.^3

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTAMCAL

TRANSACTIONS "*""

OF

THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
OF ST. LOUIS.

VOL. XIII.
JANUARY 1903 TO DECEMBER 1903.

PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.

ST. LOUIS:
NIXON JONES PRINTING CO.

/95

■A ^1

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Table of Contents iii

List of Members. Revised to December 31, 1903 v

1. Patrons.

2. Active Members.

Constitution xiii

By-Laws xvii

Abstract op History xxii

Record. January 1 to December 31, 1903 , xxvL

Papers Published. January 1 to December 31, 1903:

1. G. Hambach. — Revision of the Blastoideae, with a pro-

posed new classification, and description of new
species. — Plates I. -VI. — Issued November 4, 1903.. 1

2. Francis E. Nipher. — On the predetermination of the

speed of the trotting horse. — Issued July 9, 1903 69

3. Julius Hurter. — Second contribution to the herpetol-

ogy of Missouri. — Issued July 31, 1903 77

4. Walter L. Sheldon. — A bird's-eye view of the litera-

ture of ethical science since the time of Charles Dar-
win.— Issued August 21, 1903 87

5. Francis E. Nipher. — The law of contraction of gaseous

nebulae. — Issued October 1, 1903 143

6. Edward H. Keiser and S. W. Forder. — A new method

for the determination of free lime, and on so-called
dead burnt lime. — Issued December 4, 1903 165

7. B. F. Bush. — A new genus of grasses. — Plates VII.-

VIII.— Issued December 11, 1903 175

8. J. Arthur Harris. — Polygamy and certain floral ab-

normalities in Solanum. — The germination of Pachira,
with a note on the names of tv70 species. — Plates
IX.-XI. — Issued December 12, 1903 185

9. Title-page, prefatory matter and index of Vol. XIII. —

Record, January 1 to December 31, 1903. — Issued

February 9, 1904.

List of Authors 211

General Index 212

Index to Genera 214

CORRECTIONS.*

P. 7, line 5. — For lumen is, read lamina are.

P. 9, line 18. — For oval, read oral.

P. 12, line 32. —For Fig. 5, read Figs. 8, 10 and 11.

P. 14, line 20. — For Plate II. fig. 2, 3, 5, read Plate II. fig. 3.

P. 34, line 28. — For Maccoy, read M'Coy.

p. 47, line 22. — For Codastus, read Codaster.

footnote. — For ralated, read related.
P. 49, line 10. — For impossible, read impossible.
P. 51, lines 13, 15. — For Canedayi, read Cassedayi.
P. 53, line 22. — For ambulacria, read ambulacra.
P. 55, line 18. — For plicable, read plicated.

line 35. — For prominent, read promising.
P. 59, line 18. — Omit comma.
Explanation of Plate II. No. 5. — Add, enlarged four times.

No. 11. — Add, in a Codaster.
Explanation of Plate IV. No. 6. — For pyramidalis, read bipyra-

midalis.
P. 69, line 18. — The equation should read S= a-}- 6e-^'*
P. 72, line 5. — For 13.5, read 19.95.
P. 147, equation (12). — For (2 — n), read (2 — n)^-
P. 155, line 3. —For 2C, read 2Cp.
last line. — For aT, read clT.
P. 156, equation (17)'. — For ilf — , read iiyr=.

P. 157. — For W= 4 tt f E^ Pd R, read W= Air C R^PdR.

^ ^ R

P. 160, equation (41) and preceding equation. — For Cp , read Cp.

(8— 5n) (4 — 3n) G
P. 163, equation (50). - Read, S = ^^g^^^^^W^^ J '

Q

following equation. — Read = 0.177 y •
P. 181, line 21. — For Hall, read Hale.

* Some of these changes require to be made in only the latter part of the
edition, from which type appears to have fallen.

MEMBERS.

1. PATRONS.

Eliot, Henry W 2635 Locust st.

Harrison, Edwin 3747 Westminster pi.

McMillan, Mrs. Eliza 25 Portland pi.

McMillan, William Northrop 25 Portland pi.

2. ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Adkins, James Park and Vandeventer avs.

Alleman, Gellert* Swarthmore College,

Swarthmore, Pa.

Allen, Terry W 5061 Lindell av.

Alt, Adolf 3036 Locust st.

Andrews, William Edward* Taylorville, 111.

Bain, Robert Elward Mather 900 Locust st.

Bailey, Liberty Hyde* ...Ithaca, N. Y.

Baker, Carl Fuller* Pomona College, Claremont, Calif.

Barck, Carl 2715 Locust st.

Bartlett, George M 215 Pine st.

Baumgarten, Gustav 4900 Berlin av.

Bean, Tarleton Hoffman* Administration bldg,,

World's Fair.

Becktold, William B 212 Pine st.

Bernays, A. C 3623 Laclede av.

Bixby, William Keeney 13 Portland pi.

Boeckeler, William L 4441 Laclede av.

Bolton, Benjamin Meade 4160 McPherson av.

Brannon, Melvin A.* University, N. Dak.

Brennan, Martin S 1414 O'Fallon st.

Brimmer, George G 6900 Michigan av.

Brookings, Robert S 5125 Lindell av.

Brown, Daniel S 2212 DeKalb st.

Brown, Willi 3526 Pine st.

Budgett, Sidney Payne 1806 Locust st.

Burg, William 1756 Missouri av.

* Non-resident.

vi Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Burnett, E. C University Club.

Busch, Adolphus 1 Busch pi.

Busch, Aug. A Busch pi.

Bush, Benjamin Franklin* Courtney, Mo.

Calvert, Sidney* State University, Columbia, Mo.

Carpenter, George O Russell and Compton avs.

Carter, Howard* Webster Groves, Mo.

Carver, George Washington* Tuskegee, Ala.

Chaplin, WinfieldS 3636 West Pine boul.

Chappell, W. G 3810 Westminster pi.

Chase, E. C Oriel bldg.

Chauvenet, Louis 5501 Chamberlain av.

Chouteau, Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Chouteau, Mrs. Pierre 912 Security bldg.

Compton, P. C 4156 Washington boul.

Comstock, T. Griswold 3401 Washington av.

Conklin, Harry R.* Joplin, Mo.

Cramer, Gustav V,, G. Cramer Dry Plate Co.

Crandall, George C .....4287 Olive st.

Crunden, Frederick Morgan Public Library.

Curtis, William S St. Louis Law School.

Cushman, AllertonS.* Bryn Mawr, Pa.

Dame, James E 2353 Albion pi.

Dameron, Edward Caswell.* Ciarksville, Mo.

Davis, N. H 56 Vandeventer pi.

Davis, John D 421 Olive st.

De Menil, Alexander N De Menil bldg., 7th and Pine sts.

Diehm, Ferdinand 1834 Kennett pi.

Dodd, Samuel M 415 Locust st.

Douglas, Archer W % Simmons Hardware Co.

Drake, George S 64 Vandeventer pi.

Drosten, F. W 2011 Park av.

Duenckel, Frederick William 2912 EUendale av.

Duggar, B. M.* 202 Hitt st., Columbia, Mo.

Eggert, Henry* 1001 CoUinsville av.,

E. St. Louis, 111.

Eimbeck, August F.* New Haven, Mo.

Eliot, Edward C 5468 Maple av.

Engler, Edmund Arthur* 11 Boynton st., Worcester, Mass.

Erker, AdolphP 608 Olive st.

Members. vii

Espenschied, Charles 3500 Washington av.

Euston, Alexander 3730 Lindell boul.

Evers, Edward 1861 N. Market st.

Ewing, Arthur E 6024 West Cabanne pi.

Eycleshymer, A. E 3650 Washington av.

Favor, Ernest Howard* Box 842, Columbia, Mo.

Fernald, Robert Hey wood Washington University.

Fischel, Washington E 3841 Washington av.

Forbes, Stephen A.* Urbana. 111.

Fordyce, John R.* 2223 Louisiana st..

Little Rock, Ark.

Forster, Marquard 2317 S. 13th st.

Francis, David R 4421 Maryland av.

French, George Hazen* ...Carbondaie, 111.

Frerichs, Frederick W 4608 S. Broadway.

Frick, John Henry* Warrenton, Mo.

Fruth, Otto J 3066 Hawthorne boul.

Fry, Frank R 3133 Finest.

Funkhouser, Robert Monroe 3534 Olive st.

Gazzam, James Breading 514 Security bldg.

Geeks, Frank 3453 Magnolia av.

Gerling, H. J 4320 Cook av.

Glasgow, FrankA 3894 Washington boul.

Glasgow, William C 2847 Washington av.

Goetz, Victor 129 Market st.

Goldstein, Max A 3858 Westminster pi.

Goodman, Charles H 3329 Washington av.

Graham, Benjamin B 5145 Lindell boul.

Graves, William W 1943 N. llth st.

Graves, Willis Nelson 2813 Lafayette av.

Gray, MelvinL 3756 Lindell boul.

Greeley, Arthur W Washington University.

Green, John 2670 Washington av.

Gregory, ElishaHall 3525 Lucas av.

Gregory, Elisha H., Jr.* Medical Dept., Univ. of Pa.,

Philadelphia.

Grindon, Joseph 3894 Washington av.

Gundelach, Chas. H 3900 Westminster pi.

Gundelach, W. J 3703 Finney av.

Gurney, James Tower Grove and Magnolia avs.

Guy, William Evans 4380 Westminster pi.

viii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Haarstick, Henry C Third and Chestnut sts.

Hambach, Gustavf 1319 Lami st.

Hardaway, W. A 2922 Locust st.

Harris, James Arthur Washington University.

Hartmann, Rudolph. 2020 Victor st.

Held, George A International Bank.

Herzog, William 3644 Botanical av.

Hirschberg, Francis D 3818 Lindell boul.

Hitchcock, Albert Spear* ..U. S. Dept. Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Hitchcock, George C 3877 Washington av.

Holman, BI. L 3744 Finney av.

Holmes, Joseph A Mines Dept., La.Purch. Exposition.

Homan, George 323 Odd Fellows' bidg.

Hough, Warwick Circuit Court, Room 1.

Hughes, Charles Hamilton 3860 West Pine boul.

Huiskamp, John E 5554 Cabanne av.

Hume, H. Harold* Lake City, Fla.

Hunicke, Henry August 3532 Victor st.

Hurter, Julius 2346 S. 10th st.

Hyatt, Robert J U. S. Weather Bureau.

Irish, Henry C Mo. Botanical Garden.

Ives, Halsey Cooley Museum of Fine Arts.

Johnson, Reno De O.* Desloge, Mo.

Jones, Breckinridge 4010 Lindell boul.

Kail, Richard 1370 Goodfellow av.

Keiser, Edward H Washington University.

Keyes, Charles R.* State School of Mines,

Socorro, New Mex.

Kinealy, John H.* ..1108 Pemberton bIdg.,

Boston, Mass.

King, Goodman 78 Vandeventer pi.

Kirchner, Walter C. G 1211 N. Grand av.

Klem, Mary J 1808^ Lafayette av.

Kodis, Theodore* Schadow, Kowno, Russia.

Krall, George Warren Manual Training School.

Lackland, Rufus J 1623 Locust st.

Langsdorf, Alexander S Washington University.

t Elected a life-member January 3, 1882.

Members. ix

Leavitt, Shei-man Washington University.

Lefevre, George* State University, Columbia, Mo.

Leighton, George Bridge 803 Garrison av.

Letterman, George W.* Allenton, Mo.

Licliter, John J 1740 Simpson av.

Lloyd, Hiram Odd Fellows' bldg.

Loeb, Hanau Wolf 3559 Olive st.

Ludwig, Charles V. F 1509 Chouteau av.

Luedeking, Robert 1837 Lafayette av.

LumeUus, J. George 1225 St. Ange av.

Lyon, Hartwell Nelles 3910 Russell av.

Mack, Charles Jacob 113 N. Broadway.

Mallinckrodt, Edward 26 Vandeventer pi.

Mallinckrodt, Edward, Jr 26 Vandeventer pi.

Markham, George Dickson 4961 Berlin av.

Marx, Christian William* University of Cincinnati,

Cincinnati, O.

Mason, Silas C* Berea, Ky.

Matthews, Leonard 300 N, 4th st.

McGee, W J World's Fair.

Meier, Theodore G 3938 Washington boul.

Merrell, Albert 3814 Washington boul.

Meyer, John F 1739 Pennsylvania av.

Michel, Eugene H 2721 S. King's Highway.

Miller, Charles F 1751 Missouri av.

Monell, Joseph T.* ....Flat River, Mo,

Monroe, Lee Ernest* Eureka, Mo.

Moore, Robert 61 Vandeventer pi.

Mudd, Harvey G 2604 Locust st.

Mueller, Ambrose* Webster Groves, Mo.

Nagel, Charles 3969 Washington boul.

Nasse, Aug 209 N. 2d st.

Nautze, Gustav 2868 S. 18th st.

Nelson, Aven* Laramie, Wyom.

Niedringhaus, George W 3745 Lindell boul.

Nipher, Francis E..... Washington University.

Norton, J. B. S.* College Park, Md.

Oglevee, Christopher Stoner* Lincoln, III.

Olshausen, Ernest P 1115 Rutger st.

Olshausen, George R.* Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

X Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

O'Reilly, Andrew J 1507 Papin st.

O'Reilly, Robert J 3411 Pine st.

Outten, W. B Missouri Pacific Hospital.

Overstolz, Herman 100 N. Broadway.

Palmer, Ernest Jesse* 321 S. Allen st,, Webb City, Mo.

Pammel, Louis Hermann* Ames, la.

Pantaleoni, Guido 415 Locust st.

Parker, George Ward 417 Pine st.

Parsons, Charles 2804 Pine st.

Pauls, Gustavus St. Louis Altenheim.

Pettus, W. H. H 4373 Westminster pi.

Pfeiffer, Egmont 3921a Shenandoah av.

Pike, Sherman B 5881 Cates av.

Pitzman, Julius 1900 S. Compton av.

Poats, Thomas Gra3^&on* Clemson College, S. C.

Post, Martin Hayward 5371 Waterman av.

Preetorius, Emil % Westliche Post.

Prewitt, Theodore F 4917 Berlin av.

Prynne, Charles Martyn Lincoln Trust bldg.

Pulsifer, William H* Nonquitt, Mass.

Quaintance, A. L.* U. S. Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Randall, JohnE 1910 Olive st.

Raphael, Abraham 5164 Raymond av.

Ravold, Amand 2806 Morgan st.

Reverchon, Julien* R. F. D. 8, Dallas, Texas.

Richter, Phil. George 2424 S. 18th st.

Rieloff, F. C 3837 W. Pine boul.

Rilliet, Chas. E 4719 S. 9th st.

Robert, Edward Scott 1105 Missouri Trust bldg.

Robertson, Charles* Carlinville, 111.

Roever, William Henry* Cambridge, Mass.

Rogers, Herbert F V^ Provident Chemical Works.

Rolfs, Peter H.* Tropical Laboratory, Miami, Fla.

Rosenwald, Lucian* Las Vegas, New Mex.

Ruf, Frank A 5863 Cabanne av.

Runge, Edward C Vanol bldg.

Russell, Colton* 325 S. Bunker Hill av.,

Los Angeles, Cal.
Ryan, Frank K 2725 Lawton av.

Members. xi

Sander, Enno 2807 Lawton av.

Sargent, Charles Sprague* Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Schmalz, Leopold 2824 Shenandoah av.

Schneck, Jacob* Mt. Carmel, 111.

Von Schrenk, Hermann Mo. Botanical Garden.

Schroers, John 1730 Missouri av.

Schrowang, Otto Gay bldg.

Schwab, Sidney I 2602 Locust st.

Schwarz, Frank 1520 Lafayette av.

Schwarz, Henry 1723 Chouteau av.

Schweitzer, Paul* Columbia, Mo.

Scott, Henry C 64 Vandeventer pi.

See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson*. .Naval Observatory,

Mare Island, Cal.

Selby, Augustine Dawson* Wooster, O.

Senseney, E. M 2829 Washington av.

Sheldon, Walter L 4065 Delmar av.

Shepley, John F 60 Vandeventer pi.

Shoemaker, William Alfred 4386 Westminster pi.

Simmons, E. C 9th and Spruce sts.

Simmons, Wallace D 9th and Spruce sts.

Sluder, Greenfield 2647 Washington av.

Smith, Arthur George* 422 N. Dubuque st., Iowa City, la.

Smith, D. S. H 3646 Washington boul.

Smith, Irwin Z 87 Vandeventer pi.

Smith, Jared G.* '. .Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

Soldan, F. Louis ...3634 Flad av.

Spiegelhalter, Joseph 2166 Lafayette av.

Starkloff, H. M 3623 Cleveland av.

Starr, John E.* 258 Broadway, New York City.

Staudinger, B 3556,Lindell boul.

Stedman, John Moore* State University, Columbia, Mo.

Stevens, Charles D 1749 S. Grand av.

Stevens, Wyandotte James 4043 Juniata st.

Stocker, George J 2833 S. King's Highway.

Strauss, Julius C 3516 Franklin av.

Stuart, James Lyall 5346 Maple av.

Summa, Hugo 2249 St. Louis av.

Taussig, Albert E 2647 Washington av.

Taussig, William 3447 Lafayette av.

Teichmann, William C 1141 Market st.

Terry, Robert James 4105 Washington av.

xii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Thacher, Arthur 4304 Washington boul.

Thorn, Charles* 239 Hazel St., Ithaca, N. Y.

Thomas, John R 420 N. 4th st.

Thomson, William H., Jr 3805 Lindell boul.

Thurman, John vS 416 Lincoln Trust bidg.

Timmerman, Arthur H 2633 Park av.

Tittmann, Harold H 3726 Washington boul.

Trelease, William Mo. Botanical Garden.

Tyler, Elza Edward* State University, Columbia, Mo.

Tyrrell, Warren Ayres 3620a Folsom av.

Updegraff, Milton* 12 Goldsborough Row,

Annapolis, Md.

Valle, Jules F 3303 Washington av.

Van Ornum, John Lane Washington University.

Vickroy, Wilhelm Rees 2901 Rauschenbach av.

von Schrader, George F Wainwright bldg.

von Schrader, Otto U 3749 Westminster pi.

Warren, William Homer 1806 Locust st.

Watts, Millard F 4362 Morgan st.

Weller, Stuart* University of Chicago,

Chicago, 111.
Westgate, John Minton* Dept. of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C.

Wheeler, H. A 3124 Locust st.

Whelpley, Henry Milton 2342 Albion pi.

Whitaker, Edw^-ds 300 N. 4th st.

Whitten, John Charles*. Columbia, Mo.

Widmann, Otto 5105 Morgan st.

Wilson, Edward Allen 3745 W. Pine st.

Winkelmeyer, Christopher 3540 Lawton av.

Wislizenus, Frederick A 3628 Cleveland av.

Witt, Thomas D.* Rushville, 111.

Woodward, Calvin Milton Washington University.

Zahorsky, John 1460 S. Grand av.

Zawodny, Joseph* Schloss Lobes, Mscheno, bei

Melnik, Bohemia, Austria.

CONSTITUTION.

ARTICLE I. NAME.

Section 1. This Association shall be called "The Acad-
emy OF Science of St. Louis."

ARTICLE II. object.

Section 1. It shall have for its object the promotion of
science.

Sec. 2. As means to this end the Academy shall hold
meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific
subjects ; shall take measures to procure original papers upon
such subjects; and shall, as often as may be practicable,
publish its transactions. It shall also establish and maintain
a cabinet of objects illustrative of the several departments of
science, and a library of works relating to the same. It
shall also place itself in communication with other scientific
institutions.

article hi. members.

Section 1. The Academy shall consist of Active Members,
Corresponding Members, Honorary Members, and Patrons.

Sec. 2. Active Me7nbers shall be persons interested in
science, and they alone shall conduct the affairs of the
Academy.

Sec. 3. Persons not living in the City or County of St.
Louis who may be disposed to further the object of the
Academy by original researches, contributions of speci-
mens, or otherwise, may be elected Corresponding Members.

Sec. 4. Persons not living in the City or County of St.

xiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Louis may be elected Honorary Members by virtue of their
attainments in science.

Sec. 5. Any person conveying to the Academy the sum of
one thousand dollars ($1,000), or its equivalent, may be
elected a Patron.

Sec. 6. Persons may be admitted to any of the preceding
classes of membership, or dismissed therefrom, in accordance
with the regulations prescribed by the By-Laws,

ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS.

Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall be chosen
from the active members, and they shall consist of a

President,

1st Vice-President,

2d Vice-President,

Recording Secretary,

Corresponding Secretary,

Treasurer,

Librarian,

Three Curators,

Two Directors.

Said officers shall be elected at the time and in the man-
ner prescribed by the By-Laws, and shall hold their offices
for one year, or until their successors are elected.

Sec. 2. The duties of these officers shall be such as are
customary and as prescribed by the By-Laws.

ARTICLE V. COUNCIL.

Section 1. The President, the two Vice-Presidents, the
Recording Secretary, the Treasurer, the Librarian, and the
two Directors shall constitute the Council of the Academy.

Sec. 2. The duties of the Council shall be to consider
all plans conducive to the welfare of the Academy; to audit
all bills and order payment of such as they may approve ;

Constitution.

XV

to consider all applications for membership ; and to adminis-
ter the business of the Academy, subject to the Constitution
and By-Laws and to such instructions as may be given by
the Academy.

ARTICLE VI. MEETINGS.

Section 1. The meetings of the Academy shall be held
at such times and places as the By-Laws may direct.

ARTICLE VII. AMENDMENTS.

Section 1. Amendments to this Constitution shall be sub-
mitted in writing at a regular meeting. They shall be open
to discussion until at least the second ipeeting thereafter.
They may then be adopted by a two-thirds vote of a letter-
ballot, conducted in the manner prescribed by the Council.

ARTICLE VIII. SECTIONS.

Section 1. To encourage and promote special investiga-
tions in any branch of science, members of the Academy
may form Sections which shall be constituted as herein
provided.

Sec. 2. For the formation of a Section written application
shall be made to the Academy, at a regular meeting, by not
less than six active members.

On the approval of this application by the affirmative vote
of two-thirds of the members present at the next regular
meeting, the Section shall be established and the names of
the petitioners shall be recorded on its minutes as its
founders.

Sec. 3. Sections may increase the number of their mem-
bers by election, but only members of the Academy shall
be elected members of any of the Sections .

Sec. 4. The officers of each Section shall be a Chairman
and a Secretary, who shall be elected by its members at the

xvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

first meeting of the Section, and subsequently at the first
meeting in January of each year.

Sec. 5. The collections and books of each Section are the
common property of the Academy. Donations of books and
specimens made to or for any Section shall be received as
donations to the Academy for the use of the Section.

Sec. 6. A report of the proceedings of each Section shall
be submitted to the Academy at least once every month.
Papers read before any Section with a view to publication by
the Academy shall take the same course as papers read before
the Academy.

Sec. 7. On all points not herein provided for, each
Section shall be governed by the Constitution, By-Laws, and
instructions of the Academy.

BY-LAWS.

I. REGULAR MEETINGS.

The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held on the
first and third Monday evenings of every month, unless
otherwise ordered by the Council.

II. SPECIAL MEETINGS.

Special meetings may be called by the President at his dis-
cretion, and shall be called by him on the written request of
three or more members.

III. NOTICE OF MEETINGS.

The Recording Secretary shall send a notice of each meet-
ing to every active member at least two days before such

meetmg.

IV. QUORUM.

Seven members shall constitute a quorum, but four mem-
bers shall constitute a legal meeting for reading of papers.

V. ORDER OF BUSINESS.

The order of proceeding, at the regular meetings of the
Academy, shall be as follows: —

1. Minutes of last meetmg.

2. Report of the Council.

3. Reports of Committees.

4. Report of the Corresponding Secretary.

5. Donations to the Museum and Library.

6. Written Communications.

7. Oral Communications.

8. Deferred Business.

9. New Business.

10. Elections.

11. Proposals for Membership.

12. Adjournment.

xviii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

VI. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.

It shall be the duty of the Corresponding Secretary to
conduct the correspondence and report to the Academy.

VII. TREASURER.

The Treasurer shall collect all moneys due the Academy ;
be custodian of all its funds, and pay such bills against the
Academy as the Council shall approve. The Treasurer shall
deposit the moneys and invest the funds of the Academy in
its name and by and with the advice of the Council. Besides
his annual report to the Academy, the Treasurer shall make
such further reports and statements concerning the financial
affairs of the Academy as the Council may from time to time
require. Before entering upon his duties, the Treasurer shall
give bond in such sum as may be required by the Council.

VIII. LIBRARIAN.

The Librarian shall take charge of all books belon^ins to
or deposited with the Academy, and shall be responsible for
the same; he shall keep a catalogue thereof, in which the
names of contributors shall be inscribed ; he shall superintend
the distribution of all the publications of the Academy.

IX. COUNCIL.

The Council shall act as a publication committee ; shall
prepare a programme for each meeting, and may make rules
and regulations for their own guidance, not inconsistent with
the Constitution and By-Laws.

X. ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

A nominating committee of three active members who are
not oflacers of the Academy shall be elected at the first regu-
lar meeting in December. This committee shall nominate

By-Laws. xix

candidates for all the offices for the ensuing year, and report
the nominations at the following meeting, when other nom-
inations may be made by any active member. The Recording
Secretary shall mail to every active member a list of the nom-
inees for office, at least ten days preceding the annual meet-
ing. The polls shall be closed at 6 p. m. on the day of the
annual meeting, after which the nominating committee shall
count the ballots and announce the results to the Academy.
A plurality of the votes cast shall suffice to elect.

XI. VACANCIES.

A vacancy in any office shall be filled by election conducted
in the same manner as the annual election.

XII. ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

A candidate for admission to the Academy shall be pro-
posed by not less than two members at any regular meeting.
The proposal must then be referred to the Council, and if
upon examination they shall find the candidate to be eligible
and' worthy of membership, they shall order the question as to
his admission to be submitted to the Academy by ballot. If
there be five votes in the negative, the candidate shall be re-
jected, and shall not be again voted upon for twelve months
after such rejection. But if the number of negative votes
be less than five, the candidate shall be elected, but shall not
be considered a member until he shall have paid the initiation
fee and the annual dues for the current year. Any failure to
pay the initiation fee and annual dues within thirty days after
the candidate has been notified of his election, shall work a
forfeiture of all rights under said election, if the Council
shall so determine. No entry shall be made on the record of
the rejection of any candidate.

XIII. RESIGNATION OF MEMBERS.

Any member whose dues have been fully paid, may with-
draw from the Academy by a written resignation. Non-pay-

XX Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ment of dues for one year or longer may be treated as
equivalent to resignation ; but before any member is dropped
from the rolls for delinquency, he shall be entitled to not less
than four weeks' notice.

XIV. EXPULSION OF MEMBERS.

Upon the written request of five members, that, for cause
stated, any member be expelled, the Council shall consider
the matter, and if they deem it best, shall advise the member
that his resignation will be accepted. He shall, however,
have the right to demand and shall be given a copy of the
•charges against him, and shall have a reasonable time to pre-
sent a written defense. The Council may then pass finally
upon the matter, and if resignation has not been tendered, or
a satisfactory defense made, may by an afiirmative vote of
four of their number expel the member, in which case they
shall notify him and the Academy of their action, and his
name shall be at once dropped from the list of members.

XV. INITIATION FEE AND DUES.

Resident active members shall pay an initiation fee of five
dollars, and annual dues of six dollars, payable at the begin-
ning of each year. Non-resident active members shall pay
an initiation fee of five dollars and annual dues of one-half
the dues for resident active members, payable at the begin-
ning of each year.

XVI. HONORARY MEMBERS AND PATRONS.

Honorary members and Patrons shall be recommended by
the Council, and elected by the unanimous vote of the mem-
bers present at any regular meeting.

XVII. PUBLICATIONS.

Patrons and all active members not in arrears shall be
entitled to one copy of all the publications of the Academy

By-Laws. xxi

issued subsequent to their election. Authors of papers
shall be entitled to twenty extra copies of their individual
papers.

XVIII. SALE OF REAL ESTATE.

The property convej^ed to The Academy of Science of St.
Louis on the eighteenth day of March, 1903, by Edgar R.
Hoadley and Lavinia L. Hoadley, as a gift from Mrs. Eliza
McMillan and William N. McMillan, shall not be morta:as:ed
or voluntarily incumbered by the Academy of Science ; and
the said property shall not be sold, except with the consent
of two-thirds of the members of the Academy of Science,
obtained by letter ballot, in such manner as may be pre-
scribed by the Council, and, when sold, the proceeds of the
sale or so much thereof as may be necessary, shall be used to
provide a suitable location and building for the use of The
Academy of Science of St Louis.

XIX. AUTHORITY.

On all points of order and procedure, not provided for in
the Constitution and By-Laws, Robert's Rules of Order shall
be the authority.

XX. AMENDMENTS.

These By-Laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of
all the members present at any regular meeting, provided
notice of the proposed amendment shall have been mailed to
every member at least one week before the vote thereon is
taken.

ABSTRACT OF HISTORY.

ORGANIZATION,

The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on the
10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public
Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first President.

CHARTER.

On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporating
the Academy was signed and approved, and this was accepted
by vote of the Academy on the 9th of February, 1857.

OBJECTS.

The act of incorporation declares the object of the Academy
to be the advancement of science and the establishment in
St. Louis of a museum and library for the illustration and
study of its various branches, and provides that the members
shall acquire no individual property in the real estate, cabinets,
library, or other of its effects, their interest being usufruc-
tuary merely.

The constitution as adopted at the organization meeting
and amended at various times subsequently, provides for hold-
ins meetino;s for the consideration and discussion of scientific
subjects ; taking measures to procure original papers upon such
subjects ; the publication of transactions ; the establishment
and maintenance of a cabinet of objects illustrative of the
several departments of science, and a library of works relating
to the same; and the establishment of relations with other
scientific institutions. To encourage and promote special in-
vestigation in any branch of science, the formation of special
sections under the charter is provided for.

Abstract of History. xxiii

MEMBERSHIP.

Members are classified as active members, corresponding
members, honorary members and patrons. Active member-
ship is limited to persons interested in science, though they
need not of necessity be engaged in scientific work, and they
alone conduct the affairs of the Academy, under its constitu-
tion. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis
who are disposed to further the objects of the Academy, by
original researches, contributions of specimens, or otherwise,
are eligible as corresponding members. Persons not living
in the city or county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary
members by virtue of their attainments in science. Any
person conveying to the Academy the sum of one thousand
dollars or its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron.

Under the by-laws, resident active members pay an initia-
tion fee of five dollars and annual dues of six dollars. Non-
resident active members pay the same initiation fee, but
annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons, and honorary and
corresponding members, are exempt from the payment of
dues. Each patron and active member not in arrears is
entitled to one copy of each publication of the Academy issued
after his election,

Since the organization of the Academy, 967 persons have
been elected to active membership, of whom, at the present
time, 292 are carried on the list. Four patrons, Mr. Edwin
Harrison, Mrs. Eliza McMillan, Mrs. William Northrop
McMillan and Mr. Henry W. Eliot, have been elected. The
list of corresponding members (Vol. X., p. xii) includes 205
names, among which are the names of 102 persons known to
be deceased.

OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT.

The officers, who are chosen from the active members, con-
sist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording and Cor-
responding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian, three Curators,
and two Directors. The general business management of the

XXIV

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Academy is vested in a Council composed of the President,
the two Vice-Presidents, the Recording Secretary, the Treas-
urer, the Librarian and the two Directors.

The office of President has been filled by the following
well-known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have
been eminent in some line of scientific work : George Enorel-
mann, Benjamin F. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus, Hiram A.
Prout, John B. Johnson, James B. Eads, William T. Harris,
Charles V. Riley, Francis E. Nipher, Henry S. Pritchett,
John Green, Melvin L. Gray, Edmund A. Engler, Robert
Moore, and Henry W. Eliot.

MEETINGS.

The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its build-
ing, 3817 Olive Street, at 8 o'clock, on the first and third
Monday evenings of each month, a recess being taken between
the meeting on the first Monday in June and the meeting on
the third Monday in October. These meetings, to which in-
terested persons are always welcome, are devoted in part to
the reading of technical papers designed for publication in
the Academy's Transactions, and in part to the presentation
of more popular abstracts of recent investigation or progress.
From time to time public lectures, calculated to interest a larger
audience, are provided for in some suitable hall.

The following dates for regular meetings for the year 1904
have been fixed by the Council : —

Jan.

18

Feb.
1

Mar.v

April.

May.

June.

Oct.

Nov.

7

4

2

6

7

15

21

18

16

17

21

Dec.

19

LIBRARY.

After its organization, the Academy met in Pope's Medical
College, w^here a creditable beginning had been made toward

Abstract of History. xxv

the formation of a museum and library, until May, 1869,
when the building and museum were destroyed by fire, the
library being saved. The library now contains 14,893 books
and 11,663 pamphlets, and is open during certain hours of
the day for consultation by members and persons engaged in
scientific work.

PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES.

Thirteen thick octavo volumes of Transactions have been
published since the organization of the Academy, and widely
distributed. Two quarto publications have also been issued:
one from the Archaeological section, being a contribution to
the archaeology of Missouri, and the other a report of the
observations made by the Washington University Eclipse
Party of 1889. The Academy now stands in exchange rela-
tions with 576 institutions or organizations of aims similar to
its own.

MUSEUM.

Since the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Academy
has lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a public
museum, and, although small museum accessions have been
received and cared for, its main effort of necessity has been
concentrated on the holding of meetings, the formation of a
library, the publication of worthy scientific matter, and the
maintenance of relations with other scientific bodies.

RECORD.

From January 1, 1903, to December 31, 1903.
January 5, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, twenty-two persons present.

The nominating committee reported that 138 ballots had
been counted, and the following officers for 1903 were declared
duly elected : —

President Henry W. Eliot.

First Vice-President D. S. H. Smith.

Second Vice-President William K. Bixby.

Recording Secretary William Trelease.

Corresponding Secretary... .Ernest P. Olshausen.

Treasurer Enno Sander.

Librarian G. Hambach.

Curators G. Hambach,

Julius Hurter,

A. H. Timmerman.

Directors F. E. Nipher,

Adolf Alt.

The President addressed the members present, on the con-
dition of the Academy, and its work during the year 1902.*

The Treasurer submitted his annual report, showing in-
vested funds to the amount of $6,500.00 and a current balance
of $358.09 carried forward to the year 1903. t

The Librarian submitted his annual report. +

The Council reported that the resignation of Mr. A. T.
Primm, Jr., and Mr. G. R. Kline had been accepted, and that
the followino; additions had been made to the exchange list:
R. Accademia . . . degli zelanti, Acireale; Broteria, Lis-

* Transactions 12:xxix.

t Transactions 12 : xxxi. X Transactions 12 : xxxi.

Record. xxvii

bon ; The Zoological Department of the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley; and the Museum of the Institute of Arts
and Sciences, Brooklyn.

On behalf of Mr. Hurter, who represented the Academy at
the Fifth International Congress of Zoologists, held in Berlin
in 1901, the Secretary presented to the library of the Academy
a copy of the report of said Congress.

Mr. Julius Hurter presented for publication a paper on the
herpetology of Missouri, illustrating his remarks by speci-
mens.

Dr. Hermann von Schrenk presented some notes on the
bitter-rot disease of apples, referring particularly to recent
investigations and cultural experiments. He exhibited speci-
mens of the cankers formed on apple limbs by the bitter-
rot fungus (Gloeosporiiun fructigenum^ Berk.) in various
orchards, and of artificial cankers produced in apple trees
at the Missouri Botanical Garden by inoculating branches
with spores from apples aifected with the bitter-rot disease,
and spores from pure cultures of the fungus from cankers
occurring naturally in the orchard. Cultures showing the
perfect or ascus stage of the fungus were exhibited, and
attention was called to the fact that up to date the perfect
form had been found only in cultures and on several apples
kept in the laboratory. He announced the discovery two
weeks ago, by Mr. Perley Spaulding, of the perithecia and
perfectly formed asci and ascospores of the bitter-rot fungus
in several of the cankers produced on apple limbs from pure
cultures of the bitter-rot fungus as well as from bitter-rot
spores taken from cankers obtained in an affected orchard.
This discovery is considered extremely important, as it dem-
onstrates, for the first time, beyond question, that the bitter-
rot fungus actually produces its perfect fruit in the cankers,
and thereby strengthens the contention that the cankers on
apple limbs are actually formed by the bitter-rot fungus. The
asci are apparently as evanescent in the cankers as they are
in cultures, and it is therefore not at all improbable that many
of the supposed pycnidial spores found in both the natural
and artificially produced cankers were really ascospores.

xxviii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Drawings were exhibited showing the perithecia found in the
cankers with asci and ascospores.

Mess. R. Kail and Th. Lange, of St. Louis, were elected to
active membership.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

January 19, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, twenty-seven persons present.

The Council reported that the regular edition of the Acad-
emy's Transactions had been increased from 1,000 to 1,100;
that the resignation of Mr. F. W. Biebinsfer and Mr. Victor
Goetz had been accepted ; and that exchange relations had
been discontinued with the Anthropologische Gesellschaft, of
Vienna.

Mr. W. L. Sheldon presented a summary of the progress
in the science of ethics, since the publication of Darwin's
" Descent of Man," in 1871.

Miss Mary J. Klem and Mr. Charles E. Rilliet, of St.
Louis, were elected to active membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

February 2, 1903.

Professor Nipher in the chair, twenty-four persons present.

The Council reported that the Academia Nacional, of
Cordova, had been dropped from the exchange list, and that
the Deutscher Verein Zum Schutze der Vogelwelt had been
added to the list.

Dr. Tarleton H. Bean delivered an interestino; illustrated
address on the salmon and salmon fisheries of Alaska.

Dr. R. J. Terry reported on a case of right aortic arch in
man — of relatively rare occurrence — and, with the aid of
lantern slides and blackboard diagrams, indicated its peculiar
features and morphological significance.

Dr. W. J. Gundelach, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

Record. xxix

February 16, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the chair, sixteen persons present.

Professor A, W. Greeley gave an account of recent
experiments on the effects on protoplasm of variations in
temperature and in the water content of the cells. It was
shown that in the case of certain algae, protozoa, and the
eggs of some marine invertebrates, a reduction of temperature
gave rise to parthenogenetic spore formation or egg segmen-
tation, as was also the case when, by suitable plasmolysis,
water was withdrawn from the cells.

Mr. CM. Prynne, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

March 2, 1903.

Dr. John Green in the chair, nine persons present.

Professor F. E. Nipher gave an account of his experiments
in the production of ether waves by means of explosions. He
is now using a brass tube, six feet long and one and one-third
inch in diameter, for the explosive, which is laid in a train
from end to end. This tube is placed within a large brass
tube, one and three-eighths inch in diameter, which is
wound with 25,700 windings of No. 25 copper wire. This
coil is connected with a delicate D'Arsonval galvanometer.
The coil is placed with its axis in the magnetic meridian.
When gunpowder is exploded in the inner tube, the galvano-
meter gives indication of a change in permeability of the
heated channel within the coil. The results were said to be
as yet inconclusive, and the apparatus is to be somewhat
modilied with a view to making it more sensitive.

March 16, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the chair, twenty-eight persons
present.

Dr. H. M. Whelpley gave an account of the sacred pipe-
stone quarries of the Upper Missouri, illustrating his remarks

XXX Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loxiis.

by the use of lantern slides, some of them from photographs
taken by him at the quarries and others reproducing views
published by Catlin and others.

April 6, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, twenty persons present.

The Council reported that the property now occupied by the
Phillips School, on Olive Street between Spring and Vande-
venter, had been purchased by Mrs. Eliza McMillan and her
son, Mr. William Northrop McMillan, and deeded to the
Academy as a memorial to the late William McMillian, who,
at the time of his death, was a member of the Academy. The
gift was referred to the Academy for appropriate action, with
the recommendation on the part of the Council that Mrs.
McMillan and her son be elected patrons of the Academy.

