4 Ci Johny WM ss secrete ue SH NUNES EE OI ei ictcir),velaheeisvete, o\s\eie siere@ 93 Cornel Meeting® ci. ocvcreisisiecice aroeete 94. Arborescent Vegetation ........... 26 Cowlesiz/H. Cie aes ec viclee GOs SS pe OL PEER SENT ery ROA cic Vo ie (o:'e\e 6, si0 0:0\0's10) 018 27, Cawford, ‘County: i.22c.06 veverserersints 55 PE SMAINU MUO IATMaraleleie ie) elsiviels\eve salete one 0) 22 Grew, | Henry? wecfacse eee Foono oo Hes TAGHOl me VIALEN EW o oxcie. s'e.0 cree s #100 0:0 35 Crook; VAG) (Rev ssssciec cc cers canoe 4, 19 PSHESGUCEC Rh a aicisicjsy siecle ie.e/ ee ele 71 ENE TV aR OMNES uit yo ove)aus ‘a a's cls ailcvele o.sie/e-< 5 D PMUStEAleEAOUE i sisrcc cio oie) o/c o.cis\e peees 58 DAT WAM!) Giaretsicjeh icssisisvereislcis SGoonee eh) Es B Darwinism’ <5 “ss ss'e esis osleve's aisttorlele 35 Dunecanivalle ss occ osteo aioleVave(otorete sien OA STA EAC SIE iat Lelaisis sie lousre.eie «0% 4, 53, 63 AERC MERC E Wavenc| sc, acs sie bid-nie aisieve/s E beavis 18 1) es 21, 25 SAGNAEO EVV S = oc cteccicteeeee elere-sa, DA Barle, (Pa iSue aa cieiciecclcroieio chase aeareiaiels 26 RR CICS MEV RMSE otc ele ia) a) ayeVeis! le wie's Zi eie 56 Ecological. Survey: Giese osniewiciceceee 61 EST ECW OMA bois conc sieve o-siaisisc ocle-s 6 pine Sites melee mactatererecioeioe DEROgGS AN RS ASE tye eis sss 205 eis foe re dues oar asia reeds Soa do gig bye er alim acacohelalie suate we tabs enauatane tations 115 a TRANSACTIONS SECOND ANNUAL MEETING. OLp SUPREME Court Room, STATE House, SPRINGFIELD. FEBRUARY 20, 1909. MINUTES. MorNING SESSION. The Academy was called to order by Vice-President Henry Crew at 10 A. M. The minutes of the last meeting were read by Secretary Crook. After Professor Forbes had added the name of J. E. Ackert to the list of members elected at the last meeting, the minutes were approved. Professor Hessler presented the Treasurer’s report, which was laid upon the Chairman’s table until an auditing com- mittee could be appointed to examine and report on it. The Secretary called attention to the desirability of the members sending in their correct addresses, degrees, and the subjects in which they were interested, in order that the Academy records be as complete as possible. Professor Forbes then presented the report of the Mem- bership Committee, which was approved, and the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Academy for those nominated by the committee. For the Committee on an Ecological Survey, Professor Forbes reported progress as follows: “One of the first tasks of an ecological survey is the recog- nition and description of the plant and animal associations represented. This may be reached by the detailed study and mapping of limited districts chosen from various parts of the state and representative of much larger areas. The results of this detailed work will give by comparison a general idea of the structure of the associations throughout the state. It 6 may be supplemented by a more general study of the entire state, showing the distribution of such association groups as forest and prairie, sand regions, cypress swamps, etc. Both lines of work lead to the production of an ecological map of the state, showing the distribution of all the associations rep- resented. Survey work of this nature will give appreciable results in a comparatively short time, will indicate the gen- eral nature of the survey, will serve as a pattern to amateurs, will open a large field for the use of teachers, and will be a foundation for subsequent investigation. Work on _ other phases of ecology, such as ‘the correlation of associations with environmental factors or their interrelations with each other, will necessarily accompany the cartographic work to some extent. Members of the committee reported the following field work under way: F. C. Baker, ecological study and mapping of a limited area at Shermerville, with especial reference to Mollusca. H. C. Cowles, mapping the plant associations of portions of the South Chicago area. H. A. Gleason, a study of the vegetation of inland sand de- posits. T. L. Hankinson, the breeding habits of fish near Charleston, correlated with environmental conditions. V. E. Shelford, ponds in the dune region at the head of Lake Michigan. E. N. Transeau, plant associations in the vicinity of Charleston; studies of evaporation. After a discussion of the need of state aid for the survey, it was formally rcommended by the committee that, ‘instead of a separate organization, the Academy cooperate with the State Laboratory of Natural History in securing funds and in carrying out the work of the proposed ecological survey. The State Laboratory has been engaged in this work for years, and is now willing to aid in the survey and to bring together in a comprehensive plan the ecological results of the work of both institutions and individuals. 7 The committee especially wishes to bring into its member- ship all persons prepared and disposed to do active work on the ecology of any part of the state.” On motion of Professor Grant the report was approved and the Committee was continued for another year. The Chairman then appointed the following committees: Committee on nominations—W. F. M. Goss, F. L. Charles, S. W. Parr and T. W. Galloway. Committee to audit the Treasurer’s report—F. R. Watson, H. O. Barnes, R. O. Graham and T. W. Galloway. The Secretary then stated that a committee was to have been appointed last year to collect drill records, and sug- gested that it be appointed at this time or a little later in the day. “As a member of the Geological Survey to whom this work will be of special value,” said Mr. DeWolf, “I would like to suggest the name of Professor J. A. Udden for appointment on the committee, as a great deal of the work is now in his hands.” President Crew suggested, that as the committee was an important one, and required some consideration, the matter go over until later in the day. This was agreed to. Under the head of new business, Professor Bartow said: “The time has arrived when there is a possibility of having sectional meetings, such as a chemistry and physics section and a geological section, for the purpose of reading papers.” Professor Hessler replied: ‘“The question came before the Council last year and it was considered inadvisable at that time. The attendance at the different sections would be small and, therefore, I think for the present at least that it is undesirable for the Academy to be divided into sections or to try to hold more than a one-day session.” Professor Goss then moved “That it is the sense of the Academy that we should not resolve our meetings into sec- tional meetings at this time.” The motion was carried. At the conclusion of the business meeting Professor Isabel Smith presented a paper on “Illinois Trees.” 8 In leading the discussion on this paper, Professor Forbes said: “T think the reason the pioneers settled along the streams was because of the shelter, and because most of the earliest settlers came from forest countries. We see, in reading the records of the first explorers, that there was a general preju- dice against the prairies, as being bare and lonesome, and practically worthless for agriculture.” Dr. Crook—“I might say that at the last session a law was passed by the State Legislature designating the ‘native oak’ as the symbolic tree of this State. If the law-makers had consulted with some one like Miss Smith they might have found out that there are sixteen varieties of native oaks in this State— another illustration of the fact that our laws would often be better if they were framed by men who availed themselves of the knowledge of experts.” The following papers were then presented without any discussion: “Some Botanical Features of Illinois Sand Dunes’”—H. A. Gleason. “Preliminary Report of Observations Upon a _ Robin’s Nest”—F. L. Charles. “Cliff Flora of Jo Daviess County’”—H. S. Pepoon. (Read by title only.) “The Clay Seams of No. 5 Coal Bed in Springfield Quad- rangle’—T. E. Savage. At the conclusion of this paper the meeting adjourned until 2 P.M. AFTERNOON SESSION. The Academy was called to order at 2:15 P. M. by Prof. Crew. Before proceeding to the presentation of papers, Mr. Forbes made a report from, the Membership Committee on additional names proposed for membership. These names were voted on. The list of those elected at both morning and afternoon ses- sions follows: Abbott, J. F., Washington University, St. Louis. Bagg, R. M., Jr., University of Illinois, Urbana. Blatchley, R. S., Geological Survey, Urbana. Brewer, J. M., Lebanon. Coghill, W. H., Northwestern University, Evanston. Coulter, S. M., 3883 Juniata Street, St. Louis. Davis, N. S., M.D., 291 Huron Street, Chicago. Egan, Dr. James A., Secretary State Board of Health, Springfield. Ekblaw, W. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. Hycleshymer, A. C., St. Louis University, St. Louis. Ferguson, J. J., St. Anne. Gale, H. G., University of Chicago, Chicago. Glasgow, H., University of Illinois, Urbana. Glasgow, R. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. Grindley, H. S.,/ University of [llinois, Urbana. Hammond, H. S., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Ia. Head, W.. R., Hyde Park. Howe, P. E., University of Illinois, Urbana. Kirk, Howard S8., Rockford. Kuh, Dr. Sydney, Chicago. Latham, B. A., Rogers Park. Lyons, E. P., St. Louis University, St. Louis. Mansfield, G. R., Northwestern University, Evanston. Mohr, Louis, Chicago. Packard, W. H., Bradley Institute, Peoria. Payne, Edward W., State National Bank, Springfield. Pinckney, F. L., University of [llinois, Champaign. Ratcliff, H. H., Taylorville. Rice, William F., McHenry. Ricker, N. C., University of Illinois, Urbana. Roberts, H. L., Cape Girardeau, Mo. Sawyer, M. Louise, Elgin High School, Elgin. Smith, Frank, University of Illinois, Urbana. Snyder, Dr. John F., Virginia. Stevenson, A. H., Principal Lincoln School, Chicago. Stine, J. C., Superintendent, Virden. Trelease, William, LL.D., Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis. Turner, C. H., Sumner High School, St. Louis. Watson, F. R., University of Illinois, Urbana. Webster, G. W., M. D., Chicago. Widman, Otto, St. Louis. Williams, R. Y., State Geological’ Survey, Urbana. The following papers were then presented: “Hardness of Illinois Municipal Water Supplies’—Edward Bartow. “Electrolytic Separation of Metals by Graded Electromotive Forces’—Albert Carver. At the conclusion of this paper Prof. Crew called for re- ports from committees. Professor Watson, for the auditing committee, stated that 10 the Treasurer’s report was found to be correct. Thereupon the Treasurer’s report as presented at the morning session was adopted unanimously. In making the report for the Committee on Nominations, Professor Goss said: “Before formally presenting the report of the committee I wish to say that the committee considered some matters rather informally, one of which at least, should be mentioned. In the meeting of the committee, expressions of apprecia- tion were frequent for the work and services of the present Vice-President and Chairman, and it was the desire and pur- pose of the committee to recognize that work. I make this statement because his name does not appear in the list of names presented by the committee, and the reason his name does not appear, is due to the extreme modesty of the Chair- man himself, and his positive statement that he would not ac- cept nomination as President.” Your committee nominates the following officers for the coming year: For President—S. A. Forbes. For Vice-President—John M. Coulter. For Secretary—A. R. Crook. For Treasurer—J. C. Hessler. For the third member of the publication committee, which consists of the President and Secretary and one member elected, the third member—H. F. Bain. For the Membership Committee—T. W. Galloway, Chair- man: F, L. Charles, U. S. Grant; T. L. Hankinson and’S:9W: Williston. The report is signed by all the members of the committee. Professor Goss moved the acceptance of the report of the committee and that the Secretary be authorized to cast the ballot of the Academy for the officers mentioned in the report. The Chairman cast the ballot and the report was adopted unanimously. The chair then announced the following Committee on Deep Drillings: 11 J. A. Udden, of Augustana College; U. S. Grant, of North- western University, and Frank DeWolf, of the State Geological Survey. The following papers were then presented in a symposium Sm eine Scientific Activities of the State; their ‘History, Methods and Purpose.” “State Laboratory of Natural History and State Entomolo- gist’s Office”—S. A. Forbes. “State Water Survey”—Edward Bartow. “State Highway Commission”—A. N. Johnson. “State Geological Survey’—Frank W. DeWolf. “State Museum of Natural History’—A. R. Crook. No discussion followed the symposium. Mr. Adams moved that the Chairman of the Academy ap- point a committee of five as a legislative committee to con- sider legislation that the Academy would care to support, and that this committee take an active part in the accomplish- ment of any legislation that the Academy may desire. Mr. Bartow—‘It occurs to me that the Academy might well ask for support from the legislature for an appropriation which would enable it to carry on more work. I notice a number of state associations are receiving appropriations. We would not want an appropriation for salaries, but one for publication, etc..—not more than $500 to $5,000.” Mr. Crook—“T think it would be very wise, at this time, for the Academy to take definite action. You possibly know that a bill has been introduced in both Houses of the Legislature, to erect a building for museum, historical library, and such general educational purposes as are represented by the office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. If we could take some definite action with regard to this bill I think it would have a wholesome effect.” Mr. Forbes—“According to my experience and observation, mere resolutions by bodies of this description do not have very much effect at the critical time—the time when propositions and requests are being rubbed against each other to see which is the hardest, which has the strongest support of a 12 kind the Legislature and the Appropriations Committees must take into account. It seems to me the most important thing to do is to interest our individual members of the legislature at home in our proposition.” Mr. Galloway—“I move you that this body now express itself, both for itself and for the benefit of those other selves that may be constrained to listen to us, to the effect that we are in sympathy with the passage of this bill which has been presented for this institution in Springfield.” Mr. Andrews—‘Would it not be better if this motion should be referred to a committee to report to this convention the wording of a resolution with definite presentation of argu- ment?” The motion to appoint a committee was put and carried. Mr. Gleason then moved to appoint a committee to secure funds from the legislature for the publication of the transac- tions of this Academy. In talking to the motion, Mr. Johnson said: “I heard a discussion the other day as to the wrong and right of making these special appropriations to particular societies. For in- stance, why should the Bee Keepers’ or Poultry Association of only a few people spend the peoples’ money? There is no way of having any one responsible for that expenditure. I should take it, inasmuch as this is a scientific body, that it would be unwise for us to ask for unscientific legislation. In other words, if we want to publish a publication let us look after it ourselves.” Discussing the matter further, Mr. Crook said: “Steps have been taken in this direction. The Academy is not asking for special legislation. It proposes a service to every one in the State. The results of the work of the Academy should be available to every citizen. If the Academy publishes its own proceedings the edition will be small. If the State does so the results may be widely distributed. This is right in line with what the National Government is doing. The National Academy of Sciences has recently been requested by the gov- ernment to consider and report on the methods and expense 13 of the scientific work being carried on by the government. i believe if this motion is carried it will simply incite us to ac- tion.” Motion was put and carried unanimously. The Secretary suggested that the Academy require that all papers be in the hands of the Secretary two weeks in ad- vance of the meeting. Mr. Watson suggested that the time it would take to present the paper also be noted in order that an estimate might be made of the length of the program. No definite action was taken, however, on this subject. Mr. Andrews called attention to one point in the remarks made by Professor Forbes on the Brown-tail Moth. “T never knew until two years ago,” he said, “what this was or meant; but in taking a trip or walk through the moth- infested district of Massachusetts, one runs a risk of serious personal trouble and inconvenience, as serious as the ivy poisoning that we get here, and I am sure that we would have applauded even more heartily if we had known of the personal inconvenience from which we have perhaps been saved.” Chairman Crew then announced the following committee to take charge of whatever legislative agitation the Academy thought wise: Forbes, Coulter, Crook and Hessler. Professor Goss then extended an invitation to the Academy, in the name of the portion of the membership from Urbana, to hold the next meeting at Urbana, and asked the Executive Committee to give the invitation due consideration. Adjournment was then taken until 6 o’clock P. M., when a banquet was given by the Chamber of Commerce at the Y. M.C. A. Building. 14 REPORT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE CON- CERNING THE STATE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM. WueErEAas, The Illinois State Museum of Natural History in its more than fifty years of existence has become the repository of many thousand valuable scientific objects, and Wuereas, The present housing of these objects is inadequate, unsightly and dangerous, since they are crowded, exposed to dust, and in danger of fire, and Wuereas, The museum should preserve and exhibit materials showing the work of many State scientific departments, such as the Geological Survey, Soil Survey, Water Survey, Labora- tory of Natural History, Highway Commission, ete., and should preserve the records of vanishing animals and plants and exhibit the oils, coals, clays, cements, fluxes, abrasives, metals and other minerals of the State which, though abun- dant, are absolutely limited and capable of exhaustion, and WHEREAS, The museum thus makes a forcible and concrete appeal for the conservation of our natural resources, and is an institution of great importance, both from an educational and a practica] point of view; be it Resolved, By the Illinois State Academy of Science that an institution of such scientific and commercial importance should be adequately cared for by the State and that commodi- ous quarters should be provided for it as soon as practicable in a new building in Springfield; and be it further Resolved, That the Illinois State Academy of Science hereby expresses its earnest wish that the present State Legislature should take steps to provide such a_ building for the museum, either alone or with other appropriate State Departments. STEPHEN A. FORBEs, A. R. Crook, J. C. HESssLer, March Ist, 1909. Signed for the Committee. 15 PAPERS. NATIVE TREES OF MORGAN COUNTY. IsaBEL S. SMITH. My real paper is a list of the native trees of Morgan county, which I shall be glad to give to any interested in local dendrol- ogy. My purpose in appearing before you is to call attention to it. Little can be said about the trees which would be new to an audience of this character. Morgan county embraces quite a range of prairie conditions —the northwestern corner of it is bordered by the Illinois River. Here we find a sandy soil which gives in spots dune conditions, as may be seen from the growth of the Opuntia and Viola pedata there. Near Chapin large sandstone rocks crop out, while most of the county has a rich clay and humus soil. There is consequently a large variety of trees. The timber is along the watercourses, Mauvaiseterre Creek and Indian Creek being the chief streams, aside from the river. As may be seen by the maps of the government survey of 1819, the forest extended along the streams, stretching out from them on each side a distance of from two to three miles. The timber has been largely cut off, the patches that remain not being more than one-eighth of a mile deep as a rule. Settlers usually made their homes along the streams. It was well for them to be near the streams for stock, and it was really easier to clear the forest and remove the roots of the trees than to get rid of the tough knotweed which lay just underneath the prairie soil, its rhizomes being often sev- eral inches in diameter. Magnificent trees were cut down by these early settlers and fashioned into their rude homes and farm buildings. I have accurate authority for the statement that a Quercus macrocarpa which was cut down was six feet in diameter and that eleven hundred and forty-two rings were counted in the sawed stump. Such were the trees of Morgan 16 county’s primeval forest. The forest of to-day is second growth timber and very inferior to the forests the white man found. Because of our fertile soil, trees in Illinois grow much faster than in New England and are consequently less compact and shorter lived. The important timber trees of Illinois were the black wal- nut, the oaks, the hard maple and the red cedar. The black walnuts were almost exterminated. Some of the old houses have black walnut framework that would be worth much to-day, were it not for the nail holes. For interior finishing butternut was often used- The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) was at one time abundant and a fine large tree. To-day we find only low, straggling bushes. This is the only native gymnosperm. The Virginia cherry-tree (Prunus serotina Ehrhart) was very abundant. It was largely used by the settlers for the making of furniture. It has practically disappeared. It re- sembles mahogany, having the brownish red tinge that we enjoy in old pieces of cherry furniture. To-day little lumber is cut in the county, most of that being oak. Considerable hickory is cut for firewood. The pecan has become a valuable nut tree. Cornus florida has almost disappeared, though it was very abundant fifty years ago in places. In conclusion I would wish to express my thanks to Mr. John C. Andeas, of Manchester, for much assistance in securing facts for this paper. NATIVE TREES OF MORGAN COUNTY Pinacer— Juniperus Virginiana L. Red Cedar. Salicacerx— Populus tremuloides Michx. American Aspen. Populus balsamifera L/ Tacamahac. Populus deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. Necklace Poplar. Salix nigra Marsh. Black Willow. Salix lucida Muhl. Shining Willow. Salix humilis Marsh. Prairie Willow. Salix petiolaris J. S. Smith. Slender Willow. Salix glauca L. Northern Willow. Salix phylicifolia L. Tea-leaved Willow. Salix Missouriensis Bebb. Missouri Willow. Salix adenophylla Hook. Pussy Willow. Juglandacee— Juglans nigra L. Black Walnut. , Juglans cinerea L. Butternut. Hicoria Pecan (Marsh) Britton. Pecan. Hicoria minima (Marsh) Britton. Bitternut. Hicoria aquatica (Michx. f.) Britton. Water Hickory. Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton. Shagbark Hickory. Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.) Sarg. Big Shagbark Kingnut. Hicoria alba (L.) Britton. Mockernut. Hicoria microcarpa (Nutt.) Britton. Small-fruited Hickory. Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton. Pignut Hickory. Betulaceerx— 17 Carpinus Caroliniana Walt. Blue Beech. Water Beech. Hornbeam. Ironwood. Ostrya Virginiana (Mill.) Welld. Ironwood. MHop-hornbeam. Corylus Americana. Walt. Hazelnut. _- Corylus rostrata Ait. Beaked Hazelnut. Betula populifolia Marsh. American White Birch. Fagacez— Castanea dentata (Marsh) Borkh. Chestnut. Quercus rubra L. Red Oak. Quercus palustris Du Roi. Pin Oak. Quercus coccinea Wang. Srarlet Oak. Quercus velutina Lam. Black Oak. Quercitron. Quercus Marylandica Muench. Blackjack. —Quercus phellos L. Willow Oak. Quercus imbricaria Michx. Shingle Oak. _-Quercus digitata (Marsh) Sudw. Spanish Oak. Quercus alba L. White Oak. Quercus minor (Marsh) Sarg. Post or Iron Oak. Quercus macrocarpa Mich. Mossy-cup Oak. Quercus platanoides (Lam.) Sudw. Swamp White Oak. _~Quercus Michauxii Nutt. Cow Oak. Basket Oak. Ulmacerx— Ulmus Americana L. American Elm. _—Ulmus alata Michx. Winged Elm. Wahoo. Ulmus fulva Michx. Red Elm. Slippery Elm. Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry. Moracee— Morus rubra L. Red Mulberry. Anonacese— Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. North American Pawpaw. Lauracee— Sassafras Sassafras (L.) Karst. Sassafras. Platanacee— Platanus occidentalis L. Plane Tree. Sycamore. Pomacex— Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Michx. Narrow-leaved Crab Apple. Malus coronaria (L.) Mill. American Crab Apple. Amlenchier Canadensis (L.) Medic. June-berry. Shad-berry. Crategus Crus-galli L. Cockspur Thorn. Newcastle Thorn. Crategus punctata Jacq. lLarge-fruited Thorn. Crategus coccinea L. Scarlet Thorn. Red Haw. 18 Crategus flava Ait. Summer or Yellow Haw. Drupacee— Prunus serotina Ehr. Wild Black Cherry. *Pinnus Pennsylvania L. Wild Red Cherry. Prunus Virginiana L. Choke-cherry. Prunus Americana Marsh. Wild, Yellow or Red Plum. Prunus angustifolia Michx. Chickasaw Plum. Prunus hortulana Bailey. Wild Goose Plum. Cesalpinacee— Cercis Canadensis L. Redbud. Gleditsia triacanthos L. Honey Locust. Gymnocladus dioica L. Kentucky Coffee Tree. Papilionacee— Robina Pseudacacia L. Black Locust. Rutaceee— : Xanthoxylum Americanum Mill. Prickly Ash. Anacardiaceex— Rhus hirta L. Staghorn Sumac. Rhus glabra L. Smooth Upland or Scarlet Sumac. Celastracee— : Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. Burning Bush. Wahoo. Aceracee— Acer saccharinum L. Soft Maple. Silver Maple. Acer saccharum Marsh. Sugar Maple. Hard Maple. Acer nigrum. Michx. Black Sugar Maple. Acer Negundo L. Box-elder. Hippocastaner— Aesculus glabra Wild. Buckeye. Ohio Buckeye. Tiliacee— Tilia Americana L. Basswood. American Linden. Tilia heterophylla Vent. White Basswood. Bee Tree. Cornacee— Cornus florida L. Flowering Dogwood. Ebenacee— Diospyros Virginana L. Persimmon. Oleacex— Fraxinus Americana L. White Ash. Fraxinus lanceolata Borck. Green Agh. Fraxinus quadrangulata Micx. Blue Ash. * Fraxinus Caroliniana Mill. Water Ash. Fraxinus nigra Marsh. Black Ash. Caprifoliaceex— Sambucus Canadensis L. American Elder. Viburnum Lentago L. Sweet Viburnum. Sheepberry. 19 ane VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF A RIVER DUNE-* Henry ALLAN GLEASON. Sand regions and dunes have long been a popular field for the plant ecologist, and studies of them have been of great importance in developing and widening our ideas of plant ecology. Of the many interesting features of the Illinois sand areas, the single physiographic structure, the river dune, has been chosen for description, since it illustrates in a strik- ing manner the action of water and wind, the role of vegeta- tion in sand-binding, and some important phases of succession. Three of the chief sand areas of Illinois lie along the east bank of a river; the Havana area parallels the Illinois River for many miles south of Pekin, the Hanover area extends along the Mississippi River in Jo Daviess and Carroll counties, and the Oquawka area borders the same river in Mercer and Henderson counties. In each of these the river dune is de- veloped to some degree, but it is especially prominent in the last two, which are the only ones referred to in this article. The sand deposits constitute the so-called second bottom, which extends from the swampy, alluvial first bottom, the modern flood-plain of the river, inland usually to the bluffs. While they are always more or less undulating, their general level is fairly constant. This level in the Hanover area is approximately twenty feet above high-water mark in the river. The river meanders over its modern flood-plain from one side to the other, and when it flows at the eastern mar- gin, directly against the deposits of sand, the conditions are such that a river dune may be formed. Erosion by the river carries away the sand from below, and that portion of the sand above the river action stands at a steep slope, the angle *The field work, a portion of the results of which are here presented, was car- ried on during the summer of 1908 through the aid of a grant from the Botanical Society of America. 20 depending upon the wind and the rapidity of erosion. The surface sand on this slope is exposed to the full sun and keeps loose and dry. The wind, which in Illinois is pre- vailingly from a westerly direction, carries a part of the loose sand up the slope and piles it up in a long dune parallel with the river and higher than the general level of the sand plain. The whole dune consists therefore of two divisions, the lower of sand now being uncovered by the wind and erosion and removed by wind, and the upper of sand deposited by the ac- tion of the wind. In spite of general current opinion regarding the relation of wind to the formation of dunes, the general effect of wind alone on sand is to reduce the elevations, fill up the depres-. sions, and make the general surface more nearly level. While wind furnishes the actual force in piling up sand into dunes, the sand does not remain so indefinitely unless it is held by some efficient means, usually by the action of plants. So, in the region under discussion, the river dune is initiated by the wind, but perpetuated by sand-binding plants upon its crest. Most notable among these are the redroot, Ceanothus ovatus Desf., switch grass, Panicum virgatum L., and, most important of all, sumach, Rhus canadensis Marsh. var. illinoensis (Greene) Fernald. The latter grows in dense thickets, and possesses the ability to grow up indefinitely, keeping the tips of its twigs always at least six inches or a foot above the surface of the sand. The sand beneath these thickets is effectually pro- tected from wind action, while more may be added with every wind storm. Aided by these three species and some others of less importance the wind builds up the river dune to a height which may reach eighty feet above the general level, or one hundred feet above the river. The amount of sand thus ex- posed offers a considerable surface for colonization by plants, and is occupied in turn by several distinct associations. Contemporaneous with the sand-binders there appears on the riverward side of the ridge a group of herbaceous plants which may be called the blowsand association. It consists primarily of annuals, such as the partridge-pea, Cassia Pal Chamaechrista L., and button-weed, Diodia teres Walt., or someimes also of deep-rooted perennials as bush clover, Les- pedeza capitata Michx., puccoon, Lithospermum Gmelini (Michx,) Hitche., and spurge, Euphorbia corollata L. The den- sity of the plant-covering depends primarily upon the rapidity of movement of the sand, and partly upon the portion of the slope occupied. The area below the general level, which is being freshly exposed, is much more thinly covered than the upper portion, composed of deposited sand. The same type of vege- tation is also found on the lee side of the dune. The upper margin of the lower part of the slope, which indi- cates the former level of the region before the formation of the dune, is usually marked by a thin layer of dark-colored sand. This is caused by organic matter deposited by past generations of plants which occupied this surface before the dune was formed, or at least before it had migrated so far in- land. The outcrop of this old soil layer along the river front affords better conditions for plant life then the sterile sand above and below it, and is usually marked by a line of wild rye, Elymus canadensis L. The next group of plants to appear may be termed the thicket association, and is composed of several species of plants aggregated into dense __ thickets. Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. var. lanceolata (Borkh.) Sarg., is the first of the group to appear, its seeds being blown in by the wind from the neighboring bottom-land forests. Honey- locust, Gleditsia triacanthos L., appears at an early stage, al- though the way in which its pods are scattered is not known. These young trees attract a bird population, which in turn are instrumental in the dissemination of various plants with edible fruits. The mature thicket is composed of an impenetrable tan- gle of green ash, honey-locust, crab, Pyrus ioensis (Wood) Bai- ley, plum, Prunus sp., and choke cherry, Prunus virginiana L., with some admixture of other species. It 1s covered with a luxuriant growth of tangled vines of wild grape, Vitis vulpina L., moonseed, Menispermum canadense L., poison ivy, Rhus Toxicodendron L., Virginia creeper, Psedera quinquefolia (L.) Ze Greene, green brier Smilax hispida Muhl., carrion flower Smilax herbacea L., and bittersweet, Celastrus scandens L. These thickets extend most rapidly down the lee side of the dune, but also encroach gradually on the riverward side as well. The later fate of these thickets is not known. During these two early stages in the history of the dune the wind sometimes breaks down the defense of the sand- binders at the crest and excavates a trough-shaped hollow perpendicular to the river. These hollows are known as blow- outs. The sand is removed from the windward end and from the bottom and is poured out in a steep incline on the land- ward side. The sides of the blowouts are held by thickets or by clumps of sand-binders, and if the movement is not too rapid the lee deposits are also soon covered with plants. A third stage in the history of the dune is characterized by an oak forest, which in the Hanover area consists of black oak, Quercus velutina Lam., and in the Oquawka area of black oak and blackjack oak, Quercus marilandica Muench., together. This is the oldest* stage represented in the Hanover area and the youngest in the Oquawka area, so that the latter serves to complete the history and to indicate the fate of the Hanover dune. The blowing of the sand is effectually prevented by the forest cover, and if the river is not eroding its banks too rapidly the forest soon extends down to the water’s edge. This forest is composed of gnarled, crooked trees with short trunks. They are not close together and the underbrush, if any, consists almost entirely of young trees of the same species. The herbaceous vegetation is somewhat different from that of the preceding stages in its specific composition. One particularly characteristic species is Synthyris Bullii (Eaton) Heller. The poisonous fly-mushroom, Amanita muscaria, and an earth-star, Geaster sp., are quite abundant. The trees produce a bountiful *The meaning of the terms old and young, as applied in ecology, is sometimes confusing. ‘‘Old” signifies that the particular area has passed through a greater number of physiographic or ecological stages than those designated as ‘‘young.” In the case in point, the oak forest in the Hanover area is itself relatively young in age (i. e., of recent development), but the portion of the dune so occupied has passed through one or more previous stages. This is in contrast to the blowsand association, which may be considered as occupying new ground: it is therefore the first ecological stage in the vegetation, and is designated as young. 23 crop of acorns, but comparatively few of them germinate. This association is not peculiar to the river dune, but is widely dis- tributed over all the sand deposits of the state. The presence of these trees, together with certain of their life processes, makes a gradual change in the environmental con- ditions for the plant. Chief among these is the annual leaf- fall, covering the sand with a thick layer of vegetable material rich in organic matter. This, and the shade of the trees during the summer and autumn, also tend to check the evaporation of water from the sand and to aid in retaining water in the su- perficial layers. Naturally the shade also tends to reduce the trans- piration from the herbs and shrubs beneath the trees. By the combined and long-continued action of these two agents, shade and ground cover, the association is prepared for invasion by moisture-loving species; or, in other words, it changes from xerophytic to mesophytic. Moreover, their effect is cumulative and proceeds with ever increasing rapidity, so that while the first mesophytes appear only after a long period, the remainder follow them at shorter intervals. A hillside north of Oquawka shows the order of appearance of the mesophytes very clearly. The river dune here has a maximum height of about one hundred feet, indicating a very strong and continued wind action at some time in the past. Now it is covered with trees to the very base and the upper layers of sand are well mixed with organic matter. Just off shore lies a series of wooded islands, which serve to shelter the dune from erosion by wind or water. At the north end the forest is composed exclusively of black oak and blackjack oak, which are found over the whole length of the dune. Farther towards the south, trees of scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea Muench., are soon noticed near the base of the hill not far above water- ievel; farther down they extend higher, and soon appear evea at the very crest of the dune. The black walnut, Juglans nigra L., next appears near the base, and in the same way climbs towards the top. It is usually accompained by the redbud, Cer- cis canadensis L. In a similar way there appear in order the river birch, Betula nigra L., American elm, Ulmus americana 24 L., green ash, and finally the soft maple, Acer saccharinum. L. It will be noticed that each of these species is more moisture- loving than its predecessors, until as a climax there appears the soft maple, a characteristic tree of the river-bottom swamps. These changes in the arborescent vegetation are by no means the only ones which occur. Even before the scarlet oak appears. various species of lianas invade the association. The Vir- ginia creeper is one of the most abundant, but several other species may be found with it. These climb up the trunks of the oak trees or, more generally, trail along the ground. There is also a profound change in the herbaceous vegeta- tion corresponding with the gradual increase in moisture. Horse- mint, Monarda mollis L., starry campion, Silene stellata (L.)- Ait.f., and columbine, Aquilegia canadensis L., are among the early additions. At a later stage alum root, Heuchera hispida Pursh, comes in, the ground has some dense carpets of moss and foliaceous lichens, and at the last a fern, WVoodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr., and anemone, Anemone canadensis L., ap- pear. Both of these species appear singularly out-of-place when growing in sand on a hillside, possibly at the base of a tree of blackjack oak. The anemone among the herbaceous plants corresponds to the maple among the trees; like the latter it grows normally in river-bottoms subject to overflow. The presence of these two semi-hydrophytes indicates how great has been the environmental change from the original xerophyt- ic oak forest. It must not be assumed that this development could continue in the same direction indenfinitely, leading to the ultimate es- tablishment of a hydrophytic plant association. The climax or final stage of ecological successions in this region seems to be a mesophytic forest characterized by sugar maple, Acer saccharum Marsh., basswood, Tilia americana L., and _ other species. There is no indication in this latest stage of the river dune of the appearance of this climax association, yet on the other hand there is no reason to doubt that it would eventually come in. The frequent changes in the channel of the Mississippi have 25 long been well known, and are very characteristic of the rest- less energy of that immense river. Near the south end of the river dune just described, the river is even now; operating to destroy the product of many years of plant activity. Below the islands already mentioned the current sets across from the lowa side, and striking the base of this river dune veers off to the south along the Illinois shore. The current has broken down the barrier of leaf-mold and intertangled roots and is rapidly eroding the sand. This erosion begins at the base of the dune, exposing the bare sand. As more and more of the sand is carried away, the upper portion of the dune is undermined and begins to settle down toward the river. It is now seen that the principal mass of roots has extended only one to one and a half feet below the surface, forming a coherent stratum rest- ing on the loose sand beneath. The loose sand rests at as steep an angle as possible, and irregular detached blocks of the coherent surface layer slide slowly down the incline toward the river. Their motion is of course very slow, and partially dependent upon the rate of erosion. But that they are loose is at once demonstrated by stepping on one, which then im- mediately starts down and in ten seconds to a minute, depend- ing upon the distance, comes to rest on the flat beach at the base of the dune. That the plant population is a relic of the former mesophytic conditions is shown by the species, which are largely perennials found also on the mesophytic slope. Prominent among them are bush clover, spiderwort, Tradescantia reflexa Raf., horsemint, goldenrod, Solidago nemoralis Ait., and worm- wood, Artemisia caudata Michx. Naturally such species as the anemone or the fern could not be expected to persist under such conditions. The flora of the sliding masses stands in sharp contrast with the meager vegetation of the general slope, com- posed mainly of partridge-pea and a few other annuals. These plants constitute the blowsand association, identical with the first association of the river dune. At the top of this interesting slope the trees are being un- dermined also, and such a mesophytic species as river birch ap- 26 pears singularly out-of-place above a steep hillside of almost bare sand. Just as the conversion from a xerophytic to a mesophytic as- sociation proceeded from south to north, so is the reversion proceeding in the same direction. At the south end the hillside is already bare to the top, while farther north the erosion has extended but little above the high-water mark. The general effect of the vegetation on the river dune, form its beginning on, may be summarized as tending toward stabili- zation, and, as elsewhere also, toward a mesophytic environment. The accompanying physical factors may hasten or retard or even destroy the effect of the vegetation. It is interesting to note that on the crest of the newly destroyed dune the thickets: of bunch-grass and sumach of a new cycle of successions have already appeared.* *In this popular discussion of the subject no attempt has been made to give full lists of plants, or to correlate the associations and successions mentioned with similar conditions elsewhere. A fuller treatment is now in preparation. The reader who desires further information on the plant successions in sand is referred to the following articles, in which many of the ecological features treated in the present paper are described in detail: Cowles, H. C. The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Bot. Gaz. 27:95-117, 167-202, 281-308, 361-391. 1899. Gleason, H. A. A botanical survey of the Illinois river valley sand region. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist. 7:149-194. 1907. Jennings, O. E. An ecological classification of the vegetation of Cedar Point. Ohio Naturalist 8:291-340. 1908. Jennings, O. E. A botanical survey of Presque Isle, Erie County, Pennsylvania. Annals Carnegie Museum 5:289-421, pls. 22-51. 1909. 27 SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ROBIN NESTS. FRED L. CHARLES. In the main building of the Northern Illinois State Normal School, at DeKalb, are several partially vine-clad windows which afford attractive nesting sites for robins. Two robin nests on window-sills were under close observation for a few days each by classes in the above-named instituion during May and June of 1908. That such complete data were secured is due largely to the enthusiasm and ability of Miss Jessie R. Mann, assistant in Biology. We shall speak of the two groups of nestlings as the May brood and the June brood. There is no evidence that the parents were the same for these two broods, although it is wholly possible. The nests were located in widely separated portions of the building, the May nest having an eastern ex- posure and the June nest a northern. Both, however, were in fairly sheltered situations and we were able to obtain excellent photographs of both. The observations were taken under ab- solutely normal conditions, from within the building, the window (in the second story, in each case) being raised after the first few days and the observer sitting at ease at close range. The May nest was first noticed April 23 and was completed April 27. The first egg was laid during the forenoon of April 29; the second, on April 30, between 9:42 and 10:32 a. m., the female being on the nest during that period. The third and last egg was laid between 10:45 and 11:30 a. m., May 1. The female began sitting that afternoon and was on the nest the greater part of the time through the cool or rainy days that followed. The male was first seen May 8, when he was heard chirping and was seen to be having some unpleasantness with the sparrows. Two of the young were found hatched on the morning of May 14, and throughout the day the male brought food, most of which was fed to the young by the mother bird, which left the nest occasionally but rarely brought food. These first feedings consisted chiefly of earthworms, myriapods (?) 28 and various lepidopterous larve. The third of the young was hatched early on the following day (May 15). Occasional notes were taken until May 19, when all-day ob- servations were made and continued on May 20 and 21, thus giving complete data for the sixth, seventh and eighth days in the life of the two older nestlings. Frequent observations—in- cluding the weight of the young—were made May 22-25, and on May 26 all-day observations were resumed and continued until the young left the nest on the morning of May 28, the fifteenth day. Quantitatively the data on the feedings for these five com- plete days are fairly accurate; qualitatively they are not as sat- isfactory as could be desired, although several pieces of food were obtained and identified through the courtesy of the state entomologist’s office. For the five days of full observation, the working day— meaning the period of activity of the parents at the nest— averaged nearly 15%4 hours, from 4 a. m. to 7:30 p.m. At first the female brooded throughout the night, but toward the end of the period, when the fairly fledged young filled the nest, both parents were absent at night. On the sixth day (May 19) the number of broodings — number of times the female settled—was 17; the minimum duration of a single brooding was 5 minutes, the maximum 65 minutes, the average 28 minutes. Thus the young were brooded on their sixth day for a total of 8 hours, or somewhat more than half of the working day, or daylight period. Two thirds of the feeding was done by the male. In contrast with this, on the thirteenth day (May 26) the female did not settle once during the day, nor did she spend the previous night or the following night upon the nest. During the day, while near the nest, she perched either on the edge of the nest or near by on the window-sill. Once she stood over the nest. Usually, how- ever, she left promptly after feeding. The cock robin did less than one third of the feeding on this day. For the five days on which complete data were taken, the number of feedings was as follows: THE JuNE NEs'1 Day By Female By Male Total Siu oo ae DP ie Nae oe nL Pace De anh Lay 66 SST fa 9 Meee hee Hip de AG RU Se Fe ATE 85 2120/0 a ee Dee Maca danaeiane ees IES Oe Ste aN eke 85 MAIRECEMEY . kk. 8 GAAS ae es BO ce ee eah NB oh So 94 Romreecnith . .......... Soe Hae ak eae DG ent Cs ee tees 102 Feed Y e | _ NuMBER oF DaiLy FEEDINGS. The data of feedings by hours—from four to five, five to six, etc—when plotted, reveal a rather sharp maximum frequency of feeding from 4 to 7 p. m., a more or less level period during the greater part of the day, and a less pronounced maximum from 5 to7 a.m. The greatest number of feedings in any one hour during these five days was 14; there was never an hour without at least one feeding; the average number per hour (from 4 a. m. to 7:30 p. m.) during the five days was 5.6. The maximum number of pieces of food given to the young by the parents in one day was 444; the minimum, 278; the 30 average, 356. The average number of pieces brought in one visit was 4. In the observations of the eighth day, the greatest number of pieces was fed from 6 to 7 p. m. For the five days, lepidopterous larve comprise one half of the food pieces; earth- worms, 28.8% ; ants, 6.6% ; Diptera, 5.7% ; and Coleoptera, Or- thoptera, Myriapoda, adult Lepidoptera and other winged insects the remainder. Certain species were especially prominent in the diet, and of these, specimens were captured and identified as above mentioned. Some of them are of considerable economic significance. In passing it may be stated that the data ob- tained throw interesting light on certain problems in entomology. The weights of the three young birds increased very rapidly until about the tenth day, after which they remained practically stationary save for the nocturnal shrinkage and diurnal gain. There was a slight daily increase during these last few days in the nest. In many particulars the observations show important varia- tions from previous accounts of observations made under less favorable conditions. — From the view-point of behavior, or comparative psychology, some notes of interest were taken. Almost invariably, after feeding, the excrement was promptly voided, the parent wait- ing for this act and usually swallowing the excreta. The nest was not soiled. The sun shone directly upon the nest for about one hour each day, during which time the female brooded in striking attitude. At one time when the young had been weighed in a bowl and the bowl had been placed upon the sill close to the nest preparatory to returning the nestlings, the mother appeared and brooded for some time upon the empty nest, utterly indifferent to the presence of the young in the bowl. We can not here refer to many other observations of interest. The June brood was under observation throughout the entire sixth and seventh days (June 24 and 25), paralleling the data for corresponding days in the May brood. All-day observation was resumed on the thirteenth day, as in the case of the May brood, but the young left the nest during the morning of that 31 day, making comparison impossible for the later period. In the main, the essential points in the two sets of data are in harmony, although the fact that the male was found dead on the ground below the nest after a storm (cause unknown), before all-day observations were begun, prevented any com- parison of the activities of the two sexes. This circumstance, however, gave opportunity to note what adjustment was ef- fected by the widow under the pressure of hunger of the nestlings. She came with food on the sixth day 98 times, and on the seventh day 127 times, as against 66 and 85 for both parents on the corresponding days for the May brood. In both cases the number of young was 3. In the June brood the period of most active feeding was from 4 to 8 p. m., with a less pronounced maximum in the early morning, as in the May data. On the basis of number of pieces of food, the results are similar, the morning and evening mor- sels greatly outnumbering those fed at midday. The young from each nest were followed after their first flight—which was witnessed in both cases—and their experien- ces on the “first day out” were noted. The struggle for exis- tence became a very real affair to the passive observer, and the records are not without mortality tables. Note.