHNDND UL

—

Ai eo CS) ES ho]p ts

Oo
=

modern professional format was initiated by Louis Krum-
holz of the University of Louisville, who served as editor
from 1974 to 1980. Krumholz got the Academy firmly
established with the Allen Press, a printer that specializes
in scientific journals. His successor, Branley Branson of
Eastern Kentucky University, the editor from 1980 to the
present, has continued the development of the Transac-
tions. He served through a very difficult period when funds
were very short. Today’s journal has a very professional
appearance and is attractive to authors because worthwhile
articles can be published in a timely manner, as contrasted
with the rate of publication in larger journals. Branley
Branson has labored long and hard and deserves much
credit for the success of the Transactions today.

Many officers, in addition to the editors, have contrib-
uted so much to make the Academy what it is today. As
a tribute to them and to preserve a record of their service,
their names are listed in appendices. The presidents are
listed in Appendix IV, the secretaries in Appendix V, trea-
surers in Appendix VI, and the meeting locations are listed
in Appendix VII.

Composition of Membership

In 1917, the membership list classified by subject can
be found in Table 1 (20). With respect to this list, A. M.
Peter made this comment:

The Secretary desires to call attention to the predom-
inance of chemists among our membership, as shown
in the list of members arranged by subjects, and to
make an appeal to the workers in other branches of
science to come to the support of the Academy. There
must be more workers in Kentucky in the mathe-
matical sciences and biological sciences than there are
in chemistry. Are these satisfied to allow the chemists
to outdo them in activity? Should not all scientists of

116

TaBLE 2. Membership classified by discipline, 1990.

Zoology and entomology 148
Botany and microbiology 133
Chemistry 117

Physiology, biophysics, biochemistry
and pharmacology 95
Geology 37
Physics 35
Engineering 33
Science education 82
Psychology 31
Geography 25
Mathematics 22)
Health sciences 21
Scientific information 20
Computer science 16
Agricultural sciences 11
Anthropology 7
Industrial sciences 7
Sociology 6
Unspecified 108
904

the State vie with each other in supporting an orga-
nization like ours?

However, we may note, if we group Bacteriology with
4, Biology 6, Botany, Entomology and Zoology 8, and
Physiology 1, we get a total of 19. However, the prepon-
derance of chemists in the Academy has changed over the
years and now the Life Sciences predominate in numbers.
For comparison, we may check the membership classified
by discipline in 1990 in Table 2 (21).

At the meeting in 1920, the secretary, A. M. Peter, listed
the membership classified geographically. That list is re-
produced here in Table 8 (22). As a comparison, we may
check Table 4 for the geographical distribution in 1990

TABLE 3. Geographical distribution of membership, 1920.

University of Kentucky, Lexington 4
University of Louisville, Louisville

Centre College, Danville

Georgetown College, Georgetown

Berea College, Berea

Transylvania College, Lexington

Cardome, Georgetown

College of Pharmacy, Louisville

Williamsburg Institute, Williamsburg

BPrEPrPErENAABAUMA

Not connected with educational institutions in the state
are:

Lexington
Louisville
Frankfort
Bowling Green
Newport
Jenkins
Winchester

eee eS Ov

Besides these are 26 from outside the state, including honorary and cor-
responding members.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

TaBLe 4. Geographical distribution of members, 1990.

University of Kentucky 130
Western Kentucky University 62
Eastern Kentucky University 57
University of Louisville 48
UK Community Colleges 29
Northern Kentucky University 29
Murray State University 24
Morehead State University 28
Kentucky State University 16
Centre College ll
Berea College 8
Transylvania University il
Georgetown College 6
Cumberland College 5
Kentucky Wesleyan 5
Other schools in Kentucky 27
Out-of-state schools 80
Members not identified by educational institution:
Lexington 66
Louisville 64
Ashland 27
Frankfort 22
Bowling Green 18
Owensboro 12)
Berea 9
Morehead 6
Others 13
904

(23). There we find not only has the Academy grown by
a factor of 9 but there is a much wider distribution of
members across the state.

Also, in 1920, A. M. Peter noted the growth in mem-
bership and number of speakers in the early years of the
Academy. His figures are reproduced in Table 5. As we
can see, the membership grew rather slowly during the
first years but participation, as measured by the number
of speakers, grew at a faster rate (24).

Interest in the Teaching of Science

The famous Scopes trial concerning the teaching of evo-
lution in the public schools brought an immediate reaction
from AAAS in January 1923 in the form of a resolution
published in Science, 26 Jan. 1923. This resolution sup-
ported without reservation the teaching of evolution and

TaBLE 5. Growth in membership and speakers, 1914-
1920.

Year Membership Speakers
1914 46 5
1915 88 6
1916 87 10
1917 91 9
1918 98 12
1919 93 14
1920 110 26

HIsTORY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

argued vehemently against any state passing laws against
the teaching of evolution (25). In the May meeting of 1923,
KAS passed a resolution strongly supporting the position
of AAAS, even though such a position was extremely un-
popular in Kentucky at that time. This is the first indication
of the long-term concern of the Academy for education
in the public schools. In 1926, AAAS led in raising a schol-
arship fund for Mr. Scopes in view of his loyalty to the
cause of science. A total of $47 was raised in KAS for this
cause and forwarded to AAAS (26).

The teaching of evolution continued to be a sore spot
with fundamentalist religious groups whose article of faith
accepted a literal interpretation of the Bible. In the late
1970s, a group of people joined together to espouse what
they called “Scientific Creationism.” “Creationism” is the
view that a Supreme Being created the world and all its
creatures, including human beings, essentially as they are
today, perhaps only thousands of years ago. Evolution is
the widely taught theory that all animals and plants are
descendents of simple organisms that evolved over billions
of years into increasingly numerous and more complex
forms (27).

The Creationists asserted that evolution was only a the-
ory and should not be taught as fact. If evolution was a
theory, then other theories should be taught. They, of
course, advocated Scientific Creationism. Furthermore, they
argued that textbooks must present all sides of the argu-
ment and they should contain Scientific Creationism as an
alternative theory. This proposal was seriously considered
by several states (among them: Texas, California, and Lou-
isiana [27]).

The Kentucky Academy of Science appointed an ad hoc
committee chaired by Wallace Dixon of Eastern Kentucky
University (28). In the 1981 meeting, the Academy adopt-
ed a policy statement that, in essence, objected to “at-
tempts to require any religious teaching as science’ (29).
This resolution was to be held in readiness in case a pro-
posal for Creationism should be introduced in the Ken-
tucky General Assembly. In 1981, the Louisiana legislature
passed a law that Creationism must be taught along with
evolution in public schools (30). In 1987, the U.S. Supreme
Court struck down the Louisiana law. “Writing in a 7 to
2 opinion, Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. said that the
First Amendment forbids alike the preference of a relig-
ious doctrine or the prohibition of a theory which is deemed
antagonistic to a particular dogma. Therefore, Brennan
noted, because the primary purpose of Louisiana’s Cre-
ationism Act is to advance a particular religious belief, the
act endorses religion in violation of the First Amendment”
(27).

Over the years, the Academy realized that the health
of science in Kentucky rested upon the efforts of science
teachers in the public schools. In 1925, Cloyd N. McAllister
of Berea College (31), in his President’s Address, devoted
his entire time to a critique of science teaching in the
public schools. This concern for science teaching appears
repeatedly over the years: Robert T. Hinton, in his Pres-
ident’s Address (32), devoted his entire speech to this con-
cern; in 1940, a resolution was presented against the re-

WAT

duction of science training for prospective teachers (33);
in 1955, a resolution was presented which exhorted mem-
bers of the Academy to promote better science teaching
in the public schools in any way possible (34); in 1958, a
resolution was presented which supported requiring 12
credit hours in science for all prospective teachers (35).

In 1934, Elmer Sulzer, a geologist from the University
of Kentucky, suggested that the Academy make some ra-
diocasts (36). He proposed to arrange 3 Academy radio-
casts from the University studio of WHAS, which was
accepted. There is no description but we can surmise that
they were broadcasts put on by various members about
subjects in their fields of endeavor. Undoubtedly, busy
members had great difficulty finding time for such pro-
ductions in their already busy days. Such public education
in science is today carried out by Kentucky Educational
Television. They broadcast all school subjects (including
science) to the public schools during the day. In addition,
during the evening hours, they broadcast many excellent
programs in science such as Nova, Nature, Planet Earth
and many others. These programs are beautifully pro-
duced with resources that are far beyond what the Acad-
emy could muster.

In 1963, a 10-member committee began to draw up a
proposal to the National Science Foundation (NSF) for a
Visiting Scientist Program. They envisioned making a list
of scientists and their expertise available to public high
schools. At the invitation of the teacher, the selected speak-
er would travel to the school and give a lecture on the
desired subject. The proposal would be for money from
NSF to pay the expenses of the program (37). This proposal
was funded by NSF for $8,005 in March 1968 (38). In the
fall of 1964, it was reported that E. Fergus of the University
of Kentucky was acting director of the program and that
a visitor roster list had been sent to 462 high schools. This
roster contained a list of 105 scientists. Twenty-one re-
quests had been received but about 75 visits were available
with the money on hand (38). In 1965, Dr. Fergus an-
nounced that there was a considerable improvement in
the second year since there were 69 requests for speakers
compared to 21 at the same time the previous year. Dr.
Fergus announced his resignation (39) and he was suc-
ceeded by Roger Barbour of the University of Kentucky.
In 1966, Dr. Barbour reported that 16 visits had been
completed but there was money for 60 more visits (40).
From the available records, it does not seem that this
program met expectations. The reason seemed to be lack
of interest or time in the high schools.

This idea was revived in 1983 in the form of a Speakers
Bureau. Again Academy members were called upon to
volunteer their services. However, this time, there was no
funding for the program (41).

The Kentucky Junior Academy of Science

It was in 1932 that the Kentucky Junior Academy of
Science (KJAS) was formed under the leadership of A. M.
Peter of the University of Kentucky and Anna Schneib of
Eastern Kentucky State College. The membership of KJAS
would be composed of high school students who were

118

interested in science. Professor Louis A. Astill, then direc-
tor of the Illinois Junior Academy of Science, gave much
helpful information and encouragement. The KJAS held
its first meeting on 19 May 1934 in Berea. Five hundred
students and teachers were in attendance, and KJAS began
life with 310 student members in 9 science clubs. The dues
were set at 15 cents per year (42).

The first issue of the official The Junior Science Bulletin
was published in Nov. 1934 with Anna Schneib serving as
editor. The listed advantages of membership were:

(1) volunteer speakers from KAS for the local science clubs,

(2) each club received a copy of the Transactions of the
Kentucky Academy of Science,

(3) The Junior Science Bulletin published 3 times a year
was distributed to each member,

(4) competitions would be held each year for awards for
the best science paper or project,

(5) each member was entitled to wear a pin in the form
of an official insignia of KJAS.

The KJAS was governed by an executive committee
appointed by the President of KAS. Dr. Schneib was the
chair of that committee and was also editor of The Junior
Science Bulletin. Much of the early success of KJAS must
be attributed to Anna Schneib’s hard work and leadership.
Enrollment steadily increased to over 1,000 in 45 clubs in
1942. Anna Schneib served as Chair, Director and Editor
until 1952, when she retired from active teaching.

The Junior Academy has had its ups and downs in the
later years. Herb Leopold of Western Kentucky University
struggled valiantly to keep KJAS alive and oversaw many
innovations. He started a Spring Symposium in which KJAS
members presented papers on their own research. The
winners often compete in the national meetings of the
American Junior Academy of Science. A Science Bowl
competition has been introduced (patterned after popular
game shows on television) in which opposing teams com-
pete to answer various questions in science. A lab skills
competition has also been added (48).

In 1992, membership in the Junior Academy was ap-
proximately 1,000 students. At the Spring Symposium in
that year, 162 research papers were submitted for presen-
tation. At this meeting, a resolution was passed that the
AAAS award that supports the attendance of 2 KJAS mem-
bers and a sponsor to the annual AAAS meeting would
henceforth be known as the KAS-William P. Hettinger,
Jr. AAAS Award. This action is motivated by the active
interest William Hettinger had had over the years in the
Junior Academy (44).

KJAS has been highly successful with the students it
does reach. One would wish that it would reach far more
of the hundreds of thousands of students in Kentucky
schools. Doubtless, it would require far more resources to
expand its operations.

The Collegiate Academy

In addition to the Junior Academy, efforts are going
forward at this writing to establish a Kentucky Collegiate
Academy of Science for college undergraduates and grad-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-—4)

uate students. The intention is to have a paper session and
awards for their presentation. It is hoped that this will
increase the participation of these students in scientific

work (45).

The Science Education Committee

In 1972, the Academy started on the road to become a
more active participant in science education in the public
schools—kindergarten through the twelfth grade. In that
year, the Academy passed a resolution asking President
Marvin Russell of Western Kentucky University to appoint
an ad hoc committee on Science Teacher Certification.
This committee should review requirements to certify sci-
ence teachers in the public schools and make recommen-
dations for any changes and any action thereof. The ra-
tionale for this action was that the good of the country
and of science depended on public understanding of sci-
ence as well as assuring a future supply of scientists (46).

Ted M. George of Eastern Kentucky University was
appointed chairman of this committee and gave an interim
report at the next annual meeting in 1973 (47). This report
proposed 8 levels of certification: K-5, 6-8, and 9-12 grades.
This was a radical departure from the guidelines that ex-
isted, ie., 2 levels: K-8 and 7-12 grades. This proposal
was rejected by the Kentucky Council on Teacher Certi-
fication at that time. Several years later, the same council
agreed to reconsider the proposal. In 1977, the Academy
committee reported that the Teacher Council had ac-
cepted this idea, keeping the same requirements then in
force for elementary teachers for grades K-5 and for sec-
ondary teachers for grades 9-12. They then proposed a
new set of guidelines for middle school teachers for grades
6-8. Unfortunately, the new middle school guidelines ap-
peared too weak to the Academy committee (48).

The KAS Committee on Teacher Certification then en-
listed the aid of many other science groups throughout the
Commonwealth and argued against this proposal. Later,
this plan was withdrawn by the Kentucky Teacher Council
on Certification (49). In 1984, this plan was resurrected
by the Kentucky Teacher Council and approved by the
Kentucky Board of Education in the following July to take
effect for entering freshmen effective 1 Sept. 1989. Thus
the Academy, through its Committee on Teacher Certi-
fication, played a part in effecting this change. But there
were still reservations that the requirements for middle
school teachers were too weak. At the time of this writing
(1992), it is too early to make an evaluation of this program.

Another proposal of the Department of Education was
to pay schools different sums of money for certain classes
(Vocational Education was emphasized). Payment for sci-
ence classes would have been no more than for English,
History, etc. Since science is so much more expensive to
teach because of lab and demonstration equipment and
special rooms, it was thought that the teaching of science
would be seriously hurt. The Education Committee of the
Academy then enlisted the aid of other science societies
across the state and opposed the program vigorously. This
proposal was subsequently dropped (50).

The Academy committee met with failures as well as

HisTORY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

successes. A proposal for a Science Advisory Council to
the Superintendent of Public Instruction was never ap-
proved (51). A regulation was approved by the Depart-
ment of Education that teachers of Vocational Education
could teach academic science courses. This ruling was
allowed to stand over the vigorous protests of the Academy
and its Education Committee (52).

Effects of Wars and Depression

One would expect that the two world wars would have
a significant effect on the operations of the Academy.
Strangely, little reference can be found in the minutes
with respect to World War I. In 1918, we find “on motion
of Dr. Buckner, it was unanimously resolved that the Acad-
emy goon record as offering its services to the Government
in any capacity, during the time of war” (53). There is no
further reference to the resolution, to whom it was sent,
or if it was ever sent.

World War II had a more definite effect. No meeting
was held in 1945 (primarily because of rationing of gas-
oline). Prospective speakers, however, submitted their ar-
ticles to be published in Volume 12 of the Transactions.
In the meeting of 1942, a resolution points with pride to
the number of members in the service of the country (54).

The meetings of 1944 and 1946 were held but were
published only in abstract form in 1947 (55). In July 1947,
the President, Alfred Brauer of the University of Ken-
tucky, wrote an editorial which called for more active
participation in the Academy (56). While agreeing that
the Academy had operated under great difficulties during
World War II, he urged that much more work must be
done if the Academy were to meet its obligations. He listed
things to be done or improved:

(1) obtain sustaining memberships,

(2) enroll more workers from industrial research labs,

(8) affiliate with more scientific associations,

(4) be more active in conservation of resources,

(5) greater participation by members, i.e., give more pa-
pers, present ideas, present resolutions, etc.

At the time of the Great Depression, in the early 1930s,
“a worldwide financial panic and depression began with
the 1929 stock market crash. Twelve million wage earners
were jobless in the United States in 1932 and many bank-
ruptcies’ (57). In 1932, there were very few two-wage
earner families and an out-of-work wage earner was in
serious trouble. There were no government services to aid
those with no income as there is today. As a consequence,
in Kentucky as in the rest of the nation, tax revenues fell
precipitously and many salaries were late, reduced or paid
in part. It was proposed to the Council of KAS that dues
should be reduced because of the financial situation. The
Council, however, rejected this idea (58).

Incorporation of KAS

In 1936, Dr. L. Oatley Pindar, a physician and a member
of the Medical Science section, left a bequest to the Acad-
emy. In the discussion of how to handle this transaction,
Judge Samuel Wilson of Lexington, Ky., was asked for

119

advice. Judge Wilson advised the Academy to incorporate
and offered to do the legal work without charge. Conse-
quently, in 1937, the Academy incorporated with head-
quarters of Kentucky Academy of Science, Inc. located in
Lexington, Ky. (59, 60). Dr. Pindar’s legacy was $281.30,
which brought the endowment to $356.30. In 1932, at the
19th annual meeting the financial report makes reference
to $75 in Life Memberships invested in Building and Loan
Association stock (61). Dr. Pindar’s bequest must have been
added to this amount to total $356.30. The interest from
this was used to help pay costs of publication of the Trans-
actions (62).

Surprisingly, no further mention of the endowment can
be found in the Transactions for many years. In fact, no
financial report can be found from 1939 to 1955. In 1955,
the financial report refers to the “balance on hand of
$1200.35” (63). There is no mention of the endowment.
Presumably, it had been added to the operating funds at
some time.

When the Academy incorporated in 1937, a Board of
Directors was added to the officers of the Academy by an
amendment to the constitution. Normally a Board of Di-
rectors of a corporation would set the policy for that cor-
poration. When one reads the constitutional amendment,
however, it is not really clear what the function of this
board is. “In said Board shall be vested and by said Board
shall be exercised all the ordinary and appropriate cor-
porate powers and functions of the Kentucky Academy of
Science’ (60). Such a Board was duly elected and contin-
ued to be elected but never seemed to function in any
viable way.

At the meeting in 1969, at Murray State University, it
was stated that the Board was not now meeting but should
become active in stimulating industry to support the ac-
tivities of the Academy (64). In 1974, the Board became
more active and attempted to find a role for itself (65). In
1975, the Board proposed, and the Academy accepted, an
amendment to the constitution, in which the Board would
explicitly assume the overall direction of the Academy and
the Executive Committee would carry on the day-to-day
activities of the Academy (66).

Although the Board did serve some useful functions,
such as selecting and awarding honors for Outstanding
Scientist, Outstanding Teacher, etc., it still did not set
policy for the Academy. The Board of Directors was dis-
solved in the new constitution installed in 1987 (67).

Support of Research

Of course, the reason for being for the Academy is the
advancement and enjoyment of science. A prime occu-
pation of the organization members is engaging in scien-
tific research. The Academy has, over the years, aided in
the publication of the research of its members and, in the
later years, has sponsored some research, particularly col-
lege students and its own members. In the early days, when
the Academy did not have a journal, members were al-
lowed to publish in Nature, the official AAAS journal.
When this was no longer possible, Willard Rouse Jillson
published, partially at his own expense, Volume 1 of The

120

TaBLeE6. Papers read at annual meetings, 1920 and 1990.

1920 1990
The Future of KAS 1
Agricultural science 7 3
Anthropology 21
Astronomy 1
Botany and microbiology 5)
Chemistry 2 Bs
Coal and petroleum 1 9
Genetics 1
Geography 14
Geology Bi 12
Industrial sciences 9
Nutrition 1
Physiology, biophysics, biochemistry
and pharmacology 14
Physics 2° 20
Science education 17
Psychology 1 Sl
Sociology 9
Zoology and entomology 4 34
Computer science 9
Mathematics 12
Engineering 10
Health sciences 2
Kentucky Junior Academy of Science 11
Poster presentations 42
Abstracts 46

Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science. Vol-
ume | recorded the activities of the first ten years of the
Academy ’s activities. The quality and quantity of the pub-
lished articles was not a steady progression of excellence.
The Great Depression of the 1930s was a very difficult and
troubling time. Very little money was available. Paydays
were missed and salaries were reduced; therefore, there
was virtually no money for research (68). The Second
World War was also a severe setback. The homefront was
denuded of many able-bodied young men and women
because of this mighty upheaval. Since the Second World
War, the Transactions have improved steadily in both
quantity and quality. It is instructive to compare activity
in 1920 when 26 papers were presented at the meeting
and were published in Volume 1 (69) with those presented
in 1990 (70). Then 285 papers were read at the meeting,
46 abstracts of those papers were in the Transactions, one
workshop was given at the meeting, 42 poster presentations
were made and 19 separate articles were printed in the
Transactions that were not read at the meeting. Papers
read at each meeting are shown in Table 6 and are dis-
tributed by discipline, which gives a graphic picture of
the increase in scientific activity of the Academy from its
early beginnings.

The Academy, never too flush with funds, has made a
rather slow start in making grants for the encouragement
of scientific research. In 1925, at the Twelfth Annual Meet-
ing, W. R. Jillson proposed that a gold medal be frequently
given for “first excellence in scientific investigation” to a

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

member of the Academy (71). He had found a donor who
wished to remain anonymous who would pay for the med-
als. The project apparently fell through since there is no
record of a medal ever being given to anyone.

The first mention of money to encourage research oc-
curred in April 1939 at the Twenty-Sixth Annual Meeting
at Murray State Teachers College. Mr. Fain W. King and
Mrs. Blanch B. King of Wickliffe, Ky., announced that
they were offering to the Academy an annual prize award
of 50 dollars for 5 consecutive years. The prize was to be
awarded by the Academy to the individual presenting the
most meritorious paper of original research. The first award
was given at that meeting to W. R. Allen of the University
of Kentucky. His paper was entitled “Science and Human
Mores” (72). Other awards were made over the next 40
years.

At the meeting in 1974 at Centre College, Joe Winstead
of Western Kentucky University announced that “through
the generosity of an anonymous donor, the Kentucky
Academy of Science is authorized to periodically award a
cash grant of $500 to any student who is a member of the
Kentucky Academy of Science and who is enrolled in a
course of study with an emphasis in botanical science at
any college or university in the Commonwealth” (73).
Basically, the grants were to support county floristic stud-
ies. In 1976, this same anonymous donor established an
endowment fund of $10,000 to support students doing
botanical research in Kentucky. That endowment was in
addition to the donor’s continuing support of county flo-
ristic work (74).

Eventually, it became known that the anonymous donor
was Mr. Raymond L. Athey of Paducah, Kentucky. In
1982, Mr. Athey and the family of his late wife, Marcia
Athey, made a donation of $50,000 to set up an endow-
ment. The earnings were to be used only for scientific
research in Kentucky and it was named The Marcia Athey
Fund in honor of Mrs. Athey (75).

In 1986, the Academy recognized Mr. Athey by ac-
cording him a Citizen Scientist Award in recognition of
his many achievements in the documentation of rare and
unusual plants of Kentucky and for his support of botanical
and scientific research in the mid-south (76).

Quoting from the Citation: “Among plant taxonomists
of the southeastern United States, the name of Raymond
Athey is well known for his collection, documentation and
dissemination of information concerning the herbaceous
flora, particularly grasses, of Kentucky and the surround-
ing states. Perhaps less well known is his personal support
of numerous students in sharing his knowledge about Ken-
tucky plants as well as his support in developing permanent
endowment funds to provide financial support of botanical
and scientific research. Since 1979, no fewer than 18 stu-
dents and faculty of colleges and universities in Kentucky,
Indiana, North Carolina and New York have had individ-
ual research projects supported financially via the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science from endowment funds de-
veloped through the interest and efforts of Raymond Athey”
(76).

History OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

Mr. Athey died in July 1991. In his will, Mr. Athey set
up a trust fund which contained all of his assets (estimated
to be over a million dollars). One-half of the earnings from
this trust fund are to go to the Academy and the other
half to his children. Eventually, all of the earnings of the
trust fund will come to the Academy.

It is no exaggeration to’ say that Mr. Athey literally
transformed the Kentucky Academy of Science—not only
with his gifts of money—but also by his example of en-
thusiasm for scientific research and his desire to improve
the scientific literacy of the Commonwealth. It was re-
ported that the day before his death, Mr. Athey was asked
by his lawyer and trust officer why he was giving so much
of his estate to the Kentucky Academy of Science. His
reply was “By God, I want the future generations of Ken-
tuckians to have the opportunity to know something about
science.”

Much of the credit for the relationship between the
Academy and Mr. Athey must go to Joe Winstead. Joe
met Mr. Athey in 1972 and they realized that they had
common interests and they eventually became close friends.
All of Mr. Athey’s donations to the Academy were made
through Joe, since he had complete confidence in his hon-
esty and scientific acumen.

Kentucky Academy of Science Foundation

At the suggestion of Mr. Athey, a separate organization
was established to keep the money that he and the Athey
family had donated separate from the day-to-day opera-
tion of Academy affairs. Therefore, in 1980, the Kentucky
Academy of Science Foundation (KAS Foundation) was
established. A Board of Trustees was to address the affairs
of the Foundation and the President of the Academy was
the President of the Foundation. The officers of the Acad-
emy and the Board of Directors were automatically mem-
bers of the Board of Trustees of the KAS Foundation. The
Board of Trustees may, at their discretion, elect additional
members up to a total of twenty (77).

With the new constitution of 1987, control of the KAS
Foundation was taken over by the Governing Board of the
Academy. The Board of Trustees of the Foundation as
well as the Board of Directors of the Academy were elim-
inated (67).

At the meeting in Owensboro in 1991, the treasurer
announced that the KAS Foundation had over $99,000 in
funds and had disbursed $8,607 in research grants (78).
While funds held in the Foundation account include funds
from Life Memberships and donations from Academy
members, by far most of the funds were from Raymond
Athey and his family.

Improving Kentucky’s Research Status

In the early 1970s, a study funded by the Kentucky
Department of Commerce was conducted under the joint
auspices of the Kentucky Academy of Science and the
Task Force on Public Science and Technology. A series of
reports based on that study were published in 1973 and
1974 and covered various aspects of science and technol-

121

ogy in the Commonwealth. One of these reports, written
by William G. Lloyd (1974), showed that Kentucky fared
poorly in comparison with the rest of the United States in
terms of federal support for research and developement
activities (79). The Academy was involved to the extent
that many members of the study panel were members of
the Academy.

The results of this report were far more disturbing than
anyone realized. Quoting from the Lloyd report: “‘in fiscal
1971 the United States government committed a total of
$15,180,000 to support research and developement activ-
ities throughout the nation. That amounted to $74.71 for
every man, woman and child in the nation. In Kentucky,
the federal research and developement investment for that
year amounted to $7.14 per capita, less than one-tenth of
the national average. This was the lowest per capita share
of federal research and developement money received by
any state in the union” (79).

The Lloyd report also showed that if funds for research
and development were adjusted for personal income, the
Commonwealth received one-tenth of its equitable share,
which gave Kentucky a rank of 50th in the 50 states and
Washington D.C. Kentucky ranked 21st among the states
in federal taxes paid but, again, received one-tenth of its
equitable share, which again placed it in 50th position
(79).

“In December, 1977, letters were written by the Pres-
ident of the Kentucky Academy of Science to the Goy-
ernor, the Executive Director of the Council on Higher
Education, the Director of the Legislative Research Com-
mission, the President of the Senate and the Speaker of
the House. In these letters, findings of the Lloyd report
were highlighted and appeal was made to join the Acad-
emy in a comprehensive study of the health of the fed-
erally-funded research and developement enterprise in the
Commonwealth. The letter suggested that the task would
be to update the Lloyd report, and then go beyond to
explore reasons why Kentucky ranked so low and possible
ways of correcting any continuing disparity. It was also
pointed out that while the health of science and technology
in the Commonwealth was of direct concern to the Acad-
emy, the research and developement enterprise was di-
rectly related to the economy and many other facets of
life in the Commonwealth to state government” (80).

“As a result of this appeal by the Academy, Senate
Resolution 33 was passed in 1978 which directed the Coun-
cil on Higher Education in cooperation with the Legis-
lative Research Commission and KAS to conduct a new
study. The tasks especially outlined were:

(1) document Kentucky’s share of federal research and
development funds for the most recent fiscal year,

(2) determine “why” Kentucky ranks and has ranked rel-
atively low, and

(3) make recommendations relative to this problem.

During the summer of 1978, a fifteen member advisory
committee was established. Seven members of the com-
mittee were appointed by the president of the Academy

122

and the presidents of the 8 state-supported universities in
Kentucky were each asked to appoint an institutional rep-
resentative. In addition, there were 3 members from the
Council on Higher Education” (80).

To summarize a masterful presentation of the research
of this committee, Charles Kupchella of Western Kentucky
University stated: “In summary, in fiscal 1977, Kentucky
ranked 36th among the states in total federal research and
developement obligations. While it ranked 23rd in pop-
ulation, it ranked only 47th in federal research and de-
velopement obligations per capita. It ranked 25th in fed-
eral taxes paid in 1976, but ranked 40th in federal research
and developement obligations adjusted for tax dollars. The
Commonwealth ranked 24th in personal income, but could
only achieve 38th place in federal research and develope-
ment obligations per dollar of personal income in 1976.”
On the basis of funding per capita going to colleges and
universities, Kentucky ranked 51st—behind all other states
and the District of Columbia (81).

A list of suggestions to help the situation was sent to the
then Governor John Y. Brown (82):

(1) Appoint a science advisor with a science background,
(2) Appoint a commission or charge an existing commis-
sion with making recommendations for improving the
health of science in Kentucky,
Encourage the Council on Higher Education to set up
a research and development council to look into so-
lutions to the problem and to be charged with looking
after university research and development on an on-
going basis,
Encourage the Council on Higher Education to estab-
lish a fund to be used to establish centers of research
and development of excellence in one or more sci-
entific areas at each of the state’s institutions of higher
education,
Work toward the establishment of a federal laboratory
in Kentucky, on the order of Oak Ridge in Tennessee,
(6) Encourage state university presidents to develope la-
tent research potential that exists in their respective
institutions.

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In a concluding article, Kupchella et al. (83) considered
the economic effect on Kentucky if the state received its
fair share of federal research and development funds. In
any kind of injection of funds from an outside source,
there is a “multiplier effect.’’ As people receive additional
money in salaries from an outside source, they purchase
more goods, which in turn increases trade and the man-
ufacturing of more goods, which increases the standard of
living. Thus, the net regional product may grow by a factor
greater than the original injection. The multiplier effect
varies, depending on the particular characteristics of the
region, from 1 to 2.5. A rough estimate for Kentucky would
be from 1.2 to 1.5. Using these figures, Kupchella et al.
estimated that if Kentucky achieved parity with similar
states, the effect would be the equivalent of adding 9,800
to 12,000 jobs.

In 1978, the National Science Foundation (NSF) began

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

its EPSCoR program (Experimental Program to Stimulate
Competitive Research). This program recognized that many
states had fared poorly in the distribution of R&D funds
from the federal government, and EPSCoR was an attempt
to give these states “seed money” to help them come into
a more competitive position with respect to R&D funding.
Incredibly, Kentucky was omitted from an initial com-
petition limited to seven states. Subsequently, Kentucky
was again not going to be included in a second round. This
oversight was noticed by Charles Kupchella who, with
others, went to NSF to argue the case for Kentucky. He
found that the states were chosen by NSF on the basis of
the gross amount of federal R&D funds granted to the
states. Kentucky had indeed ranked higher than those states
selected in terms of gross funds. When presented with the
results of the research by Kupchella et al., NSF agreed to
review its position and did ultimately include Kentucky
in its second list (81).

Lieutenant Governor Steve Brashear was concerned about
the future of Kentucky, and particularly its role in science
and technology. He had set up a program entitled “Ken-
tucky Tomorrow ’ to plan for a technological future. The
then KAS president, Gary Boggess of Murray State Uni-
versity, along with C. Kupchella and others from the Acad-
emy, joined with Kentucky Tomorrow to form an ad hoc
Kentucky Science and Technology Council to write a pro-
posal for the EPSCoR program (81).

For this purpose, NSF granted $75,000 and the state,
through the governor's office, granted $25,000 to support
the planning. Of the 146 proposals submitted by research-
ers across the state, 15 projects were selected by the ad
hoc committee and the proposals were sent to NSF. The
project was funded in August 1986 for a total of $16,426,262
to be expended over the next 5 years. Of this total, $3
million was furnished by NSF, $3 million by the state,
$0.6 million by various industries and the remainder,
$9,826,262, to be furnished by the universities involved.
The share of the universities was primarily released time
of faculty involved and waiver of their usual indirect cost
allotment (84).

At the annual meeting of the Academy in 1990 at North-
ern Kentucky University, C. Kupchella gave a report in-
dicating that “Kentucky's EPSCoR Program was, gener-
ally by then, regarded as one of the most successful programs
nationally. Annual external funding (outside of EPSCoR)
received by EPSCoR target faculty increased by more than
100% from 1985 to 1989. The number of EPSCoR faculty
receiving external support increased from 20 in 1985 to
36 in 1989” (85).

During 1992, the Kentucky EPSCoR Committee has
received awards from the Department of Energy (DOE),
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). DOE
awarded a $100,000 planning grant to inventory existing
energy related research and to propose a final plan for
linking energy-related research activities. DOE also
awarded $250,000 in doctoral traineeship grants to in-
crease training in energy-related disciplines. EPA has

History OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

awarded a $50,000 planning grant to develop a proposal
to improve quality of environmental training in colleges
and universities. NASA has awarded a $25,000 planning
grant to inventory present programs in aerospace and to
propose a program to improve training of professionals for
the aerospace industry. Kentucky EPSCoR has proposed
a 3-year program to improve quality of aerospace edu-
cation and research (86).

While KAS has not been officially involved in these later
programs, many of its member have been. The Academy
can take pride, in that, KAS and some of its members were
very instrumental in getting this whole process started.

Concern for the Environment

From the early years, the Academy has been deeply
concerned with the environment and with taking action
for its protection. In May 1921, C. A. Shull (87) who was
chairman of the Legislative Committee at that time, pro-
posed a 10-point program to be sent to the Kentucky Leg-
islature. Among them were 5 programs relating to the
environment:

(1) an increased appropriation for the hastening of the
completion of topographic mapping of the state,

(3) a request that a soil survey be begun, to follow as
rapidly as possible the topographic and geological
mapping of the state,

(8) a law compelling each person or corporation drilling
a well for oil or gas or other purpose to a depth greater
than 100 feet, to file with the State Geological Survey
a complete log of that well showing the formations
gone through, and a careful description of the loca-
tion of the well so that it can be carefully mapped,

(9) endorsement of the law now before congress to make
of Mammoth Cave and its environs, a national park,

(10) a law enabling the State of Kentucky to acquire and
set aside for the benefit of future generations, such
areas as are deemed worthy of preservation in natural
condition, for the purpose of study and enjoyment of
nature.

Such resolutions followed almost yearly; only a few will
be indicated here.

In April 1924 a letter was sent supporting the position
of the Ecological Society of America that Glacier Bay
in Alaska should be set aside as a National Monument
(88).

At the Twelfth Annual Meeting in 1923, the Academy
passed a resolution that the Congress adopt an ade-
quate program covering the acquisition of forest lands
by the federal government. This resolution was sent
to Congress in cooperation with the American For-
estry Association (89).

A resolution in 1954 against encroachments on public
lands (90).

A resolution in 1967 against the construction of a dam
in Red River Gorge (91).

All of the above resolutions were sent either to members

123

of Congress or members of the legislature. Many were
successful—some were not. But successful or not, certainly
the Academy took a leading role in conservation during
its entire lifetime.

Rare and Endangered Species

As early as 1972, in its fifty-eighth annual meeting at
Morehead State University, the Academy passed a reso-
lution about its concern that there was no list of Rare and
Endangered Species of plant and animal life compiled for
the Commonwealth (46).

In its continuing concern for the environment, in 1972,
Glenn Murray presented a paper concerning the problems
of rare and endangered species in Kentucky. He promised
the cooperation of the Soil Conservation Service in accu-
mulating a list of rare and endangered species. As a con-
sequence, a resolution was introduced to the Academy that
a committee be established to:

(1) prepare a list of the state’s rare or endangered plant
and animal species,

(2) describe the measures needed to preserve the habitat
of these species,

(3) develop a monitoring program that would provide an
advanced warning of actions or disturbances that might
further endanger these species so necessary protective
actions can be taken (92).

The Committee on Rare and Endangered Species was
formed and 15 specialists from differing fields in a mon-
umental work compiled a list of endangered, threatened
and rare animals and plants in Kentucky, by Branson et
al. (93). The Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, a
state agency mandated to identify and protect natural
areas, worked jointly with the Academy's committee. This
list was later updated by Warren et al. in 1986 (94).

Awards

At the meeting in 1976 at the University of Kentucky,
the Academy made its first honorary award. John Philley
(95) of Morehead State University, speaking for the Board
of Directors, gave the Distinguished Scientist Award to
Louis A. Krumholz of the University of Louisville for out-
standing service in science to the University of Louisville,
the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the Kentucky Acad-
emy of Science. A suitable plaque commemorating the
event was given.

Since that time, annual awards have been given in ad-
dition to the Distinguished Scientist Award. At this writing
they are: Outstanding Secondary School Teacher Award,
Outstanding College Science Teacher and Industrial Sci-
entist Award. These awards recognize outstanding service
from different populations within the Academy. They fo-
cus public attention on the accomplishments of the indi-
viduals so recognized and also bring the Academy to the
attention of the general public.

In 1985, the Academy instituted the practice of honoring
the winners of the Symposium of the Junior Academy at
the annual banquet at Morehead State University. Each

124

winner and their sponsoring teacher were publicly award-
ed plaques, complimentary banquet tickets and a year’s
membership in the Academy. This further enhances the
work of the Junior Academy, encourages the young people
in their interest in science and helps focus the attention
of Academy members on the work of the Junior Academy.

The Executive Secretary

At the meeting of 1965 at the University of Kentucky,
Mary Wharton (96) of Georgetown College made a report
as the AAAS representative. She commented that “several
nearby states had academies that were considerably larger
and stronger than was our academy. Perhaps one of our
greater needs is that of a permanent officer, such as an
executive secretary or archives. This need was voiced
very frequently thereafter. In 1969, M. Wharton reported
that AAAS recommended that each academy have an ex-
ecutive secretary. AAAS would supply without charge a
consultant to any state academy which wishes to set up
and operate under the Executive Secretary system (97).

It was realized by everyone that a permanent secretary
was needed very much to make the Academy affairs run
more smoothly and to provide more continuity from one
year to the next. The financial situation of the Academy
would not support such an expense. Indeed, in the late
1970s and early 1980s expenses exceeded income. Through
the activity of several presidents and other members of
the Academy, recruiting of new members and particularly
Educational Affiliates and Industrial Affiliates, the finances
of the Academy improved significantly. In the new con-
stitution of 1987, provision was made for an Executive
Secretary should one be available. Provision was also made
if one were not available (98).

In 1987, the Academy became very fortunate. J. D.
Rodriguez of the University of Kentucky volunteered his
services as assistant to the president and would, in effect,
become the Executive Secretary. Upon acceptance of the
new constitution in 1987, the Governing Board accepted
his generous offer to serve as the Executive Secretary with-
out compensation from the Academy. He retired from his
position at the University in 1989 and has since maintained
an office, a telephone and a mailbox for the Academy
which gives a quasi-permanent address for the Academy.
In 1990, the Governing Board authorized a part-time sec-
retary to work under the direction of the Executive Sec-
retary, and a committee was established to work toward
finding a permanent headquarters for the Academy (98).

Programs that have been sponsored by the Academy
under the direction of the Executive Secretary, J. G. Rod-
riguez (99), have been: a national symposium on the “ Uti-
lization of Wetlands,” a series of workshops across Ken-
tucky on the “use of animals in the classroom” and
organizing, establishing and publishing a directory of the
“Kentucky Mentor Program—Women in Science, Math
and Engineering.”

SUMMARY

In its 78 years of life, the Academy has certainly come
far. Much of the progress has come in the last 15 years or

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

so. One of the big turning points for the Academy is due
to the support of Raymond Athey and his family. Their
generous support has made it possible to actively support
research and thus encourage the members of the Academy
to be more active scientists.

Another improvement has been the addition of an Ex-
ecutive Secretary. With a new president each year, con-
tinuity suffers. Many projects have been started by one
president but not continued by his successor, who may
have had other emphases in mind. We are indeed fortunate
to have the services of J. G. Rodriguez in that position for
now and it is hoped that this position will become per-
manent. The Academy urgently needs a permanent office
and a fixed address which it did not have before.

The membership is almost to the 1,000 mark in 1992,
and the number of sections is now 18. The Academy seems
to be approaching a critical mass and has a large number
of capable leaders as was shown in the background work
leading up to the first EPSCoR grant which documented
how poorly Kentucky fared with respect to other states
for R&D funds from the federal government.

The finances of the Academy are the best they have
ever been in its history. The size of the membership and
the number of affiliates has resulted in more more money
for support of administration and other enterprises. How-
ever, it has not been a steady improvement. In the late
1970s and early 1980s, the Academy was spending more
than its income. Many people worked to change that sit-
uation—certainly the presidents of the 1980s and early
1990s contributed immensely. Growth in membership along
with financial help from the affiliates changed the financial
situation. The Academy has had financial help before from
various outside sources, but credit must go to Louis Krum-
holz for initiating the idea of Educational Affiliates during
his presidency. Credit must also go to William Hettinger
who, during his presidency, made tremendous progress in
enlarging the number of Industrial Affiliates.

The improvement in the Transactions is very notice-
able. The use of the Allen Press has improved the profes-
sional appearance. The Transactions also reflect the growth
in scientific activity of Academy members. In 1990, the
journal had 202 pages in two issues, which is quite re-
spectable for an organization of this size. This also shows
the increase in workload of the editor, who contributes
large amounts of his free time for no compensation. The
Transactions is the public face of the Academy and it
looks good!

The Academy must continue its concern for science
teaching in the public schools. Its effect on science teaching
has never been what it should be. This seems to be tied
in with another problem—the Academy has very little
visibility to the general public. Scientists are not prone to
toot their own horns, so to speak. But this must be done.
A large percentage of Kentuckians do not know that the
Kentucky Academy of Science exists. This must be changed
if the Academy is ever to reach its full potential in Ken-
tucky. Recently, the Executive Secretary has been given
the task of taking charge of the Committee on Public
Relations. In the opinion of the author, this committee has

HIsToRY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

its work cut out for it. It will be a very difficult task to
change the low profile of the Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence in the consciousness of Kentuckians. Out of a mem-
bership of about 1,000, surely we can find enough talent
to do this job!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is deeply indebted to many who have given
help in the writing of this history. George H. Paine of
Ludlow, Ky., graciously furnished a rare copy of Volume
1 of the Transactions. Charles Hay, Archivist of Eastern
Kentucky University, was extremely helpful in giving ac-
cess to the material in the Academy archives. Varley
Wiedeman furnished data and additional copies of the
Transactions from the library at the University of Lou-
isville. Douglas Dahlman, of the University of Kentucky,
also helped with data unavailable in print. I appreciate
the comments and valuable suggestions given to me by
the following members of the Academy: Branley Branson
of Eastern Kentucky University, Charles Kupchella of
Western Kentucky University, J. G. Rodriguez of the Uni-
versity of Kentucky and Joe Winstead of Western Ken-
tucky University.

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83. Kupchella, C. E., W. F. Edwards, R. Sims, M. L.
Collins, and K. Walker. 1981. Federal funding for re-
search and development in Kentucky: IV. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 42(1-2):29.

84. Newsletter, Kentucky Academy of Science. Fall,
1986. EPSCoR Summary: 1-4.

85. Kupchella, C. 1991. Report of the Committee on
Science and Government. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 52(1-2):
53.

86. Brochure, Kentucky EPSCoR Program. 1992. P.O.
Box 22302, Lexington, Kentucky 40522-2302.

87. Schull, C. A. 1924. Report of the Legislative Comm.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 1:107.

88. Peter, A.M. 1927. Report of the Secretary. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 2:18.

89. Report of ResolutionsComm. 1927. Report. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 2:84.

90. Report of ResolutionsComm. 1954. Report. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 15(4):129.

91. Kuehne, R. 1968. Report of the Resolutions Comm.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 29(1-4):43.

92. Murray, G. 1972. Need to identify rare and en-
dangered plant and animal species in Kentucky. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 33(3-4):83.

93. Branson, B., D. Harker, Jr., J. Baskin, M. Medley,
D. Batch, M. Warren, Jr., W. Davis, W. Houtcooper, B.
Monroe, Jr., L. Phillippe, and P. Cupp. 1981. Endan-
gered, threatened, and rare animals and plants of Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 42(8-4):77.

94, Warren, M., Jr., W. Davis, R. Hannan, M. Evans,
D. Batch, B. Anderson, B. Palmer-Bell, Jr., J. MacGregor,
R. Cicerello, R. Athey, B. Branson, G. Fallo, B. Burr, M.
Medley, and J. Baskin. 1986. Endangered, threatened,
and rare plants and animals of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 47(3-4):88.

95. Philley, J.C. 1977. Distinguished scientist award.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 38(1-2):99, 100.

96. Wharton, M. 1965. Report of the annual meeting
of the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 26(3-4):98.

97. Wharton, M. 1969. Report of the annual meeting

History OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

of the Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 30(3-4):80, 82.
98. Constitution of the Kentucky Academy of Science.
Revised 1987. 1988. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 49(1-2):62.
99. Rodriguez, J. G. 1991. Report of the Executive
Secretary. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 52(1-2):51.

APPENDIX |

CONSTITUTION OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

(As adopted 8 May 1914 and subsequently amended.)

ARTICLE I—NAME. This organization shall be known
as The Kentucky Academy of Science.

ARTICLE II—OBJECT. The object of this Academy
shall be to encourage scientific research, to promote the
diffusion of useful scientific knowledge and to unify the
scientific interests of the State.

ARTICLE III—MEMBERSHIP. The membership of
this Academy shall consist of Active Members, Corre-
sponding Members, and Honorary Members.

Active members shall be residents of the State of Ken-
tucky who are interested in scientific work. They shall be
of two classes, to wit: National members who are members
of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence as well as of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and
Local Members, who are members of the Kentucky Acad-
emy but not of the Association. Each active member shall
pay to the Secretary of the Academy an initiation fee of
one dollar, at the time of election. National members shall
pay to the Secretary of the Academy an annual assessment
of five dollars,* payable October Ist, of each year, four
dollars of which shall be transmitted by the Secretary of
the Academy to the Permanent Secretary of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, and one dollar
shall be turned over to the treasurer of the Academy. Local
members shall pay an annual assessment of one dollar,
payable October first of each year.

Corresponding members shall be persons who are ac-
tively engaged in scientific work not resident in the State
of Kentucky. They shall have same privileges and duties
as Active Members but shall be free from all dues and
shall not hold office.

Honorary members shall be persons who have acquired
special prominence in science not residents of the State of
Kentucky and shall not exceed twenty in number at any
time. They shall be free from dues.

For election to any class of membership the candidate
must have been nominated in writing by two members,
one of whom must know the applicant personally; receive
a majority vote of the committee on membership and a

* A recent action of the A.A.A.S. requires the payment
to be made to the permanent Secretary in Washington,
who returns the one dollar of each five to the Kentucky
Academy.

127

three fourths vote of the members of the Academy, present
at any session or, in the interim between meetings of the
Academy, the unanimous vote of the members of the coun-
cil, present or voting by letter.

ARTICLE IV—OFFICERS. The officers of the Acad-
emy shall be chosen annually by ballot at the reeommen-
dation of a nominating committee of three, appointed by
the President, and shall consist of a president, vice-presi-
dent, secretary, treasurer, and councilor of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, who shall
perform their duties usually pertaining to their respective
offices. Only the secretary, treasurer, and councilor shall
be eligible to re-election for consecutive terms.

It shall be one of the duties of the Retiring President to
deliver an address before the Academy at the annual meet-
ing.

The Secretary shall have charge of all books, collections,
and records that may belong to the Academy.

ARTICLE V—COUNCIL. The Council shall consist
of the President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and
President of the preceding year. The Council shall direct
the affairs of the Academy during the intervals between
the regular meetings and shall fill all vacancies occurring
during such intervals.

ARTICLE VI—STANDING COMMITTEES. The
Standing Committees shall be as follows:

A Committee on Membership appointed annually by
the President, consisting of three members.

A Committee on Publications consisting of the Presi-
dent, Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by
the Academy.

A Committee on Legislation consisting of three mem-
bers appointed annually by the President.

ARTICLE VII—MEETINGS. The regular meetings of
the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the
Council may select. The Council may call a special session,
and a special session may be called at the written request
of twenty members.

ARTICLE VIII—PUBLICATIONS. The Academy shall
publish its transactions and papers which the Committee
on Publications may deem suitable. All members of the
Academy shall receive the publications of the Academy
gratis.

ARTICLE IX—AMENDMENTS. This Constitution
may be amended at any regular annual meeting by a three-
fourths vote of all active members present, provided a
notice of said amendment has been sent to each member
ten days in advance of the meeting.

ByYLAws

I—The following shall be the order of business:
1. Call to order.

. Reports of Officers.

. Report of Council.

. Report of Standing Committees.

. Election of Members.

. Report of Special Committees.

. Appointment of Special Committees.

Anwth ©

128

8. Unfinished Business.
9. New Business.
10. Election of Officers.
11. Program.
12. Adjournment.

II—No meeting of this Academy shall be held without
thirty days’ notice having been given by the Secretary to
all members.

I1I—Twelve members shall constitute a quorum of the
Academy for the transaction of business. Three of the
Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council.

IV—No bill against the Academy shall be paid without
an order signed by the President and Secretary.

V—Members who shall allow their dues to be unpaid
for two years, having been annually notified of their ar-
rearage by the Treasurer, shall have their names stricken
from the roll.

VI—The President shall annually appoint an auditing
committee of three who shall examine and report in writ-
ing upon the account of the Treasurer.

VII—The Secretary shall be free from all dues during
his term of office.

VIII—All papers intended to be presented on the pro-
gram or abstract of the same must be submitted to the
Secretary previous to the meeting.

IX—These bylaws may be amended or suspended by a
two-thirds vote of the members present at any meeting.

APPENDIX II

(Adopted 8 May 1914. Revised November 1951, 1970,
1979, 1987)

ARTICLE |
NAME AND OBJECTIVES

Section I. Name. This organization shall be known as
the Kentucky Academy of Science.

Section 2. Objectives. The objectives of the Academy
shall be to encourage scientific research, promote the dif-
fusion of scientific knowledge, and to unify the scientific
interests of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

ARTICLE II
MEMBERSHIP

Section I. Classes of Membership. The membership of
the Academy shall consist of Regular Members, Life Mem-
bers, Student Members, Honorary Members, Emeritus
Members, Corporate Affiliates, and Institutional Members.

Section 2. Regular Members. Regular Members shall be
individuals who are interested in science and the objectives
of the Academy. Each regular member shall pay to the
Academy annual dues as prescribed by the Bylaws.

Section 3. Life Members. Life Members shall be mem-
bers who have paid at one time a suitable sum, or have
paid at least that sum as an endowment as prescribed in
the Bylaws, and are therefore relieved from further pay-
ment of dues. hie

Section 4. Student Members. Student Members shall be

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3—4)

full-time undergraduate, or part-time or full-time grad-
uate students at a recognized institution of higher learning.
Each Student Member shall pay to the Academy annual
dues as prescribed in the Bylaws. Student Members shall
have all the rights and privileges of Regular Members but
may not hold office. No individual shall be allowed to be
a Student Member for more than five years.

Section 5. Honorary Members. Honorary Members shall
be persons who have acquired national or international
renown in science. They shall enjoy all the privileges of
active membership except holding office and shall be free
from all dues. The number of Honorary Members shall
not exceed twenty at any time.

Section 6. Emeritus Members. Emeritous Members shall
be members who have retired from active service and who
petition the Executive Committee for a change in classi-
fication. They shall enjoy the privileges of active mem-
bership except that they shall not hold office and shall be
released from the payment of all dues. They shall receive
all mailings except the Transactions.

Section 7. Corporate and Institutional Affiliates. Cor-
porate and Institutional Affiliates shall be businesses, in-
dustrial or academic institutions, departments of such cor-
porations or institutions, or individuals who through support
have indicated their endorsement and espousal of the aims
and purposes of the Academy. Annual dues shall be paid
as prescribed in the Bylaws.

Section 8. Election to Membership. For election to any
class of membership, the individual should apply for mem-
bership and must have paid the first year’s dues.

ARTICLE III
OFFICERS

Section 1. Elected Officers. The elected officers of the
Academy shall consist of President, President Elect, Vice
President, Past President, Secretary, and Treasurer.

Section 2. Appointed Officers. The appointed officers
shall be the Representative to the American Association
for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the National
Association of Academies of Science (NAAS), the Editor
of the Transactions of the Academy, and the chair of the
Kentucky Junior Academy of Science. An Executive Sec-
retary may also be appointed. These officers shall be ap-
pointed by the President, approved by the Governing Board,
and all shall serve at the discretion of the President and
the Governing Board.

Section 3. Election of Officers. The Vice President shall
be elected annually by mail ballot and, after having served
one year, shall succeed to the office of President Elect.
The Secretary and Treasurer shall be elected for three-
year terms, the election to take place by mail ballot in the
fall of the year prior to taking office.

Section 4. Term of Office. The elected officers shall take
office on January 1 following the fall meeting and shall
hold office until their successors have been elected. Any

_ vacancy of an office may be filled by appointment by the

President.

History OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

Section 5. Presidential Succession. The President Elect
shall succeed the retiring President and the Vice President
shall become President Elect. If the President Elect is
unable to assume office, the Vice President shall succeed
to the presidency and both a President Elect and a Vice
President shall be elected at the fall meeting.

ARTICLE IV
GOVERNING BOARD

Section 1. Governing Board. The Governing Board shall
have the responsibility for the overall direction of the
affairs of the Academy. It shall conduct the business of the
Academy, subject to decision on policy by membership by
mail ballot or at a meeting of the Academy. The Board
shall consist of the following: President, President Elect,
Vice President, Past President, Secretary, Treasurer, Ex-
ecutive Secretary, Editor, Representative to AAAS and
NAAS, Chair of the Kentucky Junior Academy, six rep-
resentatives elected by the three divisions of the Academy
(two from each Division), and two representatives elected
from the Academy at-large.

Section 2. Meetings. The first meeting of the new Gov-
erning Board shall be held within three months after the
adjournment of the fall meeting of the Academy, and
quarterly thereafter.

Section 3. Executive Committee. The Executive Com-
mittee shall consist of the President, President Elect, Vice
President, Past President, Secretary, and Treasurer. The
Executive Secretary and Editor shall serve on the Exec-
utive Committee in an ex officio capacity. The Executive
Committee shall execute and administer the affairs of the
Academy during intervals between scheduled meetings of
the Governing Board.

ARTICLE V
DUTIES OF OFFICERS

Section 1. President. The President shall discharge the
usual duties of a presiding officer at all general meetings
of the Academy, the Governing Board, and the Executive
Committee. The President shall stay constantly informed
on the affairs of the Academy and on its acts and those of
its officers, and shall cause the provisions of the Consti-
tution and Bylaws to be faithfully carried into effect, in-
cluding making appointments described herein.

Section 2. President Elect. The President Elect shall
assume the duties of the President in the event of the
President’s disability or absence from the general meetings
of the Academy, the Governing Board, or the Executive
Committee. The President Elect shall serve as Chair of
the Program Committee.

Section 3. Vice President. The Vice President may assist
the President Elect in the discharge of their duties. In the
event that both the President and the President Elect are
unable to preside over a meeting of the Academy, the
Governing Board, or the Executive Committee, the Vice
President shall preside in their stead. The Vice President
shall also serve as chair of the Awards Committee.

129

Section 4. Past President. The Past President shall serve
as an advisor and consultant to the President in order to
provide continuity in the development and implementa-
tion of long-term policies of the Academy. The Past Pres-
ident shall serve as Chair of the Planning Committee.

Section 5. Secretary. The Secretary shall keep the rec-
ords of the proceedings of the Academy, the Governing
Board, and the Executive Committee. The Secretary shall
maintain a complete list of members of the Academy with
the dates of their election to the different classes of mem-
bership and their separation from the Academy; shall co-
operate with the President in attending to the ordinary
affairs of the Academy; shall have charge of the registra-
tion of the fall meeting; and shall have responsibility for
preparation, printing and mailing of circulars, forms, and
meeting announcements.

Section 6. Treasurer. The Treasurer shall have custody
of all funds of the Academy and may deposit these funds
in banks that are insured by the Federal Government, but
shall not invest them without authority from the Finance
Committee, of which the Treasurer is a member, and from
the Governing Board. The Treasurer shall keep a detailed
account of receipts and disbursements, and the account
shall be audited as provided in the Bylaws. The Treasurer
shall furnish a suitable corporate security bond, the pre-
mium thereof to be paid by the Academy.

Section 7. Executive Secretary. The Executive Secre-
tary shall serve at the discretion of the President and Gov-
erning Board, and shall have duties as directed by the
President and the Executive Committee. The Executive
Secretary shall serve as Chair of the Public Relations Com-
mittee and shall work in concert with any officer in any
manner that benefits the Academy. In the event that the
Executive Secretary is not appointed or is not able to serve,
these duties fall back to the other officers of the Academy.
If empowered to handle financial duties, the Executive
Secretary shall furnish a suitable corporate security bond,
the premium thereof to be paid by the Academy, and shall
be subject to the same audit as the Treasurer.

Section 8. Editor. The Editor of the Transactions of
the Kentucky Academy of Science shall be appointed by
the President, serve at the discretion of the President and
the Governing Board, and be assisted by an Associate Ed-
itor, also appointed by the President. The Editor shall serve
as Chair of the Publications Committee and is responsible
for editing the Transactions and other publications of the
Academy.

Section 9. AAAS/NAAS Representative. The Represen-
tative to the American Association for the Advancement
of Science and National Association of Academies of Sci-
ence represents the Academy in AAAS matters, and shall
keep the Academy informed on AAAS and NAAS trans-
actions that may relate to the Academy activities. An al-
ternate shall also be named to serve in the event that the
Representative is not able to serve.

Section 10. Chair of the Kentucky Junior Academy of
Science. The Chair of the Junior Academy of Science is
responsible for science competitions, projects, and all ac-

130

tivities of the Junior Academy (a full description is found
in Article XI).

ARTICLE VI
DIVISIONS

Section 1. Designations of Divisions. For representation
on various bodies of the Academy and otherwise facilitate
the functions of the Academy, the membership shall be
grouped into three broad divisions:

A. Biological Sciences
B. Physical, Mathematical, and Computer Sciences
C. Social Sciences and Science Education

Section 2. Membership in Divisions. A member may
join any Division of individual choice but shall not belong
to more than one Division at one time. Membership in
one Division shall not preclude participation in the pro-
gram activities of other Divisions.

Section 3. Representatives to the Governing Board. Each
Division shall elect two members as Division Represen-
tatives to the Governing Board. Each Representative shall
serve for four years, but the terms shall be staggered so
that a Representative from a given Division is elected
every two years. The Senior Representative shall serve as
Chair of the Division in all matters that concern the Di-
vision. In addition, two Representatives shall be elected
from the Membership-at-large.

ARTICLE VII
SECTIONS

Section 1. Organization. Sections of the Academy shall
be organized to represent the various fields, or disciplines,
of science in each Division.

Section 2. Approval. The establishment of Sections shall
be approved by the Governing Board upon recommen-
dation by the Program Committee.

Section 3. Section Officers. Each Section shall elect an-
nually a Chair and a Secretary to take office concurrently
with the Officers of the Academy.

Section 4. Program Committee. The Chairs of all the
Sections shall serve collectively as the Program Committee
under the direction of the President Elect.

ARTICLE VIII
COMMITTEES

Section 1. Standing Committees. Except where other-
wise specified below, members of the Standing Commit-
tees shall be appointed by the President with the approval
of the Governing Board and shall serve for a term of three
years on a rotational basis. The President shall designate
the Chair of each committee at the time the committee
appointments are announced. There shall be twelve Stand-
ing Committees, namely:

1. A Committee on Membership that consists of at least

10.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

three members. The Committee shall periodically re-
view and update, if necessary, criteria and procedures
for membership and provide leadership in devising
and implementing recruitment activities.

. A Committee on Publications that consists of the Pres-

ident, the Editor and the Associate Editor of the
Transactions, and three members from the Member-
ship-at-large as well as any other member(s) of the
Executive Committee appointed by the President. The
Editor shall serve as the Chair of the Committee.

. A Committee on Legislation that consists of three

members. The Committee shall be responsible for the
legislation that affects the scientific interests of the
Commonwealth of Kentucky and the Academy and
shall recommend to the Executive Committee appro-
priate action to be taken.

. A Committee on the Distribution of Research Funds

that consists of six members. The Committee shall be
responsible for evaluating research proposals, distrib-
uting funds, and shall have accountability in use of
research funds.

. A Committee on Science Education that consists of

six members. The Committee shall be responsible for
promoting science education in the Commonwealth,
especially in the primary and secondary schools.

. A Program Committee. The President Elect shall serve

as Chair of the Program Committee, the other mem-
bers of which shall be the Chairs of the Sections. The
Committee shall be responsible for the program of the
annual meeting and any other meetings of the Acad-
emy.

. A Committee on Awards. This Committee, consisting

of the Vice President and three other members of the
Governing Board, shall solicit and evaluate nomina-
tions for the awards of the Academy. The Vice Pres-
ident is responsible for presenting the awards.

. A Committee on Nominations and Elections. The

Committee shall consist of three members and shall
present nominations for all officers to be elected for
the following year. Two candidates for each office shall
be nominated and presented to the membership in
appropriate form for mail balloting. Nominations of
other candidates may be written in. Ballots for Divi-
sion Representatives to the Governing Board shall be
mailed only to members having identified with that
Division. Ballots for the Representatives of the Mem-
bership-at-large to the Governing Board shall be mailed
to all members of the Academy. It shall be the further
responsibility of the Committee to canvass the mem-
bership to provide the Governing Board a list of mem-
bers interested in serving as officers or on committees.

. An Audit Committee consisting of three members.

The Committee shall conduct a yearly audit of all
financial transactions of the Academy.

A Finance Committee consisting of the President, as
Chair, the President Elect, Vice President, Executive
Secretary, and the Treasurer shall periodically review

HisToRY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

financial policies of the Academy and make recom-
mendations to the Governing Board.

11. A Planning Committee that consists of the Past Pres-
ident and three other members. The Committee shall
research meeting sites, programs and activities for the
Academy and any other goals or objectives deemed
appropriate by the Executive Committee. The Com-
mittee shall make recommendations to the Governing
Board.

12. A Public Relations Committee that consists of the Ex-
ecutive Secretary as Chair, two members from the
Governing Board, and two members from the Mem-
bership-at-large. In case there is no Executive Secre-
tary, the President shall appoint a Chair. The Com-
mittee shall be responsible for promoting the Academy
in any appropriate manner as determined by the Ex-
ecutive Committee.

Section 2. Ad Hoc Committees. Ad hoc committees shall
be named as required, by the President and Executive
Committee. These may include Resolutions, Local Ar-
rangements, Rare and Endangered Species, and other
committees as deemed appropriate by the President and
Executive Committee. The President shall designate the
Chair of each committee at the time the committee ap-
pointments are announced.

ARTICLE IX
MEETINGS

Section 1. Annual Meetings. The Kentucky Academy
shall hold annually a fall meeting. In addition, spring or
other special sessions may be called by the Governing
Board upon the written request of twenty active members.

ARTICLE X
PUBLICATIONS

Section 1. Transactions. The Academy shall publish the
Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, and
other publications, with the approval of the Governing
Board.

Section 2. Recipients. Every dues-paying member of
the Academy and each club in the Junior Academy shall
receive a copy of the Transactions.

Section 3. Editor and Associate Editor. The President
shall appoint the Editor and Associate Editor of the Trans-
actions subject to the approval of the Governing Board.
The Editor and Associate Editor shall be members of the
Academy.

ARTICLE XI
KENTUCKY JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Section 1. Relationship to Kentucky Academy of Sci-
ence. The Kentucky Junior Academy of Science shall be
a component of the Kentucky Academy of Science.

Section 2. Steering Committee. The President of the
Kentucky Academy of Science shall appoint a Steering
Committee for the Junior Academy of Science consisting

131

of three members of the Kentucky Academy of Science
and shall designate one of the three as Chair.

Section 3. Chair. The Chair of the Steering Committee
shall direct the affairs of the Junior Academy.

Section 4. Treasurer. The Steering Committee shall des-
ignate one of its members as Treasurer of the Junior Acad-
emy. The Treasurer shall be responsible for banking all
dues paid and contributions made to the Junior Academy.

Section 5. Disbursements. Bills against the Junior Acad-
emy shall be paid only when authorized by the Chair of
the Steering Committee.

Section 6. Audit. The accounts of the Treasurer of the
Junior Academy shall be audited annually by a committee
of two members, one to be appointed by the President of
the Kentucky Academy of Science and one to be appointed
by the Chair of the Steering Committee.

Section 7. Annual Report. The Chair of the Steering
Committee shall make an annual report to the Kentucky
Academy of Science. The report shall include a statement
on major activities of the Junior Academy and a report on
the finances of the Junior Academy as prepared by its
Treasurer.

Section 8. Constitution. The Junior Academy shall op-
erate under a Constitution approved by the Kentucky
Academy of Science. All revisions of the Constitution of
the Junior Academy shall be referred to the fall meeting
of the Kentucky Academy of Science for approval.

ARTICLE XII
AMENDMENT OF CONSTITUTION

Section 1. Constitution. The Constitution of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science may be amended by mail ballot
if approved by two-thirds of the members responding, and
if at least ten per cent of the members have voted. The
Constitution may also be amended at any regular meeting
by two-thirds of the members present, provided a notice
of said amendment has been sent to all members at least
thirty days in advance of the meeting.

ByLaws

I. Items of Business. The following items may be in-
cluded in the order of business for general or Governing
Board meetings:

1. Call to order.
. Reports of officers.
. Report of the Executive Committee.
. Reports of the Standing Committees.
. Reports of the ad hoc Committees.
. Appointment of ad hoc Committees.
. Unfinished business.
New business.

OMNIBHUNUA WP

. Election of officers and representatives.
. Program.
11. Adjournment.

=
i=)

II. Quorums. Forty members shall constitute a quorum

132

of the Academy for transaction of business. Nine members
shall constitute a quorum of the Governing Board. Four
members shall constitute a quorum of the Executive Com-
mittee.

Ill. Membership dues. Annual membership dues for
Regular Members shall be fixed by recommendation of
the Governing Board and approval of the membership by
simple majority. Other categories of membership dues shall
be fixed by the Executive Committee and the Governing
Board and shall be published from time to time in Acad-
emy publications.

IV. Endowments and Life Membership. Life Member-
ship monies shall be credited to an endowment account.
Any member may become a Life Member by designating
a one-time donation, the sum of which is at least equal to
the life membership fee.

V. Elections. Balloting shall be by mail, allowing at least
six weeks between mailing of the ballots by the Secretary
and their return by October 15. The candidate who re-
ceives a simple majority of the ballots cast shall be declared
elected. The Committee on Nominations shall be respon-
sible for the election process.

VI. Members in arrearage. Members who have allowed
their dues to lapse for two consecutive years, having been
notified of their arrearage by the Treasurer, shall have
their names stricken from the membership list. Members
in arrears shall not receive the Transactions.

VII. Submitting Titles and Abstracts. All titles and/or
abstracts of same, intended for presentation on any pro-
gram of the Academy, must be submitted to the Section
Secretary or Section Chair prior to the meeting at the
designated times.

VIII. Establishing Rotation. To establish a proper ro-
tational basis for terms on Standing Committees, the first
year one member shall be appointed for a three-year term,
one for a two-year term, and one for a one-year term.

IX. Representative to AAAS/NAAS. The President shall
appoint a representative to the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and the National Association
of Academies of Science. The term of appointment shall
be three years.

X. Scientific Organizations. Any scientific organization
in the Commonwealth of Kentucky in a field of science
recognized by the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science may affiliate with the Academy.

XI. Division and at-large representatives to the Gov-
erning Board will be phased in over the four years follow-
ing ratification of this Constitution and Bylaws. The mech-
anism for this phase-in will be established by the Governing
Board.

XII. Amendment of Bylaws. These Bylaws may be
amended or suspended by a two-thirds vote of the mem-
bers present at any general meeting or Governing Board
meeting, or by a two-thirds majority of members respond-
ing to a mail ballot, provided at least ten per cent of the
members have voted.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ORGANIZATION

GOVERNING BoaRD

President

President Elect

Vice President

Past President

Secretary

Treasurer

Executive Secretary (ex officio)
Editor (ex officio)

Executive Committee

Division Representatives—6
At-large Representatives—2
AAAS/NAAS Representative
Chair, Kentucky Junior
Academy of Science ©

Other Members

STANDING COMMITTEES

. Membership

. Publications

. Legislation

. Research Funds

. Science Education
Program

Awards
Nominations and Elections
Audit

. Finance

. Planning

. Public Relations

a)
BECOmMNI FMP ONeE

—
bo

AD HOC COMMITTEES

. Resolutions

. Local Arrangements

. Rare and Endangered Species
. Others

ON Fe

APPENDIX III

EDITORS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1924 Willard Rouse Jillson—State Geologist, Frank-
fort

1924-1940 Alfred M. Peter & Ethel V. T. Caswell—
University of Kentucky

1940-1941 Charles Hire—Murray State Teachers Col-
lege

1941-1945 John Kuiper—University of Kentucky

1945-1946 Harlow Bishop—University of Kentucky

1946-1950 M. C. Brockman—Joseph Seagram & Sons,
David R. Lincicone—University of Ken-
tucky

1950-1956 William M. Clay—University of Louisville

1956-1958 Gerald A. Cole—University of Louisville

1958-1963 Roger W. Barbour—University of Kentucky

1963-1967

1967-1974

1974-1980
1980-

HisTorY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George

Raymond E. Hampton—University of Ken-
tucky

William F. Wagner—University of Ken-
tucky

Louis A. Krumholz—University of Louisville
Branley A. Branson—Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity

APPENDIX IV

PRESIDENTS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1914

1914-1915

1915-1916
1916-1917
1917-1918
1918-1919
1919-1920
1920-1921
1921-1922

1922-1923
1923-1924

1924-1925
1925-1926

J

1926-1927
1927-1928

1928-1929
1929-1930
1930-1931
1931-1932
1932-1933
1933-1934
1934-1935
1935-1936

1936-1937
1937-1938

1938-1939
1939-1940
1940-1941
1941-1942
1942-1943

1943-1944

Paul P. Boyd, Organizational Meeting—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

Joseph H. Kastle—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

N. F. Smith—Central University—Danville
A. M. Miller—University of Kentucky

R. C. Ballard Thruston—Louisville

J. E. Barton-State Forester—Frankfort

Paul P. Boyd—University of Kentucky

W. H. Coolidge—Centre College

George D. Smith—State Normal School-
Richmond

Lucien Beckner—Winchester

Willard Rouse Jillson—State Geologist-
Frankfort

Cloyd N. McAllister—Berea College
Austen R. Middleton—University of Louis-
ville

W. G. Burroughs—Berea College

W. D. Valleau—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

G. Davis Buckner—Experiment Station-
Lexington

Frank L. Rainey—Centre College

V. F. Payne—Transylvania University
Anna A. Schneib—Fastern Kentucky State
Teachers College

George Roberts—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

John S. Bangson—Berea College

Alfred M. Peter—University of Kentucky

J. S. McHargue—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

R. T. Hinton—Georgetown College

L. Y. Lancaster—Western Kentucky State
Teachers College

W. R. Allen—University of Kentucky

A. W. Homberger—Louisville

Charles Hire—Murray State Teachers Col-
lege

G. B. Pennebaker—Morehead State Teachers
College

J. T. Skinner—Western Kentucky State
Teachers College

L. A. Brown—Transylvania University

1944-1945
1945-1946
1946-1947

1947-1948
1948-1949
1949-1950

1950-1951
1951-1952
1952-1953

1953-1954
1954-1955
1955-1956
1956-1957
1957-1958
1958-1959
1959-1960
1960-1961

1961-1962

1962-1963
1963-1964
1964-1965
1965-1966
1966-1967
1967-1968
1968-1969

1969-1970
1970-1971
1971-1972
1972-1973
1973-1974

1974-1975
1975-1976

1976-1977
1977-1978

1978-1979

1979-1980

1980-1981
1981-1982

1982-1983
1983-1984
1984-1985

1985-1986

133

L. A. Brown—Transylvania University
Paul Kolachov—Joseph Seagram & Sons
Ward Sumpter—Western Kentucky State
Teachers College

Alfred Brauer—University of Kentucky
Morris Scherago—University of Kentucky
Walter E. Blackburn—Murray State Teach-
ers College

E. B. Penrod—University of Kentucky

H. B. Lovell—University of Louisville
Thomas Herndon—Fastern Kentucky State
College

C. B. Haman—Asbury College

R. H. Weaver—University of Kentucky

J. G. Black—Fastern Kentucky State College
A.M. Wolfson—Murray State College
William A. Clay—University of Louisville
William B. Ousley—Morehead State College
Pete Panzera—Murray State College

H. H. LaFuze—Eastern Kentucky State Col-
lege

Charles Whittlk—Western Kentucky State
College

Lyle Dawson—University of Kentucky

R. A. Chapman—University of Kentucky
C. B. Haman—Asbury College

John M. Carpenter—University of Kentucky
Robert M. Boyer—University of Kentucky
Paul G. Sears—University of Kentucky
Orville Richardson—Kentucky Wesleyan
College

Lloyd Alexander—Kentucky State College
Karl Hussung—Murray State University
Louis Krumholz—University of Louisville
Marvin Russell—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

Donald Batch—Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity

Ellis Brown—University of Kentucky
Frederick M. Brown—Kentucky State Hos-
pital

Charles Payne—Morehead State University
Charles E. Kupchella—University of Louis-
ville

Sanford L. Jones—Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity

Rudolph Prins—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

John C. Philley—Morehead State University
Ted M. George—Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity

J. G. Rodriguez—University of Kentucky
Gary Boggess—Murray State University
Joe Winstead—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

Charles Covell—University of Louisville

134

1986-1987
1988
1989
1990

1991
1992

1993

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

Larry Giesmann—Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity

William P. Hettinger—Ashland Petroleum
Company

Richard Hannan—Kentucky Nature Pre-
serves Commission

Debra K. Pearce—Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity

W. Blaine Early, 1{1—Cumberland College
Douglas L. Dahlman—University of Ken-
tucky

Charles N. Boehms—Georgetown College

APPENDIX V

SECRETARIES OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1914

1914-1915
1915-1934
1934-1937
1937-1947
1947-1948

1948-1952
1952-1956
1956-1964
1964-1966
1966-1971

1971-1976
1976-1978
1978-1987
1988

1989-1991

1992

Charles J. Robinson—Louisville—Organiza-
tional Meeting

Garnett Ryland—Georgetown College
Alfred M. Peter—University of Kentucky
A. R. Middleton—Georgetown College
Alfred Brauer—University of Kentucky

J. R. Stuetz—Joseph Seagram & Sons—Lou-
isville

C. B. Haman—Asbury College

Mary E. Wharton—Georgetown College
Gerrit Levey—Berea College

Dwight Lindsey—Georgetown College
Robert S. Larance—Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity

Rudolph Prins—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

Thomas N. Seay—Georgetown College
Robert Creek—Eastern Kentucky University
Virginia Eaton—Western Kentucky Univer-
sity

Varley E. Wiedeman—University of Louis-
ville

Peter X. Armendarez—Brescia College

APPENDIX VI

TREASURERS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1914-1915
1915-1916
1916-1918
1918-1921

1921-1922
1922-1935

1935-1937
1937-1938
1938-1947

1947-1953

W. M. Anderson—University of Louisville
Garnett Ryland—Georgetown College

Paul P. Boyd—University of Kentucky

J. S. McHargue—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

Charles A. Shull—University of Kentucky
W. S. Anderson—Experiment Station—Lex-
ington

Alfred Brauer—University of Kentucky
Julian H. Capps—Berea College

William J. Moore—Eastern Kentucky State
College

Ralph H. Weaver—University of Kentucky

1953-1961

1961-1962
1962-1965
1965-1971
1971-1976

1976-1978
1978-1987

1988-1990
1991

Richard A. Chapman—University of Ken-
tucky

Paul Ray—Asbury College

J. H. B. Garner—University of Kentucky
C. B. Haman—Asbury College

Wayne Hoffman—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

Bartlett G. Dickinson—Georgetown College
Morris Taylor—Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity

Paul H. Freytag—University of Kentucky
David R. Hartman—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

APPENDIX VII

MEETING LOCATIONS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1914, 1915 State College (presently University of Ken-

1916-1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1936
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
$1949
F1949
1950
1951
1952
$1953
F1953
$1954
F1954
$1955
F1955
$1956
F1956
$1957

F1957
$1958

tucky)

University of Kentucky

Berea College

Centre College

Transylvania University

Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College
University of Kentucky

Berea College

University of Kentucky

Western Kentucky State College
University of Louisville
Morehead State Teachers College
Murray State Teachers College
University of Kentucky

Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College
University of Kentucky
University of Louisville
University of Kentucky

No Annual Meeting

University of Louisville

Western Kentucky State College
University of Kentucky
Cumberland Falls State Park
Eastern Kentucky State College
University of Louisville
University of Kentucky
Georgetown College

Ashland

University of Kentucky

Berea College

University of Louisville
Cumberland Falls State Park
Kentucky State College
Kentucky Dam Village

Eastern Kentucky State College
Western Kentucky State College and Mam-
moth Cave National Park

Berea College

Natural Bridge State Park

F1958
$1959
F1959
51960
F1960
$1961
F1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973

HistorY OF KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE—George 135

University of Kentucky

Lake Cumberland State Park
Western Kentucky State College
Murray State College
University of Louisville
Morehead State College
University of Louisville

Eastern Kentucky State College
University of Kentucky
Morehead State College
University of Kentucky
Kentucky Wesleyan College
University of Louisville
Western Kentucky University
Murray State University
Georgetown College

Eastern Kentucky University
Morehead State University
Transylvania University

1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992

Centre College

University of Louisville
University of Kentucky
Western Kentucky University
Eastern Kentucky University
Northern Kentucky University
Transylvania University
Murray State University
Ashland Oil Inc., Ashland
University of Louisville
Kentucky State University
Morehead State University
Lexington, Kentucky (with SSMA)
Western Kentucky University
Eastern Kentucky University
University of Kentucky
Northern Kentucky University
Owensboro, Kentucky
Ashland Community College

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1998, 186-140

FORUM

Unattended High-resolution Earthquake Data Collector

ROBERT J. DUGAN

College of Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0046

INTRODUCTION

Movements caused by earthquakes are typ-
ically sensed by velocimeters buried in bore-
holes drilled to some depth determined by seis-
mologists. The low-level, low-frequency
voltages generated are amplified by signal con-
ditioners at the surface and transmitted in some
manner to a recorder/readout device. The most
common device is the rotating drum chart re-
corder commonly seen on commercial televi-
sion when a major quake occurs. The drum is
large and it moves slowly and continuously.
Since no one knows when a quake may occur,
continuous recording is an absolute require-
ment to be sure that the event is not missed.
(Previously, a system was designed to examine
every signal received that exceeded a baseline
threshold, and record it only if it were an earth-
quake signal. However, signals from blasting
in quarries, mines, and construction sites were
too difficult to reject in a low-cost system. The
seismologists desiring this data collector pre-
ferred the better-safe-than-sorry approach of
continuous recording.)

Modern seismic researchers endeavor to an-
alyze the seismic motion signal in detail, both
in the time domain and using the Fourier
transform to find the frequency distribution
and amplitudes. To do so means finding a so-
lution to the problem of the recording method.
The rotating drum chart recorder moves slow-
ly in order to capture about 24 hours of signal
on a strip of paper approximately 30 inches in
length. Obviously, with one hour of signal
crammed onto a 1% inch section of paper, not
much detail can be extracted. In addition, ink
on paper is not a very useful medium for other
than visual inspection. The signal detail prob-
lem could always be remedied by running the
chart paper at fairly fast speeds past the pen.
However, this would require vast quantities of
paper. So vast, in fact, that it cannot be a so-
lution. Using a computer-based data acquisi-
tion system to record seismic activity holds

promise as a workable solution. One computer-
based system, with associated software, is de-
scribed.

MATERIALS

System Requirements.—1. Signal frequen-
cy range: DC to 10 Hz (Note: Anti-alias must
be dealt with using suitable low-pass filters);
2. channels: two signal and one time sync;
3. sample rate: 50 samples/second/channel
minimum; 4. continuous data collection;
5. unattended operation; 6. storage: most re-
cent 64 hours of data; 7. data format: ASCII
characters.

Operational Requirements.—Several prac-
tical matters demand attention in setting up
the system: 1. after an earthquake event oc-
curs, the control program must be stoppable
in an orderly manner; 2. the event signal must
be easily found within the many megabytes of
data on the disk; 3. as a minimum, the file size
and disk size must accommodate at least 64
hours of unattended operation; enough to cov-
er, for example, a 5:00 p.m. Friday to 8:00 a.M.
Monday period of time; 4. each data file must
be tagged with the date and time at which
data began to be collected in the file.

CONTINUOUS DATA COLLECTION AND
UNATTENDED OPERATION

A large selection of plug-in data acquisition
boards for DOS-based microcomputers are
commercially available. Sample rates for al-
most all of them go up to 20 kHz or higher,
so there is no limitation here. Data acquisition
boards are potentially very capable, but they
do not run themselves. Software must be pro-
vided, and the odds are very high that the
software needed is not provided by the man-
ufacturer of the board. That usually means the
software must either be purchased from a third
party, or written by the owner of the board.
Third-party software (e.g., Labtech Notebook)
can be applied only for semicontinuous data

136

EARTHQUAKE DaTA COLLECTING IN KENTUCKY—Dugan

collection; very large files can be created, but
after a file is full a keyboard entry is required
to initiate another data file. This does not allow
unattended operation. Custom-written third-
party software is usually quite expensive, and
can easily exceed the total cost of the hardware.
However, this is certainly not the case for the
software described in this article.

Writing your own software ranges in diffi-
culty from moderate (if you have experience)
to extreme (if you don't). The usual sampling
procedure consists of acommand to do an A/D
conversion on the data acquisition board and
then transfer the number to a memory location
in RAM. This number then must be transferred
to a disk file (only hard disks are practical) and
tagged in some way to determine which chan-
nel was sampled. In addition, the file structure
must be organized to make the data retrieval
easy for subsequent data analysis software.
Sampled data could be stored in a variable
array in RAM until the array fills up; but then
the array must have its contents dumped onto
the disk. The problem with this scenario is that
data collecting must stop while the data are
being transferred to the disk. Although this gap
in the data may only be a few seconds, it is
likely to represent an unacceptable percentage
of the data collection cycle, and it would be
most awkward to have it by chance occur at
the start of, or even during, the earth motion
signal.