The President stated that in connection with this announce-
ment by the Council he wished to say that it had been thought
advisable by the Council that the gift, which was made for
the purpose of giving the Academy a permanent home, should
be surrounded b}'^ proper restrictions as to any future sale of
the propert}^ which should insure the permanent possession of
a home by the Academy, and that he trusted that action
would be taken which should prevent the alienation at any
time of this property without the contingent acquisition of an
equal or better building for the Academy's use.

Professor Nipher said : —

Mr. President and Qentlemen of the Academy :

I cannot allow this occasion to pass without calling attention to the great
significance of the announcement which has been made this evening.

Ever since the Academy was organized, in March, 1856, its work has been
done under the most discouraging circumstances. It has never had a home.
Its meetings have been held in the meeting room of the Board of Education,
at a medical college, at Washington University, and in the rooms of th«
Missouri Historical Society. It has never had its own home, where it
might make its valuable library and its collections of real service to the
citizens of our city. During all these years of its existence the Academy
has been collecting a library of scientific publications, in exchange with
similar societies in all parts of the world. Our published Transactions have
gone to every civilized land. We have certainly had the outward semblance
of great scientific activity. There is no local Academy of Science in this

Record. xxxi

country which can present a more creditable record of published work.
Even during the civil war, when almost every educational interest suffered,
a few working investigators aided by others who gave such support as they
could give, continued to produce before this body their contributions to
knowledge, and to publish them to the world in the Transactions of the
Academy.

During all of this time these pioneers have been hoping to see this day.
Year after year the President's annual report has called attention to the
vital necessity of a fixed abiding place which we could own and control.
Without this we could never hope to establish a public museum of Science,
or to avail ourselves of our precious library.

And now the first great advance has been made. This gift to the cause
we have been striving to uphold, could not have been more opportune.
These enlightened patrons of higher learning have seen their opportunity,
and they have volunteered their aid. The manner in which they have be-
stowed their bounty makes it doubly valuable and effective. They have
made it impossible for us to honor them by any act within our power.
They have become one with us in the cause which we have all labored to
advance. May we not hope that they will permit us to enroll their names
in our membership as Patrons of the Academy?

And this gift brings with it new obligations for us. We should now
seek to establish an endowment fund, which will enable us to make our
valuable collection of books and specimens fully available to the public.
During the World's Fair we shall be under examination. Learned men
from this and other lands will come among us. The great public will be
here. The location of our new home is such that we cannot fail to attract
the attention of vast numbers of our visitors. We should not only have a
museum and library which will be an honor to our city, but it should be
open to all. We wish to show that we have here, among the permanent
institutions of our city, an Academy of Science wiiich is dedicated to the
advancement of human learning, and to the diffusion of knowledge among
men. In this way we shall fittingly carry out the work which Mrs. William
McMillan and her son, Mr. William Northrop McMillan, have so nobly
begun.

The following resolutions, introduced by Professor Nipher
and seconded by Dr. Ewing, were unanimously adopted, and
the Secretary Avas instructed to communicate a copy of them
to Mrs. McMillan and Mr. McMillan: —

Besolved, That the members of The Academy of Science of St. Louis
most gratefully accept from Mrs. Eliza McMillan and Mr. William N.
McMillan the gift of a permanent home for the Academy. We feel that
this generous donation will infuse new life into the institution, and will
insure its future usefulness. We pledge ourselves to use every effort to
make it worthy of the confidence thus shown by the donors and to maintain
the object of its founders, as expressed in the Act of Incorporation —
"the advancement of science and the establishment in St. Louis of a
museum and library for the illustration and study of its various
branches."

xxxii Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Besolved, by the members of The Academy of Science of St. Louis, that
the property conveyed on the 18th day of March, 1903, by Edgar R. Hoad-
ley and Lavinia L. Hoadley, to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, which
property is the gift of Mrs. Eliza McMillan and William N. McMillan, shall
not be mortgaged or incumbered so long as it remains the property of The
Academy of Science.

Besolved, further, that the property shall not be sold except by a two-
thirds vote of the members of The Academy of Science of St. Louis by
letter-ballot in the manner prescribed by the Council, and that when sold,
the proceeds of the sale, or as much thereof as may be necessary, shall be
used to provide a suitable location and building for the uses of The Academy
of Science.

Mrs. Eliza McMillan and Mr. William Northrop McMillan
were elected patrons of the Academy, on nomination of the
Council.

Professor A. S. Chessin presented the following communi-
cation on the strains and stresses in a rotating thin circular
disc : —

The problem of determining the strains and stresses in a
rotating disc or, as it is commonly known, the problem of the
fly-wheel, is still an open one so far as a general solution is
considered. The present paper deals only with very thin
discs but the method of obtaining a solution may be readily
extended to the more general problem.

Let the axis of the disc be the axis of z, and let r be the
radius vector to any point drawn perpendicular to this axis,
and 0 the angle between the direction of r and a fixed plane
through the axis ; also let ii and w be the displacements in
the direction of the radius and the axis ; finally let p be the
density of the solid, &> the angular velocity of its rotation
and 2h its thickness. If the disc be isotropic the stresses
are

(1)

rr -

Cll

:= XA + 2/U, — ,

66 =

u

= XA + 2yLt - ,

zz -

9w
-XA + 2/i^,

dZ

rz

\3z c)' J

Record.

XXXlll

3u u 97V
where A = ^;; — |- — h ^=^5 and the problem consists in inte-

grating the differential equations

(2

9 1 9 11^ u,\ 9hi.

9'^w

9r9z

0

ii' 9 I 9w\ 9'^w

where the function
(3)

u, = u

pco^

8(2/x + X)

».3

has been introduced in place of w. At the same time the
following surface conditions must be satisfied :

I. Full disc (0 <r^B).

rr = 0 for r = JR,

zz = 0 for z = zh h,

rz =0 for r =R and for z = d:h.

II. Perforated disc (H^ <Cr<C Jin) .

rr ^= 0 for r = H^ and for r = li^,

zz = 0 for z = zt:h,

rz ^=0 for 7' = i?j, for r = R^, and for z

= =tA.

It can be shown that the following- formulas

(4) ,0 = 2

k

2(2/. +\)

2

P*^_e-^*^)

k L.

(e^*^-^-'^*")

XXX IV

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

(5) ll^ = C7— ^

k L

A,J,(^,r)+BjL\(^,r)

+

k

l^v,

A^.(v,r) + Blli,(vjp-)

2{2/ji + X)

2

^• L

-llM(v)+^]^^^o(^;fcO

'Jk^^^-h'^

^Vk^ j^^-V,z^

(e^*^+e-^^^)

give a general solution of the equations (2) where the coeffi-
cients A, B, A^, B^ are determined from surface conditions.
For the purposes of this paper, however, a simpler method
may be pursued. Namely, formulas (4) and (5) show that
Jthe general solution may be presented in the form

(6)

«^i =«*io + ^^n ^^ + "i2 «* +

where m^o, w^, . . . , ?<^o> ^^i» • • • ^^e functions of r only.
Substituting these expressions of u^ and ly in (2) we find that
this system of differential equations may be replaced by the
following jone

fjt' d / dii\

'CZW,, M,

/cm,, M,,\
(8) +2(M + M(sr+r")

= 0,

= 0,

Becord.
while the surface conditions for z ^ ± h become

XXXV

(9) 0=h^' + ¥ j::' +

dw.
dr

. + 2«,, + 4h\^^ +

+ (2it^ + X) M7o + 3(2/X + X)7i22(;^ + . . . .

For very thin discs we may neglect the powers of z and h

higher than the first. Then, to determine u-^^ and iv^, we

have the first of the equations (7) together with the surface

conditions

dwn
(9 bis) 0=-^'+2u,^,

Xpco^

nlu.

( 10 bis) 2(2^x-) »•' = M*^ + . ) + ( 2/^ + ^) -«•

from which we can eliminate u^^. The problem now is very
simple and we give below only the results.

I. Full disc*

"-8e(1 "'^^

1 + 0-

pco"^
w — — ^^(T{1 +a-)z

'3+0-
_2(l + cr)^

rz 0; zz ■ 0; rr — ^^ {1

^ pa,2(l + <r)(3 + ^)
^^- 4E

r 5 60- 1

^ 7 20-*

1—

-J

J_^2)

* In these formulas Young's modules (^) and Poisson's ratio C'^)
have been introduced. The results (for full discs) are identical with those
obtained by Mr. Chree (.Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc. 1890) if in his formulas we
discard the terms of the order of h"^ and higher. However, the general
solution as obtained above, is entirely different from Mr. Chree's and can
be made to satisfy all surface conditions, which Mr. Chree's solution does
not do.

xxxvi * Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

II. Perforated disc.

u =^

pft,2(l — 0-2)

""8E

r

3+ o-

4-

pa)2(l+o-)(3 +a)i?^2^,2

8E

|0W V ( 1 + o- )

w = — 2E ^

3 + 0-

(E^ -^B^') ?'2

2(1 + 0-) '^ 2 ' ^h J

i?= 0; ^=0;P = ^" ^^"^4fi^^ ^'''^ (i?„2 + i?^2_,.2)

/3a>2(l + <7) (3 + 0-)i?^27^,2

^6' =

pa)2(l+o-)(3 + (r)
4E

4E

5 — 60-

i?,2+i^^.___^^,2

+

pa>''{l+a)(3+a)B,'Ii,

4E

Professor F. E. Nipher reported that he had apparently
succeeded in producing a distortion of a magnetic field by
means of explosions. The apparatus used was a transformer
consisting of concentric coils wound upon brass tubes. The
outer tube was five inches in diameter and six feet long, wound
Avith over four thousand windings of No. 16 wire. This coil
was traversed by a continuous current from a storage battery.
Within this and separated from it by an air-space of an inch,
is a secondary coil of equal length having over twenty-five
thousand windings of No. 25 wire. This coil is connected
to a D'Arsonval ofulvanometer. Within the tube on which
this coil is wound is a smaller brass tube within which a train
of black gunpowder is laid. This tube is open at both ends,
and has practically no recoil when the explosion is made.
When hung by a bifilar suspension on cords ten feet in length ,
the recoil is about an inch. When the exciting current is
small compared with the capacity of the battery, the galvano-
meter reading is very steady. When the train is exploded a
sudden and marked throw of the galvanometer results, which

Record. xxxvii

could be accounted for by an increase in the permeability of
the long explosion chamber. The deflection reverses when
the field is reversed. The hot gases liberated in the explo-
sion are all diamagnetic, and tend to decrease the observed
effect. In two cases the galvanometer deflection was in the
opposite direction from that stated above, and this is being
further inquired into. When seven tubes between the two
coils are simultaneously exploded, only slight effects could be
obtained, and these deflections are wavering, or to and fro,
in character. A wire was threaded through the inner com-
bustion tube, through which a current of three amperes was
passed. This circuit was opened and closed with no visible
effect. The galvanometer circuit is shielded by tin-foil, which
is also connected with the explosion tube, and grounded.
Sparks an inch long to the tin-foil produce no result. When
the explosion tube is removed from the transformer, and taken
near the galvanometer, or the storage battery, no deflection
is produced by the explosion.

An explosive mixture of gases from water electrolysis under
atmospheric pressure produces a much less violent explosion,
and produces a correspondingly less effect. The scale reading
of the galvanometer changes by over twenty divisions with
the heaviest explosions, and an exciting current of 0.6 ampere.
With smaller explosions or feebler current, the effect is
diminished. No deflections can be produced by striking the
table upon which the transformer rests, or by striking the
transformer itself, even when it moves slightly under the
blow. The secondary and primary coils are held rigidly in
fixed position with respect to each other.

Arrangements have now been made to place the explosion
tube in the focal line of a parabolic cylinder of metal, the
galvanometer coil being in the focal line of a similar
mirror. Either or both are to be surrounded by an exciting
coil.

This line of research was suggested by Young's account of
his observation of five solar outbursts in 1872, which were
each accompanied by sharp fluctuations in the magnetic trac-
ings at Kew and Stonyhurst. Since the experiments began.

xxxviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

volcanic explosions have produced such ether waves, which
have been simultaneously recorded over the continents of
Europe and America.

April 20, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, twenty-two persons present.

Professor J. A. Holmes gave an account of some of the
efforts that are being made in the United States to preserve
the forests and other natural features of the country, show-
ing what is being done for the preservation of some of the
great scenic features and particularly what the National Gov-
ernment is doing in the establishment of national parks and
forest reserves, and in the protection of their forests. The
lecture was illustrated by a series of lantern slides.

Dr. Alexander N. De Menil was elected to active member-
ship.

May 4, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, thirteen persons present.

Mr. H. A. Wheeler gave an account, illustrated by several
lantern slides and some of the ejected material, of the active
Mexican volcano Colima, in which it was shown that the
material now being ejected is a trachyte or belongs to the acid
series of lavas, while the basal plain of the volcano is basalt,
which is basic, and resting on volcanic tufa. It was pointed
out that this sequence reverses the Richtopen order, from which
it was considered probable that there had been other centers
of lava outflow besides the now visible vents of Mt. Colima
(active) and Mt. Zapotlan (inactive). Samples of the ash
from the eruption of February 28, collected at Tuxpan, some
25 miles from the crater, by Prof. Trelease, contained 62.5%
silica, according to the analysis of Wm. M. Chauvenet.

Mr. Trelease, who had been near the base of the mountain
during its recent activity, made a few remarks in connection
with the paper.

The following amendments to the By-Laws, recommended

Record. xxxix

by the Council, and notice of which was mailed by the Secre-
tary to each member on April 23, were adopted by a unani-
mous vote of the members present.

By-Laws 18 and 19 were changed respectively to 19,
Authority, and 20, Amendments; and the following new
By-Law was adopted : —

XVIII. Sale of Real Estate.

The property conveyed to The Academy of Science of St. Louis on the
eighteenth day of March, 1903, by Edgar R. Hoadley and Lavinia L. Hoad-
ley, as a gift from Mrs. Eliza McMillan and William N. McMillan, shall not
be mortgaged or voluntarily incumbered by the Academy of Science; and
the said property shall not be sold, except with the consent of two-thirds
of the members of the Academy of Science, obtained by letter ballot, in such
manner as may be prescribed by the Council, and, when sold, the proceeds
of the sale or so much thereof as may be necessary, shall be used to provide
a suitable location and building for the use of The Academy of Science of
St. Louis.

One person was proposed for active membership.

May 18, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, fifty persons present.

Dr. C. Barck gave a detailed account of the Grand Canon
of the Colorado, with lantern illustrations, and reported the
first deliberate crossing of the Canon, by Mr. James and
himself, in 1901. Restated that, starting from Bass's camp,
about twenty-four miles west of the Bright Angel hotel,
they had reached "Point Sublime" on the northern rim
on the fifth day, after some difiicult traveling, the return
taking three days.

Dr. Robert Luedeking, of St. Louis, was elected to active
membership.

One person was proposed for active membership.

June 1, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, fifteen persons present.

Drs. B. M. Bolton and D. L. Harris exhibited sections cut

xl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

after infiltration with agar-agar, and described the use of this
material for imbedding purposes as follows : —

Tissues can be readily hardened and imbedded for cutting
into sections in a hot solution of agar-agar containing formalin.
The proportions of the mixture which have so far yielded the
best results are nine parts of a five per cent aqueous solution
of agar-agar to one part formalin. This mixture can be
prepared beforehand and kept indefinitely in an air-tight
vessel. The agar-agar should be boiled for several hours,
and after the addition of the formalin allowed to clear by
sedimentation. The bits of tissue to be imbedded are placed
in a wide test-tube or wide-mouth vial containins: the mixture
previously melted. This is kept at 65-70° C. for an hour or
longer, and the tissues are ready to be blocked. After attach-
ing to blocks they are placed in strong or absolute alcohol for
an hour or two and can then be cut. It is important not to
use dilute alcohol. The tissues are stuck to the blocks by
means of the agar-agar itself and adhere as soon as the agar
becomes cold. No previous hardening of the tissues is at all
necessary, fresh tissues can be placed at once into the hot
agar-agar-formalin mixture — in fact, fresh tissue is more
desirable than that which has been previously hardened, though
this can be readily imbedded by this method. But the main
advantage of the method, aside from its convenience and sim-
plicity, is the fact that the cells of , the tissues are not at all con-
tracted or shrunken, and the ordinary methods of hardening
have this effect more or less. With sections prepared from
fresh tissues by this method the cell-protoplasm fills out the
membrane fully, and the granules of the protoplasm, the
nuclei, and the cell contours are remarkably distinct. The
whole process, hardening, imbedding and cutting, does not
occupy more than three or four hours, where the tissues are
not larger than about one centimeter in diameter.

Professor A. W. Grreeley presented the results of an in-
vestigation of the reactions of Paramecia and other protozoa
to chemical and electrical stimuli.*

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

* Science n. s. 17:980.

Record. xli

October 19, 1903.

President Eliot in the chair, thirty-five persons present.
This was the first meeting held in the new Academy Building,
3817 Olive street.

The Council reported that the following names had been
dropped from the membership roll: J. H. Boogher, M. F.
Engman, E. Grebe, A, Habermaas, A. A. Henske, J. Maser-
ang, Jr., C. H. Stone, O. Sutter, and O. M. Wood; that the
resignation of Professor A. S. Chessin had been accepted ;
and that the Zoological Institute, Cagliari, had been added to
the exchange list.

Professor F. E. Nipher gave an abstract of the results of
his paper on the " Law of Nebular Contraction," which has
just been published in the Transactions. He also remarked
that the molecular conditions iu nebulae of different gases
were being examined, and some very interesting results are
at once evident. If a series of nebulae of various gases have
the same mass internal to the same radius, the average mole-
cular velocities would be the same for all gases. The velocity
which would enable a molecule to escape from the nebula is
2.71 times the average molecular velocity, and this ratio is
constant for all parts of the nebula. If the entire solar
system formed the core of such a nebula, and the mass of
the solar system extended to Neptune's orbit, the density at
that distance from the center of the nucleus would be less than
that in a Crookes tube. This opens up some very interesting
questions concerning the history of such a mass. It would
appear that such a gravitating mass would lose some heat by
the escape of the more rapidly moving molecules, as well as
by radiation.

Professor E. H. Keiser read a paper on a method of de-
terminino; the amount of lime in cements. He finds that
this can be done by determining the amount of water ab-
sorbed. By measuring this absorption in samples containing
known amounts, the precautions to be taken in manipulation
have been found. The determination only requires about
twenty minutes.

xlii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Professor F. E. Nipher presented a diagram on which was
drawn the curve of speed of the trotting horse. This curve
represents the equation published by him twenty years ago.
On the same diagram was shown a belt of observed values
representing the performance of every horse who has broken
the speed record since 1845. In some cases a single horse
has broken the record several times in the same year. All
such observations were included. The points representing
these observations formed a belt within which was the curve
of predicted speed. The agreement was considered very
satisfactory.

Mess. Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr., Gustav Nautze, and A.
Kaphael, were elected to active membership.

Five persons were proposed for active membership.

November 2, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the chair, thirty-five persons
present.

The following papers were presented, accompanied by
abstracts: B. F. Bush, A new genus of grasses; J. A.
Harris, Polj^gamy in Solanum; and J. A. Harris, The germi-
nation of Pachira, with a note on the names of two species.

Mr. Trelease read an address on The Academy of Science
of St. Louis — a biography.*

Mess. J. A. Harris, H. C. Irish, W J McGee and Oscar
Riddle, of St. Louis, and Dr. Jos. Zawodny, of Schloss
Lobes, Mscheuo-Melnik, Bohemia, were elected to active
membership.

November 16, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the chair, twenty-two persons
present.

The Council reported the death of Dr. J. B. Johnson and
Mr. I. W. Morton.

Popular Science Monthly. 64: 117.

Record. xliii

Professor A. W. Greelej' presented a report on experi-
ments on the nature of the contraction of muscle. These
experiments were undertaken with the view of working out
more fully the mechanism involved in the galvanotropic and
chemotropic reactions of Paramecia in acid and alkaline
media, as described in Mr. Greeley's report before the
Academy last spring. In the experiments on the contraction
of muscle, it was found that when the medusa, Goniomemius,
was exposed to the constant current, rhythmical contraction
began always on the cathodal side when the medusa was
immersed in normal sea water, but that the contractions
began on the anodal side in acidulated sea water. Likewise
it was shown that acids induce a phase of contraction, alkalis
a phase of relaxation. It was suggested that these results
may throw some light on the supposed electrical nature of
muscle contraction, and that they offer additional evidence
toward the conclusion that the charge carried by the pro-
toplasmic particles depends on certain definite chemical
conditions of the surrounding medium.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

December 7, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the chair, forty persons present.

The Chairman stated that because of the necessity of pro-
viding the new building with fuel, furniture, lighting appli-
ances, etc., the expenses of moving, added insurance, the
final payment on the Yandell collection, and other unusual
expenses, the Council was confronted by the necessity of
temporarily raising some $1,750.00, which it was hoped could
be repaid in a few months, after suitable arrangements had
been made for securing revenue by renting meeting accommo-
dations in the Academy Building to other societies. He stated
that as this was a very important matter, the Council wished
action on it to be taken by the Academy. On motion, the
Council was authorized, by a unanimous vote, to raise the
necessary sum by borrowing on the securities representing

xliv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

invested funds, it being understood that no lien of any kind
should be attached to the real property of the Academy.

The Council reported the resignation of Mess. Frank
Thilly, J. M. Holzinger and Arthur Winslow.

Dr. Adolf Alt read an interesting paper entitled What is a
cataract? — illustrated by diagrams and lantern views from
specimens selected from his personal collection.

Dr. H. M. Whelpley exhibited a minute particle of radium,
the remarkable activity of which was beautifully shown in a
special form of hand apparatus now on the market for such
demonstration.

In accordance Avith the By-Laws of the Academy, a com-
mittee, which consisted of Mess. Krall, Barck and Wid-
mann, was elected to nominate officers for the year 1904.

Dr. A. E. Eycelshymer and Mr. Hiram Lloyd, of St.
Louis, were elected to active membership.

Four persons were proposed for active membership.

December 21, 1903.

Vice-President Smith in the Chair, twenty-eight persons
present.

The Council reported that the resignation of Mess. A. H.
Muegge and Oscar Riddle had been accepted, and that, under
the instructions given at the last meeting, arrangements had
been made for borrowing $1,750.00 for sixty days, on in-
vestment securities.

The nominating committee reported the following list of
candidates for the year 1904 : —

President W . K. Bixby.

First Vice-President William Trelease.

Second Vice-President Adolf Alt.

Recording Secretary Ernest P. Olshausen.

Corres^ponding Secretary August Hunicke.

Treasurer Enno Sander.

Librarian G. Hambach,

Curators G. Hambacb,

Julius Hurler,

Frank Schwarz.
Directors F. E. Nipher,

Jos. Spiegelhalter.

Record. xlv

Other nominations were called for, but none were made.

Mr. Robert Moore presented, with diagrams, a paper
entitled Vital statistics of St. Louis from 1840 to 1902.

On motion, the President was authorized to sign a petition
to the President of the United States for aid in preserving
groves of the Calaveras big trees, which was presented by the
Outdoor Art League.

Mr. T. W. Allen, Mr. F. W. Drosten, Dr. H. M. Stark-
loff and Dr. Hugo Summa were elected to active member-
ship.

Two persons were proposed for active membership.

Eeports of Officers for the Year 1903,

SUBMITTED JANUARY 4, 1904.

The First Vice-President, Dr. D. S. H. Smith, addressed
the Academy as follows : —

In the absence of the President, it becomes my duty to lay before you a
summary of the doings of the Academy of Science for the year 1903.
Sixteen meetings were held in 1903, with average attendance of 25.
Fifteen meetings were held in 1902, with average attendance of 21.

Total attendance in 1903 406

Total attendance in 1902 314

Increase for 1903 92

In 1903 the unusual attendance of 50 at the second meeting in May was due
to the announcement of Dr. Barck's account of his crossing of the Grand
Canon of the Colorado. There has been a noticeable increase in attendance
at the meetings since the removal of the Academy to its new home, the
largest number (40) at the first December meeting, when Dr. Alt gave us his
paper on Cataract.

Membership December 31, 1903 292

Elections for the year 23

Losses " " " 24

By death 4

By resignations ^0 ■ • •

Net loss for the year 1

xlvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The active members are classified as follows. —

Patrons 3

Resident members 221

Non-resident members 68

Total 292

No corresponding members have been elected for some years past.

Nine papers were published in 1903, eight by resident members and one
by a non-resident member.

Ten papers were published in 1902, seven of them by non-resident members.

Of the papers published in 1903, two were on mathematical subjects, one
was on a chemical subject, three were on botanical subjects, one was on a
zoological subject, one was on a paleontological subject, and one on a
philosophical subject.

The reports of the Treasurer and of the Librarian have already been
submitted to you.

As matter for special consideration this evening, I beg leave to invite
your attention to the financial needs of the Academy.

In the spring of 1903 this house and lot were conveyed to the Academy by
Mrs. William McMillan and her son, Mr. William Northrop McMillan. It
was the free gift of a home for the Academy, untrammeled by any condi-
tions. The generous lady and her son had every confidence that the mem-
bers of the organization would care for the property with a wise economy.
Whatever limitations were placed on the ownership were placed by the
Academy itself.

As soon as the conveyance was legally completed by the proper deed,
Mr. Eliot, the President of the Academy, announced to the Council that he
would give $5,000.00 to be expended in necessary repairs and rehabilita-
tion and furnishing of the house. Mr. Eliot's modesty has made him
unwilling that anything should be said about this generous gift, but the
necessities of this sketch and justice to the Academy compel me to refer
to it. We are unwilling to accept so handsome a donation without being
given an opportunity to express our grateful appreciation of it. Imme-
diately upon Mr. Eliot's announcement, the Council appointed a committee,
of which Mr. Eliot was chairman, for the disbursement of the $5,000.00 in
accordance with the terms of the gift. This has now been accomplished,
and proper vouchers showing the various items of expenditure have been
rendered to the Council, and placed by the Council in the hands of the
Treasurer.

In moving to these more ambitious quarters we necessarily increase our
expenses largely. The Assistant to the Librarian and the Janitor together
cost us over $1,000.00 a year. Then there are the bills for lighting and
heating the house and the expense of our annual publication, along with a
multitude of small disbursements which amount to a considerable sum in
the aggregate. The annual dues of members, the interest upon a sum of
$6,500.00, and rentals to societies of a scientific character, are our only
sources of revenue. What these rentals shall be we cannot determine.
Miss Phillips, who occupied the building as a school until its acquisition
by the Academy, paid an annual rental of about $1,000.00.

Record. xlvii

In frequent discussions and comparisons of ideas by members of the
Council for several years past, there has been a unanimity of opinion that if
the Academy ever became possessed of a home, it would be necessary to
obtain an endowment fund for its support, and that that fund should not
be less than $50,000.00.

I am here to-night to submit a plan for securing this amount of money.
The plan, if approved by you, will be carried out in its details by the
Council.

1st. The Council shall appoint three members to act as an Endowment
Fund Committee. This Committee shall receive and account for all dona-
tions and subscriptions to the Endowment Fund, and shall invest the same
in securities to be approved by the Council.

2d. Thirty members of the Academy are to be appointed as Chairmen of
Soliciting Committees. Each Chairman may select five (5) Committeemen
to complete his Committee. These selections need not of necessity be mem-
bers of the Academy. It shall be the task of each Committee to collect
$1,000.00.

3d. When $30,000.00 shall have been collected and placed in the hands of
the Endowment Fund Committee, a member of the Academy will raise
$10,000.00.

While these are the main and definite features of the plan, it does not
stop here. I may take it for granted that every member of the Academy
wishes it well and is willing to do something to assist it in promoting its
aims and the purposes for which it was organized. Let each member who
is not selected to serve on a Soliciting Committee consider himself a com-
mittee of one to raise $50.00. It is difficult for me to believe that we have
in our membership anyone who has not ten friends and acquaintances who
would contribute $5.00 apiece to the support of an institution with such
noble and unselfish aims as this Academy.

Our membership should be increased to 500. Every member who brings
in a new member is practically contributing $100.00 to the Academy — for
the annual dues of $6.00 are equivalent to 6 per cent per annum on $100.00.

Such, gentlemen, is the plan which I submit for your consideration. This
or some better scheme must be adopted without delay, for the need of
money is urgent. We have had to borrow $1,750.00, and in sixty days this
loan must be met. This Endowment Fund comes home to every member of
the Academy as a personal matter, and I urge most earnestly upon every
man to throw apathy and indifference to one side and to do his share towards
securing the fund for this institution.

The Treasurer reported as follows : —

Balance from 1902 '. $ 358 09

Gift of Henry W.Eliot 5,000 00

Capital released 3,000 00

Interest on invested money 372 50

Rent from Academy building v 405 00

Borrowed on note 1,750 00

Membership dues 1,552 10

$12,437 69

xlviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Expenditures.

Rent $ 49135

Publication of Transactions 897 01

Mailing Transactions and library expense, above sales

of Transactions 586 66

Sundry expenses 533 27

Payment, account Yandell collection 295 00

Capital reinvested, and premium 3,023 50

Improvements to property 5,929 47

Insurance 118 00

Balance to 1904 563 43

$12,437 69

Invested Fund.

Invested on security $6,500 00

Less note covered by securities 1,750 00

Net invested fund $4,750 00

The Librarian reported that during the year exchanges had
been received to the number of 402 vohimes and 646 pam-
phlets, an increase of 54 numbers as compared with 1902 ;
that during the year the Transactions of the Academy were
distributed to 575 societies or institutions, an increase of 6 as
compared with the preceding year ; and that the expense of
his office for 1903 had amounted to $121.49, against which
was to be credited $27.97 received from the sale of publi-
cations.

Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XIII. No. 1.

REVISION OF THE BLASTOIDEAE, WITH A PRO-
POSED NEW CLASSIFICATION, AND DESCRIP-
TION OF NEW SPECIES.

G. HAMBACH.

Issued November 4, 1903.

REVISION OF THE BLASTOIDEAE, WITH A PRO-
POSED NEW CLASSIFICATION, AND DESCRIP-
TION OF NEW SPECIES.*

G. Hambach.

7.

9.
12,
U.
34.
47.
47.
49.
51.
53.
55.
55.
59.

EKRATA.
1. 5 read for lumen is '' lumina are."

" 18
'' 32
" 20
"28
"22

a
((
u

SI

(<
u

IC

ii

oval '-oral."

Fig. 5 "Figs. 8, 10 and 11."

Plate II flg. 2, 3, 5 " Plate II Fig. 3."
Maccoy " M'Coy."
Codastus " Codaster."
footnote read for ralated " related."
1. 10 read for impossible " impossible."
i. 13 & 15 read for cauedayi " cassedayi."
" 22 read for ambulacria "ambulacra."
"18 " " plicable "plicated."
"35 " " prominent "promising."
" 18 omit comma
Explanation to PI. II. No. 5 add " enlarged four times."
" " " " 11 " " in a Codaster."

" " PI. IV. " 6 read for pyramidalis "bipyramidalis "

greater degree of certainty than has been the case hereto-

* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, June 3, 1901.

t So is, for example, the figure of Granatocrimis melonoides ou PI. IX.,
Vol. V. of the Illinois Geological Survey absolutely a false representation
of this species although it was drawn by the eminent palaeontologist,
Meek.

(1)

REVISION OF THE BLASTOIDEAE, WITH A PRO-
POSED NEW CLASSIFICATION, AND DESCRIP-
TION OF NEW SPECIES.*

G. Hambach.

Our knowledge of the morphology of the Blastoideae has
made such progress during the last two decades that a revision
is highly desirable ; first, because all late publications on this
subject, even the newest text-books on palaeontology, repeat
old and erroneous conceptions which are, to a great extent,
accompanied by incorrect illustrations,! and secondly, because
of the inadequacy of the present classification, which is almost
an arbitrary one, not based on permanent anatomical differ-
ences, nor ontogenetic peculiarities. New material which I
have collected during this period, and also that which has
kindly been intrusted to me for comparison with my own, of
which I may mention the whole collection of Blastoideae
belonging to the Smithsonian Institution, numbering 1038
specimens, also a very valuable collection of Mr. F. A.
Sampson, corroborate the suppositions expressed in my first
paper, on " The Anatomy of the Blastoideae," and add new
facts to those alreadv known.

Blastoideae are known from the following countries be-
sides America : England, Belgium, Germany, Spain, France,
Russia and Australia. The main bulk of the material
belongs to America, however, and especially to the family
Pentremidae. In no other family do we find such abun-
dant and such well preserved material as we do in this
family; which fact allows us to form conclusions with a
greater degree of certaint}^ thau has been the case hereto-

* Presented by title to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, June 3, 1901.

t So is, for example, the figure of Granatocrinus melonoides ou PI. IX.,
Vol. V. of the Illinois Geological Survey absolutely a false representation
of this species although it was drawn by the eminent palaeontologist,
Meek.

(1)

2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

fore, because sucli families as Codasteridae , Olivanidae,
etc. are known to occur only in such limited quantity and in
such a poor state of preservation that conclusions regarding
their internal structure will stand no comparison with that of
the Pentremidae and leave a large and open field for future
investigation.

The present revision and the anatomical descriptions herein
given are based mainly on Pentremites sulcatus, florealis and
conoideus, not because they are more abundantly represented
than any other species (for Pentremites godoni occurs in
great numbers in Pulaski Co., Kentucky, as well as at Hunts-
ville, Alabama), but the preservation of Pentremites sulcatus
is so excellent that we often find the most delicate and frao-ile
organs preserved, especially in those specimens which were
imbedded in a kind of clayey substance. I think it is not
unreasonable to suppose that similar conditions in structure
must have existed in other species belonging to this famil3^
Therefore, if not otherwise stated, all descriptions and
illustrations are based on Pentremites sidcatus, florealis and
conoideus tov the following reasons : —

1st. These species are found in the most perfect state of
preservation .

2nd. They are among the largest species so far discovered.

3rd. They are among the most abundant species to be found
here.

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to the
following scientific friends for the generous and ready way in
which they have facilitated my undertaking by the loan of
valuable specimens: Prof. W. H. Barris, of Davenport,
Iowa; Mr. R. A. Blair, of Sedalia, Mo.; Dr. J. H. Britts, of
Clinton, Mo. ; Prof. G. C. Broadhead, of Columbia, Mo. ;
Mr. G. K. Greene, of New Albany, Ind. ; Mr. Edwin G. Kirk,
of Burlington, Iowa; Dr. Joshua Liudahl, of Springfield, 111. ;
Mr. F. A. Sampson, of Sedalia, Mo. ; Mr. C. Schuchert, of
the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ; Prof. A.
G. Wetherby, of Cincinnati, Ohio; Dr. W. P. Jenney, and
Mess. J. and H. Hurter, of St. Louis, Mo.

It is a well-known fact that all principal parts in the con-

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 3

struction of Echinodermata are arranged in multiples of five
around a central axis. However, deviations from the preva-
lent rule occur more frequently in this class of the animal
kingdom than elsewhere. Such abnormal developments have
often been the cause of redescribing well-known forms as
new species, especially among the Crinoideae.* For the
purpose of illustrating the tendency of abnormal develop-
ments I will give a few examples, which, however, I could
have multiplied if time and space would permit. Similar de-
formities have been observed and described by others. f In
Fig. 13 and 14, Plate III., we have a specimen of Pentremites
Jlorealis, with only four fork pieces and four ambulacra.
In Fig. 8 and 9, same plate, Pentremites pyriformis has four
ambulacra but five fork pieces, of which the fifth is not
fully developed. Fig. 15 and 16, same plate, Pentremites
pyriformis^ show six fork pieces but only four ambulacra
are fully developed. Fig. 11 and 12, same plate, Pentremi-
tes sulcatus, show five fork pieces, one of which is a
longitudinal square without any sinus, and consequently
no ambulacrum has been developed. In Fig. 10, same plate,
Pentretnites sulcatus, we have one ambulacrum developed only
to one-half the length of the others. Fia;. 6 and 7, same
plate, Pentremites sulcatus, show an extra longitudinal piece
inserted between two fork pieces. Fig. 18, same plate, Pen-
tremites Jlorealis, has only four fork pieces but five am-
bulacra, so that two ambulacra are inserted into one sinus,
causing the two opposite halves of the ambulacrum to form
a prominent ridge. In Fig. 17, same plate, Pentremites

* See Bulletins of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History, by S.
A. Miller and W. F. E. Gurley, Nos. 1-12,

t Robert Etberidge, Jun., and P. Herbert Carpenter. Catalogue of the
Blasloidea,

Hermann von Meyer. Abweichung von der Fiinfzahl bei Echinideen.

Prof. Georg Boehm. Ueber eine Anomalie im Kelche von Millericrinus
mespiliformis . Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschafl. Band
XLIII., Hefts, p. 741.

H. W. Mackintosh. On a Malformed Corona of Echinus esculentus.
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Vol. II., Ser. II , 1875, p. 206.

Dr Philippi. Beschreibung zvveier missgebildeter See-Igel. Wiegmann's
Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte. Band I., 1837, p. 241.

4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

bipyramidalis, Hall (Saccoblastus), we have five fork pieces
but six ambulacra, of which two occupy one sinus. I think
these examples are sufficient to justify the above statement.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

The body of a Pentremite is constructed of twenty pieces,
(at least in the embryonic state), arranged in two circles in
such a way that we have a most perfect dicyclical* body
with a primary center of a pentagonal outline for each circle.
Each piece of the second circle rests upon two of the first
circle. These two circles may be designated as an ambulacral
and an interambulacral, of which the former grows down-
ward in its development, whereas the latter grows upward.
Fig. 1 and 2.

THE BASAL PIECES.

The base or central part of the interambulacral circle (also
called pelvis )t varies very much in size and in general form,
from a flat disc to a more or less funnel-shaped piece. It is
perforated by a fine channel in the center, and the articula-
tion surface for the column is either round or triangular ac-
cording to the species and consists, at least in the embryonic
state, of five equal pieces, though in the course of development
two of the five sutures become obliterated, so that it gener-

♦ The word dicyclical is not used in the same sense as in Crinoideae.
t H. B. Geinitz. Grundriss der Versteineruugskunde, p. 558.

Hamhach — Revision of the Blaxtoideae. 5

ally appears as if the base were constructed of only three
pieces, of which two are equal and pentagonal and the other
rhombic in form, though specimens are fre-
quently found in which no anchylosis took
place so that all five sutures remain open, an
occurrence which is also observed in Crinoids,
for example in Agassizocrmus where the base
generally appears as one solid piece, though fig. 3.
specimens are not uncommon where one, two or all sutures
remained open and did not anchylose. Fig. 3.

FORK PIECES.

The fork pieces are of an oblong form, more or less wide,
according to species, and the incision or sinus is also of vari-
able depth and width, making them resemble a two-pronged
fork, from which the name originated, or a V shape. Their
solid base portion is more or less thick and has, in cross sec-
tion, a more or less triangular or semi-lunar form, or, as in
other genera of the family Pentremidae, it is turned in and
upward so that the base portion becomes inverted and exter-
nally invisible. The incision or sinus is wider externally
than internally, i. e., the inner lateral margin of the sinus
slopes toward the interior, causing the internal opening of the
sinus to be narrower than the external. The upper points of
the prongs are cut obliquely laterally making them rest against
the upper and lateral spurs of the deltoid expansion. In
other species they run out into sharp and acute points as in
Pentremites reinwardtU, Troost. In still others they are of
uniform thickness with an upper oblique and smooth margin.

THE DELTOID PIECES.