—Since this paper was read, two additional broods have been under observation, one of them throughout the entire period from hatching to leaving the nest, with complete data. Results will be published in full in due time. THE CLIFF FLORA OF JO DAVIESS COUNTY. H. S. PEpoon. Nearly all the numerous streams that drain Jo Daviess county and, after a longer or shorter southwest course, discharge their waters into the Mississippi River, have their narrow, alluvial “bot- toms” bordered by limestone cliffs of varying height and ex- tent. These cliffs are a marked feature of the landscape, and by reason of their precipitous nature make roads having an east and west direction a very difficult proposition, and ordi- nary tramping across the country very difficult, and in many places absolutely impossible. In height there are all variations, from a low wall of rock, easily overlooked and overtopped by a man of average stature, to towering and vertical precipices. Regarding the physical condition of the cliffs, there is to be found a great degree of diversity, according to the direc- tion and amount of exposure, the amount of sunlight received, the water content of the rocks, and, to a limited extent, the diverse physical constitution of the rock itself. Some cliffs are dry as dust, others are constantly dripping cold clear lime- water ; some never see the sun’s rays, and others receive the full effect of the midday sun; while in exposure all gradations are found, from the sheltered nook, where a cold blast never pene- trates, to a bald cliff exposed to the full fury of the north wind. All the rock is limestone and of the Galena and Niagara for- mations, but some variation is to be noted in the amount of sandy admixture, or in the narrow zones of chert at varying levels. Practically all the plants found on these circumscribed and seemingly inhospitable rocks may be grouped with those of xerophytic or hydrophytic tendencies, but it is to be predicated that many of the latter are really water-xerophytes, if such a term may be used for plants that, by all sorts of protective 33 features, try to isolate themselves from the all-surrounding moisture. Nearly all the species that exhibit a water-asso- ciation habit are bog plants, of the botanical textbooks, and it is believed that they have resorted to the cliffs because of the lessened competition and the lack of the more intense struggle for existence which apparently overbalance the drawbacks at- tendant on the new environment. The first noticeable feature of the flora is the remarkable mingling of the forms of the colder and warmer latitudes, al- though it is plainly manifest that there is a great preponder- ance of species of northern regions. It perhaps ought to be stated that the driftless condition of this whole area is, in all probability, the explanation in large part, for the first presence of these species from diverse latitudes. (See School Science, 1909, paper by the author.) Another marked character is the luxuriance of growth in many places, the rock soil seeming to afford very congenial habitation, and one is forced to conclude that many forms derive a large measure of their sustenance from the damp air surrounding. A third feature, and the one that adds spice to the collector’s trips, is the exceeding scarcity of localities for many forms, and the further fact that they are isolated examples of species found abundantly in other parts of North America. For convenience in studying the plants of the cliffs, it will be well to divide them into five groups acording to the physical features most predominant in their habitation :— 1. The plant-association of dripping and well-lighted cliffs, facing northerly. 2. The plant-association of dry and well-lighted cliffs, facing northerly. 3. The plant-association of twilight cliffs, densely shaded. 4. The plant-association of cliffs with southern exposure. 5. The transition-cliffs association. The dripping cliffs almost invariably have an exposure to- ward the north and east, are usually massive, thick-bedded and towering, and very often have a most pronounced overhang, due to erosive agency of the adjacent stream. The water is 34 always clear, cold and surcharged with lime, and often con- centrated in springs. Many rock mosses form green matted layers covering the rock face, with numerous alge intermixed, particularly Spirogyra species. Marchantia and Lunulria or, less abundantly, Concephalus, are liverwort forms that often clothe great spaces with a solid green covering, and winter or summer are obtainable for purposes of study or collection. A half dozen flowering plants form an association at once interesting and attractive. The most remarkable species is Primula Mistassinica, which forms a thick mat-like growth, cov- ering in one instance a space about three rods long by about six feet of vertical height, on that part of the cliff with the greatest amount of drip. The winter rosettes of this plant are well formed by September 1, and the numerous leaves evidently act as a cold protection for the innermost, immediately sur- rounding the root-crown, and these latter, are doubtless full of elaborated food fit for the immediate use of the plant the following spring, for in average years it is in full bloom by April 20, and then often tints the otherwise bare rock a lavender purple with the multitudes of its blossoms. By the end of May its seeds are ripe, and evidently many soon germinate, for tiny plants with but three or four root leaves are common in August. Steironema quadriforum adds a brilliant hue to the green of these same zones, in July and August when nothing but the leaves of the primrose are to be seen. The yellow flowers of this species are produced in great abundance, and as a rule, the plants seem in every way more vigorous than when found growing in the ordinary boggy home of other regions. Dasiphora fruticosus is a very abundant form and extends ver- tically over much more of the cliff face, blooming until cold puts an end to its growth. This plant never assumes on the cliffs the robust habit it has in the tamarack marshes of Michi- gan and Wisconsin. Galium tinctorium is another very com- mon plant of this association but not at all conspicuous. In the crevices and narrow ledges occasional robust specimens of Cypripedium reginae are to be found. So astonishingly differ- ent 1s such a habitat from the slough margins of Lake county, 35 Indiana, where this plant grows by the thousand, that one can hardly believe the testimony of his eyes, and we must needs look twice and handle to be convinced. Parnassia is always in evidence and flourishes. On some cliffs, notably one on Clear Creek, Gentiana crinita fairly covers the damp face of the rock and makes a most beatutiful showing in October. This plant, however, is very local, and is not a generally present cliff spe- cies. Why it should have adopted the one locality is a hard problem. There are scattering plants of a number of other species, but the ones named are characteristic. The dry exposed cliffs have a covering of crustaceous lichens, and a few higher forms that give a marked aspect to the plant life. Pellaea atropurpurea grows most luxuriantly and adds much to the beauty of the massive rocky front. Campanula rotundifolia abounds and shows abundantly its round root leaves, so commonly lacking in the form growing on the clay banks of Michigan and Indiana. Solidago flexicaulis and memoralis are frequent and showy in late summer. These dry cliffs, however, are the barren areas, comparatively, and large stretches are utterly devoid of plant life. The cliffs that have such an overhang as to shut out much of the light, and in particular the gorge-like side ravines with vertical sides, almost dark at midday, have a peculiar flora, that nowhere else is found, or that appears much abated in lux- uriance. These cliffs are generally damp, but rarely drip, the moisture being the general result of the lack of heat. The overhang in some places amounts to 20 to 25 feet, and it goes without saying that direct sunshine never enters. The charac- teristic plant is Sullivantia Sullivantii, which is excessively abundant, almost covering the rock in most places, and in June made daintily beautiful by its tiny but numerous white blos- soms. Delayed blooms appear as late as mid-August. Here and there Zygadenus elegans will be found, but in the lighter parts of the cliffs. It is not, however, exclusive in its choice of a home as are the other plants named above. Tarus is exceedingly common on all such rocks and adds much to the beauty of the scene. On ledges an occasional Jeffersonia diphylla 36 grows, but the species is a very rare one, and the seeker may climb many a cliff and never find one specimen. Several ferns are at home in these dark spots, notably Flix bulbifera, Cryp- togramma Stelleri, and Asplenium angustifolium. The finding of the latter will always be an occasion of note, and the writer scoured these identical cliffs for many years before he found a plant. This simply emphasizes, however, the extreme nicety of nature’s selection of habitat; for knowing the proper recipe of so much shade, rock-moisture and humus, a fine plant may now be found at any time. The southern cliffs are not, as a rule, characteristicallv clothed with plant life, or rather unclothed, for they are more commonly bare. A few species, however, have here their great- est distribution. Juniperus Virginiana is, in places, very com- mon, but never assumes more than the proportions of a small telephone pole, and always seems to mutely protest, by its un- kempt condition, against the irony of fate that relegates it to such a place. Aquilegia Canadensis is often common; so is Campanula rotundifolia, for any bare wall dry enough suits the latter. Pellea is again in evidence. If the cliff happens to have a moist base, it is a congenial habitation for Mimulus Jamesu, Epilobium adenocaulon, Chelone glabra, Caltha palustris, Salix Bebbiana, Carex hystricma, and Mimulus alatus. None are characteristic. The transition cliffs are those that connect, say, a vertical cliff facing north with a second cliff facing east, the various fronts being due to the sinuous course of the waterway that carved them out. In character they are compromise of cliff and talus, a vertical band and then a steep slope, and so on from base to summit. Having all directions of front and all kinds of soils, these places are remarkably rich in species, but very few of these latter are definitely and peculiarly cliff dwellers. These rough, untillable, non-pasturable, and largely untreadable slopes, have, however, a very great influence on the plant life of the region, for here are collected, for the last stand against the civilized death-warrant, a host of species that, each selecting its circumscribed dry or moist rock or sunny or oF shady nook, flourish as the green-bay tree. It will suffice to give a small list, to show the mixed social nature of the vegetation :— Marchantia, Polystichum, Adiantum, Pinus strobus, Muhlen- bergia sp., Carex albursina, Morus rubra, Caleorchis, Actaeo rubra, Caulophyllum, Bicuculla Canadensis, Arabis sp., Dirca, Pyrola elliptica, Chimaphila umbellata, Gentiana quinquefolia, G. flavida, Thalesia uniflora, Diervilla, Viburnum O pulus, Symphori- carpus racemosus, Betula papyrifera. The last is everywhere, a marked and remarkable species. This has been but a mere surface scratching of the soil, but I hope that I have made it plain that the cliffs of Jo Daviess are plant resorts of great interest and that many ecological problems are involved in the question of how such species have taken up their abode in the seemingly inhospitable soil of rock, and that, further, I have at least suggested the answer in some cases. As a conclusion, it might be noted that the seeker after plant knowledge on these precarious rocky heights may on oc- casion be stopping to admire the brazen beauty of the poison ivy or wonder at the innocent immaculate appearance of the deadly Amanita and meet (with a backbone chill) the unwink- ing glare of a huge timber-rattlesnake and stepping backward to avoid the triple danger, plunge downward a hundred feet into the cold river beneath. 38 THE CLAY SEAMS (GHORSEBACKS) IN THE NUMBER'’5 COAL BED, NEAR SPRINGFIELD, TILLINOES T. E. SAVAGE. The principal coal seam exploited in western Illinois, over the area between Springfield and Peoria, was designated in the Worthen reports as number 5. The following section shows the character of the strata associated with the number 5 coal in the Springfield quadrangle: FEET Sandstone Or shale 22... 42s eae 10 to 30+ Light gray shale or soapstone ........ 1% to 4 PmeStONC NCAP TOG) wr aere en tee ee er Y%to 1% Black, fissile shale ................... 24% to 4% Coad Natniber a) Ga eee aes oa eee 5 to 6% |S higcayc : Aee e ae er eS eee ane ee 1% to 5 One of the conspicuous features of the number 5 coal seam is the presence of numerous clay-filled fissures that extend down into, or through, the coal seam from the overlying beds. The fissures are generally from two or three to sixteen inches in width, although the larger ones attain a width of three or four feet. Their walls are slickensided, but do not show any traces of weathering. The spaces between the walls are filled with a light gray shale or soapstone. These fissures, with their fillings, are known to the miners as horsebacks. There is no regularity in the distance between these horsebacks, or clay seams, or in the direction in which they extend. In some mines they are encountered about forty to sixty feet apart, while in others they are separated by a distance of two hundred to four hundred feet, or more. They traverse the coal seam in various directions, no single direc- tion greatly predominating even in the same mine. The shale filling the fissures is light gray in color and is gen- 39 erally rather soft. In rare cases it is so hard that it emits sparks when struck with a hammer, but usually it soon slakes down into an incoherent mass upon exposure to the air. Where the horseback enters the top of the coal seam the fissure at once becomes wider. The upper laminz of the coal, immediately adjacent to the fissure on the overhanging side, are more or less steeply bent downward, the bending or buckling of the layers fading out laterally within a few feet from the fissures. Fragments of the black shale, from the roof of the coal, were seen at many points in the clay filling of the horsebacks from five to twenty-nine inches below the top of the coal. In mine number 5 of the Springfield Coal Mining Company, a fragment of coal, six inches long and three fourths of an inch in thick- ness, was found in the clay of a horseback nine inches below the bottom of the coal seam. In the mine last mentioned there was seen in three of the horsebacks a slight upward bending of the lower edge of the coal on the side of the fissure opposite to that in which the down-bending at the top occurred. This upward bending at the bottom, however, is only one third to one half as great as the down-bending of the coal at the top of the seam in the same horseback. When the clay seam passes into the coal bed in a nearly vertical direction there is a down-bending of the coal at the top of the seam on each side of the fissure. How- ever, the more nearly vertical the direction in which the horse- back cuts through the coal, the less is the distance through which the edges at the top and bottom of the seam are bent. In no instance was there seen a true faulting of the beds. I wish to emphasize the fact that in no case was there a slipping of the middle part of the coal seam on one side of the fissure above the level of the corresponding part of the seam on the opposite side. The only vertical displacement is a downward pushing of the cap rock and roof shale, and a down-bending of the upper laminz of the coal on the overhanging side of the fissure, through a vertical distance of from two to twenty inches; and, less frequently, a much smaller upward bending of the lower edge of the coal seam on the opposite side of the fissure, as shown in the accompanying figure. HORSEBACK IN MINE NO, $ OF SPRINGFIELD COAL MINING CO. SAND STONE GRAY SOAPSTONE CAP ROCK BLACK SHALE COAL NO.$ VIRB Clar In this area the fissures have a very limited vertical extent. In the Mechanicsburg mine a coal seam was formerly worked about thirty-five feet above the number 5 bed which is at present being mined.. Although these two coal seams are separated by an interval of less than forty feet, the number 5 coal is traversed by numerous clay seams, while none were encountered in the upper bed. It seems certain that there was a somewhat ready yielding of the coal mass in a lateral direction when the fissures were formed. ‘This is shown in the fact that the walls of the fissure are much wider apart in the coal bed than in the overlying roof shale and cap rock. The clay seams always cut the bed in an oblique or a vertical direction, never following the partings or stratification planes of the coal seam, even where these are well marked. The amount of downward slipping of the cap rock is always less than the extent to which the upper edge of the coal seam overhanging the fissure is bent downward. All of 41 the movement, both horizontal and vertical, that has taken place in connection with the clay-filled fissures seems to have been made possible by the yielding of the materials within the coal seam itself. That the coal offered accomodation to the strains that caused the formation of the fissures is shown by the fact that within the coal seam the smaller fissures often divide into a number of branches which eventually die out without passing entirely through the bed. The clay filling the fissures is thought to have been pressed downward through the break in the cap rock and roof shale into the coal from the bed of gray shale or soapstone overly- ing the cap rock. As this clay was forced downward into the fissures it caught the overhanging and unsupported edges of the cap rock, roof shale and coal, bending those edges down- ward on the overhanging side of the fissure. That this clay was, for the most part, squeezed downward from above the coal horizon is indicated by the manner in which the upper edge of the coal seam overhanging the fissure has been bent downward to a much greater. extent than the lower edge of the coal on the foot-wall side has been forced upward. It is shown in the fact that fragments of black shale from the roof of the coal are common in the clay filling of the horse- back several inches below the top of the coal seam; and frag- ments of coal also occur in the clay some inches below the bottom of the seam. In no case were coal fragments found in the clay filling at a level higher than the top of the coal. SUGGESTED ORIGIN OF THE CLAY SEAMS. It is thought that the formation of these clay filled fissures was intimately related to the character of the beds above the number 5 coal. It is probable that the character of the under- lying fire clay, which here is dry and does not creep readily, is also a conditioning factor. The fissures were not formed, as at present, until after the vegetal mass composing the coal seam had been compressed to near its present volume. This 42 is shown in the fact that the clay seams show no bending or buckling such as would result if much compression of the coal had occurred after the horsebacks were completely formed. Where the lower edge of the coal rests upon the clay filling of the horseback, the laminz are not curved upward adjacent to the fissure as they would be if the coal at a distance from the fissure had been compressed or settled downward since the horseback was formed. That a degree of consolidation of the coal sufficient to permit of jointing had occurred prior to the formation of the horsebacks is shown by the fact that in some places the clay from the fissures has spread into the joints of the coal adjacent to the horseback. Campbell* suggests that joints are developed early in the process of coal formation, and that the carbonization of the coal, beyond the lignite condition, depends upon the presence of joints and cleavage planes along which the gases could find a way of escape. If this is the case, there would be a com siderable amount of compression and contraction of the coal seam after the joints. were formed, before the vegetal mass reached the condition of bituminous coal. It is assumed that as the mass of vegetal material, under the weight of overlying sediments, was slowly transformed into_ coal, there would be somewhat unequal contraction in differ- ent parts of the seam, owing to the lack of homogeneity of the vegetal materials making up the coal beds; and that the con- traction of the coal materials continued long after a high de- gree of consolidation of the coal had taken place. So long as the materials possessed some degree of mobility the unequal shrinking in the different parts of the coal seam would be equalized by the movement of some of the mass towards the points of least pressure. When the consolidation reached a certain point such adjustment would be no longer possible. After this, the continued unequal shrinking of the vegetal mass would cause unequal strains in the roof of the coal under its load of superposed sediments. If the roof of the coal seam was a soapstone, or somewhat *Campbell: Economic Geology, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 30. 