The most continuous type of data collection
is ‘streaming’ data directly from the data ac-
quisition board to the disk, bypassing RAM
storage altogether. Data files can be made ar-
bitrarily large, limited only by the disk size.
But streaming software, unfortunately, is not
a common option from the data acquisition
board makers. And streaming must also be ini-
tiated file by file from keyboard entries. There
is, however, one exception. Keithley Metra-
Byte makes a line of data acquisition boards,
many of which have a software option called
Streamer. This streaming software is unique
in that it may be initiated from a statement
line in BASIC (the SHELL command). Unat-
tended operation with virtually continuous data
collection is made possible by writing a control
program in BASIC that establishes an endless
loop of Streamer calls. A big advantage of
Streamer is that it packs the data in binary
form in the data file, thereby conserving valu-

137

able disk space. A utility program bundled with
Streamer later unpacks the data to ASCII num-
bers in columns by channel number. The un-
packed file is readily imported into popular
spreadsheets or scientific analysis packages.

MAKING STREAMER WORK

As is true with virtually all software, Stream-
er has a number of peculiarities. The price to
be paid for getting continuous data collection
is learning to deal with these peculiarities. For
example, the Streamer software works only if
the data files are located in the drive root di-
rectory. Rather than clutter up the root of the
boot-up drive, a small 3 Mb C: drive and a
large 77 Mb D: drive should be created. The
boot-up, DOS, and utility files reside on the C:
drive, and the program, data, and Streamer
files reside on the D: drive. The data files lie
happily in the root directory of the D: drive,
while program files are placed in one subdi-
rectory and tag files (explained below) are
placed in another subdirectory. Streamer data
files must be created before being used, and a
Streamer utility called MKFILE does this.

When a DOS file is created, it carries with
it the date and time of its creation, and if it is
overwritten with the same name, a new date
and time is assigned to it. All DOS users know
this. But the Streamer data files, even though
they are given new data every 64 hours, never
change the date and time of the original cre-
ation. The Streamer software sends data to the
file using Direct Memory Access (DMA), which
does not update the date and time listed in the
directory. If the data are not tagged in some
way with date and time information, after a
few days, and surely after a few weeks, some
difficulty or confusion would result when try-
ing to figure out just when an earth motion
event occurred. This situation is addressed in
the control program by writing date and time
to an ASCII file with a .TAG extension just
prior to calling Streamer to fill the next data
file. The .TAG file is given the same base name
as the data file being filled and contains only
the current date, time, and the data filename
associated with it. For example, a data file
named Q47.DAT would have a corresponding
Q47.TAG file with the date and time at which
Q47.DAT started storing data.

Data collecting using the Streamer software
may be initiated in 2 ways. Like many other

138

streaming programs, it may be started from a
menu in which pertinent information regard-
ing file name, sampling rate, channels, etc. are
entered. Unlike the others, it may also be ini-
tiated by a batch file containing that same per-
tinent information. Each data file (e.g.,
Q47.DAT) has a corresponding batch file
(Q47.BAT) which Streamer uses to start data
collecting into that data file. The command
activating the batch file is a DOS command
line instruction issued from the DOS prompt
in like manner that an .EXE or .COM file
would be activated. The control program then
uses the BASIC command SHELL “...” to
issue the command which streams data to one

of the data files.

DATA FILES

A number of tradeoffs are involved in se-
lecting the size and number of data files. No
matter how many files are used, the oldest file
is always being written over. So if N files are
chosen, then 64 hours of data must be con-
tained in N-1 files. Assuming 100 Mb of storage
and 5 files, each file must be 20 Mb, and 80
Mb out of 100 Mb would hold 64 hours of data.
But if 50 files are used, each would be 2 Mb,
and 98 Mb out of 100 Mb would hold 64 hours
of data. From this perspective, disk space is
most efficiently used by assigning data in small
files.

When a data file is filled, the control pro-
gram must tag it with date and time and then
check for a stop signal before starting the next
data file. This interfile time takes slightly less
than two seconds and is not affected by the
size of the data file. During the interfile time,
however, no data can be collected, and this
amount of time represents the departure of the
system from true continuous operation. Since
this time is fixed, a few large files give the most
continuous operation. The actual file size will
obviously trade off between the competing re-
quirements. The tradeoff is examined by look-
ing at the time it takes to fill a file.

Data are stored by Streamer using 2 bytes
per sample. The sample rate (S) in bytes per
hour depends on how many channels of data
(C) are collected, and the sample rate per chan-
nel (R).S =R X C xX 2 bytes/sample x 3600
sec/hour; S = 7,200 RC (bytes/hour). To col-
lect 64 hours of data, the disk storage (D) re-
quired would be: D = 64 x 7,200 RC = 460,800
RC bytes = 0.4608 RC Megabytes, which for

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

this R = 50 sample/sec/channel, C = 3 channel
design calls for storage of D = 0.4608 x 50 x
3 = 69.12 Megabytes. A common hard disk
size is 80 Mb which was chosen for this system.
A previous design called for 11 channels of
data which required D = 0.4608 x 50 x 11
= 253.44 Megabytes and a disk size of 300 Mb
had to be used. One can see the tradeoffs be-
tween economics and specifications. The large
hard drives cost hundreds of dollars more.
Economies can be had by relaxing the sample
rate (to 40 samples per second, or even 25
perhaps), or by dropping he number of chan-
nels down to only the most essential. In this
design, 96 files of 768 kb each were chosen.
Since this size file fills with data in a little over
42 minutes, 96 of them meets the 64-hour re-
quirement. There are 3 sets of 96 files (exclu-
sive of the control and Streamer programs).
The data files are Q1.DAT through Q96.DAT
located in the ROOT directory. The batch files
which Streamer uses to initiate the data files
are Q1.BAT through Q96.BAT located in the
PROGRAM subdirectory. The tag files used to
keep track of the date and time at which a
data file starts collecting data are QI.TAG
through Q96.TAG located in the TAG subdi-
rectory.

THE CONTROL PROGRAM

Figure 1 shows a flow chart of the procedure
used to cycle through the 96 data collection
files. A printout option is incorporated for the
operator who wants to glance at a printed list
of data files and see when each was started.
Although this option requires a dedicated
printer, no fancy features are needed, and the
cheapest no-frills dot matrix printer can be
used.

Since Streamer displays its own screen show-
ing the data file name and parameters during
the collection process, no time countdown can
be shown during the data collection. Unless
the print option is used, the operator has no
good way to determine when a data file will
end. Between the end of one data file and the
start of the next data file is a period of about
2 seconds while the .TAG file information is
written and the keyboard buffer checked. This
is too short a time to expect an operator to issue
a stop command, but a longer time would com-
promise the integrity of continuous operation.
Therefore, during the interfile period, the pro-
gram checks the keyboard buffer to see if an

EARTHQUAKE Data COLLECTING IN KENTUCKY—Dugan 139

EARTHQUAKE DATA COLLECTION
CONTROL PROGRAM FLOW CHART

Printout
of date, time?

NO
Get number of
next data file, N
Write date, time
to .TAG file

Print Flag
set?

Ee | Set Print Flag

YES ; :
Print date, time, filename
| now collecting data

SHELL out to start
data file N

Wait for
data file to fill

Check keyboard buffer
for stop character

Buffer have

Write date, time
TES to STOPFILE.TAG
stop command?
3 YES [=
Erg SES Pn ie
Increment NO
data file number, N
End program

| Figure |

Fic. 1. Earthquake data collection control program flow chart.

140

entry has been made since the last interfile
period. The letter S (for Stop) is used as the
entry to be recognized and may be entered at
the keyboard at any time. If a letter S is found,
the current date and time is written to a file
named STOPFILE.TAG in the TAG subdi-
rectory, and the program ends.

To ensure that no one gets bored while put-
ting these systems together, Keithley-MetraByte
has issued an updated version of Streamer
(V2.35) which unfortunately flushes the key-
board buffer during its operation. This version
neatly renders the program stop procedure in-
operable, and the only easy way to stop is to
do a warm boot (CTRL-ALT-DEL) to stop the
program. The older version (V2.01) is obvi-
ously recommended.

REMOTE OPERATION

Sensor sites that are remote from the labo-
ratory will typically have the analog signal
modulate a carrier frequency within the tele-
phone system bandwidth and be transmitted
over dedicated telephone lines back to the lab-
oratory. There the signal is demodulated and
displayed on a strip chart recorder. Since the
computer-based system described here runs
continuously, it also can run unattended at a
remote site. To do so requires modems at each
end and suitable communications software.
Once the comm link is established, the control
program can be started from the laboratory
end. The control program must be modified to
send its printout to the comm port rather than
the printer port, and the stop signal must be
found in the comm port buffer instead of the
keyboard buffer.

The computer comm port buffer will store
ASCII characters sent from the laboratory site
while the data collection is in progress. At the
end of data collecting in a .DAT file, the pro-
gram checks to see if the comm port buffer is
empty. If so, it continues to the next .DAT file.
If the buffer contains characters, it must ex-
amine each one to see if the legitimate stop

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

character (S) is present; if not, it empties the
buffer and continues to the next .DAT file. If
a stop character is found, a message is sent
back to the laboratory site that the computer
is ready for DOS prompt commands. The op-
erator in the laboratory, now controlling the
remote site computer, checks the .TAG files to
locate the file containing earthquake data. Once
identified, the file must be transmitted over
the RS-232 comm port to the laboratory com-
puter. Since these are very large files, and since
the baud rate is typically 1,200 or less (due to
phone lines of uncertain quality), considerable
time could be required for the transmission.
In order to minimize this time, a file com-
pression program is used to operate on the file.
This system uses the commercial program
PKZIP with typical compression down to about
45-65%. Once the compressed file is received,
the remote site computer is commanded to
restart the data collection program. Then the
received file is decompressed and unpacked to
obtain usable data.

MISCELLANY

The system must deal with power outages
either by having a battery backup at the re-
mote site or by having the computer reestablish
operation from a cold boot condition. Either
way, reliability is essential; otherwise lab per-
sonnel are forced to make inspection trips to
a site that may be 200 or so miles away.

The sample rate of 50 samples/sec/channel
for 3 channels means that the A/D sample rate
is 150 samples/sec, or 6.667 milliseconds be-
tween each sample. When making time com-
parisons between the signals on different chan-
nels, this time difference may need to be
accounted for in the analysis.

Computer clocks do drift to some degree
over a few weeks or months. It is advisable to
reset the clock from time to time. One channel
of the system is recording a time signal from
WWYV, but nonetheless the computer clock
should be kept fairly accurate.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 141

NEWS AND COMMENTS

COMPUTERIZED DATABASE INCLUSION
OF THE TRANSACTIONS
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has add-
ed the abstracts of papers appearing in the
Transactions that deal with wetland biology.

THANKS TO JOHN T. RILEY

The editor herewith extends his thanks to
John T. Riley for his services as Associate editor
for the last several years. His efforts were great-
ly appreciated.

INTERESTING NEw Book

John C. Kricker and Gordon Morrison. 1933.
A Field Guide to the Ecology of Western For-

ests. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 554 pages
($24.95).—This beautiful little book, a com-
panion to the authors guide to our eastern
forests, takes a synecological approach in a field-
guide format. The book explains many forest
mechanisms and the animals associated with
different forest types. It includes extensive col-
or illustrations.

ANNUAL MEETING

The 79th meeting of the Kentucky Academy
of Science will be held at Georgetown College,
21-23 October 1993, and will be sponsored
jointly by the college and the Toyota Motor
Corporation.

141

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 54(3-4), 1993, 142-144

Academy Affairs, 832-35
Actinonaias ligamentina, 93, 95, 96
ADAM, MICHAEL D., 13
Aging, 58
bdelloid rotifer as a model of, 58
Agglutination titers, 53
following vaccination of swine, 53
Agricultural composting, 49
Agriculture in general education,
49-50
AGUILAR, DANIEL E., 53
Alasmidonta marginata, 93, 96
Alasmidonta viridis, 93, 96
Algorithm of complexity, 108-107
ALLEN, DAVID L., 55
Amblema plicata, 93, 96
Ambystoma maculatum, 14
American holly, 54
scanning electron microscopy of,
34
American toad, 14
Amphibian, 13-16
use of road-rut ponds, 13-16
in Daniel Boone National Forest,
13-16
Amphibians, 59
distribution and status of, 59
in the northern tier counties of
Kentucky, 59
Animal waste management practic-
es, 52
in Barren River area, 52
Annual Meeting program, 36-59
Annual Meetings, 63
ANOSIKE, N. V., 59
ANTONIOUS, GEORGE F., 51, 52
ARNOLD, ANGELA F., 7
BABALMORADI, A., 57
Baby pigs, 50-51
weaning diets for, 50-51

BAKER, AMY, 53
BAKER, TRACY L., 51
BARROW, MARK C., 50, 52
Bdelloid rotifer, 58
as a model of aging, 58
BEDEL, ALVIN, 50, 52
Berberidaceae, 30
Big Eddy Section, Ohio River, 55-56
chronostratigraphy of, 55-56
Birth control, 59
a community college survey, 59
BLAND, PAUL E., 78
Blarina brevicauda, 87, 89, 90
Brent-Spence Bridge, 55
will it survive the big earth-
quake?, 55
BRES, WODAK, 65
BROCK, CAROLYN P., 54
BROWN, L. G., 49
Bufo americanus, 14
B. woodhouseri fowleri, 14

INDEX TO VOLUME 54

Bush snap beans, 50
cultural practices, 50
emergence and survival, 50
equidistant plant spacing of, 50
planting dates, 50
yield components of, 50
BYERS, MATTHEW E., 51, 52

CALHOUN, RHONDA J., 52
CALL, NEYSA M., 50
Cattle-pelvic-area, 51-52
repeatabilities of measurements,
51-52
measurements related to experi-
ence, 51-52
CHAMBERLIN, JOHN, 57
CHEN, DE, 54
Chronostratigraphy, 55-56
of the Big Eddy Section, Ohio Riv-
er, 50-56
Cobalt surface, 54
as a template for hydrocarbon
chain formation, 54
in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 54
COFFEY, D. M., 49
COMPANION, AUDREY L., 54
Composting, agricultural, 49
Computer database systems, 103-107
deadlock detection in, 103-107
Constructed wetlands, 50
development and evaluation of,
50
for large scale animal production
units, 50
for waste management, 50
CORGAN, JAMES X., 56
CORIO, P. L., 28, 82
COSTELLO, PATRICIA S., 98
Cottontails, 22-27
seasonal changes in abundance,
22-27
CRENSHAW, JOHN H., 103
Cryptotis parva, 87
Crystals, 54
formation of from p-methoxyben-
zoic acid, 54
formation of from p-methylben-
zoic acid, 54
Cucurbita pepo, 65-72
growth and yield, 65-72
mulching materials on, 65-72
nitrogen application method on,
65-72
Cyclic energy restriction, 57
effects on body weight in rats, 57

Dairy cows, 53-54
in early lactation, 53-54
soybeans as protein supplements,
53-54
Daniel Boone National Forest, 138-
16, 87-92

142

factors affecting amphibian use,
13-16
survey of small mammals in, 87-92
DAVIS, C. D., 53
DAWSON, NANCY S., 53
DAY, MARILYN, 54
Deadlock detection, 103-107
in computer database systems,
103-107
Dental service programs, 57
nursing home administrators’ per-
ception, 57
Differential filters, 73-75
Diospyros virginiana, 30-31
proximate analysis of fruits, 30-31
Distinguished Scientist Award, 60-62
DOTSON, O. W. III, 50, 52
Drug abuse, 59
a community college survey, 59
DUGAN, ROBERT J., 55, 136

Earthquake, 55
in relation to Brent-Spence Bridge,
55
Earthquake data collector, 55, 186-
140
unattended high-resolution, 55,
136-140
Ebenaceae, 30
ELLIOTT, CHARLES L., 22
Elliptio dilatata, 93, 96
Embryogenic response, 108-111
of soybean, 108-111
Eptesicus fuscus, 87, 90, 91
ESAREY, NANCY, 54
Euglenoid algae, 53
comparison of flagellar motion, 53
Euglenophyceae, 53
Eutectic die bonding, 55
gold-silicon in microelectronic
components, 55

Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife
Conservation Area, 1-6

paddlefish in, 1-6

Polyodon spathula in, 1-6
Falls of the Ohio State Park, Indiana,

56

interpretive center, 56
Fat oxidation, 54

analysis of by FT-NMR, 54
FERNER, JOHN W., 59
Filters, differential, 73-75
FISCHER, JACKIE, 57
Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 54

cobalt surface as a template, 54
FITZNER, STEVEN B., 51
Flagellar motion, 53

in selected euglenoid algae, 53
Fossils, 56

from the Haney Limestone, 56
Four-toed salamander, 14

Fowler’s toad, 14
Freshwater mussels, 93-97
effects of sedimentation on, 93-97
in the North Fork of Red River,
Kentucky, 93-97
observations on, 93-97
Frog, mountain chorus, 14
pickerel, 14
wood, 14
FT-NMR, 54
analysis of fat oxidation by, 54
Fusconaia flava, 93, 96

General education, agriculture in,
49-50
GEORGE, TED M., 112
GIAMMARA, BEVERLY, 54
GIULIANO, WILLIAM M., 22
Glycine max, 108-111
genotypes in culture media, 108-

simple method for isolating re-
generates of parental geno-
types, 17-21
somatic embryogenic response of,
108-111
Gold-silicon, 55
eutectic die bonding, 55
in microelectronic components, 55
GRAY, ELMER, 50
GUNDERSEN, DEKE T., 1
GUO, MEIWEN,55

HACKNEY, KAREN, 57
HACKNEY, RICHARD, 57
HAFNER, TIMOTHY P., 50
Haney Limestone, 56

fossils from, 56
HANKER, JACOB, 54
HARIK, ISSAM E., 55
HARMON, ROSELEE, 65
HARNESS, BRYAN G., 57
HARTMAN, DAVID R., 53, 54
Heat-treated soybeans, 53

as protein supplements for dairy

cows, 53

Hemidactylium scutatum, 14
Herbicide leaching, 51

in vegetable culture, 51
Herbicide runoff losses, 51

in vegetable culture, 51
HETTINGER, W. P., JR., 58
HILBORNE, DEBRA, J., 51, 52
History of the Kentucky Academy

of Science, 112-185

HOGAN, KEITH J., 55
HOPWOOD, THEODORE II, 55
HOUP, RONALD E., 93
HUGHES, LUTHER B., JR., 49
HUNT, GRAHAM, 55, 56
Hunt, Mr. Samuel Thomas, 61
Hydrocarbon chain formation, 54

cobalt surface as a template, 54

INDEX TO VOLUME 54

Ilex opaca, 54
scanning electron microscopy of,
54
Interpretive Center, 56
Falls of the Ohio State Park, In-
diana, 56

JE, YON-TAE, 54

JIA, WENWEI, 65
JOHNSON, ALAN A., 55
JOHNSON, RAY, 50, 52
JONES, GORDON F., 51, 58

Kentucky Academy of Science, 112-
135
history of, 112-185
Kentucky Advocates for Higher Ed-
ucation, 63
Kentucky Cottontails, 22-27
seasonal changes in abundance,
22-27
KING, AMY C., 98
KISER, JAMES, 87
KNAPP, KEITH, 57
KRUSLING, PAUL J., 59

LACKI, MICHAEL J., 13

Lampsilis cardium, 98, 96

L. fasciola, 93, 96

L. siliquoidea, 93, 96

Lasionycteris noctivagans, 87, 90,
91

Lasiurus borealis, 87, 90, 91

Lasmigona costata, 93, 96

LEE, C. J., 57

Ligumia recta, 93, 96

London planetree, 51

origins and nomenclature, 51

Lorentz transformation, notes on,

28-29

Mammals, 87-92
a survey of in Morehead Ranger
District, 87-92
in Daniel Boone National Forest,
Kentucky, 87-92
MAP, 57-58
a program to explore the logistic
equation, 57-58
MARSH, JENNIFER MCGEHEE,
76
MARTIN, JAMES M., 51
Math attitudes, 98-102
comparison among various groups
of students, 98-102
Mayapple, 30-31
proximate analysis of fruits, 30-31
MCCORMICK, TROY, 56
McEllistrem, Dr. Marcus T., 60
MCPHERSON, SUSAN, 50
MEADE, LES, 87
Microelectronic components, 55
gold-silicon eutectic die bonding
in, 55

143

Microtus ochrogaster, 87, 89, 90
M. pennsylvanicus, 87, 89, 90
M. pientorum, 87, 89, 90
MOLLEY, SEAN, 57
Molluska, 93-97
Morehead Range District, 87-92
survey of small mammals in, 87-92
Mountain chorus frog, 14
Municipal solid waste, 49
Mus musculus, 87
Mussels, freshwater, 93-97
effects of sedimentation on, 93-97
in the North Fork of Red River,
Kentucky, 93-97
observations on, 93-97
Myotis leibii, 87, 90, 91
M. lucifugus, 87, 90, 91
M. septentrionalis, 87, 90, 91
M. sodalis, 87, 90, 91

Napaeozapus insignis, 87, 90, 91
News and Comments, 63, 141
Newt, red-spotted, 14
Noteworthy Publications, 63
Notophthalmus viridescens, 14

Obovaria subrotunda, 93, 96
Ochrotomys nuttalli, 87
Ohio River, 55-56

Big Eddy Section of, 55-56
Oophorohysterectomized rats, 57

body weight reduction in, 57
Outstanding Teacher Awards, 60-62
Owensboro Area Museum of Science

and History, 56
vertebrate fossil collection of, 56

Paddlefish, 1-6
age, 1-6
growth, 1-6
in Falls of the Ohio National
Wildlife Conservation Area, 1-6
reproduction, 1-6
PAN, WEI-PING, 7
Parascalops breweri, 87
Pasteurella multocida, 53
vaccination of swine, 53
PEARCE, DEBRA K., 31
PEARSON, WILLIAM D., 1
PENNINGTON, JODIE A., 53
Peromyscus leucopus, 87, 89, 90
P. maniculatus, 87
Persimmon, 80-31
proximate analysis of fruits, 30-31
Phaseolus vulgaris, 50
cultural practices, 50
emergence and survival, 50
equidistant plant spacing of, 50
planting dates, 50
yield components of, 50
Physical chemistry laboratory, 7-12
applications of thermal analysis in,
7-12
Pickerel frog, 14

144 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 54(3-4)

PIERCE, JAMES L., 53
Pigs, 50-51
baby, weaning diets for, 50-51
Pimphales promelas, 76, 77
Pipistrellus subflavus, 87, 90, 91
PITTMAN, DAVID, 53
Plecotus rafinesquii, 87, 90, 91
P. townsendii virginianus, 87, 90, 91
Pleurobema coccineum, 93, 96
p-Methoxybenzoic acid, 54
formation of mixed crystals from,
54
p-Methylbenzoic acid, 54
formation of mixed crystals from,
54
Podophyllum peltatum, 30-31
proximate analysis of fruits, 30-31
Polyodon spathula, 1-6
age, 1-6
growth, 1-6
in Falls of the Ohio National
Wildlife Conservation Area, 1-6
reproduction, 1-6
Potamilus alatus, 93, 96
POWELL, MALINDA WASHER,
56
Program, Annual Meeting, 36-59
Psephurus gladius, 1
Pseudacris brachyphona, 14
Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, 93, 96

RAHMAN, M. M., 17, 108
Rana palustris, 14
R. sylvatica, 14
Rats, 57
body weight reduction in, 57
Raw soybeans, 53
as protein supplements for dairy
cows, 53
Reaction mechanisms, 82-86
rules for, 82-86
REASONER, JOHN, 54
Red-spotted newt, 14
Reithrodontomys humulis, 87, 89,
90
Rotifer, bdelloid, 58
as a model of aging, 58
effect of RNA and protein syn-
thesis inhibitors on life span,
58-59
Runoff assessment, 76-81
comparison with nationwide ur-
ban runoff program, 76-81

in Louisville, Kentucky, 76-81
Russ, Mr. Karl, 60

SADLER, MALCOLM T., 56
Salamander, four-toed, 14
spotted, 14
Scanning electron microscopy, 54
method for studies of fungi on roots
of American holly, 54
using hesamethyldisilazane dry-
ing, 54
using microwave silver staining,
54
SCHNEIDER, ROBERT M., 49
Sheep red blood cells, 53
vaccination of swine, 53
SHIBER, J. G., 59
SHREWSBURY, POLLY J., 54
Simpsonaias ambigua, 97
Soil and water conservation, 52
in vegetable culture, 52
SOLE, JEFFERY D., 22
Sorex fumeus, 87, 89, 90
S. hoyi, 87
S. h. winnemana, 89, 90
S. longirostris, 87, 89, 90
Soy protein products, 52
and early weaning diets for pre-
ruminant calves, 52
in milk replacers, 52
Soybean, 108-111
genotypes in culture media, 108-
lll
simple method for isolating re-
generates of parental geno-
types, 17-21
somatic embryogenic response of,
108-111
Soybean meal, 53
as protein supplements for diary
cows, 53
Spotted salamander, 14
Squash, yellow crookneck, 65-72
growth and yield, 65-72
mulching materials on, 65-72
nitrogen application method on,

STALDER, KEN, 50, 53
STDs, 59

a community college survey, 59
STEFF, RUTHIE, 52
STEWART, ARTHUR VAN, 57
STILES, DAVID A., 50, 52

Stress evaluation, 55

of welded steel bridges, 55
Strophitus undulatus, 93, 96
Sustainable management practices,

52-53

influence on yield, 52-53
Swine breed differences, 53

in agglutination titers, 53
Sylvilagus floridanus, 22
Synaptomys cooperi, 87, 89, 90

Tamias striatus, 87
Thermal analysis, 7-12
applications of in physical chem-
istry laboratory, 7-12
THIERET, JOHN W., 31
TIMMONS, JEFF, 7
Toad, American, 14
Fowler’s, 14
Tritogonia verrucosa, 93, 96
TYESS, DEBBIE L., 51

Unionidae, 93-97
Urban runoff program, 76-81
comparison with Louisville, Ken-
tucky, 76-81

Vegetable culture, 51
herbicide leaching in, 51
herbicide runoff losses in, 51
soil and water conservation in, 52
Vertebrate fossil collection, 56
of the Owensboro Area Museum
of Science and History, 56

WANG, C., 57
Warren, Ms. Andrea L., 61
Waste Management, 50

for large scale animal production

units, 50

in constructed wetlands, 50
Weaning diets, 50-51

evaluation of for baby pigs, 50-51
WEAVER, BRAD, 53
Welded steel bridges, 55

stress evaluation of, 55
WESTON, LESLIE A., 65
WIDODO, 50
WIEDEMAN, VARLEY, 54
Wilkins, Dr. Curtis C., 61
Wood frog, 14

YORK, KENNETH, 50

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CONTENTS

The influence of mulching materials and nitrogen application method on
growth and yield of yellow crookneck squash (Cucurbita pepo L.). Wenwei
Jia, Wlodzimierz Bres, Leslie A. Weston, and Roselee Harmon ........ 65

Differential filters: ‘Paul.E. Bland) .3.05300.020 2 es oe ie 73
Comparison of the preliminary results of the nationwide Urban Runoff
Program with the results of a Louisville, Kentucky runoff assessment.
dennifer McGehee! Marsh ie oo a0 3 oa ona fale a enn vane pa ane eee Se ate 76

Rules for reaction mechanisms. P. L. Corio ...................... 82

A survey of small mammals in the Morehead Ranger District, Daniel Boone
National Forest, Kentucky. James Kiser and Les Meade ............ 87

Observations on long-term effects of sedimentation on freshwater mussels
(Mollusca: Unionidae) in the north fork of Red River, Kentucky. Ronald

| SHt g Fo) oie ee eer enti eri Nur MAU GiB MRA UAE ESV eGR MS) Aiessivlys eit 1. 93

A comparison of math attitudes among various groups of students. Amy

C. King and Patricia’S: Costello: on) i) is es eae pate eee ee ee 98

Deadlock detection in computer database systems: an algorithm of com-

plexity,O(N):. John H. Crenshaw’ 0). 2055. he ee eg 103

Somatic embryogenic response of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) ge-

notypes to culture media. M. M. Rahman ...................-++++- 108
FORUM

History of the Kentucky Academy of Science, 1914-1992. Ted M.

Gear EON NE EG SR RTI eA ea 2s A 2 97. aN ae ee eRe 112

Unattended high-resolution earthquake data collector. Robert J.

Ds epeann i NS ON SU SRR Ne INC EA et aa 136
NEWS AND COMMENDS) (65 0 Seva ey aes ae Cairn ne MUU Fie cal crates lt a 141

TRANSACTIONS
"OF THE
PKENTUCKY
ACADEMY OF
~SCIENCE

Volume 55
Numbers 1-2
March 1994

Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

GOVERNING BOARD FoR 1994
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101

President Elect: Robert Creek, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
KY 40475

Vice President: William S. Bryant, Thomas Moore College, Cresent Hills, KY 41017

Past President: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown, KY 40324
Secretary: Peter X. Armendarez, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Brescia College, Owensboro, KY
42301

Treasurer: Julia H. Carter, Wood Hudson Cancer Research Laboratory, 931 Isabella Street, Newport, KY
41071

Executive Secretary-ex officio: J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lex-

ington, KY 40546-0091

Editor, TRANSACTIONS-ex officio: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475
Editor, NEWSLETTER-ex officio: Vincent DiNoto, Natural Science Division, Jefferson Community College, _
SW, Louisville, KY 40201

MEMBERS, GOVERNING BOARD
i David E. Hogan 1996

James E. Gotsick 1994 Valena Hurt 1996
Kimberly W. Anderson 1995 Gerald L. DeMoss 1997
Blaine R. Ferrell 1995 Wimberly C. Royster 1997

Patricia K. Doolin 1996
AAAS Representative: J. G. Rodriguez
Chairman, KJAS: Valgene L. Dunham

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Editor and Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,

Chairman: Richmond 40475

Associate Editor: Thomas Green, Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101

Index Editor: Varley E. Weideman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

Abstract Editor: Robert F. C. Naezi, Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights 41076
Editorial Board: Larry Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101 |
Toni Powell, Agriculture Library, University of Kentucky, Lexington 40546
Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown 40324
Peter V. Lindeman, Division of Biological Sciences, Madisonville Community College,
Madisonville 42431
Kimberly Ward Anderson, Chemical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington
40506

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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

March 1994
Volume 55
Numbers 1-2

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 1-5

Abnormal Coproducts in the Oxidation of Styrene by
Palladium(II) in Ethanol

Darwin B. DaHL,* ALAN J. SIMMONS,” AND WILLIAM G. LLoyD*

“Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101
’Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT
Styrene in ethanol at ambient temperatures and pressures is readily oxidized in the presence of PdCl,. In
addition to the expected products, phenylacetaldehyde and acetophenone, 2 unexpected products have been
identified: B-ethoxystyrene and benzaldehyde. These appear to arise from abnormal decompositions of the

intermediate organopalladium o-complexes.

INTRODUCTION

Terminal alkenes are well known to under-
go Pd(II)-catalyzed reactions in aqueous sys-
tems, typically at 65-85°C, to yield carbonyl
products (1, 2). The reduced Pd(0) is reoxi-
dized, most commonly by CuCl,, and the re-
sulting Cu,Cl, is in turn reoxidized by oxygen
to provide a catalytic process:

R-CH=CH, + PdCl, + H,O
— R-CO-CH, + Pd(0) + 2HCl
Pd(O) + 2CuCl,
+ PC, & Cuch,
Cu,Cl, + 2HCl + %O,
— 2CuCl, + H,O
Overall,
R-CH=CH, + %O,
— R-CO-CH, (1)

When R is an alkyl group the product is
typically 90-95% methyl ketone, with the cor-

responding aldehyde R-CH,-CHO making up
the balance. When the aqueous medium is re-
placed with a primary alcohol these oxidations
proceed readily at ambient temperatures (3, 4)
to form the same carbonyl compounds and
their acetals. There is substantial agreement
(5-8) concerning the mechanism of alkene ox-
idations by Pd(II): a fast reversible formation
of the Pd(II)-alkene 7-complex followed by a
rate-determining 7-to-o rearrangement and
the rapid solvolytic decomposition of the
o-complex(es) to products.

When R is an electron-withdrawing group,
for example the cyano group in acrylonitrile,
the main product is the corresponding alde-
hyde (4). Since the phenyl group is electron
withdrawing, it is not surprising that the main
product of styrene oxidation is phenylacetal-
dehyde (4, 9-11). What is surprising is the
number and variety of coproducts formed, in-
cluding carbon-carbon cleavage products (4,
10). We here examine the products of this ox-
idation in more detail.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Oxidations were conducted in a 500-mL
flask immersed in a constant temperature bath

bo

Pressure, millibars

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 # £300
Time, min

Fic. 1. Oxygen pressure drop during the catalyzed oxi-
dation of styrene in ethanol at 30.4°C. Initial styrene
concn. 0.334. M; PdCl, 0.0050 M:; CuCl, 0.0403 M. The
fitting curve is a simple exponential decay expression (1°
= 0.9996 for 30 to 300 min): P (mbars) = 634.0 +
369.07*exp(—0.0051873*t).

controlled to +0.12°. The flask was agitated
by a 17 X 40 mm teflon-clad magnetic ellip-
soid at 500 r.p.m., this system permitting ox-
ygen uptake rates in excess of 50 mbar/min;
rates with styrene were 1—3 mbar/min. Each
oxidation was commenced by charging the ox-
ygen-filled flask with 25 ml of ethanolic cata-
lyst solution, containing PdCl, 0.002—0.020 M
and CuCl, 0.008-0.30 M, followed by 25 ml
of ethanolic styrene solution containing the in-
ternal standards chlorobenzene and 1-chloro-
naphthalene. Pressure and temperature were
recorded continuously during each oxidation.
At the conclusion of each run, a 5-ml portion
of the oxidate was combined with 2 ml of
aqueous ammonia to provide a homogeneous
time-stable sample for analysis.

Time series runs were conducted similarly,
using a 3-neck flask at constant oxygen pres-
sure, making periodic withdrawals of the re-
action mixture by syringe through a septum,
and stabilizing each sample as above.

Gas chromatographic analyses were carried
out using a3 mm X 2 m glass column packed
with 3% polymethylphenylsiloxane (OV-17) on
80-100 mesh silica, at 110—160°. The flame

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

TABLE 1. Oxidation products of styrene at 30°C“
Run 1» Run 2° Mass fragments!
Benzaldehyde 6.3% 1.7% 106, 105, 77
B-Ethoxystyrenes 5.6 9.1 148, 120, 91
Phenylacetaldehyde 3:3 3.0 120, 92, 91
Acetophenone 8.8 6.2 120, 105, 77
Ethyl benzoate 0.6 0.0 105, 77
PhCH(OEt), 3.5 Bo7 135, 107, 105
PhCH,COOEt 2.0 11 164, 148, 120
PhCH,CH(OEt), 70.1 75.0 149, 148, 121,
103, 91
PhCOCH,Cl 0.0 0.3 119, 105, 77

“From 300-min oxidations in ethanol solution at 30° under 1 atm. oxygen
and 0.0080 M PdCl,. Initial styrene concentrations were 0.348 M. Quanti-
tation is estimated from FID integration areas.

» With 0.064 M CuCl,-2H,O and 0.016 M Cu(BF,),; styrene conversion
was 85%.

“With 0.136 M CuCl,-2H,0; styrene conversion was 82%.

‘Fragments in boldface are molecular ions.

ionization detector provided integrator sensi-
tivity of approximately 1.6 < 107 units pl7!.

Provisional identifications were made by
matching retention times with those of au-
thentic samples; these were confirmed by GC/
mass spectrometry, using a 0.24 mm X 30 m
capillary column. B-Ethoxystyrene, a single
GC peak on the packed column, was resolved
on the capillary column to two nearly equal
peaks yielding identical mass fragment pat-
terns. At 25° trans-B-ethoxystyrene is favored
over the cis-isomer by only 0.6—-0.8 kJ/mol (12,
i8}),

RESULTS

Solutions of styrene in ethanol undergo
smooth oxidations at 30° in the presence of
PdCl, and CuCl,. Figure | shows a typical ox-
ygen consumption curve, the pressure follow-
ing a simple exponential decay law. The initial
slope in Figure | corresponds to a styrene ox-
idation rate of 53.4 mmol liter~! hr~', which
with 0.0050 M PdCl, affords a turnover num-
ber (TN) of 10.7. In Run 1 of Table 1, part of
the CuCl, was replaced by Cu(BF,,),, produc-
ing a slightly faster initial oxidation (TN =
12.7). In Run 2 of Table 1 the CuCl, concen-
tration was increased to 0.136 M; the initial
rate was slightly slower (TN = 9.0) although
the 300-min conversion was nearly the same.

GC analysis showed 9 significant product
peaks (Table 1). The expected oxidation prod-
ucts, phenylacetaldehyde (and its acetal) and
acetophenone, made up 80-85% of the prod-
uct mixture. The balance was composed main-

OXIDATION COPRODUCTS IN STYRENE—Dahl et al. 3

ly of B-ethoxystyrenes (5—10%), along with a
group of carbon-carbon cleavage products
(benzaldehyde, its acetal, and ethyl benzoate,
together 5-10%). Ethyl phenylacetate, a mi-
nor product (1-2% in these runs), arises from
secondary oxidation of the easily oxidized
phenylacetaldehyde. w-Chloroacetophenone
(phenacyl chloride) is the product of a sec-
ondary oxidation of acetophenone by CuCl,; it
was found in detectable amounts only when
CuCl, concentration exceeded 0.1 M.

The formation of B-ethoxystyrenes was un-
expected. No other terminal alkene yields vi-
nylic ethers under these conditions. In time
series runs, the B-ethoxystyrene fraction fell
with oxidation time, from 20.5% of products
at 6 min to 13% at 30 min to 6% at 300 min.
Comparing the compositions of the oxidates of
a series of 300 min runs at various tempera-
tures, the B-ethoxystyrene fraction was highest
in low temperature runs (14% at 12.9°) and
lowest in high temperature runs (4% at 50.1°).
In oxidates from a series of runs at 30° with
varying concentrations of CuCl, the ethoxy-
styrene fraction increased smoothly at 30° with
increasing CuCl, concentration, from 0.8% at
0.008 M CuCl, to 9.1% at 0.288 M CuCl,.

The other abnormal product of this oxida-
tion is benzaldehyde. At ambient tempera-
tures and in the absence of high-energy re-
actants the vinylic C-C bond is not ordinarily
cleaved. A detailed study of coproducts from
the oxidation of 1-hexene found no such cleav-
age products (14). Yet in all styrene oxidates
we have found the 3 related cleavage prod-
ucts: benzaldehyde, its acetal, and ethyl ben-
zoate (from the secondary oxidation of benz-

aldehyde).

DISCUSSION

Vinylic ethers such as B-ethoxystyrene were
once thought to be the initial products of all
Pd(II)-catalyzed olefin oxidations. There is,
however, persuasive evidence that this is not
the general case. Pd(II)-catalyzed oxidation of
C,H, in CH,OD has been shown to produce
CH,CH(OCH;), virtually free of deuterium
(15, 16), demonstrating that the acetal cannot
have been formed via alcohol addition to
methyl vinyl ether,

The explanation of the abnormal products
lies in the influence of structure upon the
reactivities of the 2 oxypalladation o-complex-

es which are the immediate precursors to the
final products. Complex 1 normally decom-
poses by an electron shift from the a-carbon
to the Pd atom and a concerted B-hydride
shift (reaction (2)).

EtO—CH-CH(R)-PdCl
|

H
1
(ae)
— EtO-CH-CH,R + PdCl- (2)
2

The cation 2 then hydrolyzes to aldehyde or
solvates to form the acetal. The normal de-
composition of o-complex 3 is completely
analogous:

EtO-CR-CH,-PdCl
|

H
3
Ga)
a EtO@@R= CH edCls (3)
4

Here the cation 4 hydrolyzes to the methyl
ketone or solvates to form the ketal.

When the substituent group R is a phenyl
group, however, other factors come into play.
Competing with reaction (2) is an E2 elimi-
nation:

EtO—CH — CH(Ph)—PdCl
|
Hie “ele
la

— EtO-CH=CHPh
+ PdCl> + HCl) (4)

p= OEt

Reaction (4) becomes a significant compet-
itor owing to the appreciable incremental res-
onance stabilization (estimated to be 23 kj/
mol) for the ethoxystyrenes 5,

Similarly, reaction (5) becomes a competitor

4 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-—2)

owing to the extraordinary stability of the tro-
pylium ion formed (structures shown below):

EtOH + EtO-CH-CH,-Pd-Cl
|

Ph
3a
—HtO=@ ht aa htOChec yd @lma()
6
OC,H, H + OC,H,

wk

Tropylium ion 6 has a hybrid structure, rep-
resented conventionally as a cycloheptatrienyl
cation but undergoing reaction as the benzylic
cation 6a.

Reaction (5) accounts for the emergence of
the several carbon-carbon cleavage products
(reaction 6). Products 7 and 8 are found in all
of the oxidation mixtures.

H,O
6a —+ PhCHO 7
t EtOH tb Os (6)
O;
PhCH(OEt), — PhCOOEt
8 9

The observed effects of reaction time and
temperature upon ethoxystyrene concentra-
tion arise from the slow solvolysis of 5 to phe-
nylacetaldehyde diethyl acetal 10:

EtO-CH=CHPh + EtOH
5)

Ht
— (EtO),CH-CH,Ph (7)
10

Other vinyl ethers are known to form ace-
tals readily in ethanolic PdCl, (17). So, while
there is good evidence against vinyl ether in-
termediation in the Pd(II)-catalyzed oxidation
of ethylene (15, 16), there is, we feel, com-
pelling evidence for reactions (4)-(7) in the
oxidation of styrene. The impact of CuCl, con-
centration upon B-ethoxystyrene production
appears to be that of providing an abundant

supply of Lewis base to facilitate the elimi-
nation (reaction 4).

SUMMARY

Styrene, like other terminal olefins, is readi-
ly oxidized in ethanol at ambient temperatures
in the presence of catalytic amounts of PdCl,
and cocatalyst CuCl,. The panel of products
has been identified. 99+ % of the products are
accounted for in terms of the expected car-
bonyl compounds (85%) and 2 additional
products arising from competing abnormal de-
compositions of the 2 oxypalladation o-com-
plexes.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Smidt, J., W. Hafner, R. Jira, J. Sedlmeier, R. Sieber,
R. Riittinger, and H. Kojer. 1959. Katalytische Umset-
zungen von Olefinen an Platinmetall-Verbindungen. An-
gew. Chem. 71:176-182.

2. Moiseev, I. I., M. N. Vargaftik, and Ya. K. Syrkin.
1960. Oxidation reactions of olefins. Doklady Akad. Nauk
SSSR 130:820-823.

3. Moiseev, I. I, M. N. Vargaftik, and Ya. K. Syrkin.
1960. On the mechanism of the reaction between palla-
dium salts and olefins in hydroxyl-containing solvents.
Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR 133:377-380.

4. Lloyd, W. G. and B. J. Luberoff. 1969. Oxidations
of olefins with alcoholic palladium(II) salts. J. Org. Chem.
34:3949-3952.

5. Henry, P. M. 1964. Kinetics of the oxidation of eth-
ylene by aqueous palladium(II) chloride. J. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 86:3246-3250.

6. Moiseev, I. I. 1970. Kinetics and mechanism of the
oxidation of olefins by palladium salts. Kinetics and Ca-
talysis 11:286—297.

7. Maitlis, P. M. 1971. The organic chemistry of pal-
ladium, Vol. 2. Academic Press, New York. 78 pp.

8. Henry, P. M. 1980. Palladium catalyzed oxidation
of hydrocarbons. D. Reidel, Dordrecht. 133 pp.

9. Okada, H., T. Noma, Y. Katsuyama, and H. Hashi-
moto. 1968. Reactions of transition metal-olefin com-
plexes. III. Kinetics of the oxidation of substituted sty-
renes catalyzed by palladium salts in aqueous
tetrahydrofuran. Bull. Chem. Soc. Japan 41:1395—-1400.

10. Hosokawa, T., T. Takahashi, T. Ohta, and S. Mu-
rahashi. 1987. A palladium(II) catalyst for oxygenation of
terminal olefins with molecular oxygen. J. Organomet.
Chem. 1987:334.

11. Vojtko, J., A. Kaszonyi, M. Cihova, and M. Hru-
Sovsky. 1981. Mechanism of the oxidation of styrene by
palladium salts. Coll. Czechoslovak Chem. Commun. 46:
573-083.

12. Okuyama, T., T. Fueno, and J. Furukawa. 1969.
Structure and reactivity of a,B-unsaturated ethers. X.
Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of ring-substituted styryl ethyl
ethers. Tetrahedron 25:5409-5414.

OXIDATION COPRODUCTS IN STYRENE—Dahl et al. 5

13. Huet, J. 1978. Influence des Interactions Attrac-
tives non Liées sur les Stabilités Relatives d’Ethers et
d’Acetates d’Enol Renfermant un Groupe Styryle. Tetra-
hedron 34:2473-2479.

14. Kirova, M. L. 1992. The palladium(II)-catalyzed
homogeneous oxidation of 1-hexene. M.S. Thesis. West-
ern Kentucky University, Bowling Green.

15. Moiseev, I. I. and M. N. Vargaftik. 1965. Carbo-

nium ions in the oxidation reaction of olefins with palla-
dium chloride. Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Khim. 1965:
759-760.

16. Maitlis, P. M., in reference 7, p. 106.

17. Ketley, A. D. and L. P. Fisher. 1968. Reactions of
alkenepalladium chloride complexes with alcohols. J. Or-
ganomet. Chem. 13:243-248.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1

—2), 1994, 6-19

Late Pleistocene and Holocene Vegetation History of
Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee

Scott B. FRANKLIN

Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 62901, and
The Center for Field Biology, Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee 37044

ABSTRACT

The vegetation history of Land Between The Lakes (LBL), Kentucky and Tennessee, is summarized
beginning with the Pleistocene Series. A zonation of boreal, northern deciduous/Pinus and southern decid-
uous/Pinus spp. similar to that in North America today was compacted below the Laurentide Ice Sheet.
Boreal or northern hardwood species dominated LBL during glacial extensions and alternated with southern
and prairie constituents during warmer and drier periods.

The Holocene, a warming and drying period, followed the Pleistocene and was accompanied by the onset
of human occupation. During the height of this middle period, Hypsithermal, mesophytic species retreated
to bottomlands and protected coves while Quercus, Carya, and herbaceous species dominated uplands.
Following the Hypsithermal, the climate became cooler and more moist. Souther Pinus and Quercus spp.
migrated north and invaded prairie and open forest. However, succession was delayed by aboriginal distur-
bance, which included annual burning and swidden agriculture.

When Europeans began exploring the LBL area, they found bottomland hardwoods of enormous size and
upland park-like forests with an herbaceous understory. Europeans began settling the area in the late 1700s.
Their influence on the vegetation included farming, grazing, whiskey distilling, timber cutting for charcoal
production, railroad ties, and other wood products, and damming the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers.
Agrodeforestation and the control of wildland fire led to the reversal of forest dominance across the land-
scape. Bottomland forests were converted to agricultural land and were later inundated by Kentucky Lake
and Lake Barkley. Previously open uplands succeeded to closed forest, currently dominated by Quercus

species.

INTRODUCTION

Land Between The Lakes (LBL) is a 69,000
ha inland peninsula bordered on the west by
Kentucky Lake and on the east by Lake Bark-
ley (Fig. 1). The area, located in western Ken-
tucky and Tennessee, ranges from 6 to 13 km
wide and is approximately 66 km long. Land
Between The Lakes is part of the Western
Highland Rim subsection of the Interior Low
Plateau Province (1), and most of the area
consists of highly dissected uplands (2). The
former gently ‘sloping bottomlands of the Ten-
nessee and Cumberland rivers are now inun-
dated by Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley, re-
spectively. Currently, over 80% of LBL is
forested (3).

Braun (4) classified the region as Mixed
Mesophytic, a transition zone between the
Mesophytic Region to the east and the Oak-
Hickory Region to the west. Kiichler (5)
mapped the potential vegetation as Oak-Hick-
ory. Recent studies have documented the for-
est vegetation of LBL (3), including the Bear
Creek Natural Area old-growth mesophytic
hardwoods (6) and the Devil’s Backbone, a

natural stand of Pinus echinata (7). Forest dy-
namics and successional trends of upland com-
munities have been analyzed by Fralish and
Crooks (8, 9), Franklin (10), and Kettler (11).
The impact of the iron industry on LBL for-
ests was outlined by Gildrie (12). However,
the vegetation history of LBL has not been
summarized.

This article integrates information from ge-
ology, archeology, anthropology, pollen analy-
ses, and vegetation studies with written and
oral testimony. In some instances, it was nec-
essary to extrapolate information from adja-
cent areas because few analyses or oral testi-
monies were found from within LBL. This
was especially true for the reconstruction of
Wisconsinan vegetation, where vegetation de-
scriptions were composed from pollen studies
surrounding LBL (13). Because of the uncer-
tainty of species identification (Appendix A),
this article was written on a general basis.

The objectives were to summarize past veg-
etation and to analyze the effects of past dis-
turbance, beginning with the Wisconsinan
Glacial Stage. An overview of early cultures is

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION

Interior
Low
Ly, of lateau

Ss
<q

Fic. 1. Locality of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky
and Tennessee, including Physiographic Regions (1) and
dominant Native American Indian tribes prior to Euro-
pean settlement (31).

incorporated to present their impact on veg-
etation. The influence of European settlement
is subsequently analyzed and related to the
present vegetation of LBL.

Wisconsinan Stage (Pleistocene Series)
Vegetation

Although the Laurentide Ice Sheet did not
extend as far south as LBL (13), the changes
in climate created by the Wisconsinan glacial
advance had an impact on LBL’s vegetation.
A vegetation zonation similar to That across
eastern North America today was compressed
below the advancing glaciers. Tundra_bor-
dered the southern edge of the Laurentide Ice

erm

Franklin 7

IN KENTUCKkY-

Sheet. Boreal species were present in the ad-
jacent zone while a Mixed Coniferous-North-
Hardwoods assemblage was associated
with the Polar Frontal Zone. South of the Po-
lar Frontal Zone, a Mixed Mesophytic associ-
ation, a Quercus-Caryd association, and south-
ern Pinus spp. dominated (14). Delcourt and
Delcourt (13, 14) have mapped the migration
of these vegetation zones from 40,000 years
before present (y.B.P.) to the present in ac-
cordance with fluctuating glacial and climate
patterns. Pollen and nerotosals predating
the Wisconsinan State indicate a similar mi-
gration took place at each glacial advance (15,
16, 17) (Table 1). The impact on the vegeta-
tion of LBL was dependent on the southern
extension (i.e., influence) of these advances.

The Wisconsinan Stage began approximate-
ly 75,000 y.B.P. and ended approximately
12,500 y.B.P. (Table 1). A warm-temperate
environment pervaded the Altonian and

Farmdalian Substages. Approximately 40,000
WIE, (Ss, Altonian Substage), LBL was likely
dominated by Quercus, Can ya, and southern
Pinus spp. (e.g., P. echinata and P. virginiana)
(13). The Mixed Hardwood forest of Quercus,
Acer, Fagus, Tilia, Ulmus, Juglans, Tsuga, and
Nyssa persisted along the TPammagsee and
Cumberland River cannons (18).

The Farmdalian Substage was a mild warm-
ing period that generated a minor glacial re-
treat. At 25,000 y.B.P., LBL was heel domi-
nated by a Quercus -Carya assemblage.
Southern Pinus spp. were a minor part of tits
assemblage (13). The development of grass-
lands was favored during this interval and was

TaBLE 1. Summation of the Pleistocene and Holocene Series (14, 17, 79).
y.B.P.

Holocene Series Late Holocene 5,000
Middle Holocene ‘Hypsithermal’ 8,700
Early Holocene 12,500
Pleistocene Series Wisconsinan Stage (glacial) Woodfordian Substage 23,000
i Farmdalian Substage 28,000
Altonian Substage 75,000
Sangamonian Stage 125,000

Ilinoian Stage (glacial) Jubileean Substage

Monican Substage
Liman Substage 175,000
Yarmouthian Stage 225,000
Kansan Stage (glacial) 500,000
Aftonian Stage 600,000
Nebraskan Stage (glacial) 915,000

8 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-—2)

Quercus
Association
Ww E
Pinus- “A a ae
‘suga - Acer -
Quercus Hardwoods Fagus Ww
Association a) iva
co ay a
> Tsuga - Acer - aa z
iva Fagus al es Picea: —
Ww free tes [oa
B co
Ww =
z 5
z 6)
uJ
| ol

Vertical Scale =

Horizontal Scale = f

Hires 2!

— SSS
0 10 20 30 40m

1 2km

Reconstruction of vegetation pattern of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee, during the

Wisconsinan Stage glacial advance. Schematic is drawn to show migration of Mixed Conifer-Northern Hardwoods

Association through LBL, 11,200-13,500 y.B.P.

most likely a component of the LBL uplands.
Pollen samples taken along the Mississippi
Valley indicate that Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and
Asteraceae species dominated exposed upland
areas (18). Prairie was a major component in
the Missouri Ozarks (18) and in central and
southern Illinois (19).

At the beginning of the Woodfordian Sub-
stage (23,000 y.B.P.), a major transition took
place. The Quercus-Carya mixture changed to
a Picea-Quercus mixture because of the influ-
ence of the Pacific Airmass (18). Forests be-
came closed and prairie elements disappeared.
During the height of the Wisconsinan glacia-
tion (18,000 y.B.P.), LBL was dominated by
northern Pinus spp. (e.g., P. banksiana and P.
resinosa), with Picea and Abies spp. subdom-
inant (13).

The last major interval of climatic warming
and deglaciation began approximately 16,500
y.B.P. At 14,000 y.B.P. (i.e, Woodfordian
Substage), LBL was dominated by a Picea-Pi-
nus assemblage. Between 11,500 and 13,500
y.B.P., a Mixed Conifer-Northern Hardwood
assemblage migrated through LBL (20). This
assemblage included Tsuga, Pinus, Picea,
Abies, Quercus, Betula, Ulmus, Fraxinus, Os-
trya, Acer, and Fagus (Fig. 2). The Mixed Co-
nifer-Northern Hardwood assemblage was fol-
lowed by Mixed Hardwoods, which were

succeeded by significant increases in Quercus
spp. and a warm-temperate flora (13).

Holocene Series and
Aboriginal History

The Holocene Series began approximately
12,500 y.B.P. (14) and was followed shortly by
human inhabitation of Land Between The
Lakes (LBL) (21). Four historic cultures in-
habited LBL: Paleoindian, Archaic, Wood-
land, and Mississippian (21) (Table 2, Fig. 3).

The first inhabitants, the Paleoindians, led
a highly nomadic lifestyle, following and hunt-
ing large Pleistocene fauna (21, 22). Their
tools and weapons were constructed from the
large amount of chert in the area (23). Chert
was so accessible from the Cumberland River
(rivers were the main form of transportation)
that later settlements in Illinois and Missouri
quarried chert in Stewart County, Tennessee
(QD).

Early inhabitants likely impacted vegetation
through their use of fire. Cultures migrating
into North America during the Pleistocene
were already using fire for management pur-
poses (23). Early cultures commonly fired for-
ests and grasslands to drive game, improve vis-
ibility, facilitate travel, decrease reptiles and
arthropods, increase grass, seeds, and berries,
and for offense and defense during war (25,

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE—Franklin 9

TABLE 2.
Approximate dates Culture
10,000-8,000 y.B.P. Paleoindians
8,000— 2,500 y.B.P. Archaic
2,500-1,000 y.B.P. Woodland
1,000-500 y.B.P. Mississippian

Native American Indians:
Chickasaw, Shawnee, Chero-
kee, Creek, Iroqois

500-300 y.B.P.

300-200 y.B.P. Unoccupied

200 y.B.P.—present European settlement

26, 27, 28). Fire is still used by most aboriginal
cultures in the world to manage vegetation
(D5).

By 10,000 y.B.P., LBL was likely dominated
by Mixed Hardwoods because of the effects of
the Maritime Tropical airmass (13). Toward
the end of glacial advance, Quercus spp. dom-
inated forests in the area (14, 15). The last
pulse of glacial meltwater was approximately
9,200 y.B.P. During the extremely dry Hyp-
sithermal (8,700-—5,000 y.B.P.), prairie expand-
ed eastward while southern and swamp vege-
tation (e.g., Taxodium distichum) expanded
northward (14, 15, 29). At 5,000 y.B.P., xeric
Quercus and Carya spp. probably dominated
LBL (14). Mixed Hardwoods were restricted
to favorable ravines and slopes along the Ten-
nessee and Cumberland rivers (13). Exposed
upland areas were composed of open forest or
dominated by herbaceous flora.

Along with changes in vegetation, a transi-
tion from the Paleoindian culture to the Ar-
chaic culture took place during the mid-Ho-
locene. The Archaic culture, 8,000—2,500
y.B.P., a hunting and gathering culture, was
less mobile and more concentrated than the
Paleoindians (21, 26). Archaic settlements
were large (up to 4.1 ha in Stewart County)
and were often occupied for long periods of
time. The greatest impact of the Archaic In-
dians occurred on and around their settle-
ments.

From the end of the Hypsithermal (5,000

First extant cultures of man in

Relied on less mobile and more

Hunting and gathering pattern

Aborigines of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee (21).

Summary Climate

Cool-temperate, abun-
southeast U.S. Big game hunt- _—_ dant moisture.

ers, nomadic.

Warm and dry, expan-
concentrated resource pattern. sion of prairie.
Progression to cooler and
continued, gathering increased more moist conditions.

in importance.

Permanent sites established with

agriculture.

Decentralization of large villages

into small agricultural villages;
greater reliance on hunting.

Hunting by various tribes and

exploration by Europeans.

Logging, iron mining, grazing,

and agriculture.

y.B.P.) to present, increased precipitation
raised watertables (29). Southern Pinus spp.
(e.g., P. echinata and P. virginiana) invaded
prairie areas and southern Quercus spp. soon
followed northward. Alluvial terraces and low-
er slopes dominated by Quercus spp. were
succeeded by more mesophytic species from
floodplains and protected cove refugia (14,
30). However, this succession was slowed be-
cause of the extensive use of fire on the up-
lands and clearing of forest on the bottom-
lands by the Woodland, Mississippian, and
Native American Indians.

The hunting subsistence of the Archaic cul-
ture continued into the beginning of the
Woodland culture (2,500-1,000 y.B.P.), but
the Woodland culture depended more on
gathering wild plant foods, e.g., nuts, berries
and roots (21). Woodland settlements were
later pushed out of the area by Mississippians
(21). The Mississippian culture (1,000-500

.B.P.) had the greatest community structure
of all the early cultures (21). Agriculture was
introduced to the LBL area and the products,
mainly corn, beans, squash, and pumpkin
(Curcurbita pepo), were supplemented by
hunting, fishing (including shellfish), and gath-
ering of fruits and seeds (21, 22, 23, 24). The
Mississippian’s sedentary way of life allowed
time for the construction of large temple
mounds, a hallmark of this culture. These
structures, along with permanent villages,
were associated with agricultural lands that

10 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55( 1-2)

Scale(km)

ene ed]
o 5 10

P Paleoindian
A Archaic
W Woodland
M_ Mississippian
uu LBL Boundary
\ af
w |
Y fi
<s (@
by Oe oa
se
¥
Fic. 3. Aboriginal settlements in Land Between The

Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee (21). Alluvial bottomland
and valleys are outlined.

supported more dense populations than
Woodland cultures.

Aboriginal disturbance was focused along
the major rivers and their tributaries. Alluvial
corridors several kilometers wide were cleared
for settlements and agriculture (14). Satz (31)
believed that early Americans used the alluvial
soil because it was easier to till and soil nutri-
ents were replenished by frequent flooding.
Swidden agriculture (slash and burn) and sed-
entary farming were common practices among
later cultures who (B. M. Butler, Center Ar-
chaeological Invest., Southern Illinois Univ.,
pers. comm.) felled trees with stone axes and

fire (14, 27). The Mississippian culture made
greater use of fire for cooking and clearing of
land than the Woodland culture (14).

Approximately 500 y.B.P., a decentralizing
trend began and large Mississippian commu-
nities disintegrated into Native American In-
dian tribes (21, 32). These tribes led a more
migratory lifestyle, in which hunting and gath-
ering increased and agriculture declined (21,
33). The Chickasaw Indians had settlements
in the Jackson Purchase area and probably in-
habited fragmented communities along the
Tennessee and Cumberland rivers and their
tributaries (21, 32). A considerable area of for-
est was cleared for home sites, agricultural
land, and other forest products (14, 27) and
the longer a site was occupied, the further the
forest receded because of the demand for
fuelwood. Old open Indian sites were often
used by early Europeans to establish their own
settlements (27, 34).

Land Between The Lakes was likely domi-
nated by the Quercus-Carya association
throughout the late-Holocene. Upland areas
remained open because of a combination of
large ungulate grazing and annual anthropo-
genic burning. Although the occupation of
Tennessee and Cumberland River valleys near
LBL ended just before the eighteenth century
(300 y.B.P.), most early writers claim LBL and
lands east of LBL were used by Native Amer-
icans for hunting purposes (31, 35, 36). Choc-
taw, Chickasaw, Shawnee, and Cherokee In-
dians annually burned these areas and parties
from all tribes continued to hunt on the land
(32, 37, 38, 39). Jeromiah Nickell in 1782, one
of the first settlers between the rivers, found
open uplands approximately 0.8 km from the
Tennessee River because Native Americans
had burned the lands so frequently (34). Sauer
(40) stated “[t]here is nothing in the distri-
bution of forests in this part of the country to
suggest that climate or the history of forest
migration could explain the lack of forests in
the Pennyroyal uplands.”

Ungulates, especially large herds of bison
(Bison bison), had an impact on the vegetation
through grazing and soil compaction. Several
trails, ranging from 18-61 m wide crisscrossed
the area connecting the rivers and streams
(32). The Trace, the main road in LBL run-
ning north-south, was in fact an old bison trace
(trail) (32). However, intensive harvesting of

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE—Franklin

PRAIRIE/SAVANNA

ASSOCIATION
Ww Quercus
stellata
Quercus S:

velutina

fag
w
2
a
uw Canebreak
ra Taxodlum
Y distichum p P
a 3
E t
sty : ie

os

Ll
9B
Quercus
marilandica
-GUIN 5
oY OAK/HICKORY fod
ASSOCIATION ws
iva
Q
BOTTOMLAND Z
HARDWOODS <<
jog
oO
aS os caee NS
seseseses GREENDALE 32st eyaaen| « y\ Ay
RoE, NOLIN T } Way.

it I
fe es ee eae eee eso poh hh tt 9

Poste Terese les erent [ens feces cease oss [oes [ven Joc [ones ema [ncs [eos [ee]

Tatar roracacrararacs

Vertical Scale =

Horizontal Scale = 6

Fic. 4.
settlement.

deer (Odocoileus virginianus), elk (Cervus ela-
phus), bison, and beaver (Castor canadensis )
began in the mid 1700s (41). Bison were es-
sentially extirpated east of the Mississippi Riv-
er by 1800 (35, 42).

Settlement by early American cultures,
through agricultural activity, use of various
wood products and annual burning, influenced
the vegetation seen by European explorers in
the 1700s (Fig. 4).

Pre-European Settlement Vegetation

Prior to extensive settlement of the LBL
area, hunters, fur-traders, and explorers visit-
ed and traded with natives. These early writers
describe three main types of terrestrial vege-
tation: (1) swamps and bayous, (2) bottom-
land/upland hardwoods, and (3) savannas/prai-
ries/barrens (Fig. 5) (39, 43).

Swamp lowland communities included Tax-
odium distichum, Planera aquatica, Nyssa
aquatica, and canebrakes (Arundinaria gigan-
tea) (32, 35, 39, 43). Towering cypress 36-46
m high with “truly enormous” buttresses were
observed along the Big Sandy River which
empties into the Tennessee River just up-
stream from LBL (43). Stands of T. distichum
and N. aquatica were described in the low-
lying sloughs of the Jackson Purchase (44), the
Cache River bottomlands (45) and the Wabash
Valley (46). Alnus serrulata, Salix humilis,
Cephalanthus occidentalis and Malus angus-

tt
0 10 20 30 40m

2km

Reconstruction of vegetation pattern of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee, prior to European

tifolia were found along the margins of wet
areas (32, 43). Perrin (47) described the Cum-
berland River floodplain as more “checkered”
(i.e., contained more sloughs and swamps)
than the Tennessee River floodplain. The
mouth of the Cumberland River was inter-
spersed with marshes, ponds, and lagoons
(48). Sand bars and islands within the river
floodplain were covered with Populus deltoi-
des and Salix spp. (35).

Cane (Arundinaria gigantea) was found
along the lower courses of rivers in rich soils
above inundations (49) and on alluvial soils
along rivers and creeks (39, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49,
50). Arundinaria grew in thick groves or cane-
brakes up to several kilometers in area and
stems ranged from 3.0-9.0 m in height (35,
43, 46, 49). In many instances, dense stands
of cane comprised the entire understory of
bottomland hardwoods (35). Cane was a mas-
sive resource for early cultures who used it to
make weapons, mats, couches, and walls for
buildings (31, 51). However, overgrazing by
cattle or rooting by hogs easily killed cane
(51). Thus, most of the breaks were eliminated
by grazing or farming. Remnant canebrakes
with stems up to 6.5 m in height can still be
found in the LBL area. Some breaks cover
0.40.8 ha (52).

Alluvial and ravine forests consisted of

Quercus nigra, Q. phellos, Q. alba, Q. rubra,

12 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 50(1-2)

= Mammoth
Furnace

(od

q
‘
i
WE Former Furnace Site j
@ Former Town H
“X° Brown Iron Ore Deposits (Former mines) Hl
A FortHenry R x
wu LBL Boundary '
Scale(km) j C
ens} \\
0 5 10 \\
h
H
'
H
H
H
H
4
H
He
4

LP eee
Nena crore Hl “s . .

Fic. 5. Location of iron furnaces, iron ore mining sites
and towns of Land Between The Lakes, Kentucky and
Tennessee, during the later part of the 1800s. Alluvial bot-
tomland and valleys are outlined.

Q. palustris, Q. bicolor, Q. macrocarpa, Q.
lyrata, Carya glabra, C. illinoensis, C. ovata,
C. laciniosa, Liquidambar styraciflua, Populus
deltoides, Nyssa sylvatica, Diospyros virgini-
ana, Betula, Gleditsia triacanthos, Fraxinus,
Catalpa, Magnolia acuminata, Liriodendron
tulipifera, Acer saccharum, A. negundo, Plat-
anus occidentalis, and Fagus grandifolia (6,
35, 39, 40, 44, 49, 53). These bottomland
hardwood trees were of enormous size. An ac-
count of tree size in the mid 1800s, Penny-
royal Region, found “[t]he white oak, burr
oak, and swamp white oak, form immense

trunks, reaching to a height of eighty feet
[24.4 m], where they still seem to be three
feet [.9 m] in diameter. One could hardly de-
termine which to admire most, their number,
their size, or their grand uniform straight
trunks” (40). Flint (49) described thickly tim-
bered areas of huge trees along the Mississippi
Valley with undergrowth consisting of Asimina
triloba and Vitis spp. the width of humans. In
some instances, Cercis canadensis, Ceanothus,
Forestiera acuminata, and Lindera benzoin
contributed to the understory canopy (35, 39,
44, 46, 49). Extensive woody vines, e.g., Vitis
spp., Toxicodendron radicans, Anistostichus
capreolata, Campsis radicans, and Smilax
spp., sometimes formed impenetrable thorny
tangles (32, 35, 39, 43, 46).

Alluvial forests graded into lower slope for-
ests of similar vegetation but with a greater
abundance of Fagus grandifolia and upland
Quercus spp. (35, 54). Lower slope and bot-
tomland forests were sometimes described by
early writers as “park-like” (i.e., widely spaced
trees with an herbaceous understory) because
of periodic fires. Andre Michaux, a French
botanist who explored the Lower Cumberland
Valley in 1802, remarked that a stag could be
seen 183-274 m away because trees were so
widely spaced. He further wrote that the un-
derstory used to be composed of cane (35).
Quercus spp. dominated areas where fires in-
fluenced forests. Abrams (28) considers the
dominance of Quercus spp. throughout the
eastern hardwood region to be the result of
fire.

Along the highland rim, open forest (includ-
ing savanna and barrens) and prairies domi-
nated the dissected topography on middle and
upper slopes (Fig. 5). Typical trees of these
open communities included Quercus marilan-
dica, Q. velutina, Q. stellata, Q. prinus, Q. fal-
cata, red oak (Q. rubra or coccinea), Oxyden-
drum arboreum, and Castanea dentata (32,
39, 43). Shrubs included Corylus americana,
Amelanchier arborea, Hydrangea, and various
Vaccinium spp. (32, 39, 44). “Gravelly hills” of
a cherty strata were dominated by Q. prinus,
Q. arboreum, Carya tomentosa, and C. glabra.
Unlike the present upland forests, these park-
like forests had an abundance of graminoids
and other herbaceous species in their under-
story (43, 55). Also, barrens were common on
long, uniform, undulating hills in the Missis-

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE—Franklin 13

sippi Valley. They were covered with tall
coarse grass and sparse, scrubby trees (49).

Michaux described a dense sward (i.e., Po-
aceae) that blanketed terrain adjacent to the
strip of riparian forest between the rivers (32).
Flint in 1852 (49) separated prairies into
healthy, alluvial, and dry. Alluvial prairies,
found along great water courses, were inun-
dated for long periods of time and formed “re-
serves of stagnant water.” This environment
was not conducive to tree growth. Dry prairies
were the most extensive class of prairies found
on the flat plains. They contained “weeds,”
forbs, and grasses. The healthy prairies were
intermediate to the alluvial and dry prairies.
These prairies contained springs surrounded
by shrubs, including Corylus and Sassafras al-
bidum. Vitis spp. stems and summer flora
were abundant.

Two types of barrens were identified on the
Western Highland Rim, Tennessee: (1) loess
barrens on the surface of the rim, and (2) shal-
low clay soils over limestone (limestone bar-
rens) found on flat to sloping sites near the
Tennessee River (41). Both barren types were
dominated by Schyzachyrium scoparium. Co-
dominants of-the loess barrens included An-
dropogon gyrans, Parthenium integrifolium,
and Panicum angustifolium. Codominants of
limestone barrens were Galactia volubilis,
Opuntia compressa, Fimbristylis puberula,
Andropogon gerardii, Sorghastrum nutans,
and Smilax spp. (41). Numerous other forb
species also contributed to the composition of
these communities (41, 43). DeSelm (41) sug-
gested these communities may be remnants of
the Hypsithermal prairie expansion. Early re-
ports on the Jackson Purchase (56) and Mont-
gomery and Stewart counties (54) also noted
extensive prairie. In fact, almost all lands lying
east of the Cumberland River were classified
as barrens (35, 57, 58, 59) up to approximately
1.6 km from the river (35).

Post-European Settlement Vegetation

European settlement had an enormous im-
pact on the vegetation of LBL. Disturbances
related to iron manufacturing, agriculture,
timbering, whiskey distilling, changes in fire
frequency, and damming of rivers have shaped
the present vegetation.

Little effort was expended to settle lands
west of the Appalachians until the late 1700s

(39). In 1782, Jeromiah Nickell built a cabin
on an old Indian site and started a garden in
the open uplands (34). By 1795, several farm-
steads were established on the alluvial terraces
of LBL (32). Plantations were constructed
where bottomland forests and impenetrable
thickets of cane and briers once persisted (54).
But, the steep slopes and rocky uplands were
not farmed and swamps were often avoided
since settlers believed they were unhealthy
(60).

Following the eradication of Native Ameri-
can Indians and the cessation of annual burn-
ing, prairies quickly succeeded to forest (39).
Small trees began to “spring up” under park-
like woods within the Jackson Purchase (36).
Prairie was replaced by scrub oak (Q. mari-
landica, Q. velutina, and red oak) forest within
30 years (56), which in turn succeeded to mag-
nificent stands of Carya, Fraxinus, Nyssa syl-
vatica, Ulmus, Acer, Quercus, Liriodendron
tulipifera, Catalpa, Juglans, and Platanus oc-
cidentalis (61). This rapid succession on the
“barrens” in Kentucky and Tennessee has led
some researchers to reconsider whether these
areas were actually part of the Prairie Penin-
sula (38, 62). The landscape impact by Euro-
peans was similar to that of Native American
cultures, in that while the effects of fire
shaped the vegetation on the uplands, a vari-
ety of disturbance shaped the bottomland veg-
etation.

Iron production had a severe impact on the
bottomland forests of LBL. A total of 8 fur-
naces were constructed within LBL between
1843 and 1912 (12), as well as a rolling mill
and iron works located near Empire Furnace
(63). Furnaces were built out of limestone
mined from the surrounding area. Because of
hauling expense, both iron ore and limestone
were mined within a few miles of the furnace
site. Hardwood forests supplied wood for
charcoal (63, 64, 65). Most of the “coalings”
(i.e., forest land used in iron manufacture)
were found along the bottomlands and adja-
cent slopes (12, 63). Wood was transformed
into charcoal in hearths, remains of which are
still visible in the LBL forests. The circular
sites of past charcoal hearths are distinguished
by depauperate vegetation and black soil that
was sterilized because of intense heat. Sassa-
fras albidum and Cornus florida are generally

14 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

the major tree species found on old charcoal
hearths (66).

More than 10,000 cords of wood, 81—200 ha
of “coalings,” were necessary to keep a typical
furnace “in blast” around the clock, 6 days a
week, for 8 to 10 months (12, 64). However,
iron-furnace productivity was highly variable.
In estimating the impact of each furnace,
Gildrie (12) concluded that the maximum area
of timber cut by the industry prior to 1865 was
8,500-12,750 ha (12-19% of the total area be-
tween the rivers). After 1865, only 4,450 ha
(6% of the total area) of timber was utilized.
Three to 4 times as much forest was cut in
Kentucky than in Tennessee. In addition,
“coalings” were only utilized in Tennessee un-
til 1862, while Kentucky “coalings” were ex-
ploited as late as 1912. Upland “coalings,” be-
ing much more open, i.e., trees more widely
spaced (39), required a greater area to pro-
duce the necessary amount of charcoal. The
Center Furnace recorded higher acreage es-
timates from 1905-1912, when the policy was
to use “scrub oak, blackjack, and other small
trees that wouldn’t be suitable for crossties”
(12). Dense stands of Q. stellata, Q. velutina,
or Q. alba regenerated on old “coalings” in
upland areas (26, 40). These species presently
dominate several old “coalings” in LBL.

In 1874, J. B. Killebrew, the Tennessee
State Commissioner of Agriculture, mourned,
“[i]n the neighborhood of old furnaces, it [tim-
ber] has been cut down for a distance of 3 to
4 miles, and used for making charcoal. Sprouts
put up every year, but the annual fires which
sweep over the old ‘coalings’ with devastating
fury, destroy them. No new timber is taking
place of the old. Barren, sightless old fields,
covered in broomsedge [Andropogon virgini-
cus], meet the eye on every hand” (12, 64, 67).
Timber depletion was one reason for the de-
mise of the iron industry (12, 63, 65). Kille-
brew advocated laws that prevented harvesting
immature timber (<30 years) (65). Although
30 years may seem young for being designated
a mature forest, roots of bottomland forest
trees reaching the water table grow at an enor-
mous rate (H. Newland, Former State For-
ester, Kentucky, pers. comm.). For example,
in 20-25 years red oaks grew to produce 2.4—
3.1 m railroad ties, approximately 40 cm di-
ameter at breast height (H. Newland, Former
State Forester, Kentucky, pers. comm.).

Bottomland forest was converted from
“coalings” into cropland or simply cultivated
after “deadening” trees. “Deadening” was a
practice of girdling trees, subsequently burn-
ing over the land and then cultivating between
trunks. Slash and burn agriculture was adopt-
ed from Native Americans by European set-
tlers (25). In the early 1800s, farms remained
frontier-like (23), but crop plantations soon
appeared (47). In the early twentieth century,
LBL homesteads ranged from impoverished
and isolated, like those of mountain regions
(40), to large plantations created by iron in-
dustries to supplement workers (47, 64). By
the early 1900s, farmlands comprised most of
the bottomlands and alluvial terraces (40).

Cattle grazed and hogs rooted in open
woodlands of the dissected upland slopes.
Hogs sustained themselves almost entirely on
mast (40). Sauer (40) promoted the cessation
of open grazing, a practice that slowed natural
succession. Canebrakes, while at first excellent
forage, were soon destroyed (51). In an effort
to rejuvenate the forest, laws were passed or-
dering domestic livestock confinement.

“Firi ing” the land was widely employed to
manage private property in LBL (GIN oeoos
44). Early settlers routinely followed Native
American Indian practices into the twentieth
century, including using fire for swidden ag-
riculture and hunting (25, 39). Miller (68), an
Illinois State Forester, and Killebrew de-
nounced “firing” the land after harvest be-
cause of its harmful effects on forest regen-
eration (65). In 1936, fire towers were erected
within LBL, but laws were not passed and
funds were not available to fight fire until the
late 1950s and early 1960s (H. Newland, For-
mer State Forester, Kentucky, pers. comm.).
Finally, in 1953, the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture called for a cooperative
fire-control program to protect forests of pri-
vate, corporate, state, and Tennessee Valley
Authority ownership. Fire scars from tree
cross sections taken at LBL indicate fires de-
creased in size, intensity and/or frequency 60—
80 years ago (69). Similar results have been
found through analysis of fire scars of upland
Quercus and Carya spp. in southern Illinois
(70). Three patterns of anthropogenic fire fre-
quency have occurred: (1) Native Americans
annually burned large areas, (2) early settlers
imitated this practice but not always annually

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY-IT ENNESSEE—Franklin 15)

or during the fall, and its use was generally
not as widespread because homesites dissect-
ed the landscape and created fire breaks, and
(3) twentieth century land owners suppressed
fire because of its harmful effect on forests.
During the 1800s, LBL uplands succeeded to
a more closed forest, because of the difficulty
in cultivating the dissected terrain and a de-
crease in fire frequency.

In the 1870s, J. B. Killebrew observed
“wood-choppers, stave-makers, sawyers, and
shingle-makers are especially numerous be-
tween the rivers” (12, 53). Eddyville, located
on the north side of the Cumberland River,
was a ship building site in the early 1800s.
Schooners and gunboats were built from the
surrounding forest (48). Production of railroad
ties was heavy from the 1880s to 1920s during
the push to expand the rail system westward
(55). “Tie making” was a particularly impor-
tant occupation during the winter season (40).
Whatever was missed by the iron industry, or
had regenerated since its domination, was har-
vested during this period. Cutting practices
were poor, often leaving only remnant seed
trees on broad areas otherwise cleared. Clear-
cutting (removing all stems) and highgrading
(removing the best stock) were the main har-
vesting methods and reduced the area to scrub
stock (H. Newland, Former State Forester,
Kentucky, pers. comm.). Within LBL, few
stands of trees date older than 130 years and
most date between 80-100 years (8, 10).

Patches of forests were also cleared for
whiskey distillation, although areas adjacent
were left uncut to hide the still. With hun-
dreds of stills in operation in the early 1900s,
LBL was known as the “whiskey capital of the
world” (71). Although small areas were im-
pacted by a single still, as many as 7 stills could
be found along a single creek. Often, moon-
shiners set fires to screen stills from prohibi-
tioners (H. Newland, Former State Forester,
Kentucky, pers. comm.).

In the early 1900s, Lyon and Trigg counties
were approximately 61% and 62% forested,
respectively (72). Quercus alba and Quercus
velutina comprised at least 64% of these coun-
ties’ total estimated lumber (72). Quercus
spp., noted for their sprouting ability following
both fire and cutting (73), now dominate LBL

because of periodic fire and past logging prac-

tices (28). Mesophytic species are far less
adapted to sprouting following disturbance.

Much of the remaining Bottomland hard-
woods, canebrakes, and” swamp vegetation
were inundated by Kentucky Lake and Lake

Barkley. The Kentucky Lake dam, completed
in 1944, and the Lake Barkley dam, completed
in 1965, impounded nearly all alluvial areas
between the rivers (Fig. 5). The suppression
of fire, large-scale use of natural resources,
and inundation of alluvial valleys have shaped
the present vegetation composition and struc-
ture of LBL.

Present Vegetation

The present vegetation of LBL is mostly
second and third-growth timber, comprised
mainly of Quercus species. Canebrakes and
bottomland hardwoods remain in the alluvial
areas that have escaped cultivation and inun-
dation by the lakes.

Upland prairie and savanna communities
have succeeded to closed forest with a de-
pleted herbaceous layer. The closed forest mi-
croclimate is cooler and moister than open
forests, thereby allowing the invasion of and
succession to more mesophytic species (74).

Alluvial and mid-slope areas currently domi-
nated by Quercus spp. are succeeding to more
mesophytic species, Jae Acer saccharum
and Fagus grandifolia (11, 75). Invasion of A.
sgeharam into upland Quercus stands has
been observed throughout the Central Hard-
woods Region (28, 76, 77, 78). Natural stands
of Pinus echinata are still found on the Devil’s
Backbone, Tennessee, but are rapidly suc-
ceeding to several species of Quercus (7, 11,
75). A similar succession is occurring within
natural stands of P. virginiana along the bluffs
of the Tennessee River across from Blood Riv-
ers mouth.

CONCLUSION

The vegetation of LBL has not been static.
Glacial advances during the Pleistocene
caused migrations of boreal and northern de-
ciduous taxa to pass through LBL. Following
their retreat, southern Quercus and Pinus Spp.
dominated. Drier climates and burning re-
gimes of early Americans created open com-
munities on the uplands until the onset of
Europeans.

Agrodeforestation and wildfire control by

16 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

the Europeans have led to the reversal of for-
est dominance across the landscape. The once
open uplands, dominated by prairie grasses
and scattered Quercus spp., have been re-
placed by closed forest. Crop fields and rec-
reation lakes have replaced the heavily tim-
bered bottomland forests. The current
vegetation patterns and successional trends in
vegetation throughout LBL are expressions of
its past history and predictions of its future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Marty Vogt, Steve Kettler,
and Jim Peters for their help with data collec-
tion and analysis. Thanks also to Larry Doyle,
Dr. Edward W. Chester, Dr. Betty Jo Wallace,
Dr. Brian Butler, Matt Peterson, and Harrod
Newland for their generous assistance with re-
search and for sharing personal information. A
special thanks to Dr. Philip A. Robertson, Dr.
David J. Gibson, Deanna B. Franklin, Dr.
Ralph Thompson, and an anonymous reviewer
for their guidance and critical review of the
manuscript. Portions of this research were
supported by Land Between The Lakes, Ten-
nessee Valley Authority.

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APPENDIX A. Common name, generic name, specific epithet, and taxonomic authority for species used in text.

Scientific name

Acer negundo L.

saccharum Marsh.
Aesculus glabra Willd.
Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd.
Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern.
Andropogon gerardii Vitman

gyrans Ashe

virginicus L.
Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Chapm.
Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal
Campsis radicans (L.) Seem.

Common name

Box elder

Sugar maple
Ohio buckeye
Smooth alder
Serviceberry

Big bluestem
Elliott's broom sedge
Broom sedge
Giant cane
Paw-paw
Trumpet creeper

PLEISTOCENE-HOLOCENE VEGETATION IN KENTUCKY-TENNESSEE—Franklin

APPENDIX A. Continued.

Scientific name

Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet
illinoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch
laciniosa (Michx. f.) Loud.
ovata (Mill.) K. Koch
tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt.

Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.

Cephalanthus occidentalis L.

Cercis canadensis L.

Cladrastis lutea (Michx. f.) K. Koch

Cornus florida L.

Corylus americana Walt.

Cucurbita pepo L.

Diospyros virginiana L.

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.

Fimbristylis puberula (Michx.) Vahl.

Forestiera acuminata (Michx.) Poir.

Galactia volubilis (L.) Britt.

Gleditsia triacanthos L.

Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch

Juglans nigra L.

Juniperus virginiana L.

Lindera benzoin (1.) Blume.

Liriodendron tulipifera L.

Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Magnolia acuminata L.

Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx.

Nyssa aquatica L.
sylvatica Marsh.

Opuntia compressa (Salisb.) Macbr.

Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC.

Panicum angustifolium Ell.

Parthenium integrifolium L.

Pinus banksiana Lamb.
echinata Mill.
resinosa Ait.
virginiana Mill.

Planera aquatica |. F. Gmel.

Platanus occidentalis L.

Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.

Quercus alba L.
bicolor Willd.
coccinea Muenchh.
falcata Michx.
lyrata Walt.
macrocarpa Michx.
marilandica Muenchh.
nigra L.
palustris Muenchh.
phellos L.
prinus L.
stellata Wangenh.
rubra L.
velutina Lam.

Salix humilis Marsh.

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees

Schizachyrium scoparium (Michx.) Nash.

Sorghastrum nutans (L.) Nash.
Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich.
Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze.
Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.

Zea mays L.

=
Common name

Pignut hickory
Pecan

Shellbark hickory
Shagbark hickory
Mockernut hickory
American chestnut
Buttonbush
Eastern redbud
Yellowwood
Flowering dogwood
American hazelnut
Pumpkin
Persimmon
American beech
Fimbristylis

Swamp privet
Downy milk pea
Honeylocust
Kentucky coffee-tree
Black walnut
Eastern red cedar
Spicebush

Tulip poplar
Sweetgum
Cucumber magnolia
Narrow-leaved crab apple
Swamp tupelo
Black gum
Prickly-pear cactus
Sourwood
Narrow-leaved panic grass
American feverfew
Jack pine

Shortleaf pine

Red pine

Virginia pine
Planertree
American sycamore
Eastern Cottonwood
White oak

Swamp white oak
Scarlet oak
Southern red oak
Overcup oak

Bur oak

Blackjack oak
Water oak

Pin oak

Willow oak
Chestnut oak

Post oak

Northern red oak
Black oak

Prairie willow
Sassafras

Little bluestem
Indian grass

Bald cypress
Poison ivy

Eastern hemlock
Corn

19

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—2), 1994, 20-27

The Relict Darter, Etheostoma chienense (Percidae):
Status Review of a Kentucky Endemic]

MELVIN L. WARREN, JR.

USDA Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Hydrology Laboratory,
P.O. Box 947, Oxford, Mississippi 38655

AND

Brooks M. BuRR AND CHRISTOPHER A. TAYLOR?
Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale,
Carbondale, Illinois 62901

ABSTRACT

The distribution, microhabitat affinity and availability, and conservative estimates of numbers of Etheos-
toma chienense, the relict darter, were assessed. All known historical sites and sites in nearby drainages that
might harbor the species were surveyed. The relict darter is endemic to the Bayou du Chien drainage,
Graves and Hickman counties, Kentucky, where it is most abundant in Jackson Creek and a limited reach
of upper Bayou du Chien near the town of Water Valley. The species has a decided affinity for undercut
banks and adjacent narrow (<4 m), shallow (<25 cm), moderately flowing (<0.3 m/sec) runs underlain with
sandy gravel. At the 5 sites yielding the species, estimates of the extent of suitable habitat ranged from <5
to 110 m of stream. Suitable cover and spawning habitat were deemed primary limiting factors for the
species. Given its limited distribution and apparent dependence on one spawning area, the relict darter is

extremely vulnerable to anthropogenic activities.

INTRODUCTION

The relict darter, Etheostoma chienense
Page and Ceas, a recently described member
of the Etheostoma squamiceps complex (sub-
genus Catonotus, family Percidae), is endemic
to the Bayou du Chien drainage of western
Kentucky (1). Because the species is restricted
in distribution and has a limited spawning
area, it is being considered for federal listing
as an endangered or threatened species (2, 3).
We summarize here the findings of a status
survey of the relict darter (2) including a near-
comprehensive review and summary of the lit-
erature related to its taxonomy, biology, and
distribution.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

All known contemporary and historical lit-
erature regarding the relict darter was re-
viewed and relevant findings summarized or

' As this article went to press the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service determined the relict darter to be Endangered
under the authority of the Endandered Species Act of
1973 (Fed. Reg. 58(246):68480—-68486).

* Present address (CAT): Center for Biodiversity, IIli-
nois Natural History Survey, Champaign, Illinois 61820.

20

referenced herein (see Appendix I for sum-
mary of all known historical sites). In 1991,
selected localities in Bayou du Chien and
Obion Creek drainages, Kentucky, were sur-
veyed for the relict darter using standard min-
now seines and dip nets (see Appendix II for
complete locality data on sites surveyed or re-
connoitered). Institutional acronyms are given
in Appendix I and follow Leviton et al. (4) and
Leviton and Gibbs (5).

To characterize the habitat of the relict
darter, we measured stream width, depth, and
velocity at the site of capture as well as the
overall channel width. Velocity was deter-
mined by repeatedly timing a submerged ob-
ject over a given distance. Substrate and cover
at each capture site also were recorded.

RESULTS

Taxonomy and Synonymy.—The relict dart-
er is one of 10 recognized species in the Eth-
eostoma squamiceps complex of the subgenus
Catonotus and is the sister species to a mono-
phyletic group comprised of E. pseudovula-
tum, E. neopterum, and E. oophylax (1). The
relict darter was first recognized as a distinct
taxon by Page et al. (1), although apparently

Tue Revicr DarTER IN KeENrucky—Warren, Burr, and Taylor 2

it was first discovered in Bayou du Chien by
Webb and Sisk (6; reported as E. squamiceps).
In other publications, the relict darter has
been included in the synonymy of the spottail
darter (E. squamiceps) by Burr (7), Page (8),
Kuehne and Barbour (9), and Page (10); and
the lollypop darter (E. neopterum) by Braasch
and Mayden (11), Burr and Warren (12), and
Page and Burr (13). Distinguishing features of
the subgenus Catonotus and the E. squami-
ceps complex, as well as a complete descrip-
tion and illustrations of the relict darter, were
provided by Page et al. (1). Braasch and May-
den (11) also provided illustrations of the spe-
cies (as Etheostoma neopterum, see 11, Figs.
2b and 13, upper half-tone).
Distribution.—The relict darter is known
only from the Bayou du Chien system in west-
ern Kentucky (Appendix I). Bayou du Chien
is a small primarily sand and mud bottomed
Coastal Plain stream in extreme western Ken-
tucky that drains about 554 km? (12). To pro-
vide perspective on the likelihood of persis-
tence or occurrence of the relict darter in
other drainages, we note that previous survey
work in surrounding drainages, including
Clarks River (14, 15) and Obion River (16 and
records at SIUC, UT, INHS) failed to reveal
any species possibly representing the relict
darter. Moreover, the immediately adjacent
drainages of Mayfield and Obion creeks have
failed to yield the species. Historical collec-
tions from Mayfield and Obion creeks were
made by Woolman (17) at Hickory Grove and
Cypress, Kentucky, respectively, but no spe-
cies representing the subgenus Catonotus
were reported by him. Smith and Sisk (18)
provided information specifically documenting
the fauna of Obion Creek from 39 collections
at 21 stations but did not report any species
currently placed in the subgenus Catonotus.
Our review of records compiled by Burr
and Warren (12) and recently updated at
SIUC indicate that at least 42 collections are
represented for Mayfield Creek, excluding
those made in wetlands. Likewise, records for
56 collections (including those in 18) are avail-
able for the Obion Creek mainstem and trib-
utaries. We also examined 5 sites in Brushy
Creek (Obion Creek drainage) which has its
headwaters immediately adjacent Jackson
Creek and upper Bayou du Chien and, given
this geographical proximity, is a logical area to

TasBLeE 1. Summary of present and historical distribution
localities and numbers of individuals observed of the relict
darter, an endemic species of Bayou du Chien in Fulton,
Graves, and Hickman counties, Kentucky. Localities are
arranged from upstream to downstream (complete locality
information is referenced by site number and/or catalog
number in Appendix I and I).
NA = not available.

ND = not determined;

Number of
Individuals
Locality 1991 Pre-1991
Bayou du Chien
(Site 2, NE Water Valley) 5 NA*
Bayou du Chien (Hwy 45) ND NA*
Jackson Cr. (Site 1) 18 100+
Bayou du Chien (Site 3, Hwy 1283) 46 2
Bayou du Chien (Site 4, Hwy 307) 2 3
Sand Creek (Hwy 307) 0 NA*
Bayou du Chien (Site 5, Davis Rd.) 1 2
Little Bayou du Chien
(Hwy 239 bridge) 0 NA
Bayou du Chien
(UT 91.2839, N of Moscow) 0 1

* Webb and Sisk (1975), specimens unavailable.

search for the species. However, of the 5 sites
visited, 3 were completely dry, and relict dart-
ers were not collected from the remaining 2
(see Appendix IT).

Within the Bayou du Chien drainage, the
downstream-most locality known from previ-
ous collections of the relict darter is in the
vicinity of Moscow, Hickman County (but see
following) (Table 1). The upstream-most lo-
cality is from Bayou du Chien, NW of Water
Valley (Table 1, Site 2). This site in Jackson
Creek has been surveyed by us and others
(Appendices I and II) in March, April, August,
and September, and consistently has yielded
numerous relict darters. Our survey revealed
only 1 other locality (Site 3) that harbored the
species in abundance (Table 1). Site 3 previ-
ously has yielded only 1 individual (INHS
68008, Appendix I).

Habitat and Population Density.—We at-
tempted to quantify the habitat affinities of
the relict darter at the 5 sites in our survey
that yielded the species (Table 2). At most
sites, the species was associated with slow
flow, undercut banks (and associated root
mats), and substrates of fine gravel mixed with
sand and overlain with leaf litter. At sites along
the mainstem of Bayou du Chien, the species
showed a decided affinity for undercut banks

22.

TABLE 2.
depth, nearest cm (range in parentheses); W =

type; substrate, predominant type.

Site D W CW V
1 9 (3-18) 2.5 (2.1-2.8) 28 0.04
2 10 (3-16) 3.0 (2.0-4.0) 4.0 0
3 18 (9-26) 2.5 (2.0-3.2) 13.0 0.29
+ 13 (8-15) 11.0 (10-12) 12.0 0.48
5 22 (9-32) 2.0 12.0 0.55

adjacent narrow (2-3 m) side channels under-
lain by gravel mixed with sand.

For sites at which the relict darter was most
abundant, we attempted to estimate the extent
(i.e., length in meters) of suitable habitat avail-
able. At Site 1, we estimated 7 individuals for
every 10 meters of suitable habitat. Of the
150-m reach examined at this site, about 110
m provided suitable habitat for the relict dart-
er. Extrapolating, we estimated (conservative-
ly) that 80 individuals may occupy the site (i.e.,
about 75 m upstream and downstream of the
bridge). At Site 3, 36 individuals were taken
within a 15-m reach of stream consisting of a
narrow channel adjacent an undercut bank
lined with root mats. Of the 100-m reach ex-
amined at Site 3, approximately 50 m ap-
peared to comprise excellent habitat for the
relict darter; hence, 120 individuals (conser-
vatively) could occupy the site (i.e., about 50
m upstream and 50 m downstream of the
bridge). At sites where few individuals were
taken, we estimated extent of suitable habitat
as follows: Site 2, <15 m; Site 4, <5 m:; Site
5, 15 m. These estimates exclude intervening
reaches of these streams that were not sur-
veyed because of limited access and may be
confounded by concentrations of individuals at
specific points at some sites (e.g., Sites 1 and
3) or capture of one or 2 individuals in non-
specific habitats (e.g., Site 4). However, suit-
able habitat does not appear to be uniformly
distributed in tributaries of Bayou du Chien
or the mainstem but is patchy and localized in
the system.

Ecology.—Presently, little is known of the
ecology of the relict darter, other than its af-
finity for undercut banks of small creeks and
its use of the undersides of sticks and logs for
attachment of eggs. Other Catonotus generally
use slab rocks for spawning. However, infor-

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

Microhabitat characteristics of the relict darter. Site numbers are referenced in Appendix I]. D = mean
mean width, nearest 0.1 m (range in parentheses); CW = maximum
stream channel width, nearest 0.1 m; V = velocity, m/sec; No. =

number of individuals captured; cover, predominant

No. Cover Substrate

18 Undercut bank Gravel/sand
DS Undercut bank Gravel/sand

46 Undercut bank Gravel/sand
2 None Sand/mud/gravel
it Undercut bank Gravel

mation is available on the ecology of other
members of the E. squamiceps complex (10,
19, 20), all of which undoubtedly share similar
life history attributes.

Within the Bayou du Chien system, only 1
spawning area has been identified (viz., Site 1)
(1). In our survey, the species was associated
in upper reaches with creek chub, Semotilus
atromaculatus, and blackspotted topminnow,
Fundulus olivaceus. Additional frequent asso-
ciates in the mainstem Bayou du Chien in-
cluded the saddleback darter (Percina ouachi-
tae), suckermouth minnow (Phenacobius
mirabilis), and freckled madtom (Noturus
nocturnus).

DISCUSSION

The endemism of the relict darter in Bayou
du Chien is unique. No other fish species
shares a similarly restricted distribution any-
where on the northern Gulf Coastal Plain of
Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, or Tennessee
(112, 21, 22; 23). Other species restricted to the
northern Gulf Coastal Plain, such as least
madtom (Noturus hildebrandi lautus) and fire-
belly darter (Etheostoma pyrrhogaster), are
unknown in Bayou du Chien and are distrib-
uted in 2 or more Mississippi River tributaries.
We conclude that it is extremely unlikely that
additional populations of the relict darter will
be discovered outside the immediately adja-
cent drainage area of Bayou du Chien given
the following: (1) the habitat affinities of the
relict darter; (2) the complete allopatry be-
tween it and its closest relatives (i.e., E.
oophylax, E. pseudovulatum, and E. neopter-
um all occur to the east in the Tennessee Riy-
er drainage); (3) the absence of any other spe-
cies in the E. squamiceps complex in
Mississippi River tributaries in Kentucky and
Tennessee except the relict darter and E, cros-

THE RELICT DaRTER IN KENTUCKY—Warren, Burr, and Taylor

bo
ioe)

A
Fulgham B
Cc 5
@
© Moscow F
@
D E

O Record stations
from previous surveys

@ Record stations
from 1991 survey

Fic. 1.

A Obion Creek

B Brush Creek

C Bayou du Chien
D Mud Creek

E Little Bayou du Chien

F Cane Creek

G Jackson Creek

H South Fork Bayou du Chien

Localities yielding relict darters (Etheostoma chienense) in 1991 (solid circles) and historically (open circles)

from Bayou du Chien drainage, Fulton, Graves, and Hickman counties, Kentucky. Complete locality ‘information for

positive records as well as ail stations surveyed is provided in Appendices I

Tables 1 and 2 and Appendix I.

sopterum; and (5) the availability of summaries
of species composition in these drainages that
do not record the relict darter (12, 93), As
judged from all previous collecting efforts and
known distribution of the relict darter, it is
clear that the species is restricted to a very
limited reach of Bayou du Chien.

As judged from the number of specimens
taken in collections from 1972 to 1991 within
the Bayou du Chien drainage, the relict darter
is most abundant in Jackson Creek (Site 1) and
downstream in Bayou du Chien to Site 3 (Ta-
lols IL, Lette, Jl), Although 5 individuals also were
taken at Site 2 in isolated pools, the majority
of the streambed was essentially dry. Other
localities for the relict darter within Bayou du
Chien apparently represent either emigrants
or waifs from this extremely limited reach of
the drainage since numerous visits to sites that
yielded 1 or 2 individuals in total generally fail
to yield even a single specimen. For example,
Site 4 has been sampled at least 10 times by
us or colleagues from 1979 to 1991, but only
5 relict darters have been collected from that

I and II. Site numbers are referenced in

site (16 July and 11 November 1980 and this
survey). We expended over 3 man-hours sein-
ing at this site and captured only 3 relict dart-
ers. Likewise, between 1978 and 1991 at least
11 collections were made in Bayou du Chien,
Little Bayou du Chien, and their respective
tributaries in the vicinity of Moscow, Hickman
Co. (Fig. 1), but the only positive records of
the relict darter from these downstream
reaches are those reported by Webb and Sisk
(6; including UT 91.2839, 1 individual). The
occurrence of the relict darter outside of the
Jackson Creek drainage and reaches of Bayou
du Chien immediately downstream of Jackson
Creek is highly unpredictable.

In prehistoric times, the relict darter may
have been more widespread in Bayou du
Chien but still restricted to reaches of the wa-
tershed lying upstream of the Mississippi Riv-
er floodplain (i.e., presently from about Mos-
cow and upstream). Bayou du Chien followed
a very sinuous course to the Mississippi River
floodplain prior to channelization. Channel
sinuosities likely afforded a plethora of both

24 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

undercut banks and associated gravel deposits,
which as indicated by this survey support most
of the relict darters in the drainage (Table 2).
Channelization also removed instream cover
and spawning substrates as well as riparian
vegetation. Channelization and agricultural
practices dewatered the floodplains and cur-
tailed perennial flow in many small tributaries
which further limited the habitat of the spe-
cies. Our survey indicates that many small
streams in the watershed are completely dry
or consist of isolated pools during the early fall
months (Appendix II). Both adults and young-
of-the-year trapped in isolated pools are sub-
ject to increased pressure from predation, ex-
posure to extremes in water temperature, and
ultimately total dessication. These observa-
tions suggest dispersal of the species upstream
of the Jackson Creek area or into many down-
stream tributaries may be limited by instream
flow. If Jackson Creek is the primary area of
recruitment, those individuals which do dis-
perse from the tributary may not spawn (or
spawn only infrequently) in flowing reaches of
Bayou du Chien because of limited spawning
substrates. The observed densities, distribu-
tion, and microhabitat availability of the relict
darter implies that the species is habitat lim-
ited, and recruitment may be constrained by
limited spawning substrates. The species is
now very restricted in the Bayou du Chien
drainage and may be dependent primarily on
the integrity of one small tributary, Jackson
Creek, for continued recruitment.

In short, probable historic reasons that may
have restricted the spawning area, habitat, and
distributional extent of the relict darter in-
clude: channelization of extensive reaches of
the mainstem of Bayou du Chien (6) with con-
comitant homogenization of instream habitat
as well as dewatering of floodplain tributaries;
ditching of tributaries and removal of shade-
producing riparian vegetation and concomi-
tant decrease in habitat and increase in
maximum stream temperatures; increased silt-
ation associated with poor agricultural practic-
es; and deforestation and drainage of riparian
wetlands with concomitant decreases in in-
stream low flow, especially in potential spawn-
ing areas. All of these factors have continued
potential to reduce or eliminate the species.

The relict darter has only recently been rec-
ognized as distinct and is being considered for

federal conservation status (2, 3). Page et al.
(1) recommended that the species be recog-
nized as threatened or endangered nationally
because of present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or
range. The Army Corps of Engineers recently
evaluated alternatives to eliminate flooding
(e.g., channelization) in the Bayou du Chien
watershed and determined that no alternative
was cost effective, and the evaluation was ter-
minated (R. R. Cicerello, pers. comm.). Other
federal, state, or local government projects
that might impact the relict darter or its hab-
itat are unknown at this time. We emphasize,
however, that a single accidental chemical or
animal waste spill, especially in Jackson Creek,
could reduce the population below effective
size and render recovery difficult if not im-
possible. Likewise, any local or individual ac-
tions involving modification of the riparian
zones or the stream channel could adversely
impact the species. Presently, the species re-
ceives no state protection, and even if statu-
tory status is invoked, precedents suggest little
action will be taken by the state to protect im-
periled species or habitats (see Anderson 24).
Finally, we implore our ichthyological col-
leagues to use utmost prudence in collection
of the species. The epilogue would be a sorry
one indeed if the relict darter became victim
to those who would study it.

Notwithstanding potential threats, the pres-
ence of apparently healthy populations of the
species in Bayou du Chien, even with spawn-
ing known from only a limited reach, indicates
good potential for recovery of the species. At
this point, recovery depends entirely on pro-
tection of the Jackson Creek watershed as well
as nearby reaches of Bayou du Chien. Addi-
tion of spawning habitat (e.g., strategically
placed logs or flat rocks) in Bayou du Chien
at or near Site 3 (and perhaps other sites)
might be a cost-effective means of establishing
additional spawning areas and increasing re-
cruitment, population size, and dispersion.

Presently, the only research program con-
cerning the relict darter is the genetic analysis
of the species and relatives (P. A. Ceas and L.
M. Page, pers. comm.) and our status survey.
Research needs on the species include: (1) an
autecological study focusing on quantification
of seasonal microhabitat preferences and dis-
persal of different life stages; (2) spring mon-

THE RELICcT DarRTER IN KENtucKY—Warren, Burr, and Taylor 25

itoring of Site 3 to determine if spawning ac-
tually occurs at or near that reach of Bayou
du Chien; (3) identification of additional
streams in the Bayou du Chien watershed that
could be used to transplant breeding individ-
uals (or guardian males and nests) and _ulti-
mately establish additional spawning popula-
tions; (4) long-term monitoring of population
trends and watershed conditions; and (5) test-
ing the efficacy of addition of spawning sub-
strates to Sites 1 and 3 (or others) in enhance-
ment of recruitment, survival, and dispersion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank P. A. Ceas and L. M. Page
(INHS) for graciously providing us with an ad-
vance copy of the description of the relict
darter as well as sharing collecting informa-
tion, field observations, and generally enthu-
siastically supporting this study. We also thank
K. M. Cook (SIUC) for field assistance and R.
M. Strange (SIUC) for review of a draft. We
gratefully acknowledge the following individ-
uals and their respective institutions for pro-
viding field and/or logistical assistance, locality
information, and numerous other courtesies:
R. R. Cicerello and R. R. Hannan, Kentucky
State Nature Preserves Commission; R. G.
Biggins, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; and
D. A. Etnier, UT. This study was supported
in part by the Office of Endangered Species,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Asheville,
North Carolina and the Southern Forest Ex-
periment Station, USDA Forest Service.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Page, L. M., P. A. Ceas, D. L. Swofford, and D. G.
Buth. 1992. Evolutionary relationships within the Eth-
eostoma squamiceps complex (Percidae; subgenus Caton-
otus) with descriptions of five new species. Copeia 1992:
615-646.

2. Warren, M. L., Jr. and B. M. Burr. 1991. Status
survey of the relict darter, Etheostoma chienense (family
Percidae): a species endemic to Bayou du Chien, western
Kentucky. Final Report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Office of Endangered Species, Asheville, North Carolina.
33 pp.

3. Biggins, R. G. 1992. Endangered and threatened
wildlife and plants: proposal to list the relict darter and
bluemask (=jewel) darters as endangered species. Federal
Register 57(239):58774—58779.

4. Leviton, A. E., R. H. Gibbs, Jr., E. Heal, and C. E.
Dawson. 1985. Standards in herpetology and ichthyology:
Part I. Standard symbolic codes for institutional resource

collections in herpetology and ichthyology. Copeia 1985:
802-832.

5. Leviton, A. E. and R. H. Gibbs, Jr. 1988. Standards
in herpetology and ichthyology. Standard symbolic codes
for institutional resource collections in herpetology and
ichthyology. Supplement No. 1: additions and corrections.
Copeia 1988:280-282.

6. Webb, D. H. and M. E. Sisk. 1975. The fishes of
west Kentucky III. The fishes of Bayou du Chien. Trans.
Ky. Acad. Sci. 36:63-70.

7. Burr, B. M. 1980. A distributional checklist of the
fishes of Kentucky. Brimleyana No. 3:53-84.

8. Page, L. M. 1980a. Etheostoma squamiceps Jordan,
spottail darter. P. 696. In D. S. Lee, et al. (eds.) Atlas of
North American freshwater fishes. N.C. State Mus. Nat.
Hist., Raleigh, North Carolina.

9. Kuehne, R. A. and R. W. Barbour. 1983. The Amer-
ican darters. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington,
Kentucky.

10. Page, L. M. 1983. Handbook of darters. TFH Pub-
lications, Neptune City, New Jersey.

11. Braasch, M. E. and R. L. Mayden. 1985. Review
of the subgenus Catonotus (Percidae) with descriptions of
two new darters of the Etheostoma squamiceps species
group. Occas. Pap. Mus. Natural Hist., Univ. Kan. 119:1—
83.

12. Burr, B. M. and M. L. Warren, Jr. 1986. A distri-
butional atlas of Kentucky fishes. Ky. Nature Preserves
Commission Sci. Tech. Ser. No. 4.

13. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide
to freshwater fishes, North America north of Mexico.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts.

14. Sisk, M. E. 1969. The fishes of west Kentucky. I.
Fishes of Clark’s River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 30:54-59.

15. Kuhajda, B. R. and M. L. Warren, Jr. 1985. Clarks
River revisited: additions to the ichthyofauna. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 46:144—145.

16. Dickinson, W. C. 1973. The fishes of the Obion
River system. M.S. Thesis. University of Tennessee, Knox-
ville, Tennessee.

17. Woolman, A. J. 1892. Report of an examination of
the rivers of Kentucky, with lists of the fishes obtained.
Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. 10:249-288.

18. Smith, P. L. and M. E. Sisk. 1969. The fishes of
west Kentucky. II. The fishes of Obion Creek. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 30:60-68.

19. Page, L. M. 1974. The life history of the spottail
darter, Etheostoma squamiceps, in Big Creek, Illinois, and
Ferguson Creek, Kentucky. Ill. Natural Hist. Survey Biol.
Notes No. 89.

20. Page, L. M. 1980b. The life histories of Etheos-
toma olivaceum and Etheostoma striatulum, two species
of darters in central Tennessee. II]. Natural Hist. Survey
Biol. Notes No. 113.

21. Pflieger, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Mis-
souri Dept. Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

22. Robison, H. W. and T. M. Buchanan. 1988. Fishes

26 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59(1—2)

of Arkansas. University of Arkansas Press, Fayetteville, Ar-
kansas.

23. Etnier, D. A. and W. C. Starnes. In press. The
fishes of Tennessee. University of Tennessee Press, Knox-
ville, Tennessee.

94. Anderson, R. M. 1989. The effect of coal surface
mining on endangered freshwater mussels (Molluska:
Unionidea) in the Cumberland River drainage. M.S. The-
sis. Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Ten-
nessee.

APPENDIX I

Summary of all known collection localities
of the relict darter prior to this survey. Catalog
numbers are followed in parentheses by the
number of specimens. Institutional acronyms:
INHS, Illinois Natural History Survey; KU,
University of Kansas; SIUC, Southern Illinois
University at Carbondale; UAIC, University of
Alabama Ichthyological Collection; UL, Uni-
versity of Louisville; UMMZ, University of
Michigan, Museum of Zoology; USNM, Na-
tional Museum of Natural History; UT, Uni-
versity of Tennessee; Webb and Sisk (1975),
disposition of most specimens reported by
these authors (as E. squamiceps) is unknown.
BAYOU DU CHIEN DRAINAGE: INHS
61720 (33) Jackson Cr., 2.6 km NE Water Val-
ley, on Roy Lawrence Dr., Graves Co., 24 Apr
1986. INHS 63526 (45), as above, 18 Aug
1987. INHS 63920 (21), SIUC 18067 (5),
UAIC 9998.01 (5), UMMZ 217893 (5),
USNM 313758 (5), UT 91.3849 (5), as above,
7 Apr 1988. INHS 58454 (1), as above, 18 Mar
1990. INHS 58221 (33), as above, 18 Mar
1990. INHS 87178 (1), Bayou du Chien, 4.8
km S Fulgham, Hickman Co., 16 July 1980.
INHS 68008 (1), Bayou du Chien, 4.5 km N
Water Valley, Hickman Co., 23 Aug 1984.
SIUC 1175 (2), Bayou du Chien, same as
INHS 87178, at Rt 307, 11 Nov 1980. SIUC
1185 (2), Bayou du Chien, 4.8 km SW Ful-
gham, Hickman Co., 11 Nov 1980. UL 5992
(1), Bayou du Chien system, Hickman Co. (as
E. neopterum in Braasch and Mayden 1985).
UT 91.2839 (1), Bayou du Chien, 0.8 km NW
Moscow, Hickman Co., 7 Aug 1973. KU
20900 (1), Bayou du Chien, N of Water Valley,
Graves Co., 5 Apr 1981. Webb and Sisk
(1975), Station 9, [Little?] Bayou du Chien,
6.4 km N Cayce at Hwy 239, Fulton Co., day/
month unknown, 1972-1973 (this station is ei-
ther Bayou du Chien at Hwy 239, Hickman
Co. or Little Bayou du Chien, at Hwy 239,

Fulton Co.). Webb and Sisk (1975), Station
10, Bayou du Chien, same as UT 91.2839.
Webb and Sisk (1975), Station 14, same as
SIUC 1185, day/month unknown, 1972-1973.
Webb and Sisk (1975), Station 15, same as
SIUC 1175, day/month unknown, 1972-1973.
Webb and Sisk (1975), Station 16, Sand Cr.,
4 km S Fulgham, at Hwy 307, Hickman Co.,
day/month unknown, 1972-1973. Webb and
Sisk (1975), Station 17, same as INHS 68008,
day/month unknown, 1972-1973. Webb and
Sisk (1975), Station 18, 1.6 km NW [NEP]
Water Valley, at Hwy 45, Graves Co., day/
month unknown, 1972—1973. Webb and Sisk
(1975), Station 19, 3.2 km NE Water Valley,
near Bayou du Chien Church, Graves Co.,
day/month unknown, 1972-1973.

APPENDIX I

Sites surveyed and reconnoitered for the
relict darter in 1991. A. Catalog numbers and
complete locality information for sites yielding
relict darters (all Bayou du Chien drainage).
Site 1: SIUC 18787, Jackson Cr., 2.6 km NE
Water Valley on Roy Lawrence Dr., Graves
Co., 21 Sept 1991. Site 2: SIUC 18802, Bayou
du Chien, 3.2 km NE Water Valley on Bayou
du Chien Rd., 0.4 km S jet. with Roy Law-
rence Dr., Graves Co., 21 Sept 1991 (same as
Webb and Sisk 1975, station 19). Site 3: SIUC
18759, Bayou du Chien, 4.5 km N Water Val-
ley on Hwy 1283, Graves/Hickman county
line, 21 Sept 1991. Site 4: SIUC 18779, Bayou
du Chien, at Hwy 307 bridge, 4.8 km S Ful-
gham, Hickman Co., 21 Sept 1991. Site 5:
SIUC 18792, Bayou du Chien, at Davis Rd.
bridge, 4.8 km SW Fulgham, Hickman Co., 21
Sept 1991. B. Sites sampled or reconnoitered
that did not yield relict darters. Field obser-
vations are summarized in parentheses follow-
ing the locality information, BAYOU DU
CHIEN DRAINAGE: Bayou du Chien, at
Howell Rd., 5.6 km SW Fulgham, Hickman
Co., 21 Sept 1991 (diverse fish fauna, but
gravel limited, steep banks, slow current).
Bayou du Chien, at Hwy 239 bridge, 0.8 km
E Moscow, Hickman Co., 22 Sept 1991 (lim-
ited, but suitable, habitat for relict darter, but
none taken; diverse fish fauna, many lowland
species; gravel limited, good flow, undercut
banks present; little spawning habitat avail-
able). Bayou du Chien, just N Moscow, Fulton
Co., 21 Sept 1991 (mud bottom, no flow, steep

THe Revicr DARTER IN KeENtTUCKY—Warren, Burr, and Taylor Dil,

banks, wide stream). Unnamed trib., Bayou du
Chien, Hwy 924 bridge, Fulton Co., 18 April
1991 (sand bottom, small). Unnamed trib.,
Bayou du Chien, at Rose Rd. bridge, 6.7 km
SE Fulgham, Hickman Co., 21 Sept 1991 (ex-
treme headwater fish fauna, very small, no
current, little gravel, no undercut banks).
Browder Cr., at Hwy 166 bridge, Fulton Co.,
18 April 1991 (0.6-m wide, sand bottom, no
flow). Cane Cr., Hwy 1698 bridge, Hickman
Co., 18 April 1991 (littered with solid waste,
sand and some gravel). Cane Cr., at Rushton
Rd. bridge, Hickman Co., 18 April 1991
(small, sand bottom). Cane Cr., at Hwy 307
bridge, Hickman Co., October 1991 (dry).
Cane Cr., at Hwy 924 bridge, Hickman Co.,
18 April 1991 (sand bottom, small, dry). Cane
Cr., at Cooley Rd. bridge, Hickman Co., 22
Sept 1991 (dry). Cane Cr., at Howell Rd.
bridge, Hickman Co., 22 Sept 1991 (dry). Un-
named trib., Cane Cr., at Byrd Rd. bridge,
Hickman Co., 22 Sept 1991 (dry). Cane Cr.,
at Hwy 1529 bridge, 6.4 km E Moscow, Hick-
man Co., 22 Sept 1991 (lowland stream, pri-
marily mud bottom, turbid water, littered with
solid waste, some gravel in one riffle). Little
Bayou du Chien, at Hwy 239 bridge, 1.6 km
S Moscow, Hickman/Fulton county line, 22
Sept 1991 (lowland stream, soft, mud bottom,
little flow, no riffle habitat). Little Bayou du
Chien, at Hwy 94 bridge, 3.2 km W Cayce,
Fulton Co., 5 Oct 1991 (small bayou with bald
cypress, fairly deep, no flow, mud bottom).
Little Bayou du Chien, at Hwy 1125 bridge,
5.2 km SSW Buda, Fulton Co., 18 April 1991
(ditched, no flow, mud and sand bottom), 5
Oct 1991 (turbid, mostly mud bottom, no flow,

small stream lowland fish fauna). Little Bayou
du Chien, Hwy 1907 bridge, Fulton Co., 18
April 1991 (no flow, sand and mud bottom).
Little Bayou du Chien, at Thompson Fields
Rd. bridge, Fulton Co., 5 Oct 1991 (dry). Un-
named trib., Little Bayou du Chien, Hwy 166
bridge, Fulton Co., 18 April 1991 (no flow,
sand and mud bottom). Unnamed trib., Little
Bayou du Chien, Hwy 1125 bridge, Fulton
Co., 18 April 1991 (small). Mud Cr., Hwy
1127 bridge, Fulton Co., 18 April 1991 (mud
and sand bottom). Mud Cr., Hwy 1128 bridge,
Fulton Co., 18 April 1991 (little flow, turbid,
mud and-sand bottom). Mud Cr., at Hwy 94
bridge, 5.6 km W Cayce, Fulton Co., 5 Oct
1991 (very narrow, no flow, steep muddy
banks, mud bottom). Pond Br., at Hwy 307
bridge, Hickman Co., 21 Sept 1991 (dry).
Rush Cr., at Hwy 94 bridge, Fulton Co. (dry).
Sand Cr., at Hwy 307 bridge, 4.2 km S Ful-
gham, Hickman Co., 21 Sept 1991 (no flow,
only isolated pools, nearly dry, no fish collect-
ed). Verhine Cr., at Hwy 94 bridge, Fulton
Co. 5 Oct 1991 (dry). South Fk. Bayou du
Chien, at Pea Ridge Rd., 0.4 km NE Water
Valley, Graves Co., 21 Sept 1991 (no gravel,
no flow, no undercut banks). OBION CREEK
DRAINAGE (all Graves Co.): Brush Cr., at
Cuba Rd., 8 km ENE Water Valley, 5 Oct
1991 (almost dry, one pool contained only
creek chubs). Brush Cr., at Ira Bell Rd., 6.8
km NE Water Valley, 5 Oct 1991 (closest to
headwaters of Bayou du Chien, but almost
dry, water turbid, no undercut banks, gravel
soft, negligible flow). Brush Cr., at Hwy 58
bridge, 5 Oct 1991 (dry). Barn Cr., at Wingo
Rd. bridge 5 Oct 1991 (dry).

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 28-31

Diet of the Spotted Darter, Etheostoma maculatum
(Pisces: Percidae): A Threatened Species in Kentucky

RICHARD K. KESSLER

Large Rivers Program and Biology Department,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky 40292

ABSTRACT

A stomach-flushing technique was used to assess the diet of the threatened spotted darter, Etheostoma
maculatum, in Russell Creek, Kentucky. Forty four E. maculatum were collected for food-habit analysis in
July and October, 1991, representing the first recorded occurrence of the species in Russell Creek. Inter-
seasonal variation in total number of prey consumed, frequency of prey taxa in the diet, and mean relative
abundance of items in the diet were observed. Spotted darters consumed mainly chironomid larvae in both
months but also ate water mites, mayflies (mainly Heptageniidae and Oligoneuriidae), stoneflies, and cad-
disflies (mainly Hydropsychidae). Feeding substantially increased in October (avg. no. items/stomach = 16.5
versus 7.5 for July). A shift in prey taxa was noted as chironomids, water mites, and stoneflies increased and
mayflies and caddisflies decreased in October. Further study of the prey relationships of E. maculatum is
needed to establish food preferences and identify potential interspecific interactions. This information should

allow more effective monitoring of its status.

INTRODUCTION

Etheostoma maculatum, the spotted darter,
is a threatened species in Kentucky (KY) (1).
Its distribution throughout the Ohio River ba-
sin is extremely localized (2) and it has dis-
appeared from much of its former range (3,
4). Little is known of the life history of the
spotted darter. The studies (5, 6) that exam-
ined ecological interactions of E. maculatum
subspecies in the Tennessee and Cumberland
River systems no longer apply. Since E. mac-
ulatum vulneratum and E. m. sanguifluum
have been elevated to E. vulneratum, the
wounded darter, and E. sanguifluum, the
bloodfin darter (7, 8), the only ecological treat-
ments of E. maculatum are those of Kessler
(9) and Kessler and Thorp (10), who discussed
microhabitat segregation between E. macula-
tum and the closely-related orangefin darter,
E. bellum, in Russell Creek, KY, and Raney
and Lachner (11) from their early observations
of the species.

The purpose of this study was to examine
the food habits of the spotted darter. The ob-
jective was not to establish actual prey pref-
erences of E. maculatum, but merely to more
precisely establish the components of its diet
in a Kentucky stream.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Fish Collection.—Fish were collected from
Russell Creek, a fifth-order tributary of the

upper Green River system, Green County, KY
(85°29'48"W, 37°11'18"N) on 10-12 July and
18-20 October 1991. Pre-positioned electro-
fishers were used to collect fish (12). Sampling
protocol followed that of Kessler (9) and Kes-
sler and Thorp (10).

Gut Content Removal.—A stomach-flushing
technique modified from Culp et al. (13) was
used to avoid sacrificing individuals. Fish >38
mm were anesthetized with a 100 mg/liter so-
lution of MS-222 (Finquel) and standard
length (SL) recorded before gut contents were
removed. A small (1.27 mm OD) polyethylene
tube was inserted into the mouth of each
hand-held fish and pushed gently into the gut
until resistance was felt. Tubing was pre-fitted
over a 24-gauge hypodermic needle which was
attached to a syringe. Stream water (3 cc) was
then forced into the gut with the syringe and
the tube was removed slowly to allow gut con-
tents to flow out of the mouth through a fun-
nel and into a glass vial. Gut contents were
preserved in 70% ethanol, taken to the labo-
ratory, and taxa were identified (14). Fish
were allowed to recover fully in a holding cage
and returned to the stream.

Statistics. —Total numbers of prey items
consumed and frequency of occurrence of
prey in the diet was determined for each sam-
pling period. One-way analysis of variance was
used to determine whether numbers of spe-
cific prey items or mean relative abundance of

SPOTTED DarTER DiET IN KENTUCKY—Kessler 29

TaBLE 1. Total number and percent occurrence of food
items in the diet of E. maculatum for July (n = 24) and
October (n = 20) 1991. Asterisks (*) represent foods mak-
ing up <1% of total diet. Abbreviations: | = larvae, p =
pupae, a = adult.

July October
Food item Total no. % Total no. %
Acari 5 2.8 16 4.9
Coleoptera
Elmidae 1 ** = —
Gyrinidae 1 = —
Terrestrial (1) ] ** = _
Diptera
Chironomidae (1) 75 41.9 911 64.5
Chironomidae (a) — — I *
Simuliidae (1) 9 5.9 = —
Simuliidae (p) 1 ci = =
Tipulidae 1 “ = =
Ephemeroptera
Baetidae 5 2.8 6 1.8
Caenidae 1 * 1 *
Heptageniidae 11 6.1 6 1.8
Oligoneuriidae 19 10.6 Tf 2.1
Other 6 3.4 5 1.5
Plecoptera
Perlidae 1 ci 2 Sa
Other ae = 39 11.9
Trichoptera =
Glossosomatidae 1 * _— ae
Hydropsychidae 34 19.0 20 6.1
Lepidostomatidae 1 ** =
Leptoceridae 1 * 2 *s
Other 4 ey) 2 a
Zygoptera 1 * oo Sia
Total 179 327

prey varied significantly between sampling pe-
riods. Mean relative abundance is based on
the proportion of a food item present in the
gut of individuals relative to the total number
of items in the gut.

RESULTS

Forty four spotted darters (24 in July, 20 in
October) were used for diet analysis. Fish size
ranged from 38.1 to 71.6 mm (mean SL + 1
SD = 46.7 mm + 6.1 SD). No mortalities
were observed within an hour of sampling.

Food of E. maculatum is similar to that re-
ported for benthic darters by Page (3). Of the
individual stomachs containing food (43 out of
44), 93% had consumed chironomids and dip-
teran larvae (including Chironomidae and Si-

Diptera 48.0 %

JULY
fe 2 3 ee ill
Seer: |
Trichoptera
22.9 %
Diptera
64.5 % eS
i \
OCTOBER | = : jae
\ Acari 4-9 %
wy |, |
; : _ . Ephemeroptera 7.6 %
Trichoptera 7.3 %
Plecoptera 15.6 %
Fic. 1. Comparison of the per cent frequencies of total

items, based on major prey taxa only, occurring in the diet
of E. maculatum in July and October, 1991.

muliidae), comprising the bulk of the diet in
both July (47.8%) and October (64.5%) (Table
1, Fig. 1). Other frequent prey items included
water mites (Acari), mayflies (especially Hep-
tageniidae and Oligoneuriidae), stoneflies, and
caddisflies (especially Hydropsychidae). Infre-
quent items included beetles and damselflies.

Variation in both total food consumed and
prey taxa existed between sampling periods
(Table 1). Individuals consumed less food in
July than in October (average no. of items per
stomach = 7.5 versus 16.5, respectively).
More taxa (Orders) were consumed in July (n
= 7) than in October (n = 5). Based on total
number of items ingested per individual, more
chironomids (P < 0.001), stoneflies (P <
0.0001), and water mites (P < 0.05) were eat-
en in October. Mean relative abundance of
items in the diet of individuals also changed.
Relative abundance of dipterans and plecop-
terans significantly increased while that of

mayflies and caddisflies decreased (Table 2).
DISCUSSION

Prey items common to E. maculatum are
similar to those reported for darters in the

30 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59(1-—2)

TaBLE 2. A comparison of the mean relative abundance
of prey items per individual for July and October 1991.
Parenthetical numbers are 1 SD. NS = not significant at
P < 0.05: ind. = individual.

Mean Relative abundance/ind.

Taxa July October P
Acari 0.032 (0.074) 0.073 (0.127) NS
Diptera 0.413 (0.310) 0.584 (0.209) <0.05
Ephemer-

optera 0.282 (0.266) 0.116 (0.150) <0.05
Plecoptera 0.000 — 0.166 (0.092) <0.0001
Trichoptera 0.239 (0.214) 0.074 (0.075) <0.005

subgenus Nothonotus, including E. acuticeps
(15), E. bellum (16), E. camurum (17), E. san-
auifluum (op. cit.) and E. vulneratum (5). The
spotted darter is most likely an opportunistic
forager as its terminal mouth and pointed
snout enable it to feed from virtually any rock
surface. Page and Swofford (18) discussed the
relationship of mouth morphology to diet.
This may explain its ability to extract hy-
dropsy chid caddisflies from their retreats or
exploit rock-dwelling mayflies (especially Hep-
tageniidae) and stonetlies. Kessler (9) ob-
served such foraging behavior during snorkel-
ing observations in Russell Creek. Bryant (6)
and Butler (17) noted the efficiency of E. acu-
ticeps and E. sanguifluum in similar foraging
activity.

F eeding intensity and seasonality in diet
composition most likely is associated with prey
availability which may vary depending on
availability of foraging habitat, feeding activity
of the fish, or life history characteristics of
prey (19). Seasonal life cycles among inverte-
brates of temperate streams often reflect an
increase in certain prey numbers in the fall or
a decrease in mid- to late summer (20). The
increase in the total numbers of prey con-
sumed in fall versus summer was due largely
to an increase in chironomids in the diet. Oth-
ers (17, 21, 22) have documented fall increases
in food consumption. In this study the Octo-
ber sampling period was char acterized by re-
duced flows relative to July (Kessler, W eddle,
and Casper, unpubl. data) which may have
limited availability of foraging areas and hab-
itat for prey. Hlohowskyj and Wissing (23)
suggested that during such conditions, in-
creasing predation on numerically abundant
chironomids might limit competition and in-

crease feeding efficiency. However, Wynes
and Wissing (24) found that rainbow, banded,
and greenside darters exhibited a feeding de-
cline in autumn. They concluded that feeding
intensity Was associated with temperature but
that changes in diet composition were a result
of shifts in invertebrate taxa abundances. The
increase of chironomids and stoneflies ingest-
ed in October was associated with a decrease
of mayflies and caddisflies. This relationship
has been found to exist for both numbers and
biomass of mayflies and stoneflies for E. ca-
murum and E. sanguifluum (19). In his study
of E. flabellare, Strange (21) found that may-
flies were an important food in the summer
but were replaced by stoneflies in the fall.

In summary, the spotted darter’s diet is
most likely linked to its feeding morphology.
Shifts in feeding intensity and “ice composi-
tion are probably related to shifts in prey avail-
ability but further research is needed to sub-
stantiate such assumptions. Data on actual
prey preference (by number, volume, or bio-
mass) and foraging ‘behavior may be especially
important to the darter’s conservation status.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank E. Durham, Fang Wei, T.
Henderson, C. Houk, H. Kessler, S. Kessler,
G. Weddle, and W. Wilcoxson for help in the
field and M. Delong and J. Glover for labo-
ratory assistance. The Biology Department,
Campbellsville College, allowed use of a gen-
erator and provided an on-site location for ma-
terial storage. The Water Resources Labora-
tory, University of Louisville, provided partial
support for this project.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Warren, M. L., et al. 1986. Endangered plants and
animals in Kentucky, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 47:83-98.

2. Cicerello, R. R. and M. L. Warren. 1984. Range
extensions and drainage records for four Kentucky fishes.
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 45:157-158.

3. Page, L. M. 1983. Handbook of darters. T. F. H.
Publishers, Neptune City, New Jersey.

4. Kuehne, R. A. and R. W. Barbour. 1983. The Amer-
ican darters. Univ. of Kentucky Press, Lexington, Ken-
tucky.

5. Stiles, R. A. 1972. The comparative ecology of three
species of Nothonotus (Percidae: Etheostoma) in Tennes-
see's Little River. Ph.D. Dissertation. Univ. of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee.

6. Bryant, R. T. 1979. The life history and comparative

SPOTTED DarTER DIET IN KENTUCKyY—Kessler 31

ecology of the sharphead darter, Etheostoma auticeps.
Tenn. Wildl. Res. Agency Tech. Rep. 79-50:1-60.

7. Robins, C. R., et al. 1991. Common and scientific
names of fishes from the United States and Canada, 5th
American Fisheries Society Spec. Publ. 20, Bethesda,
Maryland.

S. Page, L. M. and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to
freshwater fishes. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
Massachusetts.

9. Kessler, R. K. 1992. Mechanisms promoting coex-
istence in two closely-related darters (Pisces: Percidae).
M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Louisville, Kentucky.

10. Kessler, R. K. and J. H. Thorp. 1993. Microhabitat
segregation of the threatened spotted darter (Etheostoma
maculatum) and closely-related orangefin darter (E. bel-
lum). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 50:10S4—1091.

11. Raney, E. C. and E. A. Lachner. 1939. Observa-
tions on the life history of the spotted darter, Poecil-
ichthyes maculatus (Kirtland). Copeia 1939:157-165.

12. Weddle, G. K. and R. K. Kessler. 1993. A square-
meter electrofishing sampler for benthic riffle fishes. J. N.
Am. Benthol. Soc. 12:291-301.

13. Culp, J. M., I. Boyd, and N. E. Glozier. 1988. An
improved method for obtaining gut contents from small,
live fishes by anal and stomach flushing. Copeia 1988:
1079-1082.

14. Merritt, R. W. and K. W. Cummins. 1984. An in-
troduction to the aquatic insects of North America, 2nd
ed. Kendall/Hunt Publ. Company, Dubuque, Iowa.

15. Jenkins, R. E. and N. M. Burkhead. 1975. Recent

capture and analysis of the sharphead darter, Etheostoma
acuticeps, an endangered percid fish of the upper Ten-
nessee River drainage. Copeia 1975:731—740.

16. Fisher, W. L. 1990. Life history and ecology of the
orangefin darter Etheostoma bellum (Pisces: Percidae).
Am. Midl. Nat. 123:268—281.

17. Butler, R. S. 1986. Comparative feeding ecology
of darters (Percidae: Etheostoma) in Buck Creek, Pulaski
County, Kentucky. M.S. Thesis. Eastern Kentucky Univ..
Richmond, Kentucky.

18. Page, L. M. and D. L. Swofford. 1984. Morpho-
logical correlates of ecological specialization in darters.
Env. Biol. Fish. 11:139-159.

19. Wootton, R. J. 1992. Ecology of teleost fishes.
Chapman and Hall Publishers, New York, New York.

20. Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. The ecology of running
waters. Univ. of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada.

21. Strange, R. M. 1993. Seasonal feeding ecology of
the fantail darter, Etheostoma flabellare, from Stinking
Fork, Indiana. J. Freshwater Ecol. §:13-18.

22. Weddle. G. K. 1992. Seasonal, sexual, and size
class variation in the diet of the Kentucky darter, Etheos-
toma rafinesquei (Pisces: Percidae), in Middle Pitman
Creek, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 53:121-126.

23. Hlohowskyj, I. and A. M. White. 1983. Food re-
source partitioning and selectivity by the greenside, rain-
bow, and fantail darters (Pisces: Percidae). Ohio J. Sci. $3:
201-208.

24. Wynes, D. L. and T. E. Wissing. 1982. Resource
sharing among darters in an Ohio stream. Am. Midl. Nat.
107:294—-304.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—2), 1994, 32-35

Seasonal Prevalence of Three Species of Digenetic
Trematodes in the Snail Helisoma trivolvis at
Owsley Fork Reservoir, Kentucky

RONALD B. ROSEN, JOSE M. ILAGAN, JEssica S. Law, MARICHELLE ASUNCION,
ME Lissa E. DENTON, AND MANUEL L. SAN

Department of Biology, Berea College, Berea, Kentucky 40404

ABSTRACT

Trematode parasites were examined in the snail, Helisoma trivolvis, from Owsley Fork Reservoir in central

Kentucky. Echinostoma trivolvis was the most prevalent trematode during the 12-month survey (15.4%),
followed by Cephalogonimus vesicaudus (10.8%) and Spirorchis scripta (3.4%). Prevalence of E. trivolvis
peaked in July (27.0%), while C. vesicaudus (24.0%) and S. scripta (18.2%) peaked in May and June,
respectively. Prevalence of E. trivolvis and C. vesicaudus increased in larger snails, while that of S. scripta
decreased. Seasonal prevalence is discussed in relation to the life cycles of these parasites and the biology

of their various hosts.

INTRODUCTION

Esch and his colleagues (1-6) examined the
trematode parasites of two snails (Helisoma
anceps and Physa gyrina) from a fresh water
pond in North Carolina. They found that the
seasonal prevalence of each parasite was af-
fected by snail biology (i.e., natality, mortality,
vagility, growth and susceptibility) and by the
nature of the parasite’s life cycle. For example,
infections by the autogenic species (i.e., spe-
cies that complete their life cycles within the
pond, generally in hosts confined to the pond
throughout the year (6)) were present much
of the year, while an allogenic species (i.e.,
species that complete their life cycles in hosts
ephemeral to the pond (6)) was less prevalent.
Appearance of the allogenic species in the
snail population was correlated with the arrival
of migratory waterfowl (definitive hosts) and
subsequent infection of the snails by short-
lived miracidia. By contrast, prevalence of the
autogenic species was associated with daily
foraging behavior of snails and occasional in-
gestion of an unhatched trematode egg. (A
trematode egg is really a shelled embryo (mir-
acidium) which is the hatching stage of the
parasite). Esch’s work suggested that recruit-
ment of a trematode parasite into a snail pop-
ulation is, indeed, determined primarily by the
migratory habits of definitive hosts and the
source of infection (egg versus miracidium)
for the snail.

To test this prediction in a different aquatic
system, we conducted a year-long study of

trematode parasites in a single species of snail,
Helisoma trivolvis, from an impoundment
near Berea, Kentucky. The purpose was to
identify the autogenic and allogenic species of
parasites and determine their seasonal preva-
lence in the snail host. The patterns of parasite
prevalence in the snail population were com-
pared, and the results reported in this paper.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Owsley Fork Reservoir was completed in
1975 and currently provides approximately
60% of the water supply for the community of
Berea, Kentucky. The reservoir has a surface
area of 61.1 hectares, a maximum depth of
12.1 m, and its watershed encompasses
1,823.2 hectares. Water temperature at 0.5 m
varied from a high of 27°C in July to a low of
4°C in February during the study. Snails were
collected monthly (¢ = 63/month; range 22—
100) from 2 small coves immediately across
from the Owsley Fork Baptist Church. Snails
were allowed to acclimate to room tempera-
ture for 24 hr and then placed individually into
50 ml beakers containing 35-40 ml of filtered
pond water. The beakers were then placed in
an incubator set at 26°C and a 12 hr light: 12
hr dark cycle for 24 hr. Beakers were observed
with a dissecting microscope at 14:00, 20:30
and 8:30 to determine which snails were re-
leasing cercariae and thus possessed mature
cercarial infections. The shell diameters were
recorded, and all snails were dissected and ex-
amined for larval trematodes. It was assumed

TREMATODES IN HELISOMA TRIVOLVIS—Rosen et all. 33

that shell size is indicative of host age, al-
though individuals of H. trivolvis of similar age
may dition in size (7). Our subsequent analysis
of seasonal prevalence was confined to snail
infections clearly established by ingestion of
embryonated trematode eggs or miracidial
penetration as indicated by the presence of ei-
ther sporocysts or rediae.

RESULTS

Morphological observations and measure-
ments of cercariae and intramolluscan stages
(ie., rediae or sporocysts), along with success-
ful experimental infections of second inter-
mediate and definitive hosts with cercariae or
metacercariae established the following iden-
tifications for digeneans recovered from H. tri-
volvis at Owsley Fork Reservoir; Echinostoma
trivolvis (Cort, 1914) Kanev, 1985, Cephalo-
gonimus vesicaudus Nickerson, 1912, Spiror-
chis scripta Stunkard, 1923 and Petasiger ni-
tidus Linton, 1928. Only the initial 3 species
were assessed in this study as P. nitidus was
encountered in just 2 snails.

Echinostoma trivolvis was the most preva-
lent digenean during the survey (15.4%), fol-
lowed by C. uvesicaudus (10.8%) and S. scripta
(3.4%). Prevalence of E. trivolvis peaked in
July (27.0%), while C. vesicaudus (24.0%) and
S. scripta (18.2%) peaked in May and June,
respectively (Fig. 1). During months of peak
prevalence, infected snails usually shed ma-
ture cercariae, indicating that most infections
were patent. A notable exception was ob-
served in June when only 28% of snails in-
fected with E. trivolvis released cercariae of
that species (Fig. 1). Prevalence of the 3 trem-
atodes in H. trivolvis increased during the late
spring or early summer (Fig. 1). Infections
with S. scripta decreased by mid-summer and
disappeared by November, while snails infect-
ed with E. trivolvis and C. vesicaudus were
encountered until February (Fig. 1). Preva-
lence of E. trivolvis and C. vesicaudus in-
creased in larger snails, while that of S. scripta
decreased (Fig. 2). Notably, no snails in the
1.9-2.3 em size class were found to be infect-
ed with S. scripta (Fig. 2).

DISCUSSION

Echinostoma trivolvis utilizes a few mam-
mals and various migratory waterfowl as defin-
itive hosts. The latter are temporary residents

30

25

S

ie}

1S)

Zz

a

=

<

>

<a}

[24

a
i i
2 O & = FP O ZF RMe &
=) QQ oO ie3) 23} Aa
SSESSR EERE

Fic. 1. Monthly prevalence of the snail, Helisoma tri-

volvis, infected with Echinostoma trivolvis, Cephalogoni-
mus vesicaudus and Spirorchis scripta (solid box) and
snails releasing cercariae of these three species (stippled
box) during May—April 1992-1993.

of aquatic systems, and thus contamination of
these habitats with eggs of E. trivolvis and in-
fection of snails by ae short-lived miracidium
should be brief, culminating i in a restricted pe-
riod of snail infection Ghar acteristic of an al-
logenic species. In a previous study, the prev-
alence of E. trivolvis in the snail, P. gyrina,
was negative in April, peaked in June, and de-
clined until disappearing in November (6).
Similar observations were made for this dige-
nean in H. anceps (4).-In our study, E. trivol-
vis experienced 2 increases in prevalence (i.e.,
late spring and early fall) separated by a sum-
mer decline. In this regard, the seasonal prev-
alence of E. trivolvis was more characteristic
of an autogenic rather than an allogenic spe-
cies. Cephalogonimus vesicaudus, which in-

34 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

E. trivolvis

PREVALENCE (%) INFECTED SNAILS

SNAIL SHELL DIAMETER (cm)

Fic. 2. Prevalence of Echinostoma trivolvis, Cephalo-
gonimus vesicaudus and Spirorchis scripta in four size
classes of the snail, Helisoma trivolvis, collected from
May-—April 1992-1993. (Number of snails/size class—0.7—
1.0 em, N = 28; 1.1—1.4 cm, N = 235; 1.5-1.8 em, N =
432: 1.9-2.3 em, N = 58).

corporates a turtle definitive host and relies on
the ingestion of its embryonated eggs by
snails, conformed to the predicted pattern of
sustained prevalence for an autogenic species,
but S. scripta did not. Spirorchis scripta,
which also incorporates a turtle definitive host
in its life cycle but utilizes a miracidium for
infection of its snail host, had a markedly re-
stricted prevalence pattern in H. trivolvis
which was primarily confined to the month of
June. The single June increase was identical to
that previously documented for a spirorchiid
in H. anceps (A).

We observed that only 28.0% of snails in-
fected with E. trivolvis possessed mature cer-

cariae during the month of June; however, by
July, all snails infected with E. trivolvis had
mature cercariae. As E. trivolvis requires a 4—
6 week period for development in a snail fol-
lowing exposure to miracidia (8), its first pe-
riod of snail infection likely began in late May
and early June. During May, 1992, a small
flock of Canadian geese, Branta canadensis,
arrived at Owsley Fork and remained within
the coves in our study site until September.
The geese, documented hosts of E. trivolvis
(9), likely provided a constant source of mi-
racidia of this parasite for infection of H. tri-
volvis. Peak prevalence of C. vesicaudus (May)
and S. scripta (June) were also associated with
a late spring infection and subsequent cercar-
ial development in snails (i.e., 45 days for C.
vesicaudus in H. trivolvis (10) and 27-34 days
for S. scripta in H. anceps (11)). This initial
period of infection correlates well with the
April/May emergence of aquatic turtles such
as Trionyx spiniferus and Trachemys scripta
(hosts for C. vesicaudus and S. scripta, re-
spectively) from hibernation in the mud (12),
and their subsequent release of digenean eggs
into the water with their feces. The restricted
time (i.e., primarily June) during which snails
were found to be infected with S. scripta sug-
gested that adults of this species release em-
bryonated eggs for only a limited period each
year, and that the longevity of snails subse-
quently infected by its miracidium is brief.
The July and August decrease in prevalence of
C. vesicaudus and E. trivolvis, respectively,
may have been correlated with the entry of
large numbers of uninfected snails from a new
cohort into the population rather than an ac-
tual decrease in the number of infected snails
as was noted in a previous study of Halipegus
occidualis in H. anceps (3). This is corrobo-
rated by our observation during March and
April of a large number of snail egg capsules
containing developing larvae of H. trivolvis at-
tached to the shells of snails, and the subse-
quent appearance of many small snails in the
population during the summer at Owsley
Fork. The ensuing increase in prevalence of
C. vesicaudus (August) and E. trivolvis (Sep-
tember) noted in our survey was not observed
for the latter species in prior studies (4, 6),
and may have been related to infection of
snails in the new cohort. The prevalence of
snails infected with E. trivolvis and C. vesi-

TREMATODES IN HELISOMA TRIVOLVIS—Rosen et al. 35

caudus began decreasing in late fall, and no
snails were found infected with these trema-
todes by February. Mark-recapture studies
have shown that this phenomenon may be as-
sociated with either parasite-induced host
mortality or loss of infection (2, 4). In addi-
tion, turtle hibernation and the observed de-
parture of geese after September at Owsley
Fork likely decreased sources for new winter
infections of H. trivolvis with these digeneans.

Previous studies have indicated that E. tri-
volvis is only infective to younger snails in nat-
ural infections of H. anceps (3, 4). However,
it has been shown in experimental infections
that the size of H. trivolvis has no effect on
its susceptibility to miracidia of E. trivolvis
(13). Without an age-related resistance, the
prevalence of this parasite would be expected
to increase in older/larger snails over time (as
observed in our study) due to their increased
exposure to miracidia and recruitment of
younger, infected snails into this larger size
class oof hosts. The greater prevalence of S.
scripta in younger/smaller snails indicated de-
creased susceptibility with age. Supporting
this conclusion is the observation that adults
of H. anceps cannot be infected with S. scripta
and sporocyst development of this species oc-
curs only in young snails (11). In addition, re-
cruitment of smaller snails infected with S
scripta into the largest size class (1.92.3 cm)
of H. trivolvis did not occur, suggesting rela-
tively rapid, parasite-induced host mortality
following infection of these younger snails.
Rapid snail mortality would, in part, explain
the restricted seasonal prevalence observed
for S. scripta in H. trivolvis.

In summary, the 3 digeneans in this study
can be classified as autogenic species due to
the prolonged presence of their definitive
hosts at Owsley Fork Reservoir. The predicted
pattern of sustained monthly prevalence as-
sociated with autogenic species was observed
for E. trivolvis and C. vesicaudus, but not S.
scripta. Additional factors, including age-relat-
ed susceptibility of snails and rapid snail mor-
tality following infection, must be further as-
sessed in order to acquire an understanding of
the seasonal prevalence of the latter species.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study was supported by a grant from
Merck & Co., Inc., to R. Rosen and the De-

partment of Biology at Berea College. We
would also like to acknowledge Christine Dau-
benspeck and Audrey d’Souza for technical as-
sistance provided during the course of the
project.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Crews, A. E. and G. W. Esch. 1986.
namics of Halipegus occidualis (Trematoda: Hemiuridae)

Seasonal dy-

in Helisoma anceps and its impact on fecundity of the snail
host. J. Parasitol. 72:646-651.

2. Goater, T. M., A. W. Shostak, J. A. Williams, and G.
W. Esch.
parasitism in overwintered Helisoma anceps (Pulmonata),

1989. A mark-recapture study of trematode

with special reference to Halipegus occidualis (Hemiuri-
dae) abd Parasitol. 75:553-560.

Williams, J. A. and G. W. Esch. 1991. Infra-

Hass community dynamics in the pulmonate snail

and

Helisoma anceps, with special emphasis on the hemiurid,
Halipegus occidualis. J. Parasitol. 77:246—253.

4, Fernandez, J. and G. W. Esch. 1991. Guild struc-
ture of larval trematodes in the snail Helisoma anceps:
patterns and processes at the individual host level. J. Par-
asitol. 77:528-539.

5. Fernandez, J. and G. W. Esch. 1991. The compo-
nent community structure of larval trematodes in the pul-
monate snail ee anceps. J. Parasitol. 77:540-550.

6. Snyder, S. D. and G. W. Esch. 1993.
community structure in the pulmonate snail Physa gyrina.
J. Parasitol. 79:205-215.

7. Boerger, H. 1975. A comparison of the life cycles,
reproductive ecologies, and size-weight relationships of

Trematode

Helisoma anceps, H. campanulatum and H. trivolvis (Gas-
tropoda, Planorbidae). Can. J. Zool. 53:1812-1824.

8. Huffman, J. E. and B. Fried. 1990. Echinostoma
and echinostomiasis. Adv. Parasitol. 29:215—269.

9. Doss, M. A. and M. M. Farr. 1969. Subjects: Trem-
atoda and Trematoda diseases Part 11: hosts: genera A-L.
Index Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoology,
U.S.D.A. U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D.C.

10. Dronen, N. O., Jr. and H. T. Underwood. 1977.
The life cycle of Cephalogonimus vesicaudus (Digenea:
Cephalogonimidae) from Trionyx spiniferus from Texas.
Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 44:198—200.

11. Holliman, R. B. and J. E. Fisher. 1968. Life cycle
and pathology of Spirorchis scripta Stunkard, 1923 (Di-
genea: Spirorchiidae) in Chrysemys picta picta. J. Parasi-
tol. 54:310-318.

12. Barbour, R. M. 1971. Amphibians and reptiles of
Kentucky. The University of Kentucky Press, Lexington,
Kentucky.

13. Fried, B., S. Sheuermann, ar J. Moore. 1987. In-
fectivity of Echinostoma revolutun: miracidia for labora-
tory- pated pulmonate snails. J. Parasitol. 73:1047—1048.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 36-41

Effects of Sodium Chloride on
Beta-hemolytic Streptococci

Boia FASHOLA! AND LARRY P. ELLIOTT?

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

ABSTRACT

Beta-hemolytic streptococci Lancefield group A, B, and C were isolated from the upper-respiratory tracts
of patients and used to study the effects of NaCl on these isolates. The MIC of NaCl was determined for
each of these § clinical isolates. Group A streptococci were inhibited at a concentration of 7.2% NaCl while

group C streptococci were inhibited at 7.0% concentration. Group B streptococci were more resistant, and
inhibition of growth occurred at 12.0% NaCl concentrations. Bactericidal concentrations of NaCl were also
performed on the isolates and were 9.0% for group A, and 8.0% for group C. NaCl did not demonstrate
any bactericidal activity toward the group B streptococci tested. Scanning electron microscopic studies
showed no apparent effect on the external structure of streptococci treated with NaCl when compared to

non-treated cells. Despite the lack of observable changes in the external structure of treated cells, fine
structural alterations were observed with transmission electron microscopic studies. NaCl causes gross ab-
normalities, such as condensation of nucleoid DNA and some loss of ribosomes followed by dissolution of

cell contents resulting in bacterial “ghosts” comprising an empty cell wall and capsule.

INTRODUCTION

Streptococcus pyogenes (group A strepto-
coccus) has been recognized to be an impor-
tant causative agent of bacterial pharyngitis,
particularly in children 5-10 years of age. Ear-
ly diagnosis and prompt treatment of strep-
tococcal pharyngitis can limit the duration of
symptoms, reduce infectivity, and prevent
subsequent sequelae, such as rheumatic fever.
Although the frequency of group A strepto-
coccal infections and their sequelae has de-
clined in the last few decades, during the lat-
ter half of the decade of the 1980s, there have
been resurgences of this disease, not only in
North America but also in Europe and other
parts of the world (7). Beginning in 1984 there
was a reemergence of rheumatic fever and
shortly after, the appearance of a toxic shock-
like syndrome due to group A streptococci.

While penicillin G is used clinically for
treatment, salt water is the indigenous home
remedy used world-wide for treatment of
See ae ae pharyngitis. Despite the popu-
larity of using sodium chloride as a home rem-
edy, there is a paucity of information on the

' Present address: Humana Hospital, Greenbrier Val-
ley, Davis Stuart Road, Ronceverte, West Virginia 24970.

> Address reprint requests to: Dr. L.P. Elliott, Depart-
ment of Biology, Western Kentucky University, 1526 Rus-
sellville Rd., Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101-3576.

36

susceptibility of beta-hemolytic streptococci to
sodium chloride.

The purposes of this study were as follows:
(1) to determine if beta-hemolytic streptococci
groups A, B, and C are susceptible to sodium
chloride; (2) to determine susceptibility of the
fresh isolates to sodium chloride as MICs or
MBCs; and (3) to evaluate the effects of so-
dium chloride on the morphology and fine
structure of these streptococci.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Bacteria

Eight strains of beta-hemolytic streptococci
were randomly selected from upper-respira-
tory clinical isolates obtained from Greenview
Hospital in Bowling Green, Kentucky. These
streptococci were Lancefield groped by latex
agglutination reagents (Streptex, Wellcome
Reagents Div., Triangle Park, North Carolina).
Of these 8 strains, 3 were identified as Strep-
tococcus pyogenes (group A), 3 of Streptococ-
cus agalactiae (group B), and 2 as Streptococ-
cus (group C).

Determination of NaCl tolerance. The min-
imum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the
streptococci was determined using a broth
macrodilution method (2, 6). Serial doubling
dilutions of NaCl were prepared in 1.0 ml of
Tryptic Soy Broth (TBS) (Difco Laboratories,
Detroit). These tubes were inoculated with an
overnight streptococcal culture in TSB which

MorPHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SALT ON STREPTOCOCCI—Fashola and Elliott Bil

had been diluted to a concentration of 10?—102
cfu/ml and into the control tubes without
NaCl. After incubation at 37°C for 18—24 hr,
the MIC was measured as the lowest concen-
tration of NaCl at which no growth was visible.
Before sampling for minimum bactericidal
concentration (MBC) the tubes were shaken
and 0.1 ml samples from turbid tubes were
spread over the surface of Tryptic Soy Agar
plates (Difco). The plates were then incubated
at 37°C for 24 hr. MBC was considered the
lowest concentration of NaCl which reduced
the inoculum by 99.9% within 24 hr.

Electron Microscopy

Samples were removed from the MIC tubes
after exposure to a concentration of sodium
chloride that allowed sufficient growth of cells
to be processed for scanning electron micros-
copy (SEM). The broth cultures were centri-
fuged at 4,000 < g for 10 min. The resulting
pellets were washed twice, each time for 15
min in a 0.2 M cacodylate buffer (pH 6.5).
The washed cells were then fixed in a 1% (v/v)
solution of glutaraldehyde prepared in the
above buffer. Fixation was performed over-
night at 5°C.- After fixation, the cells were
again centrifuged and the pellets washed in
cacodylate buffer for two consecutive 15-min
periods. The fixed cells were then dehydrated
in a graded series of ethanol. One drop of the
cells suspended in 100% ethanol was added to
each polylysine-coated coverslip (9, 13). The
thin layer of cells was air dried, coated with a
gold-palladium alloy (Au 60%, Pd 40%) and
examined in a ISI Super IIL[A SEM.

For transmission electron microscopy
(TEM), cells were obtained, washed, pelleted,
and fixed in glutaraldehyde as described
above. After being washed twice in 0.2 M cac-
odylate buffer the cells were post fixed with
1% OsO, (2 hr) and then covered with melted
agar tempered to 55-57°C. The cell-agar mix-
ture was left to solidify and then cut into 2
mm* blocks. The cell-agar blocks were dehy-
drated in a graded series of ethanol prior to
infiltration. A volume of Spurr low viscosity
embedding plastic was added to the 100% eth-
anol cell suspension in a 1:3 mixture. After 2
hr, an amount of Spurr plastic sufficient to
make a 2:2 mixture of plastic and ethanol was
added and kept overnight. This was followed
by a 3:1 infiltration mixture for 2 hr. Following

TABLE 1.
mum bactericidal concentrations of sodium chloride for

Minimum inhibitory concentrations and mini-

various streptococcal isolates.

MIC value(s) MBC value(s) Number
(g/ml) (g/ml) of strains
Clinical strains of NaCl of NaCl tested
Lancefield Group A C2 9.0 3
Lancefield Group B 12-13 QDI 3
Lancefield Group C 7.0 8.0 2

* Cell viability was observed.

infiltration and embedding in Spurr resin, cells
were polymerized in BEEM capsules for § hr
at 70°C. Ultrathin sections were cut with an
Sorval MT2B ultramicrotome by using glass
knives and mounted on copper grids. Sections
were examined with Zeiss EM9 S-2 transmis-
sion electron microscope.

RESULTS
Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations

Table 1 shows the MICs of sodium chloride
for the streptococci tested in TSB. The MIC
of NaCl for S. pyogenes was 7.2. For compar-
ison purposes, the MIC for NaCl for Strep-
tococcus group C was 7.0, whereas for S. aga-
lactiae 2 strains were 12.0 while one was 13.0.
For groups A and C the MBC ranged from 8—
9 g/ml; however, for group B NaCl did not
have any bactericidal activity.

Cell Morphology

The appearance of all 8 streptococcal strains
observed with SEM showed no obvious dif-
ferences in their external morphology when
comparing control and experimental organ-
isms (Fig. la). Thus only a representative
transmission electron micrograph is present-
ed. The cells appeared to have retained tur-
gidity, hence, the spherical morphology of the
cells was maintained.

Definite changes in cells treated with NaCl
were observed with the TEM. All streptococ-
cal strains were observed but only represen-
tative transmission electron micrographs are
shown. The appearance of group A strepto-
cocci in the absence of NaCl is shown in Fig.
lb. The nucleoid (arrow) is central, composed
of fine, filamentous DNA. The cytoplasm con-
tained darkly staining ribosomes which gave
the cell a rough appearance. After exposure to
an NaCl concentration of 6.5 g/ml for 18-24
hr, condensation of the DNA occurred, caus-

38 TrANsS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

Fic. 1. Groups A and C streptococci. (a, scanning electron micrograph; b, c, d, and e, transmission electron micros-
copy). a, Group C no NaCl exposure. Bar, 1 jum; b, c, d, and e, Group A exposed to 6.5% NaCl. Bars = 0.5 jum.

ing an expansion of the clear zone and result- _ the plane of division. The formed membranes
ing in prominence of the nucleoid region (Fig. appeared to lack orientation in their extension.
lc). Affected cells also exhibited abortive at- This process resulted in the occurrence of sev-
tempts at cell division (Fig. 1d). These failures _ eral incomplete divisions leading to large, mul-
were in the form of membrane formation at tisegmented, and misshapen cells. The final

MorpPHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SALT ON STREPTOCOCCI—Fashola and Elliott 39

Fic. 2. Groups B and C streptococci. (a—-e, transmission electron microscopy). a, Group B no NaCl exposure. Bar,
0.1 ym; b and c exposed to 11.5% NaCl. Bars, 0.5 jm; d, Group c exposed to no NaCl. Bar 0.5 xm; e and f exposed

to 6.5% NaCl. Bars, 0.5 um.

stage observed in these cells was the dissolu-
tion of the entire cytoplasmic contents, result-

ing in bacterial ghosts composed of intact cell
walls lacking any organized internal structure

(Eiewlle):

Similar results were obtained with group B
streptococci except that the treated cells were
exposed to NaCl 11.5 g/ml for 18-24 hr (Fig.
2a, b, c). Similar results were obtained with
group C streptococci treated with 6.5 g/ml for

40 TrANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 50(1-2)

18-24 hr. Bizarre defects were noted within
these cells associated with cleavage sites (Fig.
2e) and ghost formation (arrow). The control
cells of each group were interesting (Fig. 2a,
d) since the group B streptococci had invagi-
nation of the plasma membrane (2a, arrow)
and group C (2d, arrow) showed an unrestrict-
ed and filamentous form of the nucleoid ma-
terial.

DISCUSSION

These results clearly demonstrate that NaCl
inhibits Lancefield groups A, B and C strep-
tococci and can cause gross morphological al-
terations to these cells. From a survey of 100
Western Kentucky University students, 52%
stated that they gargle with salt water contain-
ing an average salt content of 2.4%. Our data
suggest that concentrations of 7.2% NaCl
should be used in order for inhibition of
growth of group A streptococci to occur. A
percentage 2.4 generally used for gargling falls
far below the concentration required for in-
hibition of the group A streptococci that caus-
es “strep” throat. This could be a reason for
the resurgence of group A streptococcal infec-
tions in Europe and the USA. Kaplan (7) dis-
cussed the increase in severe streptococcal in-
fections and their sequelae. Perhaps too many
people are trying to treat streptococcal phar-
yngitis themselves, rather than seeing a phy-
sician for early diagnosis and prompt treat-
ment. If people from all over the US and
world are using salt water to gargle for a home
remedy to control “strep” throat this delay in
killing the streptococci could result in more
severe infections.

Obviously, successful treatment of group A
streptococci is aided by rapid detection and
identification of the streptococci. Although
Facklam et al. (4) recommend serological
grouping for identifying streptococci they re-
alized cost could keep some laboratories from
pursuing this approach. Thus, they (4) rec-
ommended a battery of 5 tests for presump-
tive identification of pathogenic streptococci.
Since 79.2% of their group B_ streptococci
tested grew in the presence of 6.5% NaCl and
1.9% of their group A tested were salt toler-
ant, perhaps less emphasis should be placed
on growth in 6.5% NaCl broth as a means of
identification. An alternative procedure is to

test for hydrolysis of L-pyrrolidonyl-8-naph-

thylamide (PYR). Group A streptococci and
enterococci hydrolyze PYR (14); these mi-
crobes could then be differentiated by per-
forming a bacitracin test. Recently Nadler (10)
pointed out the difficulties in diagnosing
streptococcal pharyngitis by the traditional
culture methods and reviewed the methodol-
ogies that detect antigen directly in clinical
samples. It is her belief that rapid tests can be
performed more accurately and reliably in the
physician’s office or small laboratory, provided
proper controls are run.

It was interesting to note that the bacteri-
cidal concentration of NaCl for group C strep-
tococci was 8.0%, for group A 9.0% and when
concentrations as high as 25.5% were used
against B streptococci the microbes remained
viable. Thus the response of streptococci to
high osmolarity is a fundamental microbiolog-
ical question. One common mechanism of ad-
aptation to osmotic stress (osmoregulation) is
the accumulation of inorganic and/or organic
solutes in the cytoplasm to restore turgor in
microbes (3). In gram-negative rods, glycine
betaine often serves as an osmoprotectant.
Little is known about the tolerance of gram-
positive cocci or gram-positive rods to high
concentrations of NaCl in growth medium.
Sakaguchi (11) has found that glycine betaine
gives osmotolerance to hyperosmolarity in
Pediococcus soyae or in Lactobacillus acidoph-
ilus, betaine accumulation results in osmotol-
erance (5). The answer to what determines the
ability of gram-positive cocci, particularly
streptococci, to grow in an environment of os-
motic stress may prove to be an excellent area
for future research utilizing molecular biolog-
ical techniques (8).

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We thank the Faculty Research Committee
of Western Kentucky University for a grant to
help support this research.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Amako, K. 1977. Scanning electron microscopy of
Streptococcus. J. Ultra. Res. 58:34—40.

2. Baron, E. J. and S. M. Finegold. 1990. Bailey &
Scott’s diagnostic microbiology. C.V. Mosby Co., St. Lou-
is, Missouri.

3. Csonka, L. N. 1989. Physiological and genetic re-
sponses of bacteria to osmotic stress. Microbiol. Rev. 53:
121-147.

4. Facklam, R. R., J. F. Padula, L. G. Thacker, E. C.

MORPHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SALT ON STREPTOCOCCI—Fashola and Elliott 4]

Wortham, and B. J. Sconyers. 1974. Presumptive iden-
tification of group A, B, and D streptococci. Appl. Micro-
biol. 27:107-113.

5. Hutkins, R. W., W. L. Ellefson, and E. R. Kashket.
1987. Betaine transport imparts osmotolerance on a strain
of Lactobacillus acidophilus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:
2275-2281.

6. Jones, R. N., A. L. Barry, T. L. Gavan, and J. A.
Washington. 1985. In Manual of clinical microbiology.
American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.

7. Kaplan, E. L. 1991. The resurgence of group A
streptococcal infections and their sequelae. Eur. J. Clin.,
Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 10:55—57.

8. Le Rudulier, D., A. R. Strom, A. M. Dandekar, L.
T. Smith, and R. C. Valentine. 1984. Molecular biology
of osmoregulation. Science 224:1064—1068.

9. Mazia, D., G. Schatten, and W. Sale. 1975. Adhe-
sion of cells to surfaces coated with polylysine. ]. Cell Biol.
66:198—200.

10. Nadler, H. L. 1989. Group A streptococcal detec-
tion. Diagnostic and Clin. Testing 27:34-41.

11. Sakaguchi, K. 1960. Betaine as a growth factor for
Pediococcus soyae. VIII. Studies on the activities of bac-
teria in soy sauce brewing. Agric. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 24:489—
496.

12. Weiss, R. L. 1984. A polylysine method for scan-
ning electron microscopy. J. Electron Micros. 1:95—-96.

13. Wellstood, S. A. 1987. Rapid, cost-effective iden-
tification of group A streptococci and enterococci by pyr-
rolidoyl-B-naphthylamide hydrolysis. J. Clin. Microbiol.
25:1805-1806.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—2), 1994, 42-45

Wood Duck Use and Availability of Natural Cavities in
Western Kentucky

Mark P. VrtiskA! AND ROBERT B. FREDERICK

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

We estimated the availability and use of natural cavities suitable as nest sites for wood ducks (Aix sponsa)
at the Sloughs Wildlife Management Area, Henderson and Union counties, Kentucky, in April-June 1988.

The estimated density of suitable natural cavities was 1.26

+ 0.11 (SE) cavities/ha based on 62 0.5-ha plots.

American Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) contained the most cavities (30.8%), followed by ash (Fraxinus
spp.) (25.6%), and maple (Acer spp.) (12.8%). Although used and unused cavities had similar mean values
for the characteristics measured (P > 0.05), entrance width and entrance length exhibited less variance (P
< 0.05) in used sites than in unused sites, and cavity depth exhibited greater variance (P < 0.01) in used

sites than in unused sites. The results suggest that wood ducks might avoid cavities with larger entrance
sizes and with intermediate depths (12-40 cm) in an attempt to av aid predation.

INTRODUCTION

Previous investigations of wood duck (Aix
sponsa) nest sites have concentrated on man-
made structures, although most wood ducks
nest in natural cavities (1). In addition, little is
known about the availability of natural cavities
suitable for wood duck nesting (1). Informa-
tion on the availability of suche cavities might
influence forest management practices (2) cad
the deployment of ar AGeaall nesting structures
(3, 4), the primary management strategies for
maintaining local populations of nesting wood
ducks. We report the availability of natural
cavities and their use by nesting wood ducks
in a bottomland forest in acta Kentucky.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at the Sloughs
Wildlife Management Area (WMA) on the
Jennyhole and Highland Creek units, located
in Henderson and Union counties, Kentucky.
These units lie adjacent to each other and are
located 6.4 km west of Smith Mills, Kentucky,
and 2.4 km northeast of Uniontown, Ken-
tucky. This area is typical bottomland hard-
wood forest consisting primarily of oak (Quer-
cus spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), hickory (Carya
spp.), hackberry (Celtis spp.), and American
sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) (5).

National Wetland Inventory maps of the

' Present address: Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries, P.O.
Drawer LW, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762.

Jennyhole and Highland Creek units were ob-
tained, and areas classified as upland, saturat-
ed, or temporarily flooded (6) were divided
into rectangular 0.5-ha plots. Sixty two plots
were chosen randomly to sample 5% of the
study area (5), and only plots with 20.25 ha
of forest habitat were selected. Overwater
sites were excluded due to inaccessibility and
difficulty in determining plot boundaries.
From April through June 1988, plot bound-
aries were established and marked, and all
trees in the plot 228 cm diameter breast
height (DBH) were searched for cavities (2).
Criteria used to designate a cavity as suitable
for wood duck nesting were: entrance width
and entrance length 26.5 and 9.0 cm, respec-
tively (7), width of interior near cavity bottom
212.5 cm (8), length of interior near cavity
bottom 218.0 cm (8), cavity depth <445 cm
(8), and cavity height above ground 21.8 m
(S). When trees could not be climbed due to
safety considerations, cavities were considered
suitable if entrance size and height above the
ground appeared suitable (no precise mea-
surements were taken). The number of en-
trances to each cavity, tree species or genera,
and DBH were also recorded. The distance to
nearest water and distance to nearest forest
canopy opening 0.1 ha (2) were recorded for
all suitable cavities. A cavity was considered
used by wood ducks if a hen, eggs, egg mem-
branes, or down were present. Additional nest
sites outside the sample plots were measured

Woop Duck NESTING IN KENtucKy—Vrtiska and Frederick 43

TABLE 1.