The deltoid pieces of the typical species, as Pentremites
sidcatus, pyriformisy fiorealis^ etc., when fully developed,
can be divided into two parts, which, however, are not
separated from each other by sutures. First a main or
base portion, the most important part of the whole calyx,

6 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

which is never wanting ; and secondly a laterally expanded
blade, not present in the young but becoming gradually
more and more dev^eloped as they grow older; see Plate
VI. The first or base portion, in the typical species
above mentioned, has a shape resembling very much a six-
sided prism; see Plate II., Fig. 9. The surface toward the
center of the calyx has a semi-lunar groove which forms
with the adjoining piece the central opening or mouth, and,
as this basal part is placed in a slightly oblique position, it
causes the external opening to be a little smaller than the
internal one. The opposite side of this semi-lunar cavity
is prolonged into a narrow blade, except for the posterior one,
where the septum is divided into two blades for the outlet
of the anus. The lower part is divided lengthwise into two
blades, running down and outwards with a plicated outer
margin, — Plate II., Fig. 9, — for the support of the plications
of the hydrospiric tubes, whereas the upper part of this
blade forms a sharp crest, and the outer one a triangular in-
cision, during the juvenile state, for the reception of the
upper points of the fork pieces which rest in this triangular
incision. At the base of these lamellar blades we find a semi-
lunar groove which forms with a similar one on the base
of the lancet piece the genital opening, except in species
where the deltoid pieces are perforated, as in G. norwoodi
and similar forms. The outer or upper surface of the base
portion is either rounded or sharp pointed, whereas the lower
surface, which expands toward the center of the calyx, is
grooved transversely so as to form a circular groove around
the mouth on the interior side of the calyx for the reception
of the central ring of a water vascular system. This central
water ring underlies the basal part of the deltoids and does
not penetrate the calcareous shell, sending off five straight
branches, one for each ambulacrum, running between the hy-
drospiric tubes and the lancet piece, but not through the
latter; see Plate II., Fig. 8.

The outer half of the prism is transversely perforated by a
fine channel, forming in connection with the other parts a
pentagonal ring for the reception of the nervous center.

Hamhacli — Revision of the Blastoideae. 7

giving off five branches, one for each ambulacrum, and run-
ning through the center of the lancet piece. From the
foregoing we see that the whole center of this system as
well as the branches run through the midst of a calcareous
substance, and their lumen is so small
that they are frequently found to be
obliterated. It is therefore hardly
possible that these fine channels could
have served for anything else than the
reception of the nervous system, giv-
ing us an analogous arrangement to
what we find in our living Asteroidea ;

see Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.
The second part, ^. e., the lateral

expansion in the typical species above mentioned, is not un-
like the Greek letter delta, from which the name originated,
or resembles an arrow head with a very acute surface up-
wards and an obtuse one downwards, having on each side a
spur, running obliquely down and inwards, so as to be ex-
ternally concealed by the upper points of the fork pieces.
The upper acute surface differs very much in the different
species and often in one and the same species, being subject
to great variations, so that we find it often very acute and
bent iuwardl}^ or very broad and bent outwardly.

In other species, where the calyx consists of only a very
thin shell, as for example in C meJo, the laminar blade widens
immediately so that the whole piece is placed more horizon-
tally on the summit of the calyx, and hardly any division
between base portion and lateral expansion takes place, ex-
cept the incision for the construction of the genital openings,
and this same condition can be observed throughout the
whole juvenile state of the body. In other species again, as for
instance in C. fsayi, the lateral expansion assumes such an
enormous size that it occupies almost three fourths or four
fifths of the entire calyx, and in others, as in G. norwoodi,
the whole deltoid piece has a triangular form and the genital
opening pierces directly through the center of this piece, but
with only one external opening, bifurcating within the shell,

8 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louu.

and forming two openings on the interior side. In silicious
casts of this species these little openings are often found to
be filled with silicious matter, and will naturally show on the
summit of such casts a little bifurcating tube, as illustrated
b}'^ Meek and Worthen,* which undoubtedly gave origin to
the supposition that two of the hydrospiric tubes were united
near the summit into one, as figured by Billings t and Lud-
wig.t By a little reflection, however, it is easily compre-
hended that these bifurcating tubes have nothing to do with
the hydrospiric tubes and that it is only silicious matter
filling out these little channels, for they are never found on
casts of other species than those which have the deltoid
pieces pierced in the described manner.

From the foregoing it 'will be seen that we have nearly
every degree of development in form and size represented,
and this gradual development of the lateral expansion as we
find it in the typical specimens of Pentremites sidcatus, pyri-
formis, Jiorealis and others is a sufiicient and good reason
to exclude the newly rehabilitated genus Pentremitidia of
D'Orbigny, whose principal distinguishing character consists
in the absence of the lateral expansion, as plainly stated
by him: " Calice compost de deux series de cinq pieux
superpos^es."§ His types for this genus were Pentremites
schrdtzii and ^9a«7/e^/ee. But the absence or non-develop-
ment of the lateral expansion, as it is often found in the
typical species, and alwaj^s in the young specimen of the
same species, does not justify the creation of a new genus, as
was well remarked bv Dr. Koemer: " Gewiss verdient es aber
keine Nachahmung." |1 Otherwise the young specimens of
Pentremites sidcatus, jjyriformis, etc., would belong to the
genus Pentremitidia during their juvenile state, and after-
wards when fully developed to Pentremites ; see Plate VI., Fig.

* Illinois Geological Survey, Vol. V., plate IX., Fig. 2 c, p. 473.

t Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. II., Part I., Fig. 60, p. 102.

% Morphologische Studien an Echinoderraen, Band I., p. 289, Plate 27,
Fig. 36 and 37.

§ M. A. D'Orbigny. Prodrome de Pal^ontologie, Vol. I., p. 102.

II Roemer. Monographie der fossilien Crinoidenfamilie der Blastoideen,
p. 49; and Wiegmann'a Archivfiir Naturgesctiichte, Jahrg. XVII., B. 1.

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. &

1—3, because Pentremites schultzii and paillettei are as typi-
cal PentreTYiites as sulcatus, pyriformis and others, — that is
to say, their calyx consists of the same number of pieces with
the same relationship of them to each other as in the true
Pentremites. Their genital openings are constructed by the
junction of deltoid and lancet pieces precisely as we find
in the typical species above mentioned. Other differences in
the character of this genus as lately revised are of no generic
value as they are due to the variability in size and shape of
basal, fork and lancet pieces, and are only of specific impor-
tance.

That the general conception of the deltoid pieces is not a
correct one is sufficiently shown by the descriptions given by
various authors. They were called interscapular plates,
second radials, interradials, orals, etc. The name inter-
radial w^as first used by DeKoninck at a time when the Blas-
toideae were regarded as a sub-order of Crinoideae. In 1879
they were regarded as homologous to the oval plates of
Crinoids by Wachsmuth, which statement he corrected three
or four years later when he called them true interradials.*
He says : —

♦♦ The term ' oral' for the deltoid pieces was proposed by
Wachsmuth and Springer in Part I. of their Eevision, and
afterwards adopted by Prof. v. Zittel and by Messrs.
Etheridge and Carpenter.

" Since the publication of the present article, I became
fully convinced that the so-called deltoid pieces are not oral
plates, but true interradials, and that, as such, they form a
part of the abactinal system. If the deltoids were actinal
plates, and this they should be if they were orals, the
actinal regions in Elaeacrimcs ohovatus would extend to over
three fourths of the entire body — a proportion almost
equal to that of Echini. On the contrary, in the allied
Granatocrinus norwoodi, with small deltoids, and in Hetero-
schisma gracile, the actinal system excluding the ambulacra,
would be limited to a small area around the oral pole, and
occupy scarcely more than a twentieth part. The different

* Proceedings Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences, Vol. IV., p. 76.

10 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

proportions of the actinal and abactinal regions among
Ecliinoderms were looked upon by Prof. L. Agassiz as
determining the different outlines of the various ' orders of
this class,' and he has ranked their orders according to the
greater preponderance of the one or the other of the two re-
gions. In the Neocrinoidea, the oral and aboral regions are
proportioned almost equally, and this is the case not only in
the adult, but is to be observed already in the Pentacrinoid-
larva. In the Palaeocrinoidea, the abactinal regions, as a
rule, are considerably contracted, and in the lower organ-
ized Blastoids they are reduced still more. Plates of such
enormous dimensions as are found occasionally among the
deltoids, cannot possibly form a part of the actinal system
in so low a group as the Blastoids, and hence cannot be
orals. That they are true interradials is proved by the
relative position which they occupy to the interradials of
the Palaeocrinoideae. Like those plates, they rest upon the
upper sloping sides of the radials, and extend, whether
consisting of a single plate as in the Cyathocrinidae, or of
a series of pieces as in Actinocrinidae and Rhodocrinidae,
into the ventral side, to a series of plates, which were desig-
nated by W. and Sp. as central pieces and proximals."

The first question which presents itself is, what is meant
by interradial? The Avord undoubtedly means something
between the rays of a circle. We therefore have to assume a
primary circle of rays or plates between which the secondary
parts can be placed, as, for example, in Crinoids those plates
which are placed between the regular radial plates. The
second question would be, what is the function of the inter-
radials? Referring to Crinoids again we find that their
function is to fill out space in order to increase the circumfer-
ence of the body. They are not essential to the construction
of the body or calyx as is weJl illustrated in a number of
Crinoids which have no interradials. Besides, their number
is variable. Therefore they may be regarded as supernu-
merary pieces whose only function is to enlarge the body. In
no case do they enter into the construction of the various
openings unless we regard the anals as interradials, which I

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 11

think has not been done so far. But in the case under con-
sideration, that is in Pentremites and allied forms, the body
is dicyclical, which it could not be if the deltoids were inter-
radial. In that case the apex of the deltoid, i. e., the lateral
expansion, would be the base and not the apex and hence
would have been developed first, which is not the case as I have
shown above, — Plate VI., Fig. 1-3. However large or small
the lateral expansion of the deltoid may be, the fact is that
the base part of the deltoid is developed first and is the prin-
cipal part of the body. It is not separated from the laterally
expanded part by any suture. All principal openings are
constructed by this part, or together with the lancet piece, or
the openings pierce the deltoid piece. They do not rest upon
the upper sloping sides of the fork pieces or radials but the
fork pieces lean against the deltoid piece whether the laterally
expanded part is developed or not. Therefore it is hardly
possible to assume that such imi)ortant pieces as the deltoids
should have been developed later than less important ones,
which is sufficiently demonstrated by the foregoing pages.
For these reasons they cannot be interradials.

LANCET PIECES.

The lancet piece varies very much according to the dimen-
sions of the fork piece sinus, i. e., according to the species,
from a regular lancet-shaped piece to a mere linear lamella and
fits in the sinus of the fork piece in such a way as to fill the
incision with the exception of a narrow fissure on each side.
They are in the typical forms, as Pentreinites sulcatus, P.
florealis, P. pyriformis, etc., as substantial as the other parts
of the calyx and form an integral part of the calyx of the same
value as the other pieces constructing it, and are in large
specimens of P. sulcatus fully one eighth inch thick. They
are generally of uniform width with a smooth anterior surface,
whereas the posterior or inner surface is more or less concave
and has a semi-lunar groove throughout its length for the
reception of some duct or vessel. On the upper or base
portion is a little beak-like process of a triangular form

12 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

by which it connects with the annuliis centralis or central ring
of the deltoid pieces, resting thereby on two deltoid pieces ;
see Fig. 2. The center of these pieces is perforated by a fine
channel in its entire length, bifurcating at its base to connect
with the transverse channel of the deltoid base-portion, form-
ing thus a pentagonal ring around the central opening. The
size of these channels is such that it seems hardly possible
that they could serve for the water vascular system. It seems
more probable that they contained the nervous system, giving
a similar arrangement to what we find in higher forms like
Asteroids; see Fig. 4.

The little beak-like process where the lancet piece connects
with the deltoid is laterally grooved to form with the corre-
sponding groove of the deltoid, the ovarian or genital aperture
except in species where the deltoid piece is perforated, as in
G. noriooodi.

PORAL PIECES.

The triangular groove which is formed by the outer margin
of the lancet piece and the inner margin of the fork piece sinus
is filled with little pieces corresponding to this groove, which
were called most appropriately poral pieces by Dr. Koemer.
This name has been changed to side plates b}^ R. Etheridge, Jr.,
and P. H. Carpenter,* which term is also adopted by C. R.
Eastman. t The reason given for the change of this name is
not a logical one and shows that the nature of the pieces is
not thoroughly comprehended. Are perhaps the poral open-
ings not constructed by the poral pieces? Does not the name
poral piece indicate the nature better than the new name?
What benefit is to be derived from the new name? They are of
a triangular form, corresponding to the groove which they
occupy. They are inserted edgewise so that the thickness of
these pieces forms their outer exposed surface; see Fig. 5.
These pieces have on both sides of their outer lateral margin
a little semi-lunar groove, which with the adjoining one
forms the pore-opening, and, in no case, are these pieces

♦ Catalogue of the Blastoidea.
t Text Book of Palaeontology.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 13

pierced by marginal pores, as stated by C. E. Eastman.*
They are supernumerary pieces and form a kind of accessory
part to the construction of the ambuhicrum. It is self-evident
that there are differences in the size and shape of these
pieces, depending upon the size and shape of the lancet
piece as well as upon the fork piece sinus; but all have
undoubtedly the same physiological function, so that such dif-
ference in the size and shape can be of specific value only.

THE AMBULACEAL INTEGUMENT.

The outer surface of the ambulacrum, i. e., the lancet and
poral pieces, is covered by an organic and elastic integument
which I formerly designated as the zigzag plicated integu-
ment.! It gives to the ambulacra! surface a striated appear-
ance which is not, as Etheridge and Carpenter state, " merely
a delicate surface ornamentation." } This integument has a
different appearance in different species, and varies very much
in its zigzag shape and in the distance of its windings. In most
cases it is so eroded that it is almost impossible to make out
its true appearance. It may be regarded as a ribbon placed
obliquely on edge and running in a zigzag form forward and
back so that the lower opposite edges of the returning ribbon
unite and form the bottom of a little groove, while the other
or upper edges form a little ridge ; see Plate II., Fig. 2 and 5.
These ridges show an open surface in species like Pentremites
pyriformis and Jlorealis, whereas in Pentremites sulcatus and
others they are firmly united to the margin of the poral pieces.
There is also a great variety in the distance between two
ridges. In Pentremites pyriformis we may count nine to ^
inch, whereas in Pentremites sulcatus we have eleven to ^ inch,
etc. It begins with an acute point at the center of the del-
toids, surrounding two ovarian or genital openings, and does
this in typical species like Pentremites sulcatus, Jlorealis , pyri-
formis, etc., in such a way as to make the two openings
appear as one, externally. In some species, as C . sayi, the

♦ Text Book of Palaeontology, p. 192.

t Transactions St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV., p. 150.

t Catalogue of the Blastoidea, p. 59.

14

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

integument does not run close to the margin of the sinus in
the vicinity of the ovarian or genital openings, making
them appear as little slits instead of round openings. It runs
in the shape of a letter J^ inverted with the two arms extend-
ing out and downward to the apex of the ambulacrum. Each

arm covers one-half of the ambulacral
surface, forming with the opposite one
a longitudinal groove in the center (the
so-called foot groove ) . This foot groove
and the little transverse grooves at
each side of it are covered with little
scales, so that, in specimens very well'
preserved, the ambulacrum does not
'^^^- ^- show any transversely striated surface at

all, but appears rather smooth or granulated with a little crest
in the center. The whole covering is of a uniform character,
except on the summit, where the scales surrounding the ova-
rian or genital apertures (at least in the typical species) are
fully ten times as long and placed erect on the underlying
membrane, — see Fig. 5 and Plate II., Fig. 2, 3, 5, — forming
in this way a part of the cone-shaped body which has been
observed on the summit of many species. Their physiologi-
cal function is still unknown, but probably it was to protect
the finer inner ovarian tubes. Besides the scales we find
on the posterior side above the anal opening, on very
well preserved specimens, a small proboscis about one
fourth of an inch in length, constructed of small hexago-
nal pieces, as shown in Fig. 6 and 7. To my knowledge
it is the first time that such a body has been observed on a
Blastoid. I found this appendix on JPentre?nites conoideus

and have now four speci-
mens of it showing this,
so far unknown, organ.
All four specimens are in
an excellent state of pres-
ervation and show also
the pinnulae preserved.
I am inclined to believe
hiG. 7. |.jj^^ similar organs existed

Fig. (;.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 15

in all tj^pical species. At the outer margin of the ambulac-
rum, where the outward running ribbon returns to the center
of the field, the ribbon is twisted over so that the fold fa'cili-
tating the return is the under surface of the ribbon and
becomes the articuhition surf ace of thepinnulae; see Plate II.,
Fig. 5. These pinnulae are little filaments of various lengths
extending in some species as much beyond the summit as the
entire length of the calyx, or even more. They consist of a
single row of calcareous particles, wedge-shaped in form and
about as broad as long.

As evidence to support the foregoing assertion, i. e., the
flexibility and organic nature of the ambulacral integument,
I give in Figures 1-7, Plate I., representations of some
pathologic specimens selected from a large amount of mate-
rial collected for this purpose. I have over fifty such patho-
logic specimens, showing various kinds of injuries and the
subsequent restoration of the injured parts, which would
have been impossible had the integument been inorganic mat-
ter only, as supposed by Carpenter. All specimens figured,
belong to the species JPentremites sulcatus. Plate I., Fig. 6,
shows an injury near the middle of the ambulacrum; Fig. 5
a similar injury on one side of the field and on the other side
the loss of half the poral pieces and the subsequent restora-
tion of the integument. Fig. 1 and 2 show the flexion of
the transverse ridges into a sigmoid form and the partly
compressed shape of the genital openings ; Fig. 7 and Plate II.,
Fig. 7 show the unevenness of the integument at the outer
margin near the sinus.

The acute points at the beginning of the ambulacral in-
tegument are the only covering for the central orifice. (The
surrounding genital openings are entirely out of the ques-
tion.) The different descriptions and illustrations given
(which all differ from each other) are erroneous representa-
tions due to mistaking foreign matter for covering plates, as
already expressed in my first paper.* Nothing is more natural
than that some of the little scales or particles of broken
pinnulae should drop into some of the summit openings and

Transactions of The St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV., p. 150.

16 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

remain there, which also accounts for the irregularity of
these coverings as described and figured by the different
authors. It is strange that every one adheres to the old idea
of Shumard, and that no one has taken the pains to examine
the matter more carefully in order to convince himself of the
true nature of it. This irregular arrangement of the pieces
covering the summit openings, as described by Eastman,* is
evidence for the contradiction of his statement, because it
is hard to suppose that specimens belonging to one and the
same species should not have a uniform arrangement in the
covering plates of their openings if such a covering existed.

It is true that Wachsmuth admits, after seeing Shumard' s
type specimen of Pentremites conoideus that the summit
openings are not closed in the manner described by Shumard
but he still believes that thev are closed.

It stands to reason and is only logical to suppose that, if
nature provided an opening it should remain open or that the
covering is a flexible one and not formed by additional plates
inserted into the openings as intimated by all authors Avho
adopted the first statement of Shumard. No one explains or
gives any reason why the opening should be closed. Every
one disregards the fact that all casts of the interior of a calyx
exhibit on the summit a cast of the summit opening, which
could not be possible if the openings had been closed by ad-
ditional pieces. This fact has not been observed on speci-
mens of Olivanites or others where the center of the summit
is closed.

THE WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM.

On the under side of the lancet piece and completely
filling the semi-lunar groove we find a tubular vessel con-
necting with a circular ring underlying the base of the
deltoid and surrounding the central orifice. The thickness
of this vascular rins^ and its branches varies according:
to the species. The diameter of this vessel is about
1-20 of an inch in a large specimen of Pentremites sulcatus.

♦ Text Book of Palaeontology, Vol. I., p. 197.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae.

17

It is not often found preserved, at least not in an open

condition, but oftener in a collapsed condition. In this

condition it presents the so-called underlancet plate of late

authors.* I can prove the existence of this vessel by a

number of cross sections of an ambulacrum of which Fig. 8

and Plate II. are a correct representation. Lancet piece and

poral pieces are well preserved, also the vascular duct a,

which in this specimen is filled with

calcspar which could enter only in a

liquid state. The triangular space b

at each side of the vessel is filled

by a kind of clayey substance, which

must also have been in a very plastic

or liquid form when entering the

cavity. Underneath we have the

hydrospiric plications c. Had the

vessel a not existed the substance

in h would have undoubtedly filled

the whole space if it were the

first to enter the calyx. On the

other hand if the liquid calcspar

had entered first it would have

spread over the whole space if no

vessel had existed. The walls of

these vessels must have been very

thin, which accounts for their easy destruction and absence in

most cases. In an empty state they would naturally have

collapsed, but nevertheless could easily be distinguished from

the underlying upper blade of the hydrospiric tube, in not

showing a suture line in the center, which would be the

case if the vessel had been destroyed and the upper blade

of the hydrospiric tube were exposed to view.

Fig. 8.

a. Water vascular duct.

b. Space at each side of duct
filled with clayey sub-
stance.

c. Lobes of the hydrospiric
tube.

d. Upper blade of the hy-
drospiric tube.

e. Nervous channel.

f. Tentacle.

g. Ovarian tubes,
h. Lancet plate,
i. Poral pieces.

THE HYDR08PIRES OR RESPIRATORY ORGAN.

The hydrospires in the typical species like PentremUes sul-
catus, florealis, pyriformis, etc., form ten isolated plicated

* Eastman. Text Book of Palaeontology, VoL I., p. 19L

18

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

membranous tubes and not bundles of tubes as stated by
various authors, and accompanied by incorrect illustrations.
They are located beneath the water duct and run parallel to
it from near the summit of the calyx to the apex of the
ambulacrum. The plications rest in little grooves of the
expanded lower deltoid portion, and are not united with the
adjoining one to form five bundles as described and illustrated
by Billings* and Ludwig.f These plicated tubes or hydro-
spires are of a peculiar construction. Each tube may be
regarded as a somewhat collapsed cylinder of which the upper
blade, ^. e., the one nearest to the water duct, is smooth in its
whole length, whereas the underlying blade is folded into a
number of plications of no regularity. They vary in number

Fig. 9.

Transverse sections of ambulacral fields, to show abnormal
developments of the hydrospiric sacs: A, of Pentremitea pyri-
formis; B, P. Jlorealis; C, P. conoideiis — about 20 times magnified
and drawn with the aid of the camera lucida. a, hydrospiric sac;
b, calcareous part of ambulacral field, i. e. lancet and poral
pieces.

in the different species and vary very often in one and the
same specimen; see Fig. 9. At the outer margin where these two
blades meet, that is, where the upper smooth blade connects
with the lower plicated one, they run out into little thread-like
filaments or tentacles, giving the compressed cylinder a fringed
appearance on this side. They form the so much doubted
tentacles which protrude through the poral openings and form

* Palaeozoic Fossils, Vol. II., Part 1, p. 102.

t H. Ludwig. Morphologische Studiea an Echinodermen, Band I., p. 289.
Taf. XXVIl,, Fig. 36, 37.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 19

in their collapsed state the supplementary poral pieces of Dr.
Roemer * or outer side plates of later authors. f

What could be the function of these supplementary poral
pieces situated as described by Dr. Roemer, within the poral
opening? As I understand the term it applies to something
similar to and in addition to the poral piece, that is a small
piece inserted in the poral opening. According to the Doc-
tor's description it served to reduce the opening, which, how-
ever, is not a very plausible supposition, as the same result
might have been accomplished by nature in a much simpler
manner by lessening the groove in the pore piece. Therefore
I deem it proper to seek for another explanation which is to
be found in supposing them to be tentacles. The correctness
of this supposition is easily tested, as there can be only three
possible conditions : —

1st. If a supplementary poral piece existed
it should be found by making a transverse sec-
tion through or near the middle of a pore channel, a- j- ffj- — ^
say at the line indicated from « to & in Fig. 10.

2d. If then the supplementary poral pieces ^^^- 1^-
are not preserved, we should find the poral opening vacant or
filled with foreign matter.

3d. If my supposition is correct and the tentacles are pre-
served, we will find them by making such a section, in either
an open or collapsed condition. In a number of sections I
have made I can prove the existence of the so much doubted
tentacles in either condition. Fig. 1, Plate II., is a trans-
verse section through a row of poral pieces of Pentremites
Jlorealis, showing the preservation of the tentacles in a some
what collapsed condition. Fig. 4 is a similar section of Pen-
tremites ahbreviatus showing the tentacles in an open condition.
I could show further evidence of their existence in pathologic
specimens where mechanical injuries had been inflicted, caus-
ing a hypertrophic growth of some of the tentacles into a little
bundle of tubes.

The plications, as already stated, vary in number and in the

* Wiegmann's Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, Jahrg. XVII., Bd. I., p. 335.
t Eastman. Text Book of Palaeontology, Vol. I., p. 191.

20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

manner of folding. They are in an end view not unlike an un-

symmetrical figure 8, — see Fig. 11,
— of which the upper loop is larger
than the lower one. These loops,
in large specimens of Pentremites
sulcalus, are one fourth of an
inch long. Counting five folds to
each of the ten cylinders, or ten
to each ambulacrum, it would give
for the whole body, if stretched out, a ribbon over two feet
long — an organ well adapted for respiratory function as sup-
posed by Billings.* The apices of these foldings are often
found to have coalesced with the calcareous base part of the
fork pieces as observed in Pentremites conoideus and others,
whereas the plicae of the other end rest in those plications or
grooves of the deltoid expansion already described near the
summit openings. The coalescing with the calcareous base
portion of the fork pieces is not a peculiarity found only in
certain species as indicated by Carpenter, f but it can be
observed in other species, as in Pentremites Jlorealis, etc.
Between the upper loops of these plications, which are kept
open by resting in the little grooves near the summit, we find
longitudinal tubes, protruding through the genital openings
on the summit and filling them completel}^ These tubes I
regard as the ovarian or genital tubes. They are found (in
well preserved specimens) to be filled with little round bodies
(eggs?). Fig. 6, Plate II., is a longitudinal section through
the upper loop of a hydrospiric cylinder of Pentremites
jlorealis, exhibiting these little round bodies at various places.
The supposition that these are ovarian tubes is strengthened
by the fact that the plications near the summit rest in
grooves, which would be necessary to prevent any obstruction
to the passage of the &^g.

In Cadaster the construction of the hydrospires is quite
different. Here we have from the roof of the calyx vertical
lamellae one eighth to one fourth of an inch long, reaching

* Billings, Loc. cit., p. 103.
t Carpenter, Loc. cit.

Harabach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 21

into the interior of the calyx and varying in number according
to species from six to twelve or even more. These lamellae
are completely surrounded by a ribbon-like membrane ; see
Plate II., Fig. 11. The water is admitted to the surface of the
membrane by longitudinal slits in the calcareous substance of
the roof between the vertical lamellae. Whether these slits
were covered or not I am unable to say on account of the
insufficiency of material for study.

EARLIER CLASSIFICATION.

As already remarked, the present classification is largely
based on external resemblances and is a very arbitrary one,
lacking a good foundation of morphologic as well as onto-
genetic characters, in consequence of which it becomes inade-
quate. This induces me to offer anew classification based on
determinative and permanent anatomical differences as well
as ontogenetic peculiarities. If the Blastoideae form an inde-
pendent class like the Crinoideae or Cystoideae, which I
believe is now generally admitted, then in revising the pres-
ent classification all names that have an ending " crinus "
ought to be canceled and new and proper ones substituted for
them. This was already recommended by Quenstedt in
1876.* If this had been done it would have avoided the con-
fusion resulting from the retention of improper names and
from referring species to genera to which they do not belong,
especially when the author is doubtful about their propriety,
which is always indicated by a question mark, or from substi-
tuting new names for parts of the body which are not as
significant as the old ones.

The ontogeny of extinct families can only be studied with
a large amount of material from one and the same locality,
which will enable us to make comparisons between the young
and adult specimens, to ascertain if all parts are keeping step
in the progress of development, or if one part has developed
more rapidly than the others, and in which direction this
development has taken place.

For the purpose of proving the arbitrary condition I will
review the genus Gi^anatocrinus and for the convenience of

* F.A. Quenstedt. PetrefactenkundeDeutschlands, Vierter Band., p. 719.

22 T7-ans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the reader, I will recapitulate the various views of our most
distinguished palaeontologists concerning this question, which
will show that very little attention was given to anatomical
differences, and that all specimens enumerated in this genus
were placed there on merely external resemblances. If anat-
omical differences had been considered, Shumard would never
have proposed to put species like Granatocrinus norwoodi,
curtus, gramdatiis, sayi, roemeri, cornutus, etc., into one
genus*

In 1861, Meek and Worthen say, in speaking about Pen-
tremites cornutus and Pentremites meIo:'\ " Both of these
forms differ from the typical species of the genus Pentremites
in having each pair of ovarian openings distinctly separated,
instead of closely united with merely a thin septum between.
In this character, as well as in form, and the prolongation of
the pseudo-ambulacral areas, they agree with the genus
ISfucleocrinus of Conrad {=^ Elaeacrinus, Roemer), from
which they differ in having the anal and oral openings dis-
tinct as in the true Pentremites. Thev constitute a sub-
genus of Pe7itre?nites, occupying a position between the
typical forms of that genus and yucleocrinus.^'

In 1862 Prof. Hall says in speaking about the genus jSTu-
cleocrinus: J —

" Regarding only the general form of these bodies, this
genus would include several species, heretofore described
under Pentremites, from the Carboniferous limestones of the
Western States, viz. : Pentre^nites norwoodi, Owen and
Shumard; Pentremites nielo, Owen and Shumard; Pentremites
curtus, Shumard, and others ; while the Pentremites ( Olivan-
ites) verneuili = Elaeacrinus verneuili, Eoemer, and Olivan-
ites angidaris, Lyon, are of the age of the upper Helder-
berg limestones; and the JSfucleocrinus elegans, Conrad, and at
least one other species, occur in the Hamilton group. The

* Roemer's Pentremites granulatus is taken as type of the gerius. — See
B. F. Shumard, Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol.
IL,p. 375.

t Proceedings of The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1861,
p. U2.

X Fifteenth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State
of New York, p. 145.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 23

Pentremites roemeri, Shumard, is referred to the Chemuno-
group.

"Looking at other characters than those of general form,
the specimens before me scarcely warrant the union of all
these species under the genus N^ucleocriniis or Elaeacrinus.
In jSTucleocrinus elegans, and allied forms, we have three small
basal plates and five short radials, which embrace the base of
the pseudambulacral fields; while the interradial plates are
extremely large, extending nearly the whole length of the
pseudambulacral areas. The anal side is often, or usually,
flattened, a little broader than the others, and is marked by a
narrow lanceolate plate, which extends from the opening to
the summitof the radial plates, resting upon them; thus, as it
were, dividing the interradial plate, leaving a narrow portion
on each side adjacent to the pseudambulacral fields. The
central area at the summit, between the ovarian openings, is
occupied by several small plates, which, in JVucleocrinus ele-
gans, converge to the center.

' ' In the structure of the body, the typical forms of this
genus differ from Pentremites m the shoYi radial plates and
extremely elongated interradials, which fill nearly all the
space between the pseudambulacral areas; while the elongate
anal plate is a marked feature. Now when we compare
Pentremites norwoodi and Pentremites melo, we have
the same general form of body, with the extremely
elongate, instead of the short, radial or forked plates
which embrace the pseudambulacral fields ; and a small inter-
radial at the summit. The ovarian apertures, as well as per-
haps the central opening, sometimes preserve minute plates,
which close these orifices. The form alone can scarcely be
of generic importance; for, although the base of JSfucleocrinus
is usually concave, I have before me a species where the base
is not concave, and the three basal plates are quite prominent.
The only conspicuous difference between Pentremites nor-
woodi and Pent7^emites godoni and others of the latter form,
is in the depressed base and greater rotundity of the former
species, giving to it its similarity to Nucleocrinus. The Pen-
tremites norwoodi and Pentremites melo have not the anal

24 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

side conspicuously wider, more prominent, or flattened ; which
is the character observed in all true JTudeocrini .

' ' The different arrangement of parts, also, in the tvro genera,
causes a different mode of increase in the plates, and a differ-
ent surface-character.

"There is likewise an intermediate form represented by
the Gh'aiiatocrinus of Troost (jPentremites granidatus ? of
Roemer). This species is elliptical in form, with depressed
base embracing in the bottom of the cavity the three small
basal plates, while the radial plates reach halfway up the sides
of the body. The anal side is not conspicuously different
from the others, and the summit is unlike JSFucleocrinus ;
while it is more nearly like Pentremites noriooodi. This
species is strongly granulose or tuberculose. The Pentre-
mites sayi appears to me to belong to the same tj-pe ; its base
is not depressed, leaving the three basal plates protruding ;
while the radial plates reach about one-third the entire
length, in this respect approaching yucleocrinus . In both
these species the plate on the anal side occupies the entire
space between the pseudambulacral fields, presenting scarcely
any important difference from the other interambulacral or
interradial spaces.

' ' I would therefore suggest the separation of the species
under the name oriijinallv siven bv Dr. Troost, viz., Granato-
criniis.^^

In 1863 Dr. Shumard's remarks regarding thegenus Elaea-

o o o

crinus are as follows : * —

" There is, in my opinion, good grounds for separating from
the genus Pentremites those forms that have been hitherto in-
eluded in the group EUiptici of Prof. Roemer, and placing
them in the genus Elaeacriiius of the same author. We
therefore propose now to group in the latter genus such forms
as Pentremites melo, Pentremites norwoodi, P . curtus, P.
granidatus, P. roemeri, P. sayi, P. cornutus, and the species
we are about to describe ; also the N^ucleocrinus angidaris of
Lyon. Among European species, the following may be

* Transactions St. Louis Academy, Vol. II,, p. 111.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 25

grouped in this genus : Pentremites ellipticus, P. orbicularis,
P. derbiensis, P. oblongus, and P. angulatus.

" These form a very natural group, easily recognizable, and
distinguished from the typical species of Pentremites by well
marked characters. They are always of an elliptical or sub-
globular shape, Thepseudo-ambulacral areas are narrow, with
sides subparallel, and extend usually the entire length of the
body. The basal pieces are nearly always concave, and gen-
erally situated at the bottom of a deep excavation. The
tubular lamellae, which in the interior reach from the ovarial
apertures to the base of the pseudo-ambulacral fields, are
more simple in structure, being much less convoluted, while
the relative position of the ovarial apertures is different.

" The typical species of the genus Elaeacrinus, viz., Elaea-
crinus verneuili, long previous to the publication of Prof.
Eoemer's description with figures was well known to Ameri-
can and also to some European palaeontologists as Olivanites
verneuili, under which name it was designated by Prof. G.
Troost in his Monograph on North American Crinoidea, which
valuable memoir was completed a short time previous to the
death of its author, but is not yet published. According
therefore to the laws of priority, Eoemer's name, Elaeacrinus,
proposed in 1852, must be adopted, although it is to be re-
gretted that the learned author did not adopt Troost' s generic
name in preference to creating a new one.

" It is possible that the genus N'ucleocrinus, proposed by
Conrad in 1842 (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., Vol. VIII.,
p. 280, PI. XV., Fig. 17), may be identical with Elaeacrinus;
but the meager and unsatisfactory description of Conrad
(' this genus differs from Pentremites, Say, in having only
one perforation at top, which is central ') does not apply to
any of the forms we propose to group in Elaeacrinus.'"

In 1866 Dr. Shumard adopts the suggestion of Prof. Hall.
He says : * —

" Adopting the suggestion of Prof. Hall, I here include
under Granatocrinus (genus proposed by the late Dr. Troost),

* Transact., Vol. II., p. 375.

26 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

a number of elliptical Blastoideans which have hitherto been
grouped with Pentremites and Elaeacrinus. The Granaio-
crinus (^Pentatrematites) granulatus, Hoeuier = Granato-
crinus cidariformis, Troost, may be regarded as the type of
the genus, and for the present it may be extended so as to
include such species as Pentremites melo and Peritremites
norwoodi, Owen and Shumard, and allied forms, though it
may become necessary after a while to remove these from
Granatocrinus and group them in a separate subsection under
another name. They differ from Elaeacrinus in having
elongate radial plates, extending, in some instances, almost
the entire length of the pseudambulacral fields, while the
interradials are in most instances extremely short. The
structure of the summit is also quite different ; the anal
field is not flattened and conspicuously wider than the others,
and it is not provided with a supplementary lanceolate piece as
we find in Elaeacrinus proper."

In the same year, 1866, F. B. Meek and Prof. Worthen
give us a description of the genus Granatocrinus,* which is
as follows : —

" The generic formula of this group is exactly the same as
that of Pentremites, Say, so far as regards the number and
arrangement of the pieces forming the body, though the form
and proportions of these pieces are so different as to give a
very different outline and general physiognomy to the entire
fossil. They are therefore readily distinguished from Say's
genus, as properly restricted, by their regular oval, elliptical,
or subglobose form, concave or less protuberant base, and
much narrower and more elongated pseudo-ambulacral areas,
which extend the entire length of the body, so as to give it
more the appearance of an Echinoid. They likewise present
differences in the arrangement of the ovarian ? openings of the
summit, which are more intimately connected with the inter-
radial pieces, being sometimes excavated, one into each lateral
margin of these pieces (^G. sayi); or in other instances
piercing directly through them, so that each pair appears

* Meek and Worthea. Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. II., p. 274.

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 27

externally, as a single opening ( G. melo * and G. norwoodi),
though they divide into two distinct canals before passing
entirely through the plates. The typical forms of this genus
also have the interradial pieces proportionally much larger
than in the true Pentremites,'] though this is not a constant
character.

" In the possession of numerous, extremely slender, thread-
like, simple arms, arranged along the pseudo-ambulacral
areas, this type also agrees (as might have been inferred from
analogy) with the true Pentremites, as we know from the
examination of a beautiful specimen belonging to Mr. Wachs-
muth. This specimen seems to be related to G. norwoodi^
as near as can be determined, and shows at least thirty (there
are probably more) of these delicate, simple arms, arising
from each pseudo-ambulacral area, and extending up so that
the lower ones must be quite twice as long as the body. They
are all composed of equal joints, about as long as wide. So
far as we know, this is the only example of a specimen of this
type showing the arms, yet found.

" As now understood, this genus includes species differing
materially in the comparative size of the interradial pieces,
the typical species having those pieces very large; J while in
another section of the genus, represented by such forms as
G. melo and G. no7nvoodi, they are as small as in Pentre-
mites. There are so many gradations in this character, how-
ever, that it does not seem to be possible to make it a means
of separating the species into two well defined sections."

The first one to use the name Graiiatoamms was Dr.
Troost in a list of new species of Crinoideae from Tennessee,
which was read by Prof. L. Agassiz at the meeting of the
A. A. A. S. in 1850, and published in the Proceedings of
Amer. Assoc, Cambridge Meeting, p. (i2, but, as a descrip-
tion of the different species was never furnished, these names

* hoc. cit. 274. Here no difference is made between the summit con-
struction of G. melo and G. norwoodi.

t Meeli and Worthen. Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. II., p. 275.

X Referring evidently to the original species of Dr. Troost, G. cidari-
formis Meek and Worthen, Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. II., p. 275.

28

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

are of no vakie and have no right to claim priority- The
species which Dr. Troost had designated b}^ this name was
first described by Dr. Roemer in 1851 * under the name of
Pentatrematites granulatus, to which Dr. Roemer remarks
that he had retained the specific name found on the label of
Troost' s specimen in the Doctor's collection. However, this
name does not appear in Troost' s list, but I can state with
permission of the Smithsonian Institution, which is now in
possession of the Troost collection, that the collection con-
tains specimens labeled by Dr. Troost as Granatocrinus gran-
ularis, as is to be seen from the following list : —

Troost's
number.

Granatocrinus granularis (cast)

G. cidariformis, 2 specimens

G. granularis, 2 specimens (casts)

G. globosus, 2 sp., one a cast and one silicifled. .

G. (nov.) (cast) 10 miles north of HuntS'

ville, Ala

G. (cast) Fayetteville, N. C

1993
2839

2788
2788i

Number of

Smithsonian

Institution.

33087
33080
33097
33077

33089

11476

The last two are like the specimens in the Troost collection,
but do not belong to it.