43 plastic shale, the mobility of the shale particles would permit this zone to adjust the inequalities of strain resulting from the unequal contraction in the coal seam. Such conditions exist in the roof of coal number 6 in the Carterville-Zeigler district of southern Illinois. Rock rolls occupying depressions in the top of the coal are here common, but no clay seams pene- trate the coal bed. In the vicinity of these rolls the roof shale is cut by slickensided zones for a distance of several feet from the center of the roll, indicating a considerable lateral move- ment in the shale in accomplishing the adjustment of the strains. However, the roof of coal number 5 is a hard, brittle shale whose constituent particles do not possess the mobility requisite for such adjustment. If the limestone cap rock was very thick it might be able to withstand, without fracture, the unequal strain due to unequal contraction in the underlying coal seam. But the cap rock of this coal is thin, averaging only twelve to fourteen inches. The combined strength of the roof shale and cap rock was not sufficient to withstand the unequal strain to which they were subjected, and fissuring of the beds resulted. Immediately above the cap rock of this coal seam is a bed of rather soft, gray shale or soapstone whose particles were sufficiently mobile to bring about adjustment in the unequal strains which, by the fissuring of the roof shale and cap rock, had been transferred to this higher horizon. The materials from this shale horizon were immediately squeezed downward through the fissures as wedges into the coal seam, until the in- equality of pressure was adjusted. Under these conditions the place in which adjustment was accomplished was limited to a narrow zone below the point where the fracture was made in the roof shale and cap rock. Hence the effects were confined to a narrow zone horizontally, but they became thus strongly marked in a vertical direction. It is probable that from time to time, as the shrinking in the coal mass continued, more clay was forced downward into the coal seam, fissuring it still deeper and spreading the walls of the fissure constantly wider apart. The abundant evidences that the clay filling the fissures in the Springfield coal seam was 44 pressed down from above the coal have been given on a pre- ceding page. In this manner, also, the slickensiding was ac- complished by the slipping of the clay in the fissure, and not by the movement of the walls of the fissure upon each other. It is thought that the principle of unequal contraction in the different parts of the coal seam, during the progress of its consolidation, applies also in the formation of the more com- mon types of rock rolls in the top of coal seams in Illinois. The character and sequence of the beds above the coal seam are considered the chief factors in determining whether rolls or clay seams will be formed in the adjustment of the strains arising from such unequal contraction. It seems probable that clay seams have been formed in dif- ferent ways in different areas, under varying conditions of roof and floor, and varying degrees and kinds of strains to which the strata were subjected. It is not possible that earth- quake phenomena or general crustal strains, such as produce wide-spread faulting, could be concerned in the formation of the fissures of the clay seams in the Springfield region. Fractures from the above-mentioned causes would not be limited to a few feet in vertical height, or to one particular coal seam, as in the area under discussion. fit AR DNESS OF ILLINOIS MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPIEIES: EDWARD BARTOW. It is not the purpose of this paper to show the advantages of a soft water. We are all agreed that a soft water is best. The large majority of the municipalities of Illinois have hard waters, and therefore what we wish to know is how to make them soft and when it is practicable to do so. Whenever it is necessary to purify a water for drinking ' purposes an additional installation to soften the water is com- paratively inexpensive. The same is true when it is found necessary to remove the iron from a water supply. To soften a hard but pure and clear water would mean a complete in- stallation for softening purposes alone. In the latter case there will therefore be much hesitation on account of the ex- pense before general softening plants are established. In all plants also there is a reluctance to treat all of the water supply when a soft water is not needed for all purposes. Railroads are finding it profitable to soften the waters used in their locomotives, and plants for water treatment are in operation on all of the principal lines. The matter is of so much importance to them that an extended report has been made by the Committee on Water Service of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association*. The Committee discusses the matter from the standpoint of use in locomotives quite fully. What has been found practi- cable in locomotive practice may be extended to general boiler uses or even to domestic practice. 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The samples of water analyzed have been sent to the Water Survey from the various towns by the water-works men, the city officials, or by other citizens. The Water Survey has not been able to collect the samples itself, and thus can not be ab- solutely certain that the samples are authentic. The probabil- ity is that most of them are all right. The analytical work reported has been done in the Laboratory of the State Water Survey at the University of Illinois during the past fifteen years. There is a possibility that some of the waters have changed in character, but most of the well supplies are very stable. Ninety-seven of the 216 separate sources of supply within the State have been examined. The analytical data which is need- ed to determine the method of water softening is given. Most all of the analyses are reported in full in a Bulletin of the State Water Survey.* The mineral content given in the table shows hypothetical combinations which have been calculated from the ionic con- tent by calculating bases in the order, potassium, sodium, am- monium, magnesium, calcium, iron and aluminum, to the acid ions in the order, nitrate, chloride, sulphate and _ carbonate. By using this order the waters can be divided into several classes. To facilitate comparison we made three classes. Class I. Includes those waters which contain more than enough sodium to unite with all of the nitrate, chloride and sul- phate ions. These waters would, therefore, contain sodium car- bonate, and possibly the carbonates of magnesium, calcium and iron. The waters of this class will form a sludge or soft scale when used in boilers. They may have a high soap-consuming power when used for laundry or in the lavatory. The hardness, which would necessarily consist of the carbonates of calcium and mag- nesium, will be almost entirely removed by boiling, or by treat- *University of Illinois Bulletin, State Water Survey Series, No. 5. 49 ment with the necessary amount of lime. The relative cost of softening by boiling and by lime is given by Collett* as 50 to 1. Class II. Includes those waters which have sufficient sodium to unite with all the nitrates and chlorides and with part of the sulphates present. These waters contain the sulphate of mag- nesium and sometimes the sulphate of calcium, iron and alu- minium. The waters of this class will form a scale more or less hard, according to the proportion of sulphate present. Their soap-consuming power may be high, and boiling will not re- move all of the hardness. Boiling will remove the carbonate hardness, but the sulphate hardness will remain. Lime will remove the carbonates, but soda ash or caustic soda must be used to change the sulphates to sulphates of sodium. Class III. Includes those waters in which the sodium is not present in sufficient quantity to unite with all the nitrates and chlorides present. These waters will therefore contain mag- nesium chloride. The hardness may be due to chlorides, sul- phates and carbonates of magnesium, calcium, etc. These waters will be corrosive, and will form a hard scale and pit when used in boilers. They will also consume a considerable quantity of soap, and the hardness will not all be removed by boiling. As in Class II lime will remove the carbonates, but soda ash or caustic soda must be used for the mineral acid hardness. It is noted that the waters of the second class are most com- mon, there being 64 waters in this class. The first class is next in order with 32 waters, and the third class numbers 10. Most of these waters will yield to treatment, the exception being those containing a large residue. These may be softened, but because of the necessary addition of sodium salts in the softening process the foaming constituents will be increased so that they will be unsatisfactory for boiler uses. With the ex- ception of the waters just mentioned, it is possible to so treat the Illinois waters that corrosion will be prevented and the scaling ingredients reduced to less than 85 parts per million (5 grains per gallon). *Water Softening and Purification, London, 1908, p. 3. tn 0 The amounts of sodium carbonate (soda ash, Na,Co,) and lime (CaO) needed to treat the waters were calculated, using factors as follows: Magnesium chloride, MgCl, to Soda ash, Na,CO,..1.1130 Magnesium sulphate, MgSO, to Soda ash, Na,CO,... .8811 Calcium sulphate, CaSO, to Soda ash, Na,CO,..... 1792 Sodium) carbonate; NajCO;, to Lime, CaOw... sve .5287 Magnesium chloride, MgCl, to Lime, CaO.......... . 9889 Magnesium sulphate, MgSO, to Lime, CaO......... .4659 Magnesium carbonate, MgCo, to Lime, CaO......... 1.3300 Caletnmearbonate, “CaCO, ‘to Lime, CaO v2.2.2 eee . 5600 Parts: per) million to: srams. per. sallony..4..7..-e4ee 05833 Parts per million to pounds per thousand gallons.... .008345 The amounts are calculated on the basis of pure soda ash and pure lime, and no account is taken of the residual carbonate of calcium and magnesium which can not be removed. Practice would probably show that the approximate cost is therefore a trifle high. The amount of soda ash present has been included in the calculation of the lime needed for the waters of Class I. This is according to the laboratory experiments of Bartow and Lindgren.* The results are given in parts per million, grains per gallon and pounds per thousand gallons. This will make it con- venient for treatment on a large or small scale. Those desir- ing to soften water for use in the household, where the whole supply is not softened, may soften from a few gallons up by adding the calculated amount. We have tried the experiment with the water at the University of Illinois on a laboratory scale, using 30 liters of water; and on a household scale, using 1,000 gallons of water. The Champaign and Urbana water supplies are in this way softened so that the soap-consuming capacity is very much decreased and so that the possibility of staining white goods from the iron present is entirely eliminated, and there is no danger of clogging the water-backs in the ranges. Should plans be made to soften the water furnished from *Bartow and Lindgren, Proceedings of the Am. Water Works Assn. Vol. 27, page 505, (1907.) Univ. of Illinois Bulletin, State Water Survey Series, No. 6. | streams it is necessary to consider that the waters vary from day to day and that no specific rules can be laid down for the treatment. The results given are the averages. The analyses which are marked (a) are average analyses covering a period of one year, and were made by Mr. W. D. Collins, Assistant Hydrographer of the United States Geological Survey, and Mr. C. K. Calvert, Field Assistant of the United States Geological Survey, under the cooperative agreement with the State Water Survey, State Geological Survey, and the University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station in a study of the streams of Illinois. The cost of treatment has been calculated on the basis of lime at $6.00 per ton and soda at $1.00 per hundred. The cost at any place can be readily calculated by noting the relation between this estimated cost and the actual cost on the spot. The above illustrates one of the lines of work planned for the survey. We wish to make analyses of all the supplies, and we wish also some day to have the privilege of collecting our own samples. As an illustration of the possibility of success in water softening, I will mention an incident. My own cistern was dry, so I arranged to treat 1,000 gallons of water. When I was about to begin my wife expressed the wish that I ex- periment on some one else. The experiment was carried out, however. A few days later I was informed that the water I had treated was better. A few days later my attention was called to some curtains. “Don’t they look nice? They were washed in the water you treated.” I had thus one convert to water softening. on bo ELECTROLYTIC SEPARATION OF METALS BY GRADED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES. ALBERT CARVER. I give herewith some observations on a new method of electrolytic separation of metals by graded electromotive forces. This experimental physical work depends upon the fact that the salts of the different metals have different decomposing values. Freudenburg showed how it was possible to separate metals quantitatively in this manner. It is only necessary to have two salts of the metals, which have decomposing values as far apart as possible. When an E. M. F. between these limits is passed through the cell, the metal with the lower decomposing value will separate; after that is separated the current will cease and it is only neces- sary to raise the E. M. F. in order to deposit the other metal. When the concentration of the ions in the salt of the metal separated becomes decreased, as it almost invariably does, it is only necessary to raise the E. M. F. slightly. The amount of increase is small and may be readily calculated from the following formula: R T Pp ip) Se a J NE. 10g. : If p decreases from 0.1 normal to 0.000001 normal, P must be increased 0.3 volts for a monovalent element and but half that amount for a divalent element. For example AgNO,= @.70 and Pht NO, );——1, 52. When these two solutions are together the Ag will be en- tirely decomposed by an E. M. F. of less than one volt; then the E. M. F. may be raised to 1.52 or more, and all the lead will be deposited. Separations are easily made in this way. Below are given the separation values of a few ions. They 53 are based on the value of H taken as zero. That is if the value of H is added to that of OH, we will have the decom- position value of HO 1.68. These values are for molar con- centrations. Ag =—0.78 P0252 Cu=—0.5 Br—0;94 H=-+ 0.0 O=1.08 (In acids) Pb=-+ 0.17 Ci Iki Cd=-+ 0.38 OH =1.08 (In acids) Zn = + 0.74 OH=0-88 (in base) The table is applied to the quantitative determination of Cl, Br, and I, in solutions. The minimum FE. M. F. of decomposition of this system for a solution of Ag and separation H, is given by the following equation : m = 0.5075 log. =? — 6.0575 log. = at 17°, when P, and P, are the electrolytic solution pressures of the Ag and H, p, and p, being the osmotic pressures of the ions Ag and H. 54 SYMPOSIUM ON THE SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITIES OF THE STATE; THEIR HISTORY, METHODS, AND PURPOSE. THE ILLINOIS STATE LABORATORY OF NATURAE HISTORY AND THE LLEINOIS Si xate ENTOMOLOGIST'S OFFICE. STEPHEN A. FORBES. The State Laboratory of Natural History has for its prin- cipal function the making of a natural history survey of the State, preference being given to subjects of educational and economic importance. It is also charged with the supply of natural history specimens to the State Museum, to the state educational institutions, and to the public schools, and the director of the Laboratory is required to present for publica- tion, from time to time, a series of systematic reports covering the entire field of the zoology and the cryptogamic botany of Illinois. It is established by law at the University of Illinois, the Trustees of which are the custodians of its property. They also appoint its director, and, upon his nomination, such as- sistants as the work of the establishment may require. Its appropriations are made as an item in the general appropria- tion bill for the expenses of the state government, and con- sequently come to it immediately from the State Treasury upon the requisition of the director of the Laboratory. It is now receiving from the state $9500 per annum, $8000 of which are for the expenses of the natural history survey, $1,000 for the publication of bulletins and reports, and $500 for the supply of natural history specimens to public schools. No ap- propriations have been made to it for many years for the 5 supply of material to the state educational institutions or to the State Museum. The staff of the survey now consists of the director, an entomologist, two zoological assistants, an artist, and a sec- retary. Special assistants are employed from time to time for special purposes. Two such assistants were engaged, for example, for a year during 1906 and 1907 in making field ob- servations and collecting data for a statistical survey of the bird life of the state, and a computer has been engaged for some months in organizing and tabulating these data for discussion. Furthermore, the relations of the Laboratory to the State Entomologist’s office are so intimate and long-continued, as will presently be explained, that the service of several as- sistants in both offices is rendered first in one direction and then in the other as the exigencies of the work require. In- deed, the State Entomologist’s work is essentially a specialized part of the natural history survey, directed primarily to econom- ic ends, but so managed as to make the greatest possible con- tribution also to the scientific and educational purposes of the general survey. The State Laboratory is quartered in the Natural History Building of the University of Illinois, in which it occupies at present five rooms. It has further assigned to its use, to be- come available as soon as the addition to the Natural History Building—now nearly finished—is ready for occupancy, two more large rooms, to which a third is to be added in the near future, Apart from its collections, which have naturally become very large—about a quarter of a million of specimens of [llinois fish, for example—the most useful possession of the Laboratory is its library, which is the product of many years of careful selection and purchase of the literature of the world necessary to an investigation of the zoology and entomology of Illinois. It contains also many botanical and general biological works, and. includes complete series of all the bibliographies of zoology. It now contains nearly 7000 books and something over 17,000 56 pamphlets, all of which are catalogued to date by titles of arti- cles and by authors’ names. It has been the general purpose of the natural history survey, first, to work up those parts of the zoology and the cryptogamic botany of the state which are least likely to be studied thoroughly by other public agencies or by private investigators, publishing the results of these studies from time to time in special bulletin articles; and, second, to present comprehensive summaries of knowledge in each department of the zoology and botany of the state in the form of final reports. As the continued maintenance of the survey seemed for many years precarious, under the conditions then existing, its funds were for a long time used principally for the accumulation of mate- rial, and this has gone on far in advance of studies for publica- tion. Highly valuable collections have been made, for example, from Lake Michigan, from the northern lakes of Illinois, and from the waters of the state at large, which have never yet been studied and reported on. The controlling idea in the management and development of the survey is expressed in the introduction to the first volume of its reports, written by its director—the present writer— in 1889, four years after its legal establishment as the recog- nized agency of the state for the performance of this work. “Neglecting the flowering plants, and the classification and description of birds and mammals,” says this report, “already fairly well studied for this region, we have paid particular attention, so far as descriptive work is concerned, to the lower plants, to reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, and to insects and aquatic invertebrates. Still greater prominence has been given to a general research on the system of actions and reactions occurring within the assemblage of living forms native to Illinois, with a view to exhibiting the laws of interaction and coordination by which the innumerable host and vast variety of the plants and animals of our region are held together as a definitely organized, living whole. “In the preparation of the volumes of this report it will be our main final object to furnish the materials for a full and 57, accurate picture of the native plant and animal life of Illinois as it actually exists in our fields, woods, and waters, and to bring most prominently into view those parts of the subject which have a peculiar educational or economic value. Especially we have hoped to furnish in this series a solid and permanent basis for the study and teaching of the natural history of this state and of its different sections, thus opening to the student and the teacher the way to a familiar knowledge of the life of his neighborhood in all the relations likely to have any im- portant bearing on popular education or on the general welfare. “Classification and description must furnish the foundation of such a work; but to these will be added accounts of habits, of life history, and of relations to nature in detail and at large, as full as the state of our knowledge and the funds at our dis- posal will permit.” Although the word ecology had not become current in America twenty years ago, and the idea covered by it can hardly be said to have been a familiar one, it will be noticed that the survey here characterized is essentially an ecological one—a fact which has enabled us to harmonize very easily our plans, and the operations in progress, with the ideals and as- pirations of the young ecologists of the Illinois Academy. Consistently with the general idea of the study by the state, within our field of ecological biology, of those subjects of educational or economic importance which are not likely to be pursued by others, the general topic of the food of birds, fishes, and certain groups of insects was taken up, many years ago, with a view to a precise knowledge of the place and ef- ficiency of these groups in the general system of nature—a topic of such special difficulty, and requiring so unusual a prep- aration and so large an expenditure of time and money, as to put it beyond the reach of the ordinary worker. The Illi- nois survey was, in fact, the pioneer in this field, and its papers, published in the first two volumes of the State Laboratory Bul- letin, still remain standard on this subject. A statistical study of the birds of the state, made with a view to a determination of the number of birds of each species Lal 8 and the local and seasonal distribution of each, is a related subject also requiring the resources of an institution, and has consequently been entered upon by us recently. Another topic likewise beyond the reach of ordinary agencies is the study of the whole system of the minute plant and animal life of the waters of the state—the so-called plankton,— and in this field extensive researches were made by us during five successive years, from 1894 to 1899, by means of a biological station equipment maintained on the Illinois River at Havana, in which practically continuous work was done throughout the year. This is by far the largest and most elaborate study of the plankton of a river system ever prosecuted, and a part of its results—those pertaining to the plankton of the main stream —have been published by us in two volumes of the Bulletin, containing 890 pages of text and illustrated by fifty-six plates. Although strictly scientific in its aims and methods, this aquatic work lies really at the foundation of intelligent fish-culture, the plankton of our waters being an important element in the food of the young of all fishes, and hence an important part of the natural resources of the state. The publications of the survey thus far include eight volumes of bulletins,—the last not yet complete,—containing 4224 pages and 246 plates, and three volumes of final reports—two on the birds and one on the fishes of the state, the latter accompanied by a separate atlas of 102 maps. Some of the more important papers of the bulletin series are those on the food of birds, fishes, and insects, already referred to, and descriptive articles on the Hepaticae of North America and on certain families of fungi; lists and descriptions of Illinois fishes; several articles on the Crustacea of Illinois; studies on the contagious diseases of insects, made especially with reference to their economic utilization; descriptive papers on Illinois reptiles and amphibians; a paper on the animals of the Mississippi bottoms near Quincy; many articles on various families of Illinois insects; a study of the entomology of the Illinois River and adjacent waters; numerous studies of the earthworms of the state and their allies; papers on the Protozoa a2 and Rotifera of the Illinois River and adjacent lakes; a series of articles on the plankton, resulting from our biological station work; a paper on the leeches of Illinois; articles on the species, local distribution, and ecological relations of Illinois fishes ; and an article on the biology of the sand areas of Illinois. The character and object of the final reports of the survey are best illustrated by the volume on the fishes of the state, now just out of press. I have two additional volumes of this series in early prospect—one a long-delayed treatment of the more important birds of the state from an ecological and eco- nomic standpoint, intended to bring together in a single volume the essential substance of our statistical and economic work and that of the United States Biological Survey on the more abun- dant and significant species of Illinois birds; and another on the entomology of the state, which shall similarly summarize the more prominent and important results of economic work in this field, treated, however, in a broad way, from the standpoint of the modern ecologist. Operations now actually in progress include continuous work on Illinois insects, on which several bulletin papers are in course of preparation by assistants of the survey; a study of the mammals of the state, particularly those of Champaign county, which subject is being worked out in full local and ecological detail; a survey of the forest resources of the state, begun during the past summer under a cooperative arrange- ment with the United States Forest Service; and a census of the birds of the state, upon which two papers have already been published, and the complete data for which are now being organized by statistical methods. I am hoping next to develop our work by a further investi- gation of our natural resources, with reference to their present condition and management, and to measures for their conser- vation and improvement. I hope to finish the forest survey, already begun, to complete and extend our statistical work on the birds of the state, and to continue and complete our study of our aquatic resources, particularly those contained in the Illinois and the Mississippi rivers and the waters most closely 60 connected with those streams. The Illinois River especially is an enormous storehouse of material wealth, the natural product of which is little appreciated, and the conditions of whose im- provement have but just begun to be understood. With the extraordinary advantage given us by our biological station work on the river we could readily make a quantitative study of the plankton and the other biological products of the entire stream, and I am asking from the state legislature an opportunity to do this work. Our previous five-year period of active operations on the river at Havana closed just before the opening of the Chicago drainage canal. Sufficient time has now elapsed since that revolutionary event to allow a reestablishment of the biolog- ical equilibrium in the waters of the Illinois, and a repetition of that work on quantitative lines would enable us to determine the influence on the life of the river of a large and sudden increase in the flow of water down its bed. An economic sur- vey of the plant and animal life of the stream would give us a better basis than we now have for a convincing estimate of its value to us, present and prospective, actual and possible. With all the operations being planned for the drainage and protection of its bottom-lands, for the deepening of its channel, and for the erection of enormous manufacturing plants upon its banks, there is imminent danger that it will presently be converted into a mere drainage ditch, barren of useful life, and a menace to the public health. A knowledge of its present and prospective values will be a great aid to us in providing against its pollution and economic destruction by the unregulated de- velopment of manufacturing plants along its banks. In connection with the proposed work at Havana I hope to set on foot a general ecological survey of a cross-section of the Illinois basin, beginning with the black lands of Logan county and extending across the river to the similar lands of Fulton county. Such a work I hope to see begun the coming summer, with the aid of the ecologists of the Academy, and carried through as an example and model of work of this description. 