Variable

Diameter breast height (cm)

Entrance width (cm)

Entrance length (cm)

Number of suitable entrances

Height of cavity entrance (m)

Depth of cavity (cm)

Width of interior bottom (cm)

Length of interior bottom (cm)
Distance to nearest water (m)
Distance to nearest forest opening (m)

“ Only cavities for which all characteristics could be measured were included.

' Variances significantly different (P < 0.05).
Variances significantly different (P < 0.01).

and included in the preference analysis, but
excluded from density estimates. Where cavi-
ties could be measured, possible differences
between used and unused cavities were tested
using t tests (9). Preferences for certain nest
site characteristics might not be evident when
only differences among means are analyzed, so
we also tested for differences in variances by
using F tests (10) as suggested by McC Callum

and Gehlbach (11).

RESULTS

Thirty nine suitable cavities were located
within plots, and the estimated density of nat-
ural cavities suitable for wood duck nesting
was 1.26 + 0.11 (SE) cavities/ha in non- edpode
ed, forested habitat. Sycamores contained the
greatest number of suitable natural cavities
(30.8%), followed by ash (25.6%), and maple
(12.8%). Cavities were also found in hickory
and hackberry (N = 4 each), and in oak,
sweetgum (Liquidambar spp.), catalpa (Catal-
pa spp.), and a dead snag (N = 1 each).

Nine natural cavities used by wood ducks
were discovered during the study, § in syca-
mores and 1 in an ash. All cavities were locat-
ed on the main stem of the tree and most
were normal (1, 5) cavities, with only 1 of the
bucket (1, 5) variety.

There were no differences between means
of used and unused cavities for any of the vari-
ables measured (t tests, P > 0.05) (Table 1).
There were differences between used and un-
used cavities in the variances of entrance
width (F = 6.76, P < 0.05), entrance length
(F = 5.87, P < 0.05), and cavity depth (F =
10.36, P < 0.01) (Table 1). Entrance width

Means and standard deviations of variables measured at tree cavities used and unused as wood duck nest
sites, Sloughs Wildlife Management Area, April-June 1988.

Used = 9") Unused (N = 10")
135.7 = 42.8 148.9 + 42.8
S\(0) as (0)45)” §.9 + 2.0
OS se Ilse MOSS): se Bh 8}
1.8 2.0
10.0 + 2.8 Sidi Se Bike!
MS Il ae PAGE OSV Ah cis {5}.8}

NG eee roe NGL as w),

PAO) sae Bhi DPN) ‘eue OV0)
60.4 + 52.1 50.6 + 49.4
44.0 + 39.1 50.6 + 49.4

and entrance length exhibited less variance for
used cavities than for unused cavities, with
used-cavity entrances clustered in the 7-9 cm
width and 9-13 cm length range (Fig. 1). Vari-
ance in cavity depth was larger for Tised cavi-
ties than for unused caves suitable cavities
that were very shallow (<10 cm deep) or very
deep cavities (240 cm deep) were all used
(Fig. 2). Other characteristics had similar vari-
ance between used and unused cavities (P >
().05).

Two (20%) of the unused cavities contained
identifiable hair, feathers, or eggs of other spe-
cies: 1 contained an castenan gray squirrel
(Sciurus carolinensis) and the otek ‘contained
a common flicker (Colaptes auratus). Only 3
of the cavities used in preference analyses

13 ® Used Cavities

* Unused Cavities b

Entrance Width (cm)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 #16 #18 20
Entrance Length (cm)

Fic. 1.
of cavities used and not used by wood ducks,
Wildlife Management Area, April-June 1988.

Variation in entrance width and entrance length
Sloughs

44 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

30 " # Used Cavities
? an " Unused Cavities
25) se Ne

—
So
T

Length of Interior Bottom (cm)
a a
T

Depth of Cavity (cm)

Fic. 2. Variation in cavity depth and interior bottom
length (chosen for convenience) of used and unused cav-
ities, Sloughs Wildlife Management Area, April-June
1988.

were within the 0.5-ha plots; 1 used and 2 un-
used.

DISCUSSION

The density of cavities suitable for wood
duck nesting was higher on our study site in
Kentucky (1.26/ha) than reported in Mississip-
pi (0.67/ha and 0.21/ha), Missouri (0.33/ha), or
Wisconsin (0.65/ha), but lower than sites in
Minnesota (4.2/ha) and New Brunswick (5.50/
ha) (4 and 12, 14, 3, 2, 18, respectively). Es-
timated density of natural cavities was similar
to a nearby site in Indiana (1.23/ha) (7). The
large numbers of sycamores, ash, and maple
probably accounted for the relatively high
number of suitable nesting cavities at Sloughs
WMA. These tree species are important cavity
producers throughout most of the range of the
wood duck (1).

The true density of suitable natural cavities
might differ slightly from our estimate. Some
plots were searched during and after leaf-out,
making observations of cavities difficult. Also,
because safety considerations prevented
climbing some trees, not all cavities could be
precisely measured to determine their suit-
ability as nest sites for wood ducks. Although
some unmeasured cavities might have been
misclassified, we do not feel any bias was in-
troduced that would change our estimate of
suitable cavity density. Only measured cavities
were used in preference analyses.

Although there was no difference between
means of used and unused cavities for any of
the characteristics measured, there was a dif-
ference in variances between used and unused
cavities for 3 characteristics. In their study of
flammulated owls (Otus flammeolus), Mc-
Callum and Gehlbach (11) showed how dif-
ferences among variances can reveal prefer-
ences for certain nest characteristics that are
missed if only differences among means are
tested. Specifically, when means are not dif-
ferent but used sites exhibit a smaller variance
for a particular character, selection for a mid-
dle range of the measured character is sug-
gested. We contend if used sites exhibit a
greater variance, avoidance of or exclusion
from the middle range is suggested. Our data
suggest a possible preference for cavities with
entrance sizes 7-9 cm wide and 9-13 cm long
(Fig. 1). All used cavities and only 30% of un-
used cavities fell into this range (Fig. 1). Most
of the unused cavities outside the range had
wider or longer entrances, thus wood ducks
might actually be avoiding cavities with larger
openings. Smaller entrance sizes may prevent
raccoons (Procyon lotor), the main predator of
wood duck nests (15), from entering a cavity.
Large entrance sizes might attract raccoons,
excluding wood ducks (5). Because our sample
sizes were small, however, any conclusions
about wood duck preferences for certain cav-
ity characteristics are tentative. In other stud-
ies (7, 8), wood ducks were found using cavi-
ties with entrances even smaller than the
suggested minimum size.

All measured cavities <12 em or >40 cm
deep were used by wood ducks, but only 28%
of cavities 12-40 cm deep were used (Fig. 2).
The possible selection by wood ducks of cav-
ities with a particular depth may relate to
predator avoidance or cavity availability. Shal-
low cavities may enhance detection of preda-
tors ascending the tree or simply permit an
easier, quicker escape by the nesting female
when predators are detected (5). Conversely,
a nest in a cavity greater than 40 cm deep
would be beyond the reach of raccoons unable
to enter the cavity (5). There might be, how-
ever, disadvantages of using very shallow or
very deep cavities. Cavities too shallow could
increase the chance of predation, and cavities
too deep might make nest exodus by ducklings
difficult. Natural cavities 12-40 cm deep are

Woop Duck NESTING IN KENTUCKy—Vrtiska and Frederick 45

sometimes used by other species (16, 17), so
perhaps wood ducks are excluded from using
cavities intermediate in depth. Kilham (18) re-
ported that a pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus
pileatus) did not enter a cavity being used by
a wood duck. The extent and outcome of such
competitive interactions are unknown, how-
ever, and warrant further investigation.
Because so many suitable cavities were un-
used, the density of natural cavities suitable
for wood duck nesting did not seem to be a
major limiting factor of the population of
wood ducks at Sloughs WMA. This might not
be true, however, in other areas of Kentucky
and the eastern United States. To determine
the need for cavity management, including the
deployment of nest boxes, future studies of
wood ducks should include estimates of the
density of suitable natural cavities. To fully un-
derstand the relationship between cavity avail-
ability on wood duck population dynamics,
preference for certain cavity characteristics by
wood ducks and competition with other spe-
cies for these cavities must be considered.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are grateful for the assistance provided
by the staff of the Sloughs WMA, and E. Ear-
hardt and C. J. Lacefield in the collection of
field data. The Kentucky Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources provided funding and
logistical support. We thank G. Ritchison for
a critical review of an earlier draft of this
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Soulliere, G. J. 1990. Review of wood duck nest-
cavity characteristics. Pp. 153-162. In L. H. Fredrickson,
G. V. Burger, S. P. Havera, D. A. Graber, R. E. Kirby,
and T. S. Taylor (eds.) Proc. 1988 North Am. Wood Duck
Symp., St. Louis, Missouri.

2. Gilmer, D.S., I. J. Ball, L. M. Cowardin, J. E. Math-
isen, and J. H. Riechmann. 1978. Natural cavities used
by wood ducks in north-central Minnesota. J. Wildl. Man-
age. 42:288—-298.

3. Soulliere, G. J. 1988. Density of suitable wood duck
nest cavities in a northern hardwood forest. J. Wildl. Man-
age. 52:86-89.

4. Lowney, M. S. and E. P. Hill. 1989. Wood duck
nest sites in bottomland hardwood forests of Mississippi.
J. Wildl. Manage. 53:378—382.

5. Vrtiska, M. P. 1991. Nest productivity, brood sur-
vival, and habitat use of wood ducks (Aix sponsa) at the
Sloughs Wildlife Management Area, Kentucky. M.S. The-
sis. Eastern Kentucky Univ., Richmond, Kentucky. 105
PP:

6. Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T.
LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater
habitats of the United States. FWS/OBS-79/31, U.S. Fish
Wild. Serv., Off. Biol. Serv. Habitat Preserv. Program,
Washington, D.C. 103 pp.

7. Robb, J. R. 1986. The importance of nesting cavities
and brood habitat to wood duck production. M.S. Thesis.
Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio. 153 pp.

8. Bellrose, F. C., K. L. Johnson, and T. V. Meyers.
1964. Relative value of natural cavities and nesting houses
for wood ducks. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:661-676.

9. SAS Institute Inc. 1985. SAS user’s guide: statistics.
Version 5 ed. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina.
956 pp.

10. Sokal, R. R. and F. J. Rohlf. 1969. Biometry: the
principles and practice of statistics in biological research.
W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California.
776 pp.

11. McCallum, D. A. and F. R. Gehlbach. 1988. Nest-
site preferences of flammulated owls in western New
Mexico. Condor 90:653-661.

12. Strange, T. H., E. R. Cunningham, and J. W.
Goertz. 1971. Use of nest boxes by wood ducks in Mis-
sissippi. J. Wildl. Manage. 35:786—793.

13. Prince, H. H. 1968. Nest sites used by wood ducks
and common goldeneyes in New Brunswick. J. Wildl.
Manage. 32:489-500.

14. Weier, R. W. 1966. A survey of wood duck nest
sites in Mingo National Wildlife Refuge in southeast Mis-
souri. Pp. 91-108. In J. B. Trefethen (ed.) Wood duck
Management and research: a symposium. Wildl. Manage.
Inst., Washington, D.C.

15. Bellrose, F. C. 1976. Ducks, geese and swans of
North America. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pennsylva-
nia.

16. Sanderson, H. R. 1975. Den-tree management for
gray squirrels. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 3:125-131.

17. Belthoff, J. R. and G. Ritchison. 1990. Nest-site
selection by Eastern screech-owls in central Kentucky.
Condor 90:982-990.

18. Kilham, L. 1959. Behavior and methods of com-
munication of Pileated Woodpeckers. Condor 61:377—
387.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 46-54

A Recent Re-evaluation of the Bivalve Fauna of the
Lower Green River, Kentucky

ANDREW C. MILLER AND Barry S. PAYNE

Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers,
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199

AND

Larry T. NEILL
Tennessee Valley Authority, P.O. Box 1010, Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660

ABSTRACT

A survey to assess community characteristics, density, and population demography of abundant species of
freshwater bivalves (mussels in the family Unionidae and the Asian clam Corbicula fluminea (Muller, 1774))
was conducted at selected locations between river miles (RM) 101.5 and 155.0 in the Green River, Kentucky,
in June and July 1992. Two locks and dams in the study area, No. 3 at RM 108.5 and No. 4 at RM 149.0,
ceased operating in 1981 and 1965, respectively, effectively eliminating commercial navigation traffic in this
river reach. Mussels were scarce except for a moderately dense bed immediately downriver of Dam No. 3
and a low-density bed downriver of Dam No. 4. Mean density downriver of Dam No. 3 was 7.0, 16.0, and
6.6 mussels/sq m, species diversity (H’) was 1.63, 2.59, and 1.90, and evidence of recent recruitment (%
individuals <30 mm total shell length) was 7.9, 15.4, and 3.0%, respectively, at the upper, mid, and lower
sections of the bed. When results were compared with those obtained by a 1968 study, it was apparent that
the mussels have not been greatly affected by closure of the locks and cessation of commercial navigation
traffic. Unionid species richness, species diversity, relative species abundance, and community composition
are similar, although mean shell length of Megalonaias nervosa (Rafinesque, 1820) and Pleurobema cordatum
(Rafinesque, 1820) are slightly greater (i.e., evidence of reduced recent recruitment) than they were 24 years

ago.

INTRODUCTION

In 1968, Williams (1) investigated the mus-
sel fishery along 306 miles of the Green River
between its confluence with the Ohio River
and the Taylor-Green County line, Kentucky.
Mussels were collected with a brail, by diving,
and by hand-picking. The objectives were to
determine the extent of existing beds and as-
sess mussel species composition, population
density, harvest, recruitment, and reproduc-
tion.

In the summer of 1992, our divers used
quantitative and qualitative methods to collect
freshwater bivalves (mussels in the family
Unionidae and the Asian clam Corbicula flu-
minea (Muller, 1774)) at selected locations be-
tween RM 101.5 and 155.0, which included
beds immediately downriver of Dam No. 3
(RM 108.5) and Dam No. 4 (RM 149.0). The
upper one-third of our sampling took place
within Area III of Williams, which included
149 river miles between Dam No. 4 and the
mouth of the river.

46

The purpose of this paper is to present data
from our 1992 survey, and to compare results
with those obtained by Williams. The pres-
ence of these 2 data sets, separated by 24
years, provides an opportunity to use quanti-
tative and qualitative data on bivalves to in-
vestigate possible changes in habitat and water
quality in this river reach. The importance of
bivalves as an assessment tool has been rec-
ognized by academicians and federal and state
biologists since the early 1970s. The tech-
niques used by Williams in 1968 and ourselves
in 1992 are not exactly the same. However,
where appropriate, data can be compared and
conclusions can be drawn.

Other studies of the Green River include
that by A. E. Ortmann and W. J. Clench, who
collected at seven sites upriver of Mammoth
Cave between 1921 and 1925 (2); the work of
William J. Clench and Peter Okkelberg (3);
and Stansbery (4) who collected at Munford-
ville. These workers collected upriver of our
study area. Isom (5) summarized results of

BIvALVE MOLLUSKS IN Kentrucky—Miller et al. AM

previous studies, and the Academy of Natural
Sciences (6) collected mussels downriver of
RM 67.5. Most recently, Cochran and Layzer
(7) collected at sites upriver of our study area
and in the Barren River. Only the study by
Williams provided detailed data from the area
we surveyed that can be used to assess long-
term trends in the unionid community.

STUDY AREA

The Green River originates south of Dan-
ville in central Kentucky. It flows southwest to

Campbellsville, in a westerly, then northwest-
erly direction until it joins the Ohio River up-
river of Evansville, Indiana (Fig. 1). The lower
one-third is low-gradient with steep, tree-lined
banks and is approximately 70 m wide. The
bottom consists of sand, gravel, and silt, with
occasional patches of bedrock and clay. Al-
though Williams indicated that mussels could
be affected by brine from local oil fields, Isom
(5) found no evidence of this in the early
1970s.

Locks and dams were constructed in the
Green River in the 1830s; Locks and Dams 1
and 2 are still functional. Lock and Dam No.
1 is located at RM 9.1, near Spotsville, Hen-
derson County, and Lock and Dam No. 2 is
located at RM 63.1, near Rumsey in McLean
County. Lock and Dam No. 3, near Skilesville,
Muhlenberg County, was closed because of
lack of commercial traffic and placed in care-
taker status on 1 October 1981. Presently, wa-
ter runs over Dam No. 3, and since the lock
is not in operation, commercial traffic has
been eliminated from this pool. Lock No. 4,
near Woodbury, Butler County, was closed in
1965 after the dam was breached and normal
pool elevation could not be maintained. Water
now runs through the breach in the dam that

g
partially constricts river flow.

METHODS

Mussels were collected between RM 101.5
and 155.8 by a dive crew equipped with sur-
face-supplied air and communication equip-
ment. Qualitative methods were used at 17
low-density sites (there were usually no more
than 2 mussels/sq m). At these sites, 2 divers
each worked for 10 to 15 min and collected
all mussels encountered by touch. At 3 sites
with moderate density (at RM 101.5, 105.5,
and 107.4 where densities were estimated to

be between 3 and 5 mussels/sq m) 3 divers
spent about 60 min collecting using a slightly

different method. Each diver placed 5 mussels
in one nylon bag, and 20 mussels in each of
three nylon bags. The three divers spent about
60 min and collected approximately 200 mus-
sels at each site. Actual numbers varied slight-
ly since dead mussels or rocks were occasion-
ally taken. This was of no consequence since
data were used to determine unionid com-
munity composition. Corbicula fluminea was
eliminated from these samples.

Quantitative methods were used to collect
Unionidae and C. fluminea at ten sites down-
river of Dam No. 3 (RM 108.5) and at 4 sites
downriver of Dam No. 4 (RM 149.0, Fig. 1).
Based on mussel density, distance to the dam,
and substratum characteristics, the 10 sites
were separated into upper (Sites 1-4), mid
(Sites 5-8) and lower sections (Sites 9-10). At
each site, ten 0.25 sq m quadrats were posi-
tioned approximately 1 m apart and arranged
in a 2 X 5 matrix. A diver excavated all sand,
gravel, shells, and live bivalves to a depth of
10-15 cm within the quadrat. Sediment was
brought to the surface in a 20 liter bucket,
transported to shore, and screened through a
sieve series (finest screen with apertures of 6.4
mm). All live bivalves were picked from sedi-
ments, identified, and total shell length was
measured to the nearest 0.1 mm with a dial
caliper. The majority of the collected mussels
were processed in the field and returned to
the river unharmed. A few individuals were
taken for vouchers.

Species diversity was calculated with Shan-
non’s index (H’) using natural logarithms (8).
Evenness was calculated with the modified
Hill’s ratio, which is relatively unaffected by
species richness (8). Bivalve nomenclature is
consistent with Williams et al. (9).

RESULTS

Five bivalve species were common to abun-
dant in the bed immediately downriver of
Dam No. 3 (Table 1), Megalonaias nervosa
(Rafinesque, 1820) comprised more than half
the assemblage in the upper section of the bed
but was substantially less at the mid and lower
sections. Pleurobema cordatum (Rafinesque,
1820), Elliptio crassidens (Lamarck, 1819),
and Amblema plicata plicata (Say, 1817) in-
creased in abundance moving downriver. To-

48 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 50(1-2)

(0)
Ss
EVANSVILLE °
Kv EN Tf U6. ok: "yy
Ce
vee
9 @
Oy GREEN RIVER LAKE
BOWLING GREEN $F Ke
BARREN RIVER LAKE ys
Wep

Ce
s

er a ee eT

LOCK
NO. 3
RM 108.5

WOODBURY

SCALES

2.5 0 2.5 0.5 MI

Fic. 1. Collecting sites immediately below Dam Nos. 3 and 4 in the Green River, Kentucky.

tal species richness and species diversity (a expressed as a percentage of all individuals
function of evenness and richness) were great- and species (even small species such as Trun-
er in the center as compared with the upper cilla spp. and C. fluminea) less than 30 mm
and lower sections of the bed. Evidence of re- shell length, was substantially greater in the
cent recruitment to the bivalve community, mid-section as compared with the upper and

BIVALVE MOLLUSKS IN Kentucky—Miller et al. 49

lower sections of the bed. Total density of
Unionidae was significantly higher in the mid-
section (16.0 individuals/sq m) than in the up-
per and lower sections (7.0 and 6.6 individu-
als/sq m, respectively, P < 0.01). Corbicula
fluminea was not found at the lower section of
the bed and was uncommon at the upper and
mid-sections.

Fifteen species of bivalves, including C. flu-
minea, were obtained in 40 quantitative sam-
ples collected immediately downriver of Dam
No. 4 (Table 1). Corbicula fluminea numeri-
cally dominated and comprised 58% of the bi-
valve fauna; other species were each less than
10%. Diversity and evenness were similar at
both beds. The per cent of individuals less
than 30 mm total shell length downriver of
Dam No. 4 was higher than in the bed down-
river of Dam No. 3 (65.8% as compared with
3.0 to 15.0%), due mainly to the presence of
many small C. fluminea. Downriver of Dam
No. 4, total density of C. fluminea (4.6 indi-
viduals/sq m) was higher, and total density of
Unionidae (3.3 individuals/sq m) was lower
than at the bed downriver of Dam No. 3.

Corbicula fluminea had only minimal ef-
fects on community parameters in the bed
downriver of Dam No. 3 although greater ef-
fects downriver of Dam No. 4 (compare spe-
cies diversity, evenness, and evidence of re-
cent recruitment, Table 1). Downriver of Dam
No. 4 species diversity calculated for just
Unionidae was 1.4 times greater than calcu-
lated when both Unionidae and C. fluminea
were considered. Evidence of recent recruit-
ment for only Unionidae (excluding C. flumi-
nea) was about one third (21.2% as compared
with 65.8%) of the value determined for all
bivalves.

Although species richness was higher down-
river of Dam No. 3 than downriver of Dam
No. 4, bivalve species (unionids plus C. flu-
minea) were collected at about the same rate
at both beds (Figs. 2, 3). This similarity re-
flects the approximately equal evenness of
species downriver of Dam Nos. 3 and 4 (Table
2). Fifteen species of bivalves were identified
downriver of Dam No. 4 after 78 individuals
were collected, and after 100 individuals had
been collected downriver of Dam No. 3.

Due to the low density of mussels in the
quantitative samples, only 3 populations were
collected in sufficient number to allow analysis

TaBLE 1. Summary statistics for bivalves (Unionidae and
Corbicula fluminea) collected at a bed located immedi-
ately downriver of Dam No. 3 (RM 108.5) and 4 (RM
149.0), Green River, Kentucky, 1992. In the bed down-
river of Dam No. 3, means with the same superscript are
not significantly different (P > 0.05).

Downriver of Dam No. 3 Down-
river

Upper Mid Lower of Dam
Section Section Section No. 4

Percent abundance of common species

M. nervosa 55.3 11.4 3.0 7.6
P. cordatum 2.6 15.4 24.2, 13
E. crassidens 7.9 8.8 33.3 2.5
A. p. plicata 5.3 4.8 12.1 16.7
C. fluminea 7.9 11.9 = 58.2
Community parameters (including C. fluminea)
Total samples 20 50 20 40
Total species 10 21 10 15
Total individuals 38 DOT 33 79
Diversity (H’) 1.63 2.59 1.90 1.64
Evenness 0.53 0.85 0.82 0.43
Dominance 0.31 0.09 0.17 0.3
% Individuals
<30 mm 7.89 15.42 3.00 65.80
% Species
<30 mm 10.00 28.57 10.00 26.70
Community parameters (excluding C. fluminea)
Total species 9 20 10 14
Total individuals 35 200 33 33
Diversity (H’) 1.48 2.53 1.90 2.30
Evenness 0.67 0.84 0.83 0.87
Dominance 0.36 0.09 0.17 0.10
% Individuals
<30 mm 0.00 4.00 3.03 21.21
% Species
<30 mm 10.0 25.00 10.00 21.43
Total density
Unionidae
Mean individ-
uals/sq m 7.0> 16.0 6.6” BS
Standard error 1.2 3 eG 1.3
Corbicula fluminea
Mean individ-
uals/sq m 0.68 9 OP 0.08 4.5
Standard error 0.4 0.7 0.0 1.4

of size demography. Size demography was ex-
amined only for dominant bivalve populations
immediately downriver of Dam No. 3. The
population of M. nervosa consisted almost en-
tirely of large and relatively old mussels, with
44 of 47 individuals collected ranging from 13
to 16.5 cm in length (Fig. 4). The largest spec-
imen was 18 cm long, and approached the
maximum recorded size for this species. Not
a single individual less than 10 cm in length

50 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55( 1-2)

O Upper Section
@ Midsection
© Lower Section

Cumulative Number of Species

0 50 150 200 250 300

100
Cumulative Number of Individuals

Fic. 2. The relationship between cumulative number of
bivalve species versus cumulative number of individuals
for quantitative samples taken at the mussel bed imme-
diately downriver of Dam No. 3.

was collected, indicating poor recruitment to
this population.

Likewise, the P. cordatum population was
represented almost entirely by relatively large,
old mussels (Fig. 4). All but one of the 22
individuals measured between 7 and 9 cm
long. The smallest individual collected was ap-
proximately 5 cm in length, and no recent re-
cruits (i.e., individuals less than 3 cm in
length) were found. The population of C. flu-
minea was represented by a cohort ranging
from 4 to 14 mm (16 of 30 individuals) and a
cohort ranging from 16 to 30 mm (14 of 30
individuals) (Fig. 4). Maximum length of the
remaining individuals was 30 mm.

DISCUSSION

During the summer and early fall of 1968,
Williams (1) collected mussels in 3 sections of
the Green River. A reach designated by him
as Area III extended from the river mouth to
Dam No. 4, a distance of 149 miles that in-
cluded most of our study area. He reported
that mussels were uncommon throughout this
area except immediately dGarmeuers of dams
where they were much more common. He
collected 130 individuals and 19 species of
unionids, downriver of Dam No. 3: we col-
lected 268 individuals and identified 23 spe-
cies of unionids (Table 2). He collected 89 in-
dividuals and identified 19 species downriver
of Dam No. 4; we collected 33 individuals and
identified 14 species of unionids.

Isom (5) reviewed data collected by Wil-

12

pS

Cumulative Number of Species
(0)

0 20 40 60 80
Cumulative Number of Individuals

Fic. 3. The relationship between cumulative number of
bivalve species versus cumulative number of individuals
for quantitative samples taken at the mussel bed imme-
diately downriver of Dam No. 4.

liams and determined that Lampsilis cariosa
was probably not identified correctly and was
probably Lampsilis cardium (Rafinesque,
1820). Lampsilis luteola was probably Lamp-
silis radiata (Gmelin, 1791). These minor
changes do not alter overall community struc-
ture as described by Williams. His complete
list for Area III includes 844 individuals and
29 species. When results obtained with our
quantitative and qualitative methods are com-
bined, we collected 872 individuals and iden-
tified 25 species of unionids. Some species
that we found Leptodea fragilis (Rafinesque,
1820) and Truncilla truncata (Rafinesque,
1820) were not collected by Williams but were
probably present in 1968. We did not collect
Cyclonaias tuberculata (Rafinesque, 1820) and
Obovaria olivaria (Rafinesque, 1820) that
comprised less than 1% of the Williams col-
lection. It is likely that any collector will miss
a few of the least common species. Regardless,
when results of both surveys are compared, it
is apparent that species richness and_ basic
community structure (i.e., dominance of thick-
shelled species such as M. nervosa, P. corda-
tum, E. crassidens, and A. p. plicata) remained
largely unchanged since 1968. Based on data
collected by Williams, species diversity and
evenness were 2.07 and 0.56; with our data
these parameters were 2.43 and 0.67 (Table
2). Lower species diversity in data of Williams
was the result of comparatively high percent-
ages of the two most abundant species (M.

BIVALVE MOLLUSKS IN KEnTucky—Miller et al. 5]

TABLE 2

Percent species abundance for Unionidae (Corbicula fluminea has been excluded from this table)

collected

at mussel beds downriver of Dam No. 3 (RM 108.5) and 4 (RM 149.0) using quantitative methods and between RM
155.8 and 101.5 using qualitative methods. Also included are data collected in 1968 by Williams (1) between Green

River Mile 149.0 and 0.0 using divers and a brail.

Species Williams (1)

Megalonaias nervosa 36.02
Amblema p. plicata 24.64
Elliptio crassidens 12.56
Pleurobema cordatum 6.16
Ptychobranchis fasciolaris 2.96
Fusconaia undata! 1.66
Quadrula p. pustulosa 1.66
Fusconaia ebena 1.54
Potamilus alatus 1.54
Elliptio dilatata 1.42

Ellipsaria lineolata 1.42

Lampsilis ovata 1.42
Quadrula quadrula 1.18
Pleurobema coccineum 0.95

Pleurobema plenum 0.83

Ligumia recta 0.59
Obliquaria reflexa 0.59
Quadrula nodulata 0.59
Tritogonia verrucosa 0.47
Obovaria subrotunda 0.3

Actinonaias ligamentina 0.24
Cyclonaias tuberculata 0.24
Obovaria olivaria 0.24
Fusconaia subrotunda 0.12
Lampsilis cariosa? 0.12
Lasmigonia costata 0.12

Lampsilis luteola® 0.12

Obovaria retusa 0.12
Truncilla donaciformis 0.12
Lasmigonia c. complanata 0.00
Arcidens confragosus 0.00
Leptodea fragilis 0.00
Truncilla truncata 0.00
Fusconaia flava 0.00
Pleurobema rubrum 0.00
Quadrula metanevra 0.00
Total individuals 844

Total species (H’) 29

Species diversity 2.07
Evenness 0.56

Present survey

Downriver Downriver

of Dam of Dam

No. 3 No. 4 RM 155.8-101.5 Total

17.91 18.16 21.54 20.3
6.34 6.05 31.52 22.82

12.68 6.05 12.61 12.38

16.42 3.04 2.45 6.77
3.36 3.04 0.00 1.15
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
9.33 6.05 4.38 5.96
1.49 0.00 0.35 0.69
0.74 0.00 4.20 2.98
5.97 0.00 0.88 2.4]
7.09 3.04 SLO: 4.45
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.23 3.04 4.20 3.55
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00. 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.3! 0.00 0.00 0.12
§.58 21.20 4.20 6.19
1.12 3.04 1.23 1.26
0.38 3.04 0.87 0.80
0.74 0.00 0.00 0.23
1.12 0.00 0.52 0.69
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.38 0.00 0.00 0.12
0.00 3.04 5.26 3.56
0.00 0.00 0.70 0.46
0.38 3.04 0.70 0.69
0.74 18.16 0.87 1.49
0.38 0.00 0.17 0.23
1.49 0.00 0.00 0.46
0.74 0.00 0.00 0.23

268 33 571 872

23 14 19 25
2.50 ee) 2.16 2.43
0.77 0.97 0.63 0.67

' Now listed under F. flava (9
> Probably Lampsilis cardium

5).
> Probi ably Lampsilis radiata (5).

).
(9)
(5

nervosa and A. p. plicata, Table 2). This is
likely the result of sampling methods; sam-
pling by hand and use of the brail will bias
collections toward large-sized individuals.

In the present study, abundant unionid
populations had a much higher percentage of
large individuals than did populations in the
atc 1960s. Data from Williams indicate that

approximately 80% of the P. cordatum popu-
lation consisted of individuals 50 to 70 mm
long, with only 20% of the population larger
than 70 mm. This contrasts with the results of
the present study in which 95% of the popu-
lation was larger than 70 mm. The maximum
length recorded by Williams was approximate-
ly SO mm, and the maximum length we ob-

ay) TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

Megalonaias nervosa Pleurobema cordatum Corbicula fiuminea
n=47 n=22 n=30
180 = 110
170 | 100
160 90
150
Ee 80
E
z= 140 70
O
z
ut 130 60
=| |
Ww '
a 120 | 50
| |
110 t h
40 | ee
| 5 PERCENT
100 an 29 |
|
90 '
|
80 |

Fic. 4. Length-frequency histograms for Megalonaias nervosa, Pleurobema cordatum, and Corbicula fluminea col-
lected in quantitative samples at the mussel bed immediately downriver of Dam No. 3.

served was 90 mm. Comparison of results of
the present study with data from Williams
yielded a similar contrast for M. nervosa. Wil-
liams reported that approximately 50% of the
M. nervosa population consisted of individuals
greater than 125 mm (maximum shell length
= 150 mm); the remaining 50% ranged from
50 to 125 mm. In the present study 98% of
the M. nervosa population was greater than
125 mm, with a maximum size of 180 mm.
Our quantitative technique (diver-collected
total substratum samples) ensures collecting
individuals at least 10 mm long. Methods used
by Williams (collecting by hand or brail) are
more likely to under-represent small-sized in-
dividuals. Had Williams taken total substratum
samples, his estimates of average shell length
would likely have been even less. It is not pos-
sible to determine if this increase in average
shell length of dominant unionids sampled in
1992 (reduced evidence of recent recruit-
ment) when compared with data from Wil-
liams is the beginning of a trend, or simply
the result of annual variation that is commonly
seen in some unionid populations (16).

In populations with reasonably strong re-
cent recruitment, it is not unusual to collect
several M. nervosa less than 10 cm long. This

usually includes some individuals representing
recruits of the last one to three years that are
1 to 4 cm long (10). In populations of P. cor-
datum with substantial recent recruitment, a
considerable number of individuals less than 5
cm in length are expected, including individ-
uals less than 3 cm long (10).

In a large (n > 100) sample of a dense C.
fluminea population with complex age struc-
ture, 3 to 5 cohorts are typically observed,
with the length of the largest cohort averaging
25 to 35 mm (11). The full expected size range
of C. fluminea was represented in this low
density population in the Green River. How-
ever, this population was heavily dominated by
a cohort of small, recent (either spring or sum-
mer 1992) recruits.

We found extremely low unionid densities
immediately downriver of Dam No. 4. Density
at this location was less than 4 individuals/sq
m, whereas density downriver of Dam No. 3
ranged from 7 to 16 individuals/sq m. Williams
did not provide density estimates at beds
downriver of these dams. Upriver of Dam No.
4 (outside our study area), he reported total
densities as high as 61 individuals/sq yd (80/sq
m). In areas other than immediately downriver
of dams, Williams reported that total density

BIVALVE MOLLUSKS IN Kentucky—Miller et al. 5S

of unionids was low and ranged from 0 to 1.5/
sq yd (1.9/sq m). It is not possible to deter-
mine whether densities have changed between
1968 and 1992, but it is likely that they have
always been low compared with other mussel
beds. For example, at a bed immediately
downriver of Kentucky Dam in the lower Ten-
nessee River, Miller et al. (12) reported that
Unionidae ranged from 9.2 to 128.0 individ-
uals/sq m, and C. fluminea ranged from 6.0 to
26.4 individuals/sq m.

In gravel-bed rivers, dams cause the area
immediately downriver to degrade (13). Deg-
radation is greatest near the dam and decreas-
es downriver at a decelerating rate. In the
Green River, erosive action of high-velocity
water below dams was a consequence of nor-
mal operation and created conditions suitable
for moderately dense mussel populations.
Breaching the dams had little effect on sub-
stratum stability and mussel beds. Cold, hy-
polimnetic releases from dams in large rivers
can greatly reduce or eliminate mussels and
ee benthic organisms immediately downriv-

r (14, 15). However, dams along the lower
Ao River in our study area releuee surface
water and do not negatively affect bivalve mol-
luscs.

When Williams surveyed the Green River
in 1968 he reported that the lower river was
heavily used by commercial towboats. Since
navigation locks were built in the 1830s, com-
mercial vessels had used the river for over 100
years prior to his survey. During the 24 years
between completion of valine survey and
our own, the reach downriver of Dam No. 3
has been free of commercial vessels. Results
of this recent re-evaluation of this reach of the
lower Green River indicate that failure of
dams and cessation of commercial navigation
traffic had little effect on unionid species rich-
ness, diversity, relative species abundance, and
community composition.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Divers were Larry Neill, Robert Warden,
Robert T. James, and Jeff Montgomery of the
Tennessee Valley Authority. Jim Baker, Eric
Pearson, Chuck Boston, Deborah Shafer, Er-
ica Hubertz, and Sarah Wilkerson assisted.
The authors thank Mr. Jim Baker, Mr. Terry
Siemsen, and an anonymous reviewer for con-
structive criticism on an early draft of this pa-

per. The study was funded by the U.S. Army
Engineer District, Louisville. The Chief of
Engineers granted permission to publish this
information.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Williams, J. C. 1969. Mussel Fishery Investigations,
Tennessee, Ohio and Green Rivers. Project Completion
Report for Investigations Projects Conducted Under the
Commercial Fisheries Research and Development Act of
1964. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Kentucky De-
partment of Fish and Wildlife Resources.

2. Ortmann, A. E. 1926. The naiades of the Green
River drainage in Kentucky. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 17:167—
188.

3. Clench, W. J. and H. van der Schalie. 1943. Notes
on naiades from the Green, Salt, and Tradewater rivers
in Kentucky. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts. Lett. 29:223—
228.

4. Stansbery, D. H. 1965. The naiad fauna of the
Green River at Munfordville, Kentucky. Ann. Rept. Amer.
Malacol. Union 1965:13-14.

5. Isom, B. G. 1974. Mussels of the Green River, Ken-
tucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 35:55-57.

6. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1983.
Aquatic Baseline Studies of the Green River, Martin
Creek and Richmond Slough 1981-1982. Contract DE-
AC05-780R03054 for the International Coal Refining
Coe Allentown, Pennsylvania.

. Cochran, T. G. and J. B. Layzer. 1992. Effects of
eas exploitation on unionid populations in the
Green and Barren rivers, Kentucky. Presented at the 40th
Annual Meeting of the North American Benthological So-
ciety, 26-29 May 1992, Louisville, Kentucky.

8. Ludwig, J. A. and J. F. Reynolds. 1988. Statistical
ecology, a primer on methods and computing. John Wiley
& Sons. New York, New York.

9. Williams, J. D., M. L. Warren, K. S. Cummings, J.
L. Harris, and R. J. Neves. 1993. Conservation status of
freshwater mussels of the United States and Canada. Fish-
eries 18:6—22.

10. Miller, A. C. and B. S. Payne. 1992. The effects
of commercial navigation traffic on freshwater mussels in
the upper Mississippi River: 1990 studies. Technical Re-
port EL-92-23, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

11. Payne, B. S., A. C. Miller, P. D. Hartfield, and R.
F. McMahon. 1989. Variation in size demography of lotic
populations of Corbicula fluminea (Muller). Nautilus 103:
78-82.

12. Miller, A. C., B. S. Payne, and R. Tippit. 1992.
Characterization of a freshwater mussel (Unionidae) com-
munity immediately downriver of Kentucky Lock and
Dam in the Tennessee River. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 53:
154-161.

13. Neill, C. R. 1987.
linking long-term transport and channel processes. Pp.

Sediment balance conservations

54 Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

225-240. In C. R. Thorne, J. C. Bathurst, and R. D. Hey
(eds.) Sediment transport in gravel-bed rivers. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, New York.

14. Pfitzer, D. W. 1954. Investigations of water below
storage release reservoirs. North American Wildlife Con-
ference 19:271—282.

15. Miller, A. C., L. Rhodes, and R. Tippit. 1984.

Changes in the naiad fauna of the Cumberland River be-
low Lake Cumberland in Central Kentucky. Nautilus 98.
107-110.

16. Payne, B. S. and A. C. Miller. 1988. Growth and
survival of recent recruits to a population of Fusconata
ebena (Bivalvia: Unionidae) in the lower Ohio River. Am.
Midl. Nat. 121:99-104.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 55

NOTE

Lesquerella globosa Rediscovered in Jessamine
County, Kentucky.—Lesquerella globosa (Desv.) S.
Wats, a candidate for federal review (C2), and a Kentucky
endangered species, has been rediscovered in Jessamine
County. This species was reported in the Jessamine Creek
Gorge and described as infrequent along roadsides by
McFarland during his M.S. thesis research (McFarland, J.
W., 1946, The Vascular Plants of Jessamine County, Ken-
tucky, University of Kentucky), but could not be located
in subsequent studies (Campbell, J. and Meijer, W., 1989,
Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 50:27-45). A small population was
found recently in the vicinity of the intersection of Grows
Mill and Jessamine Station roads east of Wilmore. In 1990
and 1991, single specimens were found. In May 1993 §
specimens were found after a thorough search. Seven

spindly plants were found growing in dense grass between
the road ditch and the fence. Persistence of the population
here is probably made possible by frequent mowing of the
road right-of-way. The eighth specimen, a more vigorous
one, was found north of Jessamine State Road on the bank
of an intermittent stream tributary to Jessamine Creek.

Only 13 extant populations of L. globosa are known in
Kentucky, primarily from Franklin County, and most of
these are small. The status of this newly found population
seems very precarious.

Appreciation is extended to Julian Campbell of the Na-
ture Conservancy and Margaret Shea of the Kentucky
State Nature Preserves Commission for their cooperation
in this survey —John Brushaber, Department of Biolo-
gy, Asbury College, Wilmore, Kentucky 40390.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1-2), 1994, 56-61

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

THE SEVENTY-NINTH ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Hill Chapel, Georgetown University
Georgetown, Kentucky
23, October 1993

INTRODUCTION

President Charles Boehms brought the meeting to or-
der at 11:05 a.m. He introduced David Hartman who pre-
sented a brief summary of the Treasurer's Report.

Charles Boehms thanked and presented David Hart-
man a plaque in recognition for his faithful service to the
Academy during his term in office.

He recognized and thanked Barbara Rafaill of George-
town College for her hard and fruitful execution of her
duties as Chairwoman of the Local Arrangements Com-
mittee.

RESOLUTIONS

Joe Winstead, Chairman of the Nominations, Elections
and Resolutions Committee was introduced by President
Boehms to present the resolutions previously approved by
the Board. The resolutions were as follows:

RESOLUTION |
Resolution of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Thereby be it resolved that the membership of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science extend their most profound
thanks and appreciation to the administration, staff and
student body of Georgetown College for their hospitality
and support in hosting the 79th Annual Meeting of the
Academy. Further be it resolved that the Academy ex-
tends special recognition to Dr. William Crouch, Presi-
dent of Georgetown College; Dr. Charles Boehms, Senior
Vice-President and Academic Dean; Dr. Barbara Rafaill,
Chairperson of the Local Arrangements Committee; and
members of the Local Arrangements Committee for their
enthusiasm and efforts towards the success of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science in conducting the Annual
Meeting. Be it known the support and cooperation of
Georgetown College in this endeavor is a typical example
of the long tradition of contribution to scientific excellence
in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

RESOLUTION 2
Resolution of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Thereby be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of
Science in its 79th year extends the deepest thanks and
appreciation to the Toyota Motor Manufacturing, USA,
Company for their support and cooperation in helping to
sponsor and host the 1993 Annual Meeting of the Acad-
emy in Georgetown. Further be it resolved that the Acad-

56

emy recognize Toyota Vice President Jim Wiseman, He-
len Littrell, Assistant Manager of Public Affairs and Kathy
Clark, Specialist in Administration and Planning for their
efforts, help and interest in assuring that the 79th Annual
Meeting continued the legacy of service to the sciences
of the Commonwealth. Be it known that the membership
of the Kentucky Academy of Science applaud the Toyota
Manufacturing, USA, Company for corporate citizenship
and positive partnership in support of education, arts, sci-
ences, and economic development of the state of Ken-
tucky by the management and workers through their col-
lective efforts and involvement in serving as leaders in the
state community.

RESOLUTION 3
Resolution of the Kentucky Academy of Science

Thereby be it resolved by action of the membership of
the Kentucky Academy of Science during the 79th Annual
Meeting held on the campus of Georgetown College that
Dr. Burtron H. Davis, Associate Director of the Kentucky
Center for Applied Energy Research be commended for
his efforts and diligence in the planning, organization and
conduction of the Industrial Sciences Section presenta-
tions on 22 October 1993. Furthermore let it be known
that this program is a significant advancement in the
bringing together of applied science, higher education and
secondary education within the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky through the work of Dr. Davis as the participants
represent practicing scientists from private industry, state
government and higher education interacting with sec-
ondary school students. Through his contributions Dr.
Davis has furthered the aims and goals of the Academy
in serving as a catalyst for the synthesis of basic research,
applied research and technology with the educational and
training program within Kentucky.

RESOLUTION 4
Resolution of the Kentucky Academy of Science

By action of the membership of the Kentucky Academy
of Science who represent the broadest spectrum of sci-
ence and technology within the Commonwealth of Ken-
tucky thereby let it be known:

Whereas, The scientific community of the state is
excited and enthused about positive reform in educational
systems at the elementary and secondary school level and

ACADEMY AFFAIRS il

Whereas, The move toward performance assessment
will inherently demand improved student competence in
scientific literacy and will demand increased depth of
training for science teachers and

Whereas, These changes will involve more hands on
experiences and continuation of synthesis of scientific
learning, practice, and application by both students and
teachers and

Whereas, Improvements gained will increase the de-
mand and needs for advanced placement offerings within
every school district it is resolved that teacher training and
certification must not be allowed to show any reduction
or dilution of content in any sub discipline of the basic
sciences as the reforms will require teachers and mentors
well versed in specific disciplines as well as with the ability
to integrate information into conceptual frameworks.

Be it also resolved that the above statements be for-
warded to all appropriate elected state government lead-
ers and appointed officials charged with the planning, im-
plementation and conduction of the public education
system within Kentucky.

Each of these resolutions was submitted as a motion
and approved by the KAS members.

ELECTION RESULTS

Joe Winstead thanked the individuals who volunteered
to stand for election on being nominated. The results of
the election were:

Governing Board Member-at-Large: Dr. Wimberly
Royster of the KSTC.

Governing Board, Biological Sciences Division: Dr.
Gerald Faust, Morehead State University, Biological Sci-
ences Representative.

Vice-President, Dr. William Bryant, Morehead State
University.

Charles Boehms stated that the Operations Manual for
KAS will be upgraded by a committee made up of former
KAS presidents. Efforts will be made to reconcile it with
the constitution, or if necessary, recommend constitution-
al revision.

Two Board members, Burtron Davis and Ray Ham-
mond, are rotating off the Board. They will be presented
with Certificates of Appreciation for their service to the
Board.

Charles Boehms presented Dr. Donald Sands of the
UK Chemistry Department who spoke on Kentucky un-
dergraduate chemistry curriculum reform. Dr. Sands
called for cooperation among undergraduate institutions
to bring about change in the chemistry curriculum.

Larry Elliot opened discussion on the problem of com-
munication between section chairpersons and secretaries
and those in charge of arrangements for the annual meet-
ing. Barbara Rafaill suggested that the responsibilities of
section representatives be clearly spelled out.

Paper competition awardees ($100) names were read
by Larry Elliot.

Charles Boehms passed the President’s gavel to Larry

Elliot. As per tradition, outgoing President Boehms pre-
sented a check for $100 to the KAS.
TREASURER’S REPORT
Kentucky Academy of Science
1993

Starting Balance (January 1, 1993) $78,280.38

Income (below)... +29 329.07
Expensess (elo) =m — 14,961.66

Ending Balance (September 30, 1993)
Income—1993

$92,647.79

Membership Dues -__....-.----.- $4,507.00
Re cru anyon eee oe eee $4,507.00
Life: (6) 1993
Institutional Memberships —__. 5,250.00
Corporate Memberships 5,150.00
Library Subscriptions 2,901.80
Page Charges and Abstracts 2,787.00
Annual Meeting—1993 ____.. 5,956.00
[Oydovlonis 525.00
Registration and Banquet _- 5,431.00
Interest Income _ 2,027.27
Barn tase Be Oe 1,066.18
(CD Been a a ae eee 961.09
Griffith Memorial Trust 0.00
Endowment Fund Gifts _._.. 25.00
ites Membership == 0.00
(Giitneesnl ASC: Sentai ois eae 500.00
Miscellaneous (refund) 225.00
ALG te a aay Aaa eee nce en ta ee cae $29 329.07
Expenses—1993
RAS en pe $ 2,500.00
KJAS-AAAS—1993 (travel) __. 1,500.00
NAVAS diese 120.00
Printin Giectesee e e 6,611.37
Transactions === $5,290.91
Newsletter (Secr.) 1,148.34
Other (Exec. Secr.) —..-------- 72M
Professional Services (CPA) _- 525.00
Annual Meeting 1992. 0.00
FT teh 0.00
Annual Meeting 1993 685.81
Printing & postage 685.81
Transfer to Endowment Fund 55.00
Gifts ee ea 55.00
New Life Member —..- 0.00
ihreasunens°= = a ee 11.60
Rostase ie ee 11.60
President-Elect —------ 56.67
El Owes 56.67
TPYRSSHG ISR 241.00
SIR eet vee betes es ee 241.00
Executive Secretary 2,138.87
Postal Services —------- 350.00
Secretarial Services -____..- 686.55
Oites Qualities 76.32

58 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59(1-2)

DAVE ea BY are oe Eee 998.00
NTS Gi ea eee 28.00
Meetings, Executive and
Board) ee wae ee eee 130.50
Miscellameousm eens 385.84
Gorpy ces 8.00
IBNGLTG Hee eee Bee ULC eee 106.50
Bada lie | ae nena 50.00
P.O. Box (1992 + 1993) —- 98.00
Third Class permit 75.00
PAN ATEATI LS poe oes eee ot oeuer ieee 48.34
GTS cane A SNE ad erie eae Ne $14,961.66

Kentucky Academy of Science Foundation

Endowment Fund—1993

Starting Balance (January 1, 1993) eee eae $25,635.99
Life Memberships (61) $21,350.00
Endowment -..----------------—--- 4,285.99
IN @ TN Gs ee a ae ee + 914.26
Transfer from KAS
(CRS Re eee 55.00
Direct Gifts to Endowment — 100.00
tee S tee ee ee
Bank Account._..---------- 118.53
(GD RO te oe een ene 640.73
Expenses =< --- =e 0.00
Ending Balance (September 30, 1993) $26,550.25
Life Memberships (61) ——- $21,350.00
Endowment _-------------------- 5,200.25
Botany Fund—1993
Starting Balance (January 1, 1993) eee $14,596.00

(Principal—$13,562.49; Interest—$1,033.51)

TiO TNCs eee eee a ee +410.89
Interest—Bank Account —_-- $ 90.53
(C1D sate ees 320.36

Eixpemses.- 2a — 900.00
(Grant Walken 350.00
aC aliemers sok ee 550.00

Ending Balance (September 30, 1993) == $14,106.89

(Principal—$ 13,562.49; Interest—$544.40)
Marcia Athey Fund—1993
Starting Balance (January 1, 1993) esi aeuh $58,237.21

(Principal $54,886.02+469.84p; Interest $2,881.35)

San COCO Tn Coo sae a a cee ate ee eee +1,788.47
Interest—Bank Account __-- $154.59
GDR ete 1,633.88

xp enses ene — 1,700.00
Giant Calica eae $1,000.00
Se Ritchison a 700.00

Ending Balance (September 30, 1993) eee $58,325.68

(Principal—$54,886.02+ 469.84p; Interest —$2,969.82)

Mentor Fund—1993

Starting Balance (January 1, 1993) 2a $ 3,251.55

Ineo nie tee ee Ee eae + 360.71
inte es tee ean 68.47
Novo. 1801, UBS) 299.94

Ending Balance (September 30, 1993) $ 3,612.26

Executive Committee

President

Larry P. Elliott

Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-6002

FAX (502) 745-6471

President-elect

Robert Creek

Department of Biology
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1539

FAX (606) 622-1022

Vice President

William S. Bryant
Thomas Moore College
Cresent Hills, KY 41017
(606) 344-3370

FAX (606) 344-3345

Past President

Charles N. Boehms
Department of Biology
Georgetown College
Georgetown, KY 40324
(502) 863-8087

FAX (502) 868-8888

Secretary

Peter X. Armendarez

Department of Chemistry and Physics
Brescia College

Owensboro, KY 42301

(502) 685-3131

FAX (502) 686-4266

Treasurer

Julia H. Carter

Wood Hudson Cancer Research Laboratory
931 Isabella Street

Newport, KY 41071

(606) 581-7249

FAX (606) 581-7249

Executive Director (ex-officio)
J. G. Rodriquez

Department of Entomology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40546-0091

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

(606) 257-4902

FAX (606) 323-1120

Editor, TRANSACTIONS (ex-officio)
Branley A. Branson

Department of Biological Science
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1537

FAX (606) 622-1020

Editor, NEWSLETTER (ex-officio)
Vincent A. DiNoto, Jr.

Physics and Astronomy Department
Jefferson Community College, Southwest Campus
1000 Community College Dr.
Louisville, KY 40272

(502) 935-9840 x280, 236

FAX (502) 935-9840 x296

Division Representative and
At-Large Members

Wimberly C. Royster

KY Science and Technology Council, Inc.
P.O. Box 1049

Lexington, KY 40588

(606) 233-3502

Gerald L. DeMoss

College of Applied Science and Technology
Morehead State University

UPO 721

Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2158

James E. Gotsick

Morehead State University

UPO 1335

Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2988

Kimberly Ward Anderson
University of Kentucky
Chemical Engineering

157 Anderson Hall (Tower)
Lexington, KY 40506-1146
(606) 257-3153

Blaine R. Ferrell
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 645-6006

Patricia K. Doolin

Research and Development Department
Ashland Petroleum Company

Box 391

Ashland, KY 41114

David E. Hogan

Psychology Department
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076

Valena Hurt

Biology Division

Hazard Community College
Hazard, KY 41701

AAAS/NAAS Representative
J. G. Rodriquez (see Executive Director)

Chairperson, KJAS

Valgene L. Dunham
Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, KY 42101
(502) 745-3696

Section Representatives

Section Chairperson

Anthropology
Anthropology

James Hopgood

Secretary
Cara Richards
Anthropology

Botany and Microbiology

Chemistry

Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41099-2200
(606) 572-5252

Barbara Rafaill

Department of Biological Science
Georgetown College
Georgetown, KY 40324

(502) 863-8087

Robert K. Berry

Chemistry Department
Maysville Community College
Maysville, KY 41056

(606) 759-7141 Ext 155

Transylvania University
Lexington, KY 40508
(606) 233-8176

Nancy Dawson

Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-6501

Larry D. Bigham

Science Department
Paducah Community College
Paducah, KY 42002

(502) 554-9200 Ext 185

60 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

Section

Geography

Geology

Physics

Physiology, Biophysics,

Biochemistry, Pharmacology

Science Education

Psychology

Sociology

Zoology and Entomology

Computer Science

Chairperson

Stuart Foster

Department of Geography & Geology
Western Kentucky University

1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576

(502) 745-5976

Deborah Kuehn

Department of Geography & Geology
Western Kentucky University

1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576

(502) 745-5984

Rico Tyle

Science Department
Franklin-Simpson High School
Franklin, KY

(502) 586-3273

Suzanne Byrd

Department of Biological Sciences
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1712

Robert Boram

Department of Physical Sciences
Lappin Hall 104

Morehead State University
Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2931

Terry Barrett
Psychology Department
Murray State University
Murray, KY 42071
(502) 762-2851

J. Allen Singleton

Department of Political Science
113 McCreary

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475-3122
(606) 622-4395

Guenter Schuster

Department of Biological Science
Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1016

Sylvia Clark Pulliam

Computer Science Department
Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-6186

Secretary

Wayne Hoffman

Department of Geography & Geology
Western Kentucky University

1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576

(502) 745-4555

Kenneth Kuehn

Department of Geography & Geology
Western Kentucky University

1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576

(502) 745-3082

Vince DiNoto

Natural Science Division
Jefferson Community College, SW
1000 Community College Dr.
Louisville, KY 40272

(502) 935-9840 Ext 280

Chang Wang

Human Nutrition Research
213 Atwood Research Building
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601

(502) 227-6097

Peter V. Lindeman

Division of Biological Science and
Related Technology

Madisonville Community College

2000 College Drive

Madisonville, KY 42431

(502) 821-2250 Ext 2197

Jeff Smith

Department of Psychology
Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, KY 41076
(606) 572-5317

Steve P. Savage
Department of Sociology
Keith 223

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, KY 40475-3122
(606) 622-1644

Gordon K. Weddle
Biology Department
Campbellsville, College
Campbellsville, KY 42718
(502) 789-5328

Richard A. Rink

Department of Mathematics, Statistics,
and Computer Sci.

Eastern Kentucky University

Richmond, KY 40475

(606) 622-1935

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Section Chairperson

Carroll Wells

Mathematics Department
Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-6218

Nick Stamatiadis

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0046
(606) 257-8012

Mathematics

Engineering

Scientific Information Jean Almand

Science Library

Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576

(502) 745-6079

Matthew E. Byers
Atwood Research Facility
Kentucky State University
Frankfort, KY 40601
(502) 227-6253

Agriculture

Industrial Science Patricia Doolin

Research and Development
Ashland Petroleum Co.
P.O. Box 391

Ashland, KY 41114

(606) 327-6541

John M. Rawls, Jr.

Morgan School of Biological Science
101 Morgan Building

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0225

(606) 257-8641

Molecular and Cell Biology

Local Arrangements Committee

Georgetown College

Barbara Rafaill, Chairperson

Theo Leverenz
Sally Merrigan
Dennis Dedrick
William Harris
Mark Johnson
David Fraley

Ginger Glass

61

Secretary

Russel Brengelman

Mathematics Department

UPO 1222 Lappin Hall

Morehead State University

Morehead, KY 40351

(606) 783-2178

Kaveh Tagavi

Department of Mechanical
Engineering

University of Kentucky

Lexington, KY 40506-0046

(606) 257-2739

Elaine Moore

Helm Craven Library

Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-6122

Elmer Gray

Department of Agriculture
Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-5961

Burtron H. Davis

Center for Applied Energy Research
3572 Iron Works Pike

Lexington, KY 40511

(606) 257-0251

Claire R. Rinehart

Department of Biology
Western Kentucky University
1526 Russellville Road

Bowling Green, KY 42101-3576
(502) 745-6006

Leigh Anne Hiatt
Bart Dickinson
Rick Kopp
Julie Mann
Steve Cook

Toyota Motor Manufacturing

Helen Littrell
Kathy Clark

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—2), 1994, 62-91

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING

KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
79TH ANNUAL MEETING

GEORGETOWN, KENTUCKY

PROGRAM SUMMARY

Thursday Evening Activities at the
Asher Science Center

Thursday, 21 October 1993
1:00-4:00 p.m.

Executive Board Meeting, Private Dining Room—Cralle
Student Center

4:00-8:00 p.m.

Registration, Lobby

6:00-7:30 p.m.

Interest Sessions
Thornton Educational, Room 102; Products, Co. (Phys-
iology Experimentation with Computer Interfacing);
Planetarium Show, Planetarium

7:30-8:00 p.m.

Section Chairperson and Secretary Meeting, Room 112

8:00-9:30 p.m.

Reception, Lobby

Friday, 22 October 1993

7:30 a.m.—5:00 p.m.

Registration, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

8:00 a.m.—5:30 p.m.

Poster Exhibits, Grill—Cralle Student Center

§:00 a.m.—5:30 p.m.

Vendor Exhibits, Hall of Fame Room—Cralle Student
Center

8:00 a.m.—12:00 noon

Sectional Meetings
Section C—Chemistry, Room 218; Section D—Geog-
raphy, Room 14; Section G—Physiology and Biophys-
ics, Room 219: Section H—Science Education, Room
33; Section K—Zoology and Entomology, Room 32;
Section M—Mathematics, Room 132; Section Q—Ag-
riculture Science, Room 131

9:00 a.m.—9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, Hall of Fame Room—Cralle Student Cen-
ter; Lobby—Asher Science Center

12:00 noon—1:00 p.m.

Lunch, On your own; line service available Cralle Student
Center

1:00 p.m.—2:15 p.m:

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

Presiding: Charles N. Boehms—President, Kentucky
Academy of Science

62

Welcome: Dr. William H. Crouch, Jr., President, George-
town College

Announcements: Dr. Barbara L. Rafaill, Chairperson, Lo-
cal Arrangements Committee

Plenary Presentation: Toyota Technology—Using Tech-
nology to an Advantage—Mr. Doug Friesen, Manager
of Assembly, Toyota Motor Manufacturing, George-
town, Kentucky

2:15 p.m.—2:45 p.m.

Refreshments (beverages only), Hall of Fame Room—
Cralle Student Center; Lobby—Asher Science Center

2:45 p.m.—5:00 p.m.

Sectional Meetings
Section B—Botany and Microbiology, Room 15; Sec-
tion C—Chemistry, Room 218; Section D—Geography,
Room 14; Section E—Geology, Room 17; Section G—
Physiology and Biophysics, Room 219; Section H—Sci-
ence Education, Room 33; Section I—Psychology,
Room 133; Section J—Sociology, Room 26; Section
K—Zoology and Entomology, Room 32; Section M—
Mathematics, Room 132; Section Q—Agriculture Sci-
ence, Room 131

5:00 p.m—7:00 p.m.
Presidents Reception, Toyota Motor Manufacturing (host-
ed by Toyota Motor Manufacturing)

7:30 p.m.—9:15 p.m.

Annual Awards Banquet, Cralle Student Center

Teaching and Learning in the Information Age: K.E.T.S.
in the Classroom—Mr. Michael Bidwell, District Tech-
nology Coordinator, Shelby County Public Schools

Saturday, 23 October 1993

7:30 a.m.—12:00 noon

Registration, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

§:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.

Poster Exhibits, Grill—Cralle Student Center

8:00 a.m.—2:00 p.m.

Vendor Exhibits, Hall of Fame Room—Cralle Student
Center

8:00 a.m.—9:30 a.m.

Sectional Meetings
Section A—Anthropology, Room 33; Section F—Phys-
ics, Rooms 112 and 128; Section I—Psychology, Room
133; Section K—Zoology and Entomology, Room 32;
Section L—Computer Science, Room 218; Section
M—Mathematics, Room 132; Section N—Engineering,
Room 17; Section Q—Agricultural Science, Room 131

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 63

9:30 a.m.—10:00 a.m.
Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel (beverages only)

10 a.m.—11:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

11:00 a.m.—12:00 noon
Sectional Meetings, Rooms same as above

12:00 noon-1:00 p.m.
Lunch, On your own; line service available Cralle Student
Center

1:15 p.m.—end
Sectional Meetings, Rooms same as above

Note: KJAS

Each spring the Kentucky Junior Academy of Science
holds an Annual Spring Symposium. The 59th Symposium
was held at Western Kentucky University on 23-24 April
1993. Activities at this meeting included the presentation
of Science Projects by KJAS members, Science Bowl com-
petition and Lab Skills competition. The winners of each
division of the Science Projects presentations are invited
to present their work at the annual meeting of the Ken-
tucky Academy of Science. A KJAS precedes the title of
each of the papers given by these young scientists.

COMMUNITY COLLEGES SCIENCE FACULTY
Room 112

Friday, 22 October 1993

10:00 a.m.
General Session, Room 112
10:30 a.m.

Break-out Sessions
Biology, Room 112; Chemistry, Room 202; Physics,
Room 128

ANTHROPOLOGY SECTION

James F. Hopgood and Phyllis Passariello
Co-Chairpersons
Room 33

Saturday, 23 October 1993
James F. Hopgood—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Medieval Castles in a Modem Society: Another Tragic
Breakdown in the Time-Honored Anglo-Saxon Jury
System

Jim-Murray Walker—Eastern Kentucky University

8:15 a.m.

The Contribution of Refugee Studies to Anthropology

Mary Carol Hopkins—Northern University

8:30 a.m.

Applying Concepts from Anthropology in a Occupational
Therapy Program

Angela Scoggin—Eastern Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.
Film Making Among the North Carolina Cherokees
Sharlotte Neely—Northern Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.
Analysis of Newspaper Reports of Child Fatality. Cara
Richards—Transylvania University

9:15 a.m.
An “Open” History of a “Closed” Peasant Community.
Tim Murphy—Northern Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.
Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.
Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

11:30 a.m.
Peasant Subculture in China
Andy Kipnis—Northern Kentucky University

Saturday, 23 October 1993
James F. Hopgood—Presiding

11:45 a.m.

Asian Studies Development Program, Phase II: China
Field Studies

James F. Hopgood—Northern Kentucky University

12:00 noon

Anthropology Section Business Meeting

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

Landon McKinney—Chairperson
Barbara Rafail—Secretary
Room 15

Friday, 22 October 1993
Landon McKinney—Presiding

2:45 p.m.

KJAS

The effects of sodium chloride on the transpiration of pin-
to beans

Linda Rymarquis—Notre Dame Academy. Sponsored by
Sisters Mary Ethel Parrott and Mary Judith Averbeck

3:00 p.m.

The disproof of Beer’s Law (for bacteria) and a method
of translation from photospectrometer absorption to
bacterial population

Christopher Brown—duPont Manual. Sponsored by Bar-
bara Fendley.

3:15 p.m.

The Distribution and Habitat of Coastal Plain Plants on
the Cumberland Plateau

Ronald Jones—Eastern Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

Botanical Survey of the London Ranger District, Daniel
Boone National Forest

Julian Campbell and Richard Abbott—The Nature Con-
servancy and Berea College

64 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59( 1-2)

3:45 p.m.

The Status of Kentucky's St. John’s Worts (Hypericum
Sect. Ascyrum)

Ross C, Clark—Eastern Kentucky University

4:00 p.m.

Sulfur in Liquidambar orientalis from Turkey

J. E. Winstead—Western Kentucky University

4:15 p.m.

Light and Electron Microscopic Investigations of a Fresh-
water, Biflagellated Green Algae (Euglenophyta)

Nancy Dawson—Western Kentucky University

4:30 p.m.

The Northern Kentucky University Diatom Herbarium

M. Steinitz Kannan—Northern Kentucky University

4:45 p.m.

‘Effects of Mulch Color on Vegetative Growth of Okra

Edith Greer, Catherine Mahl, Karan Kaul, and Michael
Kasperbauer—Kentucky State University

5:00 p.m.

Botany and Microbiology Business Meeting

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Ted Shields—Chairperson
Room 218

Friday, 22 October 1993
Ted Shields—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Water Quality of the Big Sandy River

Steven Berger, Timothy Lavender, and John G. Shiber—
Prestonsburg Community College

8:30 a.m.

Glass Transition Temperature for PET

Beverly Campbell and Wei-Ping Pan
University

9:00 a.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

9:15 a.m,

Applications of TG-FTIR in the Thermoanalysis Labora-
tory

Jiangling Liu, Yongchi Li, and Wei-Ping Pan—Western
Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

The Effects of Chlorine on Boiler Corrosion

Marian Lee Upchurch, Hai-Bin Coa, Brian Bixler, and
Wei-Ping Pan—Western Kentucky University

9:45 a.m,

Progress on Transition Metal Catalyzed Peptide Synthesis

Richard Reznik, Brian Gillispie, Glenn Kelley, and Mas-
angu Shabangi—Asbury College

10:00 a.m.

Nickel Catalyzed Peptide Synthesis

Glenn A. Kelley and Richard Reznik—Asbury College

10;15 a.m,

Zinc Catalyzed Peptide Synthesis

Brian S. Gillispie and Richard Reznik—Asbury College

Western Kentucky

10:30 a.m.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Reactivity of a Urea De-
rivative Coordinated to Cobalt (III)

Billy Helton, Miranda Prewitt, Lee Roecker, Anthony C.
Willis, and Alan M, Sargeson—Berea College

10:45 a.m,

Analysis of First-Order Kinetic Data by a Differential
Technique

Shing Mirn Lee, Li Jing Sun, Koorosh Zaerpoor, and Lee
Roecker—Berea College

11:00 a.m.

The Kinetics and Mechanisms of Carbon/Sulfur Cleavage
and Formation Reactions of Thioelther Ligands Coor-
dinated to Cobalt (III)

Berekt Berhane, Liwen Liu, and Lee Roecker—Berea
College

11:15 a.m.

KJAS

Determination of the Cell Cycle Stage in Which
Cyclosporine-A Inhibits Proliferation of W62 T-lym-
phocytes

Joshua Denny—duPont Manual. Sponsored by Barbara
Fendley

11:30 a.m.

The Study of Lewis Acid/Alumina Complexes on Diels-
Alder Reaction

Hunter R. Barber, Julie Tan and Ann Hoffelder—Cum-
berland College

11:45 a.m.

Photo Assisted Atomic and Molecular Processes

Elizabeth Rittenberry, Kenneth M. Sando, Thomas Don-
an, and Ann Hoffelder—Cumberland College

12:00 noon
Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

2:30 p.m.

Relative Rates of Reaction of Halodiazirines with Azide
Ion in the S Reaction

Jennifer L. Jones, Xavier Creary, and Ann Hoffelder—
Cumberland College

2:45 p.m.

The Determination of the Number of Hydroxyl Groups
on the Surface of Alumina

Douglas Smith, Julie Tan, and Ann Hoffelder—Cumber-
land College

3:00 p.m.

Blood Serum Ion Alteration in Channel Catfish as a Func-
tion of Acute Temperature Changes

Jeff Stidam, John T. Riley, and Jeff Kent—Western Ken-
tucky University

3;15 p.m,

Determination of Coal Sulfur Forms Using Thermal An-
alytical Techniques

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 65

L. Michelle Lewis, R. Forsythe, M. Guo, B. Wang, and
D. Zhang—Western Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

The Capability of Microorganisms Isolated from Eastern
Kentucky Mine Drainage Sites to Remove Sulfur from
Coal

Shirley Thomas and John T. Riley—Prestonsburg Com-
munity College and Western Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

Chemistry Section Meeting

GEOGRAPHY SECTION

James M. Bingham—Chairperson
Stuart A. Foster—Secretary
Room 14

Friday, 22 October 1993
James M. Bingham—Presiding

11:00 a.m.
Latitudinal Variation of Consecutive Day Precipitation
Glen Conner—Westem Kentucky University

11:15 a.m.

The Ascent of Wind Power

Mary M. Snow—Western Kentucky University

11:30 a.m.

Kentucky Winds and Renewable Energy: A Summariza-
tion of Wind Power Potential in the Commonwealth

Richard K. Snow—Western Kentucky University

11:45 a.m.

Transportation Facilities Analysis of Warren County, Ken-
tucky

James L. Davis—Western Kentucky University

12:00 noon

Lunch

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

2:45 p.m.

Inverse Relationship between Monthly Wind Velocities
and Precipitation in the United States and Pacific Basin

Conrad T. Moore—Western Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

A New Approach to Measuring Segregation

Mark Lowry II and Stuart Foster—Western Kentucky
University

3:15 p.m.

Developing “Mercosur”; Can Argentina and Brazil Rep-
licate the European Common Market?

David J. Keeling—Western Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

Kentucky's Journey to Work 1970-1990: A Comparative
Analysis

Wayne Hoffman and James Bingham—Western Kentucky
University

3:45 p.m.

The Discovery and Exploration of Side’s Cave, Hart
County, Kentucky, 1991-1992

James Wells and Christopher G. Groves—Western Ken-
tucky University

4:00 p.m.

Recent Cave Exploration in the Central Kentucky Karst

Christopher G. Groves and James R. Wells—Western
Kentucky University

4:15 p.m.

Determining Groundwater Flow Directions, Monitoring
Locations and Sampling Frequencies at Hazardous
Waste Sites on Karst Terrane without Installing Moni-
toring Wells

Nicholas Crawford—Western Kentucky University

4:30 p.m.

Water Conservation Systems Developed Centuries B.C.,
Part I: The Falaj System of Oman

L. Michael Trapasso—Western Kentucky University

4:45 p.m.

Geography Session Meeting

GEOLOGY SECTION

Graham Hunt—Chairperson
Deborah Kuehn—Secretary
Room 17

Friday, 22 October 1993
Deborah Kuehn—Presiding

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center
2:30 p.m.

Outwash, Lacustrine and Alluvial Deposits of the Mile
605 Area, Ohio River

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville

2:42 p.m.

Economic Geology of the Georgetown Quad, GQ-605, Ky

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville

2:54 p.m.

Acroporid Reefs of Johnston Atoll, Pacific Ocean

Graham Hunt—University of Louisville

3:06 p.m.

The Einunnfjellet Dome, Norway—A Glimpse into an

Orogen
Beth McClellan

3:18 p.m.

KJAS

Investigating the Groundwater of Specific Formations
Used as Well Water Sources for the Presence of Lead
in Lewis County

Sheri Gilbert—Lewis County High School. Sponsored by
Sheree Robinson

Western Kentucky University

66 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

3:30 p.m.

Gravity Anomalies and Geometry

Carmen Painter—Western Kentucky University

3:42 p.m.

Development of a Geographic Information System for
Karst Groundwater Research

Kyle Bearden—Western Kentucky University

3:54 p.m.

Some Petroogic and Chemical Characteristics of a Trans-
gressive Pet Deposit in San Salvador, Bahamas

Margaret Chair—Western Kentucky University

4:06 p.m.

Prospects for Utilization of Ultrafine and Micronized
Coals

Kenneth W. Kuehn—Western Kentucky University

4:18 p.m.

Paleontology and Identification of a Newly Exposed Road-
cut West of Auburn, Kentucky

Deborah Kuehn and Michael Sykes—Western Kentucky
University

4:40 p.m.
Geology Section Business Meeting

Puysics SECTION

John Christopher—Chairperson
Vincent DiNoto—Secretary
Rooms 112 and 128

Saturday, 23 October 1993
John Christopher—Presiding

9:00 a.m.

Chaos in a Dynamical System/Chaos in a Mathematical
Model: The Bouncing Ball Problem

Chris M. Graney and Nyeita Irish—Jefferson Community
College, Southwest Campus

9:15 a.m.

An Enhanced Model for the Bouncing Ball Problem

Nyeita Irish and Chris M. Graney—Jefferson Community
College, Southwest Campus

9:30 a.m.

The Morehead Radio Telescope

Ben Malphrus, Jack Whidden, Russ Brengelman, David
Cutts, V. Rajaravivarma, Rodney Stanley, and Eric Tho-

Morehead State University

9:45 a.m.

Evolution of a Coagulating System

B. R. Anderson and H. R. Kobraei—Murray State Uni-
versity

10:00 a.m.

Microscopic Treatment of Vapor Phase Nucleation

H. R. Kobraei and B, R. Anderson—Murray State Uni-
versity

10:15 a.m.

Section Business Meeting

10:30 a.m.

Break

mas

10:45 a.m.

Determination of Temperature and Velocity of Rocket
Plumes by Laser Induced Fluorescence

Stephen H. Cobb—Murray State University

11:00 a.m.

PRISM

Led by Gary Boggess, Dean of Science, Murray State Uni-
versity

12:00 noon
Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

The Development of a Pump Laser for Rocket Borne LI-
DAR

Matt Lowry, Roger Scott, Richard Hackney, and Karen
Hackney—Western Kentucky University NASA/Ken-
tucky Space Grant Consortium Space

1:15 p.m.

Science Opportunities for Students and Faculty

Karen Hackney, Richard Hackney, Thomas Bohuski, and
Roger Scott—Western Kentucky University

1:30 p.m.

An Astronomy and Space Science Workshop to Support
KERA Objectives

Roger Scott, Richard Hackney, Karen Hackney, R. Tyler,
M. Smith—Westem Kentucky University

1:45 p.m.
Data Acquisition and Experiment Control in the Surface
Physics Laboratory at Western Kentucky University
Islamshah Amlani, Todd Stinson, Douglas Harper—West-
ern Kentucky University

2:00 p.m.

Elastic Response of a Thin Aluminum Tube to Shock
Loading

Islamshah Amlani and Douglas Harper—Western Ken-
tucky University

2:15 p.m.

The JOVE Program: NASA/University JOINT VEN-
TURES in Space Research

Maria Falbo-Kenkel, Raymond C. McNeil, and David J.
Schneider—Northerm Kentucky University

2:30 p.m.

Break

2:45 p.m.

Tests of Conformal Gravity: Galactic Rotation Curves

Maria Falbo-Kenkel—Northern Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

Ultraviolet Spectrophotometry of a Sample of B Super-
giants in the Small Magellanic Cloud

Raymond C. McNeil—Northern Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

Experimental and Theoretical Analysis of Natural Very
Low Frequency “Whistlers” Generated by Lighting

David J. Schneider—Northern Kentucky University

3:30 p.m.

A Magnetic Field Test Facility

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 67

. Doug Smith and W. S. Wagner—Northern Kentucky
g g cy
University

PuysioLocy, BrlopHysics AND PHARMACOLOGY

Dexter Speck—Chairperson
Room 219

Friday, 22 October 1993
Dexter Speck—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Models for Primary Production with Emphasis on Ken-
tucky Lake Reservoir

Julie Bennett, H. R. Kobraei, and B. R. Anderson—Mur-
ray State University

8:15 a.m.

Experimental Primary Production in Kentucky Lake Res-
ervoir

Alesia Townsend, H. R. Kobraei, and B. R. Anderson—
Murray State University

8:30 a.m.

Uterine Microvascular Response to Serotonin in the Nor-
motensive and Hypertensive Rat

Julie Hornung, Nancy L. Alsip, and Eleanor Asher—Uni-
versity of Louisville

8:45 a.m.

Blood Flow of Rat Reproductive Organs During the Es-
trous Cycle Before and After Administration of Human
Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

J. B. Miller, A. E. Jimenez, J. C. Passmore, and C. V.
Rao— University of Louisville

9:00 a.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Student

9:30 a.m.

Effect of Magnesium Intake on Bone Loss Associated
with Energy Restriction

C. Wang, C. J. Lee, and A. Babalmoradi—Kentucky State
University

9:45 a.m.
Down Regulation of Drug Detoxifying Enzymes in Em-
bryonal Carcinoma Cells Cultured with Retionic Acid
S. Vogelpohl, E. Meier, S. Ebert, J. Pullman, D. Wilk-
ening, and J. Carter-—Wodd Hudson Cancer Research
Laboratory

10:00 a.m.

Conformational Analysis of Lipid-Bound and Non-Lipid-
Bound Apolipoprotein Ai by Limited Proteolysis

Erika Hayden and Linda Roberts—Centre College

10:15 a.m.

Vascular Response to Nitric Oxide Synthase Blockade in
Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Rats

A. L. Forsberg and R. T. Dowell—University of Kentucky

10:30 a.m.

Purification and Characterization of a Deoxyrinonuclease
from Etiolated Soybeans

V. L. Dunham and C. Xu—Western Kentucky University

10:45 a.m.

Toxicity of Glyceollin to Fusarium solani and Correlation
with Pathogenicity on Soybeans

Manoj Warrier and Margaret G. Richey—Centre College

11:00 a.m.

In Vitro Endopolygalacturonase Activity and Pathogenic-
ity of Fusarium solani on Soybeans

Kristine DeStefano and Margaret G. Richey—Centre Col-
lege

11:15 am.

Resonant Power Frequency Magnetic Fields Alter Growth
of Radish Seedlings

Stephen D. Smith—University of Kentucky, Bruce R.
McLeod—Mountain State University and Abraham R.
Liboff—Oakland University

11:30 a.m.

Testosterone and Estradiol Concentrations in the Blood
Plasma of Paddlefish Before and After Injection with
LHRH Analog

Richard J. Onders, Steven D. Mims, and Julia A. Clark—
Kentucky State University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center
2:30 p.m.

Dehydration Effects on Osmoregulation by Adult and
Larval Bullford, Rana catesbeiana

Endang Widiastuti and John J. Just—University of Ken-
tucky

2:45 p.m.

Phenylalanine and P-hydroxybenzoic Acid in Combination
Therapy in the Treatment of Sickle Cell Disease

Felix O. Akojie—Paducah Community College and Leslie
W-M. Fung—Loyola University

3:00 p.m.

Aflatoxin—-DNA Interactions

Suzanne Byrd—Eastern Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

Physiology, Biophysics and Pharmacology Section Busi-
ness Meeting

ATTENTION:

Following the Business Meeting there will be a workshop
entitled, “Integrative Studies in Human Physiology and
Medicine: A Case History Involving Diabetes Mellitus”
conducted by Richard T. Lyons—Jefferson Community
College.

SCIENCE E/DUCATION

Benjamin Malphrus—Chairperson
Robert Boram—Secretary
Room 133

Friday, 22 October 1993
Benjamin Malphrus—Presiding

68 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

9:00 a.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

9:30 a.m.

Learning the Methodology of Science by Dissecting Jour-
nal Articles

Peter V. Lindeman—Madisonville Community College

9:45 a.m.

Bottle Biology

Kim Alexander and Robert Creek—Eastern Kentucky
University

10:00 a.m.

Tissue Culturing Using the “Wisconsin Fast Plants”

Robert Creek and Kim Alexander—Eastern Kentucky
University

10:15 a.m.

“Introduction to Chemistry” Course at Western Kentucky
University Using an Armchair Laboratory

Lowell W. Shank, Stephanie L. Hammons, and Amanda
J. Ayer—Western Kentucky University

10:30 a.m.

Success as Perceived by Community College Students

John G. Shiber—Prestonburg Community College

1:00 p.m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center
2:45 p.m.

Usefulness of a Nature Trail in Teaching Biology Students

Pamela S. McLaughlin and Peter V. Lindeman—Madi-
sonville Community College

3:00 p.m.

An application of TQM Principles to the Classroom: An
Investigation and Analysis

Alan D. Smith and Paul M. Majorsky—Robert Morris
College

3:15 p.m.

A Procedure for Integration of Science and Computer In-

struction in a Secondary Science Classroom

Cloyd J. Bumgardner—Calloway County High School and
Kim Worley—Somerset Community College

3:30 p.m.

Administration of a Biology Teaching Curriculum De-
signed to Achieve Kentucky Education Reform Act Val-
ued Outcomes in the Secondary Science Classroom

Cloyd J. Bumgardner—Calloway County High School

3:45 p.m.

Health Care Needs and Management: Survey and Impli-
cations

Alan D. Smith—Robert Morris College

4:00 p.m.

Homemade Videotape of an Experiment on the Chemical
Analysis of an Alloy

C. C. Wilkins, N. W. Hunter, and S. J. Redden—Western
Kentucky University

4:15 p.m.

Science Education Business Meeting

PsyCHOLOGY SECTION

Jeffrey Smith—Chairperson
Tery Barrett—Secretary
Room 133

Friday, 22 October 1993
Jeffrey Smith—Presiding

2:30 p.m.

KJAS

Reaction Time: How Musical Stimuli and Tempo Affect
Human Reaction Time

Matthew Carper—duPont Manual High School. Spon-
sored by Barbara Fendley

2:45 p.m.

Behavioral Effects of Late Embryonic Exposure to Co-
caine and Ethanol on the Young Chick

Isaac Caton, John Dose, and James Zolman—University
of Kentucky

3:00 p.m.

Embryonic Exposure to Coadministration of Ethanol and
Cocaine on Acquisition and Extinction Behavior in the
Young Chick

John Dose, Isaac Caton, and James Zolman—University
of Kentucky

3:15 p.m.

Effect of the Opiate Buprenorphine on Amphetamine Re-
ward in Rats

Ronya Gibson, James Rowlett, and Michael Bardo—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

3:30 p.m.

The Effects of Brain Lesions on Spatial Learning Assessed
with a 1-day Morris-water-maze Procedure

Russell Brown, Philip Kraemer, and Stephen Schef—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

3:45 p.m.

Timing an Interval Does not Require Attention, If You
Are a Pigeon

Karen Roper and Thomas Zentall—University of Ken-
tucky

4:00 p.m.