All these specimens seem to be one and the same species,
with the only difference that granularis is a little smaller
than cidariformis. Most of them are silicious casts and not
in a good state of preservation. With permission of the
Smithsonian Institution I will give the Doctor's description,
copied from his manuscript together with a figure of both
specimens. This description is very deficient as some of the
most essential parts have been omitted or misrepresented.
The one labeled granularis is a little smaller and deformed
but shows the articulation surface of the column, and indica-
tions of genital openings, which are ver}'- small for the size of
the specimen, but in none of the specimens is the deltoid
piece perforated as we find it in G. noriooodi.

* Wiegmann's Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, 1851, p. 363.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 29

" Granatocrinites mihi, new genus.

" This genus in some of its characters approaches OUvan-
ites and Pentremites, having like these genera five double
rows of pores. It is distinguished from the Pentremites
by the absence of a column,* and by being destitute of the
five characteristic apertures upon which the generic name
of Pentremites is founded, and from the Olivanites by the
division of the fields between the ambulacrals which in the
Granatocrinites is composed of three plates and which is
not the case with the Olivanites.

" Granatocrinites cidariformis mihi.

PI. III., Fig. 1, 2, 3.

" Globular slightly elongated.

" Pelvis more or less stellated or pentagonal, composed of
small plates, forming a small concave dome without any marks
of insertion of a column or of an appearance of an alimentary
aperture. The five plates which surround the pelvis are
elongated sub-pentagonal approaching in form similar plates
in the Pentremites, their superior margin being circular and
having a longitudinal incision which terminates near the
base, where they form the margin of the pelvic cavity and
thence rising they enclose partly the double rows of pores
which descend from the summit and terminate near the
lower margin.

" These five plates combined form a cup with five circular
elevations at the rim, re-entering angles of which are placed
five isosceles triangular plates being beveled at the base so
as to fit the rounded margin of the inferior plates. f

" Five double rows of pores proceed from the very summit,
running along the triangular plates above mentioned and

* This I must contradict, as the Doctor certainly has overlooked alto-
gether the very plainly marked articulation surface of the column to be seen
on his specimen.

t Footnote : As given in Troost MSS.

30 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

entering into the incision of lower series of plates first
mentioned terminate near the lower margin of them. The
whole surface is granulated; these grains have a tendency
to run parallel to the sides of the plates.*

" No ovary or oral aperture is visible on the surface; they
may nevertheless have existed in the live state, and have
been obliterated during fossilification, because judging from
siliceous internal casts of the same I think I perceive traces
of such apertures. They occur near Shelby ville, Bedford
Co., Devonian, and in Allen County, Ky.

" Granatocrinites globosus mihi.

PI. III., Fig. 4.

" It differs from G. cidariformis in being globular, having
at the base a circular cavity, the junction of the lower
series of plates with those of the superior being curvilinear,
and the surface being very irregularly granulated, whereas
the G. cidariformis is oval, has a pentagonal basal cavity, the
junction of the above mentioned place is rectilinear and its
surface regularly granulated. Bedford County, Tennessee."

To judge from this insufficient description it is not un-
reasonable to suppose that as the Doctor received more
material, he changed the name without removing the label
gramdaris, regarding both as the same species, otherwise I
should think he would have inserted this name in his list.
Although this species is a very rare one it was well known to
our most distinguished palaeontologists, for Dr. Shumard
possessed specimens of it in his collection. It is also rep-
resented in Doctor Yandell's collection, and in the catalogue
of Worthen's collection offered for sale in 1889, we find
under number 66 two specimens named by Worthen, Granato-
crinus granulosus, Roemer, from Maury County, Tennessee.

These two specimens are now in the Illinois State Col-
lection with the same label under number 10066, and one of

• This is an incorrect statement, because the specinaen shows just the
reverse.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 31

the specimens shows remarkably well the genital openino-s,
ten in number, but no perforation of the deltoid piece as we
find in G. norwoodi. From the foregoing it will be seen that
our most distinguished palaeontologists, Hall, Shumard,
Meek, Worthen, and others were very well acquainted with
Penfremites granulatus Roemer = Granatocrinus cidariformis
Troost, but from all appearance, they bestowed very little
attention upon the morphological conditions of this species.
Their main object for consideration seems to have been the
general form and appearance. If this had not been the case,
one can hardly perceive how Shumard, Hall, Meek and others
could have grouped species together in such a way as they
have done. If it was necessary to remove Pentremites nor-
woodi from the true genus Pentremites on account of its dif-
ference in structure, it was equally necessary to separate it
from Troost' s Granatocrinus because Pentremites norwoodi
differs as much from one as from the other.

The same uncertainty is manifested in all the later classifi-
cations as will be seen from the following abstracts : Zittel,
Handbuch der Palaeontologie, Band I., p. 434, gives it as
follows : —

" Gattung, Granatocrinus Troost. Elliptisch, eiformig
oder kugelich. Kelch wie bei voriger Gattung zusammen-
gesetzt, aber B. [Basalstiicke] klein, eingesenkt, seitlich
nicht sichtbar. Gabelstiicke verhaltnissmiissig klein, etwa
zur halben H5he reichend. Deltoidstiicke gross. Psuedo-
ambulacralfelder schmal, linear, bis zur Basis des Korpers
herablaufend. Kohlenkalk. Gr. ellipticus, norwoodi, etc."

But one of the type specimens shows just the reverse, i. e.,
6r. norwoodi. We see here that the most characteristic
part, i. e., the nature and construction of the genital open-
ings, is not considered, whereas great stress is laid upon all
features of a more general character.

Hoerne's definition, Elemente der Palaeontologie, p.
128, is:—

" Granatocrinus Troost. Kelch wie bei Pentremites zu-
sammengesetzt, mit sehr kleinen Basalia, welche seitlich
nicht sichtbar sind, auch die Radialstiicke sind klein und

32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

reichen nur zur halben Hohe, wiilirend die luterradialstiicke
ungewohnlich gross sind. Granatocrinus norwoodi Owen
und Shumard. Kohlenkalk. Hierher gehoren aucli die
Pentremites JElUptici Roemer's."

Granatocrinus norwoodi is taken as the type, but, in this
species, the deltoid-interradial is very small, and the main
peculiarity, i. e., the perforation of the deltoid, is not
mentioned.

Nicholson and Lydekker, Manual of Palaeontology, Vol.
I., p. 464, define the genus thus: —

" Granatoblastidae. Calyx globular or ovoidal with a
flattened or concave base and linear ambulacra. Spiracles
five, piercing the deltoids; or ten grooving their lateral edges.
This family includes the genera Granatocrinus and Hetero-
blasfus."

This arrangement shows a marked inconsistenc}^ because
Heterohlastus possesses more essentially the characters of
Cryptoblastus, and has more aflnnities with it than with Grana-
tocrinus, so that it would more properly belong to this genus.

Eastman's* definition is the following: —

"Calyx globular or ovoidal with flattened or concave base
and long linear ambulacra. Spiracles five piercing the deltoids,
or ten grooving their lateral edges. Consisting of Granato-
crinus and Ileteroblastus.'"

Here we have the same inconsistency. The last genus
has all the essential characters of Cr}/2)toblastus, with the
exception of spine-like processes on the deltoids, though
these spine-like projections are met with in many species,
for example Pentremites sidcatus, where it seems the
deltoid pieces are very much inclined to develop spiny
projections. I have a number of specimens showing them
of various forms and sizes. Those from the neighbor-
hood of Ste. Genevieve show it most, whereas those from
Chester or Evansville rarely show any such hypertrophic
growth, while we meet with it again in specimens from
Baldwin and other localities.

Another case which shows very clearly the arbitrary way

* Text-Book of Palaeontology, Vol. I., p. 196.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 33

of classification is to be found in the diagnosis of Nucleoblas-
tidae, Etheridge and Carpenter. This family is divided into
Sub-family A. Elaeacrinidae and Sub-family B. Schizoblas-
tidae. The only peculiarities common to both are the elliptical or
ovoidal form of the body and the extremely short fork-pieces,
which latter fact is not mentioned in their diagnosis. Elaea-
crinus has its posterior deltoid divided and an elongated piece
inserted, which is never the case in 8cMzohlastus. Moreover
the center of the summit is firmly closed by pieces of a uni-
form shape and position in Elaeacrinus, which is not the case
in 8cMzoblastus where the center is open, or closed only by
the ambulacral integument.

Nicholson and Lydekker's description of this family, which
is accompanied by two figures, is still more confused, reading as
follows : —

"Family III. Nucleoblastidae. Calyx usually globular
or ovoidal with flattened or concave base and linear ambu-
lacra. Spiracles distinctly double, and chiefly formed by
the opposition of notches in the lancet plates and deltoids.
This family includes Elaeacrinus (with an anal plate) and
Schizoblasfus, Fig. 332 c and d, Cryptoblastus and Acento-
tremites (without an anal plate)."

PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION.

The classification here offered is based mainly on the con-
struction of the summit openings, because they exhibit a
uniformity in structure, remaining always the same in their
respective genera — a fact which must be of great value for
classification. Next the development of the deltoids is con-
sidered, also the aspect of the outer surf ace (whether smooth
or spiny). Whereas the general size and shape of the body,
whether globose, pyriform, ovoidal, conical or clavate,
depends upon the variations in the form of the parts which
construct the body, and whereas the relations of these parts
to each other remain the same throughout the whole class,
the difference can be only specific and not generic. Nor can
we attribute any more than specific value to the hydrospiric
tubes, or plications, on account of the variability often

34 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

observed in one and the same specimen — a fact sufficiently
recognized by the very authors who regard them as being
of importance for classification. All names ending in
" crinus " are omitted.

I also wish to remark that this classification embraces only
our American species, although most of the European species,
I believe (judging from my small collection of European
specimens), will fit into one or another of these genera, with
the exception of aberrant forms, like some of our American
ones, of which it is still doubtful whether they should be
regarded as Blastoids or Cystoids, for the reception of which
a separate class should be established. This class may in-
clude all doubtful specimens and those insufficiently described
and doubtfully illustrated because of the fragmentary con-
dition of the material.

CLASS BLASTOIDEAE.
A. Order Regulares.

1. Family Pentremidae.

1. Genus Pentremites, Say.

2. Genus Cribroblastus.

3. Genus Saccoblastus.

4. Genus Clavaeblastus.

5. Genus Mesoblastus, Etheridge fil. and Carpenter.

6. Genus Cidaroblastus.

7. Genus Globoblastus.

8. Genus Codonites, Meek and Worthen.

2.;Family Codasteridae.

1. Genus Codaster, Maccoy.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 35

B. Order Irregulares.

1. Family Olivanidae.

1. Genus Olivanites.

2. Family Eleutheroblastidae.

1. Genus Eleutheroblastus.

Blastoideae are dicyclical Pelmatozoa. The body is com-
posed of twenty pieces (at least in the embryonic state),
arranged in two circles of even numbers and an irregular
number of accessory pieces (say poral pieces), with the
exception of one order, Irregulares, where one or the other
circle contains an odd piece, a total difference from all others.
All were supported by a slender round or triangular column,
except one genus {Eleutherohlastus) as far as known. Geolog-
ically they belong to the Palaeozoic Age, commencing in the
upper Silurian, gradually increasing until they reach their
culmination point in the upper Subcarboniferous, and becom-
ing extinct with the close of the Chester limestone. Geo-
graphically they have been observed in Europe, Australia and
America, from which country the greatest number of species
has been described.

Family Pentremidae.

Body of various forms, all supported by a round or trian-
gular column. None of the summit openings permanently
closed except by the ambulacral integument. All of this
family, whenperfectly preserved, are known to possess pinnulae
and probably many of them, if not all, had a short proboscis.

1. Genus Pentremites.

General form of body globose, ovoid, conical, pyriform or
club shaped. Central orifice never closed except by the am-
bulacral integument, surrounded by eleven openings, which
appear externally as five, and are constructed by the junction
of deltoid and lancet pieces. Deltoid pieces variable, visible

36

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

externally in the adult species, and in others they are never
visible externally. Ambulacrum rather broad. Column
round.

This genus will include the following species : —

1. Pentremites abbreviatus, Hambach, 1880. Chester
limestone.

This species is erroneously taken to be identical with
Pentremites godoni, by Etheridge, Jr., and P. H. Car-
penter, C. R. Keyes, and others. In so doing they mis-
take the facts, and I must say that none of these
gentlemen is acquainted with this species. If they
were, or if they had taken the trouble to compare my
figure and description* with Pentremites godoni, they
would have seen that they are not one and the same
species. Carpenter's figuref does not represent the
essential characters given in my description, which
makes it differ from the typical Pentremites godoni.
M}^ species is quite rare, and has, as far as I know,
been found only at one small locality, about 500 feet
square, in a semi-oolitic limestone, although the whole
country around is rich in Pentremites, esj)ecially in
Pentremites sidcatus. The specimen figured by me

is the largest I have
ever seen of this spe-
cies. In all specimens,
whether large or small,
the transverse diameter
is i larger than the
vertical one. The in-
terambulacral space is
more rounded, also the
ambulacrum, and there
is not a sharp crest at

Fig. 12.

a. b.

a. Pentremites abbreviatus.

b. " godoni.

c.

florealis.

both sides of it as we find in Pentremites godoni.

* Transactions St. Louis Academy of Science, Vol. IV., p. 155, Fig. 3.
t Catalogue of the Blastoidea, Plate II., Fig. 4.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 37

In a lateral view the base is never visible. For com-
parison see the accompanying figure 12.

2. Pentremites ANGULARis, Lyon, 1860. Chester limestone.

3. Pentremites basilaris, Hambach, 1880. Chester lime-

stone.

4. Pentremites Broadheadi, Hambach, 1880. Chester

limestone.

5. Pentremites burlingtonensis. Meek & Worthen, 1869.

Burlington limestone.

6. Pentremites CALYCiNUS, Lyon, 1860. Chester limestone.

7. Pentremites cervinus. Hall, 1858. Chester limestone.

8. Pentremites chesterensis, Hambach, 1880. Chester

limestone.

9. Pentremites clavatus, Hambach, 1880. Chester lime-

stone.

10. Pentremites conoideus, Hall, 1856. Warsaw limestone.

This species is synonymous with Pentremites kon-
inckana, Hall, which is only the young stage of
P. conoideus.

11. Pentremites elegans, Lyon, 1860. Chester limestone.

This species is synonymous with the one designated
by Dr. Troost as tennesseae, nom. nud. The descrip-
tion of Troost was never published. The specimens
so designated by Troost, now in the collection of the
Smithsonian Institution, No. 33,072, are the same as
those described by Lyon as Pentremites elegans.

12. Pentremites elongatus, Shumard, 1855. Burlington

limestone.

13. Pentremites florealis, v. Schlotheim, 1820. Chester

limestone.
Pentremites symmetricus, Hall. Chester limestone.
Pentremites altus, Rowley.

38 Trans. Acad. Sei. of St. Louis.

Shumard and many later authors confound this
species with Pentremites godoni, which is a sad mis-
take because there is a considerable difference between
these two species. In the typical P. jlorealis the body
is more elongated, the base portion drawn out and
more prolonged than in Pentremites gocloni, and the
plications of the ambulacral integument are coarser
than in P. gocloni. The typical Pentremites Jlo7'ealis
is comparatively rare in Alabama and Kentucky but
not so at Chester, Illinois, where Pentremites godoni
does not occur at all. We find it again at Waterloo,
Illinois, associated with Pentremites Jlorealis, but it is
by far the predominating species here.

14. Pentremites gemmiformis, Hambach, 1884. Chester

limestone.

15. Pentremites godoni, De France, 1818. Chester lime-

stone.
Kentucky arterial fossil, Parkinson, 1808.
Pentremites globosiis, Troost.

16. Pentremites hemisphericus, Hambach 1880. Chester

limestone.

17. Pentremites nodosus, Hambach 1880. Chester lime

stone.

18. Pentremites obesus, Lyon, 1857. Chester limestone.

19. Pentremites pyriformis. Say, 1825. Chester limestone.
Pentremites subconoideusy Meek, a young form of pyriformis.

This species differs from P. Jlorealis, its nearest
relative, in having its greatest diameter at the apex of
the ambulacrum, dividing the calyx in two equal halves,
i. e., the distance from the articulation surface of the
column equals the distance from the apex of the
ambulacrum to the summit.

20. Pentremites spinosus, Hambach, 1880. Chester lime-

stone.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 39

21. Pentremites suLCATUSjEoemer, 1852. Chester limestone.
Pentremites cherokeeus, Troost M. S.

Pentremites robustus, Lyon.

Pentremites laterniformis, Ovvtn and Shumard.

The hitter, which has been regarded as a synonj^m
for Pentremites ohliquatus, is the cast of Pentremites
sulcatus. The confounding of this species with
P. obliquatus must have been caused by assuming
that a cast of ohliquatus would furnish an elongated
prismatic lower calyx part, as we have in P. laterni-
formis, which is due to the internally straight base
portion of the fork pieces in Pentremites sulcatus, as
I have described and figured years ago. Moreover all
Pentremites laterniformis have been described as com-
ing from the Chester limestone, where such casts are
frequently met with, but the Saccoblastns ohliquatus
(= P. laterniformis, Troostocrinus laterniformis,
Tricoelocrinus ohliquatus) does not occur in this
formation and so far has been found only in the
Warsaw or Keokuk formation.

22. Pentremites bradleyi, Meek. Subcarboniferous.

2. Genus Cribroblastus.

General form of body elliptical or globose, of medium size,
seldom over ^ inch vertical diameter. Ambulacrum narrow,
linear, and extending almost over the whole body. Central
opening never closed, except by ambulacral integument, sur-
rounded by eleven openings constructed by the junction of
deltoid and lancet piece, very small and never confluent with
each other. Anal opening on the posterior side between two
genital openings, from which it is separated by two fine septa.
Deltoid pieces very variable, occupying from i^j- to f of the
interambulacral space. Base portion small, more or less
depressed. Column round. This genus will include the fol-
lowing species.

40 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

1. Cribeoblastus cornutus, F. B. Meek and A. H.

Wortben. St. Louis limestone.
Pentremites cornutus, Meek and Worthea.
Granatocrinus cornutus, Shumard.
Elaeacrinus cornutus, Shumard.
Heteroblastus cornutus, EcherHge and Carpenter.

2. Cribroblastus CURTUS, Shumard. St. Louis limestone.
PenP'emites curtus, Saumard.

Oranatocrinus crirtus, Shumard.
Orbitremites curtus, Bather.

*3. Cribroblastus GRANULOSUS, Meek and Wortlien. Bur-
lino;ton limestone.
Pentremit'is granulosus, Meek and Worthen.
Granatocrinus granulosus, Meek and Worthen.
Schizoblastus granulosus, E:ihcridge and Carpenter.

4. Cribroblastus kirkwoodensis, B. F. Shumard. St.

Louis limestone.
Elaeacrinus kirkiooodensis, Shumard.
Cryptoblastus kirkiooodensis, Keyes.
Nucleocrinus kirkiooodensis, Miller.
Schizoblastus missouriensis, Etheridge anrl Carp'inter.

5. Cribroblastus LOTOBLASTUS, C. A. White. Lower Car-

boniferous 2.V.
Granatoc7-inus lotoblastus, White.
Orbitremites lotoblasCus, Bather.
Schizoblastus lotoblastus, Weller.

It is ver}' doubtful whether this species belongs here.
Nothino;, however, can be said until more material has
been collected. The only specimen known is the type
of "White's description, now in the collection of the
Smithsonian Institution, No. 8541. The specimen is
much incrusted and does not show an3^thing of the sum-
mit openings which are mostl}' covered by foreign matter.

6. Cribroblastus melo, Owen and Shumard. Burlington

limestone.
Pentremites melo, Owen and Shumard.
Granitocrinus melo, Shumard.
Elaeacrinus melo, Shumard.
Cryptoblastus melo, Etheridge and Carpenter.

*

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 41

7. Cribroblastus MELONOiDES, Meek and Worthen. Bur-
lington limestone.

Oraiiatocrinus melonoides, Meek and Worth ;n.
Schizoblastus melonoides, Etheridge and Carpenter,

*8. Cribroblastus neglectus, Meek and Wortlien. Bur-
lington limestone.
Oranatocrinus neglectus, Meek and Worthen.
Schizoblastus neglectus, Etheridge and Carpenter

*9. Cribroblastus pisum, Meek and Wortlien. Burlington
limestone.
Oranatocrinus pisum, Meek and Worthen.
Cryptoblastus pisum, Etheridge and Carpenter.
Schizoblastus pisum, Etheridge and Carpenter.

10. Cribroblastus potteri, Hambach. Burlington lime-

stone .
Pentremites potteri, Hambach.
Schizoblastus sayi, Etheridge and Carpenter,

11. Cribroblastus projectus, Meek and Worthen. Bur-

lington limestone.

Pentremites melo, Yir, projectus, Meek and Worthen.
Granatocrirms projectus, Meek and Worthen.
Cryptoblastus projectus. Bather.

'12. Cribroblastus roemeri, Shumard. Chemung and
Chouteau limestone.
Pentremites roemeri, B. F, Shumard.
Oranatocrinus roemeri, Shumard.
Orbitremites roemeri, B ither.
Schizoblastus roemeri, Keyes.

'13. Cribroblastus sampsoni, Hambach. Chouteau lime
stone.
Pentremites sampsoni, Hambach.
Schizoblastus sampsoni, Etheridj;e and Carpenter.
Schizoblastus roemeri, Keyes.

This species is not synonymous with C . roemeri as
Keyes takes it. The external ornamentation of the
interambulacrum differs very much from that of
roemeri (see PL V., Figs. 9 and 10). Moreover the
relative width of the interambulacrum is about \

42 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

greater than in C. roemeri. Crihrohlastus roemeri
is much rarer than C . sampsoni.

*14. Cribroblastus sayi, Shumarcl. Burlington limestone.

Ferdremites sayi, Shumard.

Granatocrinus sayi, Shumard.

Schizohlastus sayi, Etheridge and Carpenter.

Schizoblastus potteri, Etheridge and Carpenter.

My species O. potteri has been taken as synonym
for O. sayi. The interambulacrum of C. sai/i is
broader and transversely striated and more elevated
than in C . potteri. The base portion in O . sayi
is depressed so that the basal part is not visible in a
lateral view, which is the case in O . potteri. The
slit-like openings at the summit in both species, as
well as in C . melonoides, are due to the ambulacral
integument in the immediate neighborhood of the
genital openings. The perfectly round form of the
genital openings can be sufficiently proved in weath-
ered specimens, where the ambulacral integument is
eroded. Moreover it seems that this species is very rare
at Burlington, as of all specimens coming from that
locality, I have not noticed more than a dozen typical
specimens. Shumard' s type specimen came from
Marion County in the neighborhood of Palmyra. It
also occurs in Boone County, St. Louis County, and at
Louisiana, Missouri.

15. Cribroblastus shumardi, Meek and AVorthen. Bur-
lington limestone.
G-ranatocrinus shumardi. Meek and Wortheu.
Mesoblastus simmardi, Etheridge and Carpenter.
Schizohlastus shumardi, Etheridge and Carpenter.

For difference of those species marked with an aste-
risk, see Plate V., Fig. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.

3. Genus Saccoblastus.

General form of the body pyriform, compressed cylindri-
drically, or club-shaped. Ambulacra narrow and linear, gen-

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 43

erally, sunk into the fork piece sinus so that the surface does
not touch the upper margin of the fork piece sinus. Lower
part of the body shows three distinctly depressed areas ; the
amount of depression varies in the different species. Inter-
ambulacral surface smooth or very finely striated. Summit
opening never closed except by the ambulacral integument.
Genital openings ten, of a slit-like appearance, on account of
the orifice opening obliquely. Anal opening so far below the
genitals that in large specimens it is almost J inch below the
summit, and as far as known not covered. All specimens
which I have had an opportunity to examine (over six hun-
dred) did not show any sign of a covering. Column triangu-
lar. This genus comprises Troostocrinus , Tricoelocrimis and
MeAablastus, and to show the gradual transformation from one
to the other I have given good figures of all our American
species on Plate IV. All described specimens are from the
Warsaw limestone or below from the lower Subcarboniferous
rocks.

1. Saccoblastus bipyramidalis, Hall. Warsaw limestone.

Fentremites bipyramidalis Hall.

Troostocrinus bipyramidalis Hall.

Metablastus bipyramidalis, R. Etheridge fll. and P. H. Carpenter.

2. Saccoblastus lineatus, B. F. Shumard. Burlington

limestone.

Fentremites lineatus, Shumard.

Troostocrinus lineatus, Shumard.

Metablastus lineatus, Etheridge fll. and Carpenter.

3. Saccoblastus obliquatus, Roemer. Warsaw hmestone.

Fentatrematites obliquatus, Roemer,
Fentremites occidentalis, Shumard.

Tricoelocrimis obliquatus, R. Etheridge fll. and Carpenter.

Troostocrinus later niformis, Shumard.

4. Saccoblastus woodmani, Meek and Worthen. Warsaw

and Keokuk limestone.
Tricoelocrinus woodmani, Meek and Wortheu.
Troostocrinus woodmani, Meek and Worthen.

5. Saccoblastus wortheni, I. Hall. Warsaw limestone and

Keokuk.
Metablastus wortheni, R. Etheridge fll. and Carpenter.

44 Trails. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Pentremites grosvenori, Shuraard.

Troostocrinus grosvenori, Etherid^e and Carpenter.

Troostocrinus nitidulus, S. A. Miller and Gurley.

Metablastus varsoziviensis, Etheridge and Carpenter.

Pentremites varsoitviensis, Meek and Worthen.

Metablastus xoachsmuthi, Gurley.

Troostocrinus loachsmuthi, Gurley.

6, Saccoblastusmeekianus, R. Etheridge fil . and Carpenter.
Warsaw limestone.
Tricoelocrimts meekianus, Eth. and Carp.

4. Genus Clavaeblastus.

General form of the body club-shaped, or elliptical. Am-
bulacra narrow and linear. Deltoids not visible externally,
except on the posterior side, where the deltoid piece supports
the anal opening which lies outside of the genital openings,
which are confluent and surround the central opening. Col-
umn round. Upper Silurian and Devonian. If more
material should be collected from the Devonian rocks, it
may bring to light characteristics as yet unknown, which may
necessitate the creation of a new genus for this form.

This genus will include the following species : —

1. Clavaeblastus amekicana, W. H. Barris. Hamilton

group.
Pentremitidea americana, W. H. Barris.

2. Clavaeblastus filosa, I. F. Whiteaves. Hamilton group.

Pentremitidea filosa, I. F. Whiteaves.
Pentremites lohitei, Hal!.

3. Clavaeblastus milwaukensis, S. Weller. Hamilton

group.
Pentremitidea milwaukensis, S. Weller.

4. Clavaeblastus REiNWARDTii, G. Troost. Niagara group.

Pentremites reinwardtii, Troost.
Troostocrinus reinwardtii, Shumard.
Pentremites subcylindricus, Hall and Whitfield.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 45

5. Genus Mesoblastus, Etheridge fil. and Carpenter.

Body small, round or elliptical. Base small and flat. Am
bulacra narrow and convex, extending the whole length of
the body. Ambulacral integument scroll-like. Deltoids very
small, hardly visible in a lateral view, but more so in a sum-
mit view, except the posterior one which supports the anal
opening, which is outside of the genital openings. Genital
openings not confluent, but connected by a small sulcus, run-
ning from one to the other in a V shape. Column round.
With only one species.

1. Mesoblastus glaber. Meek and Worthen. St. Louig
limestone.
Qranatocrinus glaber, Meek and Worthen.

6. Genus Cidaroblastus.

General form of body elliptical or globose. Ambulacra
narrow and linear, extending almost over the whole surface
of the body. Central opening never closed except by ambu-
lacral integument. Genital openings ten, constructed by the
junction of the deltoid and lancet pieces, very small and never
confluent with each other. Anal opening on the posterior
side between two of the genital openings. Deltoid pieces
very large in all known species, occupying almost half of the
interambulacrum. Whole interambulacral space covered with
large tubercles for the attachment of spines. Base pieces
small and depressed, being never visible in a side view.
Column round. This genus contains the typical Granatocrinus
of Dr. Troost of which I give three figures on Plate III.,
drawn from the type specimens in the Troost Collection now
in the Smithsonian Institution. Geological position, in the
Subcarboniferous rocks.

1. Cidaroblastus GRANULATUS, Roemer. Subcarboniferous.
Pentatrematites granidatus, Roemer.
Qranatocrinus cidariformis, Troost.
G-ranatocrinus globosus, Troost.
Orbitremites granulatus, Bather.

46 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

7. Genus Globoblastus.

General form of body globose or elliptical. Ambulacrum
narrow and linear, extending almost over the whole surface
of the body. Central opening never closed except by am-
bulacral integument. Genital openings five, piercing the
deltoid pieces and bifurcating in the substance of the shell
toward the interior. Anal opening large to receive the anal
tube which is on the posterior side in the center of this bi-
furcation, making this opening twice as large as the others.
Deltoid pieces of variable size, in some species occupying
almost half of the interambulacral surface. Base small and
very much depressed. Column round.

My reason for not using the name Granatocrinus is suffici-
ently explained in the foregoing pages. Besides its ending
in ' ' crinus ' ' the genus contains so many di:fferent forms among
the various authors, that it is apt to be misleading to the
student. The name Orhitremites , Austin, which Mr. Bather
adopted as the one which should have priority, is only a name
without a generic diagnosis, and therefore equally inadequate.
To avoid all confusion I propose the above used name. The
genus includes the following species : —

Globoblastus norwoodi, Owen and Shumard. Burling-
ton limestone.
Pentremites noriooodi, Owen and Shumard.
Granatocrinus noriooodi, Shumard.
Orbitremites noricoodi, F. A. Bather.

8. Genus Codonites.

General form of the body, bell or star-shaped. Ambulacra
narrow and linear, extending out and downward, thus giving a
more or less star-shaped appearance to the summit. Central
opening very small and usually covered by the ambulacra!
integument. Genital openings, long slits at each side of the
ambulacrum. Anal opening large and lateral. Base, funnel-
shaped. Column round and large for the size of the specimen

Eamhacli — Revision of the Blastoideae. 47

when compared with Pentremiles* All known species belong
to the lower Subcarboniferous. This genus will include the
following species : —

1. CoDONiTES coNicus, C. Wachsmuth and F. Springer.

Kinderhook gr.
Orophocrimis conicus, Wachsmuth and Springer.

2. CoDONiTES CAMPANULATUS, Hambach. Lower Burling-

ton limestone.

Orophocrimis campanulatus , Keyes.

Orophocrimis stelliformis, Ethericlge and Carpenter.

3. CoDONiTES FusiFORMis, Wachsmuth and Springer.

Kinderhook gr.
07'ophocrinus fusiformis, Wachsmuth and Springer.

4. CoDONiTES GRACILIS, Mcck and Worthen. Lower Bur-

lington limestone.
Orophocrimis gracilis, Meek and Worthen.

5. CoDONiTES STELLiFORMis, Owcn and Shumard. Lower

Burlington limestone.
Pentremites stelliformis, Owen and Sauraard.
Orophocrimis stelliformis, Meek and Worthen.

6. CoDONiTES WHiTEi, Hall. Burliugtou limestone.

Codastus whitei, Hall.
Orop>hocrimis whitei, Whitfield.

2. Family Codasteridae.

1. Genus Codaster.

General form of the body bell-shaped or obconical. Am-
bulacral side more or less horizontal. Ambulacra linear.
Mouth small and central. Anus large and lateral, placed be-
tween two ambulacra. Numerous slits at each side of the
ambulacrum, except on the posterior side, i. e., on the side
which faces the anal opening, where they are wanting. Inter-

* It is more closely ralated to Pentremites than to Codaster on account
of the hydrospires.

48 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

ambulacral areas often acute and projecting beyond the sum-
mit. Column thin and round. Geoloo;ical range from the
upper Silurian to the Coal Measures. The following species
belons: to this genus : —

1. CoDASTER ATTENUATUS, Lyon. Devonian.

Cadaster attenuatus, Owen.
Heteroschisma alternatum, Wachsmuth.
Heteroschisma alternatum var. elongatum, Wachsmuth.

2. Cod ASTER americanus, Shumard. Devonian.

3. CoDASTER cInadensis, E. Billiugs. Devonian.
Cadaster hindei, Whiteaves.

4. CoDASTER GRACILIS, Wachsmuth. Devonian.
Heteroschisma gracilis, Wachsmuth.

5. CoDASTER KENTUCKYENSis, Shumard. Lower Subcarbo-

niferous.

Pentremites kentiickyensis, Shumard.
Phaenoschisma, Etheridge and Carpenter.

6. CoDASTER PULCHELLUS, S. A. Miller and C. B. Dyer.

Niagara gr.
Stephanocrinus puchellus, Miller and Dyer.

7. CoDASTER PYRAMiDATUS, Shumard. Devonian.
Cadaster alternatus (pars), Lyon.

8. CoDASTER suBTRUNCATUS, Hall. Devonian.

Pentremites suhtruncatus , Hall.

Heteroschisma gracile, "Wachsmuth.

Traastocrinus suhtruncatus, Etheridge and Carpenter.

B. Order Irregulares.

1. Family Olivanidae.

1. Genus Olivanites.

General form of the body oval or round. Base very small
and depressed. Fork pieces very short, hardly more than -g-
of the whole length of the body. Ambulacra narrow, linear
and extending the full length of the body. Deltoids very

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 49

large, occupying nearly f of the whole length. Genital
openings constructed by the junction of the deltoid and lancet
piece, and not confluent. Poral pieces varying in number ac-
cording to the size of the species. Center of the summit closed
by additional pieces. The main opening (the anal ?) is lateral
and posterior, i. e., the posterior deltoid is divided in half
and an elongated piece inserted as a support for the opening.
Column round.

Nearly all the material collected so far is of such a nature
as to make a more accurate description impossibie. Geologi-
cally they belong to the Devonian. Here we hnd the first
irregularity in the construction of the calyx. It is difficult to
say whether the elongated piece should be counted to the
ambulacral or the interambulacral cycle, giving one or the
other an old number of pieces.

The name Nucleocrinus , introduced by Conrad in 1842, is
here rejected, first because of its ending in "crinus," and
secondly because of the insufficient diagnosis, which reads as
follows : " This genus differs from Pentremites sayi in having
only one perforation at top, which is central."* Oii account
of this insufficiency it was not adopted by most of our Amer-
ican palaeontologists. It is absolutely impossible to recognize
or identify a specimen from the above description, accom-
panied by an incorrect drawing.

Roemer's name Elaeacrinus has to be rejected also on
account of its ending in "crinus." By so doing, and not to
increase the nomenclature with synonyms, I have adopted
Lyon's designation as the most suitable one. This genus will
include the following species : —

1. Olivanites angularis, Lyon. Devonian.
Nucleocrinus angularis Etheridge and Carpenter.
Elaeacrinus angularis, Shumard.

*2. Olivanites conradi, Hall. Devonian.

Nucleocrinus conradi, Hall.
Elaeacrinus conradi, Hall.
Nucleocrinus verneuili. Hall.

*

Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1842, Vol.
VIII., page 280, PI. XV ;- Fig. 17.

50 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

3. Olivanites elegans, T. a. Conrad. Devonian.
Nucleocrinus canadensis, H. Montgomery.
Nucleocrinus hallii, L. Vanuxem.
Elaeacrinus elegans, Shumard.
Nucleocrinus veniistus, Miller aud Gurley.

*4. Olivanites greeni, S. A., Miller and W. F. E. Gurley.

Devonian.
Nucleocrinus greeni, Miller and Gurley.

*5. Olivanites globosus, Troost. Devonian.

6. Olivanites lugina, Hall. Devonian.
Nucleocrinus lucina. Hall.

*7. Olivanites meloniformis, W. H. Barris. Devonian.

Elaeacrinus meloniformis, Barris.

8. Olivanites obovatus, W. H. Barris. Devonian.
Elaeacrinus obovatus, Barris.

9. Olivanites verneuili, Lyon. Devonian.

Pentremites verneuili, Troost.
Elaeacrinus vernenili, Roemer.
Nucleocrinus verneuili, Bather.

Those marked with an asterisk may have to be placed
in another orenus or mav prove to be identical with one or
another abeady known species, which facts can only be
established when more material for comparison is available.

2. Family Eleutheroblastidae.
1. Genus Eleutheroblastus.

General form elliptical, truncated at the summit and sub-
triangular at the base. Base very irregular, subtriangular at
the lower part, and prolonged on one of its sides to a remark-
able length. It consists of three pieces, one small rhombic
piece and two large pieces prolonged nearly to the middle of
the calyx. Fork pieces four, non-symmetrical, each having a
lono' sinus in the center for the reception of the ambulacrum.
The two middle pieces have a shorter sinus, whereas the two

Hambach — Revision of the Blasioideae. 51

lateral pieces have a sinus at least ^ inch longer, and, con-
sequently, a longer ambulacrum. The fifth fork piece is
shortest, being only half as long as the others, but much
wider and rests upon the upper edges of the two large basals.
This piece has a very broad but short sinus, and correspond-
ing ambulacrum. Deltoids five and small. Ambulacra nar-
row and linear; the fifth broad and triangular and lying
horizontally on the summit. Mouth central. No anal open-
ing visible. Genital openings five, each one divided by a
septum. I consider the side with the short and broad
ambulacrum the posterior part of the calyx. No column.
Devonian.

1. Eleutheroblastus canedayi, B. F. Shumard and L. P.

Yandell. Devonian.
Eleutherocrinus canedayi, Shumard and Yandell.

2. Eleutheroblastus whitfieldi. Hall. Hamilton group.

Eleutherocrinus whitfieldi, Hall.

The followmg species are insufficiently described and illus-
trated to be identified and classified with certainty : —

Blastoidocrinus carchariaedens, Billings.
Pentremites decussatus, Shumard.
Pentremites maia, Hall.
Pentremites leda, Hall.
Pentremites calyce, Hall.
Pentremites lycories. Hall,
Pentremites whitei, Hall.
Codaster blairi, Miller and Gurlev.
Codaster jessieae, Miller and Gurley.
Nucleocrinus venustus, Miller and Gurlev.
Granatocrinus sphaeroidalis. Miller and Gurley.
Granatocrincus winslowi, Miller and Gurley.
Granatocrinus aplatus, Rowley and Hare.
Granatocrinus concinnulus, Rowley and Hare.
Granatocrinus pyriformis, Rowley and Plare.
Granatocrinus exiguus, Rowley and Hare.

52 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Codonites inopinatus, Rowley and Hare.
Granatocrinus excavatus, Rowley and Hare.
Codaster gracillimus, Rowley and Hare.
Codaster grandis, Rowley.
Lophoblastus conoideus, Rowley.
Lophoblastus marginulus, Rowley.
Carpeuteroblastus pentagonus, Rowley.
Carpenteroblastus magnibasis, Rowley.
Carpenteroblastus pentalobus, Rowley.
Carpenteroblastus stella, Rowley.
Codaster laeviculus, Rowlev.
Granatocrinus calycinus, Rowley.
Granatocrinus spinuliferus, Rowley.
Pentremites benedicti, Rowley.
Troostocrinus dubius, Rowley.

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.

Pentremites tulipaformis n. s.

Plate IV., Fig. 10, 11.

Body oval in outline with the broadest part downward and
the greatest transverse diameter at the apex of the ambulac-
rum. Basals small, each rounded and nodose, causing the
articulation surface of the column to become a little depressed
or sunk between these three nodules and therefore not visible
in a lateral view. Ambulacrum broad, leaf -like and groove-
like, occupying three-fourths of the whole length of the body.
Poral pieces ten to one-eighth of an inch. Interambulacral
space smooth and not depressed, giving the lower part of the
body a somewhat rounded form. Lateral expansion of the
deltoid occupying about one-third of the whole length of the
calyx. Genital openings and mouth small and close together.
This species belongs to the Chester limestone and is found at
Kaskaskia, Illinois, but is by no means common.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae.

53

Pentremites obtusus n. s.
Fig. 13.