61 Thinking that you would doubtless be more interested in a statement of the work now in progress and in immediate pros- pect than in an account of the development of our operations, I have left myself time for only a brief sketch of the history of the State Laboratory from its origin in the Museum of the old State Natural History Society. This museum, transferred to the State Board of Education at Normal in 1871 for the use and benefit of the state, received from them the name of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, and their intentions concerning it were described in resolutions adopted December 15, 1875, in which they say: “We regard the Museum as a State Institution, devoted to the prosecution of a natural his- fengesunvey Of the state, * * * * and we consider it. an important part of its work to supply collections of specimens to public schools, * *° * * and especially to provide all needed facilities for the instruction of teachers in natural his- tory, and in the most approved and successful methods of teaching the same.” In the law of 1877, however, which established a State Museum at Springfield under the name of the Illinois State Historical Library and Natural History Museum, it was directed that the old museum of natural history at Normal be converted into a state laboratory of natural history, at which the collection, preservation, and determination of all zoological and botanical material for the State Museum should be done; and it was further made a part of the duty of the director of this laboratory to provide, as soon as possible, a series of speci- mens illustrating the zoology and botany of the state, and to deposit them from time to time in the State Museum. In this same act $1000 per annum was appropriated, to be ex- pended under the direction of the director of the State Labora- tory at Normal, for the purpose of increasing the collections in natural history in the State Museum at Springfield. The collec- tion of birds now in the museum, the mounted mammals, the casts of fishes, most of the insect collections, and a considerable quantity of botanical material are among the products of these appropriations so made. 62 In 1883 the status of the State Laboratory was materially changed by the appointment of its director to the office of State Entomologist, then made vacant by the resignation of Dr. Cyrus Thomas,—an appointment made and accepted with the understanding that the work of the State Entomologist and that of the State Laboratory of Natural History were to be merged and managed as one. In 1884 the opportunity arose for a transfer of both the State Laboratory and the Entomologist’s office to the State University at Urbana, a situation evidently more natural and more promising for its future than association with a normal school, and this transfer, arranged by friendly agreement of all the parties concerned, was ratified by an act of the state legislature approved June 27, 1885, which act is the present fundamental law of the State Laboratory of Natural History. At the University it has remained for twenty-five years, nom- inally controlled by the university Trustees, but practically in- dependent in its management. The most notable fact of its history was the opening, by joint arrangement with the Uni- ersity in 1894, of a station on the Illinois River for the inves- tigation of the biology of that stream, and the maintenance of this station for continuous work during the five following years. The office of State Entomologist stands second in point of origin and first in period of service, on the list of the state agencies of scientific and economic research. Established by law in 1867, it has been continuously maintained for forty-two years— a longer period of activity, in fact, than that of the geological survey, which, although estalished in 1851, was sus- pended for twenty-eight years. It had its origin in an energetic demand of the State Horticultural Society of Illinois, whose presi- dent, Parker Earle, in 1865, seems to have been the first to make prominent public mention of the subject. In a meeting of the society held at Normal, December 19 of that year, he says: “And first, the appointment of a state entomologist. The time has been in this state when it required some moral courage for any one to advocate the appointment, and compensation from the treasury, of an officer to look after the bugs, but I venture 63 the opinion that there is no subject in which you, as amateur or professional horticulturists, have a more direct, immediate, or larger pecuniary interest than in entomology—the laws of insect life, a discriminating knowledge of the forms and habits of your insect friends and foes. * * * * No one who has given the subject any attention will question the truth of the state- ment that the people of [Illinois are to-day many millions of dollars poorer by reason of noxious insects; nor the additional statement that a very large proportion of this loss might have been averted by the labors of a SOMES oul entomologist with a little means at his disposal. * “Let us have a state entomologist; and luckily we need not go beyond the limits of our own state to find one of the most competent character.” This suggestion was approved by the society at this meet- ing, and was followed the next year by the hearty endorse- ment of its next president, who said, in his annual address: “The lessons of the year are instructive, and strengthen the conviction that fruit-growers had better give up the business, or give more attention to the insects that are laying waste their orchards. It is my belief that fully one half of the fruit trees within the range of my acquaintance are suffering from dis- eases wholly the result of insect ravages, and that more than half of their fruits the past summer have been wasted from the same cause.” He expresses a desire for ‘“‘a bureau of en- tomology, to act independently until it shall be adopted by the long-looked-for agricultural college, to be provided by the state with all facilities for organizing and carrying on a sys- tematic warfare upon these, so far, triumphant enemies of the farmer and the horticulturist.” The resolution of the society upon this feature of the presi- dent’s address was expressed in the following emphatic form: “Resolved, That we most urgently pray the honorable legis- lature of our great state to appoint a state entomologist, that agriculturists and horticulturists may not quite despair of ever overcoming the giant insectivorous difficulties in the way of success in their professions. As one eminently qualified, and the 64 highest in his profession in the whole West, we most hopefully mention the name of Benjamin D. Walsh, of Rock Island.” As a result of this movement an act was passed in 1867 authorizing the Governor to appoint, with the consent of the Senate, some competent scientific person as state entomologist, whose duty it should be to investigate the entomology of the state of Illinois, and to study the history of the insects in- jurious to the products of the horticulturist and the agricultur- ist. Under this general and rather inadequate warrant the work of the office was prosecuted by Walsh, LeBaron, Thomas, and the present writer, expanding with the development of its field and becoming more complicated and precise in response to the various demands made upon it, until, in 1907, a new law was passed, by which it was made the duty of the Entomologist to investigate, by himself or by his assistants, all insects dan- gerous or injurious in this state to agricultural and horticul- tural plants and crops, to live stock, to nursery trees and plants, to the products of the truck-farm and the vegetable garden, to the shade trees and other ornamental vegetation of cities and towns, to the products of mills and the contents of ware- houses, and to all other valuable property; and to investigate all insects in the state injurious or dangerous to the public health. He is further required to conduct experiments for the prevention and control of injuries to person and property by such insects, and to instruct the people of the state, by lecture and demonstration, in the best methods of preserving and pro- tecting their property and their health against insect injuries. Consequent upon the appearance in Illinois of the San Jose scale, first discovered here in 1896, a law was passed in 1899 putting upon the State Entomologist the further duty of in- specting annually all nurseries in the state, and, where the stock and premises of these nurseries were found free from dangerous insects and fungus pests, of issuing to their owners certificates of inspection, without which it became illegal for them to do a nursery business. He is likewise required to supervise importations of nursery stock into the state, and to inspect all orchards and other similar property which he has 65 reason to suppose to be infested by dangerous insects or in- fected with contagious plant diseases. Power to quarantine, and to issue directions for the treatment of diseased or infested property, are likewise given him by this law, which is enforced by the provision of fines for its violation. Although drawn with special reference to nurseries and other horticultural prop- erty, and with principal reference to the San Jose scale, I am ad- vised by the Attorney General of the state that this law is broad enough in its terms to enable the entomologist to interpose for the protection of any property whatsoever endangered by in- sects or fungus pests on adjoining premises. Minor modifi- cations of the law were made at the last session of the legis- lature, without affecting, however, the provisions just described. It was by this law of 1899 that the office of State Entomol- ogist was first given a legal habitation and abiding place; although upon the appointment of the present incumbent in July, 1882, quarters had been assigned the office, by courtesy of the State Board of Education, in the building of the State Normal School at Normal, and on the transfer of the office to the Illinois Industrial University two years later, it was, by similar courtesy of the Trustees, adequately housed in one of the university buildings. The preceding entomologists had, however, been virtually without office accommodations, each mak- ing such arrangements for himself as he found necessary, and the location of the office shifted, consequently, with the resi- dence of the entomologist. In Walsh’s time it was at Rock Island; in LeBaron’s, at Geneva; and in Thomas’s, at Car- bondale. The practical merger of the work of the entomologist with that of the State Laboratory of Natural History in 1883, as already described, greatly increased its facilities and opportuni- ties for special work. At the time of this merger it had neither appropriations for its expenses, nor a dollar’s worth of prop- erty of any description, its sole resources being the private library and collections of the entomologist himself. From that time forward, however, it had at its disposal the collections, library, quarters, and assistants of the State Laboratory of 66 Natural History; and appropriations in its support were there- after regularly made in connection with those for the Labora- tory. By the transfer to the University, and the subsequent es- tablishment of an Agricultural Experiment Station there, its opportunities and resources were, of course, greatly increased, and it now receives separate appropriations to the amount of $27,000 per annum, $5,000 of which are set aside each year for the expenses of its inspection and insecticide work. It has on its staff at the present time, besides the entomolo- gist himself, ten regular assistants, a draftsman, a chief in- spector, four sub-inspectors on temporary engagement only, and a foreman of insecticide operations with about a dozen laborers under his charge. The principal subjects now under investigation are the lif histories and economic control of the various species of May- beetles and click-beetles, and their larve, the white-grubs and wireworms; the economic control of the corn root-aphis; the forest insects of the state; those affecting shade trees and othe ornamental vegetation in cities and towns; insect pests of greenhouses and the truck-farms in the vicinity of Chicago; the house-fly pest in cities and towns, upon which a large amount of experimental work was done last summer; and vari- ous insects injurious to fruits whose life histories have not yet been worked out, and whose economic control presents prob- lems requiring special investigation. The published reports of the office are twenty-four in num- ber, thirteen of which have been prepared by the present in- cumbent. The twenty-fifth report 1s now going through the press. The twenty-four now printed contain, in all, 4827 pages, of which 104 were contributed by Walsh, 419 by LeBaron, 1187 by Thomas, and 3117 by Forbes. Their contents are too varied to be capable of a brief classification. They consist mainly of miscellaneous articles on single topics, worked out to the practical end of an economic control of some form of insect injury, usually verified by repeated trial in the field; or of comprehensive, monographic articles on all the insect injuries to some single crop, with elaborate recommendations for gen- 67 eral management and for special treatment directed to the pre- vention or arrest of such injuries. Most of these articles are now issued first as bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Station, in an edition of 50,000 copies, an additional thousand copies being run off in form for sub- sequent binding as the biennal report of the entomologist. By this arrangement the entomologist has the benefit of the mailing list and the postal frank of the Experiment Station, of which he is in fact the Consulting Entomologist by formal ap- pointment, and is able also to get his finished papers at once distributed, without waiting for the completion of his entire re- port. While the lines of work represented by these two closely affiliated state departments of scientific investigation have been carried forward frequently under many difficulties, due largely to the fact that their constituencies were unorganized or imper- fectly organized, and hence could not exert their proper influ- ence in favor of their own interests, this condition has now vir- tually disappeared in the State Horticultural Society, in the State Farmers’ Institute, in the State Association of Florists, and other like organizations, and now in the State Commission for the Conservation of our Natural Resources, and especially in the Illinois Academy of Science, we have active, powerful, public-spirited agencies which can be relied upon to promote every good work of this description with their endorsement, with their aid, with their judicious criticism of its aims, plans, and methods; and the next ten years will, in my judgment, see greater progress than the last twenty-five in the advancement of a useful knowledge of the State of Illinois, set forth in such forms as to make it available for the educational and economic welfare of its people. 68 THE STATE WATER SURVEY, Epwarp Bartow. The late Arthur W. Palmer, Professor of Chemistry of the University of Illinois, began the systematic survey o fthe potable waters of the State in 1895. In 1897* the work was officially recognized whén the Legislature made it the duty of the University to collect facts and data concerning the water supplies of the State; to collect samples of water from wells, streams and other sources of supply; to subject these samples to such chemical and biological examination and analysis as would serve to demonstrate their sanitary con- dition; to determine standards of purity for drinking waters for the various sections of the State; and to publish the results of these investigations to the end that the condition of the potable waters of the State may be better known, and that the welfare of the various communities of the State may thereby be conserved. Three thousand dollars per annum was appropriated at first. This has since been increased to $6,000 per annum with additional money made available for the work by the State Board of Health and the University. The work of the Survey may be classified in three di- visions: first, Analytical and Experimental; second, Diagnostic; third, Education and Publicity. Under the first division, Analytical and Experimental, the Survey collects waters and determines the normal constitu- ents for a district. Some of the investigations along this line that are being carried on are, a study of farm water supplies; a study of well waters in villages; and a study of the character of the water of Lake Michigan along the IIli- nois shore. In order to study methods the Water Survey *Laws of Illinois, 1897, page 12. 69 has joined with the laboratories of the State Boards of Health of Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, and the Health De- partment Laboratory of Chicago, in a comparative analysis ot Lake Michigan water. It has also made a special study of methods of determining nitrogen as nitrates, a test which is of great importance as a sanitary test for Illinois waters. Under the second division, Diagnostic, are included the large number of analyses made at the request of the health officers or other citizens to determine the character of waters. The Survey is working in conjunction with the State Board of Health in endeavoring to prevent and check epidemics of water-borne diseases. In 1908, 1862 samples of water were sent in by people not connected with the Survey staff, and a large proportion of the time of the active staff has been occu- pied with this work. Because of the great demand for work of this kind the Trustees of the University have recently passed a resolution concerning the work of this class to be done by the Water Survey, which is summarized as _ fol- lows: “The State Water Survey will make a sanitary analysis free of charge of any water from the State of Illinois, when there is any suspicion that there is danger to health. “The Water Survey will make sanitary and mineral analyses free of charge of any present or proposed municipal water supply. “A fee will be charged for the examination of the mineral content of waters, other than municipal supplies. This in- cludes analyses to determine the medicinal value, and to de- termine the character of a water with reference to its use in boilers or for manufacturing purposes.” Under the third division, Education and Publicity, the Survey issues bulletins describing the work done. Lectures are given to communities on problems connected with water supplies. Water-works men have taken and can take advantage of the Water Survey Laboratories to learn methods of chemical or bacteriological control for their water-works plants. The Survey should examine every water-works plant in 70 the State at least once in a year. It aims to become a clear- ing house for information concerning water supplies. In- formation that has proved of advantage to one supply may thus be passed from plant to plant. This aim may be more quickly realized through the Illinois Water Supply Associa- tion recently formed. The objects of the Association are the advancement of knowledge relating to water-works and water supply, and the conservation of water supplies for public use. The Association is to meet annually at the University of Illinois, where it can take advantage of the facilities of the State Water Survey and the Laboratories for Hydraulic and Mechanical Engineering. The Association can make valua- ble suggestions to the Water Survey, and can also strongly support the Survey in its endeavors to conserve the welfare of the people of the various communities of the State. 71 THE STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSION. A. N. JOHNSON. Road making is a science. Not until this fact is appreciated and our roads are built and maintained in accordance with the underlying scientific principles, both as regards construction and business methods employed, there will be a just return to the taxpayers for money raised for this purpose. We are apt to think that the art of road making is much farther advanced in Europe than in this country. This is not so, for, as a matter of fact, some of the best constructed roads, and roads employing the best methods of construction, are to be found in the United States, but it is a fact that such con- struction is not very general. The prevalence of better road conditions in some European countries is due in part to the improved methods of maintenance rather than to advanced methods of construction. But here, again, we can point to cer- tain sections of this country where the roads are not only as well constructed but as well maintained as will be found in any European country. This fact applies to the state highways of Massachusetts, which are thoroughly well constructed and equally well maintained. Illinois has recognized that road building is a science, by creating a State Highway Commission whose duties are to give information concerning the best methods of construction and maintenance of roads and bridges; to find out existing con- ditions, and suggest means of improvement. The work carried on by the Commission during the past three years has had for its object the encouragement of the appli- cation of practical scientific principles in the construction and maintenance of the roads and bridges of the state; to the end that more improvement may be secured by the taxpayers for the money which they now expend for this purpose. 