Its Not What You Are, but Who You Hang Around with

Lou Sherburne and Thomas Zentall—University of Ken-
tucky

4:15 p.m.

Using Teacher’s Expectations to Break the Vicious Cycle
of Failure with the Reading Disabled Child

Robert T. Simpson and L. Gibbs—Western Kentucky
University

4:30 p.m.

Effects of Haloperiodol on Cocaine-induced Behavioral
Sensitization

Sonia Fields, Kristin Rase, and Bruce A. Mattingly—
Morehead State University

4:45 p.m.

SCH23390 Blocks the Behavioral, but not the Neuro-
chemical Effects of Repeated Quinpirole Treatments

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 69

Steve McDonald, Tracye Ellison and Bruce A. Matting-
ly—Morehead State University

5:00 p.m.

Hallucinations in Normals: Exploring Reports Across Sen-
sory Domains

Terry R. Barrett—Murray State University

5:15 p.m.

Adult Child Coresidence

Lorraine C. Basso—Murray State University

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Jeffrey Smith—Presiding

§:00 a.m.

The Effects of Individual Difference Variables on the Re-
lationship between Verbal Praise and Performance

Shalonda L. Cawthon—Murray State University

8:15 a.m.

The Impact of Ergonomics on Consumer Attitudes

Peter Batsakee, Matt Shank, and Jeffrey Smith—Northern
Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

The Effects of Shift Work on Illness

Traci Hamlin—Murray State University

8:45 a.m.

The Effects of Workload on the Identification of Motor-
cycles

Kevin Martin, Peter Batsakes, Cyndia McDaniel, Lisa
Gloeckler, and Jeffrey Smith—Northern Kentucky Uni-
versity

9:00 a.m.

Gender and Spatial Ability: A Piece of the Puzzle

Kevin R. Newman—Murray State University

9:15 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

11:15 a.m.

Prosecuting the Offender: Does it Promote the Healing
Process after Rape?

Hope B. Patterson—Murray State University

11:30 a.m.

Sex Differences in EMG Biofeedback Training

Sarah Scott and Jack Thompson—Centre College

11:45 a.m.

Religious Motivation and Fear of Death

Janet M. Shreves—Murray State University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:30 p-m.

The Relationship of Stress and Sleepwalking

Nicole P. Swanson—Murray State University

1:45 p.m.

Reducing Homophobia among University Students

Dana A. Westerman—Murray State University

2:00 p.m.

An Evaluation of Rehabilitation Procedures in Occupa-
tional Therapy

Kelly R. Young—Murray State University

2:15 p.m.

Attention Deficit Disorder: The Effectiveness of Class-
room Intervention

Susan B. Buckman

2:30 p.m.

Psychology Section Business Meeting

Murray State University

SOCIOLOGY SECTION

J. Allen Singleton and Steve Savage
Co-Chairpersons
Room 26

Friday, 22 October 1993
J. Allen Singleton—Presiding

2:45 p.m.

The Politics of Campaigning for Collegiate Student Office

April Ramsey (Undergraduate) and J. Allen Singleton—
Eastern Kentucky University

3:00 p.m.

The Controversy over Spotlight Hunting in Clay County

Ernie Ferguson (Undergraduate) and J. Allen Singleton—
Eastern Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

U.S.—Cuban Relations

Will Grant (Undergraduate) and J. Allen Singleton—East-

ern Kentucky University
3:30 p.m.
Trail Drives of Appalachian Kentucky
J. Allen Singleton—Eastern Kentucky University

3:45 p.m.

Uses of Public Assistance to Preserve Middle Class Status
Cynthia Huffman, Mary Ann Long (Undergraduates) and
Eastern Kentucky University

Steve Savage
Oo
4:00 p.m.
Sociology Section Business Meeting

ZOOLOGY AND ENTOMOLOGY SECTION

Monte P. Johnson
Guenter Schuster—Secretary
Room 32

Chairperson

Friday, 22 October 1993
Monte P. Johnson—Presiding

9:30 a.m.

KJAS

The Use of Potassium Chloride to Control the Zebra Mus-
sel and the Possible Effects on the Aquatic Ecosystem

Matthew Graul—Henderson County High School. Spon-
sored by Susan Mueller

9:45 a.m.

Embryological Development of the Fathead Minnow (Pi-
mephales promelas)

70 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

W. K. Dorsey and B. A. Ramey—Eastern Kentucky Uni-
versity

10:00 a.m.

In vitro Culture of Microplitis croceipes Teratocytes and
the Effects of Teratocyte Secretory Products

Eric J. Schepers, Douglas Dahlman and Deging Zhang—
University of Kentucky

10:15 a.m.

Microplitis croceipes Teratocyte Secretory Product(s)
Blocks In vitro Metabolic Processes of Fat Body Tissue
of Heliothis virescens

Deging Zhang and D. L. Dahlman—University of Ken-
tucky

10:30 a.m.

Effects of Temperature and Dosage on Mortality of Three
Stored-product Insect Species Exposed to Insecto®
Burr H. Settles and Paul A. Weston—Kentucky State Uni-

versity

10:45 a.m.

Stimulation of Oviposition in the Angoumois Grain Moth

Patti L. Rattlingourd, Paul A. Weston, and Jacqualine Per-
kins—Kentucky State University

11:00 a.m.

Toxic and Anti-feedant Effects of Fractions from Zan-
thoylum bungeanum Extract on Larvae of Sitotroga ce-
relella (Oliver)

Ziaosong Ge and Paul A. Weston—Kentucky State Uni-
versity

12:00 noon
Lunch, On your own

1:00 p.m.
Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center

2:30 p.m.

Local Variation in the Timing of Maturation in Female
Painted Turtles (Chrysemys picta)

Peter V. Lindeman—Madisonville Community College

2:45 p.m.

Phylogeny of Plethodon doralis and Plethodon cinereus:
Distribution and Systematic Data

S. Marcus Kirtley, Teresa R. Forsyth, and Bill J. For-
syth—Indiana University Southeast

3:00 p.m.

Zoology and Entomology Business Meeting

3:15 p.m.

Leafhoppers and Treehoppers on Pin Oak

Monte P. Johnson and Paul H. Kreytag—University of
Kentucky

3:30 p.m.

Phylogeny of Plethodon doralis and Plethodon cinereus:
Allozyme Variation

Teresa R. Forsyth and S. Macrus Kirtley—Indiana Uni-
versity Southeast

3:45 p.m.

Ontogenetic Changes in Growth Efficiency in Laboratory-
Reared Water Snakes of the Genus Nerodia

Roy M. Scudder-Davis—Berea College

4:00 p.m.

Diet of Kentucky's Threatened Spotted Darter, Etheos-
toma maculatum (Pisces: Percidae)

Richard K. Kessler—University of Louisville

4:15 p.m.

In vivo and in vitro Effects of Light on Ommatidial Mor-
phology in the Cockroach, Leucophaea maderae

Channon Yule and Blaine R. Ferrell—Western Kentucky
University

4:30 p.m.

Effects of Complete Feed and Supplemental Feed with
and without Organic Fertilization on Pond Production
of the Freshwater Prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii

J. H. Tidwell, C. D. Webster, W. Knight, and L. R.
D’Abramo—Kentucky State University

4:45 p.m.

Benthic Macroinvertebrates Associated with Various Diets
and Fertilizer Regimes Fed to Freshwater Prawns,
Macrobrachium rosenbergii, in Artificial Ponds: Prelim-
inary Results

Sankie J. Hill, Jr., John Sedlacek, Paul Weston, and James
Tidwell—Kentucky State University

5:00 p.m.

Kentucky's Butterflies: Should any Species be Listed as
Endangered or Threatened? Charles V. Covell, Jr—
University of Louisville

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Monte P. Johnson—Presiding

8:15. a.m.

An Inexpensive Pre-positioned Electrofishing Sampler for
Habitat Assessment of Stream Fish

Gordon K. Weddle and Richard K. Kessler—Campbells-
ville College

8:30 a.m.

Reaction of Elk (Cervus elaphus) to Seismic Activity in
South-central Montana

Steven C. Thomas—Eastern Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

Rest Site and Denning Habits of Raccoons (Procyon lotor)
in Central Kentucky

Charles L. Elliott and Jeff Norment—Eastern Kentucky
University

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Monte P. Johnson—Presiding

9:00 a.m.

Seasonal Prevalence of Three Digenetic Trematode Cer-
cariae in the Snail, Hellisoma trivolvis, at Owsley Fork
Reservoir

Ronald B. Rosen, Jose M. Ilagan, Jessica K. Starnes, Mar-
ichelle Asuncion, Manuel L. San, and Melissa E. Den-
ton—Berea College

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 71

9:15 a.m.

Effectiveness of a Constructed Wetland for Acid Mine
Drainage Reclamation

A. J. Grant and B. A. Ramey—Eastern Kentucky Univer-
sity

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

COMPUTER SCIENCE SECTION

Richard A. Rink—Chairperson
Room 218

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Richard A. Rink—Presiding

8:15 a.m.

Microcomputer COBOL Compilers

Sylvia Clark Pulliam—Western Kentucky University

8:30 a.m.

Developing Appropriate Material for the SCI and C52
Closed Laboratory Courses

Carol W. Wilson—Western Kentucky University

8:45 a.m.

The Changing High School Computer Science Curricu-
lum

Carol W. Wilson—Western Kentucky University

9:00 a.m. .

Deadlock Detection in a Database System: An Algorithm
of Complexity O(N)

John Crenshaw—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

11:30 a.m.

Fuzzy Logic: Who? When? Why? and How?

Art Shindhelm—Westerm Kentucky University

11:45 a.m.

Computer Science Business Meeting

MATHEMATICS SECTIONS

Carroll G. Wells—Chairperson
Russell M. Brengelman—Secretary
Room 132

Friday, 22 October 1993
Russell Brengelman—Presiding

11:00 a.m.

A Computer Simulation of the Heart

Joe Zanchi, Student—Centre College

11:20 a.m.

Geometry Acclivities for the Classroom
Carroll Wells—Western Kentucky University

11:40 a.m.
Summer Science Camp Math
Ann Heard and Chris Leverenz—Georgetown College

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:00 p-m.

Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:00 p-m.

Refreshments, Lobby—Cralle Student Center
2:40 p.m.

Calculus Reform Across Kentucky

Report on the NSF Calculus Institute

Darrell H. Abney—Maysville Community College

Calculus Using Mathematica

Chris Christensen—Northern Kentucky University

Laboratory Calculus at U.K.

Carl Eberhart—University of Kentucky

Communications for Math and Science

Paul Eakin—University of Kentucky

4:00 p.m.

Forestry in the Northwest

Edward C. Korntved—Morehead State University

4:20 p.m.

Data Compression Using Fractal Surfaces

Bruce Kessler—Western Kentucky University

4:40 p.m.

Mathematics Problem Solving, Student Motivation and
Learning Theories

Russell M. Brengelman—Morehead State University

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Russell Brengelman—Presiding

8:00 a.m.

Utilization of Graphing Calculators in Discrete Mathe-
matics Courses

Robert J. Lindahl—Morehead State University

§:20 a.m.

Prototyping Neural Networks

James Porter—Western Kentucky University

§:40 a.m.

A Class of Harmonizable Isotropic Random Fields

Randy Swift—Western Kentucky University

9:00 a.m.

PASS: An Accountability Project

Kathy Mouwers and Ramona Meador—Owensboro Com-
munity College

9:20 a.m.

It Ain't Necessarily So with Apologies to George Gershwin

John Spraker—Western Kentucky University

9:40 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

72 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

11:00 a.m.

Fair Division

Walter Feibes—Bellarmine College

11:20 a.m.

An Introduction to the Numerical Solution of Schrodin-
ger-Type Equations Using Finite Element Methods

Mark Robinson—Western Kentucky University

11:40 a.m.

Solving O.D.E’s

Kari Kelton, Student. Western Kentucky University

12:00 noon

Lunch, On your own

1:20 p.m.

Calculus Reform Across Kentucky

Report on the NSF Calculus Institute

Darrell H. Abney—Maysville Community College

Calculus Reform at WKU

Barry Brunson—Western Kentucky University

Calculus Using DERIVE and Graphing Calculators

Rodger Hammons—Morehead State University

Using the Harvard Calculus Textbook

Kathy Mowers and Karin Chess—Owensboro Community
College

Open Discussion on Calculus Reform

3:00 p.m.

A Linear Programming Algorithm that Combines Contin-
uous Variable and Combinatorial Techniques

David Atkinson—Westem Kentucky University

3:20 p.m.

Generating Functions for a Class of Complex Sequences

James Barksdale—Western Kentucky University

3:40 p.m.

Section Business Meeting

ENGINEERING SECTION

Issam Harik—Chairperson
David Allen—Secretary
Room 17

Saturday, 23 October 1993

Issam Harik—Presiding

9:00 a.m.

A New Finite Element Model for Analysis of Slab-Girder
Bridges

Meiwen Guo and Issam E. Harik—University of Ken-
tucky

9:15 am.

Bridge Piers Subjected to Ship Impact

Michael W. Whitney, Issam E. Harik, and David L. Al-
len—University of Kentucky

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

10:00 a.m.

Annual Business Meeting, John L. Hill Chapel

JULSiS) emma,

Cohort Analysis on Accident Rates of Older Drivers

Polepalli Vinary Kumar and Nidiforous Stamatiadis—Uni-
versity of Kentucky

11:30 a.m.

KJAS

Factors Affecting the Production and Action of Quicksand

Ellen Air—Notre Dame Academy. Sponsored by Sisters
Mary Ethel Parrott and Mary Judith Averbeck

11:45 a.m.
Engineering Business Meeting
S (2)

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES SECTION

Robert J. Barney—Chairperson
Matthew E. Byers, Secretary
Room 131

Friday, 22 October 1993
Matthew E. Byers—Presiding

9:15 a.m.

The Horticulture Research Program at Kentucky State
University: An Introduction

Desmond R. Layne—Kentucky State University

9:30 a.m.
Street Tree Inventory Using CIS Graphics
James E. Martin—Western Kentucky University

9:45 a.m.

Vegetable Yields Using Three Soil Management Strate-
gies: 1993

Debra H. Hilborn, George F. Antonious, and Matthew E.
Byers—Kentucky State University

10:00 a.m—12:00 noon

Statewide Research Symposium

A presentation of ongoing agricultural research being con-
ducted by the various universities in Kentucky. Presen-
tations will be made by pertinent agricultural adminis-
trators. Open discussion will follow.

1:00 p.m.
Plenary Session, John L. Hill Chapel

2:15 p.m.

Refreshments, Lobby, Cralle Student Center

2:45 p.m.

Effects of Dietary Protein Level on Growth and Body
Composition of Channel Catfish Reared Cages

Laura Goodgame Tiu, Carl D. Webster, James H. Tid-
well, and Eddie B. Reed—Kentucky State University

3:00 p.m.

Animal Waste Management Systems in the Barren River
Area: Soil and Plant Interactions with Animal Waste
Application

O. W. Dotson, Ray Johnson, Bryan Kessler, Jason Slaton,
and David Stiles—Western Kentucky University

3:15 p.m.

Comparison of Mineral Element Analyses by NIRS and
Wet Lab Methods

Bryan Kessler, Linda Brown, and David Stiles—Western
Kentucky University

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 73

3:30 p.m.

Break

3:45 p.m.

Plant and Soil Analyses Following High Rates of Appli-
cation of Livestock Manure

Ray Johnson, Thomas Dotson, Alvin Bedel (Undergrad-
uate), O. W. Dotson, David Stiles, and Jon Barrow—
Western Kentucky University

4:00 p.m.

Runoff of Agricultural Chemicals

Nekiya Baker (Undergraduate), George F. Antonious, De-
bra J. Hilborn, and Matthew E. Byers—Kentucky State
University

4:15 p.m.

The Effect of Promisulfuron and Nicosulfuron on the
Growth of Johnsongrass, Sorghum halepense

James P. Worthington—Western Kentucky University

4:30 p.m.

Using Tension Lysimeters to Monitor Agricultural Chem-
ical Infiltration

Dawn Green (Undergraduate) and Matthew E. Byers—
Kentucky State University

4:45 p.m.

Effects of Soybean Cultivars and Planting Dates on Bio-
mass Production

Aslam Tawhid and Elmer Gray—Western Kentucky Uni-
versity

Saturday, 23 October 1993
Matthew E. Byers—Presiding

§:00 a.m.

Effect of Synthetic DeOderase on Water Quality in Re-
circulating Aquaculture Systems

Wanda Knight (Undergraduate) and James H. Tidwell—
Kentucky State University

8:15 a.m.

Effects of Large Animal Production Units on Stream Wa-
ter Quality: Fish Community Assemblages

Robert Hoyt, Jon Barrow, Jason Slaton, and David
Stiles—Western Kentucky University

§:30 a.m.

Effects of Large Animal Production Units on Stream Wa-
ter Quality: Water Quality Parameters

Thomas Dotson (Undergraduate), David Stiles, O. W.
Doston, Jason Slaton, and Alvin Bedel—Western Ken-
tucky University

8:45 a.m.

Monitoring Constructed Wetlands in Kentucky

Frank S. Young, HI (Undergraduate), George F. Anto-
nious, and Matthew E. Byers—Kentucky State Univer-
sity

9:00 a.m.

Effects of Fertilization and Mowing on Persistence of In-
dian Mockstrawberry and Common Blue Violet

Elmer Gray and Neysa M. Call (Undergraduate )—West-
em Kentucky University

9:15 a.m.

Mixing Municipal Solid Waste Materials for Composting

Luther B. Hughes, Jr., Robert M. Schneider, Karen E.
Prow (Undergraduate), Robert H. Austin, Jr., and El-
mer Gray—Western Kentucky University

9:30 a.m.

Refreshments, John L. Hill Chapel

9:45 a.m.

Temperature Changes During Municipal Solid Waste
Composting

Karen E. Prow (Undergraduate), Elmer Gray, Robert M.
Schneider, and Luther B. Hughes, Jr—Westermn Ken-
tucky University

10:00 a.m.

Comparisons ef Composts for Growing Vegetables in
Containers

Brian Lacefield (Undegraduate), Ashlam Tawhid, and El-
mer Gray—Western Kentucky University

10:15 a.m.

Stimulation of Oviposition in the Angoumois Grain Moth

Patti L. Rattlingourd, Paul A. Weston, and Jacqualine Per-
kins—Kentucky State University

10:30 a.m.

Effect of Different Colored Plastic Mulches on Insect
Pests of Okra

M. M. Williams (Undergraduate), J. D. Sedlacek, P. L.
Rattlingourd, B. D. Price, and J. D. Sedlacek—Ken-
tucky State University

10:45 a.m.

Insect Populations in On-Farm Stored Corn During the
First Year of Storage

J. D. Sedlacek, P. A. Weston, B. D. Price, and P. L. Rat-
tlingourd—Kentucky State University

11:00 a.m.

Effect of Insecticide and Fungicide Treatment on Several
Quality Parameters of Stored Shelled Corn

Bryan D. Price, John D. Sedlacek, and Paul A. Weston—
Kentucky State University

11:15 a.m.

Agriculture Business Meeting

SECTIONAL POSTERS

Posters were available for viewing for the duration of
the meeting. Presenters were requested to be at their
posters to facilitate discussion of their research at the fol-
lowing times: Friday, October 22 from 2:15 p.m. to 3:00
p.m. Saturday, October 23 from 9:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m.
and 11:00 a.m. to 12:00 noon.

1. Response of Tissue Porphyrin Metabolites to Altered
Zinc Status and Toxic Metal Exposure
M. Panemangalore and F. N. Bebe—Kentucky State
University

2. Effect of Copper Status, Lead (Pb) and Cadmium
(Cd) Exposure on Ceruloplasmin Activity in Adult
Rats

74

10.

JU,

13.

14.

15.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 505(1—2)

M. Panemangalore, K. Mahal, F. N. Bebe, and E.
Allaudin—Kentucky State University

. Monitoring ppb Levels of Lead in Water from Drink-

ing Fountains by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotom-
etry

Robert Warford, David Fraley, and Kevin McGill—
Georgetown College

. Two-lined Salamanders, Eurycea cirrigera, Detect

Chemical Deposits of Predatory Salamanders
Paul V. Cupp, Jr.—Eastern Kentucky University and
Glenn Marvin—University of Oklahoma

. Local Enhancement in Pigeons: Delayed Reinforce-

ment Effects
Lynn A. Berberich, Carol Mokas, and David E. Ho-
gan Northern Kentucky University

. MOVER—A Computer Simulation Model for Teach-

ing and Investigating Two-dimensional Animal Move-
ment Behavior

Paul A. Weston—Kentucky State University and
James R. Miller—Michigan State University

. Bacteria from Hypersaline Lagoons in the Galapagos

Islands
Bettie Palmison and Miriam Steinitz Kannan—North-
ern Kentucky University

. Predicting Student Performance in Liberal Arts

Chemistry
David Fraley and David Forman
lege

Georgetown Col-

. Molecular Structure of Siloxene

B. J. Stigall—Murray State University, and James L.
Meeks and Larry Bigham—Paducah Community Col-
lege

Educating the Northern Kentucky Community about
Psychopathology

Perilou Goddard, Deanne Auer, Beverly Lenicky, An-
gela Gumm, Sarah Ranso, James Thomas—Northern
Kentucky University, and Earl Kreisa—Mental
Health Association of Northern Kentucky

A Biotin Assay Using Time Resolved Fluorescence

Dawn Garrett—King College, and Angela Fultz, Syl-
via Daunert, Leonidas Bachas—University of Ken-

tucky

. Are All Computer Hard Drives Created Equal?

B. J. Stigall—Murray State University and James L.
Meeks—Paducah Community College

Survey of Kentucky Elder Citizen Perceptions of the
Dental Profession’s Ability to Serve Them Effectively
Arthur Van Stewart and Suzanne Meeks—University
of Louisville

A Study of Homeless Facilities and Shelters to De-
termine Extent of Professional Dental Services Pro-
vided

Eric T. Veal and Arthur Van Stewart—University of
Louisville

Impact on New OBRA-mandated Dental Reporting
System on State Licensing and Ratings of Nursing
Home Facilities in Kentucky

Bryan G. Hamess, Arthur Van Stewart— University of

16.

Louisville and Julia McKee—Cabinet for Human Re-
sources

Site-directed Mutagenesis of Southern Bean Mosaic
Virus Protease

Alan J. Simmons and Claire A. Rinehart—Western
Kentucky University

HHMI Biological Sciences Undergraduate Inititative

17.

18.

19.

1914-1915
1915-1916
1916-1917
1917-1918
1915-1919
1919-1920
1920-1921
1921-1922
1922-1923
1923-1924
1924-1925

University of Kentucky
John M. Rawls, Jr., Director

Phenylalanine and p-hydroxybenzoic acid in Combi-
nation Therapy in the Treatment of Sickle Cell Dis-
ease

Felix D. Akojie and Leslie W-M. Fung—Paducah
Community College

Localization of a Methylation Signal

Brandon McGrath, Padmaja Mummaneni and Mitch-
ell Turker

Characterization of a Transgene-Induced Mutation
That Alters Motor Neuron Function in Mice
Stephen L. Wang and Braett T. Spear

. Role of Jasmonic Acid on Wound-Induced Alkaloid

Increases in Nicotiana Plants
Alice Taylor, Pierce Fleming, Roger Anderson, and
David Hildebrand

. Conformation-Activity Relationships of the Heat-Sta-

ble STp Enterotoxin
Matthew H. Wilson and Judith G. Shelling

. Regulation of Phytoalexin Biosynthesis: Resection

Analysis of a Sesquiterpene Cyclase Gene Promoter
Jeffery W. Morrison, Shaohui Yin, and Joe Chappell

. Molecular Cloning and Characterization of the Chick

NMDA Receptor
Amina Shalash, Brian Davis, aad Laurie Gamer

. The Physiological and Cellular Control of Hatching in

the Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas)
Juanita Combs, Tracy Livingston Longley, and John

J. Just

. The Synergistic Inhibition of T-lymphocytes by Dexa-

methasone and Prostaglandin E2
Brad Sparks and Lucinda Elliott

. The Protective Proteins of the Fly, Phormia regina

John F. Lamon III and Gerald A. Rosenthal

PRESIDENTS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Joseph H. Kastle
N. F. Smith

A. M. Miller

R. C. Ballard

J. E. Barton
Paul P. Boyd

W. H. Coolidge
George D. Smith
Lucien Becker
W. R. Jillson
Cloyd M. McAllister

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING Me

1925-1926 Austen R. Middleton 1983-1984 Gary Boggess
1926-1927 W. G. Burroughs 1984-1985 Joe Winstead
1927-1928 W. D. Valleau 1985-1986 Charles V. Covell
1928-1929 G. D. Buckner 1986-1987 Larry Giesmann
1929-1930 Frank L. Rainey 1988 William P. Hettinger, Jr.
1930-1931 V. F. Payne 1989 Richard N. Hannan
1931-1932 Anna A. Schnieb 1990 Debra K. Pearce
1932-1933 George Roberts 1991 W. Blaine Early, HI
1933-1934 John S. Bangson 1992 Douglas L. Dahlman
1934-1935 Alfred M. Peter 1993 Charles N. Boehms

1935-1936 J. S. McHargue
1936-1937 Robert T. Hinton
1937-1938 L. Y. Lancaster
1938-1939 W. R. Allen

MEETING LOCATIONS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

1939-1940 A. W. Homberger 1914, 1915 State College (presently University of Ken-
1940-1941 Charles Hire tucky) : :
1941-1942 G. B. Pennebaker 1916-1928 University of Kentucky
1942-1943 J. T. Skinner 1929 Berea College

1943-1944 L. A. Brown 1930 Centre College

1944-1945 L. A. Brown 1931 Transylvania University
1945-1946 Paul Kolachov 1932 Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College
1946-1947 Ward Sumpter 1933 University of Kentucky
1947-1948 Alfred Brauer 1934 Berea College

1948-1949 Morris Scherago 1935 University of Kentucky
1949-1950 W. E. Blackburn 1936 Western Kentucky State College
1950-1951 E. B. Penrod 1937 University of Louisville
1951-1952 Harvey B. Lovell 1938 Morehead State Teachers College
1952-1953 Thomas Herndon 1939 Murray State Teachers College
1953-1954 C. B. Hamann 1940 University of Kentucky
1954-1955 R. H. Weaver 1941 Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College
1955-1956 J. G. Black 1942 University of Kentucky
1956-1957 A. M. Wolfson 1943 University of Louisville
1957-1958 William M. Clay 1944 University of Kentucky
1958-1959 William B. Owsley 1945 No Annual Meeting

1959-1960 Pete Panzera 1946 University of Louisville
1960-1961 H. H. LaFuze 1947 Western Kentucky State College
1961-1962 Charles Whittle 1948 University of Kentucky
1962-1963 Lyle Dawson $1949 Cumberland Falls State Park
1963-1964 R. A. Chapman F1949 Eastern Kentucky State College
1964-1965 C. B. Hamann 1950 University of Louisville
1965-1966 John M. Carpenter 1951 University of Kentucky
1966-1967 Robert M. Boyer 1952 Georgetown College

1967-1968 Paul G. Sears $1953 Ashland

1968-1969 Orville Richardson F1953 University of Kentucky
1969-1970 Lloyd Alexander $1954 Berea College

1970-1971 Karl Hussung F1954 University of Louisville
1971-1972 Louis Krumholz $1955 Cumberland Falls State Park
1972-1973 Marvin W. Russell F1955 Kentucky State College
1973-1974 Donald Batch $1956 Kentucky Dam Village

1974-1975 Ellis V. Brown F1956 Eastern Kentucky State College
1975-1976 Frederick M. Brown $1957 Western Kentucky State College and Mam-
1976-1977 Charles Payne moth Cave National Park
1977-1978 Charles Kupchella F 1957 Berea College

1978-1979 Sanford L. Jones S1958 Natural Bridge State Park
1979-1980 Rudolph Prins F1958 University of Kentucky
1980-1981 John Philley $1959 Lake Cumberland State Park
1981-1982 Ted M. George F1959 Western Kentucky State College

1982-1983 J. G. Rodriguez $1960 Murray State College

76 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

F 1960 University of Louisville
$1961 Morehead State College
F1961 University of Louisville

1962 Eastern Kentucky State College
1963 University of Kentucky

1964 Morehead State College
1965 University of Kentucky

1966 Kentucky Wesleyan College
1967 University of Louisville

1968 Western Kentucky University
1969 Murray State University
1970 Georgetown College

1971 Eastern Kentucky University
1972 Morehead State University
1973 Transylvania University

1974 Centre College

1975 University of Louisville

1976 University of Kentucky

1977 Western Kentucky University
1978 Eastern Kentucky University

1979 Northern Kentucky University
1980 Transylvania University

1981 Murray State University

1982 Ashland Oil Inc., Ashland
1983 University of Louisville

1984 Kentucky State University
1985 Morehead State University
1986 Lexington, Kentucky (with SSMA)
1987 Western Kentucky University
1988 Eastern Kentucky University
1989 University of Kentucky

1990 Northern Kentucky University
1991 Owensboro, Kentucky

1992 Ashland Community College
1993 Georgetown College

1994 Annual Meeting
3-5 November 1994
Paducah, Kentucky
Host: Paducah Community College

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT ANNUAL MEETING, 1993

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

Animal waste management systems in the Barren River
area of Kentucky: soil and plant interaction with animal
waste applications. O. W. DOTSON,* RAY JOHNSON,
BRYAN KESSLER, JASON SLATON, and DAVID
STILES, Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

A preliminary survey was conducted on farms with an-
imal enterprises in the Barren River area. Much of the
area possesses karst topography, which presents unique
problems associated with animal waste management.
Though these farms may contain large areas for waste ap-
plication, a series of factors may result in heavy applica-
tions over smaller areas. This study was developed to sur-
vey soil composition of those fields where heavy
application occurred and those where little or no appli-
cation occurred. Also, species differences were studied.
Parameters studied were percentages of organic matter,
and ppm of phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium,
sodium, pH, sulfur, zinc, manganese, iron, and copper. On
farm A most parameters studied were not greatly different
but organic matter (OM) was 3.5% (0-15 cm depth) with
the heavy application and 2.4% on the light. P and K were
65 and 285, respectively, for the light application as op-
posed to 39 and 118 for low. On farm B similar figures
for OM, P, and K were, respectively, 3.8, 45, and 207 and
3.3, 36, and 58 for heavy and light applications. The above
data are representative of production units with cattle (ru-
minants). In general, similar values for the parameters un-
der study were found on swine enterprises for OM and
most of the macro elements. Even with 95 kg of ni-
trogen, only 0.21% nitrate was observed in the plant tis-
sue. However, and possibly due to diet composition, high-
er levels were observed for Zn, Cu, and Fe in the soil

where swine waste was applied. Frequent analyses of
stream water adjacent to this unit would indicate no im-
pact on stream water quality. In our survey, animal waste
management is a concern to the producer. Considerable
differences were observed from farm to farm and even on
the same farm. Soil composition appeared to be influ-
enced by source of animal waste applied.

Comparison of composts for growing vegetables in con-
tainers. BRIAN D. LACEFIELD,* ASLAM TAWHID,
and ELMER GRAY, Department of Agriculture, Western
Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Sustainability of society is enhanced when recurring
waste products are effectively substituted for diminishing
natural resources. The present study is an ongoing effort
to evaluate common waste products as soil amendments
for growing food crops in containers. The materials in-
cluded soil (S), leaf mulch (L), wood mulch (W), N-viro
soil (V), and chicken manure (C). Each of the 40 plastic
barrel sections (58 cm diam, 38 cm depth) contained ca.
60 liter of one of the following mixtures (percent by vol-
ume): $(100); S$(50), L(50); S(50), W(50): S(50), L(25),
W(25); S(50), L(25), C(25):; S(50), W(25), C(25); S(50),
L(25), N(25); and $(50), W(25), N(25). The four mixtures
not including C or V were supplemented with 56.0 N, 24.5
P, and 46.5 K, all expressed in kg ha’. Fifteen different
food crops were grown in these mixtures in 1993. Seed or
fruit yields, plant height, and biomass productions indi-
cated that some mixtures were equal or superior to soil
only. There were many examples of interactions between
mixtures and crops and between mixtures and cultivars
within crops. Preliminary results indicated that using
waste compost in containers has strong potential for urban
gardeners.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING UL

Comparison of mineral element analyses by NIRS and
wet laboratory methods. BRYAN KESSLER, LINDA
BROWN, and DAVID STILES,* Department of Agri-
culture, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
KY 42101.

This study was conducted to estimate correlation be-
tween mineral element analyses of various grasses com-
pleted via wet laboratory chemistry and estimation via
Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy (NIRS). Univer-
sal equations were used to evaluate the spectra observed.
Warm season grasses (bermuda grass and sudan grass) and
cool-season grasses (tall fescue, rye, wheat) were studied.
The following observations of NIRS analyses, wet labo-
ratory analyses, and simple correlations, respectively, were
observed: nitrogen 2.61%, 2.42%, and 0.94; phosphorus
0.40%, 0.17%, and 0.88; calcium 0.59%, 0.51%, and 0.37;
potassium 2.50%, 2.05%, and 0.67; and magnesium
0.21%, 0.26%, and —0.13. The correlations and data for
nitrogen analyses were acceptable. The correlations and
analyses for the other mineral elements merit further
study and perhaps development of more narrow-based
equations for greater confidence in NIRS analyses.

Effects of large animal production units on stream wa-
ter quality: fish community assemblages. ROBERT D.
HOYT,* Department of Biology, JON BARROW, JASON
SLATON, and DAVID STILES, Department of Agricul-
ture, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101.

An intensive swine rearing facility in southern Kentucky
has proposed using animal wastes as pasturage fertiliza-
tion. This study attempted to describe any impacts of this
practice on fish fauna in Buck Creek, less than 1 mile from
the rearing facility. Sampling station I was located just
above the upstream runoff effluent while station II was
located just below the downstream effluent. Samples were
taken on 26 Oct 1992, and 3 Jun 1993, using electrofishing
gear. Twenty of 21 species were taken at station II; 16, at
station I. Twenty species were observed in fall collections;
17, in spring. Simpson’s and Shannon’s diversity indices
identified the greatest diversity at station II in spring fol-
lowed by I fall, II fall, and I spring. In spring, station I
was impacted by orangethroat darters, which made up
60% of the community; in fall they dropped to 24%. Sta-
tion IT in fall was impacted by stoneroller minnows, blunt-
nose minnows, and common shiners, which made up 80%
of the total; in spring, these species dropped to 46%. Jac-
card and Sorenson coefficients showed seasonal commu-
nities to be more closely related; Renkonen and Morisita
indices showed station relationships to be stronger. Stone-
roller minnows, bluntnose minnows, and common shiners
are all omnivores. Their increased presence in fall (after
the growing season) suggested that nutrient enrichment of
the water promoted an algal flora responsible for their
increased presence.

Effects of large animal production units on stream wa-
ter quality: water quality parameters. THOMAS DOT-

SON,* DAVID STILES, O. W. DOTSON, JASON SLA-
TON, and ALVIN BEDEL, Department of Agriculture,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

A 14 mo study was conducted on a stream associated
with a 219 ha watershed where 12,000-17,000 head of
swine are raised. The animal waste, from a second stage
anaerobic lagoon, was spread on pasture/forage fields. An
average of 70 kg of nitrogen, 13.3 kg of phosphorus, and
73 kg of potassium were applied per hectare per year. The
samples collected during six time periods from the main-
stream and inlet streams had various levels at different
times but flow was diluted to the point this was not ob-
served to any great extent in the main stream flow. Nitrate
was observed to increase from 0.4 mg/liter to 2.2 mg/liter;
the safe drinking standard is 10 mg/liter. Considering the
animal concentration and the application of animal waste
to pasture (good management practice to reduce possible
run off), the observed water quality appeared to be good
prior to the stream arriving at the drainage of this water-
shed (upstream) and after all drainage entered the stream
(downstream). Upstream and downstream samples, re-
spectively, were observed for the following parameters
mg/liter; total solids 390 and 380; ammonia N-O,O; cal-
cium 63 and 58; phosphorus 0.04 and 0.06; copper 0 and
0; iron 0.28 and 0.31; zinc 0.068 and 0.071; nitrate-N 0.4
and 2.2 (safe drinking water standard 10); pH 7.85 and
7.59; and dissolved oxygen 8.15 and 8.58. Inlet drainage
streams from the watershed were not greatly affected by
the animal production unit.

Effect of primisulfuron and nicosulfuron on growth of
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense). JAMES P. WOR-
THINGTON, Department of Agriculture, Western Ken-
tucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Johnson grass is a major problem weed in corn in Ken-
tucky. Primisulfuron (Beacon) and nicosulfuron (Accent)
can be very effective for control of the grass when prop-
erly applied. Our study sought to determine the effect of
time and application timing on performance of primisul-
furon and nicosulfuron for control of Johnson grass in
corn. Nicosulfuron and primisulfuron were applied post-
emergence at full rates of 35 g and 40 g ai./ha, respec-
tively, in the first week of June in 1988, 1989, 1990, and
1991 and as split applications of half rate each in the first
week of June and near the end of June 1989 and 1991.
The two-row corn plots (1.5 X 7.6 m) were planted 11—
16 May each year. Johnson grass was 25-40 cm tall for
early postemergence and 15-45 cm for late postemer-
gence applications. Nitrogen was applied at 150 kg/ha
each year, and residual herbicides were applied to control
annual grass and broadleaf weeds. Visual ratings of treat-
ments compared to adjacent check plots were used to
evaluate Johnson grass control at 21 and 42 d after appli-
cation of early postemergence treatments (DAT). Rainfall
was much below normal in 1988 and much above in 1989.
There were four replications of each treatment and data
analyzed as a split-plot design, using time in years as the
subplots. There were no significant differences between

78 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

treatments and years in Johnson grass control except in
1988, when nicosulfuron provided more control (82.5%)
than primisulfuron (58.1%). Johnson grass was under
moisture stress when the herbicides were applied; there
was considerable regrowth in the primisulfuron treated
plots. Control of Johnson grass was significantly greater at
42 d after treatment (DAT) than at 21 DAT. There was
a highly significant interaction between time after treat-
ment and herbicide; control using primisulfuron was lower
than when using nicosulfuron in four out of five years at
42 DAT.

Effects of soybean cultivars and planting dates on bio-
mass production. ASLAM TAWHID* and ELMER
GRAY, Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Soybean (Glycine max) is highly valued as a source of
edible oil and as a source of organic nitrogen. Soybean
cultivar development and cultural practices are directed
toward seed production rather than forage or green ma-
nure production. The objective of the present study was
to determine the effects of cultivar maturity differences
and planting dates on biomass production. The experi-
mental design was a split-plot with four replications. The
three planting dates (2 Jun, 16 Jun, and 6 Jul) were main-
plots and the five cultivars were split-plots. The cultivars
and their maturity groupings and areas of adaptation were
McCall (OO, Minnesota), A2506 (II, Iowa), FFR 561 (V,
Kentucky), Perrin (VIII, South Carolina), and Laredo (un-
designated maturity, forage cultivar). Experimental units
were 45 m? (3 X 15 m). Seeds were inoculated and broad-
cast at the rate of 175 kg ha~! and covered by disking.
Cultivars were harvested at the early bloom stage. Average
biomass production (oven dry basis) decreased progres-
sively (2.92, 2.45, and 2.08 metric tons ha‘) for the plant-
ing dates. Highest biomass yield (5.88 metric tons ha!)
was produced by Laredo at the first planting. For shorter
growth periods (1 or 2 mo) the earlier maturing cultivars
were equal or superior to the later maturing cultivars;
however, when all cultivars were compared at the early
bloom stage, later maturing cultivars produced more bio-
mass. Soybean stands and yields were reduced by inade-
quate seed covering by disking, by insufficient soil mois-
ture at germination (especially the second planting), and
by competition with Johnson grass and pigweed. These
preliminary results indicate that soybean is a good source
of green manure production during summer.

Fertilization and mowing on persistence of Indian
mockstrawberry and common blue violet in a tall fescue
lawn. ELMER GRAY* and NEYSA M. CALL, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Western Kentucky University, Bowl-
ing Green, KY 42101.

Research was conducted from 1990 to 1992 at Bowling
Green, Kentucky, to determine the influence of soil fer-
tilization and mowing on persistence of Indian mockstraw-
berry, Duchesnea indica, and common blue violet Viola
papilionacea, in an old, weakened tall fescue lawn. Fer-

tilization treatments included FO = none applied; Fl =
spring and fall application of 0.49 kg N, 0.21 kg P, and
0.41 kg K 100 m~; and F2 = spring and fall application
of twice the F] rate. Mowing treatments were MO = not
mowed; and M1 and M2 = mowing heights of ca. 4 and
6 cm, respectively, at biweekly intervals. Persistence of
both weeds was influenced more by mowing than by fer-
tilization. Survival of Indian mockstrawberry was greatest
when mowed at 6 cm and not fertilized and lowest when
highly fertilized and not mowed. Blue violets were virtu-
ally eliminated by either mowing treatment and did not
respond to fertilization. Mowing and fertilization effec-
tively reduced survival of Indian mockstrawberry and
common blue violet in the tall fescue lawn.

Herbicide leaching in vegetable culture. MATTHEW
E. BYERS and DAWN GREENE,* Kentucky State Uni-
versity, Frankfort, KY 40601.

The use of herbicides to control weeds on erodible
lands may reduce the need for tillage and contribute to a
sustainable agricultural system. But herbicides are per-
ceived to potentially affect groundwater. The purpose of
this study was to determine if clomazone (2-(2-chloro-
phenyl)methyl-4, 4-dimethyl-3-isoxazolidinone), a selec-
tive herbicide, would leach under the experimental con-
ditions. Clomazone was applied at 1.5 kg/ha to plots (3.7
x 22 m) on a 10% slope, with Lowell silt loam soil, on
29 May 1993, to which pepper transplants were planted.
Plots in 1993 had either fescue strips every row (F1), fes-
cue strips every other row (F2), and minimum tillage
(MT) as soil treatments. Clomazone was monitored by us-
ing tension lysimeters located at the top, middle, and bot-
tom of each plot; within each location these were placed
at three depths: 1, 2, and 5 ft. Samples were drawn
monthly. Sampling followed rigorous QA/QC procedures.
Extraction was done with a liq/liq process using hexane.
Analysis was by GC-NPD and GC-MS. Clomazone was
found <0.7 ppb, <0.2, and <0.1 PPB for 1, 2, and 5 ft
during the June sampling (Ist sampling post-application).
By 29 July all levels diminished to <0.2 PPB; clomazone
levels in F2 > Fl > MT, overall. Although leaching oc-
curred, concentrations were very low. Impact at measured
concentrations to exposed subsoil organisms is unknown.

Horticulture research program at Kentucky State Uni-
versity: pawpaw as a fruit crop. DESMOND R. LAYNE,*
Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

The horticulture research program at Kentucky State
University began in June 1990. From its inception, the
development of pawpaw (Asimina triloba) as a commer-
cial fruit crop has been a major priority. Pawpaw is the
largest fruit native to the United States. In addition to the
excellent nutritive value of its fruit, an alkaloid (asimicin)
found in the bark has both pesticidal and anti-cancer
properties. Pawpaw germplasm has been collected during
a nationwide contest and from numerous collection trips
throughout southeastern U.S. Currently, superior plants
identified from the wild, plants from the contest, and com-

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 79

mercial cultivated varieties are being evaluated in the field
and greenhouses at the KSU research farm. Demonstra-
tion plantings have been established at grower farms with
the help of the KSU Cooperative Extension Program. Re-
search projects are underway to address some of the
important concerns in developing pawpaw as a new com-
mercial fruit crop. These include determining herita-
bilities for commercially important traits, characterizing
morphological and molecular variation in the germplasm
collection, developing improved methods of vegetative
propagation, developing weed control recommendations,
determining factors affecting seed germination, determin-
ing seedling dormancy requirements, and studying physi-
ology of seedling development. Future research projects
will investigate reduced input strategies for fruit produc-
tion by limited-resource farmers.

Monitoring of constructed wetlands in Franklin County,
Kentucky. FRANK S. YOUNG III,* MATTHEW E.
BYERS, and GEORGE F. ANTONIOUS, Kentucky State
University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

Kentucky's topography, clayey soils, and karst topogra-
phy contribute to non-point source pollution from on-site
sewage treatment. Wetlands are an alternative for home-
owners where conventional on-site treatment may fail.
The current study design included monitoring two 2-bed
and two 1-bed constructed wetland systems. Systems con-
sist of trenches excavated at a level grade, lined with 30-
mil plastic, and filled with #2 and #57 aggregate; the beds’
walls were supported by railroad ties. Beds were covered
with organic mulch, and emergent macrophytes were
planted. Systems were sampled monthly, starting at the
discharge end, with the port closest to the septic tank sam-
pled last. Samples were transported to labs in a cooler in
10 min. Dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and temperature
were recorded on site. Testing included biochemical ox-
ygen demand (BOD-5 d), total suspended solids (TSS),
ammonia, nitrate, and phosphate. Fecal coliform (FC) as-
says were performed by the Cabinet for Human Re-
sources lab. Presented data were from site-G, a represen-
tative system. Site-G BOD(5), FC, DO, and ammonia
mean levels in effluent were 102 mg/liter, 12,018 col./dl,
0.46 mg/liter, and 34.79 ppm, respectively. Performance
of site G has been poor. System water levels were too
high and saturated the mulch cover. This resulted in low
dissolved oxygen throughout the bed, which likely inhib-
ited nutrient and pathogen removal.

Plant and soil analyses following high rates of applica-
tion of livestock manure. RAY E. JOHNSON,* THOMAS
DOTSON, ALVIN BEDEL, O. W. DOTSON, DAVID
STILES, and JON BARROW. Department of Agriculture,
Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

This study was conducted on a Pembroke silt loam
(fine-silty, mixed, mesic, Typic Paleudalf) on the Western
Kentucky University Farm. Corn (Zea mays) was grown
to maturity, with tissue collected at early ear-fill stage and
at maturity. Soil samples were collected when corn plants

were about 30 cm tall and in early February 1993. Dairy-
cow solid manure was added at rates to supply 0, 168,
336, 672, and 1,344 kg ha“! of total N, referred to as the
0, 1X, 2X, 4X, and 8% rates, respectively. One plot re-
ceived only urea to supply 168 kg ha“! of N. Corn grain
yields were §,223-10,154 kg ha™!, with no significant
treatment response. Total plant dry matter production was
11,254-16,035 kg ha~!, with a consistent positive response
to increasing manure rates. Corn husk tissue, collected at
early ear-fill stage, showed a consistent increase in per-
centage composition of N, P, and K, and a consistent de-
crease in tissue concentration of Ca and Mg, with increas-
es in manure application rates. Similar but less consistent
and less pronounced trends were noted with mature
whole-plant analyses. Tissue contents of S, Mn, Zn, and
Cu showed little variation among treatments. Soil nitrate
levels (0-30 cm depth) when corn plants were ca. 30 cm
tall indicated an adequate available N level for optimum
corn yields at all manure application rates. The levels of
“available” soil P, K, and Mg increased significantly with
increasing manure application rates. This response was
most evident with exchangeable soil K levels. Soil Ca lev-
els showed no response to treatment. Soil nitrate levels in
February 1993 were very low at the 0-15 cm and 15-30
cm sampling depths for all treatments, and at the 30-60
cm and 60-90 cm depths for all except the two highest
manure application rates.

Street tree inventory using GIS graphics. JAMES M.
MARTIN, Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Street tree inventories are valuable management tools
in hundreds of American cities. Data collected generally
include location, species, DBH, condition, maintenance
required, damage to hardscape, and interference with util-
ity lines. This information facilitates tree planting, remov-
al, and maintenance programs and determines the value
of a resource often taken for granted. There are many
computer programs to process these data; dBase works
very well. Once entered, many valuable bits of manage-
ment information can be easily retrieved. For example,
lists can be prepared of trees in need of immediate main-
tenance, trees causing damage to curbs, and trees that are
the dominant species. An enhanced management tool be-
ing used in the Bowling Green, Kentucky, inventory is
Geographical Information System (GIS) graphics. The
added value of this system is that it generates maps that
effectively pinpoint the location of trees that fit particular
criteria. Data collectors assigned identification numbers to
each tree inventoried and marked its location on aerial
photos of the city. This information was entered into the
GIS program. The result is that maps can be generated
that highlight trees fitting into a particular category such
as those ready for removal. This helps in seeking bids and
instructing crews about maintenance activities.

Temperature changes during municipal solid waste
composting. KAREN E. PROW,* ELMER GRAY, ROB-

80 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55( 1-2)

ERT M. SCHNEIDER, and LUTHER B. HUGHES,
Department of Agriculture, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, KY 42101.

Composting is an effective way to deal with most prod-
ucts currently being deposited in Kentucky landfills. Our
study is an effort to show that, during composting of mu-
nicipal solid waste products, temperatures can be used as
an index for decomposition rate, and that the final product
can then be used as an effective soil amendment. The
materials used include N-VIRO soil (treated sewage
sludge), commercial wood pallets, yard brush, and leaves.
Fifteen windrows were compiled at the compost site at
Western Kentucky University. These windrows (20’ long,
9’ wide, and 3.5’ high) were aerated once every 10-15 d
using a 24’ windrow mixer. Temperatures were read every
other day beginning 11 Jun. Two temperature readings
were taken at a depth of 2’ and at points located approx-
imately 4% of the length from each end of the windrow.
Two samples were taken from each windrow every 4 wk.
The samples were ground and prepared for chemical anal-
ysis. All the materials eventually gained optimal temper-
ature (90-140° F) for composting. Some of the materials
attained this level of composting more rapidly than others.
Mixtures of these materials complemented one another as
they created products that were more readily composted.

Vegetable yields using three management strategies:
1993. DEBRA J. HILBORN,* GEORGE F. ANTO-
NIOUS, and MATTHEW E. BYERS, Kentucky State
University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

The need to conserve top soil is known. However, avail-
ability of soil-conserving alternatives, how these practices
compare to each other in effectiveness, and effect on crop
yield are not well known. Research in 1991 showed that
a 1-foot-wide stand of living fescue (T1) effectively re-
duced soil erosion and chemical movement. In 1993, T1,
a reduced level of living fescue (T2), and minimum till
(MT: with vetch intercropped) were studied to determine
influence on yield of tomato and green pepper (green pep-
per and green pepper: tomato intercropped). Eighteen
plots (22 * 3.7 m) on a 10% slope in Franklin County,
Kentucky, were used. There were 9 plots with 10 rows of
green pepper (crop treatment #1) and 9 plots with 5 rows
(every other row) of green pepper intercropped with 5
rows (every other row) of tomato (crop treatment #2).
Each crop treatment was replicated thrice for each soil
treatment. The lowest average yield of marketable tomato
per harvest was in T1, 18.89 fruits per 7.4 m of row. Yield
number of T2 and MT were similar (22.54 and 24.21 fruits
per 7.4 m of row, respectively, P = 0.05). This effect was
reversed for the green pepper. Yield number was highest
in T1 (15.59), followed by MT (14.10) and T2 (10.87) for
fruits per 7.4 m of row. Intercropped green pepper with
tomato produced a higher yield response overall relative
to green-pepper-only plots.

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY

Bacterial from hypersaline lagoons of the Galapagos Is-
lands. BETTIE OGREN-PALMISON* and MIRIAM

STEINITZ-KANNAN, Department of Biological Sci-
ences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights,
KY 41099.

Sergio, Bainbridge, and the Salt Mine are three hyper-
saline lagoons in the Galapagos Islands. Sergio is a shallow
lagoon on Espumilla Beach, Santiago Island, with an ion
concentration of 64.6 mSiemens; sea water averages an
ion concentration of 53 mSiemens. Bainbridge is a crater
lake with an ion concentration of 143-145 mSiemens. The
most saline of the three systems is the Salt Mine, with
more than seven times the ion concentration of sea water
at 394 mSiemens. Sergio and Bainbridge contain abun-
dant plankton, including brine shrimp; however, plankton
tows in the Salt Mine contained no zooplankton. Bacteria
have been isolated and cultured from cores that were ex-
tracted from these lagoons. Although the exact taxonomic
grouping of the isolated bacteria has not yet been estab-
lished, some isolates may belong to the archaebacteria
family Halobacteriaceae.

Status of Kentucky's St. John’s Worts (Hypericum Sect.
Ascyrum). ROSS C. CLARK, Department of Biological
Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, KY
40475.

Examination of living material and herbarium speci-
mens has revealed that misdetermination of Hypericum
stragalum as H. hypericoides commonly occurs in Ken-
tucky. Status, synonymy, and geographic distribution of
plants of these taxa and H. stans will be discussed.

CHEMISTRY

Nickel-catalyzed peptide synthesis. GLENN KELLEY*
and RICHARD REZNIK, Department of Chemistry, As-
bury College, Wilmore, KY 40390.

Research was continued on the use of Ni (II) as a cat-
alyst in the formation of simple peptides from amino ac-
ids. Attention was directed at amino acids thought to be
present in the region of the active site of urease, a nickel-
containing metalloenzyme. Results show that amino acids
other than glycine can form peptides in the presence of
Ni (11).

Progress on transition metal catalyzed peptide synthe-
sis. RICHARD REZNIK,* DAVID GANTZ, BRIAN
GILLISPIE, GLENN KELLEY, and MASANGU SHA-
BANGI, Department of Chemistry, Asbury College, Wil-
more, KY 40390.

Last year it was reported that Ni (II) could catalyze the
formation of simple peptides from glycine. Further inves-
tigation has shown that other transition metals can cata-
lyze the reaction, although dependence on pH is different.
The sodium ion does not appear to catalyze the reaction
under the conditions studied. Amino acids other than gly-
cine have been studied, and they also give simple pep-
tides. These results support the hypothesis that this is a
general reaction that could have been involved in the
chemical evolution of metalloenzymes.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 81

Water quality of the Big Sandy River, Kentucky. TIM-
OTHY LAVENDER and STEVEN BERGER, Division
of Biological Sciences & Related Technologies, Prestons-
burg Community College, Prestonsburg, KY 41653.

In late fall 1992, a pilot study was undertaken to de-
termine water quality of a 2.25 km stretch of the Big
Sandy River in Floyd County, Kentucky, with respect to
dissolved oxygen, salinity, and iron, manganese, and chlo-
rine content. The results of the analyses of 41 samples
collected showed that average levels of the three ele-
ments, plus those of dissolved oxygen and salinity, were
within normal ranges for river water. The most recent re-
port on the quality of Kentucky's waterways, however, in-
dicates that this portion of the Big Sandy River, also
known as the Levisa Fork, supports neither swimming due
to agricultural/municipal input nor aquatic life as a result
of heavy metal contamination from “unknown” sources.
In view of this, it seems appropriate to recommend fur-
ther, more comprehensive study of the river here, es-
pecially with regard to toxic metals, ie., lead, cadmium,
mercury, etc., in both water and sediment. Such work
would seek to identify which specific heavy metals are
present in this area, their concentrations, and their pos-
sible sources.

Zinc-catalyzed peptide synthesis. BRIAN GILLISPIE*
and RICHARD REZNIK, Department of Chemistry, As-
bury College, Wilmore, KY 40390.

The zinc ion has been found to catalyze formation of
simple peptides from amino acids. The results demon-
strate that metals other than Ni (II) can catalyze this re-
action. As in the case of nickel, pH is a key parameter in
determining the extent of conversion. Initial tests with gly-
cine revealed that zinc (as ZnSO,) was active in formation
of simple peptides. Later tests looked at catalytic effect
with the amino acids aspartic acid, histidine, methionine,
and serine.

ENGINEERING

Chemical vapor deposition of thin solid films. H. A.
MARZOUK,* J. S. KIM, J. Y. KIM, and P. J. REU-
CROFT, Department of Materials Science and Engineer-
ing; R. J. JACOB, Nano Probe Lab of the Markey Cancer
Center and Department of Microbiology and Immunolo-
gy; and J.D. ROBERTSON and C. ELOI, Department of
Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technology has ex-
panded considerably in the last few decades. The esti-
mated market for this technology is expected to exceed 3
billion dollars in 1993 in the U.S. market alone. A very
versatile technology, it can be used to fabricate any metal,
non-metal, or compound. It can be used to coat surfaces
having different shapes and sizes. It also produces coatings
with excellent conformal step coverage. The exponential
growth of this technology manifests itself in two broad
areas: (a) the microelectronics industry, where it is used
for interlayer dielectrics, masking, passivation, gate inter-

connects, load resistors, contact barriers, metallization,
and anti-reflection coatings; and (b) it is also used in the
metallurgical coating industry to provide protective coat-
ings for tools or parts where severe problems of erosion,
friction, or hot corrosion dominate. It is especially widely
used in the coating of cutting tools. In this presentation
the results of several CVD projects will be discussed: (a)
deposition of pure Cu films on Si(100), glass and poly-
imide, the main application of such films being in the mul-
tilayer interconnects in ultra-large-scale-integration
(ULSI) circuity; (b) fabrication of ZnO films on glass, the
main application of such films being in surface acoustic
wave devices, transparent conducting materials, solar
cells, and gas sensors; (c) fabrication of Al,O, films on
Si(100) and glass, the main application lying in the advan-
tages Al,O, holds over SiO, as a dielectric insulator for
semiconductor device applications. These include being a
better barrier for alkali ions, higher radiation resistance,
and a higher dielectric constant.

GEOLOGY

Acroporid reef corals of Johnston Atoll, Pacific Ocean.
GRAHAM HUNT, Department of Geography/Geosci-
ences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Johnston Atoll is 800 km southwest of the Hawaiian
coral reefs and over 1,500 km from other shallow water
reefs to the south and west. This relatively small atoll is
(a) an arc-shaped rim in the northwest quadrant that par-
tially surrounds a shallow lagoon of about 3 fathoms (Stage
3 of Darwin), (b) an open structure to the southeast at
about 20 km distance from the rim, (c) a surface area of
21,000 ha above a depth of 90 m, (d) depauperate of shal-
low water stony corals (33 species and 16 genera) with the
genus Acropora the dominant scleractinian, and (e) north-
west of the NW-SE trending Line Islands that may have
a tectonic and volcanic history similar to Hawaii. The
Johnston Atoll “table Acropora” was collected from the
northwest rim and is referred to Acropora cytherea. The
coral is ramose with branches of axial corallites larger in
diameter than the numerous radial corallites. This genus
is one of the most important of the hermatypic corals and
may represent more than 40% of the living scleractinians.
Some oxygen isotope ratio studies of corals may be used
for a better understanding of ocean-temperature differ-
ences in the interpretations of global-climates. Coloration
changes of corals may be interpreted as due to (a) local
changes in ecological conditions and/or (b) changes in spe-
cies caused by natural selection in the process of evolu-
tion.

Economic geology of the Georgetown Quadrangle, GQ-
605, Kentucky. GRAHAM HUNT, Department of Ge-
ography/Geosciences, University of Louisville, Louisville,
KY 40292.

Surface mapping of the Georgetown Quad may indicate
potential resources of economic importance at depth. Sur-
face drainages of the area appear to follow NW- and NE-

82 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

striking geologic structures that may provide economic
traps below the surface of the Quad. Four NW-striking
quarry pits were mined in the Lexington Limestone for
building stone and road metal. NE-striking exposures of
barite and galena are found in Carter Coords sections 11
and 12, U-60 and section 10, T-59. Structure contours
drawn on members of the Lexington units show several
structural “noses” of highs and lows that may form favor-
able prospects for ground water and/or hydrocarbon ac-
cumulation at depth. Subsurface data of a Knox Test, total
depth 1,100 ft, Walnut Hall Farm Well No. 1, Carter
Coords section 2, T-60, indicate several potential porous
and permeable zones in the St. Peter Sandstone and Knox
Dolomite. A new emphasis may be placed on the inter-
pretation of geologic maps in the future for the economic
development and sustainability of subsurface resources of
Kentucky.

Outwash, lacustrine, and alluvial deposits of the Mile
605 area, Ohio River, Kentucky and Indiana. GRAHAM
HUNT, Department of Geography/Geosciences, Univer-
sity of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Pleistocene deposits of outwash and lacustrine sands
and gravels that may have been deposited by meltwater
streams in front of the margin of an active glacier were
examined in three correlative localities of the Mile 605
area of the Ohio River, referred to here as the (1) Inter-
pretive Center, (2) Big Eddy, and (3) Quarry sections.
Samples were collected from the three sections for me-
chanical analysis. These sieve analyses provided data on
different size ranges of correlative samples of the sections.
Results of these analyses may be displayed as a series of
graphic cumulative curves. This curve is a graphic “sig-
nature” of that particular sample. Signature curves of
modern detrital sediments may be produced, e.g., cross-
bedded dune sands. It may be concluded that sediments
of a similar environment of deposition will have similar
signature curves.

HEALTH SCIENCES

Impact of new OBRA-mandated dental reporting sys-
tem on state licensing and ratings of nursing home facil-
ities in Kentucky. ARTHUR VAN STEWART and BRY-
AN G. HARNESS, Department of Orthodontic, Pediatric,
and Geriatric Dentristry, University of Louisville, Louis-
ville, KY 40292; and JULIA McKEE, Cabinet for Human
Resources, Frankfort, KY 40601.

The guarantee of appropriate health services to resi-
dents of long-term care facilities is the shared responsi-
bility of federal and state agencies. Increased emphasis on
monitoring compliance was expected after the 1987 Om-
nibus Budget Reconciliation Act became effective in 1988.
Three earlier studies conducted within the Common-
wealth concluded that OBRA has had little positive effect
on quality of dental services provided. Our study examines
the role that the state licensing authority plays in moni-
toring dental services being provided to people living in

Kentucky's 300+ nursing homes. The investigators
worked directly with representatives of the Cabinet for
Human Services to determine (a) the frequency with
which facilities had failed to comply with dental care ser-
vice requirements, (b) the number of site visiting teams
which had reported any dental service deficiencies, and
(c) to what degree the awarding of “superior” ratings to
individual nursing homes was influenced by the quality of
dental services being provided by licensed facilities.

Study of facilities and shelters for the homeless to de-
termine extent of professional dental services provided.
ARTHUR VAN STEWART and ERIC T. VEAL, De-
partment of Orthodontic, Pediatric, and Geriatric Den-
tistry, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Due to a sluggish economy, expanding societal prob-
lems, and several other factors there is a large homeless
population across America, including Kentucky. Shelters
and social service agencies/facilities generally offer food,
a place to sleep, and other basic necessities. Selected
homeless shelters also offer some types of medical ser-
vices. This study expands on an earlier homeless study by
examining the dental service activities of 110 nationally
homeless shelters identified as having a strong medical
service component. A four-page, 18-item questionnaire
was developed and sent to each facility listed by the U.S.
Department of Health & Human Resources in their 1993
Directory of Health Care for the Homeless. The goal of
the survey was to determine (a) the number of facilities
providing dental services, (b) the organizatonal structure
of their dental support programs, (c) the types of clinical
services being provided, and (d) the program’s plans to
expand or improve dental services in the future. The pre-
sentation will summarize the preliminary findings derived
from 37 completed questionnaires returned to the inves-
tigators in 1993. Major conclusions and recommendations
emerging from the study will be reviewed.

Survey of Kentucky elder citizen perceptions of the
dental profession’s ability to serve them effectively. AR-
THUR VAN STEWART* and SUZANNE MEEKS, Ur-
ban Center on Aging, % Department of Orthodontic, Pe-
diatric, and Geriatric Dentistry, University of Louisville,
Louisville, KY 40292.

As a result of changing demographics in the U.S.A.,
Canada and other western countries, there is increasing
interest in health care services for older people. Earlier
studies revealed common dental conditions and service
problems associated with an older (“geriatric”) population.
Other studies have reported dentist and dental student
attitudes towards the provision of care to older persons.
This presentation reports the findings of a 1993 study of
145 older adults drawn from the greater Louisville area.
The respondents included 71% women and 29% men,
which is a typical gender profile for older populations. The
mean age of the respondents was 73.08 yr. Other demo-
graphic data include (a) place of domicile, (b) estimate-

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 83

dannual earnings, and (c) highest level of formal educa-
tion. Our study examined (a) preference for gerontologic
training among students, (b) senior citizen gender pref-
erence for dental practitioners, (c) knowledge and use of
dental hygiene therapists, and (d) basic skills and under-
standing that senior citizens would like to see developed
among dental students and dental practitioners. A series
of Chi Square analyses produced several statistically sig-
nificant findings P < 0.01. Other findings, although not so
statistically well supported, offer additional insights into
current and future relationship between senior citizens
and members of the dental profession.

MATHEMATICS

Fair division. WALTER FEIBES, Rubel School of
Business, Bellarmine College, Louisville, KY 40205.

The general problem for allocation of fixed resources
among several parties is considered. The resources are of
different types and are differently valued by the parties.
This allocation is usually accomplished by means of some
sort of negotiation. As the number of parties is increased
the allocation process becomes increasingly complex and
a need arises to find a formalized negotiation procedure.
Specifically, the problems of dividing an estate and divid-
ing an encyclopedia are used to illustrate four different
negotiation procedures; the “naive procedure,” the “ran-
domization procedure,” the “auction procedure,” and the
“Steinhaus fair-division procedure.” The outcomes of
these procedures are then compared with respect to fair-
ness and with their effect of encouraging honest evalua-
tions by the parties. These four, and possible other ap-
proaches, can be applied to many other problems such as
settling business disputes, a fair way for partners to dis-
solve a business, and divorce settlements. Finally, the fair
division problem, which does not have one unique correct
solution, draws upon a modicum of probability, mathe-
matics, economics, ethics, and creative reasoning. For stu-
dents it can serve as an excellent example of an interdis-
ciplinary approach to problem solving in the real world.

Generating functions for a class of complex sequences.
JAMES B. BARKSDALE, JR., Department of Mathe-
matics, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY
42101.

Let P* denote the vector space of polynomials over the
complex field C. Now, consider the class of complex se-
quences described by S = {(P(n))*_, [Pe P*}. This paper
presents a characterization and a formulation of closed-
form expressions for the generating functions of this class
S of complex sequences. The characterization of such gen-
erating functions is embodied in the statement of the fol-
lowing principal theorem of the presentation: For each
Pe P* there exists a unique Q € P* such that g(z) =
1/1 — z)-Q[z/(1 — z)] is the generating function for the
complex sequence (P(n))*

n=0 *

MOLECULAR & CELL BIOLOGY

Characterization of a transgene-induced mutation that
alters motor neuron function in mice. STEPHEN L.
WANG* and BRETT T. SPEAR, Department of Micro-
biology and Immunology, University of Kentucky College
of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536.

Previous transgenic mice studies have demonstrated
that microinjected DNA can act as an insertional mutagen
by integrating within and disrupting endogenous genes.
Dr. Spear’s lab identified a transgenic line, A4, with an
unusual phenotype. When two hemizygous A4 mice are
mated, average sized litters are produced. The pups de-
velop normally until 14 d of age when 25% of the off-
spring exhibit a severe hind limb spastic paralysis; more-
over, the onset of spasticity is accompanied by a severe
wasting phenotype which results in death 4-7 d after the
onset of disease. Affected pups do not appear to be par-
alyzed as they still respond to stimuli in their hind limbs,
suggesting that motor neurons rather than sensory neu-
rons are affected. Mating experiments and Southern anal-
ysis indicate that the phenotype is carried in an autosomal
recessive manner, with only transgene-homozygous mice
exhibiting the described phenotype. Preliminary data also
show a high degree of motor neuron degeneration in af-
fected pups. As a result of these observations, we hypoth-
esize that the transgene in A4 mice has disrupted a gene
for normal development or function of motor neurons. To
understand the molecular nature of the observed pheno-
type, it is essential to identify the disrupted gene. This
objective was pursued through the inverse polymerase
chain reaction (IPCR), a procedure to amplify unknown
DNA flanking known DNA. Two sets of oligonucleotide
primers were synthesized and trial IPCRs successfully am-
plified a “target” flanking sequence in plasmid DNA; how-
ever, numerous attempts to amplify the flanking A4 ge-
nomic DNA were unsuccessful.

Conformation-activity relationships of the heat stable
STp enterotoxin. MATTHEW H. WILSON* and JU-
DITH G. SHELLING, Department of Biochemistry,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536.

STp is a member of a class of heat-stable enterotoxins
(ST). The ST peptides produced by Escherichia coli vary
in length from 18 (Stp; porcine form) to 19 (STh; human
form) amino acids. This class of enterotoxins is the major
killer of infants in the third world, due to its mediation of
chronic diarrhea, and is responsible for 40% of the cases
of traveller's diarrhea. Yet the mechanism by which the
ST toxins work, and the structure-function relationships
involved in their biological activity, remain to be discov-
ered. Structural studies on the STp peptide were per-
formed using high resolution two-dimensional 'H nuclear
magnetic resonance (2D NMR) spectroscopy in a solvent
mixture of 65% deuterated-trifluoroethanol (TFE) and
35% H,O. Structural studies under these conditions,
which mimic a membrane environment, have revealed
some stable secondary and tertiary structure. Our studies

84 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

involved the use of COSY and NOESY experiments,
which reveal through bond and through space interac-
tions, respectively. In conjunction with similar NMR stud-
ies on other ST analogs and with computational modeling
(distance geometry followed by simulated annealing), this
information will be used to model a ST “template” incor-
porating the 3D arrangement of amino acid side chain and
backbone elements required for binding. This template
will then be used as the basis for designing a therapeutic
inhibitor of its toxicity.

Localization of a methylation signal. BRANDON
McGRATH,* PADMAJA MUMMANENI, and MITCH-
ELL TURKER, Department of Pathology, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

De novo methylation (i.e., new methylation) is a heri-
table, epigenetic event required for embryonic viability.
The origin of the de novo methylation signal is not known.
Recently, our laboratory has identified an 800-base-pair
region located upstream of the mouse aprt (adenine phos-
phoribyltransferase) gene that apparently provides a de
novo methylation signal. Fragments from this region will
be studied to further delineate the sequence from which
the methylation signal emanates. To examine this partic-
ular sequence further, we created several plasmid con-
structs. The base construct used lacked the 1.4 kbp up-
stream region containing the methylation center. We then
inserted into the base construct DNA fragments suspected
to have de novo methylation signals. The new plasmid
constructs were then transfected into Del TG3 cells lack-
ing the aprt gene and the upstream region. Transfected
cells were selected in azaserine/adenine media (AzA),
which selects for aprt expression. The transfectants were
then collected and methylation in the upstream region was
examined by southern blot analysis. The results are cur-
rently being analyzed.

Molecular cloning and characterization of the chick
NMDA receptor. AMINA SHALASH,* BRIAN DAVIS,
and LAURIE GARNER, Department of Anatomy and
Neurobiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
40517.

The N-methyl-d-aspartate or NMDA receptor is part of
a family of receptors responding to the amino acid glu-
tamate. Glutamate receptors represent the predominant
excitatory neurotransmitter system. The NMDA receptor,
ubiquitous in the central nervous system of mammals, is
thought to be involved in pain transmission in the spinal
dorsal horn. It also plays an integral role in neuronal and
visual cortical plasticity during development. A chick brain
cDNA library was screened with a rat NMDA probe; pos-
sible NMDA clones were isolated. After conversion of
DNA to a plasmid, the clones were sequenced and ana-
lyzed. By use of the cloned NMDA receptor, riboprobes
were made for use in in situ hybridization; by use of in
situ hybridization, the NMDA messenger RNA was local-
ized in the dorsal horn of a normal chick spinal cord.
Through drug manipulations to alter neural activity, the

levels of gene expression in the dorsal horn of affected
chick spinal cords can be monitored with in situ hybrid-
ization.

Physiological and cellular control of hatching in fathead
minnows (Pimephales promelas). JUANITA COMBS,*
TRACY LIVINGSTON LONGLEY, and JOHN J. JUST,
School of Biological Sciences, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40506.

Hatching is a vital process in all animals; therefore, it
is of interest how embryos escape from their proteina-
ceous egg cases or their shells. Most aquatic vertebrates
have hatching gland cells that release an enzyme that di-
gests the proteinaceous egg case and makes hatching pos-
sible. Without hatching gland development, hatching can-
not occur. Fathead minnows normally hatch within 4-6 d
after fertilization. Our results show that hypoxia induces
hatching. Fathead embryos are placed in water bubbled
with three oxygen concentrations: 100% oxygen, air (21%
O, or 150 mm HgO,), and 100% nitrogen. When 100
young embryos (3-4 d after fertilization) were placed in
these described conditions for 2 h, they failed to hatch
presumably because they lacked the hatching gland cells.
When older embryos (4-5 d after fertilization with devel-
oped melanophores) were exposed for 1 h to the above
conditions, 64% (150/234) of the embryos hatched in N,,
19% (35/182) hatched in air, but only 12% (27/220)
hatched in O,. After the first hour some embryos were
switched from O, to N, or air, and from air to N,; the
remaining embryos were left on their respective condi-
tions. Of those switched from O, to N,, 71% (48/68)
hatched; 82% (28/34) hatched when moved from air to
N,; and none of the embryos (0/25) hatched when moved
from O, to air. The embryos left in air hatched at 8% (4/
50) while those in O, hatched at 6% (5/80). The normal
O, pressure in water (150 mm Hg) is slowly decreased by
embryos when they are placed in a closed system. The O,
pressure at which 22 embryos hatched ranged between
93-40 mm Hg with the average being 67.7 mm Hg. Since
hatching enzymes are released by exocytosis from the
hatching glands, we postulated that, like the release of
many enzymes, this discharge is controlled by an increase
in intracellular calcium levels. To assess calcium’s role in
the hatching process, experiments are being conducted
using various calcium ionophores.

Protective proteins of the fly Phormia regina. JOHN F.
LAMON III* and GERALD A. ROSENTHAL, T. H.
Morgan School of Biological Sciences, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington, KY 40506.

The fly Phormia terranovae responds to disease-causing
bacteria with inducible protective proteins known as dip-
tericins. Upon addition to agar inoculated with Escherich-
ia coli, a zone of clearing is created by these antibiotic
proteins. The diptericins provide a system for studies of
non-protein amino acid incorporation and biological activ-
ity. However, due to prohibition of importation of P. ter-
ranovae, P. regina was selected to continue these studies.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING §5

The protective proteins of P. regina are isolated by grind-
ing the larvae and centrifuging. The resulting extract is
purified by exposure to 100°C for 4 min followed by re-
petitive extraction of the pellet. The supernatant solutions
are fractionated (40%—70%) with (NH,),SO, and the pel-
let applied to a CM-cellulose column. Protective protein
1 (PP1) and PP2 are anionic and wash from the column
with 10 mM glycylglycine (pH 8.5). PP3 is obtained by
gradient elution with a linear gradient of 25 mM to 400
mM ammonium acetate (pH 7.1). The appropriate frac-
tions are subjected to gel filtration chromatography (G-
200) in which PP3, and PP3, are separated. PP3, is gel
filtrated as above to yield PP3,, and PP3,,. PP3B is puri-
fied with CM-cellulose employing a 25 mM to 400 mM
gradient of ammonium formate (pH 6.5) and Sephadex
G-200. PP1 was purified as described for PP3 above ex-
cept a DEAE-cellulose column was employed to produce
PP1, and PP1,. The six protective proteins of P. regina
are constitutive rather than inducible. They may function
by binding to bacteria and agglutinating them. A poly-
clonal antibody against certain PPs, as part of an ELISA,
will verify bacterial binding and specificity.

Regulation of phytoalexin biosynthesis: resection anal-
ysis of a sesquiterpene cyclase gene promoter. JEFFERY
W. MORRISON,* SHAOHUI YIN, and JOE CHAP-
PELL, Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40546.

To determine the mechanisms by which plants activate
their anti-microbial defenses, we studied the elicitor reg-
ulation of a chimeric gene comprised of the 5’ flanking
region of a gene encoding the sesquiterpenoid 5-epi-
aristolochene synthase fused to the B-glucuronidase gene.
Cellulase stimulated an expression of the chimeric gene
electroporated into tobacco protoplasts. Analysis of 5’ de-
letions suggests that elicitor inducibility is due the region
from nucleotide position —206 to —262 relative to the
transcription start site. Removal of this region results in
the loss of elicitor inducible gene expression.

Role of jasmonic acid on wound-induced alkaloid in-
creases in tobacco plants. ALICE TAYLOR,* PIERCE
FLEMING, ROGER ANDERSEN, and DAVID HIL-
DEBRAND, Department of Agronomy, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546.

There is evidence that jasmonic acid (JA) and/or methyl
jasmonate (MJ) are important signal transducers in plants
for altering production of metabolites and function as reg-
ulatory molecules. JA/MJ can cause wide and varied phys-
iological and biochemical changes in a diverse range of
plants such as poppies, tomatoes, and beans. A number of
approaches were used to extract and quantitate JA/M] in-
cluding use of O-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl)-hydroxyl-
amine hydrochloride (PFB) to improve efficiency of re-
covery of JA/MJ from leaf tissue of tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum). The working hypothesis is that JA/M] are mo-
bile signals that are induced in plants upon wounding of
leaves and move to roots where they stimulate alkaloid

biosynthesis. Wounding of leaves and injection of MJ into
leaves of field-grown tobacco plants increased the for-
mation of alkaloids in roots. Leaves were wounded both
attached to intact plants and detached. JA/M] increased
in both intact and detached leaves 2—4 hr after wounding;
JA/M]J were undetectable in intact leaves 6-12 hr after
wounding. Radiolabelled JA was used to follow movement
through the plants.

Synergistic inhibition of T-lymphocytes by dexametha-
sone and prostaglandin E2. LUCINDA ELLIOTT and
BRAD SPARKS,* Department of Immunology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40507.

There is increasing evidence that neural hormones such
as glucocorticoids and ecosinoids such as prostaglandins
can modulate immune function. Dexamethasone (DEX),
a synthetic glucocorticoid, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2),
an ecosanoid, have been demonstrated to inhibit the in
vitro proliferative response of T-lymphocytes to mitogens.
However, these studies were conducted with high phar-
macological concentrations of these compounds, which
would not be realized in vivo. Elliott and coworkers dem-
onstrated that low physiological concentrations of DEX
and PGE2 alone are ineffective, but when added together
cause a synergistic inhibition of the proliferative response
of T-lymphocytes that had been stimulated by anti-CD3
monoclonal antibody(mAB). Additionally, the anti-prolif-
erative effect of DEX and PGE2 was shown to be cor-
related with a synergistic inhibition of interleukin-2 (IL-
2) secretion by stimulated T-lymphocytes. The purpose of
our study was to further characterize these findings by
determining the effects of the physiologic concentrations
of DEX and PGE2 on the induction and stability IL-2
mRNA by anti-CD3 mAB_ stimulated T-lymphocytes.
RNA was extracted from stimulated T-lymphocytes by
phenol extraction. Various amounts of RNA were loaded
on formaldehyde gel for Northern analysis. Autoradiog-
raphy indicated that at least 40 wg of RNA were required
in order to form a band of IL-2 mRNA on film. Work in
progress is anticipated to support the hypothesis that ex-
posure of T-lymphocytes to DEX and PGE2 at physiologic
concentrations will cause synergistic down regulation of
steady-state levels of IL-2mRNA.

Aflatoxin-DNA Interactions. SUZANNE BYRD, East-
erm Kentucky University, Richmond, KY 40475.

The non-covalent and covalent binding of the naturally-
occurring plant toxins, aflatoxins B,, B,, G,, and G, were
studied by comparing the stereospecificity and binding af-
finities to double helical DNA. Aflatoxin B, is a highly
carcinogenic compound while the related mycotoxins, af-
latoxins B,, G,, and G,, are only mildly carcinogenic. The
B and G analogs of aflatoxin are extremely similar struc-
turally, but while the B analogs possess a planar cyclo-
pentanone ring attached to the coumarin ring system, the
G analogs contain a slightly puckered lactone ring at the
same site. It was determined that all the compounds un-
der review interacted with the DNA double helix through

86 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59(1-2)

the process of intercalation, while the binding affinities
between these compounds varied as much as tenfold. Ap-
parently, the primary reason for the difference in toxicity
and carcinogenicity of the aflatoxins is in their affinity for
DNA rather than a difference in the mode of binding.
The covalent binding of aflatoxins to DNA were analyzed
by comparing the sequence specificity of the epoxide
forms of aflatoxin B, and G, to a number of restriction
fragments from the plasmid pBR322. The sequence spec-
ificities of the two compounds were nearly identical for
the highest affinity binding sites, but measurable differ-
ences were detected at the secondary binding sites. Ap-
parently, differences in the carcinogenic and mutagenic
capacities of the various aflatoxins are due to a variety of
factors.

PHYSICS

A magnetic field test facility. J. DOUG SMITH* and
W. S. WAGNER, Department of Physics and Geology,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41099.

Recently a considerable amount of information has ap-
peared in local and national media concerning health ef-
fects of electromagnetic radiation—more specifically 60
hz magnetic fields—on biological systems. The purpose of
this research was to set up a test facility to investigate the
effects of 60 hz magnetic fields on some biological sys-
tems. A six turn, 1 meter diameter wire loop has been

constructed. Current in the loop—and thus the magnetic —

field within the loop—is controlled by a rheostat and a
variable auto transformer connected to a 120 volt 60 hz
source. The magnetic field at various locations within the
loop has been measured with a gaussmeter and compares
favorably to the calculated theoretical values. Testing of
biological systems subjected to this controllable magnetic
field is currently in progress.

Experimental and theoretical analysis of natural very
low frequency “whistlers” generated by lightning. DAVID
J. SCHNEIDER, Department of Physics and Geology,
Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41099.

Dr. Dennis Gallagher from NASA’s Marshall Space
Flight Center and I are working on two ways to enhance
the “traditional” avenues of analyzing whistler data. The
first technique is to use weather satellites to narrow the
possible location(s) of the lightning causing the whistler.
This technique can be further complemented by using a
lightning detection array network to further narrow the
geographic region of possible lightning generated whis-
tlers. Independent determination of whistler origins will
lead to a better understanding of Earth-ionosphere wave-
guide physics. Therefore, if all three techniques—whistler
sonogram recordings, weather satellite data, and lightning
detection—are used to analyze simultaneously recorded
whistlers around the Earth, a more detailed picture of this
natural phenomenon is possible. We are in the process of

implementing the program described above at NKU.
Whistler data collection will take place around the autum-
nal equinox, the winter solstice, and the vernal equinox.
The data will complement this past year’s data collection
at 12 sites across North America. These new data will be
analyzed by the techniques described above and will also
be digitized for theoretical fit to a custom nonlinear curve
fitting program. This research is sponsored by Northern
Kentucky University and the NASA/JOVE program.

Tests of conformal gravity: galactic rotation curves. M.
K. FALBO-KENKEL, Department of Physics and Geol-
ogy, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY
41099.

In ongoing research with Demos Kazanas of the God-
dard Space Flight Center and Phillip Mannheim of the
University of Connecticut, I am investigating the
Schwarzschild-like solution to the field equations of con-
formal gravity with a view towards explaining the behavior
of galactic rotation curves. According to Newtonian phys-
ics the rotational velocity of stars and gas about a galaxy’s
center should decrease as a function of radial distance
from the center of the galaxy. However, the majority of
galactic rotation curves measured to date do not exhibit
such behavior. An explanation for this is obtained by con-
sidering deviations in the usual Newtonian form for the
gravitational potential. One such deviation in the Newto-
nian gravitational potential is provided in the framework
of conformal gravity. Currently, luminosity data in radio
and optical wavelengths of 10 galaxies are being used to
determine the shape of galactic rotation curves. By fitting
these data to the Schwarzschild-like solution obtained by
Kazanas and Mannheim one can test the theory as an al-
ternative description of gravitational interactions. To date
we have produced a preliminary fit for NGC 3198. The
theoretical model predictions seem to agree well with the
data. As more and better data become available from such
sources as the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) and
the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), we will incorporate
them in our study. This research is supported in part by
a NASA/JOVE fellowship.

The JOVE program: NASA/university joint ventures in
space research. M. K. FALBO-KENKEL, RAYMOND C.
McNEIL,* and DAVID J. SCHNEIDER, Department of
Physics and Geology, Northern Kentucky University,
Highland Heights, KY 41099.