Among the great number of Pentremites {Pentrevnites co-
noideus) so characteristic of the Boonville locality, we find by
close examination of a large amount of material that they are
not all one and the same kind and we can
readily pick out a number which, although re-
sembling very much Pentremites conoideus, differ
constantly in certain characters from this spe-
cies, so that we are forced to regard them as a
distinct species. Their body is conical with a flat
basal portion, the small basal pieces not visible in a side view;
ambulacrum narrow with a rounded surface and extending to
the base of the body. Vertical diameter never, even in a
small specimen, greater than the horizontal one, by which it
can easily be recognized from P. conoideus. Interambu-
lacral space smooth and not as much depressed as we find it
in Pentremites conoideus. Genital openings small and close
together. It is a distinct Warsaw species.

Geological position and locality : It occurs in the Warsaw
limestone of Boonville, Missouri.

Fig. 13.

Pentremites angustus n. s.

Fig. 14.

Body elongate, obtuse, conical. Base small, flat and not
visible in a side view. Ambulacrea as Ions; as the whole
body and nearly three-sixteenths of an inch in width, extend-
ing a little above the fork piece sinus and slightly rounded on
the surface. Poral
openings twelve to one-
eighth of an inch.
Interambulacral space
smooth and not de-
pressed in the center.
Lateral expansion of

the deltoid externally
. -^ a. Pentremites angustus.

Visible and occupying b. " " base view,

fully one-half of the c. Pentremites conoideus, base view.

54 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

whole length of the body. Genital openings small and close
together, appearing on the outer surface as five, of which one
is twice as large as the others. This species resembles some-
what Pentremites conoideus though it is easily recognized and
distinguished from P. conoideus by not having the summit
as acute as conoideMs, by its wider ambulacra and by its inter-
ambulacral space not being depressed as in conoideus. It is
distinguished from Pentremites elongatus by its more conical
form, perfectly flat basal portion, having the greatest diam-
eter of the body right at the apex of the ambulacrum and
not having the interambulacral space finely striated as we
find it in Pentremites elongatus. It belongs to the Chester
limestone, but has been so far known only from Washington
County in Arkansas.

Pentremites turbinatus n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 6.

Body turbinate or inverted pyramidal. Base large for the
size of the specimen and funnel shaped. Fork pieces elon-
gate, square and large; sinus broad extending down only half
the length of the piece. Ambulacrum broad, leaf -like and
flat. Poral pieces eleven to one-eighth of an inch. Deltoids
externally not visible. Interambulacral space rather flat and
smooth. Genital openings close together. Greatest trans-
verse diameter at the apex of the ambulacrum which occupies
the upper third of the body.

Geological position and locality: Chester limestone, Evans-
ville, Illinois. Very rare.

Pentremites rusticus n. s.
Fig. 15.

Body almost cylindrical, i. e., the diameter at the base is
as great as near the summit. Basal plates very small
and not visible in a lateral view. Ambulacra as
long as the body with a somewhat rounded surface
and sunk into the fork piece sinus which has a
sharp and prominent margin. Poral openings
Fig. 15. thirteen to one-eighth of an inch. Lateral expres-
sion of deltoid one-third of the whole length of the body,

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 55

extending near the summit prominently outward, giving to
the body a square appearance. Interambulacral space not
depressed as in Pentre'mites conoideus and covered with fine
striae, running parallel to the sutures. Genital openings
small and close together as in the foregoing species.

Geological position and locality : It occurs in the Chester
limestone and is known so far only from Washington
County, Arkansas.

Pentremites kirki n. s,
Plate v., FifT. 18.

General form of the body cylindrical, about | of an inch in
length and -{"^ of an inch in width. Base very robust and
funnel shaped, with a large articulation surface for the
column, almost as wide as in Codoniies. Distance from the
articulation surface of the column to the apex of the ambu-
lacrum about two-fifths of the entire length of the body.
Ambulacra broad and slightly rounded with a very coarse
plicable integument with only eight plications to one-eighth
of an inch. Interambulacral space rather narrow, with a
slight depression in the center and a sharp, projecting, spiny
crest at the apex of the ambulacrum. Whole surface of the
interambulacral space and the base portion ornamented with
fine striations, running parallel to the sutures.

Deltoids hardly visible externally, but the summit projects
about Yt of an inch above the sharp point of the fork piece.
Genital openings, as in Penfremifes elongatus or burlington-
ensis where the anterior portion, or the outer septa of the
deltoid base, divide each opening in two, while the posterior
one is divided into three so that the summit shows very dis-
tinctly twelve openings.

Geological formation and locality : Lower Burlington lime-
stone.

It gives me great pleasure to name this beautiful little
Blastoid in honor of Mr. E. Kirk, the lucky finder, who is a
very energetic and prominent young collector.

56 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Pentremites bradleyi Meek.

Plate v., Fig. 7.

TBodv small, obtuse, conical. Basal portion almost flat, and
resembling that of Pentrevmtes conoideus very much, but be-
ing more rounded and having a larger articulation surface for
the column, in proportion to its size, than Pentremites
conoideus. Ambulacra broad, excavated along the middle,
and having rather narrow integumental plications, there being
about twelve to one-eighth of an inch. Deltoids visible
externally. Genital openings as in all true Pentremites.

This species was first described by Meek, but merely in a
foot note, comparing it with Pentremites koninchiana =
conoideus Hall. It differs from Pentremites conoideus in being
more obtuse, with broader and more deeply excavated ambu-
lacra than Pentremites conoideus, in which the ambulacra are
narrow, more rounded, and the surface plications coarser.
The interambulacral spaces are depressed more in Pentremites
conoideus than in this species. It differs from Pentremites
godoni in being not as round, with more depressed ambulacra,
and in not having the sharp crest-like margin around the
sinus.

Geological formation and locality : Subcarboniferous on
the Divide between Ross Fork and Lincoln Valley, Montana.
First mentioned in F. V. Hay den's Sixth Annual Report of
the United States Geological Survey of the Territories, 1872,
p. 470. Types in the Smithsonian Collection, numbered
24,529.

Pentremites serratus n. s.

Plate IV., Fig. 9.

Body rol)ust and resembling Pentremites sulcatus very much.
Base flat and disk-like, showing a distinctly triangular depres-
sion around the articulation surface of the column. Ambu-

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 57

lacra concave, broad, leaf-like, and sunk so that the surface
does not reach the upper margin of the sinus. Interambu-
lacral area not so depressed as in Pentremites sulcatus, with a
very prominent and coarsely serrated margin at each side of
ambulacrum from the base of the sinus to the deltoid suture.
External deltoid surface rather convex, smooth, with a sharp
prominent base point, projecting much over the summit.
Whole surface finely striated. Poral pieces 9 to ^ inch.
Genital openings as in Peniremites sulcatus. All my specimens
vary from ^ to 1^ inches in diameter. Transverse diameter
one-fourth orreater than the vertical diameter. The serrated
edge of each side of the ambulacrum distinguishes this species
readily from Peniremites sulcatus^ its nearest ally.

The geological formation is the Chester limestone, but I
have never found it at Chester or Evansville, Illinois, or
around there. It occurs at Ste. Genevieve, Missouri, and at
Baldwin, Illinois.

Cribeoblastus incisus n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 2.

Body globose, of medium size, seldom more than f inch
in diameter. Base very small, depressed, not visible in a
lateral view. Ambulacrum narrow, linear, running almost
over the whole surface of the body. Deltoid pieces very
small, visible externally, but entirely confined to the summit.
Interambulacral area convex and granulated, with a deep
suture in the center and a luuary impression at each side of
the ambulacral margin, dividing each side of the ambulacral
sinus in two ; and a little spine-like projection at the apex of
the sinus readily distinguishes it from G . melo and other allied
forms. Genital openings very small but not confluent with
each other.

Geological formation and locality: Lower Burlington lime-
stone, Burlington, Iowa.

58 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loxds.

CiDAROBLASTUS PARVUS n. S.
Plate v., Fig. 1.

Body ovoidal, a little wider at the summit than at the base.
Base very small and depressed, but not as much as in the
typical specimen of this genus. Ambulacrum narrow and
linear, running almost over the whole surface of the body.
Fork pieces broad, occupying a little more than half the
vertical height of the calyx, with an elongated depression in
the center of the interambulacrum where two of them join.
Deltoid very broad, occupying nearly half the interambulac-
rum, covered with small granules, arranged in regular trans-
verse rows, for the reception of little spines. Genital
openings very small, not confluent.

Of this unique species I have several silicious casts, as well
as the surrounding molds, which show distinctly the fine
spines adhering to them. All the specimens are of a cherty
nature and on the whole not as well preserved as most other
specimens, but, nevertheless, showing all the above described
characters very distinctly.

Geological formation and locality : In cherty rock of the
St. Louis age, in southwestern Missouri.

Cribroblastus verrucosus n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 3.

General form of body globose, vertical and transverse
diameters equal. Basals very small and almost concealed by
the column, or extending very little beyond it. Ambulacra
narrow and linear, running almost over the whole surface of
the body. Fork pieces very short occupying hardly one-
fourth of the vertical diameter of the body with a very dis-
tinctly depressed suture. Deltoids very broad, occupying
fully three-fourths of the vertical length of the body, separa-
ted from the upper fork piece suture by a double linear de-
pression. The whole interambulacral space is rounded and
ornamented by coarse granulation very irregularly arranged.

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 59

This species is easily separated from its nearest relatives, as
Cribroblastus sayi (^Pentremites sayi of Shumard), by its
coarse granular surface. Of this nice unique Blastoid I possess
only a silicious cast and mould though sufficiently preserved
to recognize its distinction from similar species.

Geological formation and locality : It was discovered in a
cherty rock of the Burlington formation at Allenton, St.
Louis County, Mo.

Cribroblastus tenuistriatus n. s.
Plate v., Fig. 16.

Body small and oval in outline, being a little wider at the
summit than at the base. Basals very small but visible in a
lateral view. Ambulacra narrow and linear, not extending
over the whole surface of the body, occupying only three-
fourths of its entire length. Deltoids about one-third of the
whole length, the whole interambulacral space rounded and
with a lancet-shaped longitudinally striated elevation extending
from the base to the apex of the deltoid whereas the deltoid,
surface and the surface at both sides of the lancet-shaped
elevation are ornamented with little granules arrans-ed in a dis-
tinctly transverse manner. Genital openings very small and
formed by the junction of the deltoid and lancet piece. Ver-
tical diameter one-third greater than the transverse. Whole
length of the specimen -^\ of an inch, width -^^ inch.

Geological position and locality : In the Burlington lime-
stone. Cooper County, Missouri.

Cribroblastus schucherti n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 8, 8a.

Body globose, about as broad as long. It is one of the
smallest species known. Basal portion very small and de-
pressed. Fork pieces narrow, with a narrow sinus for the
reception of the ambulacrum extending almost the whole

60 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

length of the piece. Margins of the sinus drawn out to form
a prominent crest on both sides of the ambulacrum, thus
causing the interambulacral space to be slightly concave.
Deltoids small, the upper portion running out to a small
projecting spine. Summit openings, ^. e., mouth, anus and
genital openings, twelve in number and not confluent.

This species, which resembles C. cormitus Meek and Wor-
then, differs from it, however, in the following characters :
The base is not depressed as much, the margins of the ambu-
lacral sini are less prominent, and the interambulacral spaces
are not excavated as much as in C. cormdus. The interam-
bulacra are twice as wide as in C . cornutus, in which species
the interambulacra are about as wide as the ambulacra. The
spiny projection is not as long or as prominent as in C.
cornutus. Besides the f oregoins: differences the surface orna-
mentation is different in the two species, being granular in
C. coriiutuSy and finely striated in the species under consider-
ation.

Geological formation and locality : Subcarboniferous.
Divide between Koss Fork and Lincoln Valley, Montana.
The specimens were collected by Hay den's party, and first
mentioned in the Annual Report for 1872, page 470, un-
der the name Pentremites bradleyi. Meek. Types in the
Smithsonian Collection, numbered 24,529. By close exami-
nation it was found that the specimens under this number con-
sisted of two different species, one of these I have here named
in honor of mv friend, C. Schuchert.

Saccoblastus vextricosus, n. s.
Plate IV., Fig. 7.

Body bipyramidal. Base cup-shaped, with three charac-
teristic impressions peculiar to this genus. Articulation sur-
face of the column triangular. Column triansfular. Ambu-
lacrum very narrow, linear and sunk into the very prominent
ambulacral sinus. Interambulacrum smooth and dipping a
little toward the fork piece suture. Genital openings near

Hamhach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 61

the summit, not confluent, the oblique opening giving a slit-
like appearance to them. Anal opening ^ inch below the
summit. Poral openings 11 to ^ inch. The greatest trans-
verse diameter is at the apex of the ambulacrum, which is
about f below the summit. Vertical diameter f and the
transverse diameter about f of an inch.

Geological formation and locality: Warsaw limestone,
Boonville, Missouri.

Globoblastus magnificus n. s.
Plate III,, Fig. 5.

This specimen, although only a silicious cast, differs so much
from all other known species, that I am thoroughly convinced
of its specific value. It is nearly twice as large as an ordinary
G. noriooodi, from which it is readily separated by the fol-
lowing characteristics. The base, though small, is not
depressed, as in G. norwoodi. Fork pieces resemble those of
G. norivoodi, but are larger and reach nearly to the summit
of the calyx. The sinus of the ambulacrum is very narrow,
extending, as in G. norwoodi, nearly the whole length of
the ambulacrum.

Deltoids, to judge by the impressions of the suture mark-
ings, are perforated as in G. norivoodi. This is shown plainly
on a small part of a deltoid piece remaining in the cast,
which leaves no doubt as to its generic affinities. Interambu-
lacral spaces seem to be more rounded and convex than in
G. norwoodi. External ornamentation not known. Ambu-
lacra narrow and seemingly extending over the whole surface
as in the true noi^woodi. The main differences, beside the
size, between this species and G. norwoodi, are the shallow
depression or almost flat basal plates and the more rounded
interambulacral spaces, and, probably, a different external
ornamentation .

Geological formation and locality : In a chert rock be-
longing to the same age as the Burlington limestone, in the
southwestern portion of Missouri, near the Arkansas boun-
dary line. Height of specimen, 1^ inch. Width, 1 inch.

62 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Globoblastus ornatus n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 4.

Body elliptical, longer than wide. Basals very small and
depressed. Ambulacrum narrow and linear, extending the
whole length of the body. Interambulacral space slightly
rounded, wider in the center than near the base where it is
rather depressed with little spine-like projections at the base
of the sinus for the apex of the ambulacrum. The whole
interambulacral space has an outer granulated margin, where-
as the inner surface is ornamented by granulations shaped
like an elongated spear head. Deltoids very small, with a
horn-like projection above the summit and perforated in the
center. This species is also easily recognized b}^ the orna-
mentation of its interambulacrum.

Geological position and locality : It occurs in the Burling-
ton limestone at various places in Missouri.

Globoblastus spathatus n. s.

Plate v., Fig. 5.

Body globose, resembling somewhat G. norwoodi in out-
line. Vertical and transverse diameters equal. Ambulac-
rum narrow and linear extending over the whole length of
the body. Interambulacral space flat, ornamented at the
outer margin by a row of granulations running down on each
side of the fork piece sutures, giving in this manner a double
row of granules in the center of each interambulacrum.
Each interambulacral half so marked is ornamented by gran-
ulations in the form of a spatula. Deltoids small and protu-
berant, perforated in the center. The peculiar ornamenta-
tion of the interambulacral space is sufficient to separate it at
once from allied forms.

Geological position and locality: It occurs in the Bur-
lington limestone at Allenton, St. Louis County, Missouri.

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 63

Cribroblastus tenuis n. s.
Plate v., F;g. 17, 17a.

Body small, cylindrical, about twice as long as wide. Am-
bulacra extending almost over the whole surface of the body.
Interambulacra rather convex with a marked crest in the cen-
ter. The sutures where the forkpieces meet present a fine
furrow as well as the sutures between the fork and deltoid
pieces, whose external surface is finely granulated and occupies
about one-fifth of the entire length of the body. The rest of
the interambulacrum is transversely striated at both sides of
the central crest. Genital openings very small, and not con-
fluent. Basal part small and flat, visible externally only the
thickness of the shell.

It is easily distinguished from Cribroblastus roemeri and
samjpsoni by its more slender form and by the external orna-
mentation.

Geological position and locality : Chouteau limestone, Pet-
tis County, Missouri.

Induced by the sweeping statement of Mr. F. A. Bather,
I give the following list, comparing the Blastoids in my
collection with those of the British Museum. Accordino-
to Mr. Bather's statement, p. x.. Introduction to his Cata-
logue, the collection contained then (1899) 1,223 specimens.
Quoting his remarks : " These figures speak for themselves.
However numerous may be the specimens of Blastoidea in
other museums, there can scarcely be any collection so repre-
sentative of the class as a whole or as rich in specimens of the
highest scientific importance as is that of the British Museum."
This is a strong expression, especially since Mr. Bather has not
seen all collections. Considering that America contains the
bulk of the material, although admitting that the British
Museum has the very valuable collections of Gilbertson, I.
Rofe and L. G. de Koninck of unique specimens, I venture
to say that our American material is on the whole better pre-
served than that found in Europe, and being confident that the
American collectors did not send their best specimens across

64 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the water, it is not very doubtful to say that, for the study
of this particular class of fossils, the best material is found
on this side of the water. Comparing the figures of the
British collection with mv own, shows at a glance on which
side the most material is to be found. Aside from this, my
collection, which was brought together in fifty years,
and comprises about ten thousand specimens, contains
a number of real scientific specimens (pathologic and
abnormal developments and specimens illustrating mor-
phology) hardly to be found in any other collection. A
student could learn more on a dozen or two picked specimens
from our material than from the whole collection of Gilbert-
son, Rofe or de Koninck. Besides specimens illustrating the
morphology, my collection contains considerably over one
hundred pathologic and abnormal specimens.

I give the names as arranged in Bather's Catalogue, and an
asterisk denotes the type specimen.

Br. M. stands for Briiish Museum and H. for Hambach.

Br. M. H.

Codaster acutus o o

•' canadensis o

" gracilis o o

* " kentuckyensis o

" pulchellus o

* " pyramidatus o o

" trilobatus o o

*Codonite3 campanulatus o o

' ' conicus •

" fusiformis o o

" gracilis o

" stelliformls o o

♦Cryptoblastus kirkwoodensis. o

'■ melo o o

" pisum o

«« projectus o

Cryptoschisma schulzi o o

Eleutherocrinus cassedayi o o

Granatocrinus cornutus o

f ' curtus o

'' campanulatus.. o

" derbiensis o o

" ellipticus o o

••' exiguus '. o

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 65

Br. M. H.

Granatocrinus glaber o

•' granulatus o

" maccoyi o

*' norwoodi o o

" orbicularis o

* (I

roemeri.

Heteroblastus cumberlandi o

Mesoblastus angulatus o

" crenulatus o

" elonsatus

»^

o

" rofei 0

" shumardi o

" sowerbyi o

Metablastus bipyramidalis o

" cottaldi o

" hispanicus o

" lineatus o o

" varsouviensis o o

" wachsrautlii o

" wortheni o o

Nucleocrinus angularis o o

" elegans o o

•' greenei o

" Incina o

" meloniformis o

" obovatus o o

<f verneuili o o

" " var. pomum o o

Oropliocrinus orbignyanus o

" pentangularis o

" verus o

*Pentremite8 abbreviatus o

" angularis o o

* " basilaris o

* " bradleyi o

* '• broadheadi o

" burlingtonensis o o

" cervinus .... o

* *• chesterensis o

* " clavatus o

" conoideus o o

* '* decussatus o

" eifeliensis o o

•* elegans o o

* " elongatus o o

" florealis o o

* " gemmiformis o

" godoni o o

" granulosus o ' o

66

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

*Pentremites

u

(<

Pentremitidea

(C

(1
((
((

Phaenoschisma

te
(i

Schizoblastus

Tricoelocrinus

Zygocrinus

* Pentremites

*
*
*

a
i(

(I

*CribroblastU3

* It

Br. M. H.

grosvenori o

hemisphericus o

nodosus o

obesus . . o o

obliquatus o o

pailletti o o

pyriformis o o

potteri o

reinwardtii o

robustus o o

sampsoni ... o o

eayi o o

spinosus o

sulcatus o o

troosti o o

" var. symmetricus o o

americana o

angulata o

clavata o o

gilbertsoni o

lusitanica o

malladai o

pailletti o o

simills o

wachsmuthi o

whidbornei o

acutum o

archiaci o

benniei o

caryophyllatura o o

nobile o

verneuili o

melouoides o o

neglectus o

shumardi o

leei o

meekianus o

woodmani o o

benniei o

tetragonus , o

angustus o

kirki o

obtusus , o

rusticus o

serratus o

turbinatus o

tulipaf ormis o

incisus o

Schucherti o

Hambach — Revision of the Blastoideae. 67

Br. M. H.

*Cribroblastus tenuistriatus o

* "■ tenuis o

* '* verrucosus o

*Saccoblastus ventricosus. . . o

♦Cidaroblastus parvus o

*Globoblastus magnificus o

* " ornatus o

* " spathatus o

Issued November 4, 1903.

Plate I.

All figures are of Pentremites snlcatus and are from photographs of speci-
mens in the author's collection: enlarged two diameters.

1. An ambulacrum, showing a sigmoid flexure in the ambulacral integu-
ment.

2. Summit view, showing distortion of the openings caused by lateral
pressure.

3. An ambulacrum, showing an extensive mechanical injury.

i. An ambulacrum, showing destruction and subsequent restoration of
the apex.

5. Showing an injury in the upper third and the subsequent healing, and
the loss of the poral pieces on the opposite side.

6. Scar of mechanical injuries on both sides of the field.

7. A similar injury, on one side of the field.

TR.AN'S.AC.'MJ.SCl.OF ST.Lut'lS, X'Ul-.Xlll.

PLATE 1.

LithWerr,HiWin;er,Franl(fart?M.

BLASTOIDEAE.

Plate II.

From specimeus iu the author's collection.

1. Upper view of a section of a row of poral piecesj showing collapsed
tentacles in the poral openings.

2. Normal condition of the ambulacral integument.

3. Plications of integument covered by little scales, the larger scales at
the summit standing upright.

4. Section through a row of poral pieces, showing the tentacles ex-
panded.

5. View of the normal condition of the ambulacral integument.

6. Longitudinal section tlirough the ovarian tubes.

7. Irregular expansion of the integument.

8. Transverse section through an ambulacrum, showing lancet piece with
the nervous channel, poral piece, vascular duct (blue), hydrospiric tube
with its internal plications, and between them the ovarian tubes. The
space at either side of the vascular duct, colored yellow, was filled with a
clayey substance.

9. Base portion of the deltoid piece with the lateral expansion removed to
show the grooves in which the hydrospiric plications rest; also the lateral
orifices of the nervous channel.

10. Highly magnified view of the anal opening of tSaccohlnstus.

11. Section showing the looping of the hydrospiric membrane on the inner
side of the calvx.

Trans. Acad. Sci. OF Sr.Louis, Vol.XIII.

Plate II.

-%=:0— ^,

"^^2:5^:7-

mm

ii

w

i

V

11

10

//////////

1 1 .^ .-I l-l <x

S^^/

¥

!k\.

'0 ')

'%

G Kd!iiba:li ad.nat. del.

lifn.V/eriieriWmter, FranWorr'>/M,

FiLASTOIDEAE .

Plate 111.

From specimens in tiie author's collection, unless otherwise stated.

1. Cidaroblastiis grannlaris, — loaned by G. K. Green.

2. Lateral view of same species, — Troost Collection, Smithsonian Institu-
tion, No. 33080.

3. Summit view of same.

4. Cidaroblastus glohosus, — Troost Collection, Smithsonian Institution^
No. 38077.

5. Globoblastus magnificus.

6. 7. Lateral and basal views of Pentremites sulcatus, showing an elongated
piece inserted between two fork pieces.

8, 9. Pentremites pyriformis, showing an undeveloped fork piece and
ambulacrum.

10. Pentremites sidcatus, showing a crippled ambulacrum.

11, 12. Pentremites sulcatus, with only four ambulacra developed and a
fifth fork piece solid.

13, 14. Pentremites snlcatus, with only four ambulacra.
15, 16. Pentremites pyriformis, with six fork pieces but only four ambu-
lacra developed.

17. Saccoblastus, with live fork pieces but six ambulacra, of which two
occupy one sinus.

18. Pentremites godoni, with four fork pieces but with five ambulacra, of
which two occupy one sinus.

Trans. Acad. Sci. OF St Louis, Vol. XIII.

Plate . ill .

G.HdKibach ad nat, de:

LithWeniei-4Vfinter,?iaiikfor(°/M.

BLASTOIDEAE.

Platk IV.

From specimens iu the author's collection.

1. Saccoblastus woodmani, lateral view.

2. Same, base view.

3. Saccoblastus obliquatus, lateral view.

4. Same, base view.

5. Saccoblastus wortheni, lateral view.

6. Saccoblastus pyramidalis, lateral view.

7. Saccoblastus ventricosus, n. s., latei'al view.

8. Saccoblastus lineatus, lateral view.

This row of figures shows the gradual development from one species to the
other.

9. Pentremites serratus, from Ste. Genevieve, Mo.

10. II. Pentremites t^dipaformis, n. s., lateral and basal views.

TIJANS.ACAD. SCI. OFST. LOUIS, VOL.XIII .

PL.\TE I\'.

1_

ro

*■

«o

03

-id nat.del.

Ln'ii Werner (Winter, praKkfon °K .

BLASTOIDEAE.

Plate V.

From specimens iu the author's collection, unless otherwise noted.

1. Cidaroblastus parvus, n. s., showing one interambulacrum.

2. Cribroblastus incisus, n. s.

3. CrihrobJastus verrucosus, u. s., showing the interambulacrum.

4. Globoblastus ornatus, n. s., showing iuterambulacral space.

5. Interambulacrum of Globoblastus spatatus, n. s.

6. PentremUes turbinatus, n. s., lateral view.

7. Pentremites b7-adleyi Meek. — from specimen iu the Smithsonian Insti-
tution.

8. Cribroblastus schucherti, n. s., magnified, — from specimen in the Smith-
sonian Institution.

8a. The same specimen, natural size.

9. Interambulacrum of Cribroblastus sanipsoni.

10. Interambulacrum of Cribroblastus Itoemeri.

11. Iuterambulacral space of Cribroblastus neglectus.

12. Iuterambulacral space of Cribroblastus gramilosus.

13. Interambulacrum of Cribroblastus jyisitm.

14. Cribroblastus sayi, — from Shumard's type specimen.

15. Outline of Cribroblastus potteri.

16. Cribroblastus tenuistriatrts, n. s.

17. Interambulacrum of Cribroblastus tenuis, n. s.
17a. Outline of specimen, natural size.

18. Pentremites kirki, n. s., lateral view, — from specimen in the collection
of Mr. Kirk.

TptANS.ACAD.SCl.OF ST. Lol'lS. \'0L.X111.

Plate \'

G/Hambac'h ad nat del

Lil>i.Wen>ertWinter,pranl<fort''/M.

BLASTOIDE.\E .

Plate VI.

From specimens in the author's collection.

A row of Pentremites snlcatus, showing the gradual development of the
lateral expansion of the deltoids, which in Figs. 1-3 are not visible exter-
nally. All of the specimens are from the same locality.

TKAN8. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIII.

Plate VI.

BLASTOIDKAE.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XIII. No. 2.

ON THE PEEDETERMINATION OF THE SPEED OF
THE TROTTING HORSE.

FRANGIS E. NIPHER.

Issued July 9, 1903.

ON THE PEEDETEEMINATION OF THE SPEED OF
THE TROTTING HORSE.

Francis E. Nipher.

In a paper published in 1883 in the Transactions of The
Academy of Science of St. Louis, the writer gave a discussion
of numerical data covering the performance of all trotting
horses making public records, between the years 1843 and
1883. The equation which gives the speed of the best
horse at any date as function of the time, counted from any
assumed date, was then published. It was found that the
speed of the horse was approaching a limit, which was ap-
proximately that of the running horse. The limiting speed
indicated by the data was 1:38, or 98 seconds to the mile.
This was somewhat below the speed of the running horse, on
an oval track, and it is evident that a limit of 100 seconds to
the mile will also fit the observations in a very satisfactory
way. The equation published in 1883 was

— kt

s^ a -{- b

Here s is the speed, in seconds per mile, t years after any
assumed date. At this assumed date t = 0,and s =a + b.
It is evident that a is the limiting speed reached in an infinite
time, and that b is the difference between the limiting speed,
and the speed at the assumed zero date.

Mr. W. H. Pickering offered some criticisms on the method
of obtaining the constants in the above equation, as it ap-
peared in a preliminary form,* and in an appendix to the
paper in the Transactions,! a slightly different method was-
employed. The constants so determined were

— 0.0127<

5 = 98 + 43.56
or log (s— 98) =1.637 — 0.0055^

♦ American Journal of Science. III. 26 : 20-24. July, 1883.
t Trans. Acad, of Science of St. Louis. Vol. IV. No. 3, pp. 514-5. 1883,

(69)

70 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

where t is measured in years from 1860. According to
this equation the speed of the trotting horse in 1903
would be obtained by making t = 43. The value so com-
puted is s = 123.1 or two minutes and three seconds per mile
(2:03).

The date when the two-minute horse will appear is found
by making s = 120. The corresponding value of t is 54.
The date is therefore 1860 + 54=1914. These two results
do not at present seem very far from the mark.

If in the above equation s be made 180, the date when the
three-minute horse appeared is found to correspond to ^ =
— 50. The date is 1810. As a matter of fact the date when
the three-minute horse appeared was, as I am informed, 1818,
in response to a bet of a thousand dollars that no such horse
could be produced.

Nearly all of the fast trotters belong to a few families. A
very large per cent, have descended from Rysdyk's Haynhle-
toniati, foaled 1849, and Mamhrino Chief, foaled 1844, both
of whom were descended from the thoroughbred Mamhrino.
It would therefore be unreasonable to expect a very close agree-
ment between observed speeds, of a century ago, and those
computed from the above formula.

If in the equation, s be made 99, the time when the horse
will have reached within one second of his limiting speed, is
found to be 298 vears after 1860.

The data from which the above equation was deduced were
published in the American Journal of Science for April, 1883,
by Professor Brewer, of Yale. The data covered all known
official trotting records between the dates 1843 and 1883.
From 1854 to the present time the speed of the trotter has
increased from s = 145 to s = 123. This is a change of 22
seconds in the time of trottino^ a mile. Accordino; to the
equation as shown above, it will take 255 years, or until the
year 2158 to change the speed by 24 seconds more. In all
time thereafter, the speed will be practically constant, as the
«peed of the running horse is now.

In 1892 when JSfancy Hanks lowered the trotting record,
the writer applied the above equation to her standard track

Nipher — Predetermination of Speed of Trotting Horse.

71

record as published at that time, and covering the four years
1889 to 1892 inclusive. Estimating t in years from 1889,
the equation for her performance was found to be

— C.693<

s= 124.5 + 20. Oe

The constants in this equation were computed from the
observed and published values reproduced in columns one,
two and three of the followino- table. Column four shows
the corresponding values of s computed from the last
equation. The agreement between observed and computed
values could not be more precise.

NANCY HANKS. STANDARD TRACK RECORDS.

t

Date.

s Obs.

s. Calc.

Diffs.

0

1889

144.5

144.5

0.0

1

1890

134.5

134.5

0.0

2

1891

129.5

129.5

0.0

3

1892

127.25

127.0

0.25

4

1893

125.7

—

5

1894

125.1

. —

OD

124.5

—

The computed speeds for the years 1893 and 1894 are also
given, and the limiting speed which this horse would make
after an infinite time (if she could have continued to train
indefinitely) is also given at the bottom of column four. It
will be seen that this horse must have reached within one
second of her own possible speed during 1893. In about four
years the speed of this horse changed 19 seconds and came
within one second of the final speed possible, even if this
horse had been immortal and could have continued the pro-
cess forever.*

* In September, 1892, this horse trotted a mile in 2:04, but this record
was made with the newly adopted 28-inch wheel, with pneumatic tire and
ball bearings. It is thought that this diminishes the time by about three
seconds. I also find on examination that the record 2:07.25 in the table
above was made with the same running gear. This makes the record for
that year of less weight, in discussing the records of this particular horse.

72

Trans, Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

In 1865 Goldsmith Maid began her career as a trotter, at
the age of eight years. In the nine years which followed,
her speed steadilj^ increased, and is represented by the
equation

— 0.193<

5= 131.0 4- 13. 5e

Her track record for this period is given in the following
table, and the speed computed from the last equation is given
in the fourth column of the table.

GOLDSMITH MAID. STANDARD TRACK RECORDS.

t

Date.

s Obs.

s Calc.

DifEs.

0

1865

146.0

151.0

+ 5.0

3

1868

141.5

142.2

+ 0.7

4

1869

140.5

140.2

— 0.3

6

1871

137.0

137.2

+ 0.2

7

1872

136.75

136.2

— 0.5

9

1874

134.0

134.5

+ 0.5

Another horse, American Girl, 1862, began her track
record in 1867, and reached her best speed in 1874. Her
change in speed is represented by the equation

s= 136.4 + 14.46e

- 0.707<

AMERICAN GIRL. STANDARD TRACK RECORDS.

t

Date.

s Obs.

s Calc.

Diffs.

0

1867

152.5

150.90

— 1.60

1

1868

144.0

143.53

— 0.47

2

1869

139.0

139.92

+ 0.92

4

1871

137.25

136.86

— 0.39

7

1874

136.5

137.43

+ 0.93

The last record that will be given is that of Judge Ful-
lerton, 1865, whose track record covers the years 1871-5 in-
clusive.

Nipher — Predetermination of Speed of Trotting Horse. 73
His performance is represented by the equation

— 0.518<

5 = 137 + 7.94e
A comparison of observed and computed values follows : —

JUDGE FULLERTON. STANDARD TRACK RECORDS.

t

Date.

s Obs.

s Calc.

DifEs.

0

1871

145.25

144.94

— 0.31

1

1872

141.75

141.73

— 0.02

2

1873

139.25

139.82

+ 0.57

3

1874

139.00

138.68

— 0.32

4

1875

138.00

138.00

0.00

It is evident that a slight change in the values of the con-
stants, would in some cases make the agreement between
observed and computed values somewhat closer. They are,
however, very satisfactory, when we consider that the owners
and drivers of these horses were not primarily seeking to
secure accurate data for this discussion. It is evident also
that the trainer's record would afford much more satisfactory
material for a discussion of the subject, than can be realized
in the track records. A record of three or four years might
be expected to give a very fair idea of the future record of a
horse .

In the original paper the date when any given speed orig-
inated, was obtained from the data of Brewer's table, by a
discussion of the subsequent increase in the number of horses
capable of that speed. For example in 1859 there was one
horse who could trot a mile in 2: 23 or better. In the next
year there were two. Ten years later there were sixteen, and
in 1882 there were 275. When these numbers were platted
on a time axis, a logarithmic curve resulted. When the
logarithm of the number of horses was similarly platted, a
straight line was obtained. This straight line intersected the
time axis at the date 1857, instead of 1859. This date for
the origin of the speed 2 : 23 was considered much more
weighty, than the date when some trotting match revealed

74

Trans. Acad. Sci. of iSt. Louis.

the fact that the first horse capable of making this speed had
already appeared. Horses who are by their owners known to
be capable of breaking the record, are much more likely to be
held back for advantageous conditions, than a horse of the
same class would be after this speed has become a common one.

The effect of ball bearings, the pneumatic tire and the 28-
inch wheel was to produce a sudden change in speed in 1892,
but this is an effect that must and should be considered a part
of the problem. The old high-wheeled sulky was also con-
tinually being improved, between 1850 and 1890. The inter-
esting fact remains that the record to-day is within a second
of that predicted twenty years ago.

The results here given also seem to be sufficient to estab-
lish another confirmation of a general principle of evolution.
It would seem that each horse goes through during the few
years of its track life, the same kind of evolution that its
race goes through during the centuries. The same equation
which represents the result of training the individual horse,
represents also the supreme result of selection, breeding and
training of the family.

Just as this paper is going to press, the world's record of
the running horse has been lowered by Alan-a-Dale, to
s=^ 97.6 (1: 37.6). This, in connection with the well-known
record of Legal Tender in 1865 and of Ten Broeck in 1887,
will give the basis for a fair determination of the final limit
of the running horse. The observed speeds are given in the
following table : —

THE RUNNING HORSE. OVAL TRACK.

t

Date.

s Obs.

8 Calc.

DifCs.

0

1865

104.0

104.0

0.0

22

1887

99.75

99.76

0.0

38

1903

97.6

97.6

0.0

The values of speed in the fourth column are computed
from the equation

log (s — 91.5)= 1.097 — 0.0082^

or s = 91.5 + 12. 5e

-G.0189*

Nipher — Predetermination of Speed of Trotting Horse. 75

The differences between observed and computed values are
certainly inside of the errors of observation. Only the three
observations above given are known to me, but they are so
far apart in time that they certainly give a fairly good deter-
mination. According to this equation, the limiting speed of
the running horse on a standard track is 91.5 seconds to the
mile (1 :31.5). The speed of 1:32.5 will be reached when
( = 134. This date is therefore ninety-six years from the
present time. At this date, or in A. D. 1999, the running
horse will be within one second of his final speed. The
change in the time of running a mile during the next century
will therefore be about six seconds. This result is something
of a surprise. A previous knowledge of it would have caused
me to somewhat modify certain passages in the present paper.

From the previous equations it will be seen that at the
present time, the annual change in the time required to make
one mile on a standard track, is for the running horse 0.12
sec, andfor the trottins; horse 0.29 sec.

o

Issued July 9, 1903.

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MEMOIRS (in quarto).

Contributions to the archaeology of Missouri, by the Archaeological Section.
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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XIII. No. 3.

SECOND CONTRIBUTION TO THE HERPETOLOGY

OF MISSOURI.

JULIUS HURTER.

Issued July 31 , 1903.

SECOND CONTKIBUTION TO THE HERPETOLOGY

OF MISSOURI.*

Julius Hurter.

In 1897 I had the honor to report on a number of reptiles
and batrachians that I had ascertained to occur in the State
of Missouri, and this evening I am able to add nineteen new
species not before found nor reported for the State. But
before I proceed let me give you an idea of the difficulty in
finding co-workers in my line of collecting. Prof. H. M.
Whelpley, editor of the Meyer Brother's' Druggist, had the
kindness to distribute with that periodical a circular, asking
for assistance in collecting and sending in specimens from
their respective counties. This circular reached about 1,300
druggists in the State of Missouri, and in response to it I
received fifteen answers from persons that would like to help ;
but to my great regret I found out that even they were more
interested from a financial than from a scientific standpoint.
This gives an idea how difficult it is to get assistance from
outside parties in this particular branch of study. Still, I am
under obligations to the following gentlemen who offered
their services and procured me a good deal of material from
their respective counties, viz.: J. H. Black, Esq., Newton
County; J. C. Miles, Jasper County; J. M. Parker, Mont-
gomery County; Prof. R. R. Rowley, Pike County; Fuller
Smith, Clark County; Robt. Lotze, Oregon County; Dr. A.
Schaffraneck, St. Charles County ; George Miller of our city,
who brought in quite a number of specimens from Stoddard
County; also Mr. H. N. Force, Ozark County; Dr. J. R.
Terry who collected in Adair County, and W. K. Smith,
Crawford County. All of these gentlemen brought in valuable
additions, which are mentioned in their proper places. The
increase over my previous list consists of nineteen species
as before mentioned, viz., six batrachia and thirteen reptilia.

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, January 5, 1903.

(77)

78 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Class BATRACHIA.

Order Urodela.
The Tailed Batrachians.