72 It is perhaps unfortunate for the scientific road-builder, or the highway engineer, that there exists a deep-founded con- viction that, howsoever one may be lacking in knowledge on other subjects, all know how roads should be built. Doubt- less acting on this theory, we find the road work of this state divided among some 4500 officials, 3 to a unit, either a town- ship or road district as the case may be. These officials ro- tate in office so that all in a given community may have a reasonable opportunity to exercise practically their ideas con- cerning road work. The road unit in Illinois is too small to handle economically the improvement that most communities need and demand. Until it is possible to do the work under the control of large units, or arrange to have a number of the smaller units com- bined to come under a single control, it will be impossible to accomplish any considerable systematic work; in fact, it may be said generally that no systematic road work in this country has been done except through a larger central control thai is possible under the township method. This phase of the ques- tion affects the scientific business methods that should be fol- lowed. Modern scientific investigations have made it possible to tell in the laboratory very closely how a given material will act upon a road without the necessity of the more costly experi- ment of actually putting it on the road and observing it. We have to-day a number of laboratories in this country especially devoted to tests upon road materials. The methods of making these tests have been the subject of careful investigation by physicists and chemists. Such a laboratory is to be found in the University of Illinois, where a number of tests for the State Highway Commission have been conducted. The State Highway Commission is concerned not alone with road construction but with the construction of highway bridges. The fact that nearly one half of the $5,000,000 raised by the rural taxpayers for maintenance of roads and bridges is spent on bridge construction shows the relative importance of this branch of the work. 73 What will be one of the largest reinforced concrete tests carried on in this country, the State Highway Commission has at present under way. We have built at the Southern Illinois Penitentiary a 40-foot concrete bridge, which it is proposed to investigate thoroughly and finally load to destruction. It is perhaps one of the first instances of using convict labor for purposes of scientific investigation. The construction of bridges involves the public safety as well as the public pocketbook, and it therefore demands _per- haps more careful study than the matter of road construction, where the pocketbook alone is concerned. The State Highway Commission offers to local officials designs and estimates for their bridges, to the end that they may have a safe structure and also an economical structure. As a whole, the work of the State Highway Commission may be considered broadly educational. Practical demonstrations are made of the application of proper principles to road and bridge construction. It is by this method alone that the people gen- erally come to appreciate the practical value of having work done in this manner. As a rule, but a few samples suffice for a community to demand or endeavor to have the whole of their work of a similar character, done in the same manner as out- lined by the demonstrations. Thus it is that the actual work done by the Commission is not a true measure of its influence, which is much greater in extent. Better roads in the country are no small factor toward a solution of some of the gravest sociological and economic problems connected with country life, and the methods to be employed to secure better roads, and the methods to be used in their construction are well worthy the consideration of the State; and money so spent is a good, practical investment that in no great length of time will give a good return to people in every section. THE WORK OF THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. FRANK W. DEWOLEF. One is likely to think of our state as essentially agricultural, but Illinois ranks third in mineral production and the latest complete returns, those for 1907, value our output at more than $152,000,000. The State now ranks second in the produc- tion of coal, second for oil, fourth for clay products, and well toward the top of the list for a number of other materials. This creditable showing is nevertheless a mere beginning in comparison with our possibilities. The study of our geology and mineral resources was au- thorized by a legislative act of 1851 and for the first six years was in charge of Dr. J. C. Norwood. After him Dr. A. H. Worthen directed the work till its discontinuance and the establishment of the State Museum of Natural History in 1877, of which he was made curator. The present Survey was created in 1905 to operate under the direction of a com- mission composed of the Governor, the President of the State University and a third member, Dr. T. C. Chamberlin, President of this Academy. Dr. Bain, director of the Sur- vey, regrets that he can not be here to speak of the scope and progress of the work. The Geological Survey was created to assist in the eco- nomical development of our resources. Its functions are broad enough to give it a part in the solution of all public problems into which a knowledge of geology enters. The finding of adequate public water supply, of materials for use on the public highways, of limestone suitable for use on acid soils, the regulation of our rivers and reclamation of undrained lands, bettering of conditions in our coal mines, the better direction of exploration for oil, coal and our other buried resources,—with all these problems, the State Survey is 75 concerned either alone or in cooperation with other bureaus. The work involves field studies, laboratory tests, library re- search and study of conditions in other states. When the present Survey was created there was, in a sense, thirty years of back work to do in collecting data and noting changes which had taken place. The work is now well under way and the methods adapted to this field are determined. The rate of progress will depend largely on the funds available. The Survey is organized into three sections, geologic, topo- graphic and drainage. There is close cooperation with allied bureaus in the state, with the U. S. Geological survey and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Through fortunate situation at Urbana there has been valuable consultation with geologists, chemists, and engineers of the State University as well as with those of other institutions. The first necessary step has seemed to be the preparation of topographic base maps. The accompanying map illus- trates the progress of this work. The topographic map of the state will be composed of unit quadrangles measuring about 13 by 18 miles each. They serve as a base for geologic studies and also for general engineering and educational pur- poses. They are prepared in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, and progress so far has been designed especially to meet the need of surveys in our mining regions. The geologic work has been of several degrees of refine- ment, detailed reports have been prepared in many of the quadrangles, while general reconnaissance studies of stratig- raphy, structure, and mineral resources have been pursued over the state so as to meet pressing needs and to lay the foundations for further detailed work. The drainage section has worked in cooperation with the Internal Improvement Commission and the Drainage Sec- tion of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in the prepara- tion of large scale maps of the overflowed areas along our largest streams. Such work is a prerequisite to any success- 76 ful attempt to reclaim the land and promote sanitary and economic improvements. To the present there have been distributed eight bulletins and four circulars. They include data of general geology, petroleum, coal, water resources and miscellaneous subjects, and the first of a series of educational bulletins on physical geography which are designed especially to meet the needs of teachers in our public schools. There are at the present time seven reports ready for the printer, besides others in preparation. ; At the last meeting of the Academy a committee was ap- pointed, I believe, to provide a means of cooperation in the collection of records of deep wells in the state. The Survey has organized a new line of research involving the study of underground water resources. This requires the collection and study of drill records, and where possible the study also of the drillings themselves and of the outcropping beds. Members of the Academy can render our work much more efficient, if they will bring to our attention any drilling which may be done for water, coal, or for other purposes throughout the State, and cooperation along this line is urgently requested. i Sele eibIC ACTIVITIES OF THE ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. A. R. Crook. The Museum is fifty-eight years old. It is thus older than any other department represented here. For the first twenty-four years of its existence it was a part of the State Geological Survey. Then for twelve years the Museum and Historical Library were under the control of the former State Geologist. For the last twenty years it has existed strictly as a Museum of Natural History. When in ’75 the State Survey was discontinued there was a period of two years during which the Museum was not recognized officially, but the fossils and rocks could not be “discontinued” and consequently perpetuated the influence and spirit of the institution till a time when Professors Forbes and Worthen introduced into the legislature a bill creating the State Museum and Historical Library. During all these years of its existence it has been pre- eminently a geological museum. In spite of the fact that the law creating the survey in *51 provided that it should be in charge of a so-called “prac- tical geologist” circumstances brought it about that the men who directed the affairs of the survey during the first twen- ty-four years were paleontologists—men whose work may be regarded as leaning more toward the scientific side than toward the practical side of geology. But that Dr. Norwood and Prof. Worthen should work with the greatest enthusiasm along paleontological lines was natural and fortunate since at that time the fossils of Illinois offered a most attractive field for labor. As a result of their work large quantities of valuable materials were brought together in the museum, and the museum became a 78 laboratory and workshop rather than an institution for ex- hibition. The study and classification of this material yielded extremely valuable results and formed the basis for the pub- lication of eight volumes of geological reports. These re- ports embodied practically all that was known of the geology of the State of Illinois at that time, contributed in an im- portant manner to geology in general, and extended the rep- utation of the survey throughout this country and Europe. After Worthen’s death, his successor, Dr. Lindahl, while preparing an exhibition for the -World’s Columbian Ex- position, extended the work of the museum so that it em- braced somewhat more general geological lines. Some of Lindahl’s energy was directed toward editing the last Worthen reports, and more toward overhauling and re-classi- fying the museum material which during the last years of Worthen’s incumbency, much against his wish and during his absence from the city, were moved from one floor to another in the State House and thrown into endless confusion. During Mr. Gurley’s curatorship the work along paleonto- logical lines was continued and eight bulletins on paleontology were published in collaboration with S. A. Miller, of Cincinnati. During Mr. Crantz’s incumbency the work was in the line of exhibition of material rather than in collection or investi- gation. The chief additions made to the museum were a collection of birds’ eggs. Some zoological and botanical material had come to the museum as early as in 1871, when upon the disbanding of the State Natural History Society a portion of its collections were given to the museum. From time to time the State Labora- tory of Natural History, under Prof. Forbes, has added to the zoological collections of the State Museum. But taken as a whole the museum has been geological in character, and all of its contributions to science have been in the field of geology. Such has been the history of the institution. What of its present and future? In what direction lies its greatest prom- ise of useful service? In considering this question one should 79 not be largely influenced by obstacles and difficulties in the way—difficulties such as arise from unfavorable method of control, lack of adequate housing and material equipment, and preoccupation of the field by other organizations and departments. Its method of control is unfortunate. When a museum is dependent upon trustees who are preoccupied with other af- fairs and who are trustees simply because of other positions which they hold and not because they have any in- terest in the museum, the service which they render the museum and the aid which they give to it for fulfilling obli- gations imposed upon it are a minimum. In President Eliot’s recent book on “University Admin- istration” light is thrown on the great advantages enjoyed by institutions free from ex-officio boards of control. Such free- dom would be to the advantage of the museum. For ex- ample, the State Academy might nominate a committee of six competent men willing to serve, and from them the Gover- nor could select three to act as trustees. There are many men in the State who would give the museum their best thought and support and could help it to more nearly ac- complish the work that is crying for attention. An even more serious obstacle to progress is encountered in the lack of room for work and for exhibition. Many other states have surpassed Illinois in provision for their museums. Some have fine buildings. Here again the Academy could render a great service by urging that suitable museum room be provided. While the members of the General Assembly respect science and have a vague notion that it is worthy of encouragement, they will never do anything unless scientific men not only ask but urge each legislator to vote for a building. With legislators people count, abstract principles play an insignificant part. The State needs a fire-proof build- ing where collections which have been growing for half a century may be preserved and where much needed work in natural history may be done. Some idea of the scope and importance of the work that 0 YD may reasonably be expected of the museum can be obtained by considering the magnificent work being carried on by the greatest of the museums in the United States, such as the American Museum of Natural History in New York, the National Museum in Washington, and the Field Museum in Chicago. These institutions send out exploring expedi- tions, collect, prepare, study and exhibit materials, publish reports of investigations along special lines and furnish lec- ture courses. They are educational institutions of an effec- tive type. Any museum which is doing its work properly is an educational institution. The State Museum aims to be such. Two years ago the writer applied to a United States Government official for tax-free alcohol for preserving muse- um specimens, but was refused on the ground that the muse- um is not an educational institution. Some discussion was necessary to make it clear that the institution exists for noth- ing else than to educate. Its collecting is with that end in view. Its study, preservation, exhibition and publication is for that purpose and for that alone. While dealing with historical objects in archeology, paleontology and other sciences, it affects modern questions and present-day issues. When attention is being so strik- ingly called to the necessity of conserving the natural re- sources of the country, museum collections are of unusual interest, since they offer tangible illustration of the passing of fauna and flora and of the origin, value, and limited quan- tities of our mineral resources. One needs but to pass through a good museum to gain a vivid impression of the changeableness of nature, of the destructiveness of man and of the danger of watchfulness. The museum should make 4 concrete and compact plea for care and wisdom in the use of natural resources. The excellent work which is being performed by a number of departments of the State would be better appreciated if the material results were well exhibited in the State Museum. The law provides that the Geological Survey may deposit materials in the museum, and it is the wish of the director 81 of the survey and of the curator of the museum that this work be carried out in a thoroughgoing manner. The director of the Natural History Survey is ready to furnish materials which may visually illustrate the work of his department, and no doubt such a relationship would be extremely de- sirable for many other departments, such as the Water Sur- vey, Soil Survey, Board of Health, State Highway Commis- sion, etc. The present obstacle to carrying out this plan is the absence of room in the museum. The museum may thus become a great and popular representative of the various lines of scientific activity in the State. It should aim above all things to be a popular institution; one for the people. But while so doing it does not cease to aid investigation and to promote the advance of science. As Dr. L. A. Baur, of the Carnegie Institution has said, “Sight plays the greatest part in investigation.” The museum ap- peals first of all to this faculty, and is aiding investigation when stimulating a boy in his early efforts to observe na- ture, as well as when furnishing material for the trained specialist in some particular line of investigation. One of the greatest needs of the museum is the interest and cooperation of some permanent organization. Indi- viduals may come and go, but the museum will last indefinite- ly. Situated as it is at some distance from the scientific cen- ter of the State, it may be regarded as being on the frontier and extending the influence of science to the south and west. Fortunate indeed would it be in having the hearty support of the State University, of the University of Chicago, of the Northwestern and of every educational institution of the State. That interest might well be expressed through the State Academy of Science. As the State Historical Society is closely associated with the Historical Library and is asking for a room for its meetings in the proposed new building, and actively cooperates with the library, so the State Academy may well be provided with a room in a new museum building and use its influence to see that the museum collections are properly preserved and utilized. If the Academy would make 82 itself felt effectively in this regard the museum would be pro- tected from many errors and dangers and would be aided in its work. Wm. A. Hornaday at the “Founder’s Day” of the Carnegie Institution, in Pittsburg, last year said the function of the museum is “to furnish food for thought, to expand the human mind, and to illuminate the soul.” Morris K. Jesup said at the American Museum of Natural History of New York, “I believe the museum to be to-day one of the most effective agencies which exist for furnishing edu- cation and innocent amusement and instruction to the public.” This should be true of the State Museum, and will become increasingly so as the museum is enabled to do some explor- ing in fields not already occupied, to do some collecting, to care for the results of the work of different scientific depart- ments of the State, to preserve vanishing natural history data, and to properly exhibit materials which show our natural resources and their well-marked bounds. 83 ADDRESSES AT THE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE BANQUET. (Stenographic Report.) Mr. Hall—President of Chamber of Commerce. “Ladies and Gentlemen of the Academy of Science:—It is my pleasant privilege to extend to you a hearty welcoine and to assure you of the very great pleasure we have in your presence to-night. There is an old saying ‘All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.’ This is equally true in selling merchandise or in any other calling in life, and to mix a little play with work, to have the recollection, when you return to your home aud to your work, to have the memory of a pleasant hour this infor- mal meeting was planned. It is now my pleasure to present to you Professor Blair, who will act as your toast-master.” In introducing Dr. Trelease Prof. Blair said: “I am very glad that we have a program here to-night that will help those who did not hear the program to-day. That great reformer, Luther, was a student of this life, but you would be surprised how many childlike things this great man planned for children. He said, ‘I would have them study plants and flowers and only the flowers that teach some moral lesson. Only those flowers were allowed in the creed of Martin Luther. They not only teach a moral lesson but relate to our great commercial indus- tries, and it is my great pleasure to introduce to you, Mr. Tre- lease, who will speak upon “Botany and Commerce.” 84 BOTANY AND COMMERCE. WILLIAM JRELEASE. “Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen:—lIt strikes me that it is indicative of the times that on the occasion of a gather- ing of scientific men of the State of Illinois in your capital city, you should be entertained by the Chamber of Commerce of that city. Nothing more clearly indicates the recognition on the part of the commercial men who are making the higher life of our time possible, that they are themselves dependent for what they are doing on the results that the scientific ex- perts are placing in their hands as tools to work with. In a State like this, flowing with milk and honey, and a land which gushes forth its fatness 1f you break it, it would seem fitting that your first speaker should be a zoologist or a geologist, but I am delighted that you have selected a botanist as the first speaker,—for if corn is king anywhere in the world, he is certainly king in Illinois; and coupled with King Corn, making one-half of the great eight billion dollars’ worth of national products poured into the national granary last year, a few of the other leading products are also vegetable. I want to call attention, in passing only, to the fact that nearly all of human life is really dependent directly upon plants, and of course botany is concerned with the study of plants. A large part, an essential part, of our food conies from the vegetable kingdom. A very large and necessary part of what goes into the manufactures and the arts, and the essential part used in healing us, comes from the vegetable kingdom. After all, I take it you do not want me to analyze these, they belong not to the botanist but to the commercial man: it is an actual fact that that which is not patented no longer belongs to the person who brought it forth but belongs to those who know how to use it. But there are certain other 85 things that I do wish to present as still belonging to the bot- anist. They will belong, in the course of the generation now living, in almost equal part to commerce and manufacture. A generation ago a botanist traveling through the northwestern Canadian region made a casual observation of the trees and plants he saw growing there and found some plants that gen- erally grow where wheat and corn are grown. To-day all of that northwestern country has been converted into one of the great wheat fields of the world. The way was pointed by a botanist, traveling through the country, looking at the vegetation alone. To-day there is never a question of introducing crops into a new district without first studying the life zone the district belongs to; and year by year the possibilities of ag- riculture are being increased, through simple observation of what animals and plants naturally grow in the region that the plants to be cultivated come from and that you propose culti- vating them in. There has been of late years an application of botanical knowledge in more than one commercial field, just as great, just as extensive as this. Your own state of Illinois is in- creasing enormously the product of that crop which is the domineering and dominating crop of this country—corn—by simple observation of, first, what constitutes good corn; second, how certain changes can be made in corn which will give it greater value; and, third, how those changes can be brought about. You are spending enormous sums of money; other states are doing the same. You are getting returns year by year for what you put in it, and the return is going to be in- creased on greater investment. It is not what you get this year but what you get as long as corn is cultivated—until others have, in some way, improved upon these gifts that are now being made. Our Assistant Secretary of Agriculture, while he was in Minnesota, was active in breeding a new variety of wheat. Five years ago that variety of wheat had increased acreage enough to give something like a million dollars added revenue. I might give other lessons pertaining not simply to field-crops; orchards, nut-bearing trees—it matters not what, 86 —everywhere the field is the same. If there is any use in grow- ing plants, they can be improved. A number of years ago in the neighboring State of Wis- consin it was shown how it was possible to treat seed oats in such a way as to reduce the loss from smutting of the oats. In Wisconsin alone, the saving through that practice amounts to more than the entire cost of operating the great Univer- sity of that State; and it is not