The NASA/university joint ventures (JOVE) program
was established by NASA in 1989 as a means of involving
research associates at smaller institutions in NASA re-
search programs. A brief description and history of the
JOVE program and an outline of the participation in this
program by Northern Kentucky University are given.

Ultraviolet spectrophotometry of a sample of B super-
giants in the Small Magellanic Cloud. RAYMOND C.
McNEIL, Department of Physics and Geology, Northern
Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099.

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 87

A study of the ultraviolet spectra of the B supergiants
in the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) has been undertak-
en, in collaboration with Richard P. Fahey and George
Sonneborn of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and
with support from NASA, as a means of addressing some
questions regarding the nature and evolution of massive
stars. Both new and archival spectra obtained with the
International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) are being used.
A classification system based on morphology of the ultra-
violet spectra will be established and spectrophotometric
parameters characterizing the sample of SMC supergiants
will be defined. These parameters, and the spectra them-
selves, will then be studied to see if they might provide
the means for distinguishing pre- and post-red supergi-
ants. Our results will also be used to examine the inter-
stellar extinction properties of the SMC and to search for
regional variations. Finally, by comparison with LMC
(Large Magellanic Cloud) or galactic data, it should be
possible to study the effects of metallicity on UV spectral
morphology and, for the hotter supergiants, on stellar
winds and mass loss.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOPHYSICS,
BIOCHEMISTRY, & PHARMACOLOGY

Dehydration effects on osmoregulation by adult and lar-
val bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. ENDANG LINIRIN WI-
DIASTUTI,* and JOHN J. JUST, School of Biological
Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546.

Since amphibian skin offers no resistance to water loss,
amphibians should possess other physiological mecha-
nisms that help them survive during dehydration periods.
During hydration periods adult anurans store dilute urine
in the urinary bladder. The volume of urine stored aver-
ages 5.7 + 0.7% of the adult body weight and has an
average osmotic pressure of 62.3 + 8.1 mOsm/kg H,0.
The body weight of dehydrated adults decreased by up to
30%; further dehydration could be fatal. During dehydra-
tion the osmotic pressures of urine and plasma increased,
and the urine volume decreased. The average urine os-
motic pressure increased from 62.3 to 254.0 mOsm/kg
H,O, while average plasma osmotic pressure increased
from 192.8 to 264 mOsm/kg H,O. During dehydration the
ratio of the urine and the plasma osmotic pressures in-
creased from about 0.32 to near its theoretical maximum
(1.0). Thus during dehydration adult anurans use the uri-
nary bladder as a major osmoregulatory organ. Tadpoles
lacking urinary bladders maintained a constant osmotic
pressure of about 180 mOsm/kg H,O when placed in sa-
line solution ranging from 10-200 mOsm/kg H,O. They
became isoconformers when placed in solutions above 200
mOsm/kg H,O. In 225 mOsm/kg H,O tadpoles are able
to osmoregulate for about 6 hr, after which time they be-
come isoconformers. On the other hand, model tadpoles
made of cellophane dialysis bags equilibrated with the hy-
pertonic saline within minutes. Tadpoles cannot survive in
hyperosmotic medium of 250 mOsm/kg H,O or higher.
We are currently trying to discover what physiological

mechanisms are available for tadpole osmoregulation in
hyperosmotic conditions.

Down regulation of drug detoxifying enzymes in em-
bryonal carcinoma cells cultured with retinoic acid. S$. VO-
GELPOHL,* E. MEIER, S. EBERT, J. PULLMAN, D.
WILKENING, and J. CARTER. Wood Hudson Cancer
Research Laboratory, Newport, KY 41071.

Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) and _glutathi-
one S-transferase P (GST-P) are Phase II (drug-detoxify-
ing) enzymes used widely as markers for preneoplastic and
neoplastic cells in rodent bioassays. The purpose of our
study was to determine if expression of these enzymes is
reduced in cultured mouse embryonal carcinoma (F9.22)
cells induced to differentiate in the presence of retinoic
acid (RA). Cells were plated at 1 X 10° cells/ml. F9.22
cells and their differentiated counterpart, HR9 cells, were
grown in medium composed of 90% Eagle’s minimal es-
sential medium with Hank’s salts containing 10% fetal bo-
vine serum or 1% GMS-X (Gibco) serum substitute (con-
taining insulin, 1.0 g/liter, sodium selenite, 0.67 mg/l,
transferrin 0.55 g/liter, and ethanolamine 0.2 g/liter) at
37°C. in an atmosphere of 95% air and 5% CO). Cells
were grown with or without all-trans retinoic acid (0.1
uM) for up to 7 d. RA was added following cell attach-
ment (usually 2-3 hr). GGT was assayed by the method
of Nafatalin et al. (Clin. Chim. Acta 26:293. 1969); GST-P
was assayed by the method of Habig et al. (J. Biol Chem.
249:7130. 1974) using 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene as the
substrate. Protein was assayed by the Lowry method. Spe-
cific activities of GGT and GST-P were higher in F9.22
embryonal carcinoma cells than in HR9 cells. Following
exposure to RA, the specific activities of both drug detox-
ifying enzymes were significantly reduced in F9.22 cells.
Morphology of F9.22 treated with RA was similar to HR9
cells and growth rate was reduced. Experiments are in
progress to determine if the down regulation of GGT and
GST-P is a direct effect of exposure to RA or the result
of cellular differentiation.

Experimental model for studying therapeutically de-
layed wound contraction. H. JOSEPH,* G. ANDERSON,
J. BARKER, G. TOBIN, F. ROISEN, and L. WEINER.
Departments of Anatomy, Physiology, and Surgery, Uni-
versity of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

Large skin wounds contract to help close the area.
“Contraction” often causes loss of function of the hands
or feet by binding skin, joints, and musculature together
in a fibrous scar, making them immobile. To avoid this,
wounds are surgically covered with a skin graft or skin
flap. This must be done within 3-5 d after wounding or
contraction initiates. When other medical emergencies
take priority and graft or flap coverage cannot be done
during the first 3-5 d, it would be beneficial to prevent
contraction until the graft or flap can be done. The pres-
ent study determined if the hairless (hr/hr) mouse is a
suitable animal model in which to study wound contrac-
tion and evaluate potential treatment modalities which can

88 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1—2)

inhibit wound contraction. Paired symmetrical wounds (1
cm2) were made on the dorsum of 17 adult hairless mice.
Wound area (mm?) was measured (n = 8) on days 1, 3,
7, 10, and 15 utilizing computerized planimetry (Sigma-
plot, Optimas). Wounds were biopsied on days 2, 5, and
10 and stained with hematoxylin and eosin and Gormouri’s
Trichrome. Inflammatory cells (mm?), dermal fibroblasts
(mm2), and granulation tissue thickness (mm) were count-
ed on day 5. Drug (Colchicine(C) 10~° M, Pen(P) 10° M
or C with P) or saline (S) was injected (n = 9) into the
wounds on days 1-5; each animal served as its own con-
trol. Wounds were biopsied and granulation tissue thick-
ness was measured. On days 3, 5, 7, 10, and 15 wounds
(n = 8) contracted to 40 + 3.4, 36 + 4.0, 12 + 7.5, 9 +
3.9, 0 (closed) per cent of their original area, respectively.
On day 5, inflammatory cells in granulation tissue per
mm? (n = 4) were 43 + 2. Fibroblasts in granulation
tissue per mm? (n = 1) (multiple sections) was 12 + 2.
Granulation tissue thickness was 0.80 + 0.04, 0.78 + 0.02,
0.19, 0.3 + 0.08 mm in control/(S), (C), (P) or (C) with
(P), respectively. The hr/hr mouse is a reliable in vivo
model in which to study wound contraction at the gross
and cellular level. The effect of potential therapeutic mo-
dalities that can inhibit contraction can be measured
quantitatively. (P) effectively inhibits the proliferation of
granulation tissue (0.05).

In vitro endopolygalacturonase activity and pathogenic-
ity of Fusarium solani on soybeans. KRISTINE DE-
STEFANO* and MARGARET G. RICHEY, Department
of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Centre College,
Danville, KY 40422.

Sudden death syndrome (SDS) is a systemic wilt disease
in soybeans that can cause the death of the plant. SDS is
caused by several strains of Fusarium solani, a filamentous
fungus. Qualitative enzyme assays on eight pathogenic and
four non-pathogenic strains of F. solani indicated that
pathogenicity was correlated with the production of en-
dopolygalacturonase with optimum activity at pH 4.0
(Endo-PG,), an extracellular cell wall-degrading enzyme.
Quantitative in vitro assays for Endo-PG, were conducted
to determine if variation in pathogenicity among these
strains (ranging from highly virulent to avirulent) was due
to variation in the production of Endo-PG,. In general, it
was found that the highly virulent strains produced the
most Endo-PG, and the less virulent/avirulent strains pro-
duced little, if any, Endo-PG,. These results indicate that
production of Endo-PG, may be necessary for pathoge-
nicity in F. solani.

Testosterone and estradiol concentrations in blood plas-
ma of paddlefish before and after injection with LHRH
analog. RICHARD J. ONDERS,* STEVEN D. MIMS,
and JULIA A. CLARK, Aquaculture Research Center,
Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY 40601.

Blood samples were collected from paddlefish, Poly-
odon spathula, before and at intervals after injection with
Luteinizing Hormone Releasing Hormone Analog

(LHRHa); des-GLY", [D-Ala°] LHRH ethylamide. Two
trials were conducted in different geographic locations
and at opposite positions in the spawning season (late sea-
son vs. early season). Samples were analyzed by radioim-
munoassay to determine blood plasma concentrations of
testosterone and estradiol. Blood plasma from males in
the late season trial indicated a spike in testosterone levels
after injection, with concurrent decreases in estradiol.
Blood plasma from females in the late season trial indi-
cated increasing and decreasing patterns for both estradiol
and testosterone. Hormone levels in paddlefish from the
early season trial were initially higher than in fish from
the late season trial. Hormone levels from blood plasma
of fish sampled 3 wk after spawning had returned to base-
line levels. Ovulation and spermiation success rate for
LHRHa-injected paddlefish was 100%.

Toxicity of glyceollin to Fusarium solani and correlation
with pathogenicity on soybeans. MANOJ WARRIER* and
MARGARET G. RICHEY, Department of Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology, Centre College, Danville, KY
40422.

Glyceollin, a secondary metabolite of soybeans pro-
duced in response to stress and/or infection, has been
found to be toxic to invading microorganisms, including
fungi. Certain strains of Fusarium solani, a filamentous
fungus, have been found to cause sudden death syndrome
(SDS), a severe wilt, in soybeans. In order for the fungus
to successfully infect and spread throughout the plant, it
must be able to tolerate or detoxify glyceollin. In vitro agar
toxicity assays were conducted on several pathogenic and
nonpathogenic strains of F. solani to determine if patho-
genicity was correlated with the ability to tolerate gly-
ceollin. Preliminary data indicated that there was consid-
erable variation among the pathogenic strains in the ability
to tolerate glyceollin. In vitro liquid culture assays were
conducted on selected strains to determine if tolerance
was due to detoxification of glyceollin.

Vascular response to nitric oxide synthase blockade in
pregnant and non-pregnant rats. A. L. FORSBERG* and
R. T. DOWELL, Tobacco and Health Research Institute
and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, KY 40506.

Hemodynamic adjustments occur, as pregnancy pro-
gresses. Blood pressure (BP) decreases, heart rate (HR),
cardiac output (CO), and uterine blood flow (UBF) all
increase. EDRF (or NO) has been implicated in the above
hemodynamic changes. This study was performed to elu-
cidate the role of EDRF in regional organ blood flow,
specifically UBF. Two groups of rats, 1) late-pregnant (P)
(day 15-19, term = 21 days, n = 5) and 2) age matched
non-pregnant (NP) (n = 6) were anesthetized and surgi-
cally prepared for blood flow determinations using radio-
active microspheres. Control blood flow and hemodynam-
ic measurements were determined prior to a 30 min
infusion of N,w-nitro-l-arginine (1-NNA), a nitric oxide
synthase (NOS) inhibitor. At the end of the infusion a

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING 89

second set of measurements were made. Infusion of
1-NNA increased BP by 28% in P and 39% in NP rats.
Peripheral vascular resistance (PVR) also increased (P—
206%, NP—202%). Heart rate, CO, and SV were reduced
by the following percentages: HR— P—5%, NP—14%;
CO— P—59%, NP—60%; and SV— P—61%, NP—44%.
Regional blood flow to all organs decreased; however, the
decrease in UBF in the pregnant condition was not sta-
tistically significant (P—37%, NP—86%, P = 0.05). Ad-
ditionally, the overall decrease in organ blood flow, in-
cluding UBF, reflects the actions of 1-NNA to decrease
CO. However, the cause of the discrepancy between P
and NP UBF remains unclear. Because the inducible
form of NOS (iNOS) is minimally inhibited by 1-NNA,
we speculate that a component associated with pregnancy
stimulates iNOS induction.

PSYCHOLOGY

Educating the Northern Kentucky community about
psychopathology. PERILOU GODDARD,* DEANNE
AUER, BEVERLY LENICKY, ANGELA GUMM, SAR-
AH RANSOM, and JAMES THOMAS, Department of
Psychology, Northern Kentucky University, Highland
Heights, KY 41099; and EARL KREISA, Mental Health
Association of Northern Kentucky, Covington, KY 41011.

In fulfillment of a Science Education Partnership
Award funded by the National Institute of Mental Health,
psychology faculty members and students at Northern
Kentucky University have formed an alliance with leading
psychopathologists and with the Mental Health Associa-
tion of Northern Kentucky to help members of the re-
gion’s adult community develop understanding of and ap-
preciation for basic research that underlies our knowledge
about mental and addictive disorders. By combining sci-
entific knowledge, educational expertise, and community
involvement, we hope to (a) reduce the stigma associated
with these disorders by increasing individuals’ understand-
ing of their etiology, (b) increase citizens’ support of basic
research into these disorders by giving them a better idea
of where their tax dollars go when they are used for psy-
chopathology research, and (c) impart to the public a
sense of the excitement that researchers feel when they
make new discoveries about the origins and treatment of
these disorders. In the first year of this 3-yr project, we
have recruited scientists specializing in various areas of
psychopathology research and have obtained state-of-the-
art information from them about their specialty areas. We
are translating this research into an adult-learning curric-
ulum consisting of modules adaptable to community
group meetings of different compositions and lengths. As
the project continues, we shall train educators to present
this curriculum to community groups, evaluate the pro-
grammatic and educational goals of the project, and dis-
seminate the teaching modules and training programs to
other mental health associations and other interested or-
ganizations.

SCIENCE EDUCATION

Administration of a biology teaching curriculum de-
signed to achieve Kentucky Education Reform Act valued
outcomes in the secondary science classroom. CLOYD J.
BUMGARDNER, Calloway County High School, Mur-
ray, KY 42071.

A teaching model has been developed to help high
school students master the core concepts of biology and
anthropology. This curriculum model requires students to
role play as health-care professionals while designing
treatment regimens for patients with multiple communi-
cable and hereditary diseases. The treatment regimens
prepared by students are derived from knowledge gleaned
during classroom discussions of these types of diseases and
may be extended from traditional treatments to include
methods of prevention. Also included in this curriculum
is exposure to some cultural and genetic considerations
that may influence the spread of contagious diseases. The
students participating in this exercise demonstrate their
mastery of the subject matter by answering peer- and
teacher-posed questions regarding genetic and cultural
considerations of the patient’s condition and by presenting
their ideas in class. In addition to helping students master
the subject matter, this teaching model helps students
achieve specific valued outcomes designated in the Ken-
tucky Education Reform Act.

Procedure for integrating science and computer in-
struction in the secondary science classroom. CLOYD J.
BUMGARDNER,* Calloway County High School, Mur-
ray, KY 42071; and KIM WORLEY, Computer Systems
Manager, University of Kentucky, Somerset Community
College, Somerset, KY 42501.

Enactment of the Kentucky Education Reform Act of
1990 paved the way for integrating science and technology
instruction utilizing micro-computers in the public school
system. However, many students and teachers may not
have been extensively exposed to micro-computer appli-
cations in academically oriented courses. Accordingly, stu-
dent opinions of computer effectiveness as an instruction-
al tool may be invaluable in supplying direction when
initially designing an effective science curriculum at the
building level. High school science students without ex-
tensive exposure to computer-assisted instruction were
presented with anatomy and human physiology topics in
lecture and worksheet formats. The students reviewed this
and other new material using interactive instructional
computer programs. Student opinions of the effectiveness
of this instruction for learning, potential for achieving spe-
cific KERA valued outcomes, and alternative teaching
strategies were sampled using a short questionnaire. This
diagnostic procedure may be used to assist teachers and
computer specialists in the development of a science cur-
riculum where computer-aided instruction focussed on
teaching for learning is the goal.

Success as perceived by community college students.
JOHN G. SHIBER, Division of Biological Sciences & Re-

90 TRANS, KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 595(1-—2)

lated Technologies, Prestonsburg Community College,
Prestonsburg, KY 41653.

Over 800 biology students from Prestonsburg Com-
munity College (PCC) completed a questionnaire on what
signifies success in college, and the type of instruction that
is most meaningful and effective. About 79% said that
achieving well and learning 75% or more of the course
material is most important to feel successful. To guarantee
such success, 83% indicated good personal discipline (at-
tending class regularly, knowing how to take notes, having
good study habits, etc.) as essential. About 84% also be-
lieve teachers’ knowledge of course material and ability to
get it understood play a very important role in their suc-
cess. A significant 11%, however, said teachers should “di-
lute” and make the course material easier for everyone
(including the teacher!). Yet, 95% expressed a preference
for serious, but friendly, teachers who are willing to guide
them in learning. Instructors are continually lured into
using a myriad of learning tools available in the “educa-
tional-media market,” sometimes at the expense of their
individual teaching skills. Those who cannot explain con-
cepts effectively and/or achieve good rapport with stu-
dents may find such tools especially convenient and help-
ful. But this study reveals that learning “tools”, per se, are
not necessarily what students want, or learn best with. On
the contrary, PCC students stated a clear preference for
lectures, note-taking, and reading in the textbook over all
other instructional methods as being most helpful to their
success. About 82% of students surveyed believe their
own attitude towards the course and the instructor greatly
influences their success. Indeed, when asked to describe
their general attitude upon enrolling in the investigator's
classes and the grades they expected to earn by semester's
end, 84% described themselves as enthusiastic, optimistic,
and/or serious. Of these, 63% expected to get an A, 20%
a B, and 1% a C. The 15% who expressed indifference or
even pessimism also expected to get As and Bs. Interest-
ingly, 91% of the surveyed students’ grades were success-
ful: 47% As, 29% Bs, and 17% Cs (only 2% Ds & 6% Es),
suggesting a strong correlation between initial student at-
titude and ultimate success in a community college biol-
ogy course. Although grade-point average (GPA) is im-
portant to PCC students, most seemed to realize that
without an integration of the above-mentioned qualities in
courses, teachers, and themselves, their time is wasted
and, hence, the GPA is rendered meaningless and irrele-
vant.

ZOOLOGY & ENTOMOLOGY

Diet of Kentucky's threatened spotted darter, Etheos-
toma maculatum. RICHARD K. KESSLER, Water Re-
sources Laboratory and Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292.

A stomach flushing technique was used to assess the
diet of the threatened spotted darter, Etheostoma macu-
latum, in Russell Creek, Kentucky. Forty-four individuals
were collected for food-habit analysis in July and October

1991; they represent the first recorded occurrence of the
species in Russell Creek. Spotted darters consumed main-
ly chironomid larvae in both months but also ate water
mites, mayflies (mainly Heptageniidae and Oligoneuri-
idae), stoneflies, and caddisflies (mainly Hydropsychidae).
Interseasonal variation in total number of prey consumed,
frequency of prey taxa in the diet, and mean relative abun-
dance of items in the diet was observed. Feeding sub-
stantially increased in October (avg. # items/stomach =
16.5 versus 7.5 for July). A shift in prey taxa was noted as
chironomids, water mites, and stoneflies increased while
mayflies and caddisflies decreased in October. More prey
taxa (orders) were consumed in July (n = 7) versus Oc-
tober (n = 5). Further study of the prey relationships of
E. maculatum is needed so that food preferences can be
established and potential interspecific interactions can be

identified.

Phylogeny of Plethodon dorsalis and Plethodon cine-
reus: Allozyme variation. TERESA FORSYTH* and S.
MARCUS KIRTLEY, Department of Biology, Indiana
University Southeast, New Albany, IN 47150.

Plethodon dorsalis and P. cinereus are closely related
species of the Plethodontidae, the woodland salamanders.
The range of P. dorsalis (zig-zag salamander) includes
Kentucky and Indiana; that of P. cinereus (red-backed sal-
amander) includes Indiana. This study shows some genetic
similarities/differences in terms of allozyme expression be-
tween these two species. Of particular interest is the phy-
logenetic position of a variant form intermediate in ap-
pearance and commonly found in areas of range overlap
in Indiana. Ten enzyme systems were analyzed using 10
specimens of each species and 6 specimens of the inter-
mediate variant form. Analyses of these systems showed
allelic differences within and between the two species,
common alleles shared by both species, and alleles found
in the intermediate form shared most frequently by P.
dorsalis. Enzyme systems used were aspartate aminotrans-
ferase, esterase, general protein, glucose dehydrogenase,
glutamate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, lac-
tate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, malic enzyme,
and superoxide dismutase. Unbiased estimates of the av-
erage heterozygosity and genetic distance between these
two species determined from these data and additional
enzyme systems data establish strong phylogenetic rela-
tionships between P. dorsalis and the intermediate variant.
Phylogenetic relationships between P. cinereus and the in-
termediate variant are of the same magnitude as the ge-
netic relationships between the two bona fide species.

Phylogeny of Plethodon dorsalis and Plethodon cine-
reus: distribution and systematic data) TERESA FOR-
SYTH, BILL FORSYTH, and S. MARCUS KIRTLEY,*
Department of Biology, Indiana University Southeast,
New Albany, IN 47150.

Plethodon dorsalis and P. cinereus are closely related
species of the Plethodontidae. One genus of the family,
Plethodon, the woodland salamanders, is widespread

PROGRAM, ANNUAL. MEETING 9]

throughout forests of eastern North America. Plethodon
cinereus has a wider range, stretching into southeastern
Canada. Both species range south into Tennessee. The
ranges of the species studied here overlap in Indiana and
Tennessee. In areas of overlap such as Cagles Mill Lake
in Indiana, an intermediate form has long been recog-
nized. The striped pattern on the back appears as a com-
bination of the zigzag pattern of P. dorsalis and the
straight line pattern of P. cinereus. Our study uses system-

atic data to designate intermediates as members of one
species or the other or to determine possible hybrid status.
Systematic data, collected for 20-30 specimens, included
the following observed data and measurements: total
length, tail length/total length, snout—vent length/total
length, head width, number of costal grooves, number of
costal grooves between the oppressed limbs, sex, and
mental gland anatomy. Coloration and pattern were noted
for each specimen and photographically documented.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—2), 1994, 92-94

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AND
OUTSTANDING TEACHER AWARDS, 1993

DISTINGUISHED COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY
SCIENTIST AWARD

The recipient of the 1993 Distinguished College/Uni-
versity Scientist Award is Dr. Miriam Steinitz-Kannan,
Professor of Biological Science at Northern Kentucky
University. Dr. Kannan received her B.A. from Rider Col-
lege and the Masters and Doctorate from Ohio State Uni-
versity. In 1979, Dr. Kannan joined the faculty at North-
ern Kentucky University as a part time Assistant Professor
teaching microbiology and, at her request, was given a
little space to do research. It did not take long for the
department to realize that they had acquired an excellent
teacher and a potentially outstanding researcher.

Dr. Kannan began her early work in tropical limnology
where she studied Ecuadorian lake communities. During
her studies she became one of the world’s leading experts
on diatoms. She has established at Northern the second
largest tropical diatom collection in the United States. Her
current interest involves using diatoms from lake sediment
as an indicator of climatic changes in the area. Dr. Kannan
will use this new tool, “paleodiatomology,” to study the
past and future impact of El Nino—the current that cre-
ates global weather changes. This has attracted profes-
sional interest from around the world as reflected by a
recent collecting trip to the Galapagos Islands that was
funded by the National Geographic Society. She has also
obtained long term funding from the National Science
Foundation Climate Dynamic program for the El Nino
studies. Dr. Kannan’s ability to obtain research funding
has been exceptional. Her success rate would be enviable
at many larger schools. Her work has resulted in many
publications in international journals, one of which is the
prestigious Nature. She also has published a book on The
Lakes of Ecuador. She has presented her work at several
international and national meetings and at the Kentucky
Academy of Science Annual Meetings.

Dr. Kannan’s recognition as a scholar of international
and national importance is evident in many ways. One of
her research peers states that, “Dr. Kannan is maturing
into a researcher of national quality. Her contributions to
our understanding of tropical limnology, equatorial diver-
sity, and the history of climatic changes are increasingly
being rewarded by name recognition among her peers.”
In addition she was invited to make a presentation at the
AAAS meeting. She serves as a member of the advisory
task force for scientific research and international relations
for the Ecuadorian Museum of Natural Science. She was
also elected to the advisory board of the Charles Darwin
Foundation for the Galapagos Islands which consist of 70
internationally known scientists, administrators, and mem-
bers of royalty from many countries. Although interna-
tionally recognized it is also equally important to note that
Dr. Kannan is held in the same high esteem by her col-
leagues at Northern Kentucky University. In the spring of

1993 the Northern Kentucky University Board of Regents
selected Dr. Kannan as the recipient of its Regents Pro-
fessorship Award which is the most prestigious award that
the University can make to a member of its faculty.

It might appear that this internationally known scholar
would have little time to devote to teaching. On the con-
trary, she is considered to be an enthusiastic, dedicated
teacher whose teaching evaluations are among the highest
in the department. The excitement she exhibits in class
tends to be contagious and students soon realize they are
in for a treat. Dr. Kannan has continually involved un-
dergraduate students in her research, both in the labora-
tory and the field. Since coming to Northern she has pro-
vided financial support through her grants for more than
twenty undergraduate students thereby giving them the
opportunity to be involved in a first class research pro-
gram. It is through this interaction of teaching and re-
search that Dr. Kannan has had the greatest impact on
her students. As one of her students stated, “Dr. Kannan
has earned the reputation in the department as one who
is genuinely interested in her students’ education and per-
sonal development. Her advice is sought by students at all
levels, before and after graduation.” Yes—Dr. Kannan has
come a long way since 1979 when she requested, “a little
space to do some research.”

It is with great pleasure that the Kentucky Academy of
Science recognizes this gifted researcher and dedicated
teacher by bestowing upon her the Distinguished College/
University Scientist Award for 1993.

INDUSTRIAL SCIENTIST AWARD

Mr. Estel M. Hobbs, Director of Ashland Petroleum
Company's Automotive and Product Application Labora-
tories, is the 1993 recipient of the Industrial Scientist
Award. Mr. Hobbs has his Bachelor degree from Eastern
Kentucky University and his Masters from Purdue Uni-
versity. He has done post-graduate studies at Marshall
University.

Mr. Hobbs started his professional industrial career as
a chemist in the Texaco Research & Development De-
partment in Texas. Later he returned to Kentucky where
he joined Ashland Oil as a research chemist in the petro-
leum Research & Development Department. Later he
was promoted to Manager of Petroleum Research & De-
velopment where he led the department in many new pro-
cesses and product developments. During these years he
was involved in several of Ashland’s innovative programs
such as the H-Coal process and the development of car-
bon fibers, “Carboflex,” for which the research depart-
ment received “The New Product of the Year” award
from the State of Kentucky. Mr. Hobbs was promoted to
Director of the Automotive and Product Application Lab-
oratories which are responsible for the technical support
of both Ashland’s petroleum refineries but also provide
technical support for the Valvoline Oil Company products.

AWARDS 93

In addition to his technical leadership, Mr. Hobbs has
been involved in a number of technical and professional
organizations including the KAS in which he was a direc-
tor. He also is very active in community affairs.

It is with great pleasure that the Kentucky Academy of
Science presents Mr. Estel Hobbs the Industrial Scientist
Award for 1993.

OUTSTANDING COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY
SCIENCE TEACHER AWARD

The Outstanding College/University Science Teacher
award for 1993 is presented to Dr. Bruce A. Mattingly,
Professor of Psychology at Morehead State University. Dr.
Mattingly received his bachelor’s degree from Morehead
State University and his Masters and Doctorate from the
University of Kentucky. In 1980 Dr. Mattingly joined the
faculty of the Department of Psychology at Morehead
State University.

Dr. Mattingly believes that good teaching and progres-
sive research complement one another in the classroom.
He maintains an excellent research program which trans-
lates into an enthusiasm in the classroom that fosters an
environment which motivates students to learn. His class-
room presence is dynamic while demonstrating a level of
comfort with his material which allows him flexibility in
his lecture. One supporter described him as being a very
charismatic teacher who fosters independent thought or
more simply put, “He wants us to think.” A number of
students in his introductory courses each year transfer into
a psychology major/minor or volunteer to work in his lab.
His presentations are tailored to the student’s level of un-
derstanding, whether it is a beginning undergraduate or
advanced graduate student. Another supporter stated,
“He has the ability to broaden a student’s knowledge base
while nurturing an independent curiosity in the student
so that he/she can generate research ideas.” This is re-
flected by the fact that he has as many as 5—10 students
volunteering each semester to work on projects. Dr. Mat-
tingly does not simply use their “hard labor” but spends
time with each of them in order to provide them with the
theoretical rationale and background to conduct the pro-
ject. He is noted for his patience and understanding when
students have trouble with their work but always provides
a positive and enthusiastic attitude that is so necessary to
motivate students. This leads to a type of mentoring which
is the basis for exceptional academic achievement by stu-
dents. Once the projects are completed, Dr. Mattingly
puts forth an enormous effort to prepare many of the stu-
dents to present their work at meetings such as the KAS
and the Mid-American Undergraduate Psychology Re-
search Conference. His students have often won awards
at these meetings.

Dr. Mattingly’s research centers around the develop-
ment of behavioral sensitization to the direct dopamine
agonist apomorphine and has resulted in several publica-
tions. His research efforts were recognized by his peers
at Morehead State when he was named the recipient of
their Distinguished Research Award. He has won the

Richard M. Griffith Memorial Research Award presented
by the Psychology section of the KAS seven times.

Dr. Mattingly is also active outside the classroom. He
serves on various committees and was elected this year by
the University faculty as its Faculty Regent. He serves as
a mentor and resource person for 15 at-risk students. One
of Dr. Mattingly’s supporters summed up the justification
for this award by stating, “Dr. Mattingly is a person who
is extremely talented in both teaching and research and
maintains a firm commitment to both. His moral and eth-
ical standards, both in and out of the classroom, are a
model for all students.”

The Kentucky Academy of Science is pleased to rec-
ognize Dr. Bruce A. Mattingly as its 1993 Outstanding
College/University Science Teacher.

OUTSTANDING SECONDARY SCHOOL
SCIENCE TEACHER

The 1993 recipient of the Outstanding Secondary
School Science Teacher Award is Mrs. Barbara Fendley,
coordinator of the Mathematics, Science and Technology
Magnet program at duPont Manual Magnet High School.
Mrs. Fendley has her Bachelor degree from Murray State
University and her Masters of Secondary Education and
Secondary Principalship from the University of Louisville.

Mrs. Fendley is a master teacher who combines expert
knowledge of subject matter with dedication and com-
mitment to her students. High expectations are set for her
students and she provides the knowledge and skills nec-
essary for them to reach their objectives. As one supporter
put it, “the greatest gift Mrs. Fendley brings to her stu-
dents is her ability to motivate them toward learning.”
This reflects her philosophy of education in that she feels
that all students can learn if given the proper attention
and teacher motivation. A theme that ran through many
of her support letters was that it was an adventure and
joy to walk into her classroom. Her students are excited
and alive. They work with one another, engrossed in re-
search, but at the same time pursuing individual work. She
emphasizes hands-on learning using performance-based
activities. She generates enthusiasm and excitement in her
students because she helps them to learn science that is
meaningful to them but also challenging to them.

Mrs. Fendley believes in practicing what she teaches.
She not only sets high expectations for her students but
also for herself. She has attended several workshops on
molecular biology and tissue culturing which has resulted
in new courses in microbiology and molecular genetics.
She is active in state and national organizations where she
has given several presentations and workshops.

Mrs. Fendley and her students have been active in the
KJAS. They have participated in the Spring Symposium
where they have won group honors as well as individual
honors. Many of her students have won honors in various
other science competitions. Mrs. Fendley has received
several honors during her teaching career, some of which
are: duPont Manual Teacher of the Year, Sigma Xi Out-
standing Science Teacher, Outstanding Biology Teacher

94 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(1-2)

of KY, and Tandy Technology Outstanding Science
Teacher National Finalist.

Without Mrs. Fendley’s dedicated professionalism
many students would not have been motivated to pursue
a career in science. But probably more important are
those students who were not interested in science, let
alone a career, but because of Mrs. Fendley’s teaching
they found that science was an exciting part of learning

and at the end of the course left saying, “That wasn’t so
bad, in fact, is was fun.”

Mrs. Fendley is well deserving of this award. As one of
her colleagues said, “I used to think I was an excellent
teacher, but next to her I am a good teacher.”

The Kentucky Academy of Science is pleased to rec-
ognize Mrs. Barbara Fendley as its 1993 Outstanding Sec-
ondary School Science Teacher.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(1—-2), 1994, 95

NEWS

ANNUAL MEETING

The meeting for 1994 will be sponsored by the Paducah Community College. It will be held
at the Executive Inn, Paducah, 3-5 November 1994.

95

Instructions for Contributors

Original papers based on research in any field of science will be considered for publication in
the Transactions. Also, as the official publication of the Academy, news and announcements of
interest to the membership will be included as received.

Manuscripts may be submitted at any time to the Editor. Each manuscript will be reviewed by
one or more persons prior to its acceptance for publication, and once accepted, an attempt will
be made to publish papers in the order of acceptance. Manuscripts should be typed double
spaced throughout on good quality white paper 8'/, X 11 inches. NOTE: For format of feature
articles and notes see Volume 43(3-4) 1982. The original and one copy should be sent to the
Editor and the author should retain a copy for use in correcting proof. Metric and Celsius units
shall be used for all measurements. The basic pattern of presentation will be consistent for all
manuscripts. The Style Manual of the Council of Biological Editors (CBE Style Manual), the
Handbook for Authors of the American Institute of Physics, Webster’s Third New International
Dictionary, and a Manual of Style (Chicago University Press) are most useful quides in matters

of style, form, and spelling. Only those words intended to be italicized in the final publication
should be underlined. All authors must be members of the Academy.

The sequence of material in feature-length manuscripts should be: title page, abstract, body
of the manuscript, acknowledgments, literature cited, tables with table headings, and fiqure
legends and figures.

1. The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and addresses, and
any footnote material concerning credits, changes of address, and so forth.

2. The abstract should be concise and descriptive of the information contained in the paper. It
should be complete in itself without reference to the paper.

3. The body of the manuscript should include the following sections: Introduction, Materials
and Methods, Results, Discussion, Summary, Acknowledgments, and Literature Cited. All ta-
bles and figures, as well as all literature cited, must be referred to in the text.

4. All references in the Literature Cited must be typewritten, double spaced, and should pro-
vide complete information on the material referred to. See Volume 43(3-4) 1982 for style.

5. For style of abstract preparation for papers presented at annual meetings, see Volume

43(3-4) 1982.

6. Each table, together with its heading, must be double spaced, numbered in Arabic numerals,
and set on a separate page. The heading of the table should be informative of its contents.

Each figure should be reproduced as a glossy print either 5 X 7 or 8 X 10 inches. Line draw-
ings in India ink on white paper are acceptable, but should be no larger than 8'/, X 11 inches.
Photographs should have good contrast so they can be reproduced satisfactorily. All figures
should be numbered in Arabic numerals and should be accompanied by an appropriate legend.
It is strongly suggested that all contributors follow the guidelines of Allen’s (1977) “Steps To-
ward Better Scientific Illustrations’? published by the Allen Press, Inc., Lawrence, Kansas
66044.

The author is responsible for correcting galley proofs. He is also responsible for checking all
literature cited to make certain that each article or book is cited correctly. Extensive alterations
on the galley proofs are expensive and costs will be borne by the author. Reprints are to be or-
dered when the galley proofs are returned by the Editor.

CONTENTS

Abnormal coproducts in the oxidation of styrene by palladium(II) in eth-
anol. Darwin B. Dahl, Alan J. Simmons, and William G. Llovd..... 1

Late Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation history of Land Between The
Lakes, Kentucky and Tennessee. Scott B. Franklin .............. 6

The relict darter, Etheostoma chienense (Percidae): status review of a
Kentucky endemic. Melvin L. Warren, Jr., Brooks M. Burr, and Chris-
EOPHer ALT Aylorn es ee Nye A oe aL PEO WANE oben Ati rc 20

Diet of the spotted darter, Etheostoma maculatum (Pisces: Percidae): a
threatened species in Kentucky. Richard K. Kessler.............. 28

Seasonal prevalence of three species of digenetic trematodes in the snail
Helisoma trivolvis at Owsley Fork Reservoir, Kentucky. Ronald B.
Rosen, Jose M. Ilagan, Jessica S. Law, Marichelle Asuncion, Melissa
E.Denton:‘and\ Manuel Be Sanieie ooo cue Oe eee Oh a ee a 32

Effects of sodium chloride on beta-hemolytic streptococci. Bola Fashola
and Larry PR) ENIOtE ee ie Pe ee ey AS EA the Tas a Re a at Ee 36

Wood duck use and availability of natural cavities in western Kentucky.
Mark P. Vrtiska and Robert B. Frederick. .............-22.-+200. 42

A recent re-evaluation of the bivalve fauna of the lower Green River,
Kentucky. Andrew C. Miller, Barry S. Payne, and Larry T. Neill .... 46

NOTE
Lesquerella globosa rediscovered in Jessamine County, Kentucky.
John Brushader cae Pee GO ta dear tg ees ae a ca ete 55
ACADEMY AFFAIRS i ii2)5 ro ike ate oni e is Moe Gy sami Oye Ore mas ae anee Rivne ile eatin 56

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEETING (oc oe. ee es Sa ee are 62

ABSTRACTS OF SOME PAPERS PRESENTED AT ANNUAL MEETING,
OS iia eine baie SAU bce MARL SY Arial ae ail aiece Me UPL a her Lt Os |e dee BAN NRL ee 76

DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST AND OUTSTANDING TEACHER AWARDS,
bh.” be SUP nea ena Malena ATCA ATP aes SP Pie Pe en toga Sag SiON A a aap RE RIG | 92

RWS ee ee ee aha Cnet at aia bra ARe a NS AR as hata ann fee Ul Mi ae a 95

TRANSACTIONS
SOF THE

KENTUCKY
/ ACADEMY OF
| SCIENCE

Volume 55
Numbers 3-4
September 1994

_ Official Publication of the Academy

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded 8 May 1914

GOVERNING BOARD FoR 1994
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President: Larry P. Elliott, Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101
President Elect: Robert Creek, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond,
KY 40475

Vice President: William S. Bryant, Thomas Moore College, Cresent Hills, KY 41017

Past President: Charles N. Boehms, Department of Biology, Georgetown College, Georgetown, KY 40324

Secretary: Peter X. Armendarez, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Brescia College, Owensboro, KY
42301

Treasurer: Julia H. Carter, Wood Hudson Cancer Research Laboratory, 931 Isabella Street, Newport, KY
41071

Executive Secretary-ex officio: J. G. Rodriquez, Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington, KY 40546-0091
Editor, TRANSACTIONS-ex officio: Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Ken-
tucky University, Richmond, KY 40475
Editor, NEWSLETTER-ex officio: Vincent DiNoto, Natural Science Division, Jefferson Community College,
SW, Louisville, KY 40201

MEMBERS, GOVERNING BOARD

James E. Gotsick 1994 David E. Hogan 1996
Kimberly W. Anderson 1995 Valena Hurt 1996
Blaine R. Ferrell 1995 Gerald L. DeMoss 1997
Patricia K. Doolin 1996 Wimberly C. Royster 1997

AAAS Representative: J. G. Rodriguez
Chairman, KJAS: Valgene L. Dunham

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS

Editor and Branley A. Branson, Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,

Chairman: Richmond 40475

Associate Editor: Thomas Green, Department of Chemistry, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green
42101

Index Editor: Varley E. Weideman, Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville 40292

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TRANSACTIONS of the
KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

September 1994
Volume 55
Numbers 3-4

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 97-101

Flat and Relatively Flat Modules

Pau. E. BLAND!

Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

ABSTRACT

Let t be a hereditary torsion theory on Mod-R. If R is a commutative principal ideal ring such that the
filter of ideals of R contains the essential ideals of R, then the class of flat modules coincides with the class

of torsionfree modules if and only if 7 is faithful.

INTRODUCTION

If Z denotes the ring of integers, an element
x of a Z-module M is said to be torsion if there
exists a non-zero integer n such that nx = 0.
If every element of M is torsion, then M is
said to be torsion; and if 0 is the only torsion
element of M, M is said to be torsionfree. If
T and F denote the collections of torsion and
torsionfree Z-modules, respectively, then tT =
(T, F) is a torsion theory on Mod-Z, the cat-
egory of abelian groups. This is the “ancestral”
notion of torsion theory as it originated in abe-
lian group theory. With respect to this torsion
theory on Mod-2Z, it is well known that an abe-
lian group is flat if and only if it is torsionfree.
In view of this, it seems reasonable to classify
the torsion theories on Mod-R for which a
module is flat if and only if it is torsionfree.
This paper represents a step in that direction.

DISCUSSION

Throughout this paper, R will denote an as-
sociative ring with identity which is not nec-
essarily assumed to be commutative. Mod-R
will denote the categories of unitary right
R-modules and, unless stated otherwise, all

‘This paper was written while the author was on sab-
batical leave at the University of Otago in Dunedin, New
Zealand.

97

mappings considered will be R-linear or Z-lin-

ear homomorphisms. The context of the dis-

cussion should make it clear which is being
considered.

A torsion theory tT = (T, F) on Mod-R is a
pair of classes of right R-modules satisfying
the following conditions:
1TOAF=0.

2. If M > N > Ois exact with M e€ T, then
Ne T.

3. If 0 > M > N is exact with N ¢€ F, then
Me F.

4. For each right R-module M, there exists
modules L € T and N € F such that 0 >
LoM-WN - Ois exact.

Modules in T are said to be torsion and those

in F are said to be torsionfree. It is well known

that T is closed under homomorphic images,
direct sums and extensions, while F is closed
under submodules, direct products, and exten-
sions. If T is closed under submodules, T is
said to be a hereditary torsion theory on

Mod-R. If R € F, then the torsion theory T is

called faithful. For a right R-module M, 1(M)

will denote the collection of those submodules

N of M such that M/N € T. 7(R) is usually

referred to as the filter of right ideals of R. An

element m € M is said to be a torsion element
of M if there is a K € 7(R) such that mK =

0. If t,(M) is the set of all torsion elements of

98 TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3—-4)

0< Hom,(L @, M, Q/Z)
bo,

<— Hom,(X ®, M, Q/Z)
db Be

0 — Hom,(L, Hom,(M, Q/Z)) — Hom,(X, Hom,(M, Q/Z))

M, then t,(M) is a submodule of M. Moreover,
M is torsion if t,(M) = M and torsionfree if
t,(M) = 0. t,(M) is said to be the torsion sub-
module of M. The reader can consult (2) and
(5) for standard results and terminology on
torsion theory and (3), (4) or (7) for some re-
cent results on flat and torsionfree modules.
We now assume that t = (T, F) is a hereditary
torsion theory on Mod-R.

Definition 1.—A left R-module M is said to
be 1-flat if the covariant functor (-) ®, M pre-
serves short exact sequences: 0k sli ee
N = 0 of right R-modules where N ¢€ T.

Definition 2.—A right R-module is said to
be t-injective if the contravariant functor
Hom,(-, M) preserves short exact sequences 0
> L—>X-—N — 0 of right R-modules where
Ne T.

Note that when 0 > L7~> X > N > Oisa
short exact sequence of right R-modules, L @,
M > X®, M > N &,N — 0 is always exact
Hence, to show that a left R-module is 1-flat,
it suffices to show that whenever 0 — L > X
is exact with coker(L > X) € T, 0 > L @,
M — X &, M is exact. Similarly, Hom,(L, M)
< Hom,(X, M) — Hom,(N, M) < 0 is always
exact, so to show that M is a 7-injective right
R-module we are only required to show that
0 <— Hom,(L, M) <— Hom,(X, M) is exact
when coker(L — X) € T.

If t = (M, 0) is the torsion theory where
M is the class of all right R-modules, the def-
inition of a T-flat left R-module reduces to that
of a flat left R-module. In this setting, we also
see that the definition of a t-injective right
R-module coincides with the usual definition
of an injective right R-module. Clearly, a left
R-module is 7-flat if and only if Tor®(N, M) =
0 for all N € T. Similarly, a right R-module
M is t-injective if and only if EXK(N, M) = 0
for all N € T. It is not difficult to show that
a right R-module is t-injective if and only if
whenever L is a submodule of a right R-mod-
ule X such that L € 7(X), each R-linear map-
ping f: L > M can be extended to an R-linear
map g:X > M.

Definition 3.—If Q denotes the field of ra-
tional numbers and M is a left R-module, then
Mt = Hom,(M, Q/Z) is called the character
module of M.

Note that when M is a left R-module, M*
can be made into a right R-module by defining
(fr)(m) = f(rm) for each f € M* and all m e
M. The following theorem establishes a con-
nection between 1t-flat left R-modules and
T-injective right R-modules.

Theorem 1.—A left R-module is t-flat if and
only if its character module M* is a t-injective
right R-module.

Proof.—Suppose that M is a t-flat left
R-module and let 0 > L~ X ~> N > O be
an exact sequence of right R-modules with N
e T. Then 0 > L ®, M > X ®&, M is exact.
Since Q/Z is an injective Z-module, the se-
quence 0 <— Hom,(L @, M, Q/Z) — Hom,
(X @, M, Q/Z) is exact. But for any right
R-module A there is an isomorphism a,:
Hom,(A ®, M, Q/Z) ~ Hom,(A, Hom, (M,
Q/Z)) defined by [a,(f)(a)](m) = f(a ® m) for
each f € Hom,(A ®, M, Q/Z) and allae A
and m € M. This leads to the commutative
diagram shown above where the bottom row
is exact since the top row is exact.

Hence, 0 <— Hom,(L, M+) <— Hom,(X,
M*) is exact and so M* is 1-injective as a right
R-module. Since this argument is easily re-
versible, the theorem follows.

The Generalized Injective Test Lemma.—R.
Baer (1) has shown that the ring R is a test
module for injective modules. He has shown
that a right R-module M is injective if and only
if for all right ideals K of R, each R-linear
mapping f: K > M can be extended to an R-li-
near mapping g:R — M. Using the same
techniques as those used to prove The Injec-
tive Test Lemma, it can be shown that a right
R-module is t-injective if and only if for all K
e 7(R), each R-linear mapping f:K — R can
be extended to an R-linear mapping g:R —
M. This result is often referred to as the Gen-
eralized Injective Test Lemma.

Now suppose that for all essential right ide-

FLat MODULES IN TorSION THEORY—Bland 99

als E € 7(R), each R-linear mapping f:E >

M can be extended to an R-linear mapping g:

R > M. We claim this is sufficient to ensure

that M is t-injective. To see this, suppose K is

any right ideal of R which is in t(R) and let f:

K > M be an R-linear mapping. Via Zorn’s

lemma, choose J to be a right ideal of R max-

imal with respect the property J 1 K = 0.

Then J © K is an essential right ideal of R and

so since K C J © K, it follows that ] ® K e€

7(R). Next, observe that if f*:] ® K > M:x

+ y > f(y), then f* is a well defined R-linear

mapping which extends f to J] ® K. But J ®

K is essential in R and so f* can be extended

to an R-linear mapping g:R — M. Conse-

quently, f can be extended to R and so M is

T-injective. Hence, a right R-module M is

t-injective if and only if for all essential right

ideals E € 1(R), each R-linear map f:E > M

can be extended to an R-linear mapping g:R

— M.

The Generalized Injective Test Lemma
leads to the following connection between
t-flat left R-modules and right ideals K € 7(R).

Theorem 2.—The following are equivalent:
1) M is a 7-flat left R-module.

2) For each right ideal K € 1(R), 0 > K @,
M —> R®, M is exact where 0 —> K > R
is the canonical injection.

3) For each essential right ideal E € 7(R), 0
—> E &®, M > R ®, M is exact where 0
— E > R is the canonical injection.

Proof.—1) = 2) and 2) = 3) are obvious.
Hence suppose that E € 7(R) is an essential
right ideal of R. If 3) holds, then 0 > E @,
M — R ®&, M is exact. By using the same
argument as in the proof of Theorem 1, we
can show that 0 <— Hom,(E, M+) — Hom,(R,
M*) is exact. Hence, M* is a T-injective right
R-module by our observation following The
Generalized Injective Test Lemma; and so, by
Theorem 1, M is a 1-flat left R-module.

The following two theorems establish addi-
tional connections between 1-flat left R-mod-
ules and right ideals of R in 7(R).

Theorem 3.—The following are equivalent:
1) M is a 1-flat left R-module.

2) For each right ideal K € 1(R), the canon-
ical mapping g: K ®, M —> KM defined
by (>, k, © m,) = 22, km, is an iso-
morphism.

3) For each essential right ideal E € 7(R), the

canonical mapping gp! : E ®, M > EM de-

fined by p¥(X"_, e, © m,;) = 27, em, is an

isomorphism.

Proof.—1) = 2). If K € 7(R) andj:K > R
is the canonical injection, consider the com-
mutative diagram

j@ 1m
K®,M > R®,M
1 of 1 oN
j#

KM —> RM=M

where j# is the canonical injection. Since gM
is an isomorphism, we can write j © ly =
pM —1o j# > pM. If M is a t-flat left R-module,
j © 1, is a monomorphism. Hence, @M (k ©
m) = 0 leads to (j © 1,,)(k ® m) = 0 and so
k @ m = 0. Thus, gM is a monomorphism.
Since gM is clearly an epimorphism, gM is an
isomorphism.

2) = 1). If @M is an isomorphism, then j ®
1, is a monomorphism since gN~!, j#, and
gp are all monomorphisms. Thus, M is a 7-flat
left R-module.

Since 2) = 3) is obvious, the proof will be
complete if we can show 3) => 2). Let K e€
7(R) and choose a right ideal J of R maximal
with respect to the property J 1 K = 0. Then
J] ® Ke 7(R) and J © K is an essential right
ideal of R. Note that (J ®, M) ® (K @, M)
= (J ® K) ®, M since the tensor product
commutes with directs sums. Hence, if we
identify K ©, M with its image in (J ® K) ®,
M, then 9X = 9)8x | kagm- Thus g™ is a mono-
morphism and consequently, an isomorphism.

Theorem 4.—Let M be a left R-module and
suppose that 7: F > M isa free left R-module
on M with ker 7 = N. Then the following are
equivalent:

1) M is 7-flat.

2) KF 1 N = KN for each right ideal K e€
7(R).

3) EF 9 N = EN for each essential right ide-
al E € 7 (R).
Proof.—l) = 2). If K € 7(R), K @, N

lk @j lk ®a ;
> K®,F ~ K &, M > 0 is exact where

j:N > F is the canonical injection. Consider
the commutative diagram
Ix ®j l®a
K®,N > K®,F -~ K®,M->0
Lok Loy
6
OO KFON-> KF 7~ KM 0

100

where 0:KF > KM: kf, — 2”, k, m(f).
Note that since F is free, F is a t-flat left
R-module so, by Theorem 3, gf is an isomor-
phism. Notice also that @ is an epimorphism
since 7 is an epimorphism. Since KF C F, 0
= m|,, and so ker 9 = KF MN. Now by The-
orem 3, M is a 7-flat left R-module if and only
if pM is an isomorphism for each K € 7(R).
Hence, suppose @™ is an isomorphism. Let rf
be a generator of ker 9 = KF M N, so that
@(rf) = 0. But then ™ o (1,, ® m) o of (rf)
= 0 and so (1,, ® 7) o wf rf) = O since
g™ is a monomorphism. From this it follows
that pf -l(rf) € ker(1,, ® 7) = Image(1,, © j).
Consequently, there is an element >", k, © g;
€ K ®, N such that (1, © j)(22, k, @ g) =
Sek @ g = of! (xf), Hence, of(S"., k ®
g.) = rf and so rf = 27, k, g, € KN. Therefore,
KF 9 N C KN and from this it follows that
KF 1 N = KN. Thus, if M is a 1-flat left
R-module, then KF N N = KN for each K €
7(R).

2) = 3) is obvious and so let’s show that 3)
=> 1). To show this, consider the commutative
diagram given in the proof of 1) = 2) with K
replaced by E € 71(R). Suppose that E is es-
sential in R and that EF M N = EN. Since
g™ is clearly an epimorphism, we will only be
required to show that gM is a monomorphism.
Let e ® m be a generator in ker py. Since 7:
F > M is an epimorphism, there is an f € F
such that m(f) = m. Hence, (1, & m)(e ® f)
= e @ m and so o™ © (1,, ® mY(e B f) =
o™M (e ® m) = 0. Thus, 0° gF(e & f) = 0 and
so 0(ef) = 0. Hence, ef ¢ ker 0 = EF MN N
= EN. If ef = 2", eg, where e, € E and g,
€ N for each i, then g£ “ef) = pF (22, e,
g.) and soe @ f = 2", e, ® g.. Therefore, e
® m = (1, © mye @ f) = (1, @ Wg
® g) = 22, e, © m(g) = 0 and so o¥ is an
injection. But by Theorem 3, if pM is an iso-
morphism for each essential right ideal E ¢€
7(R), M is t-flat.

Notice that if tT = (M, 0), the torsion theory
in which every module is torsion, t(R) contains
all the right ideals of R. In this case, Theorems
1 through 4 reduce to standard theorems con-
cerning flat left R-modules. We leave the proof
of the following lemma to the reader.

Lemma 1.—If R is a commutative ring, then
(k)F 1 N = (k)N if and only if kF 7 N = kN
for any R-modules F and N and all principal
ideals (k) of R.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

Theorem 5.—If R is a commutative ring
such that the ideals of 7(R) are principal, then
every torsionfree module is 1-flat.

Proof.—Suppose that M is a torsionfree
R-module and let 7: F — M be a free module
on M with N = ker w. By Theorem 4 and
Lemma 1, to show that M is 7-flat, it suffices
to show that kF M N = kN for each k € R
such that (k) € 7(R). If (k) € 7(R) and kf €
KF ON, then f + N € F/N = Mis such that
(k)(f + N) = 0. Hence, f + N is a torsion
element of F/N. But F/N is torsionfree and so
f + N = 0. Hence, f € N which shows that
kf € kN. Therefore, kF M N C kN and so kF
AN =KkN.

Theorem 6.—If R is a commutative ring
such that the ideals of 7(R) are principal, the
class of t-flat R-modules coincides with the
class of torsionfree R-modules if and only if +
is faithful.

Proof.—If the class of t-flat modules coin-
cides with the class of torsionfree modules, tT
is faithful since R is projective and conse-
quently 7-flat.

Conversely, suppose that 7 is faithful. The-
orem 5 shows that every torsionfree R-module
is t-flat and so it remains only to show that
every T-flat R-module is torsionfree. Let 7: F
— M be a free module on M with ker 7 = N
and suppose that M is t-flat. If f + N is a
torsion element of F/N = M, then there is an
ideal (k) € t(R) such that (k)(f + N) = 0.
Hence, kf € N and so kf ec kF N N = KN. If
kf = kg where g € N, then (k)(f — g) = 0 and
so f — g is a torsion element of F. But 7 is
faithful and, consequently, R is torsionfree.
Since F is closed under submodules and direct
products, it follows that every free R-module
is torsionfree. Thus, f = g and sof + N = g
+ N = 0. Therefore, M is torsionfree.

The Goldie Torsion Theory.—For a right
R-module M, let Z(M) = {m € M|(0:m) is
an essential right ideal of R}.2 Z(M) is called
the singular submodule of M, and it is not dif-
ficult to show that Z(M) is a submodule of M.
A right R-module M is said to be singular if
Z(M) = M and non-singular if Z(M) = 0. The
class N of all non-singular right R-modules
forms a torsionfree class for a torsion theory
(called the Goldie torsion theory) tT, on

2(0:m) denotes the right annihilator of m in R.

FLAT MODULES IN TorsION THEORY—Bland

Mod-R. If Z,(m) = {m € M]m + Z(M) e
Z(M/Z(M))}, then t.(M) = Z,(M) for each
right R/module M. If K is an essential right
ideal of R, t.(R/K) = R/K and so K € 7,(R).
Thus, the filter of right ideals of R for the
Goldie torsion theory contains all the essential
right ideals of R. Additional information re-
garding Goldie torsion theories can be found
in (2) and (6).

If o = (T,, F,) and t = (T,, F,) are torsion
theories on Mod-R, we will write o = tT when
ok) G@ a(R) lio =a then T2 @ Land
CF,

Theorem 7.—If 7 is a hereditary torsion the-
ory on Mod-R such that tT, = T, the following
are equivalent for a left R-module M:

1) M is flat.
2) M is 7-flat.
3) M is 7 ,-fat.

Proof.—1) = 2) is obvious and 2) = 3) fol-
lows from Theorem 3 and the fact that T,(R)
C 71(R). Now let’s show that 3) = 1). If M is
a T,-flat left R-module, E ®, M = KM ca-
nonically for each essential right ideal E ¢€
T,(R) and 7,(R) contains all the essential right
ideals of R. Notice next that if we select tT =
(M, 0) in Theorem 3, we see that a left R-
module is flat if and only if E ®, M = KM
canonically for all essential right ideals of R.
Putting these two observations together, we
conclude that M must be flat.

We can now prove the main result of this
paper.

Theorem 8.—Suppose that T is a hereditary
torsion theory on Mod-R such that tT, S t. If
R is a commutative ring and the ideals in (R)
are principal, then the following are equiva-
lent:

1) The class of flat R-modules coincides with
the class of t-torsionfree modules.

2) 7 is faithful.

Moreover, whenever one of these conditions

holds, t = Tc.

101

Proof.—By Theorem 6, the class of 71-flat
R-modules coincides with the class of t-tor-
sionfree modules if and only if 7 is faithful.
But since tT, = 7, Theorem 7 shows that the
class of flat R-modules coincides with the class
of t-flat R-modules. Hence, the class of flat
R-modules coincides with the class of t-tor-
sionfree modules if and only if 7 is faithful.
But if 7 is faithful, tT, is also faithful and so
the class of flat R-modules must also coincide
with the class of t.-torsionfree modules. Thus,
7 and 7, have the same torsionfree classes and
so it must be the case that tT = Te.

We conclude with the following observa-
tions. If R is a domain, then every torsion the-
ory T ¥ (M, 0) on Mod-R is faithful. Hence,
if R is a principal ideal domain, by Theorem
8, we see that an R-module is flat if and only
if it is Goldie torsionfree. That is, if and only
if it is a non-singular module (Z(M) = 0). Spe-
cializing further to the ring of integers, this
tells us that an abelian group is flat if and only
if it is Goldie torsionfree. But the Goldie tor-
sion theory on Mod-2Z is the usual torsion the-
ory on Mod-Z. Hence, our work leads to the
corollary that an abelian group is flat if and
only if it is torsionfree in the usual sense.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Baer, R. 1940. Abelian groups which are direct
summands of every containing group. Proceedings of the
American Mathematical Society, 46:800—-806.

2. Golan, J. 1986. Torsion theories. Longman Scien-
tific and Technical, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

3. Gray, D. 1991. On flatness relative to a torsion the-
ory. Quaestiones Mathematicae 14:471-481.

4. Mbuntum, F. and C. Fomekong. 1988. Relatively
coflat modules. Afrika Mathematika 1:127-138.

5. Stenstrom, B. 1975. Rings of quotients. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin.

6. Teply, M. 1969. Some aspect of Goldie’s torsion
theory. Pacific Journal of Mathematics 29:447—-459.

7. Xin, L. 1989. Torsionfree modules all of whose
proper homomorphic images are torsion modules. Journal
of Mathematical Research 9:581-584.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 102-107

Relationships Between Recent Growth and Climate for
Rural and Urban Fraxinus americana L.

James O. LUKEN AND DouGLAS PORTER

Department of Biological Sciences

AND

Davip B. AGARD

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Northern Kentucky University
Highland Heights, Kentucky 41099-0400

ABSTRACT

Urban and rural Fraxinus americana L. (white ash) trees growing in northern Kentucky and southern
Ohio were cored and the rings measured to assess climate/ring-width relationships. Canopy-class trees (max-
imal ages 43-68 years) from 4 urban and 4 rural sites were sampled. The resulting standardized tree-ring
chronology derived from the urban sites was similar to the chronology derived from the rural sites, suggesting
a common response to climate variation. Response functions relating monthly climate to variations in tree
growth indicated significant positive relationships for winter temperature, winter precipitation, and precipi-
tation in May, June, and July. Beginning in April and ending in September, high temperatures were negatively
related to growth, but this response was not well-defined. Although urban and rural stands had similar trends
in growth/climate relationships, the tree-ring chronology from urban stands was characterized by more au-
tocorrelation and slightly more non-climatic growth influence. Stresses possibly leading to this result are as
yet undefined and are small relative to the effects of annual variations in temperature and precipitation.

INTRODUCTION

The eastern deciduous forest is character-
ized by seasonal variation in climate that dra-
matically affects the physiological activity of
trees (1). Individual climatic factors may as-
sume varied importance depending on the
season. For example, precipitation during
spring and summer is often related to annual
tree growth (2, 3, 4). However, temperature
during winter may also have an influence (5).

Historical relationships between seasonal
climate and tree growth may be changing as
human populations increase and more of the
eastern deciduous forest becomes urbanized.
In Kentucky, such changes would likely be
concentrated in the central and northern parts
of the state, where the pace of urbanization is
relatively rapid. It is important to understand
how human-generated factors influence
growth processes. Air pollution in the urban
environment is the most likely cause of mod-
ified tree growth (6, 7). However, other fac-
tors associated with urbanization may also be
involved (8).

The purpose of this study was to compare
climate/ring-width relationships of Fraxinus
americana LL. (white ash) growing in urban

and rural stands. White ash was chosen as a
test species because it is a ubiquitous com-
ponent of forest remnants, because it is rela-
tively sensitive to some air pollutants (e.g.,
ozone) (9, 10) and because the ring-porous
wood anatomy reduces the potential for error
during ring observation and measurement. We
addressed the following questions: What is the
contribution of monthly temperature and pre-
cipitation to the annual growth of white ash?
Do urban and rural stands differ in their cli-
mate/ring-width relationships?

StubyY SITES AND METHODS

Eight white ash dominated stands were se-
lected in northern Kentucky and southern
Ohio. Four stands (hereafter referred to as ur-
ban stands) were located in the northern sec-
tion of Campbell County, Kentucky and were
within the Greater Cincinnati/Northern Ken-
tucky metropolitan area. Four stands (hereaf-
ter referred to as rural stands) were located in
the southern section of Campbell County and
in the southern section of Clermont County,
Ohio. All forests sampled in this study were
second- or third-growth stands (maximum

102

White AsH IN KENTUCKY AND On1o—Luken, Porter, and Agard

white ash ages ranged from 43-68 years) and
could best be described as mixed hardwoods.

Trees most commonly associated with white
ash in the study sites were assessed by cen-
tering 10 meter diameter circular plots on
trees used for core extraction. All trees
(stems> 5 cm diameter) were counted and
their stem diameters measured. Importance
values [(relative density + relative basal area)/
2] were calculated.

Two increment cores were extracted from
each of 8-12 canopy-class trees in every stand.
Suppressed and damaged trees were avoided.
Cores were cross-dated and annual rings were
measured following standard procedures (11).
Rings produced during the first 5 years of tree
growth were ignored. Growth trends related
to tree age were assessed and removed by fit-
ting curves (usually negative exponential) to
the tree-ring series, using computer programs
developed at the University of Arizona Labo-
ratory of Tree-Ring Research (12). The re-
sulting growth indices (13) were then aver-
aged by year within the 4 rural stands to
produce a rural chronology and within the
four urban stands to produce an urban chro-
nology. ‘

Urban and rural chronologies showed sim-
ilar sensitivity, a measure of ring-width varia-
tion through time (Table 1). First-order au-
tocorrelation, however, was higher in the
urban chronology than in the rural chronology.
Autocorrelation arises from growth conditions
in one year manifesting in succeeding years
(13). Such autocorrelation can obscure
growth/climate relationships. Therefore, a
whitening process was used to remove auto-
correlation from the chronologies.

Whitening was achieved by fitting autore-
gressive Box Jenkins models to the urban and
rural chronologies. The resulting serially ran-
dom residuals were then used in the devel-
opment of growth/climate relationships rather
than using the original growth indices (13).

Climate data for the last 70 years were ob-
tained from the Cincinnati/Northern Ken-
tucky Airport, ca. 24 km from the urban sites
and ca. 56 km from the rural sites. These data
were organized into 22 variables. The vari-
ables were as follows: monthly average tem-
perature for each of 10 months of the current
year (January through October) and Decem-
ber of the previous year; monthly total precip-

103

TABLE 1. Characteristics of the rural and urban chro-
nologies.

Rural Urban
Interval (years) 1927-1990 1932-1990

Number of trees 34 35
Mean sensitivity 0.19 0.19
First order autocorrelation 0.097 0.385

itation for each of 10 months of the current
year (January through October) and Decem-
ber of the previous year.

Correlation functions and response func-
tions (14, 15) were used to describe growth/
climate relationships. A correlation function
is the series of correlation coefficients (Pear-
son’s r) resulting from relationships between
the chronology residuals and the 22 climatic
variables. A response function represents a
series of regression coefficients where a de-
pendent variable (the series of chronology re-
siduals) is predicted by a set of independent
variables (the 22 climatic variables). Because
intercorrelation may exist in the climate data,
the original climate data were transformed
into orthogonal principle components (14).
Nine of the 22 eigenvectors were retained for
the development of response functions.
These 9 vectors represented 68% of the total
climatic variance. Amplitudes of the impor-
tant eigenvectors were used to develop re-
gression equations explaining variance in the
urban and rural chronologies. The coeffi-
cients from these regression equations were
transformed to a final set of coefficients so
that the response functions could be readily
interpreted in terms of the original 22 cli-
matic variables.

RESULTS

Species composition of urban and rural for-
ests was similar except that urban stands had
lower importance of Acer saccharum, higher
importance of Fraxinus americana and fewer
tree species (Table 2). Structural characteris-
tics (e.g., density and basal area) of urban and
rural forests were not significantly different
(rank sum test, P > 0.05). Urban stands had
a mean stem density of 869 stems/ha and
mean basal area of 22.5 m?/ha; rural stands
had a mean stem density of 1038 stems/ha and
mean basal area of 24.0 m?/ha. All urban
stands were heavily invaded by the exotic

104

TaBLE 2. Mean importance values and % frequencies of
trees in rural and urban stands (n = 4).

Importance % Frequency

Species Rural Urban Rural Urban
Fraxinus americana 40.0 66.2 100 100
Acer saccharum 32.9 9.5 92 45
Celtis occidentalis 5.6 3.8 26 4]
Ulmus rubra 4.7 10.8 33 26
Carya cordiformis 4.6 2.1 26 16
Prunus serotina 4.0 0.3 18 3
Aesculus glabra D7 3.6 26 16
Sassafras albidum 1.8 0 10 0
Cercis canadensis 1.4 0 20 0
Cornus florida 0.9 0 26 0
Juglans nigra 0.9 0 5 0
Tilia americana 0.5 0 5 0
Acer negundo 0 1.9 0 5
Quercus rubra 0 1.6 0 16

shrub, Lonicera maackii (mean density 0.6
shrubs/mz2): rural stands lacked a shrub under-
story.

Data on soils and stand history were not col-
lected during this study. We assumed that
even though variations in site conditions may
be important to tree vigor, climate is the im-
portant determinant of year-to-year variation
in growth. This assumption was supported by
the fact that urban and rural chronologies
were similar (Fig. 1), with the exception that
growth indices in the urban chronology prior
to 1950 showed greater deviation from the
standardized mean of 1.00. Correlation func-
tions from urban and rural stands (Fig. 2) sug-
gest that tree growth is highest when precip-
itation is high in May and June, or, in the case
of the urban chronology, in December of the
previous year. Tree growth is also positively
related with high temperatures in January of
the current growing year or December of the
previous year. High temperatures in June are
negatively correlated with tree growth in rural
stands; this relationship is less obvious in ur-
ban stands (Fig. 2, B and D).

Response functions explained 24.7% (ad-
justed R?) of the urban chronology variance
and 30.4% of the rural chronology variance.
Coefficients of the response functions gener-
ally paralleled the trends in the correlation
functions: precipitation in January, the previ-
ous December, and May, June, and July is
positively associated with tree growth (Fig. 3,
A and C). Significant positive coefficients for
the previous December, January, February,

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

—— -RURAL SITES

---- -URBAN SITES

~
Ww
a
=
x=
=
s
(o)
c
oO
0.30
1929 1934 1939 1944 1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989
YEAR
Fic. 1. Standardized tree-ring chronologies of white ash

growing in rural and urban stands. The urban chronology
is based on 70 cores sampled from 35 trees. The rural
chronology is based on 68 cores sampled from 34 trees.

and March, and negative coefficients for
spring and summer months indicate the
changing influence of temperature during a
growing season (Fig. 3, B and D).

DISCUSSION

The development of growth/climate rela-
tionships based on tree-ring data depends on
the presence of sensitive chronologies (i.e.,
large year-to-year variation in ring widths as-
sociated with variations in climate). Several
factors might mitigate the sensitivity of tree-
ring series used in this study. First, trees were
not selected from stressful sites, but instead
represented canopy-class individuals from me-
sic sites. Second, competitive interactions
among trees from these relatively young
stands could confound the climate signal (16).
In spite of these mitigating factors, it is clear
from the sensitivity indices (Table 2) and from
the similarities in urban and rural chronologies
(Fig. 1) that climate is uniformly affecting the
trees in this study.

Strong positive relationships between spring
precipitation and tree growth are likely the re-
sult of increased stomatal conductance during
years when moisture is not limiting (L7)),
Hinckley et al. (18) found that growth of oak
trees was dependent on the number of days
trees avoided drought by stomatal closure. In
addition, Liu and Muller (19) found that can-
opy trees in Kentucky showed a 23% reduc-
tion in radial growth during drought years.
High temperatures during the growing season
apparently exaggerate the water limitation.

WuiteE ASH IN KENTUCKY AND Onto—Luken, Porter, and Agard

0.40

A. PRECIPITATION--RURAL

0.24

0.08

-0.08

-0.24

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

-0.40
D-PJ FMAWMJJSASO

MONTH

0.40 C. PRECIPITATION-URBAN

0.24

0.08

-0.08

-0.24

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

-0.40

D-PJ FMAMJJSASO

MONTH
Fic. 2.

105

0.40

B.TEMPERATURE-RURAL

0.24

0.08

-0.08

-0.24

-0.40
DPJ F MAMJJSAS O

MONTH

0.40

D.TEMPERATURE-URBAN

0.24

0.08

-0.08

-0.24

-0.40
D-PJ F MAM JJA S$ O

MONTH

Correlation functions for postwhitened rural and urban chronologies. Significant (P < 0.05) Pearson correlation

coefficients are circled. D-P indicates December of the previous year.

Positive associations between tree growth
and temperature during months when trees
are dormant are less easily explained. It is pos-
sible that above-freezing temperatures during
these months set in motion a series of physi-
ological processes that in turn allows trees to
emerge more quickly from dormancy once the
temperature rises to appropriate levels (17).
Absence of extensive frost damage to roots

during warm winters may also allow trees to
emerge faster from dormancy (17).

The response functions likely give the best
opportunity for assessing differences between
urban and rural stands. Response function
trends were similar in urban and rural stands
and few differences were noted, with the mi-
nor exceptions that significant coefficients
were shifted by 1 month. These shifts can be

106

0.40 A.PRECIPITATION-RURAL

0.27

RESPONSE FUNCTION COEFFICIENT
(E-1)
So
(=)
(=)

-0.40
DPJ FMAMJJSASO

MONTH

0.40 . C-PRECIPITATION-URBAN

0.27

-0.13

-0.27

RESPONSE FUNCTION COEFFICIENT
(E-1)
(=)
(=)
i=)

-0.40
DPJ FMAMJJASO

MONTH

Trans. Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

0.40 7 8-TEMPERATURE-RURAL

0.27

-0.13

-0.27

-0.40
DPJ F MAM JJAS O

MONTH

0.40 D.TEMPERATURE-URBAN

0.27

-0.13

-0.27

-0.40
DPJ F MAM JJIAS O

MONTH

Fic. 3. Response functions for postwhitened rural and urban chronologies. Vertical bars represent the 95% confidence
limits. Significant (P < 0.05) coefficients are circled. D-P indicates December of the previous year.

explained by large variation in the estimated
coefficients. In general, both urban and rural
stands are subject to similar climate influences
prior to and after bud-break. Still, climate
variation explained less of the urban chronol-
ogy variance and first-order autocorrelation
was higher in the urban chronology. A similar
response has been found for white oak trees
growing in polluted areas (10).

Although specific conditions affecting sam-

pled trees were not measured in this study,
previous research suggests that both soil and
atmospheric conditions can be modified in the
urban environment (8). In the Northern Ken-
tucky region, these urban effects on tree-
growth appear small relative to annual varia-
tions in temperature and precipitation. The
large amount of growth variation that was left
unexplained in this study suggests that future
research might concentrate on factors other

White AsH IN KENTUCKY AND On10o—Luken, Porter, and Agard

than temperature and precipitation. In addi-
tion, it is possible that these factors could be
interacting in a complex fashion not consid-
ered in the present study.

CONCLUSIONS

Temperature and precipitation in Decem-
ber or January, and precipitation during May,
June, or July are important determinants of
annual radial growth in urban and rural white
ash trees growing in northern Kentucky and
southern Ohio. The urban influence was small
relative to the controlling effects of tempera-
ture and precipitation on growth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Calvin Liu (University of Kentucky—
Forestry) provided invaluable expertise and
technology during ring measurements. This
research was conducted while Luken was a
NSF/EPSCOR Regional University Visiting
Scholar. Further financial support was provid-
ed by a Northern Kentucky University Sum-
mer Fellowship.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Hicks, D. J. and B. F. Chabot. 1985. Deciduous
forest. Pp. 257-277. In B. F. Chabot and H. A. Mooney
(eds.) Physiological ecology of North American plant com-
munities. Chapman and Hall, New York.

2. Lyon, C. J. 1936. Tree ring width as an index of
physiological dryness in New England. Ecology 17:457—
478.

3. Tryon, E. H., M. A. Thompson, and K. L. Carvell.
1957. Effect of precipitation and temperature on incre-
ment of yellow poplar. For. Sci. 3:32-44.

4. Cook, R. C. and G. C. Jacoby. 1977. Tree-ring-
drought relationships in the Hudson Valley, New York.
Science 198:399-401.

5. Fitts, H. C. 1962. The relation of growth ring
widths in American beech and white oak to variations in
climate. Tree-Ring Bull. 25:2-10.

107

6. McClenahen, J. R. 1983. The impact of an urban-
industrial area on deciduous forest tree growth. J. Envi-
ron. Qual. 12:64-69.

7. McClenahen, J. R. and L. S. Dochinger. 1985. Tree
ring response of white oak to climate and air pollution
near the Ohio River Valley. J. Environ. Qual. 14:274-280.

8. McDonnell, M. J. and S. T. A. Pickett. 1990. Eco-
system structure and function along urban-rural gradients:
an unexploited opportunity for ecology. Ecology 4:1232-
1237.

9. Davis, D. D. and J. M. Skelly. 1992. Foliar sensi-
tivity of eight eastern hardwood tree species to ozone. Wa-
ter Air Soil Pollution 62:269-277.

10. Pye, J. M. 1988. Impact of ozone on the growth
and yield of trees: a review. J. Environ. Qual. 17:347-360.

11. Swetnam, T. W., M. A. Thompson, and E. K. Suth-
erlan. 1985. Using dendrochronology to measure radial
growth of defoliated trees. USDA For. Serv. Ag. Hdbk.
No. 639. 39 pp.

12. Graybill, D. A. 1988. Program operating manual
for RWLIST, INDEX AND SUMAC. Laboratory of Tree-
ring Research, Tucson, Arizona.

13. Fritts, H. C. 1976. Tree rings and climate. Aca-
demic Press, New York.

14. Fritts, H. C., T. J. Blasing, B. P. Hayden, and J. E.
Kutzbach. 1971. Multivariate techniques for specifying
tree-growth and climate relationships and for reconstruct-
ing anomalies in paleoclimate. J. Appl. Meteor. 10:845—
864.

15. Blasing, T. J., A. M. Solomon, and D. N. Duvick.
1984. Response functions revisited. Tree-Ring Bull. 44:
1-15.

16. Fritts, H. C. and T. W. Swetnam. 1989. Dendro-
ecology: a tool for evaluating variations in past and present
forest environments. Adv. Ecol. Res. 19:111-188.

17. Larcher, W. 1980. Physiological plant ecology.
Springer Verlag, New York.

18. Hinckley, T. M., P. M. Dougherty, J. P. Lassoie, J.
E. Roberts, and R. O. Tesky. 1979. A severe drought:
impact on tree growth phenology, net photosynthetic rate
and water relations. Amer. Midl. Nat. 102:307-316.

19. Liu, Y. and R. N. Muller. 1993. Effect of drought
and frost on radial growth of overstory and understory
stems in a deciduous forest. Am. Midl. Nat. 129:19-25.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 108-112

Evaluation of Practical Feed Formulations with Different
Protein Levels for Juvenile Red Claw Crayfish
(Cherax quadricarinatus)

Cari D. WessTER,' Laura S. GOODGAME-TIU, AND JAMES H. TIDWELL

Aquaculture Research Center Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

AND

Davip B. ROUSE

Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn University,
Auburn, Alabama 36849

ABSTRACT

A 5-week feeding trial was conducted in aquaria with juvenile (0.022 g) red claw, Cherax quadricarinatus,
to examine the effects of dietary protein levels on growth and survival. Four practical diets were formulated
to contain 25, 35, 45, and 55% protein. Finished diets had analyzed protein percentages of 23, 33, 43, and
52%. A commercial shrimp diet (45% protein) was also fed for comparative purposes. After 5 weeks, final
whole body weight and percentage weight gain of red claw fed diets containing 33, 43, and 52% protein
were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than red claw fed the commercial shrimp diet. No significant differences
(P > 0.05) were found in final whole body weight and percentage weight gain of red claw fed a diet
containing 23% protein compared to red claw fed either the other test diets or the commercial shrimp diet.
Percentage survival was not significantly different (P > 0.05) among treatments. These results indicate that
these diets formulated for the red claw appear to be suitable and that a diet containing 33% may be adequate.

INTRODUCTION

Interest in the culture of the Australian red
claw crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus, has in-
creased during the last several years. The red
claw shares many of the attractive attributes
of marron, C. tenuimanus, including a com-
paratively non-aggressive and non-burrowing
behavior. A simplified life-cycle in which rel-
atively advanced juvenile crayfish are released
directly from the female, eliminates the re-
quirement for expensive and sophisticated
hatcheries for larval rearing (1). An advantage
of red claw is a wider temperature tolerance
(15—30°C) compared to marron (17—25°C) (2).
Greater temperature tolerance may increase
the potential of red claw as an aquaculture
species in a larger geographical area in the
United States, including Kentucky, than mar-
ron,

Masser and Rouse (3) stated that a two-
phase culture system will be needed for red
claw if cultured in the southeastern United
States. An intensive, indoor phase would be

‘To whom correspondence should be directed.

used in the winter months to spawn adults and
raise juveniles to a 0.5-2.0 g stocking size and
would be followed by an outdoor phase to
raise juveniles to market size (30-50 g).

Formulation of diets suitable for production
of red claw in intensive culture requires de-
termination of its nutritional requirements.
Lack of such information may impede red
claw aquaculture in the United States. Cur-
rently, expensive shrimp diets are fed to ju-
venile red claw (D. B. Rouse, pers. comm.).
The purpose of the present study was to eval-
uate the growth and survival of juvenile red
claw fed practical diets containing various per-
centages of protein.

MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Diets

Four experimental diets were formulated to
contain increasing percentages of protein (2B,
35, 45, and 55%) (Table 1). Menhaden fish
meal was added to each diet as a constant per-
centage of total protein (51%). A commercial
shrimp diet (Zeigler Shrimp diet, Zeigler
Bros., Gardners, Penn.) which is commonly

108

Foop oF RED CLAw CrayFisH—Webster et all.

TaBLE 1. Ingredient composition of four experimental
diets fed to red claw crayfish reared in aquaria.

Diet (% protein)

109

er oil was sprayed onto the dried pellets im-
mediately prior to storage. All diets were kept
frozen (—15°C) until fed.

Percentage protein of the diets was deter-

Ingredient 23% 33% 43% 52% :

Menhaden fish meal 19.0 28.0 365 44.5 mined by the Kjeldahl method, percemlage fat
Soybean meal 30 15.0 280 305 was determined by acid hydrolysis and per-
Shrimp head meal 13.0 13.0 13.0 10.0 centage moisture was determined by drying a
Bae Si one ae Te Ae 10-g sample in a convection oven at 95°C until

oybean lecithin a “ a “ p . ; ; "
aah esens ia cu ma te ody ey weight (4). Due to possible differ
Cholesterol (analytical)! OR OF O8 OF ences between the proximate compositions of
Dicalcium phosphate 30 20 10 10 the diet ingredients and published values (5),
Vitamin and mineral mix’ 3.0 30 30 30 the finished diets were 23, 33, 43, and 52%
ue o os - oe protein. Actual protein values will be used

‘Cholesterol (analytical grade) was purchased from Sigma Chemical, St.
Louis, MO.

2 Vitamin and mineral mix provided the following (in mg or [U/kg of diet):
A, 5,280 IU; D5, 2,640 IU; E, 66 IU; B,,, 0.11 mg; K, 13.2 mg; riboflavin,
16 mg; pantothenic acid, 42 mg; thiamine, 13.2 mg; niacin, 106 mg; Bg, 13.2
mg; folic acid, 2.6 mg; choline chloride, 618 mg; ascorbic acid, 935 mg;
NaH,PO,, 10 g; CaHPO,, 20 g; KCL, 10 g; Se, 0.4 mg; Zn, 207 mg; Fe, 72
mg; Mn, 216 mg; Cu, 9 mg; I, 4.5 mg; Co, 1.8 mg.

3 CMC = carboxymethylcellulose.

used in red claw production (D. B. Rouse,
pers. comm.) was also used for comparison
with the diets formulated in this study. Chem-
ical composition of the diets is presented in
Table 2.
In preparing diets, dry ingredients were first
round to a small particle size (approximately
250 jm) in a Wiley mill. Dry ingredients were
then thoroughly mixed with water to obtain a
30% moisture level. Diets were passed
through a mincer with die to form 0.4-mm di-
ameter strands and dried (20°C) for 16 hr us-
ing a convection oven. After drying, diets were
broken and sieved into 4-mm pellets. Cod liv-

throughout the rest of this paper. Diets were
also analyzed for amino acid composition by a
commercial analytical laboratory (Woodson-
Tenent Labs, Dayton, Ohio) and are present-
ed in Table 3.

Since neither digestible nor metabolizable
energy values are available for red claw, di-
etary energy values were calculated (based on
proximate analysis of diets) from physiological
fuel values of 5.65 kcal/g of protein, 4.1 kcal/g
of carbohydrate (NFE), and 9.5 kcal/g of lipid
as stated by El-Sayed and Teshima (6).