1. Amblystoma punctatum, L. — The spotted salamander.

This salamander when alive is one of our prettiest speci-
mens, being of a dark bluish-black color with a number of
yellowish-white shining spots on the back and abruptly light
olivaceous underneath. The legs are of the color of the
under parts, not of the upper. This animal is one of those
that uses its tail as an organ of prehension. When taken up
and held so that it expects to be dropped, it is its habit to
take a hold of some support with the tail and if one is not
found at once, the tail is moved about in search of an object
that might answer this purpose.

It is mostly found under decaying logs in damp shady
places, but is in no way plentiful : — Drake, St. Louis County,
April 24; Butler County, April 16 and July 17; Stoddard
Countv, October 26.

2. Hemidactylium scutatum, Tschudi. — The scaly sala-

mander.

This is a small species. I copy the description from
Cope's " Batrachia of North America," as one of the best:
Back, dark chestnut, but above much lighter, both sprinkled
with black, the latter more especially along the dorsal line.
Snout above, eyes above and in certain lights the furrows
above the lateral longitudinal lines light chestnut approaching
to golden bronze, faintly clouded in spots with darker.
Sides of body finely mottled brown and bluish-white. Head,
body, and tail below, chalk white with a tinge of blue. Spar-
ingly and irregularly marked with rather large black spots ;
spots disposed along sides and the white of tail beneath.
Central tract unspotted. One or two furrows or constrictions
20 entirely around the tail behind the vent, marking the narrow
base of the tail, which then swells abruptly in many speci-
mens.

Neither the late Professor Cope nor the museum catalogue

Hurler — Ilerpetology of Missouri. 79

of the Smithsonian mentions the animal as being ever caught
west of the Mississippi. I am under obligations to my friend
Dr. George W. Bock, who found one specimen near Bourbon,
Crawford County, October 15, 1899, and presented it to me.

3. Spelerpes maculicaudus Cope. — The western cave sala-

mander.

In 1880 Professor E. D. Cope described this as a new sala-
mander from a spring at Brookville, Indiana. This species
has since been found to be the common cave salamander of the
Mississippi Valley along with Spelerpes longicaudus. It is
similar in build to the cave salamander, Spelerpes longicau-
dus and also to the next species, the newly discovered Speler-
pes stejnegeri, but differs in color. All the specimens, old
or young, are of a Chinese orange color in life and have the
back and sides of the body, tail and limbs covered with
sharply defined irregular rounded and elongated spots. It is
a twilight species.

So far I have only found it in Jefferson County, in a small
ravine, but it has been found also by other collectors at the
mouth of Fisher's cave near Springfield, Green County ; near
Marble cave. Stone County; Rockhouse cave, Barry County;
and Wilson's cave, near Sarcoxie, in Jasper County.

4. Spelerpes stejnegeri, Eigenmann.

The latest discovered species. I have not yet seen this
species and therefore have to give the description from its
discoverer, Professor Eigenmann : — The back is raw sienna
with many spots, coalescing in places and irregularly
arranged in two series on each side of the median line. The
median line and a streak from the eye back to above the hind
limbs are free from spots. Sides dark brown with irregular
dots of marbling of sienna. The belly is clear.

This salamander has been found in Rockhouse cave, Barry
County; near Marble cave, Stone County; Wilson's cave,
Jasper County ; and Fisher's cave. Green County : all in south-
western Missouri.

80 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

5. Typhlotriton Spelaeus Steju. — Blind cave salamander
of Missouri.

The first specimen of this salamander was collected by
F. A. Sampson, of Sedalia, inEockhouse cave, Barry County,
and described by Dr. L. Stejneger of the National Museum.
Afterwards Professor E. D. Cope found some in Marble cave.
Stone County. It is rather a rare species. The color in life
is pale flesh color. I have not yet been able to secure a
specimen for my collection.

Order Salientia.
The Frogs.

1. AcRis GRYLLUS Le Conte. — The cricket frog.

I include it in my list because it is mentioned in Cope and
Yarrow's list as No. 35601 of the Smithsonian collections: —
six specimens from New Madrid County, collected by R.
Kennicott, one of the pioneer collectors.

The best character to distinguish this frog from its west-
ern representative, Acris gryllus crepitans, is that in the former
when the hind limb is carried forward along the side of the
body, the tibio-tarsal articulation reaches to the tip of the
snout or a little beyond, whereas in crepitans the same articu-
lation hardly reaches to the tip of the snout. Also, Acris
gryllus is the longer one of the two, measuring lyV inch,
where ct^epitans reaches only 1^ to 1^ in. in length of body.

Class REPTILIA.

Order Chelonia.
The Turtles.

1. Chrysemys margin ATA Agassiz.

C. cinerea Brown.

A so-called painted turtle from the lively red markings on
the edge of the carapace. This turtle is common in the low-
lands across the Mississippi, in Illinois. Some specimens are
found in the back-waters of this river on the Missouri side.
The plastron in the adult is usually all blood red, hiding a

Hurler — Herpetology of Missouri. 81

large dull black mark that extends from near the gula on
the center of the belly to the anals without any lateral
branches as in Chrysemys hellii. The young are very differ-
ent in the marking of the plastron from Chrysemys mar-
ginata of Indiana, Eastern Illinois, and Michigan. The
shields of the plastron are alternately red and yellowish-white
on each side of a dark center streak. This turtle is called bv
the fishermen "Eed belly " and with right, as in spring noth-
ing of the dark central mark of the plastron can be seen.

2. Chrysemys dorsalis Asjz.

This is another rather scarce turtle that I have found in our
most southeastern counties in the so-called " sunken lands."
It is easily recognizable from a wide reddish streak along the
center of the back. So far I have specimens from Butler
County, May 1, 1898.

3. PsEUDEMYS TEXANA, Baur. — The Tcxas Cootci.

This turtle has gone so far under the name Pseudemys con-
cinna, Le Conte. Le Conte says it inhaliits the rivers of
Georgia and Carolina. I have never seen it below Augusta
on the Savannah or Columbia on the Congaree ; we have
therefore to consider specimens from these localities as typical.
The species is characterized by its broad and low shell and its
small head.

Dr. Baur considers Pseudemys texana as the representative
of Pseudemys in the southern portion of the country west
of the Mississippi: — Texas, Indian Territory, Northern
Mexico, Missouri. Professor Agassiz mentions in his mono-
graph on turtles some that were collected by Dr. Roy, in
Southwestern Missouri. I have received two nice specimens,
one from Mr. F. A. Black, from Newton County, and the
other from Mr. J. Carroll Miles, from Carthage, Jasper
County, where he collected it from the Spring Eiver, which
empties into the Neosho, a tributary of the Arkansas River.
In 1895, when on a business trip to Paris, Texas, I collected
there a very fine specimen, the carapace of which is a good
deal higher than of any other I have seen so far.

82 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

4. Aromochelys tristycha Agz. — A musk turtle.

About a month ago Mr. H. N, Force, Ph. G., sent me
quite a collection of reptiles from Ozark County, and amongst
them I found one half-grown specimen of this variety.
Professor Louis Agassiz, in his monograph on turtles, 1857,
mentions specimens that were sent to him by Mr. G. Stolley
from the Osage Kiver, in Missouri. Agassiz writes: "Al-
though Ozotheca odorata^ its eastern congener, varies greatly
not only in color but even in outline, I have no doubt that
this is a distinct species characterized when young by the
great prominence of the keels upon the vertebral and costal
plates and by numerous dark dots between the scales of
the sternum, and when adult by a marked difference in the
form of the snout. In Ozotheca odorata the snout is much
more prominent on account of the slope of the upper jaw,
which extends further back and is therefore less steep than
in 0. tristycha, the lower jaw of which is broader below
the symphysis than in odorata, and suddenly turned up."

Order Squamata.

Suborder Sauria.

Lizards.

Iguanidae.

1. Phrynosoma cornutum Harlan. — Commonly called
' ' horned toad . ' '

Mr. H. Q. Taylor, a resident of St. Louis, informed me
that he captured a specimen on the sandy river shore
opposite Leavenworth, in Missouri. Through advertising in
the papers, I received letters from gentlemen stating that
this animal had been caught in the streets of their respective
places but all these seem to have been escaped specimens and
were thus caught. The only authentic record of this lizard,
as occurring in the State, I find in the United States National
Museum reports by Dr. E. D. Cope, Crocodilians, Lizards and
Snakes of North America, on page 436 under No. 17397-99 : —
three specimens collected by C. W. Eichmond in South-
western Missouri.

Hurter — Herpetology of Missouri. 83

Suborder Ophidia.

Snakes.
Poisonous Snakes.

1. SiSTRURUS MiLiARius Linn. — Ground rattlesnake.

It gives me pleasure to bring to notice another pit viper,
that has been caught by my friend Mr. Eob. Lotzein Oregon
County. He was not aware that he had killed a poisonous
snake. On an inquiry he wrote me that he captured it from
under some debris of an old shanty on the slope of a hill.
This specimen looks more similar to those from Texas than
to some from Alabama and Florida that are in my collection.

Harmless Snakes.

2. Farancia abacura Holbrook. — The so-called hoop snake

or horn snake.

The color of this snake is bluish-black above. On the two
outer rows the ground color assumes the shape of vertical
bands, from one and a half to two scales broad, leaving an
intermediate space from two to three scales wide, which is
red in life. Both the red and bluish-black extend on the
abdomen, the former being the ground color. The vertical
bands of the flanks are confluent on the middle of the
abdomen, either directly opposite or alternating.

My son Henry collected six specimens near Poplar Bluff,
Butler County, April 24. The snake lives near the shores of
stagnant waters and is generally found beneath dead logs and
other objects.

3. LioPELTis VERNALis DcKay. — The grass snake.

The scales of this little snake are smooth. It is dark green
above, lighter on the flanks and yellowish-white beneath.

I received the only specimen that I have come across from
Dr. A. Schaffraneck of St. Charles. The doctor caught it
and two others in his garden. I have never encountered this
snake in the last twenty years during which I have paid atten-
tion to the collecting of reptiles, and I am of the opinion that
the Missouri river stops it from coming farther south in this

84 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

region. I remember very plainly that about twenty-five years
ago I caught and played with about ten or twelve specimens
that I found at one spot on the side of a fence in Madison
County, Ills. E. Kennicott also reports in the Smithsonian
Catalogue, under number 2204, on a specimen that he col-
lected in Monroe County, Ills. I think that cultivation has
destroyed its haunts and more or less exterminated it.

4. Coluber vulpinus Baird and Girard. — The fox snake.

April 22 I found the first specimen of this snake at Dar-
denne prairie, St. Charles County. The same day I came
across two other dead specimens that somebody had killed
and mutilated. Mr. Charles Aldrich sent three specimens to
the Smithsonian that he collected in Webster City, Iowa.
Cope states that it is distributed over the northwest of the
eastern district, not being known from east of Illinois, or
south of the Missouri River. This is the most robust species
of the genus and reaches as large a size as any.

5. Coluber spiloides, Dumeril and Bibron.

Professor Cope in his work " Crocodilians, Lizards and
Snakes of North America," mentions on page 843 one speci-
men, under No. 5505 of the Smithsonian collections, as col-
lected at Independence, Jackson County. The snake is of
common occurrence in Texas and Indian Territory and should
therefore be in our western counties. I have specimens only
from Waco, Texas, in my collection.

6. Coluber guttatus Linnaeus. — The spotted racer.

For three years successively I have found a young specimen
of this species near Pevely, Jefferson County, and curious to
say they were found always under a small rock on the top of
a large one, nearly at the same place. Last year my son had
the good fortune to capture a fine adult specimen, but this
time in the fields, though not far from the first place: — May
15, 1898; May 13, 1900; May 7, 1899; and May 26, 1901;
the adult specimen.

Hurter — Herpetology of Missouri. 85

7. PiTYOPHis SAYi Schlegel. — The bullsnake.

I have heard a good deal about this snake but never had
the opportunity to capture one myself, Mr. Carroll Miles
of Carthage, Jasper County, has sent me a fine living speci-
men. This snake was one of the most vicious snakes that I
ever came across, and it may be accounted for, as Mr. Miles
wrote me on inquiry that they had it for quite a while in the
school where it was always teased to the utmost. This last
fall Mr. Frank Schwarz gave me also a fine specimen that had
been caught in the bluffs in St. Clair County, Ills., opposite
the city of St. Louis.

8. Bascanion constrictor flaviventris Say. — The green

racer.

From the same place, Jasper County, and from the same
gentleman, I received a specimen of this western variety, and
a year ago a second specimen from Mr. W. K. Smith of Cuba,
Crawford County. The color of the back of this species is
olive green, and the whole under-surface greenish-white to
bright yellow.

9. Natrix cyclopium Baird and Girard. — Cyclope water-

snake.

My son Henry found some of these in a small lake near
Poplar Bluff, Butler County, May 19 and 22 and October 3,
1897. They are hard to catch as they always seek refuge in
the deeper waters.

The late Professor Cope gives the following very good
description of this snake: Color brown above, yellow below.
On the upper surface there are on each side two rows of
alternating short crossbars of a darker color, which are
about one and one half scales wide, and are separated by in-
terspaces of about three scales. The median line for a width
of four scales is not spotted, or is very imperfectly so, form-
ing a broad vertebral band of a color darker than the general
ground. In young specimens the pattern is very distinctly
seen ; but in adults the ground becomes so dark as to obscure
it very much. The head is uniform brown, the oral edge of

86 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

the superior labial plates only being yellow. On the yellow
ground of the inferior surfaces there appear, on the anterior
third only of the length, dark shades on the anterior parts of
the gastrosteges. These extend and blend so that on the
posterior two-thirds of the length in the adult the color
may be said to be blackish-brown with yellow spots. This
well marked species is nearest to N'atrix rhomhifera, also
found in the State.

The present contribution brings the number of Batrachians
and Reptiles recorded as found in the State of Missouri to
ninety- three, as follows : —
16 Tailed Batrachians.
13 Toads and frogs.
18 Turtles.
7 Lizards.
39 Snakes.
I do not doubt whatever that this list will in time reach one
hundred and over, as there are quite a number of species of
this class in northern Arkansas, Indian Territory and Kansas,
that will eventually also be found in the State of Missouri.

Issued July 31 , 1903.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL. XIII. No. 4.

A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF

ETHICAL SCIENCE SINCE THE TIME

OF CHARLES DARWIN.

WALTER L. SHELDON.

Issued August 21, 1903.

A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF
ETHICAL SCIENCE SINCE THE TIME OF
CHARLES DARWIN.*

Walter L. Sheldon.

In presenting this paper I am assuming that it is being
offered to a body of men for the most part absorbed in a
study of the physical sciences. Owing to the necessity now-
adays for specializing, and to the effort required to keep up
even with the literature in your own departments, it may be
that some of you are not fully aware of what has been going
on along those lines where the work is of a more subjective
character. It struck me therefore that I might be doing a
real service by giving you a hint as to the trend of the litera-
ture in the science of ethics for the last three or four decades,
since the time of Darwin. It would be a satisfaction on my
part to convince you that in this other direction good work
has been going on, of as painstaking and thorough a character
as anything which may have been done in physics, chemistry
or biology. My purpose is not myself to criticise or theo-
rize, but merely to sketch for you a bird's-eye view of the
situation. Men of as great intellectual caliber as any of
those at work in your special departments, have been grap-
pling with the problems of ethical science ; and they have
achieved encouraging results, while these results may not be
as great as some would have anticipated.

Although ethics has a large subjective element in it, most
of the leading workers in this direction would regard it strictly
as a science, and deal with it in that light. These men are
undertaking to investigate a body of facts, to analyze them,
to correlate them, to interpret them, and reduce them if
possible to a system. Some of them would, however, regard

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, January 19, 1903.

(87)

88 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

their department as more distinctively a " normative " science
in contrast with the departments in which most of you are at
work. A few of them may prefer to speak of their hne of
effort as "ethical philosophy." Among the Germans, it is
almost universally customary to employ the term, " ethische
Wissenschaft."

It is true, however, that there is not the same unanimity of
opinion among the workers in this other direction, that we may
find among yourselves. I am painfully conscious of this fact,
and admit that it may be at first thought a little depressing.
They cannot specify in precise language just what points have
been established beyond dispute, nor can they say that this
and this has been settled once for all by the latest investi-
gations . Nevertheless there is some good explanation for these
divergencies of opinion. In all frankness one may venture
the assertion that the issues here are of more vital importance
than they would be in those sciences in which most of you are
absorbed. The honor of the human soul is at stake. There
is here, therefore, a personal element involved, and one which
must exert an enormous influence. No such factors are con-
cerned in the decision of the question as to whether atoms or
ether are realities, or only working hypotheses; whether the
wave theory of light is beyond dispute ; or as to the processes
by which the living cell once got its start out of inorganic
matter. The foundations of the world will not be shaken by
any discoveries to be made in these other fields of research,
great as the achievements may be.

But when it comes to a study of the nature and origin of
conscience or of ethical ideals, one draws a deep breath of
anxiety. The whole social structure in which you and I live
and move and have our being is at stake. The sanctity of our
home and family life is involved. We are then working at the
foundation stones, and the hand that is chipping away at the
block may tremble a little at the thought of what is going to
fall.

I have chosen the time of Darwin and the publication of
" The Descent of Man" as the dividing line, because since
that time ethical science has gone through about as great a

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethioal Science. 89

revolution or transformation as any of the other sciences.
And the occasion for the change lay chiefly in the doctrine of
evolution. It is not as if all this influence came simply from
Charles Darwin. The new tendency of thought was arising,
as we know, for a time previous to him and his publication.
The whole subject was simply clinched at one point by
his work. But when his theories were put forward in such a
masterly way, all those sciences dealing more especially with
subjective experiences were also profoundly concerned. Al-
most every student or worker in ethics felt called upon to give
his theories a thorough overhauling, and to rewrite some of
his statements or propositions. It really amounted to begin-
ning over again or taking a new start.

But before the publication of " The Descent of Man " by
Darwin, the change Avas rapidly going on. Herbert Spencer
already had in his mind, as I understand, the outlines of his
" Theory of Ethics," even before the appearance of " The
Origin of Species" in 1859. During the '60's Alexander
Bain published his " Mental and Moral Science," and under-
took to tear away the traditions surrounding an " intuitional"
conscience in order to explain it by an associational psychol-
ogy. Lecky had taken up the historic movement and pub-
lished his " History of European Morals from the Reign of
Augustus to Charlemagne." Every man deeply concerned in
these great problems felt in advance just what was coming,
before the appearance of "The Descent of Man" in 1871.
It was known that Conscience and the Ethical Ideal were to
be at stake. The issue was all latent in the first work, " The
Origin of Species." One had to expect that a leading chap-
ter in the second work by Darwin would be on " The Origin
of the Moral Sense," and the expectation was fulfilled.

In order to give you the merest glimpse of what has been
going on, therefore, during this time from the year 1871
since the publication of " The Descent of Man," by Charles
Darwin, it may be well for me to put before your eyes a list of
the treatises dealing specifically with ethical science or ethical
philosophy, which I happen to have in my private library.

90 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Charles Darwin, — "The Descent of Man."— Chap. 4, Part 1 1871

Henry Calderwood, of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. — " Hand-
book of Moral Philosophy." 1872

Paul Janet, of the Sorbonne, Paris. — "Theory of Morals." — Eng-
lish Translation. — First edition in French, — " La Morale.".... 1873

Henry Sidgwick, of Cambridge, England.

(1) «* The Methods of Ethics." 1874

(2) " Outlines of the History of Ethics." 1886

Edith Simcox, of England. — " Natural Law." — An Essay in Ethics. —

Second edition 1878

Hermann Lotze, of the University of Berlin. — " Outlines of Practical
Philosophy." — Short condensed treatise, translated from lectures
delivered in 1878

Herbert Spencer, of England. — "The Principles of Ethics." — Two

volumes 1879-1893

W. K. ClifEord, of University College, London. — "Lectures and Es-
says." — Especially Volume II 1879

Eduard von Hartmann, of Germany. — " Phiinomenologie des sittlichen

Bewusstseins." 1879

B. Carneri, of Vienna, Austria. — " Grundlegung der Ethik." 1881

Sir Leslie Stephen, of England. — " The Science of Ethics." 1882

Thomas Hill Green, of Oxford, England. — " Prolegomena to Ethics." 1883

H. Steinthal, of University of Berlin. — " AUgemeine Ethik." 1885

James Martineau, of Manchester New College, London. — " Types of

Ethical Theory. — Two volumes 1885

M. Guyau, of France. — " Esquisse d'une Morale sans Obligation ni

Sanction." 1886

W. R. Sorley, of University College, Liverpool, England. — "The

Ethics of Naturalism." 1885

Wilhelm Wundt, of the University of Leipsic. — " Ethik. — Eine Un-

tersuchung der Thatsachen und Gesetze des sittlichen Lebens," 1886

Christoph Sigwart, of Germany. — " Vorfragen der Ethik." — A single

lecture somewhat enlarged ,. 1886

Rudolph von Jhering, of Germany. — "DerZweck im Recht." — Two

volumes 1886

Harald Hoffding, of the Univerity of Copenhagen, Denmark. —

"Ethik." — German translation from the first Danish edition 1887

J. G. Schurmaa, of Cornell University. — "Ethical Import of Dar-
winism." 1887

Friedrich Nietzsche, of Germany. — " A Genealogy of Morals." — Eng-
lish Translation from the German 1887

G. von Gizycki, of the University of Berlin. — "Moralphilosopie."... 1888

JFriedrich Paulsen, of the University of Berlin. — " System der

Ethik." 1889

Hugo Miinsterberg, of Germany, now of Harvard University. —
"Der Ursprung der Sittlichkeit." — A single lecture somewhat
enlarged 1889

Wilhelm Schmidt, Pfarrer in Cuertow, Germany. — " Das Gewissen.". . 1889

Franz Brentano, of Germany. — " Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkennt-

nis." 1889

Sheldon — TTie Literature 0/ Ethical Science. 9 1

Paul Hensel, of the University of Strassburg. — " Ethisches Wissen

und ethisches Handeln." — A short treatise or single lecture 1889

William MacEntyre Salter, of the Society for Ethical Culture,
Chicago. — " Ethical Religion." — A collection of lectures on mis-
cellaneous subjects 1889

Theobald Ziegler, of Strassburg, Germany. — " Sittliches Sein und

sittliches Werden." — A short treatise of about 150 pages 1890

John Dewey, of the University of Chicago. — '' Outlines of a Critical

Theory of Ethics." ~ In the form of a text-book 1891

Hans Gallwitz, Stadtpfarrer in Sigraaringen, Germany. — " Das Prob-
lem der Ethik in der Gegenwart." 1891

S. Alexander, of Owens College, Manchester, England. — "Moral

Order and Progress." 1891

Joseph Rickaby, S. J.— " Moral Philosophy."— Third Edition.— 1892

J. H. Muirheadjof Mason University College, Birmingham, England. —
''The Elements of Ethics: An Introduction to Moral Philoso-
phy." — In the form of a text-book 1892

Borden P. Bowne, Boston University. — " The Principles of Morals." 1892

J. S. MacKeczie, of Cardiff, Wales. — " A Manual of Ethics." — In the

form of a text-book 1892

Georg Simmel, of the University of Berlin. — " Einleitung in die

Moral wissenschaft." — Two volumes 1892

Thomas H. Huxley, of England. — " Evolution and Ethics." — A collec-
tion of miscellaneous lectures 1893-1894

C.M.Williams. — "A Review of the Systems of Ethics Founded on

the Theory of Evolution." 1893

James Seth, of University of Edinburg, Scotland. — "A Study of Eth-
ical Principles." 1894

E. Duhring, of Germany. — " Der Werth des Lebens." — Revised

work 1894

Theodor Elsenhans, Stadtpfarrer in Reidlingen, a. D., Germany. —
"Wesen und Entstehung desGewissens. — Eine Psychologic der
Ethik." 1894

Thomas Fowler and John Wilson, of Oxford, England. — " The Prin-
ciples of Morals." 1894

Charles F. D'Arcy, of Ireland. — "A Short Study of Ethics." 1895

James H. Hyslop, of Columbia College, New York City. — " The Ele-
ments of Ethics." — In the form of a text-book 1895

Paul R^e, of Germany. — " Die Entstehung des Gewissens." 1895

George Harris, of Andover Theological Seminary. — '* Moral Evolu-
tion." — A collection of lectures 1896

Walter L. Sheldon, Lecturer of the Ethical Society, of St. Louis. —

*' An Ethical Movement." — A collection of miscellaneous lectures 1896

B. Bosanquet, of London. — " Psychology of the Moral Self." 1897

James Mark Baldwin, of Princeton University. — " Social and Ethical

Interpretations in Mental Development." 1897

P. F. Fitzgerald, of England. — " The Rational or Scientific Ideal of

Morality." 1897

Alexander Sutherland, of Australia. — " The Origin and Growth of the

Moral Instinct." — Two volumes 1898

92 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

W. R. Washington Sullivan, of the Ethical Religion Society of Lon-
don. — " Morality as a Religion." — A collection of miscellaneous
lectures 1898

Alexander Balmain Bruce, of the Free Church College, Glasgow, Scot-
land.—"The Moral Order of the World."— A collection of
miscellaneous lectures 1899

A. Doring, of Berlin, Germany. — ''Natliriiche Sittenlehre." 1899

Alfred Fouill^e, of France. — " Critique des Systems de Morale Con-

teraporains." — Fourth edition 1899

Franli Thilly, of the University of Missouri. — " Introduction to

Ethics." — In the form of a text-book 1900

George Herbert Palmer, of Harvard University. — •' The Field of

Ethics." 1901

Alfred Edward Taylor, of Owens College, Manchester, England. —
"The Problem of Conduct: A Study la the Phenomenology of
Ethics." 1901

Ernest Albee, of Cornell University. — "A History of English Utili-
tarianism." 1902

George Trumbull Ladd, of Yale University. — "Philosophy of Con-
duct." 1902

This of course is not a complete list, but it makes good
working material for my purpose, and gives a bird's-eye
view at one glance. It covers probably three-quarters of the
whole literature, and practically all the leading works. The
volumes are purposel}'^ arranged as far as possible in the
chronological order of their first appearance, with the posi-
tion of the writers, however, held at the present time or at
the period of their death, so far as I am sure of these facts.
It should perhaps also be stated that the works by Wundt,
Paulsen, Gizycki and Guj^an have been translated into
English.

There should, however, be mentioned in addition, the
" Ethical Library Series," edited by Prof. J. H. Muirhead,
of England; the pubhcations of the " Brooklvn Ethical As-
sociation; " the "Ethical Addresses Series," edited bv S.
Burns Weston of Philadelphia; a weekly " Ethics," pub-
lished in London by Dr. Stanton Coit: the weekly " Ethische
Kultur," edited by Dr. Foerster, of Zurich; the bimonthly
" Ethical Record," edited by Percival Chubb, of New York;
and the quarterly " International Journal of Ethics," edited
by S. Burns Weston.

You will understand that this is a list onlv of those treatises

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 93

dealing most directly with the problems of ethics. If I were
to cover the whole field, the list of books would take up an
entire volume instead of a few pages. Ethical theories of one
type or another are hinted at, or more or less worked out in a
large number of the treatises in philosophy or metaphysics,
as for instance in " The World and the Individual," by Prof.
Royce; Bradley's "Appearance and Reality;" Lotze's
" Mikrokosmus;" or the classic " Geschichte des Materialis-
mus," by Lange. Nearly all the more extended treatises on
psychology are obliged to deal with it, and may have several
chapters devoted to it, — especially as the writers here would
perhaps regard it as also a sub-department of their larger
science. Even the scholars dealing with the physical sciences
may turn aside to have a word to say on ethics; and still more,
the men dealing with biology. Now and then we have such a
shocking piece of superficiality as the recent treatise on "World
Riddles" by Ernst Haeckel. We can rest assured that he
will have his say here on conscience and ethical ideals. But
it is a work of which his brother biologists should be ashamed,
for he went entirely outside of his province.

On the other hand there are very legitimate discussions of
many of the problems of ethics in nearly all the leading treat-
tises dealing with political science, anthropology or sociology.
This is also true of many works in economics. The writers on
the history of civilization are likewise obliged to deal with
ethics.

Still more closely allied it is, of course, with the subjects of
religion, theology, or biblical criticism. Any writers under-
taking to give an extensive treatment of church doctrine must
have their chapters on the ethics of the Bible, of Judaism, or
of Christianity. As these, however, do not deal with the
problem of ethics strictly as a science, I have not included
them in my list.

Where, however, the connection is the closest would be
in art and literature. A history of ethics in future times de-
scriptive of the nineteenth century which should fail to con-
sider the writings of George Eliot, Ibsen, Carlyle, Browning,
Ruskin, and scores or hundreds of others, would be no real

94 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

history of ethics at all. Such writers in the last thirty or
forty years have exerted an enormous influence, both on eth-
ical theories as well as ethical ideals. Poetry, the novel, the
essay, the drama, must all be concerned with the ethical
problem if they give us true works of art.

In my private library, for example, I have roughly divided
my books into five sections: 1. History, Economics and the
Social Sciences. 2. Philosophy, Psychology and Metaphysics.
3. The Natural Sciences. 4. Ethics, Religion, and Biblical
Criticism. 5. Art and Literature. — And it may so happen
that any morning when at work on some one ethical problem,
I find myself turning to all five of these sections, and have
books from every one of them lying before me on my table.

But if you will look over this list before you, certain inter-
esting facts will be apparent at a glance. In the first place
you will see at once how rapidly the treatises have been in-
creasing in number during the last fifteen years. In the sec-
ond place you will notice that the majority of the leading
works come from the two great countries, England and Ger-
many, although latterly America has been rapidly catching up,
so far as number of books is concerned. Why it is that we do
not have more literature on this subject from France I do not
quite understand. It may be that many other treatises on eth-
ics have appeared in that country ; but if so one does not hear
about them. My inference is that the work in this direction
on the part of the scholars there, has been interwoven more
particularly with their researches in psychology, anthro-
pology, or the social sciences. But you will see that there is
one treatise with a strikingly significant title from that
country, as indicative of a bold tendency: " Esquisse
d'une Morale sans Obligation ni Sanction," by M. Guyau.
Janet and Fouillee have also done notable work in ethics in
France. In the third place you will observe at once that
the lead was taken by England. Glancing over the list we
see four or five of the greatest works in ethics of modern
times already issued in that country, such as " The Methods
of Ethics," by Sidgwick; Spencer's " Principles of Ethics;"
"The Science of Ethics," by Sir Leslie Stephen; "The

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 95

Prolegomena," by Green; and" The Types," by Martineau,
before a single work of the rank of any one of these had
appeared in Germany. Then, however, came the change
when the mighty work, the " Ethik," by Wundt appeared in
1886, followed by an array of masterly treatises one after
another during the last fifteen or sixteen years, such as the
" System," by Paulsen;" Der Zweck im Recht," by Eudolph
von Jhering; and a series of others. Germany has caught up
and more. In this latter list should perhaps be included also
the " Ethik," by the great Danish scholar, Hoffding, of
Copenhagen. Even from Italy we are now beginning to see
mention of works with ethical titles, — although I cannot
speak as to their contents.

In the fourth place you will notice the same tendency
manifest as with the physical sciences, — the specializing in
departments. The treatises covering the whole science of
ethics as such, grow less in number. Looking carefully you
will see the tendency increasing for scholars to take up sub-
topics and devote one or more books just to a single
phase of the whole problem. There are two big volumes,
" The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct," by Suther-
and, devoted solely to elaborating the one aspect of the
subject sketched in the chapter by Charles Darwin in " The
Descent of Man ; ' ' and a number of other works have this
for their special field. It is already being asserted that
within a short time there will be no science of ethics as such,
but a list of special sciences into which the one larger field
will be subdivided.

Some of these many works are school or college text-
books, prepared not as complete treatises, but in order to
bring the facts before the younger students. One on my list
is a "Moral Philosophy," strictly for Roman Catholics, by
Joseph Rickaby, S. J., and a few of them are only single
lectures, or very short treatises of perhaps a hundred pages
touching on particular phases only.

And yet it is evident enough that a mass of literature of
this kind could not have appeared in our age, and by such an
array of thinkers, without certain marked results. The

96 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

achievements may be regarded more as tendencies of thought
than as accepted or well-defined principles. But even this
would be a great deal. As I have asserted, many of these
writers are thinkers of the first rank. Some of them have
arisen through the natural sciences, and may have done
first grade work there before they passed over to the depart-
ment of ethics. Men like Wundt and Lotze began as students
of medical science, and had a thorough foundation in that
direction before they passed on to work along other lines.
And in equipment I think that this would also apply to such
workers as Sir Leslie Stephen and Herbert Spencer.

So far as the history of ethics is concerned, the work in
this direction, to my mind, has as yet been rather unsatisfac-
tory. It is a period when we should have expected the very
best material of this nature. But the trouble has been from
the specializing tendency. The man who could do this satis-
factorily would need to be some one who was acquainted
not only with the history of philosophy or of ethical theories,
but had a wide grasp over the arts or literature for the last
two thousand years or more. There is the little treatise,
"History of Ethics," of 274 pages, by Sidgwick. Prof.
Jodl, of Vienna, has written two volumes, " History of Ethics
in Modern Times." The treatise, "Mental and Moral
Science," by Alexander Bain, devotes three hundred pages to
a history of ethical systems. Of the five hundred and sev-
enty-seven compact pages in the work by Wundt about one
hundred and forty are devoted to sketching " Die philosoph-
ischen Moralsysteme." Paulsen has about one hundred and
fifty pages, but under a much more satisfactory title: " Um-
riss einer Geschichte der Lebensanschauung und Moralphi-
losophie."

Of course there is a great deal of material in all this, but
on the whole it is rather disappointing in comparison with
the rest of the work by such writers, with the possible ex-
ception of the chapters by Paulsen. The trouble with most
of them is that they only give a history of ethical theories
or systems. But of the ethical ideals in the great departments
of art, literature and religion, we do not get enough. A

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 97

history of ethics that does not include an examination of the
three great tragedy writers of ancient Greece, — Aeschylus,
Sophocles and Euripides, would strike me as painfully defec-
tive or inadequate. The work of Lecky, however, published
in the '60's on "The History of European Morals" is a
masterpiece of its kind for the one special period it covers.
It is a profound misfortune that the other periods have not
been worked out in the same way by other writers. It
should be said, however, that there are some works in
German by such men as Koestlin, Schmidt, Luthardt and
Ziegler, which the writer has not been able to examine.

But, most of all, you will ask me, I assume, what in sum and
substance is to be regarded as the new outcome of all this
literature? What are the new tendencies? I should answer
in the first place from the negative side, that an immense
result has been accomplished by doing away with one mistaken
theory which has been a stumbling block to ethical science or
ethical philosophy for hundreds of years : — the theory which
treated conscience as if it were a kind of an organ of the
mind, just as the heart or the stomach may be an organ of
the body. This belonged to the old psychology and held on
most tenaciously from the religious side. Even where it was
doubted, men did not have the right weapons with which to
overthrow this illusion. It could not be done away with until
the larger science of psychology also went through a trans-
formation. The general doctrine of evolution did the work.
One smiles now at thinking of an organ hidden away in the
soul, pumping out ethical judgments somewhat in the same
Way as the heart pumps the blood through the body. But
it may have been no smiling matter to deal with this theory
fifty or one hundred years ago.

On the whole I should say that as a result of this whole
doctrine of evolution, it is now pretty generally accepted by
writers or students in ethical science that conscience is simply
a phase of the functioning of the soul or of consciousness, and
no more. In a word, we know now a little more definitely
what our problem is ; and this means a long step forward, I
can assure you.

98 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Along with this went the allied error that this same organ
of the soul announced categorical judgments as to what was
right and wrong on any or every life problem. The child was
told: Look to your conscience, it is the voice of God. But
now we no longer really have to argue this question at all.
Another allied science has practically wiped that old theory
out of existence; and that is the science of anthropology.
It is this other science which has been laying the axe at the
root of the tree and shaking the old foundations. The work
has gone so far that I am bound to say one begins to tremble
a little with anxiety as to what is to be the outcome. And the
question is actually considered as to whether the soul as
such necessarily functions in the form of conscience. The
problem is now debated as to whether those feelings we think
of as moral, are universal, — whether they have always
existed in the human being. It is being asserted boldly
that they are simply a transient phase in the evolution of
consciousness.

On the positive side, another great result has been accom-
plished in the development of the historical side in the study
of conscience. It is here where the fruits have been the
greatest, and where, perhaps, the hardest work has been
done. This, too, must be regarded as a contribution from the
doctrine of evolution. If conscience is not an organ of the
soul, but only a phase of the soul's functioning, then
came the fascinating problem to work out the steps or pro-
cesses according to which this functioning has displayed
itself in the history of the human race. The absorbing
problem, therefore, at the present time in ethical science is
not so much the nature of conscience or the nature of the
ethical ideal in itself; but the story of the development here^
the chapters of growth in the ethical ideal or in the appear-
ance of the moral sense we call conscience.

It has been established here now at last beyond dispute
I should say, that growth or evolution applies in this direction
just as much as it does in the bodily organism or in the
animal kingdom. There is the same problem here as in
biology. The question of origin, you understand, is some-

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 99

thing manifestly quite different from the question of growth
or development. The first may take us into the realm of
metaphysics. But the opportunity for co-ordinating the
facts so as to set down in plain black and white the stages or
steps through which the ethical sense has passed, or the
ethical ideals have displayed themselves, is very great. It is
in this direction probably where the best work will be done in
the next few decades.

There is, however, as one can see, a change simply of
interest or emphasis. In the old days with the ancient world,
the interest lay rather in deciding what was the highest good,
the suvi77ium bonmn. But to-day owing to this doctrine of
evolution, the interest lies rather, not in studying the ethical
ideal of the highest good, but in tracing the genesis or
development of those processes in consciousness which have
led men to adopt certain ideals of the highest good, — in a
word, the genesis and growth of conscience.

This much, therefore, I regard as an immense achievement
evinced in the mass of literature from the time of Darwin :
on the one hand, the realization of what the problem is, —
the conception of conscience not as an organ, but as a phase
of the functioning of the soul; and on the other hand, the
disposition to study the science from the historic side.

It must be admitted frankly that the attitude of some of
the scholars, even of the greatest, has been rather too bold
or audacious. In a science where there is so much at stake,
and where the personal element may so easily come in, where
the problem is so subtle because of the subjective elements
involved, surely there should be an excessive degree of cau-
tion and humility lest one venture too far in one's positive
assertions. And I fear this humility and caution have not
always been there. One sighs here for a little more of the
manifestation of that modest hesitancy that was so apparent
in the mind of Charles Darwin. It must be candidly con-
fessed that some writers in ethics have dealt with the doctrine
of evolution as a boy would do with his lirst jack-knife or
hatchet : it has been employed as a weapon to smash things
with, or with which to cut things to pieces. And some of

100 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

our writers have slashed here and there with a defiant bold-
ness that must make some of us a little ashamed. So, too,
there has been the appallingly careless disposition to assume
that in describing the processes of the development of con-
science, the stages of its growth, one has also accounted for
its origin; just as in the old days, perhaps, a careless thinker
in chemistry may have felt that he had the whole explanation
of a compound by describing the various elements that went
into it, and by being able to put the compound together.

And yet, as a matter of fact, to-day we know no more as
to the very first origin of the moral sense or of the function-
ing of the soul in this direction, than we know as to the origin
of the living cell from inorganic matter. What is more, it is
perfectly clear to my own mind that while, perhaps, the bridge
may yet be covered between the organic and the inorganic,
the bridge from the conscienceless to the conscience-possess-
ino; creature will never be constructed.

It has to be remembered that ethics is one of the very old-
est of the sciences, where earnest searchers after truth have
been working with persistence for upwards of twenty-five
hundred years ; and it behooves the new thinkers — for this
reason, if for no other — to be cautious about their audacious
statements and the revolutionizinsj tendencies from doctrines
that are only a few decades old.