limited to the State of Wis- consin. Every little while I have, an opportunity to talk with a rail- road man, and he tells me about the terrible problem that cross-ties and structure-timbers present. White oak sticks that a few years ago were being cut down for cross-ties are now becoming available for cabinet-wood purposes. To-day tie-sizes are too valuable to be so used. What the future is to be is very much of a question. Of late years the same attention has been given to this problem as to those of plant breeding and of protection against fungi, in the treatment of timber as a practical means of preservation, and Dr. von Schrenk, and the people who have worked with him in the conservation and careful handling of timber have done more than we, to-day, realize, in enabling us to leave standing on their own roots the trees that are going to be absolutely neded for construction in a very short time. If it were not for the botanists who studied the Cinchona tree and who discovered how it could be planted and, cultivated profitably, we should to-day stand in much greater dread of malaria than we do, because quinine is derived largely from trees planted in the Old World, originally from New World derivatives. To-day, we do not know where to turn for that indispensable article we have in hand at all times—the lead pencil, and as for India rubber, this is narrowing down to such an extent that it is hard to tell where it is going to come from. Gutta-percha is absolutely essential for electrical wiring and electrical construction. Botanists are at work the world over studying the origin of every kind of gutta and gum that can be applied to these industries, and cultivation is going to 87 bring into the market of the future just the same sort of re- lation that the cultivation of Cinchona has done. Bacteria are moot creatures; call them animals if you choose; call them plants; but the botanist still looks on them as plants. If it were not for what students have learned of this group of plants we should have no such thing as rational sanitation or aseptic surgery. In a dairy the quality of butter and cheese depends on these lowly creatures; and what has been made out about them is still unfinished. More and more, scientists in this line are going to bring practical returns in dollars, with the decimal point moved away off to the right. Soil fertility comes in the same category. One of our American botanists, Dr. Moore, giving attention to the minute creatures, alge, which grow in fresh water everywhere, made a discovery which has enabled any community in this country which has _ polluted water to purify it. I might give you a dozen other illustra- tions; but I do not mean to take more time for illustrations; fieiseumnmecessary; I trust the few I have _selected. are such as to show you that the botanist is worth something to commerce, to the manufactures and arts. But this botanist is not the botanist who picks flowers to pieces and quarrels over the shape of a stamen. He is the bot- anist who, looking to see what there is in the first place, takes scientific interest in the next, and turns himself to that; and then turns to see what there is of practical utility in the discov- eries that have been made, and makes them directly available for human progress. The man who breeds better plants to grow in your gardens and along your streets, and who has the faculty of the book-agent or the tree-seller of making you buy them and use them, is a man who is doing a great deal for the community in which he operates. In conclusion I would like to say that the world to-day is absolutely dependent on the standing and pulling together of individuals and organizations of men. We have gone so far in our civilization that it is impossible for one of us to stand by himself on his own feet and carry along all that he ought to be able to carry along. It is in the touch of elbows and 88 the stimulus of marching side by side that our advance is to be found. You commercial gentlemen are making money. You are dependent on the investigator for the power of making money in the way in which you want to make it. The investigator is dependent upon you for the power of in- vestigation. Investigation is what some people think of as being in a class that is of no value or interest to mankind; but our civilization rests upon it. What we are going to do in the next fifty years is going to amount to more than what we have done in the last fifty years. The fruit of abstract scientific study must be applied through schools of experience, through engineering and through practical schools; and that is exactly the course that things are taking. I take it that there is not to-day a single field of science which affords to the commer- cial and industrial world such great opportunities of wealth as the science of botany does. I do not except chemistry. The time is ripe now for developing each one of these fields I have spoken of as fields of abstract investigation and of applied instruction. The time is ripe for it. Our children are going to the operetta “The Time, The Place and The Girl.” The question is where “The Place and the Man” for this happy co- ordination are to be found.” Prof. Blar:— “Perhaps the contrast between the purely theoretical, such as speculation on practical affairs, and the modern practical way could not be brought forward more clearly than in the way we treat the matter of transportation. Zeno proved to the world that there was no such thing as motion, and there was no transportation in his sense. We have quit speculating on that sort of thing and our question is ‘How to get the wheat products of the West to New York City and load them on to the boat,’ and we are relating ourselves to the question of transportation in the sound, practical way we are in others. But I want to tell you of a little bit of scientific transportation. Over in the little State of Indiana they have a very fair 89 sort of a University. It was discovered that in that Univer- sity was a man who had outgrown the institution. Over here in the State of Illinois was a tremendous opportunity for a man who had outgrown the place and this was the question: here was ’The Place.’ ‘There was the Man,’ and the Board of Trustees of the Illinois University, through its president, found the means of transportation by that scientific informa- tion which we want ,and I think we are to congratulate our- selves and the State of Illinois that the feat of transportation has been successfully performed, and that the State Univer- sity has at the head of its engineering department such a capable man. It gives me pleasure to introduce Professor Goss, of the University of Illinois, who will respond to the toast, ‘Science and Transportation.’ ”’ 90 SCIENCE AND TRANSPORTATION. W. F. M. Goss. “No department of human endeavor is more typical of modern thought and action than that embraced by the trans- portation industry; an industry which constitutes the re- sponse which mankind has given to a natural desire for in- tercommunication. From meager beginnings transportation facilities have been multiplied, improved and extended until the whole civilized world has been brought together almost as a single people. So engaged are we with the things of the day that we do not often consider how rapid has been this development, nor how great has been its effect. A hundred years ago when men went down tothe sea in ships, they sailed subject to the caprice of the wind and in frequent danger of being blotted out of existence, unknown to the rest of the world. To-day the sea has become a course for immense steam-driven ships which, with a shuttle-like movement between shore and shore, proceed with a degree of regularity that is but little affected by wind or weather. On one ocean at least such ships are at all times in communication with others of their kind, or with the land. Four weeks ago two such ships well out upon the Atlantic, enshrouded in fog, came into collision, and almost immediately the fact was known’ everywhere. For hours following the accident, the friends of those in- volved, in America and Europe, kept in touch with the prog- ress made in applying relief. Ships from the east and from the west a hundred miles away, were called, and they left their course and headed for the scene of the accident. Others more distant were told that their services were not needed. The transhipment of passengers began, was finished, and later a second transhipment occurred. Supporting ships, feeling 91 their way through the fog, arrived. For more than 24 hours this drama of the ocean proceeded, while interested people the world over, followed the progress of each event as it oc- curred. No accident of modern times has better served to illustrate the protection which modern science has thrown about ocean travel, than the collision between these steam- ships, the “Florida” and the “Republic.” Equally great have been the changes which recent years have wrought in the transportation upon the land. I have been told that 60 years ago in this State of Illinois, the corn crop of several years was allowed to accumulate in anticipation of the coming of a proposed railroad which would carry it on to market. In that day railroads were rare, while to-day the country is covered with their network, the mileage of the freight car wheels which traverse them exceeding 100,000 million every year. In passenger service the changes are equally significant. The 18-hour specials running be- tween Chicago and New York, proceed, day after day, with a wonderful regularity of movement and pass long stretches of track at speeds above 70 miles per hour. Now these achievements in transportation and _ travel, which for the most part have been worked out within the brief period of a hundred years, are not the result of chance; they are made possible through the existence of a wonderful fabric of science and technology. ca inieaoeers Gaotaae Dy 5. 810s AT gi sas- aes 1 hibalea il PoC COOR Hm DOGS MOOS DOL 58 G Galena. formation ao. canis: 32 Gallowaya cba Were co stenee 27 LO 12 Geological “Survey . ss sicss00 00 7 Gleasons, Eley cAGe sere ote Siete 685-125 19 Goss; Wi. 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CCONTAG): © cc.c.ccie.e oes gis cea scieieesieeleeerere IB EMERIREVEMONATALA ((CONTAG) sieccccccce cscs ec csie ss ccls es se clvece x Centamerella papilionensis Hall ......cccccccccccccvece Adlon sas TOI SECM LOMAC ETA” 5 cela csc se elcie'0\ 0 o1isie cielc.sie'o o's 0 sje ole nipishes SPLIT EV ELO PCMEO DICTED EVAN yiotetcte\a, «are ois © «ole,0 «1a.s\01\0\(a} sole /aleVaiel sip! geese terete noniostropnia towensis (OWEN). 2. cccccccescec cece cacecs sees x x aLOMMELEUUSPIMULECOSER. EL all’ «,s)2 5 sieves, « o/cie oc nleic ere cicie o/e eiwishe.ie ere x x eMC LRG LM Taya Aol col ct ctere) clavcrares csi ¢ie) s/aleiereie! syereioinversietetel shel sieieted PR CLAC OPAC SIM OIAALA). GOONTAG)) ~s.e.c:0. o'6:0' 6-01 sve, eie.e.01s1 4) i siefe! cle sisveselavele x x TRE RUCHUU ULE DMTEMLD TAGE VIAL: (otcte ec ose cieisis se s.0 ee eeiee sisieleie/s Ratenekeretciste tehapdomellanisaiay (Billings), © <0. 0c00 cece cccn ce ciciceee Bie oiaiayeran x *Rhipidomella musculosa Hall (Oriskany) .........esececccccece inapsaomenampentelope: Halll Yeicicie. sicieie cies s,0c1s'e o siel «soles sje oiss\ oe “Kkihtdomella vanuxvemt Hall ......cccccveccccsecseses bats Odoue x x x Rhynchonella cf. lowisvillensis Nettelroth .. ......eceeceeaee LM CELOOTENNE!, SOS GdiGeeryOlOe BIAGIO IO Ea IO CORICHTOG Hotidio dice SCAM CULES [PRED at hl ch ctcheie| aie! ieistats)s:\6:0 sKor's\eveis\aiel ©! sisiele) nefslolelersia sre Schizophoria propinqua Hall (Oriskany?) ........ccceeccescces x X x *Schuchertella chemungensis arctistriata Hall .......... state slevotes x i Schuchertella chemungensis pectinacea Hall ...........eeeeeeeee xX Schuchertella chemungensis perversa Hall ........... sseseese Schuchertella pandora (Billings) (Oriskany) ..........eeeeeee x Sputfer acumanatus (Conrad) ....0.cccccsccsccvesscves ol Saterere ais x x StAePMmCLESTOMSISS MEL ONEN yoin ele/s isis cle'ec/, a /e/s/o «s/s c.s/e/sieveiale «) clsverelejares x NIAC TMELILO LENT TUS) ELALL™ ‘oie. oie-c.stove'o:8,0 0.010: 21s sie ele! bb areie dialeiel ocraee x USCIS DEER eerste tot osolsta sole ve\es sss vielels Oe ivis sieves %s/ersis cts er oteicie'e yaa UE SEL Al ay oa) 8 tia, oresG. 0 aie: 815100 wiccsl ov eieve'e:o:a¥ovsla/avevavnlarevele x x SALE TM CREP UTAUSEVATA Volclaiciele csc sisie sess cisicesc.ls= sis ie sis eciele RU EAI CNT TELA MEL UIA «coreleca a's oho 3,514 cuetereicid\ sie eis ale oh sa bieueracnvole'si sie aime x x Spupereantcrmedues. Hall ......ccecncvecieeesiesccedance BOD OODE a waMATeremacroryris, wall (Oriskany?) ...0.-sscesecegesscece X a tek REMIT EPL MET ANT crrchsfcrosils:lorere) se" e¥s. 5 os oho o:eta eiovalsiele6:8 erucersialerele x Spurifer perextensus M. and W. .....ccecssssesvecsons Beco. con puAjermenarmcostus Conrad (Oriskany) ..<0.ss00csccscseesecccs em Cre SE COMETS! bELall) \....0.5 o/s, ores: 5180 clelere,si s,ci000, o0e, 000 ave cncogocd DUMEERCIMMOUPACOSUS ETAL. cele os one's os 's.0 vle'sine.s s, a,s'e\e\ sie. eiaveis) choles Simopnapstaerruncata (Elall)! vs: s.< 0.0 01010 s sievs oes e\si-s1e see wie ee *Stropheodonta callosa Hall .........eeeees PACINO OTROS areketelercicle x NPC OMONEDGONCOUG ELalll v4.c sole o'sle)ss,cfelae cisisiers s:e «10 s/>jejeie oxsle 0 xX x x Sunopncodamtaw creoristriata. all. . ..e0. ccc eisls ol eierelere uti cbio eens x SSreopnecononia cemissa (Conrad) <2. o« ss os 0 5.0010.0)10 6 o18's 6 ofa a of sine x x x x xe aww tal * boil Stropheodonta inaequiradiata Hall ..............2e+e0ee BABOOCLE Stropheodonta inaequistriata (Conrad) .........++.405. Bhocudde x DIEFOPREOGONLA ANACQUISETIGLA VAL. .2.2200ccseccccecceccievcsccs SropReouonta parersont Hall . . osics occie sso sce cies s sec 00680 x PRC EE TICMNIPIOR ELAN) foiciecsiein c's ets leks, t10) pene sue o¥au6) 0 sieve. Slajators/eveveiee x Whentaculites clongatus Hall (Oriskany) ......20c0eccssccscccce MIEPULECHEILLES SCOLGTATOTINUS, Eb ally cule ho ors:0:0. 010 ole 0», o 0:0ele0) 01610, 0.e\ete oe x x x LER TG “Stal Sbeleoe Dope Od POC CO COE CANUDT CIO aODOOIC Dian D nino GtewAiaitnopteria DOydr (Conrady) sec ccc cic oe 005s 0 see wing ceive nes x PAPER OUECLEH EX ACULUS. ELAIN) scviveisye ioe. 01s 01 =) 0 s00)0)0 ole, €-0 'eehsle gieieter eres x Wreeamiculopecten senotus ial o.i506 0 oe cc ee sees ccosenece cies x PARICHLODEEZEN, LEFMUNGMS ELall . 6). oie e's el eieratete GNF OGETES ISD! ois iota: cuaieness co aie te to tees oicpa aio wid) Sudo Oo laveiee loser aa ee eee Dalmanites calypso Hall Daimanites Sp... osc6si0 Odontocephalus’ aereria, Hall <2 oc. sci cictaieis s 01s 6'e.0\e alacaleie a ieleleravates x x x Odontocephalus arenarius Meek (Oriskany?) .........ceeeees *Phocops cristata, Elall (COriskany,) 0.0 cio: siste seaieeebetere « P PARACOPS, 54, MATOS | te seisrate la. ocaiete cite! vie ateveya asa a\eieots oes shale ec aajeiewesers taitaltal aK Hw * KKH AM wm MMM HK ~wK Hw Poets Class (ELAM © yiic cicrese eels elecossiare 01 cisie 's lelslle’ Sine el a0%e *Pnoetus crassvmarginatus Hall ......cccccccesccccecce PE raciisy Cl. .i fOLMCEPS. Ehall 4 oe, cicyssisteale ote aicleccrale ere olsieiclaicials of etete stem *“Proctus marginals Conrad 6. 2 crs iain e. 1a se; 0) 0a: s\0 0404) diaifelotana oyeceyorate MP roeltis ef Os * GTEC “rc.aiaus, coe wrelarchouate snares steiatata(aln = ete) celeste a fereiion *Proetus sp. (Oriskany), seis -cuie swine oie) oie sw alsisiaieiaie/oleicie's euarereitieleer'e Onychodus sigmotdés Newberry 2.0 0.ccc cscs 0600556 6 esiclonsas Both the Grand Tower formation in Illinois, and the Jef- fersonville beds in Indiana, have been considered a western extension of the Onondaga strata of New York. A total of 162 species of fossils were collected from the Grand Tower formation in Illinois, 142 species exclusive of the corals and bryozoa. Kindle lists 158 species from the Jeffersonville beds of Indiana. Out of this almost equal num- ber of species from the respective areas, only 55, or 34 per cent, are common to the strata in the two localities. Of the Grand Tower fossils in the above table, 70 species, or 49 per cent, occur also in the Onondaga beds of New York. The resemblance of the fauna of the Grand Tower formation is thus shown to be closer with that of the Onondaga strata of New York than with that of the Jeffersouville beds of Indi- ana. 129 The thickness of the Jeffersonville limestone in Indiana is very much less than either that of the Grand Tower forma- tion in Illinois, or of the Onondaga limestone in New York. Moreover, it is in New York and in Illinois that the transition from the Oriskany to the Onondaga is complete, no trace of Oriskany strata occurring in Indiana. From the foregoing table, it may be seen that all of the identified species of fossils of the Grand Tower formation that occur also in the Jeffersonville beds of Indiana appear in the Grand Tower section above the base of the horizon S. 56 h (about the middle part). A number of the Jeffersonville species appear below that horizon, but all of these are forms that have a considerable vertical range and are present also in the beds above S. 56 h, as shown in columns 1 and 2 of the table. With the exception of the single species, Odontocephalus aegeria, that appears for the last time in S 56 h, not a single one of the diagnostic fossils of the lower 75 feet (practically the lower half) of the Grand Tower strata, occurs in the Jeffersonville limestone of Indiana. From these facts it is con- cluded that no strata corresponding with the lower half of the Grand Tower formation are present in Indiana; and that the Jeffersonville limestone represents deposition during only the latter half of Onondaga time. EVIDENCE BEARING ON THE SOURCE OF THE ONONDAGA Fauna. Concerning the origin of the Onondaga fauna, Weller! has suggested that, “From the geographic distribution, it may have originated somewhere in the Arctic regions; and that representatives of it migrated southward, both into North America and into Europe. The typical Niagaran fauna, as it is found in the Appalachian province, is thought to have come into the region from the north through the junction of the Hudson’s Bay basin with the interior basin, and, when it withdrew from the interior, it doubtless followed the same route by which it had entered. During the period of read- justment between Silurian and Devonian time it is not im- 1 Weller. Journalof Geology. Vol. X, p. 429, 1902. 130 probable that the restricted Niagaran fauna became isolated in the Arctic region, and that from the elements of this fauna during a long period of time, the Onondaga fauna was evolved ; and that this modified fauna once more entered the interior basin from the north when the Onondaga seas overspread this region.” The fact that corals and cephalopods were conspicuous ele- ments of the Niagaran fauna, and that representatives of these classes, changed to be sure from their Silurian ancestors, are important elements in the Onondaga fauna of Ontario, New York, Ohio and Indiana supports this view. The distribution of the fish remains of this time also favor such an origin. Schuchert*® has suggested that the Onondaga fauna entered the interior basin of North America from the south. He bases his view on the great abundance of corals in the Onon- daga strata of Ohio and Indiana. Since reef building corals of the present are limited to warm seas, he assumes that this is a warm water fauna, and that its source was in southern waters. The evidence furnished by the sequence of fossils in the Grand Tower section is interpreted as indicating that the Onondaga fauna reached the interior of North America from two different sources. The fact that deposition was continuous in southern Illinois from the upper Oriskany into the Onon- daga shows that early Onondaga sediments are present in the Illinois region. It is to be noticed that the great Onondaga coral development that occurred in Indiana and Ohio was. not present in southwestern Illinois. Some of the character- istic coral species, as Cyathophyllum rugosum and Favosites emmonsi, are not rare in the Grand Tower section, but they ap- pear only in the upper part. The fact that the greater portion of the Grand Tower strata are quite pure limestones shows that it was not the muddy condition of the seas that barred the corals from this region. It is not probable either that the greater coldness of the water here was an inhibiting factor. It may be seen from the table that a few corals were present 2 Sechuchert. Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, Vol. XX, p. 491. 131 in the Illinois basin during the time of deposition of the lowest of the Grand Tower strata. Of these forms Michelinia stylopora and a species of Zaphrentis occurred in the underlying Ori- skany (Clear Creek) beds. Out of twenty-eight species of fossils associated with the corals in these lower sandstone layers, thirteen, or nearly 47 per cent, were present in the Up- per Oriskany (Clear Creek) strata of Illinois. Seven out of these thirteen species have not been reported from the Jeffer- sonville limestone, while the other six are forms having a wide distribution. Of the remaining fifteen species from the sand- stone layers, ten are not reported by Kindle from the Jeffer- sonville beds of Indiana. The other five forms have a consid- erable vertical, and a wide geographical, range. The small number of these coral species in the lower Grand Tower strata, and the absence of the greater number (60 per cent) of their associates from the Indiana area, would pre- clude the assumption that the Jeffersonville limestone fauna could have been derived from this source. It may also be seen from the faunal lists in the foregoing section that the cephalopod element in the fauna is limited to the upper portion of the Grand Tower beds, although in New York the cephalopods become conspicuous in the early Onon- daga strata; also that the characteristic Onondaga fish fauna of Ohio never reached this Illinois basin. From the above considerations it is assumed that one arm of the Onondaga sea advanced on the continent from the south, as in the preceding Oriskany time, reaching as far north as Jackson county, Illinois. Other sea incursions are thought to have come in from the north and east, bringing the corals and the cephalopods into the interior of the continent. This northern interior sea is thought to have been separated by a land barrier from the southern basin in which the Grand Tower limestone was deposited, until the middle of Onon- daga time. Not until near this same time is it thought that the northern sea, bringing the Jeffersonville fauna, extended as far south as southern Indiana. Not until somewhat later still was the barrier which separated the northern and southern 132 basins entirely submerged, so that the cephalopods and corals of the northern province were permitted to spread into this southern sea embayment, and the general Onondaga fauna was able to migrate freely from north to south across the east- ern interior portion of the continent. J. A. Udden presented a paper of which the following is an abstract. OBSERVATIONS ON THE EARTHQUAKE IN THE UPPER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY, MAY 26, 1909. Earthquakes are infrequent in this region, and notes on our seismic phenomena are the more desirable. This com- munication is based mostly on items gathered from forty weekly and ten daily newspapers published in the disturbed area, and includes observations made in more than one hund- red different localities. These data are given below, referred to the several localities.