Dried diets were also evaluated for pellet
stability in water. Ten grams of pellets of equal
length were distributed uniformly on a 100-
cm? brass screen (2-mm mesh size) having
raised sides. Samples were lowered into static
water (approximately 10 cm under the water
surface) for 30 minutes and then dried in an
oven (100°C) for 24 hr. The residue left on
the screen was recorded as dry solids not
leached in water. The percentage of dry solids

TABLE 2. Chemical composition (dry-matter basis) of four experimental diets and a commercial shrimp diet fed to
red claw reared in aquaria. Percentage moisture, protein, fat, fiber, and ash values are means of two replicates.

Diet (% protein)

23% 33% 43% 52% Zeigler
% Moisture 10.4 10.7 Coll 7.6 8.8
% Protein 23.3 33.0 43.4 51.6 45.2
% Fat 10.6 10.7 11.1 10.8 11.1
% Fiber 45 5.0 5.4 4.6 3.0
% Ash 16.5 18.1 19.7 20.1 14.4
NFE, 45.2 33.2 20.4 13.0 26.3
Energy (keal/100 g diet)? 417.7 424.3 431.3 447.4 465.0
P:E% 55.8 77.8 100.6 115.3 97.2
Pellet water stability 79 + | 78 + 2» 53 + 6 7 -se ib 90 + 08

'NFE = 100 — (% protein + % fat + % fiber + % ash).

2 Energy values are based on physiological fuel values used by El] Sayed and Teshima (1992).
°P:E = protein to energy ratio; calculated as mg of protein/kcal.

* Pellet water stability = percentage of dry solids retained after 30 minutes in static water.

110

on the screen after 30 min in water to total
solids in the pellets was used as a comparative
measure of pellet stability in water.

Experimental System and
Animal Maintenance

The feeding trial was conducted in 20 37.5-
liter acrylic aquaria (50 X 25 X 30.5 cm; L X
W X H). Water was recirculated through bi-
ological and ~~echanical filters. The recirculat-
ing system was a 2,000-liter vertical screen fil-
ter system utilizing high-density polyester
screens and polyethylene “bio-balls” to re-
moye particulate materials and provide sub-
strate for nitrifying bacteria (Red Ewald, Inc.,
Karnes City, Texas). Continuous aeration was
provided by a blower and air-stones. All aquar-
ia were cleaned by siphon once daily (1330)
to remove uneaten diet. Each aquarium was
supplied with water at a rate of 0.5 liter/min.
Approximately 4% of the total water volume
of the system was exchanged per day.

Chloride levels were maintained at approx-
imately 1,000 mg/liter by addition of food-
grade NaCl. Hardness and alkalinity levels
were maintained at approximately 400 mg/liter
by addition of sodium bicarbonate (baking
soda) and analytical-grade calcium phosphate
(dibasic; CaHPO,). Black plastic covered the
back and sides of all aquaria to minimize dis-
turbances caused by personnel entering the
laboratory.

Water temperature was measured daily us-
ing an electronic thermometer. Dissolved ox-
ygen was measured twice weekly using a YSI
Model 58 (YSI Industries, Yellow Springs,
Ohio). Total ammonia, nitrite, total alkalinity,
and chlorides were monitored twice weekly
using a DR/2000 spectrophotometer (Hack
Company, Loveland, Colorado). pH was mon-
itored twice weekly using an electronic pH
meter (pH pen; Fisher Scientific, Cincinnati,
Ohio). Over the duration of the study these
water quality parameters averaged (+SD):
water temperature, 27.5 + 1.1°C; dissolved
oxygen, 6.7 + 0.5 mg/liter; total ammonia,
0.25 + 0.18 mg/liter; nitrite, 0.03 + 0.02 mg/
liter; total alkalinity, 419.5 + 51.5 mg/liter;
chlorides, 1,065 + 100 mg/liter; pH, 8.62 +
0.81.

Juvenile red claw, Cherax quadricarinatus
(mean individual weight of 0.022 g), were ob-
tained from the research hatchery at Auburn

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

TABLE 3. Amino acid composition (% of diet) of diets
containing different protein levels fed to juvenile red claw
crayfish. Values are means of two replications. Tryptophan
levels were not determined.

Diet (% protein)

Amino acid 23% 33% 43% 52% Zeigler
Alanine 0.92 153 210 226 2.35
Arginine 114 169 247 290 2.17
Aspartic acid 1.61 253 415 496 3.81
Cystine 0.17 O24 O35 041 #£40.38
Glutamic acid 266 346 594 7.00 5.57
Glycine 1S Isl Ber Bat Bila
Histidine 0.61 O83 152 4192 1.33
Isoleucine 0.78 1.22 1.46 1.86 1,52
Leucine LS IS) BS BTM BLES
Lysine E20 ESO A Son omn
Methionine 045 064 O91 109 £0.75
Proline Lvl 130) 1:80) 23245 oki
Phenylalanine 0.85 122 164 200 £1.88
Serine 0.76 O97 166 2.09 1.70
Threonine 0.68 0.91 154 195 148
Tyrosine 0.42 0.62 1.41 159 0.83
Valine OCH Wo ty Bes) Bill

University, Auburn, Alabama and randomly
stocked into 20 aquaria at a rate of 15 juve-
niles per aquarium, with 4 replications per
treatment (diet). Individual weight of the ju-
veniles was measured on an electronic scale
(Mettler AT261 Delta Range, Mettler Instru-
ments, Zurich, Switzerland) prior to stocking.
On day 2, stocking mortalities were replaced.
No subsequent replacement of mortalities was
performed. Red claw were counted every oth-
er week. It was decided prior to the start of
the study that if mortality in any treatment
reached 50%, the study would be terminated.
Red claw were fed to excess twice daily (0800
and 1500) for 5 weeks. Diet was evenly dis-
tributed over the bottom of each aquarium to
ensure availability to all individuals. Each
aquarium had one nylon-mesh substrate struc-
ture and 10 tubes (2.5-cm sections of 2.0-cm
diameter garden hose) for shelters. At the
conclusion of the feeding trial, red claw were

individually weighed (wet weight).

Statistical Analysis

Final individual weight (g), survival (%),
specific growth rate (SGR), and weight gain
(%) were calculated at the conclusion of the
study. Specific growth rate was calculated as
follows: SGR (%/day) = (In W, — In W/T) X
100 where W, is the weight of the juvenile at

Foop or RED CLAw CrayrisH—Webster et all.

111

TABLE 4. Final weight, survival, specific growth rate (SGR), and weight gain of juvenile red claw fed diets containing
various percentages of protein and a commercial shrimp diet (Zeigler). Values are means + SE of four replications.
Means within a column having different superscripts were significantly different (P < 0.05).

Diet
(% protein) Final wt (g) Survival (%)
1 (23%) 0.516 + 0.011% 58.4 + 9.28
2 (33%) 0.597 + 0.074* 58.3 + 5.08
3 (43%) 0.563 + 0.056* 50.0 + 8.18
4 (52%) 0.567 + 0.029* 61.8 + 5.78
Ziegler 0.409 + 0.017 Valen fes=t= 5102

time t, W, is the weight of the juvenile at time
0, and T is the culture period in days.

Data were analyzed by analysis of variance
using the SAS ANOVA procedure (7). Dun-
can’s multiple range test was used to compare
differences among individual means. All per-
centage data were transformed to arc sin val-
ues prior to analysis (8).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This is one of the first studies to evaluate
prepared diets for juvenile red claw. Red claw
juveniles fed experimental diets containing 33,
43, and 52% protein had significantly higher
(P < 0.05) final individual weights (g) and spe-
cific growth rates (SGR) than those fed a com-
mercial shrimp diet containing 45% protein
(Table 4). Final body weight and SGR of red
claw fed a diet containing 23% protein were
not significantly different (P > 0.05) than
those of red claw fed the other three experi-
mental diets or the commercial shrimp diet.
Growth of red claw fed the commercial
shrimp diet in the present study was similar
to growth rates observed in other studies (D.
B. Rouse, pers. comm).

Red claw juveniles fed a commercial shrimp
diet had a numerically higher percentage sur-
vival (71%) than red claw fed the experimental
diets (58, 58, 50, and 61% for red claw fed
diets containing 23, 33, 43, and 52% protein,
respectively) (Table 4). However, differences
in percentage survival were not statistically
significant (P > 0.05), possibly due to variation
within each treatment. Mortalities were asso-
ciated with several factors including: several
(15-20) red claw were found in the biofilter,
probably after being removed from the aquar-
ium through the standpipe. Some incidents of
cannibalism were observed, but these oc-
curred after week 3 of the study. However,

SGR Wt. gain (%)
9.28 + 0.062 2,301.7 + 41.80
9.63 + 0.323 2,611.8 + 337.688
9.49 + 0.293 2,459.2 + 252.84
9.54 + 0.15" 2,475.6 + 132.98
8.61 + 0.11 1,760.6 + 78.5>

survival values were comparable or greater
than values reported in other studies with
Australian crayfish (1, 9, 10, 11). Reduced wa-
ter stability of experimental diets may have
been a factor in the reduced survival percent-
ages. Although survival was not significantly
different (P > 0.05) among treatments, sur-
vival was lowest (50%) for red claw fed diet 3
(with poor water stability) and was highest
(72%) among red claw fed the commercial
shrimp diet (with good water stability). Water
stability of diet pellets is an important factor
when feeding crustaceans. Greater pellet sta-
bility minimizes leaching of water-soluble nu-
trients which may adversely affect crustacean
growth. Fair and Fortner (12) compared
growth of freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, fed a water-stable pelleted diet to
prawn fed pulverized pellets and reported that
prawn fed water-stable pellets had twice the
growth rate.

Data indicate that a diet containing 33-52%
protein appears suitable for use in rearing ju-
venile red claw for the first 5 weeks after re-
lease from the female. This is in agreement
with dietary protein levels reported for other
crustaceans. Villarreal (11) reported no differ-
ences in growth of marron, Cherax tenuiman-
us, fed for 8 weeks with diets containing be-
tween 17-48% protein. Hubbard et al. (13)
reported that a diet containing 30% protein
was adequate for optimal growth of red
swamp crayfish, Procambarus clarkii. Fresh-
water prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii,
have a protein requirement between 32-40%
(14, 15, 16). D’Abramo et al. (17) reported
that growth of juvenile lobster, Homarus
americanus, fed a diet containing 30% protein
was not different from juveniles fed diets con-
taining higher percentages of protein.

These data indicate that a formulated diet,

112

with a protein level of 33%, appear to be ad-
equate for juvenile red claw. Feeding for lon-
ger duration, use of individual rearing contain-
ers, and use of a greater quantity of (or a
different binder) may be useful in future nu-
tritional studies. Diets used in this study ap-
pear to be a starting point for further studies
to determine nutritional requirements of red
claw.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Karla Richardson for typing this
manuscript. This research was partially funded

by a grant from the USDA/CSRS to Kentucky
State University under agreement KYX-80-92-
OSA.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Rouse, D. B. and I. Kartamulia. 1992. Influence of
salinity and temperature on molting and survival of the
Australian freshwater crayfish (Cherax tenuimanus). Aqua-
culture 105:47-52.

2. Semple, G. P., D. B. Rouse, and K. R. McLain. In
press. Cherax destructor, C. tenuimanus, and C. quadri-
carinatus (Decapoda: Parastacidae). A comparative review
of biological traits relating to aquaculture potential. Fresh-
water Crayfish.

3. Masser, M. P. and D. B. Rouse. 1993. Production
of Australian red claw crayfish. Alabama Cooperative Ex-
tension Service, ANR-769. Auburn University, Auburn,
Alabama.

4. AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists).
1990. Official methods of analysis, 15th ed. AOAC, Inc.,
Arlington, Virginia.

5. NRC (National Research Council). 1983. Nutrient
requirements of warmwater fishes and shellfishes. Nat.
Acad. Press, Washington, D.C.

6. El-Sayed, A. F. M. and S. Teshima. 1992. Protein
and energy requirements of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis ni-
loticus, fry. Aquaculture 103:55-63.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

7. Statistical Analysis Systems. 1988. SAS/STAT user’s
guide, Release 6.03 ed. SAS Institute, Cary, North Caro-
lina 1028 pp.

8. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

9. Kartamulia, I. and D. B. Rouse. 1992. Survival and
growth of marron Cherax tenuimanus in outdoor tanks in
the Southeastern USA. J. World Aquacult. Soc. 23:169-
172.

10. Rouse, D. B. and I. Kartamulia. 1992. Use of so-
dium chloride to improve survival of the Australian cray-
fish Cherax tenuimanus. Prog. Fish-Cult. 54:118-121.

11. Villarreal, H. 1991. A partial energy budget for the
Australian crayfish Cherax tenuimanus. J. World Aquacult.
Soc. 22:252—259.

12. Fair, P. H. and A. R. Fortner. 1981. The role of
formula feeds and natural productivity in culture of the
prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Aquaculture 24:233—
243.

13. Hubbard, D. M., E. H. Robinson, P. B. Brown, and
W. Daniels. 1986. Optimum ratio of dietary protein to
energy for red crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). Prog. Fish-
Cult. 48:233-237.

14. Millikin, M. R., A. R. Fortner, P. H. Fair, and L.
V. Sick. 1980. Influence of dietary protein concentration
on growth, feed conversion, and general metabolism of
juvenile prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Proc. World
Maricult. Soc. 11:382-391.

15. D’Abramo, L. R., J. M. Heinen, H. R. Robinette,
and J. S. Collins. 1989. Production of the freshwater
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii stocked as juveniles at
different densities in temperate zone ponds. J. World
Aquacult. Soc. 20:81—89.

16. Tidwell, J. H., C. D. Webster, and J. A. Clark.
1993. Evaluation of distillers dried grains with solubles as
an ingredient in diets for pond culture of the freshwater
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii. J. World Aquacult.
Soc. 24:66—70.

17. D’Abramo, L. R., D. E. Conklin, C. E. Bordner,
N. A. Baum, and K. A. Norman-Boudreau. 1981. Suc-
cessful artificial diets for the culture of juvenile lobsters.
J. World Maricult. Soc. 12:325-332.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 113-117

Mycoflora Associated With On-Farm Stored Corn
(Maize) in Kentucky

JoHN D. SEDLACEK, BryAN D. PRICE, AND PAauL A. WESTON

Plant and Soil Science Division, Community Research Service,
Kentucky State University, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

In order to determine the presence and relative abundance of fungi in corn stored on-farm in Kentucky,
storage facilities in 24 western counties in the state were sampled during 1989 and 1990. Samples were
cultured on 2 types of media: (1) Czapek-Dox broth supplemented with 20% sucrose and (2) sterile distilled
water. Plates were incubated at 25°C for 7 days at which time fungi were identified and number of genera

and/or species per kernel were enumerated. A total of 14 fungal species were isolated in 1989 and 18 species
in 1990. The predominant fungi each year were Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium sp. There
were several significant differences in percentage of occurrence of the isolates between crop-reporting dis-
tricts. No significant differences in occurrence were detected between sample locations within bins.

INTRODUCTION

Corn, Zea mays (L), is a valuable agricul-
tural commodity in the U.S., providing nutri-
tion for humans, pets and livestock. Cornmeal
and flour are incorporated into a vast array of
food products including, but not limited to,
breakfast cereals, bakery products, and snack
foods (1). In Kentucky, corn may be stored in
on-farm facilities for months awaiting sale or
even kept for years as livestock feed (2).

Stored corn is susceptible to losses as a re-
sult of invasion by a wide range of insect and
microbial pests. Infection by storage fungi may
result in reduced germination, discoloration,
production of foul odors, chemical and nutri-
tional changes, and an overall reduction in
quality leading to economic loss. Mycotoxins
may also be produced, endangering the health
of humans and livestock (3).

Kentucky is divided into 6 agricultural crop-
reporting districts (4). District I is located in
extreme western Kentucky while District VI is
in the eastern most part of the state. The ob-
jective of this study was to determine the com-
position and relative abundance of mycoflora
associated with on-farm stored corn in the 3
western-most crop reporting districts. This
study was conducted as a means of determin-
ing the scope and severity of fungal infections
in that region and to identify areas requiring
further research. These districts were chosen
because the majority of corn grown and stored
in the state is located within these boundaries

(4).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Stored corn samples were collected in 15
counties in 1989 and 24 (not mutually exclu-
sive) counties in 1990 from 114 total farms in
western Kentucky. Samples were obtained
from galvanized steel bins varying in size from
1,000-60,000 bu capacity using a 35.6 cm
deep bin cup probe sampler at the center and
edge of each grain mass at 3 depths: surface,
middle, and bottom. Samples were taken ir-
respective of cardinal direction, 0.3-1 m in
from the bin wall. A composite sample was
created from the center and the edge samples
by combining the samples from the 3 depths
in a 0.9 liter mason jar. Thus, 2 samples (ie.,
1 from the center and | from the edge) were
taken from each bin. In cases where the grain
mass was not deep enough to use a cup probe,
a scoop sample was taken to fill the mason jar.

Subsamples (25 g) for fungal analyses were
taken from each jar and 20 kernels were re-
moved for moisture content determination.
Kernels for moisture determination were
ground in a Wiley mill through a #20 mesh
screen, then dried in an oven at 103°C for 16
hours (5). Per cent moisture was calculated by
difference from per cent dry matter. Subsam-
ples were held at approximately —20°C prior
to analysis.

Species composition and relative abundance
of fungi were determined by placing corn ker-
nels on two types of media in petri dishes.
Czapek-Dox broth (Difco Laboratories, Inc.,
Detroit, Michigan) supplemented with 20%

113

114

TaBLE 1. Fungi isolated from surface disinfected ker-
nels, range of kernel moisture and average kernel mois-
ture content of on-farm stored shelled corn in western
Kentucky.

MC MC
ow high Mean MC
Isolate n (%) () (%) + SE

Alternaria sp.> ne} @I LB} Se O,8}
Aspergillus candidus % ile) We IOI se Of
Aspergillus flavus Ae Qhlk PRAM IBS) ae 0.8)
Aspergillus, fumigatus 20123 GAN T4-Ay 2
Aspergillus glaucus 100 94 221 135 + 02
Aspergillus niger 22 102 220 139 +05
Aspergillus terreus* D9 Wil G4. 4) se BY
Chaetomium sp. 7 122 156 135 + 0.5
Cladosporium sp.* 7 98 184 141 + 1.1
Diplodia sp. 20 95 18.0 13.9 + 0.5
Drechslera sp.» 1 — 121 —

Epicoccum sp.° 1 —— 18333 —

Fusarium sp. SO) Oil BHT BIL ae OIL
Mucor sp. 8 12.0 B2O ls5@ ze lL
Nigrospora sp. As} 9), ASO). 1}8} ae OLY
Paecilomyces sp. Il — 140 =

Penicillium spp. 118 95 221 136 + 0.2
Phoma sp. I — iLjlJl =

Rhizopus sp. 9 119 16.7 134 + 0.6
Syncephalastrum sp." 1 = 1933 —

4 = 1989 isolate only, > = 1990 isolate only.

sucrose was used to isolate the more osmo-
philic species of Aspergilli whereas sterile dis-
tilled water was used to isolate other species
with less fastidious growth requirements. Frey
and Legg (6) determined these media to be
most efficient in maximizing recovery of fungi
from stored corn. Both media were used by
pipetting 4.5 ml onto sterile filter paper
(Whatman #1) in a petri dish (100 X 20 mm).
A total of 20 kernels were plated per sample,
10 each on two plates. Kernels were surface-
disinfected by swirling them in a 1% solution
of NaOCl (Clorox®) for a period of 1 minute,
shaken to remove excess bleach, and imme-
diately plated without rinsing. All plates were
incubated in a growth chamber at 25 + 2°C
and >49.0 + 0.4% relative humidity for 7
days at which time the plates were refriger-
ated.

Fungi were identified and number of gen-
era and/or species were enumerated as soon
as possible after refrigeration. Identifications
were made based on examination with dis-
secting and compound light microscopes. As-
pergillus species designations are “group spe-
cies” as classified by Raper and Fennell (7).

Descriptive statistics as well as ANOVA and

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

Fisher’s protected LSD test were used to an-
alyze all data (8). Two-way chi-square analyses
were used to examine the association between
moisture content and fungal species presence

(@).

RESULTS

A total of 20 fungal species were isolated
from surface disinfected kernels in the survey
(Table 1). Mean kernel moisture contents
ranged from 12.1% to 15.0% (Table 1). Four-
teen fungal genera and/or species were found
in 1989 and 18 in 1990. The predominant iso-
late in 1989 was Fusarium species, infecting
98.0% of the bins sampled, 98.9% of the sam-
ples, and 75.1% of the kernels cultured (Table
2). Aspergillus glaucus and Penicillium spp.
also appeared in relatively high numbers, oc-
curring in 51.0, 43.2, and 16.9%, and 67.3,
53.4, and 11.9% of the bins, samples, and ker-
nels, respectively. In 1990, the same 3 isolates
predominated. Fusarium sp. occurred in 100,
96.5, and 73.4%, A. glaucus in 55.7, 41.2, and
16.0%, and Penicillium spp. in 69.3, 47.6, and
11.3% of the bins, samples, and kernels, re-
spectively.

Several significant differences in occurrence
between districts were observed (Table 3).
Mean occurrence of Fusarium SP a
0.2150), A. glaucus (P = 0.1449), and Penicil-
lium spp. (P = 0.0853) were not statistically
different between districts in 1989. In 1990,
Districts I and II had a significantly higher oc-
currence of Fusarium sp. (P = 0.0001) and a
significantly lower incidence of A. glaucus
than District III (P = 0.0001). Differences in
occurrences of Penicillium spp. were not sig-
nificant between districts (P = 0.4032). There
was significantly more Nigrospora sp. in Dis-
trict III than District I in 1989 (P = 0.0053).
However, in 1990 there was significantly more
Nigrospora in District I than Districts II and
Ill (P = 0.0001).

Fusarium sp. was isolated from all counties
sampled in both survey years. In 1989, Peni-
cillium spp. was isolated from 14 of 15 coun-
ties and A. glaucus from 11 of 15. In 1990,
Penicillium spp. was isolated from 23 of 24
and A. glaucus from 18 of 24 counties sam-
pled. There were no significant differences in
percentage of occurrence based on sample lo-
cation (center vs. edge) within the grain bins
for any of the fungi (Table 4) (P > 0.05).

FUNGI OF STORED Corn IN KENtTucKky—Sedlacek, Price, and Weston

115

TaBLE 2. Incidence of fungi isolated from surface disinfected kernels of on-farm stored shelled corn in western
Kentucky.
Pre erm et SENT ie Lola nmsuel. lA phi geen Samples, ME MAdmvaray, wut GeKemelsy
Isolate n infected n infected n infected
1989
Fusarium sp. 49 98.0 88 98.9 880 75.1
A. glaucus* 49 51.0 88 43.2 880 16.9
Penicillium spp. 49 67.3 88 53.4 880 11.9
Diplodia sp. 49 32.7 88 21.6 880 6.4
Nigrospora sp. 49 28.6 88 21.6 880 49
Rhizopus sp.° 49 14.2 88 8.0 880 4.3
A. flavus: 49 36.7 88 DWT 880 3.6
A. niger 49 16.3 88 12.5 880 3.1
Mucor sp. 49 6.1 88 4.5 880 2.3
Cladosporium sp. 49 19) 88 8.0 880 1.1
Chaetomium sp. 49 6.1 88 3.4 880 1.0
A. terreus’ 49 4.] 88 2.3 880 0.2
A. candiduss 49 2.0 88 11 880 0.1
A. fumigatus* 49 2.0 88 Jit 880 0.1
1990
Fusarium sp. 88 100.0 170 96.5 1,700 73.4
A. glaucus: 88 55.7 170 41.2 1,700 16.0
Penicillium spp. 88 69.3 170 47.6 1,700 11.3
Nigrospora sp. 88 28.4 170 17.1 1,700 5.3
A. flavus 88 25.0 170 17.6 1,700 Seo
Rhizopus sp. 88 5.7 170 2.9 1,700 2.0
Alternaria sp. 88 14.8 170 7.6 1,700 1.9
A. niger 88 12.5 170 Voll 1,700 1.2
Diplodia sp. 88 6.8 170 3.5 1,700 i
Mucor sp. 88 5.7 170 2.9 1,700 0.9
Chaetomium sp. 88 6.8 170 3.5 1,700 0.7
Syncephalastrum sp. 88 iil 170 0.6 1,700 0.5
Paecilomyces sp. 88 Well 170 0.6 1,700 0.3
Drechslera sp. 88 iil 170 0.6 1,700 0.2
A. candidus: 88 2.3 170 12 1,700 0.1
A. fumigatus* 88 ILI 170 0.6 1,700 0.1
Epicoccum sp. 88 11 170 0.6 1,700 0.1
Phoma sp. 88 1.1 170 0.6 1,700 0.1

* = storage fungus.

DISCUSSION

It is not surprising that Fusarium sp. was
the most predominant isolate in the survey,
even though members of this genus are gen-
erally considered to be “field” fungi and, thus,
do not cause many problems in storage. Field
fungi may exist in a dormant state under stor-
age conditions but most die off rather quickly
at lower moisture contents commonly encoun-
tered in grain bins (10). Rhizopus sp. can be
a storage fungus, but Nigrospora sp. is not.
Higher numbers of field fungi may indicate
corn stored for a relatively short period of
time. This is likely considering many of the
samples obtained in the survey were from
grain harvested less than a year before sam-
pling. Penicillium spp., a major source of

“blue-eye,” is also very common in corn, with
both field and storage species known to infect
kernels. Blue eye results from the germ of a
kernel becoming infected with the fungus re-
sulting in a bluish-green coloration in that re-
gion. Aspergillus glaucus, the third most fre-
quent isolate, may also cause “blue-eye” and
is perhaps the most prevalent storage fungus
in the world (11). Aspergillus glaucus is distin-
guished by its ability to grow at kernel mois-
ture contents as low as 13.5%. There was no
detectable association between moisture con-
tent and presence/absence of any of the fungal
species examined using chi-square analysis (P
> 0.05).

In regard to differences in occurrence be-
tween districts, there is no consistently higher

116

TaBLE 3. Incidence of predominant fungi among the
three crop reporting districts sampled. Means followed by
the same letter in each row are not significantly different
(a = 0.05)

Mean occurrence/10 kernels

Isolate Dist I Dist II Dist III

1989
Fusarium sp. 6.7a 74a 8.0a
A. glaucus 0.9a 1.7a 21a
Penicillium spp. 1.0a 0.8a 1.6a
Diplodia sp. 1.0a 0.8a 0.4a
Nigrospora sp. 0.0b 0.4ab 0.8a
Rhizopus sp. l.la 0.5a 0.0a
A. flavus 0.3a 0.3a 0.5a
A. niger O.la 0.5a 0.3a

1990
Fusarium sp. 8.la 8.4a 6.2b
A. glaucus 0.3b 0.8b 2.8a
Penicillium spp. l.la 0.9a 13a
Nigrospora sp. 1.6a 0.4b 0.1b
A. flavus O.la 0.5a 0.3a
Rhizopus sp. 0.0a 0.2a 0.3a
Alternaria sp. 0.la 0.4a 0.0a
A. niger 0.0a 0.la 0.2a

occurrence of storage fungi in District III.
Barney et al. (2) found that District III had a
larger number of farms which fed their corn
to livestock and as a result held the corn in
the bins for a longer period of time, thus in-
creasing the potential for invasion by storage
fungi. It is also surprising that there was no
statistical difference based on sample location
in the occurrence of storage fungi. Hagstrum
et al. (12) found greater numbers of grain in-
sects in the center column of bin-stored wheat
compared to edges. One would expect greater
numbers of storage fungi in the center column
owing to damage to the kernels caused by the
insects.

The percentage of bins and samples infect-
ed with fungi was consistently greater than the
percentage kernels infected. Thus, the fungi
isolated were more widely distributed than the
kernels were heavily infected. Major storage
fungi causing spoilage of grain were isolated
from many of the corn samples. This grain will
remain mold-free only if grain temperature is
kept low or if moisture content is gradually
decreased. Therefore, results of this survey
emphasize the need for growers and commod-
ity managers to maintain conditions not con-
ducive to fungal germination and growth.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 50(3-4)

TABLE 4, Effect of sampling location within bins on in-
cidence of predominant fungi isolated. Means followed by
the same letter in each row are not significantly different
(a = 0.05).

Mean occurrence/10 kernels

Isolate Center Edge
1989
Fusarium sp. 7.8a ele
A. glaucus 1.9a 1.6a
Penicillium spp. 14a 1.0a
Diplodia sp. 0.4a 0.8a
Nigrospora sp. 0.6a 0.4a
Rhizopus sp. 0.2a 0.6a
A. flavus 0.2a 0.5a
A. niger 0.2a 0.4a
1990
Fusarium sp. 7.5a 72a
A. glaucus 1.8a 1.4a
Penicillium spp. 1.3a 1.0a
Nigrospora sp. 0.4a 0.6a
A. flavus 0.4a 0.2a
Rhizopus sp. 0.4a 0.0a
Alternaria sp. 0.la 0.3a
A. niger O.la O.la
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

D. E. Legg consulted on early survey pro-
tocol. This research was supported by a
USDA-CSRS grant awarded to Kentucky
State University under agreement KYX-10-86-
O5P.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bothast, R. J., R. F. Rogers, and C. W. Hesseltine.
1974. Microbiology of corm and dry milled corn products.
Cereal Chemistry 51:829-838.

2. Barney, R. J., D. E. Legg, and J. D. Sedlacek. 1989.
On-farm storage facilities and management practices in
Kentucky. Bull. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 35:26-33.

3. Sanchis, V., I. Vinas, M. Jimenez, M. A. Calvo, and
E. Hemandez. 1982. Mycotoxin-producing fungi isolated
from bin-stored corn. Mycopathologia 80:89-93.

4. Kentucky Agricultural Statistics Service. 1991. In
Tom Lenz (ed.) Kentucky agricultural statistics 1989-
1990. Louisville, Kentucky.

5. AOAC. 1965. Official methods of analysis of the As-
sociation of Analytical Chemists, 10th ed. Arlington, Vir-
ginia.

6. Frey, S. A. and D. E. Legg. 1988. Isolation tech-
niques for surveying the fungi of stored maize. Trans. Ky.
Acad. Sci. 49:131-139.

7. Raper, K. B. and D. I. Fennell. 1977. The Genus
Aspergillus. Robert E. Krieger Pub. Co., Malabar, Florida.

8. SAS Institute. 1988. SAS/STAT users guide. SAS
Institute, Cary, North Carolina.

FuNGI OF STORED Corn IN KeENtTuCKY—Sedlacek, Price, and Weston Ly

9. Steel, R. G. D. and J. H. Torrie. 1980. Principles
and procedures of statistics, ‘2nd ed. McGraw Hill, New
York, New York.

10. Christensen, C. M. and D. B. Sauer. 1982. Micro-
flora. Pp. 219-240. In C. M. Christensen (ed.) Storage of
cereal grains and their products, 3rd ed. American Asso-
ciation of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, Minnesota.

11. Sauer, D. B., C. L. Storey, and D. E. Walker. 1984.

Fungal populations in U.S. farm-stored grain and their
relationship to moisture, storage time, regions, and insect
infestations. Phytopathology 74:1050—1053.

12. Hagstrum, D. W., G. A. Milliken, and M. S. Wad-
dell. 1985. Insect distribution in bulk-stored wheat in re-
lation to detection or estimation of abundance. Environ.
Entomol. 14:655-661.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 118-123

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Emergence of
Periodical Cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae) in a
Mountainous Forest Region

PAuL J. KALIsz

Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT

The 1991 emergence of periodical cicada Brood XIV was sampled in an extensive and non-fragmented
forest region on the Cumberland Plateau of Kentucky. On upland sites Magicicada septendecim L., M.
septendecula Fisher, and M. cassini Alexander and Moore accounted for 82, 13, and 5%, respectively, of the
nymphs emerging from the soil. Daily emergence rates peaked first on upper south slopes, then on ridges,
upper north slopes, and lower slopes; there was a 9-day difference between the dates at which emergence
rate culminated on upper south slopes and lower slopes. Peak daily emergence rate ranged from 0.5 to 1.7
insects/m?, and mean cumulative emergence density ranged from 3.7 to 9.3 insects/m? among landscape
positions. Both peak rate and cumulative density declined in the sequence: ridges > upper north slopes >
upper south slopes > lower slopes. Higher P concentration in the 0-10 cm depth was the only difference
found in a comparison of properties of soils from which abundant cicadas had emerged and properties of
nearby soils from which no cicadas had emerged. The low emergence densities recorded in the present
study may be representative of conditions in extensive and non-fragmented forests as contrasted with the
higher densities reported by research in forest patches or in forest remnants in agricultural or urban land-

SCapes.

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of periodical cicadas (Ho-
moptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada spp.) is local-
ly synchronized among up to 3 species with
13-yr or 17-yr life cycles; populations
emerging any Iyean vane recognized as
“broods” (1, 2). Density per unit ground area
and relative species dominance of emerging
broods are variable over small distances, pre-
sumably in response to gradients in vegetation,
microclimate or substrate (3).

Much research on periodical cicadas has
been performed in small forest patches or in
forest remnants in agricultural or urban land-
scapes (e.g., 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). Habitat fragmenta-
tion, in combination with simplification of eco-
systems and introduction of exotic species,
results in an abundance of “edge” and in al-
terations in species interactions and inputs of
energy and matter, and may lead to crowding
of mobile organisms in forest remnants (9). In
the case of periodical cicadas, habitat distur-
bance has been found to be associated with
elevated population levels in or at the edge of
forest remnants (6, 10), and with disruption of
the spatial segregation of species according to
preferred ovipositional habitats (3, 4).

In recent years the range limits of periodical

cicadas have receded away from urban areas,
and a number of broods have declined in
abundance due to land-use changes and prac-
tices such as pesticide application (10, 11, 12).
Given the rapidity of such changes, and the
altered conditions and ecological relationships
found in fragmented or disturbed habitats, my
objective was to statistically describe the
emergence of a brood of periodical cicadas in
an extensive and non-fragmented forest re-
gion. To achieve this objective, the spatial and
temporal patterns of emergence of Magicica-
da septendecim L., M. septendecula Fisher,
and M. cassini Alexander and Moore, the
three resident species of 17-yr cicadas, were
sampled on a little-disturbed research forest
in eastern Kentucky near the center of the Ap-
palachian Plateaus Region (13) of the eastern
U.S.A. My intention was to document ecolog-
ical relationships between cicada emergence
density, landscape position and soils as a con-
tribution to understanding the biology of pe-
riodical cicadas in extensive and non-frag-
mented forests, and as a benchmark that may
be useful in detecting changes in population
size and behavior.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area.—This study was performed on
the University of Kentucky’s Robinson Forest

118

EMERGENCE OF PERIODICAL CicaDAs—Kalisz

in Breathitt County (37°27'N, 83°8’W). Cli-
mate is temperate, humid, and continental.
Mean annual precipitation is 1,170 mm dis-
tributed evenly throughout the year; mean an-
nual temperature is 10°C, with mean daily
maxima and minima of 8° and —4°C in Janu-
ary, the coldest month, and 31° and 18°C in
July, the warmest month (14).

Sampling for this study was performed
within a 1,000-ha area representative of the
entire 6,000-ha experimental forest and of the
Rugged Eastern Area of the Northern Cum-
berland Plateau (sensu 15) in general. The lat-
ter physiographic area is part of Fenneman’s
(13) Appalachian Plateaus Region which ex-
tends from the Allegheny Plateau in south-
eastern Ohio and southwestern Pennsylvania
along the Cumberland Plateau of eastern Ken-
tucky and Tennessee to northern Alabama,
and which is generally >75% forested (15, 16,
17, 18, 19). This region also includes most of
the range of periodical cicada Brood XIV (1).
The landscape of the study area is intricately
dissected; slopes with gradients >30% occupy
ca. 80% of the land area and first-order wa-
tersheds occupy ca. 50% of the land area.
Elevations range from 240 to 490 m above
mean sea level, and relief ranges from 115 to
200 m.

Surficial geological materials are horizontal-
ly-layered sandstones, siltstones, coals and
shales of the Breathitt Formation, Lower and
Middle Pennsylvanian Series (20). The most
common types of upland soil profiles are clas-
sified as fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hap-
ludults (Shelocta series) and fine-loamy,
mixed, mesic Typic Haplumbrepts (Cutshin
series) in colluvium; as loamy-skeletal, mixed,
mesic Typic Dystrochrepts (Dekalb series) in
coarse-textured residuum; and as clayey,
mixed, mesic Aquic Hapludults (Latham se-
ries) in fine-textured residuum. Soil properties
vary in predictable patterns related to the un-
derlying geological material and location in the
landscape (21).

The study area lies near the center of
Braun’s (22) Mixed Mesophytic Forest Re-
gion. Forests are dominated by ca. 50 woody
species (23) and stand composition is deter-
mined by microsite variations controlled pri-
marily by landscape position (21). Stand basal
areas generally range from 20-35 m?/ha, and
ages from 50-70 yr.

1S

Field Methods.—The 1991 emergence of
Brood XIV was sampled. Nymphs were cap-
tured as they emerged from the ground using
screen-covered cone traps similar in design to
those described by Raney and Eikenbary (24)
except that they were closed at the top and
had circular ground areas of 0.2 m?. Sampling
was limited to upland areas since bottomlands
were small and often disturbed. Ten traps
were randomly distributed within each of 20
randomly-located, 0.2-ha sample areas. Sam-
ple areas were not statistical “blocks” but were
intended to ensure dispersion of the traps
throughout the study area while maintaining
practical sampling logistics.

Traps were checked every 24 to 48 hr from
13 May until 10 June, and then less frequently
until 25 June. Following eclosion, sex and spe-
cies were recorded for captured individuals.
The 2 “dwarf” cicada species were distin-
guished from one another based on the as-
sumption that all M. septendecula had orange
bands on the black abdominal sternites and
that all M. cassini lacked such bands; M. sep-
tendecin was recognized by its larger size and
by the presence of a brown spot between the
eye and the base of the wing (3).

After the emergence was over, forest floor
(O horizon) and soil samples were collected
from beneath two cone traps on each of the
20 sample areas: one from beneath the trap
that captured the greatest number of cicadas
in the area, and one from beneath the nearest
trap that captured no cicadas. Traps were ran-
domly selected in cases where more than one
trap satisfied these requirements. Volumetric
samples of forest floor and soil with 0.1-m?
ground area were collected beneath the center
of the cage; the 0 to 10 cm soil depth, which
corresponded approximately to the A horizon,
was sampled.

Species and diameter at 1.4 m above
ground (DBH) were recorded by landscape
position for all stems >10 cm DBH within
each sample area. These data were used to
calculate species importance as a percentage
of the basal area for each landscape position
(Table 1).

Laboratory Methods.—Forest floor (O ho-
rizon) samples were dried at 60°C and then
ignited at 450°C to determine ash concentra-
tion. Soil samples were air-dried and crushed
to pass a 2-mm sieve. The >2-mm fraction

120

TaBLE 1. Relative basal areas (%) for stems =10 cm
DBH on four landscape positions. Absolute basal areas
were 27.8, 29.5, 25.6, and 33.7 m*/ha, respectively, for
upper south slopes, ridges, upper north slopes and lower
slopes.

Taxon sae Ridges weer Lower
Quercus spp. 53 56 49 15
Pinus rigida 10 24 0 0
Carya spp. 10 2 1 9}
Acer spp. 6 12 17 15
Liriodendron
tulipifera 6 =<ill 9 11
Tsuga canadensis 2 <1 0 21
Fagus grandifolia 2 1 =< 14
Tilia heterophylla 2 0 8 8
Magnolia acuminata 1 <] 5 8
Other (no. of
species) 8 (11) 5(6) 11(7) 6(9)

was added to the stones collected in the field
and weighed, and the <2-mm fraction was an-
alyzed as described below. Particle-size anal-
ysis was performed using the hydrometer
method (25) following removal of organic mat-
ter with NaOCl. The following soil chemical
analyses were performed: pH (1:1, soil:wa-
ter); available Ca, Mg, K, and P using the
Mehlich 3 extractant (26) and spectroscopic
determination; organic C by the Walkley-
Black procedure (27); and total N by a Kjel-
dahl procedure (28).

Data Analysis ——Landscape positions used
in this study were similar to Smalley’s (15)
land-types, with upper and lower slopes divid-
ed along a line half-way from the top of the
ridge to the stream, and north and south
slopes separated by a line connecting azimuths
of 315° and 135°. Based on topographic maps,
and on measurements of slope gradient and
compass bearing at the locations of the 200
traps, landscape position was classified as ridg-
es (average 0% slope gradient, no slope ori-
entation) for 30 traps, as upper south slopes
(43% gradient, SW orientation) for 70 traps,
as upper north slopes (35% gradient, NE ori-
entation) for 50 traps, and as lower slopes
(42% gradient, N orientation) for 50 traps.
Mean emergence rate was calculated as the
cumulative number of cicada nymphs emerg-
ing per unit ground area divided by the num-
ber of days since the start of emergence.

Normality (Lilliefors variation of Kolmogo-
rov-Smirnov test) and homogeneity of vari-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

ance (Cochran’s C test) were confirmed for
the test variables prior to statistical analysis.
Density of emerging cicadas was analyzed us-
ing a nested design with sample areas nested
within landscape positions. The null hypothe-
sis was that cicada density did not differ
among the 4 landscape positions that were
sampled. When ANOVA was significant at the
P = 0.05 level, the Bonferroni procedure was
used for mean separation among landscape
positions.

Forest floor and soil samples were analyzed
using paired ¢ tests at the 0.05-level with 20
replications. The null hypothesis was that the
properties of soils from which no cicadas
emerged did not differ from those of nearby
soils from which many cicadas emerged. Re-
sults of forest floor analyses are given on an
ash-free basis; results of soil analyses are given
on an air-dry basis.

RESULTS

The first periodical cicada was observed
May 4, and widespread emergence of nymphs
from the soil began May 10; the last nymph
was captured May 31, and the last adult was
heard June 16. The daily emergence rate cul-
minated first on upper south slopes (day 4 of
the emergence period), then on ridges (day 6),
upper north slopes (day 8) and lower slopes
(day 13) (Fig. 1). Mean daily emergence rate
also culminated earlier for males (day 5) ver-
sus females (day 7), and for M. septendecim
(day 5) versus the two “dwarf” species (day 8)
(Fig. 1). Although generalized curves describ-
ing emergence rate were smooth and had a
single clearly-defined peak (Fig. 1), all land-
scape positions experienced reduced emer-
gence rates between days 10 and 13 (not rec-
ognizable on Fig. 1) associated with the
occurrence of 27 mm of precipitation and a
temperature decrease of ca. 5°C.

The female: male ratio of the sampled pop-
ulation was 55:45. Magicicada septendecim,
M. septendecula, and M. cassini, respectively,
accounted for 82, 13, and 5% of the 241 cap-
tured cicada nymphs. Magicicada septendecim
and M. septendecula were collected on all
landscape positions; M. cassini was collected
on only a single site on an upper north slope.
Although infrequent on the upland forest sites
that were sampled, I observed M. cassini to

EMERGENCE OF PERIODICAL CicADAS—Kalisz

Mean Daily Emergence (no./m=)

" Species

—

vpwarf
_—

Days Since Start of Emergence

Fic. 1. Temporal patterns of mean daily rate of periodical cicada (Magicicada spp.) emergence from soil classified
by landscape position (ridges = R, upper north slopes = UN, upper south slopes = US, and lower slopes = L), sex,
and cicada species (“dwarf species = M. septendecula and M. cassini). Day 0 was 10 May 1991; n = 200 traps.

be the dominant species on disturbed bottom-
lands on the study area.

Both the maximum daily emergence rate
(Fig. 1) and the mean total emergence density
(Table 2) declined in the sequence ridges >
upper north slopes > upper south slopes >
lower slopes. Emergence density was signifi-
cantly (P = 0.01) greater on ridges compared
to lower slopes, and was intermediate on up-
per north and south slopes (Table 2).

There were few soil differences between ar-
eas from which abundant cicadas emerged
compared to nearby areas from which no ci-
cadas emerged (Table 3). Phosphorus concen-
tration in the upper 10-cm soil was signifi-
cantly (P = 0.04) higher on areas with
abundant cicadas. Although mean concentra-
tions of C, N, and Ca were also higher in soils
from areas with abundant cicadas, these dif-
ferences were not statistically significant (Ta-

ble 3).

TABLE 2. Density of periodical cicada emergence from
soils on four landscape positions.

ose Sd
Landscape position (n) (no./m?)
Ridges (30) 9.3 + 1.5 ab*
Upper north slopes (50) 79 + 12be
Upper south slopes (70) 5.3 + 1.0bce
Lower slopes (50) a7 se IBGE

* Means marked with different letters were different at 0.05 level.

DISCUSSION

Based on data presented in Barfield et al.
(29), relative amounts of incident solar radia-
tion during the period of March through May
were 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, and 0.7, respectively, for
upper south slopes, ridges, upper north slopes
and lower slopes used in this study. Similarly,
Hutchins et al. (21), working on the same area
used in my study, measured a growing season
soil temperature difference of 3°C at a depth
of 10 cm when comparing southerly and

TABLE 3. Means and significance levels (P) for paired t
tests of 0 horizon mass and selected properties of the min-
eral soil (0-10 cm depth) between areas from which
emerging cicadas were absent and abundant (n = 20).

Cicadas Cicadas
Property absent abundant! J?
0 horizon mass (g/m?) 1,388 1,143 0.35
Coarse fraction? (g/kg) 487 574 0.08
Sand (g/kg) 520 530 0.78
Silt? (g/kg) 260 260 0,98
Clay? (g/kg) 220 210 0.75
p 4.8 47 0.74
C (g/kg) 51 75 0.15
N (g/kg) 2.1 25 O88
P (mg/kg) 4.9 7.6 0.04
Ca (cmol/kg) 2.6 3.5 0.32
Mg (cmol/kg) 0.8 0.8 0.75

! Statistics (insects/m?) for areas with abundant cicadas were: ¥ + SD, 19.5
+ 14.0; median, 15.0; minimum, 5.0; maximum, 60.0.

2 Fraction =2 mm expressed on a whole-soil basis.

> Expressed on a <2 mm basis; sand, =0.05; silt, <0.05 and =0.002; clay,
<0.002 mm.

122

northerly slopes. Given that emergence of ci-
cada nymphs has been reported to be delayed
by low temperatures (1), variability of soil
temperature across the landscape likely ac-
counts for observed differences in temporal
patterns of peak cicada emergence, including
a 9-day lag between the dates of peak emer-
gence on upper south slopes and on lower
slopes (Fig. 1).

The results of this study support prior work
(3, 4, 5) showing that in upland forests M. sep-
tendecim is common while M. septendecula is
widely distributed but scarce. Similarly, the
scarcity of M. cassini on the study area con-
forms to prior observations that, in undis-
turbed forests, this species is only common in
bottomlands (3, 4, 5). The dominance of M.
cassini (16 of 26 captured individuals) on a
single upper north slope site was anomalous.
This site was, however, similar to bottomlands
in that it was a relatively moist hollow and was
occupied by such mesophytic tree species as
Tilia heterophylla (32% of the basal area),
Magnolia acuminata (15%), Acer saccharum
(13%), and Fraxinus americana (12%). Dybas
(3) also reported that M. cassini colonized up-
land areas occupied by mesophytic tree spe-
cies.

The greatest documented emergence of pe-
riodical cicadas, and apparently the highest
biomass per unit area ever recorded for ter-
restrial animals under natural conditions, was
3,750/m? and 368 g/m? fresh mass estimated
on a forested floodplain in Illinois for a pop-
ulation dominated by the 17-yr M. cassini (4).
In upland forests, emergence densities are
typically much lesser than this maximum,
ranging from ca. 10 to 100/m? (e.g., 4, 7, 8,
30). Densities recorded in this study (Table 2)
are at or below the lower end of the range of
these past estimates. This discrepancy may be
methodological rather than real since past
density estimates have been based on tech-
niques such as excavating nymphs one or more
years before emergence (30), counting emer-
gence holes (4, 8), or counting cast skins (7)
rather than on trapping insects as they leave
the soil. However, habitat disturbance has
been found to be associated with elevated
densities of periodical cicadas along forest
edges and in forest remnants (6, 10). The rel-
atively low emergence densities (Table 2) of
the present study may, therefore, be accurate

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

estimates for extensive and non-fragmented
forest regions where the availability of a large
and uniform expanse of suitable habitat re-
duces the tendency for oviposition and the
emergence of nymphs from soil to be concen-
trated in forest edges or forest remnants.

Differences in emergence density among
the 4 sampled landscape positions likely result
from a number of interacting conditions af-
fecting oviposition and the survival of nymphs
in the soil. Differences in soil temperature
among landscape positions (21) has already
been mentioned. Magicicada septendecim, the
dominant species on the study area, seems to
prefer upland tree species such as oaks and
hickories as ovipositional substrates (31). Low
emergence density (Table 2) on lower slopes
may, therefore, be partly controlled by the
scarcity (Table 1) of these preferred species.
The higher average emergence densities on
ridges, upper north and upper south slopes
(Table 2), which were dominated by oaks (Ta-
ble 1), and lower average emergence densities
on lower slopes, which were dominated by a
mixed assemblage of mesophytic tree species,
may also be related to the finding that root
density and abundance are approximately
twice as great in soils under oak forests as
compared to soils under mesophytic forest
types on the study area (32). Given that peri-
ocienl cicada nymphs spend 17 yr sucking xy-
lem fluid from roots, the combined effect of
variability in forest composition and in below-
ground conditions such as root density and soil
temperature could account for patterns of
emergence density across the landscape.

The absence of clear differences in prop-
erties of soils supporting abundant cicadas and
of soils lacking cicadas (Table 3) conforms to
the generalization that, if geologic substrate
and species of cicada are constant, and if ex-
cessively wet and excessively shallow soils are
not considered, soil properties do not seem to
be related to the occurrence or density of pe-
riodical cicadas (8, 10, 33, 34). The small but
significant increases in P concentration in soils
with abundant cicadas were similar to the dif-
ferences found when comparing cicada turrets
to the surrounding soil; the latter study spec-
ulated that elevated P in turrets was due to
excretions by the insect itself (8). Considered
over the range of well-drained and acid sub-
strates sampled in the present study, cicada

EMERGENCE OF PERIODICAL CicADAS—Kalisz

emergence density does not appear to be con-
trolled by soil properties.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Rick Wells for help in the field and
laboratory. This work was supported by Mc-
Intire-Stennis funds and is a contribution of

the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station,
Paper no. 93-8-185.

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analysis. Part 1, 2nd ed. American Society of Agronomy,
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

26. Mehlich, A. 1984. Mehlich 3 soil test extractant: a
modification of Mehlich 2. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal.
15:1409-1416.

27. Nelson, D. W. and L. E. Sommer. 1982. Total
carbon, organic carbon and organic matter. Pp. 539-579.
In A. L. Page (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2, 2nd
ed. American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society
of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

28. Bremner, J. M. and C. S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitro-
gen-total. Pp. 595-624. In A. L. Page (ed.) Methods of
soil analysis. Part 2, 2nd ed. American Society of Agron-
omy Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.

29. Barfield, B., J. Hill, and J. Walker. 1973. Solar ra-
diation on sloping surfaces in Kentucky. Ky. Agric. Exp.
Stn. Progr. Rep. 208:1-16.

30. Scully, N. J. 1942. Root distribution and environ-
ment in a maple-oak forest. Bot. Gaz. 103:492-517.

31. Lloyd, M. and J. A. White. 1976. On the oviposi-
tional habits of 13-year versus 17-year periodical cicadas
of the same species. New York Entomol. Soc. 89:148—155.

32. Kalisz, P. J., R. W. Zimmerman, and R. N. Muller.
1987. Root density, abundance, and distribution in the
mixed mesophytic forest of eastern Kentucky. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J. 51:220-225.

33. Gossard, H. A. 1917. Distribution of the Ohio
broods of periodical cicada with reference to soil. Ohio
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 311:551-577.

34. Strandine, E. J. 1940. A quantitative study of the
periodical cicada with respect to soil of three forests. Am.
Midl. Nat. 24:177-183.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 124-126

Metal Concentrations in Guano from a
Gray Bat Summer Roost

MICHAEL J. LACKI

Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky 40546

ABSTRACT

As part of a monitoring effort of gray bat maternity colonies in Jessamine County, Kentucky, guano was
collected beneath 2 clusters of gray bats and examined for concentrations of 11 metals. All 11 metals were
present in at least trace concentrations. Iron (¢ = 708.3 mg/kg), zine (¢ = 337.8 mg/kg), manganese (t =
75.5 mg/kg) and copper (f = 71.4 mg/kg) had the highest concentrations of the metals tested. These data
indicate that pollution from metals may represent a previously undescribed threat to the survival of this

endangered bat.

INTRODUCTION

The gray bat, Myotis grisescens, is a mono-
typic species restricted in distribution to the
limestone karst region of southeastern United
States (1). Gray bats received endangered spe-
cies status in 1976 (2), because 95% of the
known population hibernated in only 9 caves,
with over half the population in a single cave.
Gray bats are restricted to cave habitats for
roosting (3).

Gray bats are believed to be declining more
rapidly in the northern portions of their range,
Kentucky in particular (4). One survey of sum-
mer colonies of gray bats in Kentucky esti-
mated a decline of 89% in population size
from the previously believed maximum (1).
Evidence of successful reproduction of gray
bats was reported for a maternity colony in
Jessamine County, Kentucky (5), and has since
been observed for colonies at 10 other sites in
Kentucky (J. MacGregor, pers. commun. ).

Several environmental stressors have been
described for gray bats (6), with chemical pol-
lution from pesticides well documented (7, 8,
9, 10, 11). Tuttle (6) expressed the need for
additional studies on other sources of chemical
pollution and their occurrence in gray bat for-
aging areas. In this paper, I present data that
demonstrates exposure of gray bats to possible
contamination from metals.

DISCUSSION

Jessamine County, Kentucky, contains 3
caves historically known to contain gray bat
summer colonies (1); 2 of these caves are lo-
cated in Jessamine Creek Gorge, with an ac-

tive gray bat maternity colony present in one
cave (5). The author made 2 trips to this cave
in 1993 to obtain samples of guano from gray
bats. On 24 March, I stacked flat rocks be-
neath anticipated roosting locations to ensure
that subsequent collection would provide gua-
no of recent origin. Stacks of rock also pre-
vented loss of guano due to a shallow stream
on the cave floor. Two male gray bats were
present in the cave on this visit.

On 17 June, I counted the number of adult
female gray bats emerging from the cave using
night vision equipment, illuminating the en-
trance with 4 Wheat lamps covered with Wrat-
ten (#87) filters. Two night vision scopes were
required to view the entire entrance to the
cave. I entered the cave following completion
of the emergence of adult females and col-
lected 2 guano samples, 1 each from beneath
separate clusters of young. I placed guano into
soil tins lined with aluminum foil and refrig-
erated the samples later that same evening. I
estimated the number of young by measuring
ceiling cluster dimensions. A handful (approx.
5-6) of dead young were observed on the cave
floor.

Guano samples were dried at 104°C for 72
hours. A 0.1 g subsample was digested in nitric
acid, filtered, and raised to 100 ml with dis-
tilled water. Total copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc
(Zn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), manganese
(Mn), and silver (Ag) was measured with a
flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Total lead (Pb), arsenic (As), and selenium
(Se) was measured with a furnace atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometer. A second 0.1 g
subsample was digested in permanganate/per-

124

METALS IN Gray Bat GuANo—Lacki

TaBLE 1. Concentrations of metals (mg/kg) in guano
from a gray bat summer roost in Jessamine County, Ken-
tucky, June 1993.

Metal Front cluster Back cluster
Ag <5.5 <6.5
As 1.6 1.4
Cd <5) <6.5
Cu 73.6 69.1
Fe 851.1 565.5
Hg 0.15 <0.1
Mn 66.3 84.7
Ni <14 <16
Pb 3.6 Det
Se 13.7 15.6
Zn 320.1 355.5

sulfate and sulfuric and nitric acids and pro-
cessed on a co-vapor atomic absorption spec-
trophotometer for total mercury (Hg). All
metals were measured in mg/kg.

I found all 11 metals present in the guano
analyzed (Table 1). Little difference was ob-
served between values for the guano from be-
neath the front or back cluster of young. In
decreasing order, Fe, Zn, Mn, and Cu were
present at the highest concentrations, with Hg
occurring at trace levels. The number of adult
female gray bats emerging from the cave on
17 June was 4,700. Two clusters of young were
found inside the cave and I estimated the
number of young at 1,800 and 1,400 bats for
the front and rear cluster, respectively. This
yielded a colony size of 7,900 bats, larger than
an estimate of 4,050 obtained in 1990 (J.
MacGregor, pers. commun. ).

Metal concentrations in gray bat guano
demonstrated that some metals were present
at high levels, indicating possible pollution
sources within the foraging radius of the ma-
ternity colony. Concentrations of Fe and Zn in
the guano of gray bats exceeded concentra-
tions for these metals in tissues of anurans
(ie., frogs) living in the vicinity of an acid
mine seep (12). Iron concentrations in water
=40 mg/liter have been shown to be lethal to
tadpoles (13), but other studies have found no
lethal effects on amphibians (14, 15, 16, 17).
The biomagnification potential of Fe and Zn
remain unknown (12).

It remains unclear how these metals were
obtained, presumably by injestion, and wheth-
er these concentrations are detrimental to the
health status of gray bats. The emergence

125

count indicated that colony size had increased
from 1990, but the present estimate was still
well below the historic maximum population
size of 44,300 bats (1). Further studies are
warranted to determine where point sources
of metal pollution exist within the foraging ra-
dius of this maternity colony and whether
these metals biomagnify as they are passed
along the food chain.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Financial support for this study was provid-
ed through a grant from The Nature Conser-
vancy’s (TNC) Rodney Johnson Stewardship
Endowment and a grant from Jessamine
County. J. R. MacGregor, R. R. Currie, and
B. R. Dalton offered helpful advice. This in-
vestigation (No. 94-8-10) is connected with a
project of the Kentucky Agricultural Experi-
ment Station and is published with the ap-
proval of the Director.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Rabinowitz, A. and M. D. Tuttle. 1980. Status of
summer colonies of the endangered gray bat in Kentucky.
J. Wildl. Manage. 44:955—-960.

2. Brady, J., T. Kunz, M. D. Tuttle, and D. Wilson.
1982. Gray bat recovery plan. Fish and Wildl. Ref. Serv.,
Denver, Colorado.

3. Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of
America. Univ. Kentucky Press, Lexington.

4. Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1974. Mammals
of Kentucky. Univ. Kentucky Press, Lexington.

5. MacGregor, J. R. and A. G. Westerman. 1982. Ob-
servations on an active maternity site for the gray bat in
Jessamine County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 43:
136-137.

6. Tuttle, M. D. 1979. Status, causes of decline, and
management of endangered gray bats. J. Wildl. Manage.
43:1-17.

7. Clark, D. R., Jr., R. K. LaVal, and D. M. Swineford.
1978. Dieldrin-induced mortality in an endangered spe-
cies, the gray bat (Myotis grisescens). Science 199:1357—
1359.

8. Clark, D. R., Jr., F. M. Bagley, and W. W. Johnson.
1988. Northern Alabama colonies of the endangered grey
bat Myotis grisescens: organochlorine contamination and
mortality. Biol. Conserv. 43:213-225.

9. Clark, D. R., Jr., C. M. Bunck, E. Cromartie, and
R. K. LaVal. 1983. Year and age effects on residues of
dieldrin and heptachlor in dead gray bats, Franklin Coun-
ty, Missouri—1976, 1977, and 1978. Environ. Toxicol. and
Chem. 2:387-393.

10. Clawson, R. L. 1991. Pesticide contamination of
endangered gray bats and their prey in Boone, Franklin,

126

and Camden Counties, Missouri. Missouri Acad. Sci.
Trans. 25:13-19.

11. Clawson, R. L. and D. R. Clark, Jr. 1989. Pesticide
contamination of endangered gray bats and their food
base in Boone County, Missouri, 1982. Bull. Environ.
Contam. Toxicol. 42:431-437.

12. Lacki, M. J., J. W. Hummer, and H. J. Webster.
1992. Mine-drainage treatment wetland as habitat for
herpetofaunal wildlife. Environ. Manage. 16:513-520.

13. Porter, K. R. and D. E. Hakanson. 1976. Toxicity
of mine drainage to embryonic and larval boreal toads
(Bufonidae: Bufo boreas). Copeia 1976:327-331.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

14. Cooke, A. S. and J. F. D. Frazer. 1976. Charac-
teristics of newt breeding sites. J. Zool. 178:223-236.

15. Beebee, T. J. C. and J. R. Griffin. 1977. A prelim-
inary investigation into natterjack toad (Bufo calamita)
breeding site characteristics in Britain. J. Zool. (London)
181:341-350.

16. Albers, P. H. and R. M. Prouty. 1987. Survival of
spotted salamander eggs in temporary woodland ponds of
coastal Maryland. Environ. Pollut. 46:45-61.

17. Freda, J., V. Cavdek, and D. G. McDonald. 1990.
Role of organic complexation in the toxicity of aluminum
to Rana pipiens embryos and Bufo americanus tadpoles.
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:217-224.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 127-130

Overwintering Channel Catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and
Blue Catfish, Ictalurus furcatus, in Cages

LaurA GoopGAME-Tiv, CARoL D. WEBSTER,’ JAMES H. TIDWELL, AND
EppIE B. REED, JR.

Aquaculture Research Center, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

ABSTRACT

Channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and blue catfish, I. furcatus, were overwintered in cages. Fish were
fed (1% of body weight) every other day, when water temperatures were greater than 3°C. Fish of both
species lost weight during the study. Weight loss in blue catfish (25.9%) was significantly (P < 0.05) greater
than in channel catfish (8.5%). Percentage survival of channel catfish (97%) was significantly (P < 0.05)
greater than survival of blue catfish (44%). The large differences in survival may be related to parasite-
induced mortality in blue catfish. Channel catfish can be successfully overwintered in cages; however, blue
catfish may be prone to high mortality and can lose up to 25% of their body weight.

INTRODUCTION

Channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, nor-
mally require 14-20 months to reach market-
able size (450 g). Thus, fish must be overwin-
tered during their first year of life (1, 2, 3).
Channel catfish consume less food in winter
than in summer months (1, 4). If water tem-
peratures fall below 7°C, fish may not feed at
all (2, 5). However, withholding food from fish
when water temperature is above 7°C often
results in weight loss (1, 2).

Blue catfish, I. furcatus, possess several at-
tributes that may make them a desirable cul-
ture species in temperate regions of the Unit-
ed States. They have a higher dressing
percentage than channel catfish (6), are easier
to seine (7), and may have a lower optimum
growing temperature than channel catfish (8).
However, like channel catfish, they require
overwintering during their first year of life in
order to reach marketable size.

Cage culture offers some advantages over
open pond culture in that it allows fish to be
reared in ponds that would be difficult to har-
vest by seine, and permits easy observation of
the condition and feeding habits of the fish
(9). It would be advantageous to farmers who
use cage-culture methods to be able to over-
winter fish in cages. There is little information
on rearing channel catfish, and no data on
rearing blue catfish, in cages during the winter
(4, 10). The purpose of this study was to com-

‘To whom correspondence should be directed.

pare growth and survival of channel catfish
and blue catfish overwintered in cages.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Channel catfish and blue catfish fingerlings
were randomly stocked on 9 October 1992
into eight 1.25-m3 floating cages moored over
the deepest area (4 m) of a 1.0-hectare pond
(mean depth, 2.0 m) on the Agricultural Re-
search Farm, Kentucky State University,
Frankfort, Kentucky. Cages were constructed
by attaching l-cm polyethylene mesh to a
wooden frame. Cage lids were removable. To
prevent loss of sinking feed, polyethylene net
(2-mm mesh) was installed on the sides near
the bottom (8 cm high) and covering the bot-
tom of each cage. Cages were anchored to a
floating dock and spaced at 2-m intervals.

Cages were stocked with either 300 channel
catfish (average individual weight, 26.5 + 1.9
g) or 300 blue catfish (average individual
weight, 16.6 + 0.4 g). Channel catfish were
of the Red River strain and were obtained as
eggs from the Delta Branch Experimental Sta-
tion in Stoneville, Mississippi. The eggs were
hatched at the Aquaculture Research Center,
Kentucky State University, in late May 1992.
The blue catfish were spawned from brood-
stock collected from the Kentucky River and
hatched in late June 1992. The differences in
stocking size may reflect the differences in
hatching dates or early growth between the 2
species, but would be indicative of the size of
fish available for overwintering. Fry of both
species were stocked in ponds and fed a crum-

Meare

128

TaBLE 1. Composition of an experimental diet fed to
channel catfish and blue catfish overwintered in cages.

Menhaden fish meal (67%) 15.00
Soybean meal (44%) 25.00
Wheat flour 13.00
Meat and bone meal 8.00
Ground corm 28.75
Mineral mix* 0.10
Vitamin mix? 0.10
Choline 0.05
CMC: 5.00
Lignosulfonate 5.00
Chemical analysis

% Moisture 11.20

% Protein? 33.70

% Fat4 6.50.

«Mineral mix contained: Mn, 10.0% (as MnSO,); Zn, 10.0% (as ZnSO,);
Fe, 7.0% (as FeSO,); Cu, 0.7% (as CuSO,); I, 0.24% (as CalO,); Co, 0.10%
(as CoSO,).

> Vitamin mix contained: thiamin (B,), 1.01%; riboflavin (B,), 1.32%; pyri-
doxine (B,), 0.9%; nicotinic acid, 8.82%; folic acid, 0.22%; cyanocobalamine
(B,2), 0.001%; pantothenic acid, 3.53%; menadione (K), 0.2%; ascorbic acid
(C), 22.1%; retinolpalmitate (A), 4,409 IU/kg; cholecalciferol (D5), 2,204,600
IU/kg; alpha tocopherol (E), 66.2 IU/kg; ethoxyquin, 0.66%.

© CMC = carboxymethylcellulose.

4 Dry-matter basis.

bled high-protein trout diet (Purina, St. Louis,
Missouri) until stocked into cages.

During the present study, fish were fed (ra-
tion of 1% body weight) every other day, when
temperatures were greater than 3°C. The
amount fed was adjusted every 4 weeks, based
on an estimated 3:1 feed conversion ratio (2).
All fish were offered food more often than
would be recommended for channel catfish
(2) due to the lack of growth data for blue
catfish during winter and so that feed would
not be a limiting factor during the study. The
study lasted for 182 d, of which fish could pos-
sibly be fed 91 d. During the study, fish were
fed 60 days and not fed 31 d due to low tem-
peratures. Fish were fed a diet formulated to
contain 32% protein (Table 1). Dietary ingre-
dients were processed into 5-mm sinking pel-
lets by a commercial feed mill (Farmers Feed
Mill, Lexington, Kentucky). Dietary protein
level was determined using macro-Kjeldahl,
dietary fat by acid hydrolysis, and moisture by
drying to constant weight in a convection oven
at 100°C (11).

Temperature and dissolved oxygen were
monitored twice daily (0800 and 1630 hr) out-
side the cages at a depth of 0.75 m with a YSI
model 57 oxygen meter (Yellow Springs In-
strument Co., Yellow Springs, Ohio). Dis-
solved oxygen did not decline below 6.0 mg/

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

liter during the study and no aeration was re-
quired. Total ammonia nitrogen, phosphorus,
nitrite and nitrate were measured once per
week with a DR 700 Colorimeter (Hach Co.,
Loveland, Colorado), and pH was measured
weekly using an Accumet 900 pH meter (Fish-
er Scientific, Cincinnati, Ohio).

Fish were harvested on 9 April 1993 and
were not fed for 24 hr prior to harvest. Total
number and weight of fish in each cage were
determined at harvest. Twenty five fish were
randomly sampled from each cage and indi-
vidually weighed (g) and measured (total
length, cm). Ten fish from each cage were ho-
mogenized separately in a blender and ana-
lyzed for protein, fat, and moisture. Protein
was determined using macro-Kjeldahl, fat was
determined using ether extraction, and mois-
ture was determined by drying a 10 g sample
in a convection oven (100°C) until constant
weight (11).

Data (percentage weight gain and survival)
were analyzed using the SAS t Test procedure
(12) for significant differences between chan-
nel catfish and blue catfish. All percentages
and ratio data were transformed to arc sine
values before analysis (13).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water quality characters for the duration of
the study averaged (+SD): morning water
temipenatine Op lme=OronO: afternoon water
temperature, 6.3 + 4.0°C; morning dissolved
oxygen, 11.9 + 2.5 mg/liter; afternoon dis-
solved oxygen measured 12.3 + 2.2 mg/liter;
total ammonia nitrogen, 0.34 + 0.05 mg/liter;
phosphorus, 5.15 + 6.53 mg/liter; nitrite, 0.00
+ 0.00 mg/liter; nitrate, 0.14 + 0.08 mg/liter;
pH, 8.02 + 0.44. All water quality characters
were within accepted values for growth (14).

Fish of both species lost weight during the
study. Weight loss in blue catfish (25.9%) was
significantly (P < 0.05) greater than in channel
catfish (8.5%) (Table 2). Since fish lost weight
during the study, it was not possible to cal-
culate specific growth rates (SGR) and feed
conversion ratios (FCR) for channel catfish or
blue catfish. Percentage survival of channel
catfish (97%) was significantly (P < 0.05)
greater than survival of blue catfish (44%).

All fish species are poikilotherms and are
thus profoundly affected by water tempera-
ture. Channel catfish have a reduced meta-

REARING CATFISH IN KENTUCKY—Tiwu et al.

bolic activity and, consequently, reduced food
consumption during colder water tempera-
tures. The weight loss of the fed channel cat-
fish reported in the present study is similar to
values reported in Lovell and Sirikul (1), 9%,
and Robinette et al. (2), 3-8%, for weight loss
of non-fed channel catfish overwintered in
ponds. This would indicate that the channel
catfish in the present study did not consume
much food during the study. Burtle and New-
ton (10) stated that cooler water temperatures
contributed to weight loss of channel catfish
when reared in cages compared to warmer
water temperatures. The water temperatures
reported in the present study averaged 6.22°C.
This is colder than temperatures reported in
studies conducted in more southerly states (1,
2, 10) and most likely contributed to the great-
er weight loss of our fed fish.

Conflicting results have been reported re-
garding the growth of blue catfish. Huner and
Dupree (10) suggested that blue catfish may
be inferior to the channel catfish as a cultured
species due to slower growth at sizes less than
1 lb. In contrast, it has been stated that blue
catfish may have a lower optimum-growth
temperature than channel catfish (8), and thus
perform better in cooler climates. Results of
the present study indicate that cage-reared
blue catfish do not have higher weight gains
than channel catfish during winter. This is in
agreement with Grant and Robinette (15),
who reported that growth of channel catfish
was greater than that for blue catfish during
the winter when reared in ponds.

The survival of channel catfish in cages was
comparable to the survival of channel catfish
overwintered in ponds (1, 3, 15). In April, all
blue catfish were infested with an external
fungus and with Trichodina sp.. Channel cat-
fish showed no sign of either parasite. The
parasite infestation is suspected of being re-
sponsible for the majority of deaths of blue
catfish and thus, lower survival percentage
compared to channel catfish. Parasite-induced
mortality of cage-reared blue catfish during
winter may preclude farmers from attempting
this culture practice.

Whole body analysis indicated that blue cat-
fish had significantly (P < 0.05) higher per-
centages of moisture (77%) and fat (29%)
compared to channel catfish (75 and 21%, re-
spectively); however, percentage protein was

129

TABLE 2. Growth and body composition of blue and
channel catfish overwintered in cages. Means in rows hay-
ing different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Percentage protein and fat are expressed ona dry-matter
basis.

Blue Channel

Initial stocking

size (g) 16.6 + 0.4 26.5 + 1.9
Harvest weight (g) 12.6 + 0.46 24.0 + 0.94
Harvest length (cm) 12.4 + 0.06 14.5 + 0.18
Weight gain (%) —259 +1192 —85 + 0.55b
Survival (%) 43.9 + 12.62a 97.2 + 2.19b
Body composition

Moisture (%) 77.4 + 0.30a 74.9 + 0.42b

Protein (%) 59.3 + 1.37a 57.4 + 1.29a

Fat (%) 28.6 + 0.33a 21.4 + 0.96b

not significantly different between species (P
> 0.05) (Table 2). Lovell and Sirikul (1) re-
ported that non-fed fish had more body fat
than fish fed during the winter, indicating that
protein was degraded for energy needs. Grant
and Robinette (15) reported no difference in
percentage protein between the 2 species
when overwintered in ponds.

This study indicates that first-year channel
catfish can be successfully overwintered in
cages with a high percentage of survival and
minimal weight loss. However, first-year blue
catfish may be prone to high parasite-induced
mortality when reared in cages during winter
and can lose up to 25% of their body weight.
Further research which examines winter feed-
ing regimes for cage-reared channel catfish
should be conducted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Keenan Bishop, Jackie Lamb,
Hank Schweickart, Mac Stone, and Louis We-
ber for their technical assistance, and Karla
Richardson for typing this manuscript. This
research was partially funded by a USDA/
CSRS grant to Kentucky State University un-
der agreement KYX-80-92-05A.

LITERATURE CITED

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Comm. 28:208—216.

2. Robinette, H. R., R. L. Busch, S. H. Newton, C. J.
Heskins, S. Davis, and R. R. Stickney. 1982. Winter feed-
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Proc. Southeast. Assoc. Fish and Wildlife Agencies 36:
162-171.

130

3. Mims, S. D. and J. H. Tidwell. 1989. Winter feed-
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4. Huner, J. V. and H. K. Dupree. 1984. Nutrition,
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5. Webster, C. D., J. H. Tidwell, L. S. Goodgame, J.
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growth of channel catfish fed diets containing varying per-
centages of distillers grains with solubles as a total replace-
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6. Dunham, R. A., M. Benchakan, R. O. Smitherman,
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dressing percentage at harvest. J. World Maricul. Soc. 14:
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7. Chappel, J. A. 1979. An evaluation of twelve genetic
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8. Tidwell, J. H. and S. D. Mims. 1990. A comparison

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

of second-year growth of blue catfish and channel catfish
in Kentucky. Prog. Fish-Cul. 52:203-204.

9. Schmittou, H. R. 1970. The culture of channel cat-
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10. Burtle, G. J. and G. L. Newton. 1993. Winter
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11. AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis of the
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Inc., Arlington, Virginia.

12. Statistical Analysis System. 1988. SAS/STAT user’s
guide. Release 6.03 Edition. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary,
North Carolina.

13. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

14. Boyd, C. E. 1979. Water quality in warmwater fish
ponds. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn
University.

15. Grant, J. C. and H. R. Robinette. 1992. Commer-
cially important traits of blue and channel catfish as re-
lated to second summer, winter, and third summer
growth. Aquacult. 105:37-45.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3—4), 1994, 131-138

Regional Temperature Trends and Variations in the
Contiguous United States from 1935 to 1986

L. MICHAEL TRAPASSO

Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University,
Bowling Green, Kentucky 42101

AND

FAaHAD M. AL Ko.isi

Department of Geography, University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588

ABSTRACT

The temperature trends and variations from 1935 to 1986 were investigated for the contiguous United
States as a whole, and for 10 designated regions. A total of 263 stations from the Historical Climate Network
(HCN) were utilized. Data from the contiguous United States revealed that annual, summer, and winter
temperatures were free of significant positive or negative trends. Nine of the 10 regions displayed negative
temperature trends; however, with 2 exceptions, all were statistically insignificant. A reversal of the annual
temperature variations between eastern and western regions was also found.

INTRODUCTION

A number of atmospheric scientists have
de-emphasized the theory of climatic warming
by an augmented “greenhouse effect” (1, 2)
or have refuted the theory altogether in recent
years (3, 4). Yet, arguments of climatic change
persist. One argument concerns the existence
of proof that a warming has begun (5, 6, 7).
Supplying such proof involves a close exami-
nation of temperature trends on a variety of
spatial and temporal scales. Research concern-
ing temperature trends on global, hemispher-
ic, and continental scales date back for de-
cades and are far too numerous to cite.
However, a selected amount of background
literature concerning the continental United
States is presented below.

Kalnicky (8) in his study about the temper-
ature trends in the contiguous United States,
showed that most of the U.S. experienced
warming during the years 1931-1960 and
cooling in the 1960—-1970s. The eastern Unit-
ed States averaged at least 0.5°C cooler from
the base period (1931-1960) (8). Only por-
tions of the northwest and west had higher
mean temperatures from 1961 to 1970 than in
1931-1960. Summer and winter temperature
deviations were similar to annual temperature
deviations.

The variability of temperatures in the Unit-

ed States was also examined by Chico and
Sellers (9). They studied the variability of the
mean monthly temperature in the United
States from 1896 through the 1970s and con-
cluded that there was an increase in the in-
terannual variability from 1900 into the 1930s,
and this variability decreased from 1930 to
1970. The peak of the interannual variability
is found in the decade of the 1930s, and this
temporal trend is explained by changes in the
variability of winter mean monthly tempera-
ture.

Extensive spatial and temporal research was
completed concerning the changes in the cli-
mate of the contiguous United States from
1958-1977 (10). Three periods were identified
when temperature variation patterns followed
an east-west mode, and that from 1958 to
1977 the average temperature decreased
0.5°C from the relatively warm interval of the
1920s to the middle 1950s (10). They also
found that cooling was greatest in the eastern
United States, while the west had warmer
mean temperatures of about 0.3°C during this
time.

In another approach to the temperature-
trend pattern in the continental United States,
attempts (11) were made to identify 10 to 20
year temperature and precipitation fluctua-
tions. These authors investigated the temper-

131

132

Fic. 1. The ten regions defined by this research.

atures from 1931 to 1982, and attempted to
find regions and periods of time in which the
climatic characteristics had undergone a clear
transition to different climatic characteristics.
They identified the largest 10 to 20 year tem-
perature fluctuation across the contiguous
United States. Their results showed that over
the half century (from 1931-1982) the most
important widespread temperature of 10 to 20
year durations, in terms of standardized de-
parture, had been associated with a tempera-
ture change of 2°C or more during the years
with summer as the greatest fluctuation.

One characteristic of the variability of tem-
perature is having unusual heating, or cooling
seasons. A study by Karl et al. (12) concerning
temperatures found that the winters of 1975—
1983 were unusual and unprecedented in the
period from the 1890s to 1983. By “unusual”
the authors meant unusually cold or unusually
warm. They concluded that an uncharacteris-
tic spell of abnormal winters in the United
States occurred from 1975-1976 through
1982-1983, as defined by naturally areal av-
eraged temperatures. Nationally, 6 of 8 win-
ters during this period were either abnormally
warm or cold (z = 1.253) where z is the nor-
malized departure from the long-term mean.

Skeeter et al. (13) found that there is no
evidence of any temporal trends in inter-
monthly temperature variability in the conti-
nental United States from 1951 to 1980. How-
ever, they also found that the intra-monthly
temperature variability was greatest during the
winter and least during the summer.

From the cited literature, the temperature
trends in the Northern Hemisphere can be
summarized as follows: from 1890 to the

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3—-4)

1940s there was a positive trend of about
0.6°C (8, 14). Other writers suggested positive
figures close to this number. From the middle
1940s until the late 1960s, there was a pro-
nounced decrease in temperature, but his de-
crease was interrupted by a small rise in 1960
of about 0.03°C. From the late 1960s through
1970s there was a relatively steady situation
with respect to temperature trends. From the
mid-1970s into the 1980s there was another
increase in temperature, but also with a pro-
nounced spatial and temporal variability in the
Northern Hemisphere. This variability was
correlated to teleconnection of upper atmo-
spheric circulation, and the occurrences of El
Nifto and La Nima in association with the
Southern Oscillation. Others correlate this
variability to long and short-term sunspot cy-
cles, and their associated variation of the den-
sity of solar radiation.

Karl et al. (15) detected changes in the re-
cent century, but the changes have not been
monotonic. Changes tended to be unsteady
and of a relatively short period. At best, a de-
crease in diurnal temperature range seemed
to be evident.

The basic pattern of the temperature trends
in the United States is relatively different from
that of the Northern Hemisphere as a whole.
In general, the pattern of the western part of
the United States exhibits a trend opposite of
that of the Northern Hemisphere, but the
eastern United States display relatively similar
trends.

In general, the literature concerning tem-
perature trends and characteristics of the con-
tiguous United States, at best, leaves the read-
er somewhat confused. No one clear-cut
conclusion can be drawn. In essence, numer-
ous conclusions can be drawn depending upon
what characteristic of temperature is of con-
cern, what sub-periods are observed, and what
methodology is used.

The purpose of this study is to analyze 50
years of reliable climate data from the 48 con-
tiguous states and ascertain any and all tem-
perature trends and variations that exist. Since
previous research has shown that various geo-
graphical regions of the country behave dif-
ferently with respect to temperatures through
time, the continental U.S. is divided into 10
roughly homogeneous regions (Fig. 1). These
regions are analyzed separately and compared

TEMPERATURE TRENDS IN THE U.S.—Trapasso and Kolibi

133

Fic. 2A. The locations of the 263 HCN stations used to
analyze the contiguous United States as a whole.

with the U.S. as a whole. Finally, spatial vari-
ations of temperature trends are also investi-

gated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research concerning temperature trends
can encounter problems with non-climatic fac-
tors that may bias the data. Factors such as
urbanization, station relocation, personnel
changes, time of observation and instrument
changes could affect studies of this type. For
this reason only U.S. Historical Climate Net-
work (HCN) stations were used. The HCN is
a network of 1,219 long-term stations with
records that have been corrected to the extent
possible for a number of biases and noncli-
matic discontinuities. The authors, concerned
with the urbanization bias, took an extra pre-
caution, whereby more than 93% of stations
used in this study had urban populations of
5,000 or less according to the 1980 U.S. Cen-
sus. All together, 263 stations were used when
dealing with the contiguous states as a whole.
When examining the 10 regions, after border
stations were dropped, 205 stations remained
in the analysis (Figs. 2A and B, Table 1).

The time period chosen was from 1935 to
1986 or approximately the last 50 years.
Though arbitrary, this time period suits the
purpose quite well. First of all, 5 decades
should be enough time to show at least the
beginnings of a temperature trend. Further-
more, the historical time frame seems logical
as well. The mid-thirties found the U.S. in the
middle of the Great Economic Depression.
Industrial growth was at best slow or nonex-

Fic. 2B. Locations of the HCN stations used to analyze
the ten regions. With border stations dropped, a total of
205 stations were used.

TABLE 1. Data concerning the number of stations uti-

lized in this study.
Studied

3

3

Same
elie leat

ae
,

Number of
Stations per
unit Area~
1:20,000km?

Border
Stations

(Dropped)

-t

2

1c)
—

N
NX

—
—

i

aca

Vetueores: |
aa ime |
ee ee
| ed

—
—

Total Stations | Total Stations | Total Stations
representing | dropped when | representing
the contiguous | dealing with the ten
US. as Whole | the ten regions regions
263 58 205

134

istent. During the forties, World War II
brought about great industrial growth and de-
velopment. The post-war years saw the United
States emerge as an industrial super power.
The mid-eighties to the present has seen an
economic and industrial slowdown in the U.S.
It is reasonable to assume that an increasing
temperature trend may be detectable with the
increasing industrial activity from 1935-1986.

DEFINING THE REGIONS

For the purpose of this research, the con-
tiguous United States was divided into certain
climatic regions. An important concern was
how these divisions could be made. Realizing
that there are limitations to the homogeneity
of these divisions, such as the Great Lakes, the
Rocky Mountains and so on, we looked at pre-
vious climatic classification schemes. Though
there are many climatic classification systems,
there is no one standard classification which
could divide the country into clear cut areas,
each having its own climatic homogeneity. Us-
ing the 1968 Trewartha classification (16) em-
phasized temperature factors. We found that
this classification, with little adjustment, rather
appropriate for the purposes of this study. Fig-
ure 1 shows the division as established by the
authors, while Figures 2A and 2B show the
distributions of the stations utilized in this
study.