As regards this collection of books as a whole, some of you
who are absorbed in the study of the physical sciences may ask
in amazement what it is that is contained here. Many of
these works are extensive treatises, heavy and weighty volumes
by some of the leading thinkers or scholars of the world.
How is it there is so much to say or dispute over, concerning
the subject of conscience and the ethical ideal? What is it
that these men are talking about and what are their problems?
In answer to this I might suggest to you what queries a
student in ethics would mentally [put as he took up for the
first time one of these treatises for perusal. In a general
way he would desire at the outset to ascertain the author's
attitude on perhaps five leading problems, about as follows :

(1) What is the writer's standpoint as to the theory of

Sheldon — TI>e Literature of Ethical Science. 101

the highest good or of the ethical ideal? Is he to be classed
with one of the " schools," or has he a new position to
defend? More especially, how does he stand with regard to
English Utilitarianism? Every scholar must take his stand
and declare himself in regard to this latter theory, inasmuch
as it is the one most clear-cut, sharply defined, elaborately
wrought out and most aggressive attitude of modern times.
(2) What is the author's theory as to the nature of con-
science? Is this something; original or derived? In sub-
stance, what does he regard as the sanction for the moral
ideal, or as the seat of authority impelling or commanding us
to pursue this ideal? (3) What new contribution has the
writer to make in the story of evolution or development of the
ethical ideal and of conscience? If he regards this phase of
soul-functioning as derived, then he is called upon to account
for its origin, to unfold the elements out of which it is com-
pounded, or because of which it has appeared. (4) What
attitude does he take on the problem of the freedom of the
will? The writer must make it clear once for all whether he
is or is not a Determinist, with answers to the why oi where-
fore. He must pay his respects to this issue in one or sev-
eral chapters, chiefly because it involves the problem of moral
responsibility. (5) What view does he hold as to the re-
lation between ethics and religion: to what extent or in
what way is the God-problem involved? Nearly every writer
will devote a part of his work to a consideration of this point.
These are the leading issues to be threshed out on the side
of theory. But in all probability at least one-third of each
of the treatises will be given over to the more practical
aspects. The author will probably undertake to give a classi-
fication of the virtues or duties. Then he will be called
upon to declare himself in the application of his special doc-
trines and to define his position on five main problems: (1)
As to whether Society or the Individual ranks first in
importance : which is the end in itself and to which one
the other is subordinate. (2) As to the significance of
Marriage and the Family. (3) As to Property and the
Industrial problem : to what extent is he individualistic or

102 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

socialistic. (4) As to the Church or Religious Institutions.
(5) As to the function of the State in its relation to the
other institutions and to the individual.

This second list of problems would constitute a separate
department of Applied Ethics.

We can see therefore' at a glance what an extensive field
these writers may cover, and what a variety of topics they
will be tempted to discuss. Before we are aware of it we
shall be taken into the sciences of Economics, Religion, Poli-
tics, Law, History, Industrial Institutions and the vast Social
Problem. Furthermore, if the author is not very cautious,
before he is aware of it, he will have launched himself into
the very heart of metaphysics.

It is also to be understood that a part of every treatise
without exception must be made up of a consideration of
other ethical theories, involving some history of ethical
systems. In order to explain his own position, the writer
must pass judgment on the schools which have existed from
age to age. We can readily see therefore that as the world
grows older the treatises on Ethics must grow larger and
larser, — or else the science must be subdivided.

In a few words I shall endeavor to state the situation in
regard to these various problems : although what I shall have
to offer would scarcely be more than a syllabus or table of
contents for a big volume.

I. As to the first issue — the ethical ideal or the highest
good, — I should say that the drift of opinion now on the
whole was awai/ from the principle of "universal happi-
ness" or English Utilitarianism. This must be said with
excessive caution owing to the strength and eminence of the
scholars who still represent this school. It was upheld by
such master minds as John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, and
Henry Sidgwick. So, too, Herbert Spencer has incorporated
it into his great " System of Synthetic Philosophy." It is
the standpoint of the eminent Danish scholar, Hoffding, and
of the German scholars, Carneri, Rudolph von Jhering and a
number of others. We notice, however, among some of these
men a very significant tendency to substitute another phrase

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 103

*' The well-being of mankind," or " allgemeine Wohlfahrt,"
in place of happiness or " Gliickseligkeit." Here we begin
to see the influence of the doctrine of evolution.

This whole theory, however, has passed on to a distinc-
tively new phase or type in the attitude of such men as Sir
Leslie Stephen. According to this writer, we are dealing
with what he terms graphically " social tissue." The imme-
diate end is not happiness but the health of this social tissue.
Pleasure of one kind or another is only the indirect aim
or outcome. This standpoint should therefore go under a
new name and be called Evolutional Utilitarianism ; and in all
probability it is in this form that the theory will continue to
survive.

On the other hand, however, we notice a very distinct in-
clination on the part of many leading scholars to draw back
from this whole standpoint, with the conviction that there is
a certain other intellectual or spiritual element involved in the
ethical ideal, apart from' any feeling of pleasure or happi-
ness. And in this direction we are meeting with a variety of
standpoints which could not be classed under one name. In
my own mind I think of the leaders in this other line as the
Idealists ; although it may not be quite fair to assume that
there is not a distinctive element of idealism in some of the
higher forms of Utilitarianism. For me it is much the deeper
and the broader attitude, and is represented by some of the
foremost thinkers, such as Wundt, Paulsen, Steinthal and a
number of others in Germany, who emphatically repudiate the
happiness principle.

Over in England this other tendency has taken form in a
distinct school which is, however, represented by a most un-
satisfactory phrase in the term " self-realization," as expres-
sive of the true ethical ideal. The leader for this standpoint
has been the late eminent scholar, Thomas Hill Green, whose
" Prolegomena" is referred to by Mackenzie as "probably
the most considerable contribution to ethical science that has
been made in England during the nineteenth century."
This group is often alluded to as constituting the Perfectionist
School.

104 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

The easiest way in which to give a cue to the various stand-
points from all sides, would be perhaps to mention some of
the phrases used by the scholars in order to express the atti-
tudes they assume concerning the ethical ideal. We have
for example: " the attainment of a certain type of personal-
itv or bent of will," from James Seth; — "The greatest
attainable well-being of mankind," from "The Principles of
Morals," by Fowler and Wilson; — "conscious life in the
full development of all its normal possibilities," from Borden
P. Bowne; — "the preservation and perfection of human
life," from Frank Thilly; — "The complete satisfaction of
the ideal self," from George Trumbull Ladd; — "an equi-
librium of conduct under the conditions of action," from
S.Alexander; — " The realized will, the developed or satis-
fied self," from John Dewey; — "the peace of conscience
secured by devoting one's self to the welfare of mankind,"
from Georg von Gizycki; — "The identity of perfection
and of happiness," from Paul Janet; — "la vie a la fois la
plus intense et la plus variee dans ses formes," from
M. Guyau; — "the health of society," from Sir Leslie
Stephen; — "the one subjective last end of all the human
acts of a given individual, * * * that it may be well
with him and his," from Joseph Rickaby, S. J. ; — "the
perfecting of man or the realization of the powers of the
human soul," from Thomas Hill Green; — " the full exercise
of the man's faculties in accordance with his proper individ-
uality," from Charles F. D'Arcy; — "a desirable state of
feeling called by whatever name — gratification, enjoyment,
happiness," from Herbert Spencer; — " universal happiness
from the desirable consciousness or feeling for the innumer-
able multitude of living beings present and to come, " from
Henry Sidgwick; — " Befriedigung der Bediirfnisse der
menschlichen Natur nach ihrem ganzen Umfange," i. e.,
" allo-emeine Wohlfahrt," — from Hoffdiug; — " self-reali-
zation, the objective consciousness of an attained end, which
is accompanied by, but is not the same as, the feeling of
pleasure," from W. R. Sorley; — "ein Sichbestimmen des
Einzelnen nach der Idee der Gattung," from Strauss, the

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 105

celebrated author of the "LebenJesu;" — "the summum
bonum is to realize the summus ego," from J. H. Muirhead ; —
" Wohl und Gedeihen der Gesellschaft," from Rudolph von
Jhering; — "not happiness, but blessedness," from Car-
lyle ; — "human welfare, Happiness, Being and Wellbeiug
combined; that is. Utility," from Alexander Bain; — "das
Streben nach Gliick, die Grundtriebfeder aller menschlichen
Unternehmungen," from Carneri ; — " die Verfolgung frem-
den Wohlseins als Zweck," from A. Doring; — " to make
as complete a system as possible of the ideas and purposes of
the self," from Bosanquet; — " Die Summe der Lust zu ver-
mehren, deren die Welt sich erfreut," from Lotze; — " the
natural good or perfection of man himself consists in the
possession of abundant faculties, active and passive, fully
developed, and in regular and equal exercise," from Edith
Simcox; — " Alle seine Anlagen durch Ubung zu Kriiften
und Fertigkeiten entfalten," from Paulsen.

So too, in a writer like Steinthal we come upon a reference
to somethino; which he calls: " Ein Reich des Intelligibeln,"
concerning which he says: "In diesem Reiche leben und
weben, in ihm geniessen und schaffen, es fordern und
mehren, ist der letzte Sinn der Sittlichkeit." In such a
master mind and scientifically gifted man as Wundt, we even
meet with a leaning towards mysticism in the effort to
get'i away from the happiness principle, where he speaks
about " ein allgemeiner Geist der Menschheit," as if it were
something as real as one's own consciousness, and says :
"Der Mensch kann das Gute nur erstreben, weil es ihn be-
gliickt ; aber das Gute selbst ist kein Gliicksgut, sondern ein
objectives geistiges ^rzeugniss.''

On the other hand, perhaps the most striking of all at this
moment is the attitude of two eminent writers who have
come out emphatically with the assertion that there can be no
one consistent expression for the highest good. As Carl
Simmel, of Berlin, expresses it: " Die Annahme, dass der
absolute Zweck nur einer sein konne, dass die Zwecke des
wirklichen oder gesollten Handelns, sobald sie iiberhaupt zum
Charakter des Endzwecks aufsteigen, nur in einem einzigen

106 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

miinden kounten — das ist einer der verbreitetsten Irrthiimer
des teleoloofischeu Denkens." And the other writer, A. E.
Taylor, of England, has recently published an extensive work,
" The Problem of Conduct," apparently to establish the same
point, according to the assertion: "All moral endeavor is
bound to be a business of more or less unprincipled compro-
mise," hence that ethics can have no foundation in metaphy-
sics but only in empirical psychology.

II. -III. It is, however, in connection with the second and
third classes of problems that the battle royal has been going
on in ethical science since the time of Darwin, because it is
here where the new historical method has played such an im-
portant role. What are the motives or sanctions for the
ethical ideal? Is conscience something single and irreducible,
an intuition, or is it derived, and is it a name for a complex
series of feelings? It is here where, as some may think, the
honor of the soul is at stake.

The influence in this direction has come supremely from
the study of anthropology, — the customs and conditions of
mind of primitive races, or of people living under a more
primitive form of civilization. Then, too, the discovery of
ancient literatures, the codes and documents of other races,
has come like a revelation or an earthquake shock. If the
moral sense is an original endowment, how are we to account
for the contradictions we see in the way it announces itself?

At the same time, it should be remembered that the issue
is not Intuitionalism versus Utilitarianism. The scholar who
accepts the universal happiness principle as the ultimate
aim, may nevertheless believe that there is an original injunc-
tion in the human soul commanding each and every one to
work for this as an ideal. The great Lotze, for instance,
assured us that the one supreme principle of all moral con-
duct must be found in the idea of benevolence. But it has
very much upset others who accept this standpoint, when he
asserts on the other hand : " Ein unaustilgbarer Keim des
Guten ist dem menschlichen Geist im Gewissenangeboren, —
unmittelbar in der Natur unseres Wesens begriindet." Be-
sides this there is the evolutional Intuitionalism of Herbert

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 107

Spencer, who teaches that the acquired experience of the
human soul has become hereditary in certain ethical maxims
or intuitions, just as it has in the axioms of mathematics.
But this latter standpoint is tied up with the unsettled problem
as to the possibility of the inheritance of acquired character-
istics.

Yet in spite of the seeming contradictions in the codes or
utterances of the moral sense, there are still a number of
eminent scholars who believe that conscience is irreducible or
underived, and therefore is an original endowment of the
human soul. To quote from some of them: "There is
a principle of self -development in man," in virtue of
which, "he anticipates experience," Thomas Hill Green;
" the feeling of the ought is primary, essential, unique; the
judgments as to what one ought are the results of environ-
ment, education and reflection," George Trumbull Ladd;
"A unique and irresoluble kind of knowledge,- — " Marti -
neau; "Reason discovering universal truth," Calderwood;
" The consciousness of right and wrong is underived and wit-
nesses to a supra-sensible principle in man," Pres. Schurman,
of Cornell.

The standpoint here will depend a good deal on whether the
writer accepts a certain spiritual element in the human being
which is not in the animal consciousness, and therefore a
certain intellectual element in conscience. The Idealists, as I
have called them, will be inclined to defend an original ele-
ment here. But those who regard the moral sense as having
its basis only in feeling, may make a strong effort to reduce it
to simpler elements. The favorite doctrine among this group
of minds is that conscience is a feeling of self -approbation or
self-disapprobation in connection with certain classes of con-
duct. We have, therefore, a long list of able scholars who
have been working faithfully and persistently to trace the
genesis of the moral sense simply as a feeling and to describe
the steps of its evolution. The point with them is chiefly to
account for the existence of Altruism, — how is it that
instinctively we feel ashamed of selfishness?

The two big volumes by Sutherland are written for the

108 Trans. Acad. Sci. oj St. Louis.

purpose of tracing the genesis and growth of this sentiment
from the earliest forms of the animal kingdom. With him it
is simply to account for "methodized sympathy." The
Association School, under the leadership of such a mind as
Alexander Bain, may assume that they have explained it all in
his statement: " Whenever an action is associated with dis-
approbation and punishment, there grows up in reference to
it a state of mind indistinguishable from moral sentiment."

It is in such a treatise, however, as "Die Entstehung des
Gewissens," by Paul Ree, that we have this derivative
attitude worked outmost completely. With him it is customs
which develop moral feelings rather than moral feelings which
develop customs. And the two heavy volumes by Jhering
are written more than anything else to refute the position of
Lotze, and to establish this main point: " Nicht die Natur,
sondern die Geschichte ist die Urheberin des Sittlichen."

In sum and substance it means that the preservation of
society required that some kind of a moral code should de-
velop, and that this code should become fixed in the feelings;
and therefore it came. It would not have developed if the
individual had not required the existence of society for the
sake of the preservation of his own existence.

This might be considered the attitude of such evolutionists
as (jruyau, Clifford, Carneri, Ree, Sutherland and others. In
connection with this whole subject of the relation of conscience
to evolution, the exciting moment came, however, when Hux-
ley, the great biologist and disciple of Darwinism, gave his
Romanes Lecture at Oxford on " Ethics and Evolution," and
astonished nearly the whole world of scholars by his assertion
that the ethical process and the cosmic process were opposed
to each other, and that if we desire the development of the
ethical process we must fight the cosmic process at every step
of the way. It was the most important utterance, to my
mind, in the science of ethics since the publication of " The
Descent of Man," by Darwin. It was an assertion not that
conscience had not been evolved, but that it had not come
through the " struggle for existence," or by means of the
same law according to which animal organisms had developed.

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 109

This meant calling a wholesome halt ; the effect of that lec-
ture has been tremendous, and may last for the whole of the
twentieth century.

But, on the other hand, the group of Idealists may also
insist that the whole discussion from this standpoint has not
touched the real problem at all. It may give an explanation
for the appearance of codes of morals like the Decalogue.
But this is not conscience, they will say. It has not accounted
for the impulse to realize an ideal in one's self, and of one's
self. It has simply been explaining or describing the appear-
ance of a certain codified altruism through the instinct of
sympathy. In another direction, therefore, a novel and
able effort has been made by Prof. Baldwin, of Princeton
University, to account for the subjective element in con-
science through the imitative instinct, as worked out in his
treatise, " Social and Ethical Interpretations." How far he
has succeeded, it is too soon for us to give an opinion.

It is very interesting, however, by the way, to note how
some of these men judge as to whether the establishment of
this theory concerning the derivative nature of conscience
may ajBfect its future influence, or its permanence as a factor
in the human consciousness. And here the opinions differ
widely. We have the frank confession of a man like Paul
Kee, " Das Gewissen bleibt, gleich dem Held in der Fabel,
nur so lange bei uns, als wir nicht fragen, woher es stammt;
es verlasst uns, wenn wir diese Frage stellen. Grausamkeit
und Mord sind nicht bose, sondern bios schadlich." Others
will say that there will be no practical effect one way or the
other.

In the case of the astute Sidgwick we have again the frank
admission where he says, "A Utilitarian may reasonably
desire on Utilitarian principles that some of his conclusions
should be rejected by mankind generally ; or even that the
vulgar should keep aloof from his system as a whole, in so far
as the inevitable indefiniteness and complexity of his calcula-
tions render it likely to lead to bad results in their hands."
Again, we have the striking utterance from Guyau : " Quelque
origine qu'on attribue h I'impulsion du devoir, si cette im-

110 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

pulsion n'est pas justifiee par la raison, elle pourra se trouver
gravement modifiee par le developpment continu de la raison
chez I'homme. * * * Tout instinct tend a se detruire en
devenant conscient.''

But at any rate, as an outcome of the splendid work which
has been going on for thirty years in connection with these
two special problems — the nature and the evolution of con-
science — we are in a much better position to go ahead and
discuss the real issues. The historical foundation has now
been laid. We know at last what we are dealing with — the
facts as such are before us to grapple with in a way that they
were not before the students in ethical science before the days
of Darwin.

IV. When it comes to the problem of the freedom of the
will, the atmosphere, it must be admitted, grows misty. In
spite of everything we may do we shall find ourselves here
within the domain of metaphysics. It is in connection with
this issue that the various writers must declare themselves as
to their general theorv concernins' the nature of soul or
consciousness. They must take their stand for or against the
appearance of a new element in the human creature in contrast
with the animal kingdom.

The questions ordinarily put with regard to any of these
writers would be: Is he a " Determinist " or an " Indeter-
minist," and does he regard the soul as merely a functioning
of the body or as having a certain independent existence of
its own? We can see, therefore, that in this department the
writer is pretty sure to define his general position as to the
nature of consciousness or the " soul," and to let us know to
what extent he is or is not a " materialist," in ignoring or
accepting a " spiritual" nature in man.

It may be said, I assume, that the drift of opinion among
the scholars in ethics is now in favor of " Determinism," or
against the old " freedom " standpoint. There is seemingly
a shrinking reluctance at this point lest they admit themselves
as unscientific. And it must be owned that a man who up-
holds the freedom of the will, will have to face a certain
degree of contempt on the part of the physicist or the biolo-

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. Ill

gist, if not even the conventional psychologist. In this
respect, therefore, — or perhaps not "therefore," — the
writers in ethics have striven to be " up to date," and to feel
themselves at one with the rest of the scientific world. We see,
for instance, how one of these scholars announces it as the very
starting-point or basis of his whole problem: "1st, und in
wie feme ist bei einem consequent durchgefiihrten Determi-
nismus, eine ethische Weltanschauung moglich? " — Carneri.

But lano-uage here must be taken with excessive caution.
In reality there is not one but rather a number of problems
involved. In the first instance, the issue may have to do
purely with what we might term subjective experience and to
what extent a freedom of the will exists strictly within the
consciousness itself. It is the old mooted battle ground :
must the will follow the strongest motive ; does causality
reign here as it does in the outer world? Again, on the other
hand, the problem may rather apply to the issue whether the
soul or consciousness is one of the determining factors in the
whole of experience — objective and subjective alike, — or
whether it simply accompanies the events of objective expe-
rience somewhat as if it were a function of the objective
world.

Now a scholar may be a " Determinist " on one of these
problems and an " Indeterminist " on the other, or he may
be "Indeterminist" or "Determinist" on both of them.

On the whole one might say that in former days the dis-
cussion centered more on the subjective side ; as to whether
the will had to obey the strongest motive. All this went
with the old-fashioned Faculty-Psychology. But the exciting
aspect of the problem since the coming in of the new physics
and the doctrine of the conservation of energy, has been
rather as to whether the soul itself exerts any actual influence
on the " outer world," as it is called; and is to be considered
as a factor in the whole realm of causation. We are in the
most intricate problem as to the relation between body and
soul, or as to whether there is a distinction between soul and
body at all.

The teacher in ethics is very much concerned with this

112 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

whole problem because it is closely interwoven with the dis-
cussions of merit and demerit and the basis for moral respon-
sibility. While the drift of opinion, as I have said, has been
in favor of Determinism, it should, however, be stated that a
few scholars during the last thirty years have held on most
tenaciously to a belief in the freedom of the will in the
fullest sense of the term, and some of these have been not of
the second but of the first rank. It was upheld explicitly by
Martineau, of England, and it was defended at least as a pos-
sibility by the great Lotze, of Germany, as we may see in a
short chapter in his " Outlines of Practical Philosophy."

Others may contend that the law of causation holds
strictly within the human consciousness, and use the phrase,
" causation of character," while they may emphatically
repudiate the notion that our spiritual experience is simply an
effect or a functioning of physical forces. This latter view
is explicit in the attitude of Thomas Hill Green. We see it
in the very title of his opening chapter — "The Spiritual
Principle in Knowledge and in Nature." To the question
he himself propounds, " can the knowledge of nature be
itself a part or product of nature? " — he gives an emphatic
No.

Others still may contend that while the law of causation
holds in both spheres, as it were, yet it is a diiferent kind of
causation in the nii7id from what we are dealing with in physi-
cal nature. This would be the attitude of Wundt. Hence it
is, he claims, that while, in physical nature, any future event
might be calculable — if one had a mind big enough to take
in all the factors, — such a calculation would not be possible
in the future acts of an individual jjerson.

Still more, others may lose themselves completely in the
realm of metaphysics and advocate a causation in time, but a
freedom of the will outside of time.

It must be admitted that this is the dreariest and most exas-
perating department in all ethical science, and the one where
the thoughtful reader will feel himself most bafiled. Each
new scholar, as he unfolds his system, will wish to take up
this problem and work it out all over again. He is never

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 113

satisfied with any other man's statement of it. He may wish
to point out how he is " Determinist " in one aspect of the
question and " Indeterminist " in another aspect of it. He
will be anxious to qualify himself in a multitude of ways with
the hope that he can throw some new light on this dark realm
of metaphysical speculation. At times we may lay down one
of these treatises with the feeling as if the writer had upheld
both standpoints and — " you take your choice."

The fact of it is that the very terms " freedom of the will,"
"determinism," and " indeterminism " should be dropped
from the vocabulary of ethics. If this could be done, one or
more chapters might easily be dispensed with in many of these
treatises. They are terms which arose in connection with a
special period in the history of ethical theory, and are
painfully interwoven with the other great department of
theology. The retention of old terms which have become
like worn coins, is sometimes a positive affliction to the ad-
vance of clear thinking. The old Greek was a happy man to
have lived before the words " freedom of the will," and
" determinism " had been coined or introduced into phi-
losophy.

On the whole, perhaps the finest analysis of the problem is
to be found in the treatises on ethics by Wundt and Green.
But in passing I may give you a certain interesting compromise
solution from Paulsen: " Freiheit des Menschen ist Herr-
schaft der Vernunft, Knechtschaft des Menschen ist Herr-
schaft der animalischen Begierden."

At the same time it must be taken into consideration that
in such a condensed statement, little of what I have been
saying on this special problem can have definite significance
apart from the chapters where the problem is discussed.
Had doctrinal theology never got mixed in here, it may be
that this would never have been a department for the treatises
on ethical science.

V. It will also be evident enough that when it comes to
the subject of the relation between ethics and religion, we
shall enter a domain of sentiment or feeling where we shall
not have very clear sailing. But in this direction there has

114 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

been one tremendous step taken in advance, and on this I
wish to lay great emphasis. All the leading writers will
have their opinions on this phase of the subject. They will
take their stand as to the relation between the God-concep-
tion and conscience, and undertake to define themselves as to
what extent at this point there is dependence or independ-
ence.

But the fact I wish to call your attention to is this : So
far as I am aware, among this whole array of eminent scholars
whose works I have listed before you, I doubt if there are
more than four or five exceptions to my statement : that in
case they found their conclusions seemingly in conflict with
some part of the Bible, they would not still calmly hold on
to their conclusions all the same. It would be done perhaps
in reverence, but it would be done nevertheless. The excep-
tions, if any, would be men who took up the problem as
clergymen and not as men of science. Ethics is no longer
treated as a department of biblical criticism or of doctrinal
theology. We shall appreciate how much this signifies when
we recall the fact that the existence of conscience was long
used as one of the natural " evidences " for the existence of
God. To anah^ze it meant digging at the roots of theism.
But ethical science has now practically won its freedom from
the conventional authority of doctrinal religion or the church.
In substance it implies that the scholar in ethics now feels
that, like yourselves, he has a bodf/ of facts to deal with and
interpret, that he has to handle his subject as a science and
to accept whatever conclusions may come from his study.

If the great movement of evolution had accomplished
nothing more than this in the department of ethics in the last
forty years, it would have done a stupendous piece of work.

When, however, it comes to the subtle problem as to the
relation between ethics and religion as such, it would perhaps
surprise you to know how many of the scholars who are
entirely free from the authority of any conventional theology,
still recognize a close tie between the God-conception and
conscience. They may qualify it by speaking of it as a
"cosmic" relationship instead of a God-relationship, but

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 1 15

the point is the same. On the practical side, it is the ques-
tion : could the conscience still continue to exert its influence
without the God-belief ; while on the side of theory it is
simply a question : is there a certain natural linkage or rela-
tion of dependence here, and if so, of what kind?

Almost every conceivable attitude of mind on this phase
of the whole problem is represented by one or more of the
modern scholars in ethical science. We have the negative
view in the denial of any relationship here, — as illustrated in
the old-fashioned, aggressive atheism and materialism still
advocated by A, Diihring, of Germany, who is a most pro-
lific writer, but not of course of the first rank. In his
" Werth des Lebens," we come upon an emphatic denial of
the very possibility of soul, immortality, or God, with an
effort to found an ethics exclusively on sympathy and human
affections. Then, too, there is the "atom-soul" and the
naive ethical monism of Haeckel, which is, however, only a
sugar-coated, sentimental atheism and materialism. In the
French scholar, Guyau, we likewise have a denial of duty,
immortality and God, with a scheme for founding a morality
sans obligation ni sanction. There was the brilliant mathe-
matician, Clifford, giving a lecture on " Cosmic Emotion," or
writing essays on "Ethics and Religion," and substituting a
" Father-Man " in place of a " Father-God." We have the
rather mournful negative agnosticism of an Edith Simcox,
who yet would offer us a high subjective ethical Idealism quite
independent of any God-belief. There is the " kosmisches
Lebensgefiihl " of Hoffding. According to Janet, religion
adds completeness to the moral life without being absolutely
essential to it. Then there is the ethical, impersonal theism
of Matthew Arnold with his definition of religion as,
" morality touched with emotion," and his description of the
God-conception as " The Eternal, not ourselves, that makes
for righteousness."

For a scholar like Robert Flint, in his lectures on
"Theism," conscience is a "delegated authority." —
" Whose is this perfect authoritative supreme will to which all
consciences point back? Whose, if not God's? " And for a

116 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Cardinal Newman, " Conscience not only teaches that God is,
but what he is," as he says in his " Grammar of Assent."

To some, the God-belief would be regarded as a kind of
efflorescence of the moral sense. To others, like D'Arcy,
conscience practically has no meaning unless linked with a
belief in God. And likewise the statement of Ladd, of Yale:
" The practical insufficiency of morality to sustain and
elevate its own principles without support and help from
religion, can be shown by an appeal to almost all the human
experience which illustrates this subject." We have, how-
ever, in the other direction, the emphatic declaration of Green :
"It is the very essence of moral duty to be imposed by man
on himself." Hence we see that a man's opinion as to the
actual linkage here, in the problem as to whether the moral
law comes directly out of one's self or from God, does not
necessarily depend on whether he is or is not a theist. On
the other hand, a scholar like Wundt may turn the problem
around by giving a broader definition to religion, as we see
from his words : ' ' Religion preaches to every mind that truth
beyond which science can never go, namely, that the individ-
ual lives not for himself alone, but that his individual exist-
ence belongs to a universal psychical commonwealth, that his
finite ends serve infinite ends whose ultimate fullfiUment is
hidden from his eyes." And in this sense he will find no dif-
ficulty as a man of science in recognizing an intimate relation
between ethics and religion. In a writer like Royce, of Har-
vard, there is a disposition fairly to revel in the language of
an exalted theism, and to fuse the religious and the ethical
elements in a most striking way ; while, however, the God-con-
ception here becomes so vague as to convey scarcely more than
a feeling or sentiment, to any one incapable of mastering the
subtle abstractions of metaphysics.

On the whole we see an extreme reluctance on the part of
most of these scholars to confess themselves as dealing with
anything "transcendental," and yet with a preponderance
of opinion that a cosmic relationship is linked with ethical
motives. We see the term " ethical religion " gradually com-
ing in, and it is a title of one of the books in the list which I
have given you, by Mr. Salter, of Chicago.

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 117

It is apparent that the answers on the part of the various
scholars to this fifth problem will be very much determined
by personal temperament. The element of feeling is bound
to come in at such a point. If a man himself has no " cos-
mic emotion," he will probably leave it out of his ethical
system. If, on the other hand, he has a personal /ee/^/^^ of
some connection between himself and the cosmos or the Law-
maker of the cosmos, he will introduce it as a part of his
theory.

About the most recent contribution to this whole problem
comes from Prof. Palmer, of Harvard, in his little volume of
Lectures, "The Field of Ethics," where he points out a
certain antithesis between the provinces of ethics and religion,
showing how the first points "man-ward" and the second,
" God-ward;" and therefore how it is that the absorption of
a person's interest in the one direction may temporarily
weaken his interest in the_ other. And yet according to his
opinion, " morality fulfills itself in religion, even though its
gaze is directed man- ward rather than God-ward."
' Taking it altogether it might be said that there is a con-
sensus of opinion to the effect that the God-belief has not
of itself called conscience into existence, nor conscience the
God-belief; that neither one evolved out of the other, but
that the two beliefs have been very closely interwoven histori-
cally and have exerted immense influence on each other.
There is also a consensus of opinion, I should say, that the
God-beliefs have historically served a great purpose in giving
a fixity to ethical codes by impressing them more firmly on
the human consciousness in the process of social develop-
ment or social evolution, and also given a greater definiteness
to the sense of moral obligation.

Of like interest would be the discussions as to the extent to
which conscience and the ethical ideal may depend on the
belief in the immortality of the soul. Here, too, in recent
years the opinions are likewise diverse in the extreme. For
a writer like Joseph Rickaby, of the Society of Jesus, it is to
be expected that this belief is absolutely essential to his theory
of conscience. On the other hand, we have the opposite

118 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

standpoint of Gizycki who says, " The giving up of the belief
in another world tends to lift a man's character. It is better
to find one's blessedness through action than through adora-
tion." But on the whole, looking through these various treat-
ises where this phase of the subject is dealt with, it is quite
plainly manifest that a faith in an ethical ideal may be very
strong indeed even where the author is quite agnostic on all
three problems as to " Gott, Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit."

It will naturally seem a little strange that in this short
statement of mine, I have reserved such a brief space for
reference to that great department of ethical science to which
the leading writers would perhaps devote one-third of their
treatises, or to the consideration of which many independent
volumes have been given. It has to do, of course, with the
problem of the application of the theories, — the department
of applied ethics.

Each writer is called upon to tell how his theory helps to
solve practical problems. But we can see at once that he has
a task of enormous dimensions before him. The whole his-
tory of the human race is involved here; so too, a knowledge
of the complex mechanism of the human consciousness, and
also an acquaintance with a vast realm of practical affairs in
the intricate movement or workings of the social forces. It
is therefore to be expected that in this direction the first re-
sults must be crude and unsatisfactory. It is just where we
are the most deeply and personally concerned, and where we
should be most anxious to have light ; but where the light will
come the most slowly.

What is more, in this part of the subject we are dealing
not with a fixed form of the ethical ideal, but with such an
ideal in the process of the making. If there is one fact
which has been established by the scholars in this last epoch
since the time of Darwin, it is just this : that the ethical ideal
on its practical side is a progressive one, and must assume
new forms from age to age. It is the fundamental thought
of Alexander's "Moral Order and Progress," who tells us

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 119

there : ' ' Every moral ideal is an arrested moment in the
passage from one ideal to a higher."

We can also feel assured that in this great department of
ethics the social environment or atmosphere in which the
scholar or student has lived or been educated, must exert an
enormous influence upon him in spite of any effort he may
make to the contrary. The German, the Englishman, the
Frenchman or the American cannot possibly be expected to
handle these issues in the same way. When it comes to such
questions as : the relation of the State to the rights of the
individual ; does man exist for the State or the State for
man and which one is the end in itself: the meanino- of
" Justice ;" the function of the Family, and the normal posi-
tion and sphere of woman ; the rights of society over children
as contrasted with the rights of the parent ; the permanence
or dissolubility of the Marriage tie ; the ethical influence of
the Trades Union; the right of private property, and to
what extent this right is relative or absolute ; the function of
the Church, with its relation to the individual and to society,
or the State ; the extent to which law or government should
undertake to control private conduct in the interest of the
individual or of society ; the responsibility of society for the
individual, or of the individual to society; the true principles
for the punishment of crime ; the ideal form of life for the
individual person and in what way he is to strive after per-
fection; the degree to which self-denial or the opposite, self-
assertion, is the foundation principle of the moral ideal;

when it comes to answers for a variety of problems like
these, it would be absurd to expect at this stage a unanimity
of opinion. The very same theories or abstract principles
will perhaps be found to lead, in different minds, to the most
opposite conclusions when it comes to the application of the
doctrines. There is also the whole department pertainino- to
the ethical instruction of the young in connection with the
science of pedagogy, which I have left untouched.

Most interesting to me on the whole are the theories with
regard to the personal ideal or what constitutes the perfect
man. It would be interesting to stop for a moment and con-

120 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

trast the theories of George Eliot in her gospel of renuncia-
tion as worked out in " Romola," or the attitude of "non-
resistance of evil " as urged by Tolstoi, with the " Over-
Man " of such a writer as Nietzsche, — because in the latter
we have the gauntlet thrown down to thousands of years of
ethical experience or tradition.

Of almost equal interest would be the debates concerning
the relationship between the individual and society ; whether
society exists for man or man for society. We may have a
standpoint amounting to anarchistic individualism on the part
of Herbert Spencer, or we may have whole treatises such as
the two volumes by Jhering, written practically to establish
the point that society is sovereign, that it makes the law, and
that it is for the individual to fit in here as the spoke fits into
the wheel.

The final outcome of all this discussion on the practical
side will be of tremendous value for mankind, but the real
good of it you and I will not live to see.

In this whole statement, I have endeavored for the most
part, to keep my personal convictions in the background, and
I offer only one in conculsion, and it may be in the form of
a prophecy. I cannot help thinking that ere long a reaction
is to set in. The doctrine of evolution has been pushed too
far, or tried as a key to solve too many problems. In its
later form it was so new and striking that we had to expect
that it would be employed in every possible way. The
scholar in ethics has been inclined to run wild with it, as per-
haps also the student in the physical sciences, — although on
this latter point I should not venture to speak.

For a time it has seemed to unsettle every point in ethical
science. There has been too much biology mixed in with the
discussions in this department of research. I look for a still
greater reaction in favor of the school of Idealists. It is
my opinion that more rather than less will be made of con-
science among the next generation of scholars, and that the
subjective side is to assert its rights to more recognition.

But in this you are at once conscious that I am confessing
mjT^self in favor of those Idealists, and showing my personal

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 121

bias. In spite of the array of scholars against me and in
spite of the tendency of the age, — with all due respect and
reverence for the minds of the men of science before me,
with the consciousness that one must be modest in saying it,
and that it should be said softly and in a whisper — never-
theless, gentlemen, I still believe in the freedom of the will.

A FURTHER LIST OF SHORT PASSAGES FROM VARIOUS WRITERS
ILLUSTRATING THE DIVERSE STANDPOINTS ON SOME OF THE
PROBLEMS MENTIONED IN THE PRECEDING PAPER.

I. Concerning Ethics as a Science.

"In the case of the physical sciences, at least, we can obtain knowledge
which, within its own sphere, is entirely independent of the metaphysician's
theories. Is not this true in all cases, and therefore in those cases in which
the science is concerned with the conduct and character of human beings?
May we not discover propositions about the relations of men to each other
and the internal relations of the individual human being, which will be
equally independent of metaphysical disputes? As we assign the relations
between parts of space without asking what is space in itself, may we not
determine rules about men without asking what is meant, for example, by
personal unity, or what is the true mode of distinguishing object from sub-
ject? * * * The problem is, in fact, to discover the scientific form of
morality, or, in other words, to discover what is the general characteristic,
so far as science can grasp it, of the moral sentiments." — ''The Science of
Ethics," by Leslie Stephen.

"If we may treat facts of human feeling, and imagination, and judgment
by scientific method, may sift them, classify them, concatenate and explain
them, interpret their import and reasonspeculativelyabout their implicates,
it is difficult to see why we may not properly speak of a possible • science of
ethics.' " " Ethics results from the scientific study of human conduct — its
sources, its development, its sanctions, and its most general principles." —
"Philosophy of Conduct," by George Trumbull Ladd.

"Es sind zwei Aufgaben der wissenschaftlichen Ethik zu unterscheiden.
Dieselbe ist teils eine historische, tells eine philosophische Wissenschaft.
Die historische Oder vergleichende Ethik sucht die positive Moralitat so
darzustellen, wie sie zu einer gegebenen Zeit bei einem gegebenen Volke
auftritt, sucht nachzuweisen, welche Entwickelung sie unter verschiedenen
Verhaltnissen erleidet, und die verschiedenen Formen zu vergleichen, die
sie zu verschiedenen Zelten bei verschiedenen Voikern annehmen kann.
Sie sucht die Ursachen dieser verschiedenen Entwickelungsstuf en und Formen
in bestimmten physischen, psychologischen und historischen Verhaltnissen

122 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

aufzuflnden. Die philosophische Ethik hat zur Aufgabe nicht die Beschrei-
bung und Erklarung gegebener ethischer Ersctieinungen, sondern deren
Wertschatzung. Sie ist eine praktische Wissenschaf t und setzt voraus, dass
wir uns Zwecke gestellt haben, die durch menschliche Handlungen verwirk-
licht warden soUen." — " Ethik," by Harald Hoffding.

" In der Bearbeitung wissenschaftlicher Aufgaben sind seit lauger Zeit
zwei von einander abweichende Standpunkte der Betrachtung zur Geltung
gekommen: der explicative und der normative. Jener hat die Gegen-
stande in Bezug auf ihr thatsachliches Verhalten im Auge, dass er durch die
Verkniipfung des innerlich Verwandten Oder des nach ausseren Merkmalen
Zasammengehorigen dem Verstandnisse naherzu bringen sucht. Uieser
b tracht et die Objecte mit Riicksicht auf bestimmte Regeln, die an ihnen
zum Ausdruck gelangen, und die er zugleich als Forderungen jedem einzelnen
Objecte gegeniiber zur Anwendung bringt. Dort gelten daher alle That-
sacben an sich als gleichwerthige; hier werden sie geflissentlich einer
Werthschiitzung uaterworfen, indem man entweder von dem abstrahirt,
was den aufgestellten Regeln widerstreitet, oder letzteres ausdriicklich als
ein normwidriges dem normalen, die Regel bestatigenden Verhalten entge-
genstellt. * * * So ist das Sittliche die letzte Quelle des NormbegrifiEs,
und die Ethik ist die urspriingliche Normwissenschaft." — "Ethik," by
Wilhelm Wundt.

•' The problem is not, what are the facts or phenomena of morality? but,
How are we to interpret the facts? What is their ultimate significance?" —
•' A Study of Ethical Principles," by James Seth.