* The area sensibly disturbed by this earthquake extended over the greater part of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Indi- ana, Missouri, and Minnesota, a region about eight hundred miles in diameter. The mesoseismal area appears to have been triangular in form and unusually large, the greatest violence having been noted near Platteville, in Wisconsin, and in Waukean and Bloomington, in Illinois, which places prob- ably were separate epicenters. The velocity of the earthquake - waves, calculated from the reported observations on time re- corded by government observers in Peoria (8:38 A. M.) and in Washington, D. C. (8:41 A. M.), is 3.3 mile per second. While no great reliance can be placed on these figures, as the data are too few and their authenticity uninvestigated, yet the great size of the mesoseismal area is in harmony wih the velocity of the wave. Both indicate a great depth of focus. The highest seismic intensity was above seven of the Rossi-Forell scale. The facts presented in the reports are sufficiently full to in- dicate approximately the position of the isoseismals. When these 133 ‘“606L ‘9% ABIN eYVNDYJIve AQ poeqanjsIp volv Jo dew 6 “SI USS ete hy OMe Ae C194 | UiLwyy S))odvuopuT , es se ee ce oe *pioyburads we | ue vod 6) . oR uNW e ihe ots ° PA T= AE at RAL eat yauysng © : Sau 10W Sogo my i? | + sprdoy sop) o% “sie ao & <0 WLISIN SOW a dajsayroy \ 134 are drawn on the basis of the intensities adopted in the Rossi- Forell scale, they run about as indicated on the accompanying map. It will be noticed that they center around one of the oldest lines of disturbance in Illinois, the LaSalle anticline. The paral- lel flexures in the lines on the west side are presumably due to the northwest center. : Two maxima were noted in the disturbance in the following places: Bushnell, Canton, Champaign, Chicago, Geneva, and Sterling in Illinois; Davenport and Dubuque in Iowa. In Madi- son, in Wisconsin, Professor W. H. Hobbs is reported having noted three shocks. These may have originated in the three epicentra noted. Observations on the duration of the distur- bance sustain this evidence. Estimates on the duration of the quake fall roughly into three groups, which average respecti- vely four seconds (28 observations), thirteen seconds (12 ob- servations), and sixty seconds (6 observations). It appears likely that only one of the shocks was felt in the places where the duration was briefest, and that two shocks, or three, were felt where the quake lasted more than ten seconds. All places where the disturbance lasted for more than a minute are cen- traly located and may have been affected by all three shocks. A classification of the senses involved in the observations shows that the general sense of “well being’? was concerned in two instances. The sense of equilibrium was affected in several cases in the mesoseismal area. Visible earthquake waves are indicated for one of the epicentral tracts. Earthquake sounds were heard by five observers. The shock was felt in many instances. A classification of the terms used in describing the manner in which various objects were affected by the disturbance is shown in the table below, where the figures in parenthesis in- dicate the number of times each term occurs in the reports. Houses and buildings. Shook (17) Rocked (7) Trembled (4) Swayed (3) Cracked (2) Were jarred (2) Quivered (2) Dishes, bottles and tinware. Rattled (15) Were broken (8) Ttables, beds, bookcases and stoves. Shook (8) Were moved (6) Dashed to the|Were floor (6) ed (3) Fell (3) Swayed (2) Were shaken (3) Were moved (2) Quivered (2) Trembled (2) 135 Windows and doors. Rattled (12) Shook (3) overturn-|Were sprung (1) Creaked (1) Rocked (1) Broke (1) Heaved (1) Trembled (1) Were upset (1) Wobbled (1) Tipped over (1) Was disturbed (1)!Rattled (1) Rolled (1) Rocked (1) Heaved (1) Had glass_ shat- tered (1) Lights Pictures and and Chimneys. Bric-a-brac. lamps. mirrors. Swayed (4) Swung (3) Fell (4) Were _ shaken Heaved (1) Were shaken (3) !Toppled over (2) off (1) Shook (1) Were thrown (1) |Were razed (1) Were thrown Were shaken (1) |Tumbled (1) Were shaken down (6) Were overturn-|Fell (1) down (1) | Were tipped off(1) ed (1) Jumped (1) Cracked (1) \Fell (1) Fell (1) Broke (1) Were’ knocked down (1) Were = shaken out 41) | In some places in the mesoseismal area the severity of the quake is reported as having frightened women, but no mention is made of fright among men. In a few cases fright was general. It would appear that this difference between the sexes in cen- tral inhibitory resistance is most evident in that belt where the intensity of the seismic waves was a little less than seven in the Rossi-Forell scale. If the intensity of this earthquake had been only a little greater than it was, much damage to buildings would have resulted. Experience has shown that earthquakes are not fre- 136 quent in this part of the world, but we can not be certain that the late disturbance represents the greatest intensity of future earthquakes. *NOTE. The following observations were collected from daily and weekly newspapers published in the disturbed area, and from various per- sonal communications. They are arranged by localities, in alpha- betical order: Aurora, Ill—Chimneys fell, causing several fires—A stove was overturned and started a fire -—Many chimneys fell—Gas mains had connections loosened.—Some fires started the report “Aurora is burn- ing.’—Men were excited, women and children frightened.—People filled the streets—The schools were closed. : Batavia, Ill—A horse ran away, and the driver’s leg broken. Beloit, Wis.—Buildings were violently rocked.—Houses were jostled out of plumb.—People had difficulty in staying on their feet. Benton Harbor, Mich.—Chinaware was broken. Berwyn, Ill—A vase with flowers was thrown from a mantle.— Dishes were broken.—A book was thrown down from a radiator.— Book cases were shaken.—A building swayed. Bloomington, Ill—Cracks were made in the brick walls of the jail. These were as wide as a man’s hand. Braidwood, Ill.—Vibrations were noted. Burlington, Ila.—The taller buildings were shaken.—plates (dishes) were thrown down.—The shock was felt most in the upper stories of tall buildings.——Rumors of the shock caused people in neighboring towns to inquire about friends in the city over the telephone.—The shock frightened people who were in the upper stories of buildings.— There were perceptible tremors. Cabery, Ill.—The earthquake was felt by everybody. Cedar Rapids, Ia—There was a slight shock.—The earthquake was felt by hundreds of people.—Buildings were slightly jarred.—Doors and dishes rattled—There was a slight tremor—Students in the Coe College building rushed down from the fourth floor.—The shock was by some attributed to explosions in a quarry.—Doors rattled in the Masonic library.—Many residents recognized the disturbance as an earthquake. Chadwick, I1].—Dishes and tinware rattled. Champaign, IJ].—Buildings shook. Chicago, Ill—‘‘Buildings standing on cassion foundations shook per- ceptibly, structures on old style floating piles were observed to sway.” Benjamin H. Marshall, architect.—Western Union Gas and Electric Company had pipes broken, entailing a loss of several thousand dol- lars.—The balance of a rain gauge was displaced in the office of the U. S. Weather Bureau.—The earthquake was not felt on the ground fioors of large buildings, but more generally in the upper stories.—Sev- eral chimneys were shaken down in the suburbs of Chicago.—Lighting fixtures were violently shaken in the federal building.—Office tables were moved in the federal building—Ornaments were shaken from mantle pieces.—Dishes were broken.—Telephone wires swayed.—A 137 mirror swung on a wall.—Dishes rattled on a table.—Bric-a-brac fell from a mantle piece.—Telephones were put out of commission.—Heavy safes were jarred from their positions —wWall decorations were thrown from their fastenings—Drop lights swayed.—A bed was rolled back and forth, on its castors——Electric light fixtures swayed alarmingly. —A receiver was knocked off from a telephone hook.—A glass shade on a gas light fell and broke.—Gas fixtures swayed.—A mirror oscil- lated.—The shock caused some people to run on the streets.—Some Italians, recalling the earthquakes in Italy, quit work for some time and fell down to pray.—Families ran out of their flats, fearing the walls would collapse—Some people thought an explosion had oc- curred somewhere.—The falling of a tall chimney on a home for young women, scared the occupants out.—Telephone girls left switchboards. —A domestic was thrown off her feet.—A frightened wife called her husband.—Some people thought an explosion had occurred.—One man reported: ‘‘My wife and my sister were frightened and ran to me.’”— Hundreds of later risers were awakened by the earthquake.—A young woman stenographer, thinking some one had stepped up behind her chair, rocking it, exclaimed: “You stop that.’”—A man in a bath tub, seeing his image in motion in a swinging mirror, thought he was “verhext.’’—Many thought the shock due to blasting —Some residents filed from their homes.—Some people experienced a dizzy feeling due to the motion.—One report says: “There was great excitement along the shore of Lake Michigan.’’-—People feared a tidal wave. Clinton, Ia.—Dishes were disturbed and broken.—Windows rattled. —The earth trembled as when there is an explosion.—The floor shook, as when there is an explosion.—The floor shook in the upper story of a large building—Dishes were rattled down from shelves.— A door was sprung so it would not close.—Many people realized that it was an earthquake, and were stricken with fear—Some thought the wind rattled the windows, or an explosion.—Occupants of large build- ings told of feeling an unusual sensation.—Occupants of one building thought the shock was due to some work in progress on the upper floor.—A message, without signature, was received by one of the dailies, announcing the earthquake in a town near the city —Telephone girls were scared Davenport, Ia.—The tremor was most noticeable in large office puildings.—Two shocks were felt. Des Moines, Ia.—The earthquake was noticed by few people. Des Plaines, I1l—Chairs were overturned.—Mirrors were demolished. DeWitt, Ia—Buildings shook.—Dishes rattled. Dixon, Ill—There was a slight trembling of the earth—Gas fires were shaken out. Dubuque, Ia.—Office buildings were shaken.—The shock was felt most in the downtown districts——Machinery rattled in factories.— Boxes and crates fell in stores.—Two shocks were felt.—Dishes to the value of eight hundred dollars were broken in a crockery store.—The upper part of high buildings swayed.—One-third of the inhabitants knew nothing of the earthquake—Furniture moved in strange direc- tions.—Furniture trembled—Some claim they heard a rumbling sound before the shock—Lamps were shaken from their rests.—Tables heaved.—Houses rocked perceptibly.—Dishes rattled on tables——Chairs moved on their rockers.—Chandeliers heaved.—Floors heaved.—Win- 138 dows rattled—Elevators swayed slightly—Dishes and silverware moved on tables in hotels—In the upper story of a hotel a sewing machine was tipped over.—In the upper story of a hotel a servant woman was pitched forward and nearly fell—A house quivered.— People rushed from windows in terror, and alarm was widespread.-— Several hundred people made their exit from a seven-story building, choking the stairways in their haste to escape.—Some people thought th shock was a blast in the stone quarries.—In factories where girls and women worked in upper stories, small panics were narrowly averted.—The women employed in the upper stories in an office building rushed in a panic to the stairs—Men ran up from below, meeting them and quieting them.—A seamstress was surprised and alarmed when her sewing machine moved. Eagle Point, Ila—A high bridge swayed.—Buildings rocked.—Dishes rattled.—Bottles rattled in a drug store——Bottles moved along a shelf in a drug store.—The shock caused alarm. East Dubuque, JIll—Dishes rocked from shelves and dashed on the flioor.—Printing type in form, in a newspaper office, was pied. Elgin, I1]l—Delicate instruments in the Elgin Watch Works were thrown out of gear. Elizabeth, Ill—Dishes were shaken and the contents spilled.— Buildings were noticeably jarred—Windows rattled—Two men in a store thought sacks of flour, stacked upstairs, had fallen down. Elkader, Ila—Windows in stores were shaken.—Articles were shaken from stands and dressers in a bed room.—Excitement was intense.— The earthquake was felt by several persons in town. Evanston, Ill.—A chair in which the chief of police was seated, shook twice. The top floors in one of the University buildings shook.— Water in a tumbler was tippled.cWindows rattled—A book case swayed one and one-half inch.—A vacant chair was rocked, hitting a man.—A team of horses were started on a runaway.—Instruction was interrupted in one of the classes in Northwestern University —Occu- pants of some residences fled to the streets.—Patients and nurses in a hospital were alarmed. Fort Madison, Ia—Dishes and windows rattled. Freeport, Ill—Cracks were formed in cement walks. Geneva, Ill.—A clock was stopped in the court house. Gordon’s Ferry, Ila.—The operators in a railroad depot rushed out. Hannibal, Mo.—Two shocks were felt, lasting eight and thirty sec- onds, respectively. Indianapolis, Ind.—The federal offices quivered.—A heavy iron bed was shaken.—A writing table shook.—The tower of the courthouse shook.—A woman, reclining on a couch, rolled down on the floor. A man in a chair, resting his legs on a railing in the tower of the court house, felt his legs shake. Jackson Junction, la—There were heavy tremors. Joliet, I1l—Chairs were overturned.—Gas mains were made to leak Kalamazoo, Mich.—The earthquake was noted. Kenilworth, IJl.—Dishes fell from plate rails and broke. Kenosha, Wis.—Plaster fell—Wall paper cracked.—Chimneys top- 139 pled over——One man thought the powder mill had exploded.mSome inhabitants “thought the island would sink.” Kewanee, Ill—Some windows were broken. Knox, Ind—The shock frightened many people.—People rushed from buildings—Some people thought the shock was an explosion in a dis- tant powder mill. Lake Forest, Ill—Young people left the dormitories in Lake Forest University—One professor dismissed his class.—Professors at the University recognized the earthquake. Lake Geneva, Wis.—Two shocks were noted.—Water and milk were spilt. Leonore, I1l—A number of persons reported having felt the earth- quake. Lone Tree, Ia—A rheumatic woman felt the vibration keenly, and told others of the disturbance, before it was generally known. Lowden, Ia.—Buildings rocked.—Dishes were thrown off from a table—Clocks stopped. Window sashes were shaken. Lyons, Ia.—Window sashes were shaken.—Dishes rattled.—Dishes were thrown from shelves.—A tea kettle was shaken from a stove. —There was a severe shaking up of dishes.—Dishes were broken.—Many thought the disturbance was due to the passing of heavy wagons.— On learning that the disturbance was general, an editor says he became convinced that there had been an earthquake. Madison, Wis.—Some of the solution was spilled from the batteries in a railroad station—Professor W. H. Hobbs, a prominent geologist and seismologist, is reported as having noted three distinct shocks. Maquoketa, Ia—The earthquake was very plainly felt. Mason City, Ia.—There was a slight shock. Maywood, Ill—Plaster was loosened from a wall. Milan, Ill—Windows rattled in some buildings——Dishes trembled in cupboards.—Pictures trembled on walls—-A woman thought she had an attack of heart trouble and sank frightened on a bed. Monmouth, Ill—Buildings were badly shaken. Montague, Mich—A man felt a swaying motion, while seated in a chair.—The earthquake was felt by several citizens. Morning Sun, Ia.—Bottles and tinware rattled in a store.—The edi- tor of the News Herald notes that the quake was not sufficiently se- vere to disturb his print shop. Morrison, Ill—A lamp was overturned—Dishes were knocked off from a table-——Houses were shaken. Mount Carroll, Ill—Goods were thrown from shelves in the stores.— Chimneys toppled over.—Stove pipes were shaken out of chimneys.— Water was spilled from pans.—Racks were moved in the court house. —Bars in the jail rattled—Windows in the jail rattled——Everybody rushed into the streets——There was much excitement. Muncie, Ind.—The shock was variously attributed to blasting op- erations, to the rolling of heavy wagons, and to the passing of street cars. Muscatine, Ia—A quiver was felt by a few people——Several people 140 afterward remembered feling a vibration, and attributing it to the moving of heavy objects in the building. Muskegon, Mich.—Bric-a-brac fell to the floor.—-Pictures swung. North Chicago, [1].—Bricks were hurled from a high scaffolding. —Workmen on a high scaffolding nearly fell. Oak Park, Ill—A leg was shaken loose from a piano in a school and this caused the piano to foll.—The cornice of an old mansion fell. —A hospital building rocked.—A baby was thrown out of bed.— Pedestrians were scared by falling brick.—A woman was thrown out of a chair. Ottumwa, lowa.—Some citizens claimed to have felt the quake. Paw Paw, Ill—There was no damage, but many people were frightened. Peoria, Ill.—Plaster fell in a school building—Many large buildings were shaken.—The shock was felt more on the bluffs than in the down town districts—A rumbling sound was noted by a janitor in a school building.—Falling plaster caused a panic among the child- ren in one school. Peosta, Iowa.—Houses rocked. Platteville, Wis.—An old building rocked.—A school building was cracked. Pontiac, Ill—Windows were shaken.—Articles were shaken from walls. Princeton, Iowa.—A farm hand, who was standing in a barn, saw some hanging ropes gently vibrate. He also saw an iron support for a receptacle for water on a grindstone vibrate and heard a slight creaking in the building. Rariton, Ill.—The earthquake caused buildings to creak and tremble. River Forest, Ill—A woman, who had been walking on crutches, ran out without them. Rockford, Ill—A street car was started down a hill. Rock Island, I1.—A man sitting in a chair noticed a dull shock which he referred to as something heavy that might have fallen in the attic—The jar was distinctly felt in the third story of the main building of Augustana College, where book cases in the library were gently disturbed.—The first part of the disturbance was weakest. —The disturbance was felt by several persons at rest. Sabula, lowa.—Chimneys cracked.—Pictures rattled on walls—Furni- ture threatened to tumble over.—Heavy machinery in a printing office shook in good shape.—A ferry captain saw a large wave come to the Illinois shore in the Mississippi river—The shock brought people out of their homes, some with alarm, others with curiosity. Savanna, [1l—Operators in a railroad depot rushed out. Sears, Ill.—A desk rattled.—Goods rattled on the shelves in a store. —A heavy dresser quivered and shook.—Beds shook and quivered. —A lady thought she was affected by heart trouble and sank frighten- ed on a bed. Sinsinnawa, Il]l.—Dishes and windows rattled.—Articles fell from walls.. South Haven, Mich.—Windows rattled violently. broken. Much china was 141 Springfield, Ill—A faint rumble was heard.—Windows rattled.— The earthquake was noted by nearly all people—Many refused for hours to return to houses from which they had fled.—People rushed from houses. Sterling, Ill—Chandeliers were knocked down.—Pictures fell from walls. Strawberry Point, Ilowa.—Buildings were badly shaken. Sycamore, Ill—A clock was stopped in the court house. Waukegan, Ill—Clocks were stopped.—Pictures were thrown from walls.—Chimneys fell.—Linotype machines swayed violently.— A kit- ten was thrown across the room.—Two small children jumped out of bed crying, thinking the bed was falling to pieces—Women fell on their knees and prayed.—People wobbled.—A prisoner in jail thought walls would fall and liberate him.—A woman came near being pitched through a glass door.—One man woke up from the shaking of the bed.—People in upper stories of houses ran down and out on the street.—A janitor in a school house thought a man had fallen from the flag pole, which was being repaired.—Sidewalks were seen to tremble and gently heave.—Tables shook.—Dishes rattled.—A house trembled.—A house gave a distinct raise, then trembled.—Pictures swung out from a wall.—A fern (in a pot) tipped over in one house. —Buildings were shaken.—A bed trembled.—A school house shook for one minute.—Books fell from cases in the court house.—The glass in a book case was shattered.—Chandeliers swayed in stores.—Plaster fell from a ceiling.—Book cases teetered.mWindows rattled.—A heavy safe rolled on timbers on which it rested—A school (teacher and pupils) was curious, but not alarmed.—Some hands in the Corn Pro- ducts Company’s factory thought some heavy machinery had col- lapsed.—The city hall employees ran out on the streets—One man described the sound accompanying the shock as a rush of wind, and said he heard it.—Grain was let out through cracks which were opened in the bins of a feed store—One man heard a sound “like the rattling of a locked door.” West Union, Ia.—Buildings shook. Wilmette, I1]—Bottles rattled on the shelves in a drug store. Winnetka, Ill.—Falling dishes were broken. Zion, Ill—Some Zionists, recalling a prophecy of the coming of the end of the world on the 29th of the month, are reported to have fallen on their knees to pray. A. R. Crook.—‘“I am glad to see that in these interesting pap- ers by Mr. Savage and Mr. Udden, we are at last getting down to ‘rock bottom,’ even though in this last paper on earthquakes the bottom appears to be somewhat shaky! While newspaper accounts of such occurrences are extremely interest- ing, I am not inclined to place confidence in their reports, and think that care should be exercised in accepting any contri- butions which they may make in any department of science. 142 For example, within the last few years, upon reading at fif- teen different times of the falling of a meteorite in some region where Mr. Blank had found the specimen, I have written to Mr. Blank. In twelve out of fifteen cases my letter was re- turned from the post office marked ‘no such person known at this office, From the other three letters nothing was heard.” FP. C. Baker —‘‘The Chicago papers described a case of heads of mammoths which was put on exhibition at the Chicago Academy of Science, as an interesting collection of humming birds.” R. M. Bagg—‘There is interest in determining the causes of the earthquakes which occur in the great Mississippi region, « region looked upon as practically free from siesmic action. These earthquakes may be possibly accounted for by suppos- ing that they are due to crustal disturbance through faulting due to depression of the Gulf of Mexico through loading of sediment carried by rivers emptying into the Gulf, especially the Mississippi river, which deposits each year one subic mile of sediment 268 feet high in the gulf. This causes continual sinking though not the initial subsidence. The erosion of the Mississippi valley and deposit southward in the gulf may cause readjustment of equilibrium through faulting as Mr. Savage and members of Geological Survey know and have shown on their maps of the State. These earthquake movements may be reasonably expected to recur from time to time, due to read- justment and an attempt of the crust of earth to regain isos- tatic conditions.” J. A, Udden:—With regard to the reliability of newspaper data, they must be taken for what they are worth and should be used with common sense discretion. Much of the material collected for this study was not used. The character of the isoseismals, based on separate determinations of intensities of the earthquake for a hundred localities, speaks well, it appears to me, for the reliability of the data used. The use of such data in the study of earthquakes is nothing new. In the nature of the case, the isoseismals below seven in a scale of ten are largely located on hearsay evidence for all earthquakes which are studied. Such data are necessarily obtained from untrained 143 observers. They are the best that can be obtained. The author’s chief object in presenting this paper has been to awaken interest in these phenomena, in order that more and better observations may be secured in the future. H. S. Pepoon then presented the following paper: THE FOREST ASSOCIATIONS OF NORTHWESTERN ILLINOIS. A large area in northwestern Illinois, which, roughly speak- ing, occupies practically all of Jo Daviess county, except a narrow strip along the northeastern border, and a_ small portion of the adjacent counties of Carroll on the south and Stephenson on the east, is or rather was occupied by almost continuous forest growth. In Illinois. as a rule, the wooded lands lie adjacent to streams, but here there is no such distri- bution. Ridge and valley alike have this forest covering. The accompanying map will show the distribution of woods, which sustain a remarkably close relation to that peculiar physio- graphic feature called the “driftless area.” A very large percent of the original woodland has disap- peared before the ax and “grub-hoe,” and it is no exaggera- tion to state that in many parts not more than ten percent of the first growth remains standing, so that the aspect of large areas is that of a rolling prairie; but even now the remaining portion is amply sufficient to form a basis for the study of the forest associations, and all the more so because each passing year further decreases the number of remnants. This paper, therefore, will partake of the historical as well as the actual in dealing with the subject, and it is largely with the idea in mind of preserving many interesting facts of dis- tribution that it is undertaken. The Forest Associations are so intimately and vitally con- nected with the character of the soil, the amount of water supply, and the greater or less perfectness of drainage, that it 144 ee a ey ——*, — ry } ome a “SUP Igq 35a = ‘OL “31a Sromryyy W aurod ysaybiy pimow sapour- @ aa Sauna we - ope) - Wid L = mom “wiya : yo opvia F = WB Poy-yMUTOM ‘h / xpong = x0yd0g 20050 4x WAIqDIDOSSY) HOY FYMMM-JxWIS | ~prysszqom VEvyh- md —e—< Fae SPUTOWW WW mura puns josrprogyg —-—. Pe SH Solimg wa “aud fo ws M 156 RGHATICREONI (clo loletnicicicve c's: e:0, 0 24, 54, 55 SARE STISERVEN IE isis eisisicicieis e's oo sce 62, 85 Chicago Academy of Sciences .... 32 Giicaro High Schools ............ 80 €hinese Problem ......00ccesesscus 43 Committee on Nature Study in Elementary Schools .......... 3 SBEISEEVALIOM clo) ciccaisic.s cc rorneie eee cd 14 MECHUREMIAIEEOING Voie, a creo «iclaveverayv.s setae 159 OGLE WV OD.) cicisiciewiccects 20, 22, 23 Molter Jo Go 3. 5.i. ends 3, 22, 31, 89 Coulter, J. 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