Regions are listed and named as follows:

Northeastern Region

Central Eastern Region
Southeastern Region
Northern Plains Region
Southern Plains Region
Mountain Region

Basin Region

Desert Region

Northwestern Region
Southwestern Coastal Region

SVC} C2) VCD EN Tes C2) 1S)

—

STATION SELECTION

Karl et al. (17) explain the method by which
the Historical Climate Network (HCN) data
for the United States are corrected for the
nonclimatic factors. Even though these cor-
rections are based on assumptions which may
have some shortcomings, the HCN data are
still considered to be highly dependable. Only
HCN stations were used in this study.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

METHOD OF SELECTING THE STATIONS

The distribution of stations within each re-
gion was kept as equal as possible. To do so,
a grid method of selection (13) was attempted;
however, applying this method tended to as-
sign regions rather unequal numbers of sta-
tions. Thus the grid method was dropped. To
assign a sufficient number of stations repre-
senting each region in proportion to its area,
the following selection process was used: 1.
Each region was assigned a minimum of ten
stations. 2. The ratio of the number of stations
in each region to the approximate area of that
region was constant for all the regions. This
ratio was one station to each 20,000 km. At
times one, or at most two, stations were added
to some regions to obtain fair representation.
3. The stations in each region were, as much
as possible, equally distributed throughout the
region. 4. More than 93% of the total stations
selected has an urban population of 5,000 or
less, according to the 1980 Census.

RESULTS

After computing monthly means from 1935
to 1986 all data were graphed and variations
were observed. Then the annual, winter, and
summer trends for the contiguous United
States and each of the ten regions were cal-
culated. The summer mean for each year was
defined as the average of June, July and Au-
gust data, while the winter mean was defined
as the average of December, January, and
February data. Annual means included all 12
months. Linear regression analysis was run for
all data sets. Statistical tables and regression
analysis graphs were produced to depict the
findings.

THE ContTiGuous UNITED STATES ANALYZED
AS A WHOLE

The mean annual temperature exhibited a
slight positive trend for the 48 contiguous
United States through time. This, despite the
fact that both summer and winter trends were
slightly negative. None of the trends are sta-
tistically significant (See Table 2). Figure 3A
clearly demonstrates the great amount of in-
terannual variability in the data, especially
during the winter season, and is in agreement

with Karl et al. (11) (Fig. 3B).

TEMPERATURE TRENDS IN THE U.S.—Trapasso and Kolibi

TABLE 2. Statistics concerning the 48 contiguous United
States taken as a whole.

Regression
Season Line Correlation | Significance | Standard
Slope Coefficient Deviation

Annual +0.06

SUMMER TEMPERATURE TRENDS AND
VARIATIONS OF THE TEN REGIONS

Summer temperatures were free of all sta-
tistically significant trends except Region 2,
Central Eastern Region (Fig. 4) which displays
a negative trend, and a t test value 0.012. Sig-
nificance was defined by the a = 0.05 level.

The Central Eastern Region summer vari-
ations show one period above the mean, 1935
to 1944, reaching its peak in 1936 recording
the highest summer temperature for this re-
gion. From 1944 to 1950 and from 1951 to
1954 are 2 consecutive short periods recording
below and above the mean variations, respec-
tively. From 1961 to 1976 represents a period
of strong negative deviation, where no single
year was above the mean temperature. More-
over, the lowest 3 temperatures recorded
were during this period. From 1977 to 1986 a
period of even fluctuation occurred about the
mean line. The standard deviation is 0.8°C and
range is 3.2°C.

ADCArDNM UKM

196 1975 1985
1960 1970 1980

YEAR

195
1950

935 1945
1940

Fic. 3A. Winter mean temperatures for the contiguous
United States, showing strong interannual variability.

135

CONTIGUOUS UNITED STATES
AREAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURES (CORRECTED)

T
E

M
P
E

R
A
T
U
R
E

3
a
.2)

3.0
160068 1006 1016 1026 1036 1046 1966 1066 1076
WINTERS (0D, J, F)

Fic. 3B. Interannual variability in winter temperatures
as displayed by Karl et al., 1984.

WINTER TEMPERATURE TRENDS AND
VARIATIONS FOR THE TEN REGIONS

Winter temperatures also lack statistically
significant trends except for Region 3, the
Southeast Region (Fig. 5) which also displays
a negative trend with at test = 0.027.

The Southeastern Region had 2 long alter-
nating periods of above and below the mean
deviations and each one was interrupted by a
short trend reversal. The period 1936-1956
was a strong deviation above the mean trend
line reaching its peak in 1949 with 14.7°C; this
was the warmest winter for this reason. This
period was interrupted by a brief, weak neg-
ative subperiod from 1970-1974. This long
period of negative deviation contained the
coldest winter for this region, 1977, which re-
corded 8.3°C, a deviation from the mean of
about 2.4°C.

SUMMER MEAN TEMPERATURE FROM 1935 TO 1986, REGION 2

aVCH FUN VISS

96 196 197
1960 1970

1
1950

1980

YEAR

Fic. 4. The Central Eastern Region.

136

WINTER MEAN TEMPERATURE FROM 1935 TO 1986, REGION 3

mmca>wmamvIMnAa

194 195 197
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

YEAR

Fic. 5. The Southeastern Region.

ANNUAL TEMPERATURE TRENDS AND
VARIATIONS FOR THE TEN REGIONS

Annual temperature trends were statistically
insignificant except for Regions 2 and 5, the
Central Eastern and the Southern Plains
Regions, respectively. Both Figures 6 and 7,
display negative trends. Both data sets yielded
an a = 0.02.

The Central Eastern Region showed two
weak trends above the mean. The periods
1941 to 1946 and 1976 to 1984 are periods of
negative deviation reaching the lowest tem-
perature for this region in 1976 which was
1.9°C below the mean. Between these 2 neg-
ative periods there is a short period of positive
temperatures between 1970-1975.

The Southern Plains Region, 5, contained
the following variations (Fig. 7). From the late
1930s to the mid 1940s, annual mean temper-
atures were either below or right at the mean.
The late 1940s through the mid 1960s exhibit

ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE FROM 1935 TO 1986, REGION 2

EVcHArPIMVIESS

194 195 196 197
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

YEAR

Fic. 6. The Central Eastern Region.

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE FROM 1935 TO 1986, REGION 5

mmacarwmnvrms

194 195 196 197
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

YEAR

Fic. 7. The Southern Plains Region.

the greatest variations in these data, with the
greatest extremes. The mid 1960s through to
1980 again shows a period of below the mean
to near mean temperature. The last few years
show a considerable variation.

DISCUSSION
TEMPORAL PATTERNS

When comparing this research with the
work of others, some interesting similarities
and differences are discovered. In general,
these previous works are supportive of our
findings. However, our study goes one step
further by selecting only stations that exhibit
little urban growth (i.e., stations surrounded
by populations of 5,000 or less). Both our work
and that of Karl (15) graph and analyze the
data on a regional scale, though the regional
boundaries differ. Unlike the work of Karl
(15), the analytical techniques differ. Instead
of standardizing the data and looking at devi-
ations from the norm, we fit a regression to
the data. Here both research projects con-
verge on the same sort of conclusions. Where
Karl (15) noted that positive and negative de-
viations exist through time, our work exhibits
a majority of trends that are not statistically
significant. These 2 sets of results are derived
from the same data characteristic; that is, great
variability through time.

The work of Balling and Idso (1) again of-
fers some interesting similarities and differ-
ences. We shared the concern of these authors
concerning the urbanization bias thus the se-
lection of rather small community stations aids
our work in both reliability and accuracy. The
majority of the work by Balling and Idso (1)

TEMPERATURE TRENDS IN THE U.S.—Trapasso and Kolibi

137

TABLE 3. Time line from 1935 to 1986 compares highest positive and negative deviations among the ten regions. W

= Western group and E = Eastern group.

a3 <

1935

S18 (218 \2

1941

YEAR| 8

1963

vena a

addresses the vital issue of regressing urban
growth with temperature changes through
time. Here again, our research involved the
regression analysis of actual mean tempera-
tures through time, an aspect missing in this
and other recent works of this type. These au-
thors further describe a reversal in the tem-
perature trends that occurs between the east-
ern and western contiguous United States.
The negative deviations shown in the south-
eastern states are also found in our analysis
which discovered significant negative trends in
our Southeastern and Central Eastern
Regions. Our work also suggests the reversal
of trends found on either side of the conti-
nental U.S. The following section further de-
scribes these findings in more detail.

SPATIAL PATTERNS

Due to the meandering pattern of the Up-
per Air Westerlies, the highest temperature
deviation patterns tend to reverse when com-
paring western regions to eastern regions. The
highest positive deviation in eastern regions
(ie., Regions 1—5), indicating a ridge in the jet
stream to the east, was mostly (80% of the
time) accompanied by the highest negative de-
viation in a western region (i.e., Regions 6—

1972
1973

1967
= [ee
1969 |
EEL
1971

= SB

1951
1952
1956

in |i |

1978
1979
1982
1983
1985
1986

1976

cog fF AZRBHSR SSA ABSARAAR AGES
Bree me SLA ee] 8] | rel eee Aree | Lea

10). This would indicate a jet stream trough
in the west. The reversal of troughs and ridges
in the Polar Front Jet essentially assures that
the contiguous United States will not likely
display uniform temperature deviations
throughout. As demonstrated in this research,
the ten regions react differently at different
times. The time line depicted in Table 3 shows
the extent to which this reversal exists.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A number of basic conclusions can be
drawn from this research. The first is the com-
plexity of the temperature swings. The authors
acknowledge the somewhat tedious reading
involved with the data analysis section of this
research. With all the periods of trends, sub-
periods of trends, variations in the trends and
exceptions to the variations, the reader is left
somewhat confused. Herein lies the first con-
clusion, that temperature trends in the United
States or any subregion are at best, a very
complex and changeable phenomenon (see
Figs. 3A and 3B).

Another conclusion is drawn when fitting
trend lines to the regional data. The trends are
statistically insignificant or negative. In a few
regions, a significant regional cooling through

138

time was found. Of the temperature trends for
the contiguous United States as a whole, the
summer and winter temperature trends were
negative, while the annual temperature trend
was positive—none were significant.

Lastly, in a spatial context a rev versal of
greatest negative and positive deviations from
the eastern regions to the western regions was
detected. This makes finding general temper-
ature trends applicable for the entire areal ex-
tent of the contiguous United States virtually
impossible.

This research, as well as the work of others,
clearly demonstrates that the great variability
of temperature changes in the contiguous
United States prohibits the discovery of a co-
herent and significant trend through time (i.e.
a Greenhouse Effect). The authors recom-
mend that research of this type be ongoing,
or at the very least, periodically updated. To
state at this time there is no proof of a con-
tinental warming is accurate. However, to ex-
trapolate these findings to suggest that there
will be no proof of warming trends in the fu-
ture is premature. Only with more data and
updated analysis can the initiation of a coher-
ent and significant trend, if one exists, be
found.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Balling, R. C., Jr. and S. B. Idso. 1989. Historical
temperature trends in the United States and the effect of
urban population growth. J. Geophys. Res. 94:3359-3363.

2. Michaels, P. J. 1991. Global warming and coal: the
new synthesis. J. Coal Quality 10:1-11.

Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

3. Bryson, R. A. 1989. Will there be a global green-
house warming? Environ. Cons. 13:97-99.

4. Lindzen, R. S. 1990. Some coolness concerning
global warming. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 71:288—299.

5. Kerr, R. A. 1988. Is the greenhouse here? Science
239:559-561.

6. Monastersky, R. 1989. Looking for Mr. Green-
house. Science New 135:216—221.

7. Abelson, P. H. 1989. Uncertainties about global
warming. Science 247:1529-1530.

8. Kalnicky, A. R. 1974. Climatic changes since 1950.
Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 64:100—112.

9. Chico, T. and W. D. Sellers. 1979. Interannual tem-
perature variability in the United States since 1896. Cli-
mate Change 2:139-147.

10. Diaz, H. F. and R. G. Quayle. 1980. The climate
of the United States since 1895: spatial and temporal
changes. Mon. Weather Rev. 108:249-266.

11. Karl, T. R. and W. W. Riebsome. 1984. The iden-
tification of 10 to 20 year temperature and precipitation
fluctuations in the contiguous United States. J. Climate
Appl. Meteorol. 23:950—-966.

12. Karl, T. R, et al. 1984. Recent unusual mean win-
ter temperatures across the contiguous United States.
Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 65:1302—1309.

13. Skeeter, B. R., et al. 1988. A climatology of intra-
monthly temperature variability in the contiguous United
States 1951-1980. Phys. Geog. 9:99-119.

14. Reitan, C. H. 1974. A climatic model of solar ra-
diation and temperature change. Quaternary Res. 4:25—
38.

15. Karl, T. R., et al. 1989. Time series of regional
season averages of maximum, minimum, and average tem-
perature, and diurnal temperature range across the Unit-
ed States: 1901-1987. Historical Climatology Series 4-5,
NOAA-NCDC, Asheville, North Carolina. 107 pp.

16. Lyndolph, P. E. 1985. The climate of the earth.
Rowman and Allanheld, New York.

17. Karl, T. R., et al. 1988. Urbanization: its detection
and effect in the United States climatic record. J. Climate
1:1099-1123.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 139-141

NOTES

Triatoma sanguisuga Leconte (Hemiptera: Redu-
viidae) in Kentucky and West Virginia —The natural
blood-feeding vector of Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas) in
the southeastern United States, Triatoma sanguisuga Le-
conte, has been reported from much wider areas of the
nation than T. cruzi. According to Blatchly (Nature Pub.
Co., 111 pp., 1926) and Usinger (Pub. Health Bull., 288:
83, 1944), T. sanguisuga may be found as far north as
Maryland, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Maryland is the
only state north of Georgia and the Gulf Coast states in
which T. cruzi has been found (raccoons) (Walton et al.,
Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 7:603-610, 1958).

While at Marshall University (Huntington, West Virgin-
ia), in the spring and summer of 1965, many efforts were
made by myself and several students to collect T. sangui-
suga. Most of the attempts were made in Cabell and
Wayne counties. No bugs or signs of the bugs were ob-
served (Shoemaker, Proc. WV Acad. Sci. 38:15—17, 1966).

A personal correspondence from Richard C. Froesch-
ner, Associate Curator in Charge, Division of Hemiptera,
Department of Entomology, United States National Mu-
seum, Washington, D.C., stated the following: “Checking
the USNM collection of Triatoma in response to your let-
ter of May 27, 1965, found no specimens of the genus
from West Virginia. Specimens from the adjacent sister
states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia and Kentucky
were noted: in other words, collectors should most cer-
tainly find it in your state.”

Letters were also sent to the biology departments of all
of the other colleges in West Virginia inquiring if they had
T. sanguisuga in their collections. Of the 19 colleges, 5
answered, and 2, Concord College and West Virginia State
College, stated that they did have T. sanguisuga in their
collections. Concord College did not know where the bugs
were collected, and West Virginia State College’s bugs
were collected locally (Nitro, West Virginia) (Shoemaker,
loc. cit.).

About 28 years later, around 9:00 a.m., 18 July 1993, I
decided to take a Sunday morning stroll in Ashland’s Cen-
tral Park. I had just begun walking around the park when
I noticed an insect crawling rapidly across the sidewalk in
front of me. I stopped for a closer look and immediately
recognized it as an adult male T. sanguisuga. Instead of
completing my walk, I went instead to Ashland Commu-
nity College’s microbilogy laboratory with the bug care-
fully wrapped in the cellophane of a cigarette pack. I gent-
ly pressed the abdomen of the bug, and forced fresh liquid
fecal material out onto a glass slide. After careful micro-
scopic examination of the material, I concluded that no
trypanosomes were present.

During subsequent days I examined likely hiding places
(hollow trees, animal nests) for the bugs in Central Park,
but no more were found. However, I did contact Dr. Ri-
cardo P. Bessin at the University of Kentucky, who in-
formed me that he had several specimens of T. sanguisuga
that had come from a house in Morgan County, amazing-

ly, also during this past summer (1993). According to Bes-
sin, the bugs had been biting the occupants of the house.

I spoke with Dr. Charles V. Covell and his graduate
student, Barry Nicholls, at the University of Louisville De-
partment of Zoology, and they did have 4 Triatoma sp. in
their collection. Dr. Covell sent them to me for species
identification. All of them are T. sanguisuga (1 female and
3 males): collected from Trigg Co. (Land Between the
Lakes), Bullitt Co., Carter Co. (Carter Caves), and Jeffer-
son Co. (Waverly Park, Louisville).

Dr. J. E. McPherson, Department of Zoology, Southern
Illinois University, did not have T. sanguisuga in his col-
lection from Kentucky, but did send me a distribution
map of the species found in the state of Illinois. As one
might expect, most of the bugs were from a 13 county
area in the southern part of the state. However, 1 collec-
tion was from Henard County, which is near the state’s
center.

None of the bugs from the universities that I contacted
had been examined for the presence of Trypanosoma cru-
zi. If T. cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas’ disease, is
found in T. sanguisuga or wild mammals in Kentucky, this
potential public health hazard could become an intriguing
topic of research—Jon P. Shoemaker, Department of
Biological Sciences, Ashland Community College (Uni-
versity of Kentucky), Ashland, Kentucky 41101.

New Localities for Rare or Infrequent Vascular
Plants of Kentucky.—The following records provide
new information on the distribution of rare or infrequent
vascular plants of Kentucky. The majority of new sites are
for aquatic and wetland species. The rarity status of these
species in Kentucky is based on the recent revision of the
Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern Plants and
Animals of Kentucky (Kentucky State Nature Preserves
Commission, unpublished document, 1992). References
to this 1992 list, as well as additional locality information
kindly provided to the author from the databases of the
Commission, are abbreviated in the species listings as
KSNPC. References to Beal and Thieret, Aquatic and
Wetland Plants of Kentucky, 1986, are indicated by the
abbreviation B&T. All vouchers are housed at the Eastern
Kentucky University Herbarium (EKY).

Glyceria septentrionalis Hitchcock. MADISON CO.:
Upland swamp forest with standing water off Duncannon
Rd., about 0.5 mi. W. U.S. 421/25, 12 June 1990. Jones
6353. The eastern mannagrass occurred in dense stands
in shallow water. B&T mapped 2 counties, but it has re-
cently been documented for several additional counties (J.
Campbell, pers. comm.). It is under consideration for po-
tential listing by KSNPC.

Gratiola pilosa Michx. Endangered. MCCREARY CO.:
Wet meadows below pond on W. side of U-S. 27, just N.

139

140

Tennessee state line, 10 August 1991, Jones 6823. The
hairy hedge-hyssop is known from only 4 counties—Lau-
rel, Wayne, Whitley, and McCreary (KSNPC)—this col-
lection is a new site in the county. Associates at the site
included 2 other Kentucky Endangered species (see be-
low).

Hypericum crux-andreae (L.) Crantz. Endangered.
MCCREARY CO.: Same site as described for Gratiola
pilosa, 10 August 1991, Jones 6821. This St. Peter’s wort
is currently known from 3 counties—Pulaski, McCreary,
and Whitley (KSNPC). At this new site in McCreary
County, just a few plants were observed growing in a wet-
land meadow.

Juncus nodatus Cov. MCCREARY CO.: Pond off King-
town Rd., just N. Tennessee state line, 10 August 1991,
Jones 6852. PULASKI CO.: Large pond near jet. Co. 1003
and KY 192, 22 June 1991, Jones 6784. B&T described
this rush as infrequent and documented it for 5 counties,
all west of Jefferson County. Associates at these south-
central Kentucky sites included Typha angustifolia L..,
Juncus coriaceous MacKenzie, and Scirpus purshianus
Fern.

Lobelia nuttallii Roemer & Schultes. Endangered.
MCCREARY CO.: Same site as described for Gratiola
pilosa, 10 August 1991, Jones 6820. The species had pre-
viously been reported from this county, but this is the only
currently known extant population in McCreary County.
There is an on-going study of the population biology of
this taxon, and new information on its distribution and
ecology will soon be available (Steve Walker, pers.
comm.).

Lonicera prolifera (Kirchner) Rehder (=L. reticulata).
Endangered. ANDERSON CO.: Rocky wooded slopes
above Gilbert Creek, along KY 513, about 3 mi. E. U.S.
127, 15 May 1991, Jones 6737. LINCOLN CO.: Rocky
wooded slopes above Cedar Creek, near jct. Boone Rd.,
5 July 1993, Jones 7430. The only other known site for
the grape honeysuckle is one in Franklin County
(KSNPC). Two notable associates at the Anderson County
site were Frasera caroliniensis Walter and Silene caroli-
niana Walter. Just upstream from the Cedar Creek site,
2 other infrequent Kentucky plants, Monarda clinopodia
L. and Orbexilum onobrychis (Nutt.) Rydb., were collect-
ed.

Lythrum salicaria LL. LINCOLN CO.: In ditches and
low meadows along U.S. 150, NW. of Crab Orchard, near
jet. of Cedar Creek and Boone Rd., 5 July 1993, Jones
7438. B&T mapped 10 counties, all on or near the Ohio
River. This south-central Kentucky record is the most
southerly extension known in the state for purple loose-
strife, a noxious European weed rapidly invading wetlands
in the eastern United States.

Ranunculus ambigens S. Wats. Special Concern. MAD-
ISON CO.: Same locality as described above for Glyceria
septentrionalis, 12 June 1990, Jones 6352. In B&T, the
water-plantain spearwort was documented from 5 coun-
ties, all in the northern half of the state. For the last 2

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

years it has not been observed at this central Kentucky
site.

Sagittaria graminea Michx. var. graminea. Threatened.
KNOX CO.:: Shallow shoreline waters of Wilton Lake, off
KY 6, 21 July 1982, Jones 3822, 13 July 1990, Jones 6522.
B&T mapped 4 counties, all from the north-central and
western part of the state. Associates at this southeastern
Kentucky site included Scirpus pungens Vahl, Najas minor
All., and Eleocharis quadrangulata (Michx.) Roemer &
Schultes.

Scirpus fluviatilis (Torr.) Gray. Threatened. MADISON
CO.: Drained basin of Lake Reba, in shallow pools and
in ditches, 6 July 1988, Jones 5446C. B&T mapped only
2 counties, Henderson and Fulton, both from the far
western part of the state, for this species. Chester (Sida
15:157-158, 1992) discussed the distribution of the river
bulrush in southeastern U.S. Lake Reba was refilled dur-
ing 1993 and the current status of the population has not
yet been determined.

Scirpus purshianus Fern. MCCREARY CO.: Pond on
W. side U.S. 27, just N. Tennessee state line, 10 August
1991, Jones 6835; pond off Kingtown Rd., just N. Ten-
nessee state line, 10 August 1991, Jones 6847. B&T con-
sidered this sedge as rare in the state but it is not listed
by KSNPC. The 3 documented counties mapped by B&T
were Rowan, Nelson, and Ballard. At these 2 new loca-
tions in McCreary County the associates included Juncus
nodatus, Scirpus polyphyllus Vahl and Eleocharis quad-
rangulata.

Toxicodendron vernix (L.) Kuntze. MCCREARY CoO.::
Woodlands around 2 ponds, 0.5 mi. ENE ject. U.S. 27 and
KY 92, near Pine Knot, 22 June 1991, Jones and Stephens
6779. The only other known extant site in the state is in
Carter County (Bryan, KNPS Newsletter 6(1):3-4, 1991).
A detailed account of this site and the associates has al-
ready been published (Stephens and Jones, KNPS News-
letter 6(4):9-10, 1991). This species is now under consid-
eration as a potential listing by KSNPC.

Special mention should be made of the McCreary and
Madison county sites that each produced several new re-
cords. At the McCreary County site near the Tennessee
state line there were 3 Endangered species, Lobelia nut-
tallit, Gratiola pilosa, and Hypericum crux-andreae, and
the infrequent Scirpus purshianus. These sites included
several wetland habitats, including a large pond, a wetland
meadow, and a wet woods. The property is under private
ownership, and access is now restricted by locked gates
and the posting of no trespassing signs.

A small naturally occurring upland swamp forest off
Duncannon Road in Madison County is the site of 2 of
the records—Glyceria septentrionalis and Ranunculus
ambigens. Several other wetland habitats occur nearby,
including a stand of wet woods and a large pond. This is
a remarkable site for the county because of these habitats
and the richness of the wetland flora. These areas are en-
tirely surrounded by the Richmond South Industrial Park
and on-going development is taking place. Reassurance
has been given by the owners that the more fragile and

NOTES 141

significant regions within the development site will be pre-
served. As of the summer of 1993, the upland swamp for-
est was still mostly intact, although several large trees had
been toppled by a recent windstorm.

Funds to support this research were provided by grants

from the EKU Research Committee, the United States
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Kentucky State Nature
Preserves Commission.—Ronald L. Jones, Department
of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University, Rich-
mond, Kentucky 40475.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 142-149

FORUM

The Seamless Web

BRANLEY ALLAN BRANSON

Department of Biological Sciences, Eastern Kentucky University,
Richmond, Kentucky 40475

The scientific method did not start with
Francis Bacon. In fact, the ability to reason
from evidence is, in a very real sense, ancient,
at least as old as the origin of highly integrated
nervous systems. Two thousand years before
Christ, a Babylonian scribe, using cuneiform
characters, wrote, “Writing is the mother of
eloquence and the father of artists.” That spo-
kesperson’s voice, coming from the half-mil-
lion or so clay tablets that have been un-
earthed, demonstrated the possession of a
detailed knowledge of mathematics and engi-
neering, medicine and elemental zoology in
those people, elements that had a decidedly
modern ring from time to time. Of even great-
er importance was the fact that those ancient
people invented writing, making possible the
exponential accumulation of learning that
made possible the elimination of errors and,
at the same time, introduced the profession of
teaching.

One student, all those thousands of years
ago, wrote a eulogy for an unnamed teacher,
praising him for providing a model of proper
behavior, of speech and writing, and for hav-
ing “focused my eyes on the rules that guide
the man of achievement.” Thus, from time be-
yond memory, our youth have been molded
and guided by teachers of various sorts, but it
is not always the classroom scion who does the
teaching, and it is important that any scientist
remember that admonition lest we put too
much emphasis upon formal classroom exer-
cises while disremembering the prowess of na-
ture to teach.

Teachers do, of course, provide us with di-
rection, help our minds toward potentials. But
they can do little more than that; they cannot
guide our inductions and deductions when we
are abroad on our own. More often than not
our abilities to order evidence into formats
that are reasonable and to draw conclusions
from evidence depends upon our own cogni-

tive skills and upon our insight. The greatest
teachers of naturalists, once they have pro-
gressed beyond the primer stages of develop-
ment, may be discovered in all sorts of unex-
pected places; they are pervasive. Thus, the
young Babylonian who extolled the virtues of
his teacher only hinted at inchoate attributes
of pointing toward ways of seeing, not what
was, or should be seen.

Much of my own education has been de-
rived from close encounters with nature. For
example, I recall a particularly intense teach-
ing session with a pair of ponderous chuck
wallas in the Grand Canyon.

It happened below the Red Wall on a
steamy morning in May, deep in the outer
gorge. I had come down the trail toward Phan-
tom Ranch studying geological formations,
and before me, perhaps 30 feet away, were 2
huge rust-and-black chucks, facing one anoth-
er near some patches of pink-blossomed prick-
ley pears. This was their ancestral environ-
ment, not mine, and their stereotyped senses
did not include knowledge of creatures like
me, or at least so it seemed. Their powers of
recognition—sight, smell, taste—set limits to
protected, invisible boundaries. They knew
competetors. They eyed one another warily,
not moving a muscle or blinking their beady
eyes in that ancient landscape.

Intrigued, I slipped the harness of my back-
pack and slowly lowered myself in the shade
to watch. Almost immediately, the action start-
ed. With profound grace and precision, the
larger of the two articulated a slow double
head-bob. The smaller, menaced male did not
miss the significance of the formal bow. As the
bobbing ceased, the same challenge was iter-
ated by the smaller lizard, and I saw the larger
one advance, in that ancient reptilian stance,
repeating his challenge as he moved. My ob-
serving intrusion upon their primitive world
was not recorded by them; they were locked

142

THE SEAMLESS WEB—Branson

into responses that were older by far than the
entire age of man. They were bounded by rep-
tilian genes, restricted to a reptilian universe
from which they could not escape. Yet, for all
that, we shared many genes and groups of
them, but not enough for me to meet their
challenge, not could they meet mine. As I
shouldered again my pack and made my way
down the steep grade, like a peculiar fossil es-
caping from the hoary strata, I knew that I had
just emerged from a primeval incident, and I
was delighted.

Further, I contemplated, as I hiked deeper
and deeper into time, those ancient impulses,
submerged under millions of neurons, nuclei,
and processes deep within my brain—a part
without which I could not face stress—
emerged sometimes from that old reptilian
brain and surged through the limbic system to
elicit rage or extreme pleasure. I was, I
thought, a walking alembic of time myself, a
mobile factory of nutrition and support for dif-
fering layers of response centers that had de-
veloped by accretion, like the sedimentary
strata around me in the rocks, only the top-
most layer of which contained intelligence—a
fog-bound universe that was at once forever
lightless and blindingly expansive.

I began to speculate that among the central
nervous systems that have been in existence
for millions of years, some more loosely knit,
some very compact, that all kept their posses-
sors informed about the universe around
them, but in a delineating sort of way. All of
us, lizards and men, perceive the same things
but in different ways, like artists, biologists
and lumbermen who contemplate the same
pristine forest.

In the over 3 decades that have passed since
that brief encounter, I have often mused upon
the fat, colorful lizards. Their glistening, bright
eyes reflected nothing if not high intelligence,
and it was that which bothered me. But why
should such an observation take on such great
importance? Was it because I was uncomfort-
able in the sure knowledge of intelligence in
organisms that could not read or write?

Hopefully not, for the triumph of intelli-
gence was not something that suddenly ap-
peared, say, in Australopithecus on the savan-
nas of Africa. I have seen, and often sensed,
intelligence at work in various animals, both
in hunters and in would-be prey. The mea-

143

surement of intelligence in non-human crea-
tures has been one of the undertakings of
ethologists. From my own encounters, I
sensed the expanding network of neurons
from which all intelligence, including our own,
was derived. The brains of ancient creatures
are imbedded in our brains, their learning
ability in our own consciousness. Each time
we drift through a woodlot we are cognizant
of things known without previous study, or at
least of recognition of particulars and gener-.
alized schemes like the instinctive members of
a foraging wolf pack.

The foraging has been constant—the as-
sumption of an upright posture in a world of
tetrapods, the testing and rejecting or accep-
tance of life-supporting items lasted perhaps
more than eight million years, but it started in
earnest when the man-apes, living in their an-
tagonistic environments, started using primi-
tive stone tools. The learning and hand-eye co-
ordination changed their brains, not only
inexorably enlarging them but also causing dif-
ferent methods of folding to emerge during
developmental stages, forcing some of the
apelike parts into deeper strata. Juvenilization
set in by two million years ago, creating the
brain of dreams and conquest that submerged
mere instincts.

The billions of cells that were added to the
cortex, especially in the frontal lobes, are
charged with learning and remembering,
more than any other part of the brain. Injury-
inducing blows applied to the frontal lobes
and the higher intellectual processes required
for planning and problem solving and the
judgements that tell us the consequences of
behavior revert to the level of antecedents. If
the blows fall upon the parietal and temporal
lobes of the brain, we lose our ability to form
or understand words, to express thoughts and
sentience, and we are no longer able to re-
member visual scenes or to execute illustra-
tions of the universe that surrounds us.

The anthropologists, the students of man’s
emergence, tell us that many of the brain-
change patterns are indelibly mapped on the
inner surface of the skulls of long-extinct spe-
cies. Men who survived for hundreds of
thousands of years longer than the entire his-
tory of modern man had brains and learning
abilities that were far less well-developed than
those of their product. Or so it would seem.

144

But skull maps do not tell us much about deep
connections and neuronal packing. The in-
stincts of the more primitive intelligence al-
lowed greater latitudes in the environments
that sustained those creatures, the learning
subjugated natural tendencies more slowly,
the forager took what he could get without
thinking too deeply about the process.

During over two million years of competi-
tion and change, only one species has suc-
cessfully developed association centers in its
cortex that insured the ability to massively
change and modify the environmental prerog-
atives that had defeated most other species
that have ever come into being on earth.
Homo sapiens is a weird, spectral species that
has grown further and further removed from
nature, though he may yet be forced to retrace
some of his steps.

There is an evolutionary axiom that says
high degrees of specialization to environments
are precursors to extinction, and in many ways
man is the most specialized animal in the en-
tire biological history of earth. Yet, in another
way man is the most generalized of animals,
able to live in many environments, even ones
that essentially exclude nearly all other crea-
tures. Man’s rationalizing, dreaming, planning
brain is the reason.

And it was those things that set me off on
tangential thinking about the intelligence I
saw burning in the lizard’s eyes.

More than that.

The mind that contemplates the intelli-
gence of a lizard has also contemplated its own
intelligence and associations while creating cu-
neiform characters, the startling paintings on
Tanzian stone walls, and the great digital com-
puters that rule the earth. The human mind
has not only allowed man to escape the con-
straints of nature, but it has also superimposed
constraints upon the rest of nature for which
there can be no adaptations by other living
beings. And that is why my thoughts kept go-
ing back to the chuck walla placidly munching
prickly pear flowers in the Grand Canyon,
completely trapped by his environmental con-
straints.

The formidable environment in which we
met was a microcosm of the human arena as
it interdigitates that of other beings. The eye
contact made that patently clear. There was
recognition, but recognition that was inter-

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

preted at entirely different levels of the uni-
verse, almost as if we were excluding one an-
other from the state of history that not only
extended back into time before memory itself,
but which also made pronouncements about
the future. Man’s delicate measurements of
genetic distancing makes correlations across
millions of years, his use of radioisotopic dat-
ing carries him into even more remote eras of
earth history, his application of biochemical
techniques allows him insights into the min-
utest parts of his own architecture. But at a
more primitive level, man and lizard occupy
positions that are on equal footing, observa-
tion. There is no instantaneous advantage.
Learning delineated the gulf between the two
systems, in any environment. Like the lizard’s
eye, man’s forms images of the world that he
can touch, and the lizard can touch his world,
too, but he is restricted to the touch. Another
part of man orders and arranges images of
parts of the universe he shall never touch, nev-
er actually encounter. Even as I contemplated
my chuck walla, I knew that somewhere men
were fashioning new experiments, new com-
puters, and new mechanical extensions of
their biological senses that would cause quan-
tum leaps in learning.

Yet, man tarries in his deserts, often of his
own fabrication, contemplating the limitations
of ancient lineages that have gone through the
sculpturing of time, but he never sees the liz-
ard as an augury of unexpected outcomes.

Man, in his innermost arrangements, is an
unexpected outcome himself, I think: in spite
of residual reptilian DNA he dreams of build-
ing in extraterrestrial space, of taking his lim-
itations with him to the vast deserts of Mars
and beyond, of transforming cold and lifeless
worlds into new earths where cycles of plun-
dering may be re-established. The dreams go
on forever, unlimited by unforeseen con-
straints. Yet, human dreams have ways of be-
coming reality, I contemplated further. Any-
thing that can be forced through the sieve of
thought can be attempted. And I remem-
bered, too, the foraging across all those
thousands of years, the unrelenting competi-
tion between tenuously related creatures.
How far back in time, or forward, for that
matter, must we go before the bonds we re-
fuse to admit are not so obvious, before eye

THE SEAMLESS WEB—Branson

contact between chuck walla and man no lon-
ger is disquieting?

We have never been content with simple
calibrations of eye-to-target. The freeing of
feet from mobility duties, the perfection of
hand-and-eye coordination, and the burgeon-
ing growth of the brain during the vast ice
ages released more than efficient killing.
“Throwing,” says William Calvin, “was not a
one-step invention. It has aspects such as ac-
curacy and length of throw that may be im-
proved.” Killing from a distance was a
development we have never relinguished. And
that was patently clear in the visual exchange
between me and the chuck walla: I could have
easily crushed its skull with a single rock. Man
has continued to see through the eyes of the
hunger, even in this late part of the 20th cen-
tury, and all the mechanical extensions we
have contrived for our organs of perception
are only extravagant denouements of Achue-
lean achievements. But the ability to learn car-
ries with it the ability to learn about things
that would destroy us, not the least of which
is the adaptation to a narrowly restricted way
of life.

We can no longer dream our way free of he
exigencies imposed upon us by the twisted
coils of genetic codes; dreams may fly to the
fartherest extremes of the universe, but they
wili not carry us with them. Dreams are fire
storms in the temporal lobes but in the cold
light of wakened perceptions stands the final
lesson we must learn, that we, like the lizards
that roam their ancient landscapes, are caught
in the snares of an incubus. The worst fears
of day carry over into the fitful darkness.
Awake or sleeping, man searches for solutions
to his dilemma, and his unique creativity
comes to the surface. As we contemplate how
to best harness that creativity, we must inevi-
tably remember that egocentricity is not only
another weapon in the arsenal of survival, it is
the ultimate guide to the architecture of our
higher faculties that not only created reason
and science, but also, through the magic of
insight, provided us with undistorted views of
ourselves. We do not see ourselves as unmit-
igated miracles of creation but as amalgama-
tions of beasts, including the purely human.
We have arrived at this juncture because we
are students, not only with the ability to learn
to use fire and weaponry, but also what con-

145

stitutes fire and weaponry. We have built
monuments to that ability. Whether those
mounments represent graven images remains
to be seen, but there is no turning back from
the pathway that leads to our uncertain future.

Dy

Those of use who hold communion with na-
ture’s visible forms, according to William Cul-
len Bryant’s exhortations, must expect re-
sponses in various tongues, but what there is
to learn from the invisible aspects of nature is
couched in an even greater array of languages.
“A countryside,” said Loren Eiseley, “is above
all a biography, the only biography left by
time.” He was referring to the enormous in-
fluence of Sir Charles Lyell on Charles Dar-
win, an influence as a teacher that led Darwin
back to nature as the ultimate teacher, but
armed with a new concept, limitless time. Na-
ture may be the greatest teacher on earth, but
the lessons it teaches often require enormous
concentration and perserverance to under-
stand.

A few nights ago, as I stood in front of our
house facing the long, unlighted street that ap-
proaches it, I saw a single, dim, yellowish light
approaching in the distance, wavering, turning
left and right, up and down, like the ghost of
some ancient Greek philosopher searching for
an educated man. It was eerie, coming onward
ata steady pace, grim-reaperish. I was trans-
fixed, rooted to the spot where I stood. Final-
ly, a bicyclist came into view. He was dressed
entirely in black, including his helmet. He
raised a pale face to glance at me, and then
he passed on into the darkness. I did not rec-
ognize him, but he gave me the creeps.

For whom was he searching? What was his
mission on that rainy, dark night. Those ques-
tions will, of course, probably never be an-
swered. In nature, there are many encounters
like that, brief, sometimes painfully elidable of
proper responses because we are totally ig-
norant about what we observe. We must grope
our way through obfuscation. Like the lone cy-
clist probing a dark street with little illumi-
nation, we must take our evidence in whatever
form it is presented.

What evidence? The earth is so packed with
the outpourings of evolutionary sequence in
the forms of species of plants and animals that
evidence would appear to be overwhelming.

146

That is true, but only if an observer has had
the benefit of mentors who taught him how to
really see.

Sometimes nature forces conclusions upon
observers with such power and drama that
those observers are suddenly overwhelmed by
the results and wonder why they hadn’t un-
derstood all along. That occurred for a young
Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands
when he realzied the tremendous importance
of isolation to evolution. And it happened to
me when I was a young man at Oakland Naval
Hospital. I was minimally tutored in medicine,
although that was my function at the time, but
what occurred was education by natural ele-
ments that I did not understand until many
years later.

A retired chief petty officer was admitted
for treatment in the chest service where I
worked. After several days of intensive testing,
it was confirmed—histologically, radiological-
ly, and observationally—that he had cancer in
both lungs. A perfunctory operation was per-
formed, and it substantiated the previous find-
ings. We could only treat the man’s symptoms
and try to make him as comfortable as possi-
ble.

Like some witch doctor peering into the en-
trails of a goat, I was, I thought, watching the
oncoming results of a disease so beyond med-
ical technology that the practioners had essen-
tially given up ever knowing its causes or cures
while within the man’s body molecules were
at work to insure that the results of millions
of years of experimentation would continue
unabated. After several months the man’s can-
cer abated then apparently vanished altogeth-
er. The only trace of its having been was the
ugly scar of exploration. The physicians and
surgeons could not explain what had hap-
pened.

Now all these years later, even in my later
years, I still do not understand entirely, but I
do understand that I had witnessed the inter-
actions of the universe’s greatest teaching, or,
I should say, instructing device, one that was
perfected billions of years ago in the primeval
ooze where life first started. Desoxyribonu-
cleic acid has been the most potent instructor
on earth, and its library influence continues to
instruct, generation after generation. Now sci-
entists like Jack Szostak are using that instruc-
tion in an attempt to build a cell from the base

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

elements up, following the evolutionary se-
quence in reverse, perhaps. If they are suc-
cessful, that cell will contain instructions on
how to build another cell like itself. Whether
its lineage will evolve to something else there
is no way of foreseeing, but it will change, and
the offspring of its offspring will change.

Darwin, of course, was also aware that all
living things vary, within given populations,
from place to place. He may well have learned
that in the Galapagos and other islands, but
only in part. He was greatly indebted to teach-
ers, contemporary as well as before him. Men
like the Compte de Buffon, Jean Baptiste La-
marck, to mention two, certainly thought
about variation, and even hinted at natural se-
lection, but it was the great geologist Charles
Lyell who described the survival of the fittest,
who delineated the effects of physical isolation
upon organisms.

Because we are endowed with a thick ce-
rebrum and its attending centers, we expand
our learning as we grow and expand ourselves.
We learn. Because man transmits knowledge
from generation to generation by way of words
and sentences, almost in an analgous manner
that genetic information is transmitted, learn-
ing has evolved to previously unimagined lev-
els. We know the thoughts of entirely vanished
civilizations, and we have been able to see how
ideas mutate, to diverge into new ideas that
undergird the entire substructure of the nearly
magical device we call science.

In our learning, we strive to understand not
only how living things evolve, but also how life
came to be and where it is going. This is a
supreme undertaking, not one to be taken
lightly or spoken of glibly. Yet, “Like a phan-
tom, it eludes our pursuit,” says Loren Eise-
ley. In that pursuit, we are not dealing with
symbolic language, not with the learning of
symbols though we use them in our attempts
to teach others. In pursuing life we are striving
to understand the generative forces of the en-
tire limitless universe, and for this undertaking
we require the best energies of all the great
teachers who reside in it, including nature
herself.

But if societal learning has caused a glut of
information to be forwarded through genera-
tions, it must be remembered, too, that like
the genetic code that transcends generations,
only a small percentage of the messages ac-

THE SEAMLESS WEB—Branson

tually make it into the consciousness of suc-
cessive generations. If, as William H. Calvin
once wrote, that we humans “pretty much in-
vented ourselves, imperfections and all, and
we are still inventing ourselves,” then our
learning processes are also seriously flawed.
The italics are mine to emphasize how eagerly
many of us are willing to misunderstand, mis-
interpret, or miss entirely the utterances of
the great teachers.

Sometimes, in solitary moments of deep
contemplation of the undecipherable aspects
of the world, individuals put together unique
trains of symbols from the immense passage
that gave rise to all languages, and through
which all the languages of the future must
pass, but it is the ideas that are unique, not
the symbols. Thus, the contemplative human
physiologist Jared Diamond wrote his
thoughts concerning the vexing problem as-
sociated with the overpopulation of earth by
humans: “Archaeologists studying the rise of
farming have reconstructed a crucial stage at
which we made the worst mistake in human
history. Forced to choose between limiting
population or trying to increase food produc-
tion, we chose the latter and ended up with
starvation, warfare, and tryanny.” After allow-
ing that to sink in, he added, “Hunter-gath-
erers practiced the most successful and lon-
gest-lasting life style in human history.”

In that, Diamond may have implied a great
deal more than he stated. The evolution of
culture came about after the explosive in-
crease in man’s brain size rather than gradu-
ally emerging with the brain. Intelligence, yes,
in the adaptation that has made it possible for
man to fit himself into the myriad aspects of
the world environment, and that is a unique
ability among earth’s species.

It also made it possible for man to make the
worst mistake in his entire history. Before
that, the human animal functioned very much
like older animals that depended upon the
founder effect, i.e., biological events set in
motion by a few individuals that became iso-
lated from larger populations. In effect, how-
ever, back in time all populations were essen-
tially founders. New ideas came into vogue,
and when such founders got together with
other groups fertilization occurred. Out of
those meetings came exponential increases
and destabilization of old workable genetic

147

constraints. The social animal was born. In two
short millenia, human populations have in-
creased from less that a quarter billion people
world wide to over five billion.

Teachers may teach, but learning does not
necessarily follow.

Social learning is still an uncommon phe-
nomenon on earth, something that has devel-
oped, to use on overworked cliché, during the
last minute of geologic time, because man
himself is very young, gauging by the overall
length of time that life has been in existence.
We have not retained much of the teaching
derivable from earth history. In our symbols,
we vastly shorten the contributions made to
our lineage by the reptiles and their prede-
cessors, while at the same time we glorify the
mammals, and not even all the mammals, em-
phasizing the glorious contributions of the pri-
mates. Yet, we forget that only a short time
ago, in the early and mid-19th century, even
that glorification was not admissible.

Note that I say “not admissible.” It is in the
non-verbal part of man’s brain, where deep-
seated contemplations occur, that the real
symbols began to take form and, therefore,
where the urge to teach was born. As the
world expanded so did the necessity for learn-
ing, even though the first instructions were
doubtless utilitarian. Still, there are those cliff
and cave drawings that speak to us across the
gulf of centuries to convey messages that have
far outlasted all the mores of those vanished
communities.

Like some of my associates, I have some-
times worried over the meanings left behind
by writers of past times. I have struggled with
cryptic meanings, often to no avail. I have
heard some of my associates conclude that,
perhaps, those writers meant nothing by what
they said. But why would a great mind, fully
intending to teach its ideas on the universe,
write something that had no meaning? Or, was
he writing only for minds perceptive enough
to derive meanings?

Some years ago, one of my students, who
has by now become internationally famous, at-
tended my course in fisheries ecology. I was
earnestly discussing the population dynamics
of schooling species, their instantaneous and
real mortality rates. The student, at that point
in his career, had no intentions of becoming a
biologist, not unless he had to admit that med-

148

icine was a part of his field. As I got deeper
into the subject, expounding upon the com-
plex mathematical model that had been de-
rived to explain the complexities of such pop-
ulations, the student, intent upon what was
being said, suddenly interjected a comment,
then flushed deeply: “I don’t understand why
steps two, three, and five are even necessary,
sir.

I peered, incredulously, perhaps, over my
glasses at him. “These formulations have been
devised by one of the most outstanding pop-
ulation experts in the whole field of fisheries
biology, and you think you can answer a the-
oretical problem like this one by leaving out
some of the intermediate steps?”

Still blushing, the young man countered,
“Yes, sir. The stuff in the fifth column is can-
celed out by what you did in the initial cal-
culations. We had some problems like that
when I was taking calculus in high school.”

I was flabbergasted, of course, but I
promptly asked him to come up to the lectern
to demonstrate what he was driving at. He not
only did that, but he also demonstrated in a
perfectly understandable language that even
the sluggards in class could understand and
use. Those latter students, of course, enjoyed
that exercise enormously, not because they
learned a great deal or saw the significance of
the student’s prowess as a teacher, but merely
because their instructor had been put in his
place by a student. Poetic justice.

A year later, the young man perfected a bio-
chemical technique for measuring genetic dis-
tances between species and was at work on a
complex statistical design that would not only
allow him to test for probability of occurrence,
but which would enable him to model the re-
sults. That was only the beginning of his work
upon the evolutionary sequences of cave fishes
and other groups of organisms. Later, he com-
pleted his Ph.D. and has since been invited to
seminars and symposia around the world to
expound upon his work. But the question re-
mains for all of that as to who was teaching
whom? Or, were we teaching each other as
we went along, giving and receiving instruc-
tion in the same way that hunter-gatherers in-
structed their juveniles? Perhaps our common
interests—fishes and evolution, origins and
variations, and the power of language—made

TRANS. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59(3-4)

us receptive to ideas of soaring grandeur
through enormous spans of earth time.

Whatever the stimulus, I consider that
young man to be one of the most gifted per-
sons I have ever personally known, not only
by way of perceptivity and understanding of
ideas, but also by way of his ability to translate
complexity to simple terms, and to teach oth-
ers in a palatable way. Much of what I learned
from him I have never employed, principally
because my interests lie in different directions
than his. That does not matter. In a very real
way, he altered my value system in the same
way that I altered his. Teachers, men, women,
or nature, always color the way we think, and
that penumbra circles us the rest of our lives,
and we transmit the influence to the genera-
tion that comes after us. It has always been
that way, and it is that process that eventually
gave rise to the so-called social mind.

Those of us who are students of evolution
have come to know the faces of many instruc-
tors, and looking into mirrors we see the face
of our own most intimate instructor. We are
nothing if not dual personalities, teachers and
learners, who create themselves. We live in
the dark confines of our heads as well as in
the light of stars. Symbols may come to us in
the darkness or in the light, but the trick is to
recognize them for what they are when they
arrive. Evolutionary concepts are as much a
matter of mind—a way of looking at things—
as they are a matter of scientific endeavors,
and cross-fertilization is always near at hand.

A friend and ex-professor of mine, now old
and infirm of body but still agile of mind, who
has outlived all of his contemporaries and
most of his family, drew me and some of my
students into a conversation late one evening.
We were passing through and stopped to
speak with him. He had been writing, working
on his memoirs, and thus thoughts of a bygone
generation were vivid in his mind.

“T was called into his office,” he said, speak-
ing of his long-dead dissertation advisor at the
University of Michigan, “out of a clear blue
sky. I thought I was in some kind of trouble,
you see, and I had an almost overpowering
dread. That was the kind of man he was. But
I couldn’t run.” He chuckled at the memory.
“IT went into his office—it was a horrible mess,
papers and books stuck everywhere, on the
floor, on chairs, on the desk. I never under-

THE SEAMLESS WEB—Branson

stood how he could find anything in there, but
he always did. He reached into this pile of
plunder and pulled out a thick treatise he’d
written on the lancelets of the world.”

“I was, of course, amazed. I read the title
again, then again. It finally dawned on me that
he had written that monograph over thirty
years ago. Can you imagine that, thirty years?
Well, I attempted to hide my amazement, but
being a greenhorn I wasn’t very successful. I
saw confirmation of my lack of success in his
face. He told me he’d come across the mono-
graph while he was cleaning out a bookshelf,
that he had forgotten about a major piece of
work like that for all those years, and I had to
ask why he’d never published it. I knew no-
body had undertaken to bring order into that
group of animals. It was for all practical pur-
poses as fresh then as it was the day he fin-
ished it. I could see that.”

I was incredulous myself, and I said, “Well,
why hadn't he published it?”

He pursed his lips for a moment. “It was
odd,” he said. “Well, maybe odd is the wrong
word. Unique is probably closer to it. Anyway,
he said he had never intended the monograph
for publication, that he had written it as an
example on how to approach the solution of a
taxonomic problem, how to use logic so that
his students would have a model to study.”
Then he stared off into a distance that I would

149

never be able to enter, slowly bringing his
gaze back to us.

“He was giving it to you for study,” I said
at last. “He was sort of annointing you with
wisdom.”

He nodded ever so slowly, without speak-
ing. Then he said, “Wisdom without any rec-
ompense whatsoever. Merely for the sake of
teaching.”

Back on the rain-swept highway, driving to-
ward our destination in the Uinta Mountains
of Utah, I contemplated what he had said. Sci-
entists, I thought, may discover all the secrets
of the universe, including how life originated
and evolved, how man, the dream animal,
originated, but it would have all come to
naught if the will to teach, the propensity to
learn, had failed to materialize at the right
time. And in that teaching and learning, we
create ourselves anew each generation. That
may be the hope of the world: by our creative
teaching we may be able to transcend our-
selves and become the ultimate student of all
that nature has to offer.

If there is any magic on this small planet of
ours, it is in education. And it has been that
way from the very beginning, since Homa ha-
bilis, the Clever One, and Homo erectus start-
ed chipping on stones, building fires, and re-
laxing aggression long enough to mutter

syllabics.

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3—4), 1994, 150

NEWS AND COMMENTS

WESTINGHOUSE SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIPS

I continue to be chagrined by the conspic-
uous absence of names of any Kentucky high
school seniors on the list of semifinalists and
finalists put out by this important annual sci-
ence talent search. High school seniors from
35 states and Puerto Rico are represented on
this year’s list—even Arkansas had two stu-
dents! This is a serious reflection on a state
that reputedly is leading the way in education-

al reform. I hope we are not getting so in-
volved with gingoisms and technology that we
fail to actually educate our kids in the funda-
mentals of science —Editor.

ANNUAL MEETING

The meeting for 1994 will be sponsored by
the Paducah Community College. It will be
held at the Executive Inn, Paducah, 3-5 No-
vember 1994.

150

Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 55(3-4), 1994, 151-156

INDEX TO VOLUME 55

Abies, 8
ABSTRACTS, 76-91
ACADEMY AFFAIRS, 56-61
Acari, 29-30
Acer spp., 7, 8, 13, 42, 120
Acer negundo, 12, 18, 104
Acer saccharum, 12, 15, 18, 103-
104, 122
Acroporid reef corals
o£ Johnston Atoll, 181
Actinonaias ligamentina, 51
Aesculus glabra, 18, 104
Aflatoxin-DNA interactions, 85—86
AL KOLIBI, FAHAD M., 131
Alder, smooth, 18
Alkaloid increases in tobacco plants,
85
Allozyme variation
of Plethodon cinereus, 90
of P. dorsalis, 90
Alluvial deposits of the Ohio River,
§2
Alnus serrulata, 11, 18
Alternaria sp., 114-116
Ambelema plicata plicata, 47, 49-51
Amelanchier arborea, 12, 18
American beech, 19
American chestnut, 19
American feaverfew, 19
American hazelnut, 19
American sycamore, 19, 42
ANDERSEN, ROGER, 85
ANDERSON, G., 87
Andropogon gerardii, 13, 18
A. gyrans, 13, 18
A. virginicus, 14, 18
Animal waste applications, 76
Animal waste management
soil and plant interaction, 76
Anistostichus capreolata, 12
Annual Meeting, 95, 150
ANNUAL MEETING PROGRAM,
62-76
ANTONIOUS, GEORGE F., 79, 80
Apple, narrow-leaved crab, 19
Arcidens confragosus, 51
Arundinaria gigantea, 11, 18
Ash, 42
Ash, white, 102
Asian clam, 46
Asimina triloba, 12, 18, 78
Aspergillus candidus, 114-115
A. terreus, 115
A. flavus, 114-116
A. fumigatus, 114-115
A. glaucus, 114-116
A. niger, 114-116
A. spp., 113
A. terreus, 114
ASUNCION, MARICHELLE, 32
AUER, DEANNE, 89

Bacteria
from hypersaline lagoons, 80
of the Galapagos Islands, 80
Baetidae, 29
Bald cypress, 19
BARKER, J., 87
BARKSDALE, JAMES B., JR., 83
BARROW, JON, 77, 79
Bat, gray
metal concentrations in guano,
124-126
Beaver, 11
BEDEL, ALVIN, 77, 79
Beech, American, 19
BERGER, STEVEN, 81
Beta-hemolytic streptococci
effects of sodium chloride on, 36-
4]
Betula, 8, 12
Big bluestem, 18
Big Sandy River, water quality of, 81
Biology teaching curriculum
administration of, 89
to achieve KERA valued out-
comes, 89
Biomass production
effect of planting dates, 78
effect of soybean cultivars, 78
Bison, 11
Bison bison, 10
Bivalve fauna
of the lower Green River, 46-51
Black gum, 19
Black oak, 19
Black walnut, 19
Blackjack oak, 14, 19
Blackspotted topminnow, 22
BLAND, PAUL E., 97
Blue catfish overwintering, 127-130
Bluestem, big, 18
little, 19
Box elder, 18
BRANSON, BRANLEY ALLAN,
142
Branta canadensis, 34
Broom sedge, 18
Elliott’s, 18
BROWN, LINDA, 77
BRUSHABER, JOHN, 55
Buckeye, Ohio, 18
Bull frog, dehydration effects by, 87
BUMGARDNER, CLOYD J., 89
Bur oak, 19
BURR, BROOKS M., 20
Buttonbus, 19
BYERS, MATTHEW E., 78, 79, 80
BYRD, SUZANNE, 85

Cactus, prickly-pear, 19
Caenidae, 29

CALL, NEYSA M., 78
Campsis radicans, 12, 18

151

Cane, 11
giant, 18
Canebrakes, 11
Carcinoma cells
cultured with reatinoic acid, 87
drug detoxifying enzymes in, 87
CARTAER, J., 87
Carya, 6, 7, 9, 13
. cordiformis, 104
. glabra, 12, 19
. illinoensis, 12, 19
. laciniosa, 12, 19
. ovata, 12, 19
. spp., 14, 42, 120
. tomentosa, 12, 19
Castanea dentata, 12, 19
Castor canadensis, 11
Catalpa, 12, 13, 43
Catalpa spp., 43
Catfish, blue, overwintering, 127—
130
Catfish, channel, overwintering,
127-130
Catonotus, 20-22
Ceanothus, 12
Cedar, eastern red, 19
Celtis occidentalis, 104
Celtis spp., 42
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 11, 19
Cephalogonimus vesicaudus, 32-33,
35
Cercis canadensis, 12, 19, 104
Cervus elaphus, 11
Chaetomium sp., 114-115
Chagas’ disease, 139
Channel catfish, overwintering,
127-130
CHAPPELL, JOE, 85
Characterization of the chick
NMDA receptor, 54
Chemical vapor deposition of thin
solid films, 81
Cherax quadricarinatus
feed formulations for, 108-112
Cherax tenuimanus, 108, 111
Chestnut, American, 19
Chestnut oak, 19
Chironomidae, 29
Chub creek, 22
Cicadas, periodical
spatial patterns of emergence of,
118-123
temporal patterns of emergence
of, 118-123
Cicadidae, 118-123
Cladosporium sp., 114-115
Cladrastis lutea, 19
Clam, asian, 46
CLARK, JULIA A., 88
CLARK, ROSS C., 80
Clyceria septentrionalis, 139
Coffee-tree, Kentucky, 19

Woe) Gy Gy eq)a)

a2, TRANS

Colaptes auratus, 43

Coleoptera, 29

COMBS, JUANITA, 84

Common blue violet, 78

Common flicker, 43

Community college students, suc-
cess as perceived by, 89-90

Complex sequences, generating
functions for, 83

Composting, temperature changes
during, 79-80

Composts, for container vegetables,
76

Conformal gravity, tests of, 86

Conformation-activity of STp en-
terotoxin, 83-84

Constructed wetlands, in Franklin
County, 79

monitoring of, 79

Container vegetables, 76

Corbicula fluminea, 46-49, 51-53

Corn, 19

mycoflora associated with, 113—

117

Cornus florida, 13, 19, 104

Corylus, 13

Corylus americana, 12, 19

Cottonwood, eastern, 19

Crab apple, narrow-leaved, 19

Crayfish, red claw, feed formula-
tions for, 108-112

Creek chub, 22

Cucumber magnolia, 19

Cucurbita pepo, 9, 19

Cyclonaias tuberculata, 50-51

Cypress, bald, 19

DAHL, DARWIN B., 1
Darter, saddleback, 22
spotted, diet of, 28-31, 90
relict, status review of Kentucky
endemic, 20-27
DAVIS, BRIAN, 84
Deer, 11
Dehydration effects, by bullfrog, 87
by Rana catasbeiana, 87
on osmoregulation, 87
DENTON, MELISSA, 32
DESTEFANO, KRISTINE, 88
Diospyros virginiana, 12, 19
Diplodia sp., 114-116
Diptera, 29-30
Distinguished scientist awards, 92-
94
Dogwood, flowering, 19
DOTSON, O. W.., 76, 77, 79
DOTSON, THOMAS, 77, 79
DOWELL, R. T., 88
Downy milk pea, 19
Drechslera sp., 114-115
Drug detoxifying enzymes, in em-
bryonal carcinoma cells, 87
Dryocopus pileatus, 45
Duchesnea indica, 78

Eastern cottonwood, 19

Eastern gray squirrel, 43

Eastern hemlock, 19

Eastern red cedar, 19

Eastern redbud, 19

EBERT, S., 87

Echinostoma trivolvis, 32-35

Economic geology, of the George-
town Quadrangle, Kentucky,
81-82

Elder citizen perceptions of dental
profession service, 82-83

Eleocharis quadrangulata, 140

Elk, 11

Elliott's broom sedge, 18

ELLIOTT, LARRY P., 36

ELLIOTT, LUCINDA, 85

Ellipsaria lineolata, 51

Elliptio crassidens, 47, 49-51

Elliptio dilatata, 51

Elmidae, 29

Embryonal carcinoma cells cultured
with retinoic acid, 87

drug detoxifying enzymes in, 87

Endopolygalacturonase activity and
pathogenicity of Fusarium so-
lani, 88

Ephemeroptera, 29-30

Epicoccum sp., 114-115

Estradiol, concentrations in blood
plasma, 88

of paddlefish, 88

Etheostoma acuticeps, 30

. bellum, 28, 30

. camurum, 30

. chienense, 20-27

. crossopterum, 22

. flabellare, 30

. guifluum, 30

. maculatum, 28-29

diet of, 28-31, 90

.m. sanguifluum, 28

_m. vulneratum, 28

. neopterum, 20-22

. oophylax, 20, 22

. pseudovulatum, 20, 22

. sanguifluum, 28, 30

. squamiceps, 20-22

. culneratum, 28, 30

co GoMC Mes comesics|

coco mes mesMes mle oe oie]

Fagus, 1, 8

Fagus grandifolia, 12, 15, 19, 120

Fair division, 83

FALBO-KENKEL, M. K., 86

FASHOLA, BOLA, 36

Fathead minnows, control of hatch-
ing, 84

Feaverfew, American, 19

Feed formulations, for crayfish,
108-112

FEIBES, WALTER, 83

FENDLEY, BARBARA, 93-94

Fimbristylis, 19

F. puberula, 13, 19

. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

Fish community assemblages, 77
Flammulated owls, 44
FLEMING, PIERCE, 85
Flicker, common, 43
Flowering dogwood, 19
Forestiera acuminata, 12, 19
FORSBERG, A. L., 88
FORSYTH, BILL, 90
FORSYTH, TERESA, 90
Forum, 142-149
FRANKLIN, SCOTT B., 6
Frasera caroliniensis, 140
Fraxinus, 8, 12, 13
Fraxinus americana, 104, 122
recent growth and climate, 102—
107
rural and urban, 102—107
Fraxinus spp., 42
Freckled madtom, 22
FREDERICK, ROBERT B., 42
Fundulus olivaceus, 22
Fusarium solani, endopolygalacturo-
nase activity of, 88
pathogenicity on soybeans, 88
toxicity of glyceollin to, 88
F. sp., 113-116
Fusconaia ebena, 51
F. flava, 51
F. subrotunda, 51
F. undata, 51

Galactia volubilis, 13, 19

Galactic rotation curves, 86

Galapagos Islands, bacteria from hy-
persaline lagoons, 80

GANTZ, DAVID, 80

GARNER, LAURIE, 84

Generating functions, for a class of
complex sequences, 83

Georgetown Quadrangle, Kentucky,
economic geology of, 81-82

Giant cane, 18

GILLISPIE, BRIAN, 80, 81

GIS graphics, street tree inventory
using, 79

Gleditsia triacanthos, 12, 19

Glossosomatidae, 29

Glyceollin, toxicity to Fusarium so-
lani, 88

Glyceria septentrionalis, 140

GODDARD, PERILOU, 89

GOODGAME-TIE, LAURA S.,
108

Grass, Indian, 19

Johnson, 77, 140
narrow-leaved panic, 19

Gratiola pilosa, 139-140

Gray bat, metal concentrations in
guano, 124-126

GRAY, ELMER, 76, 78, 79

GREENE, DAWN, 78

Guano, from a gray bat, 124—126

Gum, black, 19

GUMM, ANGELA, 89

Gymnocladus dioicus, 19
Gyrinidae, 29

Hackberry, 42
Hairy hedge-hyssop, 139-140
Halipegus occidualis, 34
HARNESS, BRYAN G., 82
Hazelnut, American, 19
Hedge-hyssop, hairy, 139-140
Helisoma anceps, 32-35
H. trivolvis, 33-35

at Owsley Fork Reservoir, 32-35

digenetic trematodes in, 32-35
Hemiptera, 139
Hemlock, eastern, 19
Heptageniidae, 29
Herbicide leaching, in vegetable

culture, 78

Hickory, 42

mockernut, 19

pignut, 19

shagbark, 19

shellbark, 19
HILBORN, DEBRA J., 80
HILDEBRAND, DAVID, 85
HOBBS, ESTEL M., 92-93
Homeless facilities, professional

dental services provided, 82

Homoptera, 118-123
Honeylocust, 19
HOYT, ROBERT D., 77
HUGHES, LUTHER B., 80
HUNT, GRAHAM, 81, 82
Hydrangea, 12 ~
Hydropsychidae, 29
Hypericum Sect. Ascyrum, 80
Hypericum crux-andreae, 140

Ictalurus furcatus, overwintering,

127-130
I. punctatus, overwintering, 127—
130

ILAGAN, JOSE M., 32
Indian grass, 19
Indian mockstrawberry, 78
Inhibition, by dexamethasone, 85
by prostaglandin E2, 85
of T-lymphocytes, 85
Ivy, poison, 19

Jack pine, 19

Jasmonic acid, role of on alkaloid in-
creases in tobacco plants, 85

Jessamine County, Lesquerella glo-
bosa in, 55

Johnson grass, 77

JOHNSON, RAY, 76

JOHNSON, RAY E., 79

Johnston Atoll, acroporid reef corals
of, 81

JONES, RONALD L., 141

JOSEPH, H., 87

JOVE program, 86—87

Juglans, 7, 13

J. nigra, 19, 104

INDEX TO VOLUME 55

Juncus nodatus, 140
Juniperus virginiana, 19
JUST, JOHN J., 84, 87

KALISZ, PAUL J., 118

KELLEY, GLENN, 80

Kentucky coffee-tree, 19

Kentucky Education Reform Act,
biology teaching curriculum in,
89

KERA, biology teaching curriculum
in, 89

KESSLER, BRYAN, 76, 77

KESSLER, RICHARD K., 28, 90

KIM, J. S., 81

KIM, J. Y., 81

KIRTLEY, S. MARCUS, 90

LACEFIELD, BRIAN D., 76

LACKI, MICHAEL J., 124

Lactobacillus acidophilus, 40

Lacustrine deposits of the Ohio Riv-
er, 82

LAMON, JOHN F-. III, 84

Lampsilis cardium, 50-51

L. cariosa, 50-51

L. luteola, 50-51

L. ovata, 51

L. radiata, 50-51

Land Between the Lakes, Kentucky

and Tennessee, 6-19
vegetation history of, 6-19
Lasmigonia complanata complanata,
ol
L. costata, 51
LAVENDER, TIMOTHY, 81
LAW, JESSICA S., 32
LAYNE, DESMOND R., 78
Lelptoceridae, 29
LENICKY, BEVERLY, 89
Leptodea fragilis, 50-51
Lesquerella globosa, rediscovered in
Jessamine County, 55
Ligumia recta, 51
Lindera benzoin, 12, 19
Lipidostomitidae, 29
Liquidambar styraciflua, 12, 19

L. spp., 43
Liriodendron tulipifera, 12, 13, 19,
120

Little bluestem, 19
Livestock manure, plant and _ soil
analyses of after application, 79
LLOYD, WILLIAM G., 1
Lobelia nuttallii, 140
LONGLEY, TRACY LIVING-
STON, 84
Lonicera maackii, 104
L. prolifera, 140
L. reticulata, 140
Low frequency “whistlers,” experi-
mental analysis of, 86
generated by lightning, 56
theoretical analysis of, 86

153

Lower Green River, bivalve fauna
of, 46-51

LUKEN, JAMES O., 102

Lythrum salicaria, 140

Macrobrachium rosenbergii, 111

Madtom, freckled, 22

Magicicada cassini, 118-122

M. septendecim, 118-122

M. septendecula, 118-122

Magnetic field test facility, 6

Magnolia acuminata, 12, 19, 120,
122

Magnolia, cucumber, 19

Maize, mycoflora associated with,
113-117

Malus angustifolia, 11, 19

Manure, livestock, 79

Maple, 42

sugar, 18

Marron, 108

MARTIN, JAMES M., 79

MARZOUK, H. A., 81

MATTINGLY, BRUCE A., 93

McGRATH, BRANDON, 84

McKEE, JULIA, 82

McNEIL, RAYMOND C., 86

MEEKS, SUZANNE, 82

Megalonaias nervosa, 47, 49-52

MEIER, E., 87

Methalation signal, localization of,
84

Milk pea, downy, 19

MILLER ANDREW C., 46

MIMS, STEVEN D., 88

Mineral element analysis, 77

Minnow, suckermouth, 22

Mockernut hickory, 19

Modules, flat and relatively flat, 97—

101

Molecular cloning, of the chick

NMDA receptor, 84

Monarda clinopodia, 140

MORRISON, JEFFERY W., 85

Motor neuron function in mice, 83

Mucor sp., 114-115

MUMMANENI, PADMAJA, 84

Mycoflora, associated with corn,
113-117

associated with maize, 113-117
Myotis grisescens, 124

Najas minor, 140

Narrow-leaved crab apple, 19

Narrow-leaved panic grass, 19

NASA/university joint ventures, 86—

87

NEILL, LARRY T., 46

News, 95

News and Comments, 150

Nickel-catalysed peptide synthesis,

80

Nicosulfuron, effect of on Johnson
grass, 77-78

Nigrospora sp., 114-1 16

154 Trans. KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

NMDA receptor, molecular cloning
and characterization of, 84
Northern red oak, 19
Notes, 139-141
Nothonotus, 30
Noturus nocturnus, 22
Nursing home facilities, state licens-
ing of, 82
state ratings of, 82
Nyssa, 7
N. aquatica, 11, 19
N. sylvatica, 12, 13, 19

Oak, 42-43

black, 19

blackjack, 14, 19

bur, 19

chestnut, 19

northern red, 19

overcup, 19

pin, 19

post, 19

red, 13

scarlet, 19

scrub, 13, 14

southern red, 19

swamp white, 19

water, 19

white, 19

willow, 19
Obiliquaria reflexa, 51
Obovaria olivaria, 50-51
O. retusa, 51
O. subrotunda, 51
OBRA-mandated dental reporting,

82
Odocoileus virginianus, 11
OGREN-PALMISON, BETTIE, 80
Ohio buckeye, 18
Oligoneuriidae, 29
ONDERS, RICHARD, 88
Opuntia compressa, 13, 19
Orangefin darter, 28
Orbexilum onobrychis, 140
Ostrya, 8
Otus flammeolus, 44
Oustanding teacher awards, 92-94
Outwash deposits of the Ohio River,
82

Overcup oak, 19
Owls, flammulated, 44
Oxydendrum arboreum, 12, 19

Paddlefish, estradiol in, 88
testosterone in, 88
Paecilomyces sp., 114-115
Panic grass, narrow-leaved, 19
Panicum angustifolium, 13, 19
Parthenium integrifolium, 13, 19
Paw-paw, 18, 78
as a fruit crop, 78-79
PAYNE, BARRY S., 46
Pea, downy milk, 19
Pecan, 19
Penicillium spp., 113-116

Peptide synthesis, nickel-catalyzed,
80

transition metal catalyzed, 80
zinc-catalyzed, 81
Percidae, 20-27, 28-31
Percina ouachitae, 22
Perlidae, 29
Persimmon, 19
Petasiger nitidus, 33
Phenacobius mirabilis, 22
Phoma sp., 114-115
Phormia regina, protective proteins
of, 84-85
Phylogeny, of Plethodon cinereus,
90

of Plethodon dorsalis, 90
Physa gyrina, 32-33
Phytoalexin biosynthesis, regulation
of, 85
Picea, 8
Picea-Pinus, 8
Picea-Quercus mixture, 8
Pignut hickory, 19
Pileated woodpecker, 45
Pimephales promelas, control of
hatching, 84
Pin oak, 19
Pine, jack, 19
red, 19
shortleaf, 19
Virginia, 19
Pinus, 6, 8
. banksiana, 8, 19
. echinata, 6, 7, 9, 15
. resinosa, 8, 19
. spp., 15
. virginiana, 7, 9, 15, 19
- rigida, 120
Planera aquatica, 11, 19
Planertree, 19
Plant analyses, after application of
livestock manure, 79
Planting dates, effect of on biomass
production, 78
Platanus occidentalis, 12, 13, 19, 42
Plecoptera, 29-30
Plethodon cinereus, distribution, 90—
91
phylogeny of, 90-91
Plethodon dorsalis, distribution, 90—
91
phylogeny of, 90-91
Pleurobema coccineum, 51
P. cordatum, 47, 49-52
P. plenum, 51
P. rubrum, 51
Poison ivy, 19
Polyodon spathula, estradiol in, 88
testosterone in, 88
Poplar, tulip, 19
Populus deltoides, 11, 12, 19
PORTER, DOUGLAS, 102
Post oak, 19
Potamilus alatus, 51

Ins} Ie}. Is} Ths} ns} tae)

Prairie willow, 19

PRICE, BRYAN D., 113

Prickly-pear cactus, 19

Primisulfuron, effect of on Johnson
grass, 77—78

Privet swamp, 19

Procambarus clarkii, 111

PROGRAM, ANNUAL MEET-
ING, 62-76

Protective proteins of the fly, Phor-
mia regina, 84—85

PROW, KAREN E., 79

Prunus serotina, 104

Psychopathology, educating the
Northern Kentucky community
about, 89

Ptychobranchis fasciolaris, 51

PULLMAN, J., 87

Pumpkin, 19

Quadrula metanevra, 51
Q. nodulata, 51

Q. pustulosa pustulosa, 51
Q. quadrula, 51
Quercus, 6-9, 13

O. alba, 11, 14, 15, 19
Q. arboreum, 12

Q. bicolor, 12, 19

Q. coccinea, 12, 19

Q. falcata, 12, 19

Q. lyrata, 12, 19

Q. macrocarpa, 12, 19

Q. marilandica, 12, 13, 19
Q. nigra, 11, 19

Q. palustris, 12, 19

Q. phellos, 11, 19

Q. prinus, 12, 19

Q. rubra, 11, 12, 19, 104
O. spp., 14-16, 42, 120

Q. stellata, 12, 14, 19

Q. velutina, 12-15, 19
Quercus-Carya association, 7
Quercus-Carya, 10

Rana catasbeiana, dehydration ef-
fects by, 87
RANSOM, SARAH, 89
Ranunculus ambigens, 140
Red cedar, eastern, 19
Red oak, 12, 13
northern, 19
southern, 19
Red pine, 19
Redbud, eastern, 19
Redclaw crayfish, feed formulations
for, 108-112
Reduviidae, 139
REED, EDDIE B., JR., 127
Reef corals, acroporid, 81
of Johnston Atoll, 81
Relict darter, status review of Ken-
tucky endemic, 20-27
REUCROFT, P. J., 81
REZNIK, RICHARD, 80, 81
Rhizopus sp., 114-116

RICHEY, MARGARET G., 88
ROISEN, F., 87

ROSEN, RONALD B., 32
ROSENTHAL, GERALD A., 84
ROUSE, DAVID B., 108

Saddleback darter, 22

Sagittaria graminea var. graminea,
140

SALASH, AMINA, 84

Salix humilis, 11, 19

S. spp., 11

SAN, MANUEL L., 32

Sassafras, 19

Sassafras albidum, 13, 19, 104

Scarlet oak, 19

Schizachyrium scoparium, 13, 19

SCHNEIDER, DAVID J., 86

SCHNEIDER, ROBERT, 79-80

Science and computer instruction,
integrating in science class-
room, 89

Scirpus carolinensis, 43

S. fluviatilis, 140

S. polyphyllus, 140

S. pungens, 140

S. purshianus, 140

Scrub oak, 13-14

SEDLACEK, JOHN D., 113

Semotilusa tromaculatus, 22

Serviceberry, 18

Sesquiterpene cyclase gene promot-
er, 85 ;

SHABANGI, MASANGU, 80

Shagbark hickory, 19

Shellbark hickory, 19

SHELLING, JUDITH G., 83

SHIBER, JOHN G., 89

SHOEMAKER, JON P., 139

Shortleaf pine, 19

Silene caroliniana, 140

SIMMONS, ALAN J., 1

Simuliidae, 29

SLATON, JASON, 76, 77

Smilax spp., 12, 13

SMITH, J. DOUG, 86

Smooth alder, 18

Snail, digenetic trematodes in, 32-
35

Sodium chloride, effect on beta-he-
molytic streptococci, 36-41

Soil analyses, after application of
livestock manure, 79

Solid waste, temperature changes
during composting of, 79-80

Sorghastrum nutans, 13, 19

Sorghum halepense, 77

Sourwood, 19

Southern red oak, 19

Soybean cultivars, effect of on bio-
mass production, 78

Soybeans, Fusarium solani patho-
genicity on, 88

SPARKS, BRAD, 85

INDEX TO VOLUME 55

SPEAR, BRETT T., 83

Spearwort, water-plantain, 140

Spicebush, 19

Spirorchis scripta, 32-34

Spotted darter, diet of, 28-31, 90

St. John’s worts, status of Ken-
tucky’s, 80

STEINITZ-KANNAN, MIRIAM,
80, 92

STEWART, ARTHUR VAN, 82

STILES, DAVID, 76, 77, 79

STp enterotoxin, 83-84

Stream water quality, effect of large
animal production on, 77

Street tree inventory, using GIS
graphics, 79

Streptococcus, 36

S. agalactiae, 36, 37

S. pyogenes, 36, 37

Styrene, abnormal coproducts, 1-5

oxidation of by palladium, 1-5
oxidation of in ethanol, 1-5

Success, by community college stu-
dents, 89-90

Suckermouth minnow, 22

Sugar maple, 18

Swamp privet, 19

Swamp tupelo, 19

Swamp white oak, 19

Sweetgum, 19, 43

Sycamore, 43

Sycamore, American, 19, 42

Syncephalastrum sp., 114-115

TAWHID, ASLAM, 76, 78

Taxodium distichum, 9, 11, 19

TAYLOR, ALICE, 85

TAYLOR, CHRISTOPHER A., 20

Temperature changes, during solid
waste composting, 79-80

Temperature trends and variations,
regional in contiguous United
States, 131-138

Testosterone, of paddlefish, 88

concentrations in blood plasma,

88

The Seamless Web, 142-149

Therapeutically delayed wound con-
traction, experimental model
for studying, 87-88

Thin solid films, chemical vapor de-
position of, 81

THOMAS, JAMES, 89

TIDWELL, JAMES H., 108, 127

Tilia, 7

T. americana, 104

T. heterophylla, 120, 122

Tipulidae, 29

TIU, LAURA GOODGAME, 127

TOBIN, G., 87

Topminnow, blackspotted, 22

Toxicodendron radicans, 12, 19

T. vernix, 140

Trachemys scripta, 34

155

Transgene-induced mutation, 83

Transition metal, peptide synthesis,
80

TRAPASSO, L. MICHAEL, 131

Trematodes, digenetic, in Helisoma
trivolvis, 32-35

seasonal prevalence of, 32-35

Triatoma sanguisuga, in Kentucky
and West Virginia, 139

Trichoptera, 29-30

Trionyx spiniferus, 34

Tritogonia verrucosa, 51

Trumpet creeper, 18

Truncilla donaciformis, 51

Truncilla spp., 48

Truncilla truncata, 50-51

Trypanosoma cruzi, 139

Tsuga, 7, 8

T. canadensis, 19, 120

Tulip poplar, 19

Tupelo, swamp, 19

TURKER, MITCHELL, 84

Ulmus, 7, 8, 13
U. rubra, 104
Unionidae, 46, 49, 51

Vaccinium spp., 12

Vapor deposition, of thin solid films,
81

Vascular plants of Kentucky, new lo-
cations for rare or infrequent,
139-141

Vascular response, in rats, 88-89

to nitric oxide synthase blockade,

88-89

VEAL, ERIC T., 82

Vegetable culture, herbicide leach-
ing in, 78

Vegetable yields, 80

Vegetables, container, 76

Vegetation history, Holocene, 6-19

late Pleistocene, 6-19

Viola papilionacea, 78

Violet, common blue, 78

Virginia pine, 19

Vitis spp., 12

VOGELPOHL, S., 87

VRTISKA, MARK P., 42

WAGNER, W. S., 86
Walnut, black, 19
WANG, STEPHEN L., 83
WARREN, MELVIN L., JR., 20
WARRIER, MANOJ, 88
Water oak, 19
Water quality, of the Big Sandy Riv-
er, 81
parameters, 77
Water-plantain spearwort, 140
WEBSTER, CARL D., 108
WEBSTER, CAROL D., 127
WEINER, L., 87
Westinghouse Science Scholarships,
150

156 TRANS

WESTON, PAUL A., 113

Wetlands, constructed, 79

White ash, 102

White oak, 19

White oak, swamp, 19

WIDIASTUTI, ENDANG LINI-
RIN, 87

WILKENING, G., 87

Willow, prairie, 19

Willow oak, 19
WILSON, MATTHEW H.., 83
Wood duck, availability of natural
cavities, 42-45

in Western Kentucky, 42-45

use of natural cavities, 42-45
Woodpecker, pileated, 45
WORLEY, KIM, 89
WORTHINGTON, JAMES P., UG

_ KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55(3-4)

Wound contraction, experimental
model for studying, 87-88

Yellowwood, 19
YIN, SHAOHUI, 85
YOUNG, FRANK S. III, 79

Zea mays, 19
Zinc-catalyzed peptide synthesis, 81
Zygoptera, 29

Instructions for Contributors

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CONTENTS

Flat and relatively flat modules. Paul E. Bland ................--
Relationships between recent growth and climate for rural and urban

Fraxinus americana L. James O. Luken, Douglas Porter, and David
BB AGRE GRE es aisle lah teat oie eon tae Weare alee oe stint ela aca) el Gueiiol tela dealer ate

Evaluation of practical feed formulations with different protein levels for
juvenile red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus). Carl D. Webster,

Laura S. Goodgame-Tiu, James H. Tidwell, and David B. Rouse....

Mycoflora associated with on-farm stored corn (maize) in Kentucky.
John D. Sedlacek, Bryan D. Price, and Paul A. Weston...........

Spatial and temporal patterns of emergence of periodical cicadas (Ho-
moptera: Cicadidae) in a mountainous forest region. Paul J. Kalisz ..

Metal concentrations in guano from a gray bat summer roost. Michael J.
TECH CE ON a EAI areas pac eine ce NY totais ax Pl ee eR

Overwintering channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and blue catfish,

Ictalurus furcatus, in cages. Laura Goodgame-Tiu, Carol D. Webster,

James H. Tidwell, and Eddie B. Reed, Jr............22-+-+++2+2.

Regional temperature trends and variations in the contiguous United

States from 1935 to 1986. L. Michael Trapasso and Fahad M. Al

OLED Noe A ee aieh cigs ela eget arene yo sei cielde lamenual Go Urals Vai a east t ate
NOTES

Triatoma sanguisuga Leconte (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in Kentucky and
West Virginia. Jon P. Shoemaker. .... 2.2... 2-0 c eee cece eee ee eees

New localities for rare or infrequent vascular plants of Kentucky.
Ronald Ey DONES ei eG i wines nia eeanas Cray Siero) sh ee hal alias sable volta ie Pogletinhe wirellall

FORUM
The Seamless Web. Branley Allan Branson ..........---+.+++-+++-

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