" Ethics Is the Science of the Art of Life. It is concerned with the prin-
ciples which underlie the estimation of conduct." — "A Short Study of
Ethics," by Charles F. D'Arcy.

" Ethics is an empirical science having its basis in the wider science of
psychology. Its primary object is to effect an analysis of the moral senti-
ments, i. e., certain peculiar forms of emotion which are commonly aroused
in us when we contemplate the past or prospective actions both of other
persons and of ourselves." — " The Problem of Conduct," by Alfred Edward
Taylor.

" Die Ethik hat nur, was ihr dargeboten wird, und kann nichts weiteres —
woher auch? — hinzubringen. Sie flndet den Menschen, wie er ist, forscht
nach, wieso er zu dem, was er ist, geworden sein mag, und bildet sich ein
Urtheil iiber das, was der Mensch sein kann. Was der Mensch sein sollte
Oder konnte, ist eine Frage, die fiir die moderne Ethik gar keinen Sinn
mehr hat." — " Grundlegung der Ethik," by Carneri.

" Die Moralgesetze sind Naturgesetze und werden erkaunt wie Natur-
gesetze, in demselben Sinn, in welchem die Vorschriften der Diatetik Natur-
gesetze sind und als solche erkannt werden. Es sind Regeln, auf deren
Innehaltung die menschliche Wohlfahrt beruht." —" System der Ethik,"
by Friedrich Paulsen.

Sheldon — TJie Literature of Ethical Science. 123

" That we place a value upon things, that we call them right or good,
wrong or bad, is the important fact in ethics, is what malies a science of
ethics possible." — " Introduction to Ethics," by Frank Thilly.

" Practical Philosophy may be defined, at least provisionally, as the science
of the causes which determine human action or conduct, and of the difEer-
ences which distinguish one kind of action or one mode of conduct from
another. Corresponding to this science, there will be an art, the art of
regulating conduct, whether that conduct be our own or the conduct of
others." — " The Principles of Morals^" by Fowler and Wilson.

"The aim of ethics is to render scientific, i. e., true, and as far as pos-
sible systematic — the apparent cognitions that most men have of the Tight-
ness or reasonableness of conduct, whether the conduct be considered as
right in itself, or as the means to some end conceived as ultimately
good." — '• The Methods of Ethics," by Henry Sidgwick.

" Ethics deals with conduct in its entirety, with reference, that is, to
what makes it conduct, its end, its real meaning. Ethics is the science of
conduct, understanding by conduct man's activity in its whole reach." —
" Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics," by John Dewey.

" Men are prone to criticise themselves and others, and cannot help ad-
miring in various degrees some expressions of affection and will, and con-
demning others. These current judgments constitute a body of ethical
facts; and it is the aim of ethical science to strip from them their acci-
dental, impulsive, unreflecting character; to trace them to their ultimate
seat in the constitution of our nature and our world; and to exhibit, not as
a concrete picture, but in its universal essence, the ideal of individual and
social perfection. To interpret, to vindicate, and systematize the moral
sentiments, constitutes the business of this department of thought." —
*« Types of Ethical Theory," by James Martineau.

'' Wir miissen die Idee mitten in die mechanische Denkweise hineinstellen,
miissen in voUer Anerkennung der mechanlschen Welt dennoch den Ideal-
ismus unsrer Gesinnung betiitigen. Wie dies geschehen konne? dies zu
zeigen ist Aufgabe der Ethik." — " AUgemeine Ethik," by H. Steinthal.

" Unsere Aufgabe ist keine geringere, als in widerspruchloser Weise dar-
zuthun, dass der Monismus zu einem Begriff der Sittlichkeit fiihrt, welcher
trotz dem Causalgesetz und dem unvermeidlich daraus erfolgenden Deter-
minismus von hohem Werth ist." — ** Gruadlegung der Ethik," by
earner i.

II. — Theories with Regard to the Ethical Ideal or the Highest
Good.

'* The end must consist in some form of self-realization, i. e., in some form
of the development of character — the end, in short, ought to be described

124 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

rather as perfection than as happiness. — "A Manual of Ethics," by John
S. Mackenzie.

*' This, as it seems to me, represents the real difference between the
utilitarian and the evolutionist criterion. The one lays down as a criterion
the happiness, the other the health of society. The two are not really
divergent; on the contrary, they necessarily tend to coincide; but the latter
satisfies the conditions of a scientific criterion in a sense in which the
former fails." — ''The Science of Ethics/' by Leslie Stephen.

" All men do all things for happiness, though not all place their happiness
In the same thing." — " Moral Philosophy, or Ethics and Natural Law," by
Joseph Rickaby, S. J.

" As the watchword of Hedonism may be said to be Self-satisfaction or
Self -gratification, and as that of Rigorism is apt to be Self-sacrifice or Self-
denial, so the watchword of Eudaemonism may be said to be Self-realiza-
tion or Self -fulfillment." — " AStudy of Ethical Principles," by James Seth.

" The theory we want to maintain is one that would found a supposed
duty, and a supposed possible effort, on the part of the individual to make
himself better, upon an ideal in him of a possible moral perfection, upon a
conception actuating him of something that he may possibly become as an
absolute end in himself." — "Prolegomena to Ethics," by Thomas Hill
Green,

" There is no escape from the admission that in calling good the conduct
which subserves life, and bad the conduct which hinders or destroys it, and
in so implying that life is a blessing and not a curse, we are inevitably
asserting that conduct is good or bad according as its total effects are
pleasurable or painful." — " The Data of Ethics," by Herbert Spencer.

•'By Utilitarianism is here meant the ethical theory, first distinctly for-
mulated by Bentham, that the conduct which, under any given circum-
stances, is externally or objectively right, is that which will produce the
greatest amount of happiness on the whole; that is, taking into account all
whose happiness is affected by the conduct. It would tend to clearness if
we might call this principle, and the method based upon it, by some such
name as * Universalistic Hedonism,' and I have therefore sometimes ven-
tured to use this terra, in spite of Its cumbrousaess." — " The Methods of
Ethics," by Henry Sidgwick.

''To show that happiness and virtuous conduct, are, for human beings in
their historical evolution, largely interdependent, is quite a different thing
from showing that the virtuousness of virtuous conduct consists solely in
its utility to produce happiness." — "Philosophy of Conduct," by George
Trumbull Ladd.

Sheldon — Tlie Literature of Ethical Science. 125

" Nous croyons qu'une morale exclusiveraent scientiflque, pour glre com-
plete, doit admettre que la recherche du plaisir n'est que la consequence
m^me de I'efEort instinctif pour maintenir et accroitre la vie: le hut qui, de
fait, determine toute action consciente est aussi la cause qui produit toute
action inconsciente : c'est done la vie meme, la vie a la fois la plus intense et
la plus vari^e dans ses formes. Depuis le premier tressaillement de
I'embryoi) dans le sein maternel jusqu'^ la derni^re convulsion du vieillard,
tout mouvement de I'^tre a eu pour cause la vie en son Evolution ; cette cause
universelle de uos acles, a un autre poiut de vue, eu est I'effet constant et
la^n." — " Esquiase d'uue Morale," by M. Guyau.

"Das ohjektive Prinzip, das Prinzip llir die Feststellunsj des Inhalts der
Ethik und fiir die Wertschatzung der menschiichen Haadlungen wird hier
also das Prinzip der allgemeiuen Wohlfahrt. Diesem Priuzip zufoJge ist
kelne Haudlun-j und keine durch Handlung be^riindete Institution oder
Lebensform von Wert, sofern sie nicht dasLeben und das Gliick bewusster
"Wesen befordert." — " Ethik," by Harald Hoffding.

" Aus lauter NuUen lasst sich keine Grosse bilden. Wenn das individuelle
Lust^efiihl als .^olches ^ittlicb werthlos ist, so ist es auch das Lustgefiihl
Vielcr Oder Aller. Der Utilitarismus ist daher nichts als ein ervpeiterter
Egoisraus. Eben desshalb aber, weil im Gebiet individueller Willensan-
triebe jene Erganzung der endlichea Beschranktheit ira wirklichen Leben
niemals eintreteu kann, ist dieselbe hier nicht in der Form subjectiver
Gllicksgefiible vorhanden, die als solche niemals einoa allgemeioen Werth
gewinnen kSnnen, sondern in Gestalt objectiver geistiger Werthe, welche
aus dem gemeinsaraen Geistesleben der Menschheit hervorgehen, um dann
wieder auf das Eiuzellebea veredelnd zuriickzuivirken, nicht damit sie sich
hier in eiue objectiv werthlose Summe von Einzelgliick verlierea, sondern
damit aus der schopferischen Kraft individuellen Geisteslebens neue objec-
tive Werthe von noch reicherem Inhalte entstehen." — " Ethik," by Wilhelm
Wundt.

"There is such a thing as moral judgment of conduct only upon the
assumption that this conduct leads to pleasure or pain. But to this con-
science joins the further truth, that it is not the efiEort after our own, but
only tiiat for the production of another's felicity, vyhichis ethically merito-
rious; — and, accordingly, that the idea of benevolence must give %cs the sole
supreme principle of all moral conduct.''^ — "Outlines of Practical Philos-
ophy," by Lotze.

" The supreme moral law, the categorical imperative, receives therefore
this form: Seek peace of conscience in devoting thyself to the welfare of man-
kind,''^— "A Student's Manual of Ethical Philosophy," by G. von Gizycki.

"Durch die Sittlichkeit scbafEt sich der Mench um: aus eiuem Natur-
Individuum macht er sich zur iutelligiblen Person, zum Biirger eines
Intelligiblen Reiches." * * * "Es giebt iiber der Natur ein Reich des
Intelligibeln, AUe Gebilde, Einrichtungen, des Wohlwollens und des Rechts,

126 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

alle Erkenntnisse der Wissenschaft, alle Auschauungen der Kunst, alle
Formen raenschlichen Fleisses, alle Erflartungen zur Hebung meuschlichen
Da?eins, welcbe das Menschengeschlecht im Laufe seines Lebens erzeugt
hat, und erzeugen wird, bilden dieses Reich, dessen Element der selbstbe-
wusste freie Geist ist." — " AUgemeine Ethik," by H. Steinthal.

" What will remain, alter such an examination of the Self of common
sense, will be the really deep and important persuasion that he ought to
possess or to create for himself, despite this chaos, some one principle, some
finally significant contrast, whereby he should be able, with an united and
permanent meaning, to identify that portion of the world's life which is to
be, in the larger sense, hi^ own, anil whereby he should become able to con-
trast with this, his larger Self, all the rest of the world of life." — "The
World and the Individual," by Josiah Royce.

" The good life as a whole is a system of conscious acts, where each
function has its limits prescribed to it by the demands of all other functions,
so that no faculty shall perform its functions to the detriment of another." —
" Moral Order and Progress," by S. Alexander.

" The end of Ethics is not the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
Your happiness is of no use to the community, except in so far as it tends
to make you a more efficient citizen — that is to say, happiness is not to be
desired for its own sake, but for the sake of something else. If any end is
pointed to, it is the end of increased efficiency In each man's special work,
as well as in the social functions which are common to all. A man must
strive to be a better citizen, a better workman, a better son, husband or
father." — '' Lectures and Essays," by William Kingdon Clifford.

"Der Wert liegt nun nicht mehr in der Lust als solcher, sondern in den
Funktionen, an welche sie gekulipft ist." — "System der Ethik," by
Friedrich Paulsen.

" Whatever one may do, unless one introduces into the philosophy of
pleasure a foreign and superior element, one can never find a rule which will
explain why certain pleasures should be preferred to others." — Theory
of Morals," by Paul Janet.

" — The broad rule of duty, the pursuit of perfection conditioned by the
general laws of the universe, of which human reason is the highest ex-
ponent."— "Natural Law," by Edith Simcox.

"As the social instincts both of man and the lower animals have no
doubt been developed by nearly the same steps, it would be advisable, if
found practicable, to use the same definition in both cases, and to take as
the standard of morality, the general good or welfare of the community,
rather than the general happiness." — " The Descent of Man," by Charles
Darwin.

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 127

" The moral sense is unyielding in its demands for the actualization, even
here as far as may be, of the ultimate Divinely-implanted Ideal of perfection
of life and Being." — "The Rational or Scientiflc Ideal of Morality," by P.
F. Fitzgerald.

"Der Utilitarismus will ja eben die Aufgabe, an welcher der Evolution-
israus scheitert, wirklich erfiillen; er gibt rair einen Imperativ, nach
welchem ich melne Handlungen beurteilen kann, und er wi'l beweisea, dass
ich auch wirklich dmach verfahre, dass diejenigea Handlungen, die gut
sind, auch eine Maximisation des Gllicks bezwecken, und umgekehrt, die
von mir bose genannten die Sumnae des Gliicks zu vermindern geeignet
sind." — "Ethisches Wissen und ethisches Haudein," by Paul Hensel.

" That is moral which produces the greatest amount of good, present
and future, to sentient creatures, and that is usually ' immoral ' which
causes avoidable pain, present and future, to them." — "The Scientiflc
Basis of Morality," by G. Gore.

" Um das Leben auszuhalten, muss man es rait Sorgen erfiillen, sonst wird
das Leben selbst eine schwerere Sorge als alle Sorgen des Lebeus zuzam-
mengenoraraen. * * * Wer sich ao's Leben ketten will, der musses mit
moglichst reichem Inhalt zu erfiillen suchen, d. h. sich recht vielseitige
Sorgen bereitea; dauu kommt er mit Hiilfe der Sorgen des Lebens iiber
die Sorge des Lebens hinweg. * * * Um das Leben auf die Dauer aus-
halten zu konnen, darf man also weder blossgeniesseu wollen, — muss man
vielmehr handeln uud wirkeu, sorgen und leisten, schafCen und arbeiten,
und alles dies fiir Andere. * * * Der Pessimismus, weit entfernt, die
Sittlichkeit zu schadigen, vielmehr einen Grundpfeiler derselben bildet,
dessen Nichtbeachtung bisher die Unzulanglichkeit der allermeisten
ethischen Systeme verursacht hat." — " Phanomenologie des sittlichen
Bewusstaeins," by Edaird von Hartmann.

III. Concerning the Meaning of Conscience.

"The idea, when it comes, has no external origin, and admits of no
definition except in terms of itself. The right to which obligation refers
is simply a perceived good; and the affirmation of obligation is the act by
which the mind imposes duty upon itself in the presence of such a good.
The free spirit thus imposing duty upon itself gives us the only meaning
and experience of moral obligation." — "The Principles of Ethics," by
Borden P. Bowne.

" Conscience is a name for the consciousness of moral distinctions and
of the obligation to respect them." — "The Elements of Ethics," by James
H. Hyslop.

" — A law within the mind and consciousness of the creature, whereby it
shall measure and regulate its own behavior. This is the natural law of
conscience." — " Moral Philosophy, or Ethics and Natural Law," by Joseph
Rickaby, S. J.

128 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

" Conscience is a mere general name used to designate a series of com-
plex phenomena, and not a separate special faculty." — " Introduction to
Ethics," by Franli Thilly.

" The moral law being, in brief, conformity to the conditions of social
welfare, conscience is the name of the intrinsic motives to such conform-
ity." — ''The Science of Ethics," by Sir Leslie Stephen.

" Whatever may be the historical origin of human morality, let us, then,
admit that in the actual consciousness of humanity, or, at least, in that of
the noblest groups of humanity, there exists the idea of a g^;neral and uni-
versal form for our actions, of a law which claims control of the reason,
and commands the will." — '' Theory of Morals," by Paul Janet.

" Wean nun der Gefiihlszustand des einzelnen Augenblicks, als Wirliung
der eigneu Handlung des Individuums im Bewusstsein mit dera durch
die Vorstellung der Lebeu^totalitat bestimmten Gefiihlszustaude zusam-
mentrifft, so wird ein neues Gefiihl entstehen, das durch das gegen-
seitige Verhilltnis jener Gefiihle bestimrat ist, ein Verhaltnis, das entweder
harmonisca oder disharmonisch seia kaun. In diesem, durch das Verhalten
des momentanen Zustandszu dem durch die Riicksicht auf die Lebenstotal-
itat bestimmten Zustande erzeugten Gefiihle besteht die Wertschatzung.
Das Vermdgen, solche Gefiihle zu haben, istdas Gewissen." — " Ethik," by
Harald Hoffding.

" — Es zweierlei ist, was wirbehaupten : die entwickelnde Kraf tder Erfahr-
ung einerseits, aber ebenso sehr das urspriingliche Vorhandensein des
Keimes, auf den sie wirkt. Man wird nie Erfolg haben, wenn man in eine
leere Seele hinoin das Bewusstsein des Sollens nur vermittelst der Eindriicke
der Erfahrung bringeu will." — ''Mikrokosmus," by H. Lotze.

"That which, when we become capable of reflection, we term con-
science, consists in pleasure in forms of action furthering the welfare of
society — forms gradually moulded to habit with the development of social
relations, — and in a corresponding pain at the realization of having failed
of such action; the knowledge of the demand by society as a whole or by a
part of society, of action in accord with the general welfare, and the sense of
the justice of this demand, constituting the feeling of obligation and duty." —
" A Review of the Systems of Ethics founded on the Theory of Evolution,"
by C. M. Williams.

*' The feeling of moral approbation or disapprobation, when applied to
our own actions and characters, thus assuming the form of self-approba-
tion or self-disapprobation^ constitutes the moral sanction, strictly so
called. It is this sanction which, to men of pure and elevated character,
is the most powerful guardian of morality, and, to all men, it remains as
the ultimate guardian, when the other sanctions have become inopera-
tive. — " The Principles of Morals, " by Fowler and Wilson.

Sheldon — Tlie Literature of Ethical Science. 129

'' Conscience is the critical perception we have of tlie relative authority
of our several principles of action. The sense of that authority is im-
plicitly contained in the mere natural strife of these principles within us:
when explicitly brought into view by reflective self-knowledge, it assumes a
systematic character, and asserts its prerogative as the judicial regulator of
life." — " Types of Ethical Theory," by James Martineau.

"The general truths involved in moral judgments do not appear to be
generalized truths dependent for their validity on an induction of particu-
lars, but self-evident truths, known independently of iaduction." —
" Handbook of Moral Philosophy," by Henry Calderwood.

" Der psychologische Vorgang, dessen logischen Abschluss diu Selbstbe-
urtheilung bildet, ist aber zunachst kein Urtheilsprocess, sonderu er tritt,
ehe er sich zu diesem entwickelt, in der Form gefiihlsstarker Vorstellungen
auf, an die naraentlich unmittelbar Affecte der Billigung und Missbilligung
gekniipft sind, Indem diese Affecte mit einander in Streitgerathen, konnen
sie zugleich die Antriebe zu entgegensiesetzten Acten der Selbstbeuitheilung
in sich schliessen. Die Sprache nennt alle diese innerea Zusiaude, sofern
nur ihr selbstbewusster Ausdruck zu einem Drtheil iiber die eigenen Motive
und den eigenfu Charakter de^ wollendeu Subjectes wird, das Gewissen." —
"Ethik," by Wilhelm Wundt.

" We need not shrink from asserting as the basis of morality an uncon-
ditional duty, which yet is not a duty to do anything unconditionally except
to f iifllll that unconditional duty." — "Prolegomena to Ethics," by Thomas
Hill Green.

" Conscience is seen to be a cognitive or ioteilectual power, not a form
of feeling, nor a combination of feelings. Feeling is not In itself of the
nature of regulative truth." — " Handbook of Moral Philosophy," by Henry
Calderwood.

" A moral being is one who is capable of comparing his past and future
actions or motives, and of approving or disapproving of them. We have
no reason to suppose that any of the lower animals have this capacity." —
•* The Descent of Man," by Charles Darwin.

" Das Gewissen ist in seinem Ursprung nichts anderes, als das Bewusst-
sein von der Sitte oder das Dasein der Sitte im Bewusstseiu des Individ-
uuras, mit Einschluss jener Sanktionen durch Menschen und Gotter." —
" System der Ethik," by Friedrich Paulsen.

" Das Gewissen ist das unmittelbare Bewusstsein des fur uns schlechthin
verbindlichen gdttlichen Willens, welches sich unwillkiirlich geltend macht.
Gesetzgebeud und gebietend, richtend und strafend, voraugehend und
nachfolgend, mahnend und warnend wird es genannt, je nachdem es vor
order nach der That seine RoUe spielt. — "Das Gewissen," by Wilh.
Schmidt.

180 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

'' The only way in which we can really show the absoluteness of moral
judgments is by basing tbem upon reason. Then sympathy is raised into the
form of the judgment that an act is right or wrong, according as it does or
does not tend to the realization of the ideal or spiritual nature. An act is
not right because it is felt to be so, but we feel it to be so because it is
right." — '• Hedonistic Theories," by John Watson.

'• Conscience is not, as some believe, a special faculty which is the source
of obligation, aad which, as its own distinct province, sits in judgment
upon conduct, and pronounces the decisive ' ought ' of approval, or ' ought
not ' of disapproval. Conscience is simply the consciousness of obliga-
tion." — " A Short Study of Ethics," by Charles F. D'Arcy.

IV. Theories Concerning the Origin and Growth of Conscience
AND the Ethical Ideal.

"It appears to me that, if we recognize man as a being having feelings
towards others as well as towards himself, as sympathetic and resentful as
well as self-iegarding, with a reason capable of comparing the ends to
which his feelings impel him and of finding means for the attainment of
those end.s, there is uo difficuliy, except in detail, in explaining the process
by which men arrive either at the moral judgments in which they agree or
at those in which they differ." — " The Principles of Morals," by Fowler
and Wilson.

"It seems to be frequently assumed, that if it can be shown how certain
mental phenomena, thoughts or feelings, have grown up — if we can point
to the antecedent phenomena, of which they are the natural consequents —
then suddenly the phenomena which we began by investigating have van-
ished; they are no longer there, but something else which we have mistaken
for them: the 'elements' of which they are said to be 'composed.' The
illegitimacy of this iuferonce will, I think, be allowed as soon as it is
clearly contemplated." — " The Methods of Ethics," by Henry Sidgwick.

" Any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the
parental and filial affections being here included, would inevitably acquire a
moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as
well, or nearly as well developed, as in man." — "The Descent of Man,"
by Charles Darwin.

" The sense of duty assumes an appearance of inscrutable origia because
it arises at aperiod of which we have no memory." * * * "As mem-
bers of the community, we learn to judge others by a standard of duty;
and then, if oar natures are fine enough to permit of it, we learn to judge
our own actions by the same standard. Self-respyct is thus the inward
application of an outwardly prevalent mode of thinking." — "The Origin
and Growth of the Moral Instinct," by Alexander Sutherland.

" Suppose that a man has done something obviously harmful to the com-
munity. Either some immediate desire, or his individual self, has for once

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 131

proved stronger than the tribal self. When the tribal self wakes up, the
man says, 'In the name of the tribe, I do not like this thing that I, as an
individual, have done.' This Self-judgment in the name of the tribe is
called Conscience. If the man goes further and draws from this act and
others an inference about his own character, he may say, * In the name of
the tribe, I do not like my individual self.' This is remorse. * * * xhe
voice of conscience is the voice of our Father Man who is within us; the
accumulated instinct of the race is poured into each one of us, and over-
flows us, as if the ocean were poured into a cup." — "Lectures and
Essays," by William Kingdon Clifford.

" Die Strafe ist nicht eine Folge des Gerechtigkeitsgefiihls, sondern das
GerechtigkeitsgefUhl ist eine Folge der Strafe." — " Die Entstehuug des
Gewi.'sens," by Paul R6e.

"That progressive modification of civilization which passes by the name
of the ' evolution of society,' is, in fact, a process of an essentially differ-
ent character, both from that which brings about the evolution of species
in the state of nature, and from that which gives rise to the evolution of
varieties, in the state of art. * * * Social progress means a checking
of the cosmic proces:* at every step and the substitution for it of another,
which may be called the ethical process; the end of which is not the sur-
vival of those who happen to be the fittest, in respect of the whole of the
conditions which obtain, but of those who are ethically the best," — "Evo-
lution and Ethics," by Thomas H. Huxley.

" Evolution is not the foundation of morality, but the manifestation of
the principle on which it depends. Morality cannot be explained by means
of its own development, without reference to the self-consciousness which
makes that development possible. However valuable may be the informa-
tion we get from experience as to the gradual evolution of conduct, its
nature and end can only be explained by a principle that transcends expe-
rience."— " Ethics of Naturalism," by W. R. Sorley.

" Mag das Gewissen entstanden sein, wie und wo man will; das ist eine
Frage der Wissenschaft, durchaus nicht verschieden von der iiber das Ver-
schwinden des Zwischenknochens beim Menschen; was mir zum Handeln
not thut, das ist, dass das Gewissen nun in mir vorhanden ist, Gehorsam
fordert und ich ihm zu gehorchen habe." — " Ethisches Wissen und
ethisches Handeln," by Paul Hensel.

" Le noum^ne, au sens moral et non purement n^gatif, c'est nous qui le
faisone; il n'acquiert de valeur morale qu'en vertu de type sur lequel nous
nous le repr^sentons : c'est une construction de notre esprit, de notre im-
agination m^taphysique." * * * «< ^u fond, la sanction dite morale et
r^ellement sensible est un cas particulier de cette loi naturelle selon
laquelle tout d^ploiement de I'activite est accompagn^ de plaisir. Ce
plaisir diminue, disparait et laisse place a la souffrance selon les resist-
ances int^rieures ou ext^rieures que I'activite rencontre." — "Esquisse
d'une Morale," by M. Guyau.

132 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

"Wir sind berechtigt, ja genotigt, eine besondere Anlagefur das Gewis-
sen auzunehmen, well die Eigenart der Gewissenserscheinung im Indi-
viduum und in der Geschichte und die Gleichheit ihrer Aiisserungen bei ge-
niigend vorhandenen Entwicklungsbedingungen der Ableitung aus anderen
Factoren widerstrebt. Die Anlage selbst aber hat den Charakter eines
Keimes, der wie im Reiche des Organischen auf gewisse Reize Mn sich ent-
wickelt, und sie gleicht den Instincten der Tiere in der Unmittelbarkeit,
mit der sie als Motiv zu bestimmten Handlungea sich geltend raacht.
Dabei hebt sich aber doch die sittliche Anlage als eine rein geistige deutlich
von anderen Anlagen des Menschen ab, auf welchen die korperliche Ent-
wicklung beruht. Es bleibt also nichts anderes iibrig, als die Gewissensan-
lage zu den angeborenen Elementen des hoheren Geisteslebens zu rechnen,
dereu Verkuiipfung mit bestimmten Orten Oder Vorgangen jm Nerven-
system noch nicht gelungen ist." — "Wesen und Entstehung des Gewis-
seus," by Theodor Elsenhans.

'* Das Sittliche ist historisch nicht vom Individuum, sondern von der
Gesellschaft aus gewonnen worden, und auch praktisch besteht das wahre
Verhaltniss desselben darin, dass die Gesellschaft dasselbe von ibm
fordert." — " Der Zweck im Recht/' by Rudolph von Jhering.

"The organism develops only by cultivating the habit of imitating; while
the very value of imitation is that by it the organism acquires new accommo-
dations by breaking up habits already acquired. The organism must be
ready, by a habit of acting, to impair the habits of action it already has.
And the origin of the moral sense by this method shows it to be an imita-
tive function. We do right by habitually imitating a larger self whose
injunctions run counter to the tendencies of our partial selves." — "Social
and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development," by Jamea Mark
Baldwin.

" Wie der Sabbat, so sind auch die Moralgesetze um des Menschen willen,
nicht der Mensch um der Moralgesetze willen. Verlieren etwa die Regeln
der Grammatik oder die Wortbedeutungen ihre Giiltigkeit fiir den, der
sich iiberzeugt, dass es auch bei ihrer Entstehung menschlich zugegangen
sei? Nun, so wenig konnen die Sittengesetze auf diese Weise ihre Giiltig-
keit einbiissen." — " System der Ethik," by Friedrich Paulsen.

" Aus dem Begriff der Totalitat wird sich uns ein Gesetz ergeben, auf
Grund dessen alle Artenentwickelung vor sich geht, das Lebendige zum
lebendigen Wesen, das lebendige Wesen zum denkenden Wesen, das denk-
ende Wesen zum sittlichen Wesen sich erhebt. Wie das Denkeu hervor-
geht aus dem Functioniren des menschlichen Organismus: so geht die
Sittlichkeit aus dem Functioniren des Organismus hervor, den wir Staat
nennen. Die ersten Spuren der Sittlichkeit, die wir an dem vorstaatlichen
Zusammensein der Menschen voraussetzen kdunen, verhalten sich zur
voUentwickelten Sittlichkeit, wie das Denken das Thleres zum Denken des
hochgebildeten Menschen." — " Grundlegung der Ethik," by Carneri.

Sheldon — The lAterature of Ethical Science. 1 33

"To make my position fully understood, it seems needful to add that,
corresponding to the fundamental propositions of a developed Moral
Science, there have been, and still are, developing in the rtice, certain fun-
damental intuitions; and that, though these moral intuitions are the re-
sults of accumulated experiences of Utility, gradually organized and
inherited, they have come to be quite independent of conscious experience.
Just in the same way that I believe the intuition of space, possessed by any
living individual, to have arisen from organized and consolidated experi-
ences of all antecedent individuals who bequeathed to him their slowly de-
veloped nervous organizations — just as I believe that this intuition,
requiring only to be made dehnlte and complete by personal experiences,
has practically become a form of thought, apparently quite independent of
experience; so do I believe that the experiences of utility organized and
consolidated through all past generations of the human race, have been pro-
ducing corresponding nervous modifications, which, by continued trans-
mission and accumulation, have become in us certain faculties of moral
intuition — certain emotions responding to right and wrong conduct, which
have no apparent basis in the individual experiences of utility. I also hold
that ]ust as the space-intuition responds to the exact dtrraouscratious of
Geometry, and has its rough conclusions interpreted and verified by them;
so will moral intuitions respond to the demonstrations of Moral Science,
and will have their rough conclusions interpreted and verified by them." —
" The Data of Ethics," by Herbert Spencer.

'* I am very far from denying that the materials of the human constitution
existed in lower orders. But iu man the materials are differently com-
pounded. As the combination of the same chemical elements at different
potencies gives essentially different products, so the combination of the
same materials gave different creatures. Inquiry concerning the origin of
the sense of obligation is simply inquiry concerning the origin of man.
Duty was not merely an advantage, a utility which man adopted after he had
been man for a longer or shorter time. Without it man would not be man.
It is his nature." — '' Moral Evolution," by George Harris,

•' Es bedarf dazu vielmehr der Mitwirkung einer seelischen Einheit, fiir
welche die Vorstellung nur die Veranlassung ist, in einer bestimmten
Weise, namlich durch Erzeugung eines sittlichen Urteils, besser des
sittlicheu Gefiihls, zu reagiren. Dass es aber gerade immer diese Form der
Reaction ist, kann nur aus einer urspriinglichen Anlage der Seele erklSrt
werden. So wenig das Fallgesetz des Steins, der aus der Ruhelage in die
Fallbewegung iibergeht, eine von der nahen Erdmasse unabhiingige Formel
des Geschehens ausdriickt, so wenig konnen sich seelische Vorgauge nach
Gesetzen aneinander kniipfen, die nicht durch eine entsprechende der Seele
eigene Anlage bestimmt waren." — " Wesen und Entstehung des Ge-
wissens," by Theodor Elsenhans.

"What we term immorality, sin, crime, wickedness, etc., may be scien-
tifically regarded as moral pathology or functional mental disease in social
subjects; and we may view moral diseases as being merely cerebral and

134 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

analoj^ous to ordinary bodily ones." — "The Scientific Basis of Morality, "
by G. Gore.

V. Theories Concerning the Freedom of the Will,

" Pull a body to the right with a force of twelve pounds, and to the left
with a force of eight; it moves to the right. Imagine that body a mind
aware of the forces which act upon it; it will move In the direction of that
which, for whatever reason, appeals to it most; and in doing so, it will,
just because it is conscious, act of itself, and will have the consciousness
of freedom. A true explanation of this consciousness turns the flank of
indeterminism." — " Moral Order and Progress," by S. Alexander."

"Starting from a multitude of elements absolutely at rest, no motion
can be produced. Now how far soever we pursue a still further deduction,
it nevertheless invariably presupposes other new motions; we are com-
pelled to admit, that motion does not attain to actuality as the result of any
cause whatever, but it is motion, without cause, and from the begin-
ning. * * * And now if this must be once for all admitted as an exist-
ing fact, then there is no reason why perfectly new beginnings of a sub-
sequent origin, that have no foundation in what is prior, should not also
show themselves within the course of things; but after they have once
taken their place in the coherent system of things actual, they bring after
them those consequences which belong to them in their present combina-
tion with the rest of the world, according to general laws." — " Outlines of
Practical Philosophy," by H. Lotze.

•' Here we seem to be on the confines of human knowledge, and to be
compelled to recognize that, in the sphere of human action as well as in
that of metaphysical speculation, there are apparent contradictions which
we cannot reconcile." — "The Principles of Morals," by Fowler and
Wilson.

" Man, as an ethical being, is part of the universe, and as a part, he
must be explained, not explained away. To interpret his moral life as
mere ' appearance,' to depersonalize and thus to demoralize him, is to
explain away his characteristic being. This pantheistic resolution of man
into God is too rapid an explanation; the unity thus reached cannot be the
true unity, since it negates, instead of explaining, the facts in question.
Such an unethical unification might conceivably be a sufiicient interpreta-
tion of Nature, and of man in so far as he is a natural being, and even
in so far as he is an intellectual being; it is not a sufiicient interpreta-
tion of man as man, or in his moral being. The reality of the moral
life is bound up with the reality of human freedom, and the reality of
freedom with the integrity of the moral personality. If I am a person, an
' Ego on my own account,' I am free; if I am not such a person or Ego, I
am not free." — "A Study of Ethical Principles," by James Seth.

'' Our conduct Is the resultant of the attractions of external motives.
In human conduct the dominating factor is the degree of affinity which

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 135

exists between the internal nature and the external motives." — "The
Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct," by Alexander Sutherland.

"The moral life rests upon the presupposition that the law of cause
and effect holds good just as much in the domain of human volition as
in the material world — the law that no events take place without a
cause, and none without effect." — " Ethical Philosophy," by G. von
Gizycki.

" We evidently feel the solicitations which visit us to be mere phe-
nomena, brought before a personality that is more than a phenomenon or
than any string of phenomena — a free and judicial Ego, able to deal with
the problem offered, and decide between the claimants that have entered
our court." — "Types of Ethical Theory," by James Martineau.

"Our conclusion is that, while on the one hand his consciousness is
throughout empirically conditioned, — in the sense that it would not be what
at any time it is but for a series of events sensible or related to sensibility,
some of them events in the past history of consciousness, others of them
events affecting the animal system organic to consciousness, — on the other
hand his consciousness would not be what it is, as knowing, or as a subject
of intelligent experience, but for the self-realization or reproduction in it,
through processes thus empirically conditioned, of an eternal consciousness,
not existing in time but the condition of there being an order of time, not
an object of experience but the condition of there being an intelligent ex-
perience, and in this sense not * empirical ' but ' intelligible.' In virtue of his
character as knowing, therefore, we are entitled to say that man is, accord-
ing to a certain well-defined meaning of the term, a 'free cause.' * * *
To a will free in the sense of unmotived we can attach no meaning what-
ever. * * * It is strictly a contradiction to say that an action which a
man's character determines, or which expresses his character, is one that
he cannot help doing." — "Prolegomena to Ethics," by T. H. Green.

" Life would be intolerable if the will were not free to adapt itself, within
moral limits, to the possible ; but life would be impossible — would not be at
all — if the will were free in some inconceivable manner to alter the nature
of thiugs by arbitrary ex post facto degrees." — "Natural Law," by Edith
Simcox.

" I shall only add that, in any case, to reason about conduct Is to assume
that it is determinate. If actions be intrinsically arbitrary, or in so far as
they are arbitrary, a theory of action must be a contradiction in terras. And
thus, a** it has been said, that whether we are or are not free, we must act
as though we were free, I may say that whether conduct be or be not deter-
minate, we must reason about it as though it were determinate." — "The
Science of Ethics," by Leslie Stephen.

" Dor Wellenschlag von Ursache und Wirkung, der in der Sinnenwelt in
unendlicher Folge sich fortsetzt, bricht sich an jedem menschlichen Willen;

136 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

liber ihn hat das Causalitatsgesetz keine Macht, sondern nur das Zweck-
gesetz. Der Wille ist der Natur gegeniiber frei, er gehorcht nicht ihrem,
sondern seinem eigenen Gesetz. Aber -wahrend sie keine Macht hat iiber
ihn, hat er Macht iiber sie, sie muss Ihm gehorchen, wenn er will — jeder
menschliche Wille ist Quelle der Causalitat fiir die iiussere Welt. So ISsst
sich der Wille als das Ende und der Anfang der Causalitatsbewegung in der
Natur bezeichnen — Wille heisst das Vermogen der eigenen Causalitat
gegeniiber der Aussenwelt." — "Der Zweck im Recht," by Rudolph von
Jhering.

" Wie wir also auch den Geist als Kraft frei nennen mogen, so bleibt er
doch als Kraft imraer durch mechanisches Gesetz deterrainirt, und ist, als
Kraft angesehen, niemals in dem Sinne frei, als ware er nicht vom Gesetz
determinirt." — " AUgemeine Ethik," by H. Steinthal.

'• — die Effecte der Willenshandlungen zwar stets durch bestimmte
psychische Ursachen determinirt, dass sie aber in diesen Ursachen selbst nicht
schon enthalten sind. * * * Eine unmittelbare Consequens dieses Ver-
haltnisses ist es, dass auf geistigem Gebiet eine einigermassen zureichende
Causalerklarung immer nur in rlicklauflger Richtung, d. h. in Bezug auf die
bereits abgelaufenen Causalreihen, nie aber in vorwartsgehender Richtung
moglich ist. Naturereignisse konnen wir unter giinsligen Umstanden mit
Gewissheit voraussagen. Bei geistigen Ereignissen vermogen wir hoch-
stens die allgemeioe Richtung zu bestimmen, in der sie erfolgen, niemals
aber die besondere Gestaltung, die sie annehmen werden. Es gibt eine
geistige Geschichte der Vergangenheit, keine der Zukunft, und noch jeder
geschichtsphilosophische Versuch, der sich vermass kommende Ereigniase
vorauszusagen, ist auf bodenlose Abwege gerathen. Denn die Fiction der
Laplaceschen Weltformel ist nicht bloss desshalb auf das geistige
Geschehen uniibertragbar, well ihre Aufstellung hier an der unabsehbaren
Complication der Ereignisse scheitert, sondern well sie an und fiir sich mit
den Gesetzen des geistigen Geschehens im Widerspruche steht." —
"Ethik," by Wilhelm Wundt.

" The entire mystery of ' evil,' like nearly all other mysteries, has its
origin in human ignorance; there would be no idea of it if all human beings
■were omniscient, because they would then clearly see that all their actions,
mental and physical, are consequences of universal energy acting in agree-
ment with comprehensive laws, and absolutely necessary under the circum-
stances."— "The Scientific Basis of Morality," by G. Gore.

" A favorite argument against free will is that if it be true, a man's mur-
derer may as probably be his best friend as his worst enemy, a mother be as
likely to strangle as to suckle her flrst-born, and all of us be as ready to
jump from fourth-story windows as to go out of front doors, etc. Users
of this argument should properly be excluded from debate till they learn
what the real question is. ' Free will ' does not say that everything that is
physically conceivable is also morally possible. It merely says that of
alternatives that really tempt our will more than one is really possible.

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 137

Of course, the alternatives that do thus tempt our will are vastly fewer
than the physical possibilities we can coldly fancy. Persons really tempted
often do murder their best friends, mothers do strangle their first-born,
people do jump out of fourth-story windows." * * * "The indeter-
minism I defend, the free-will theory of popular sense based on the judg-
ment of regret, represents that world as vulnerable, and liable to be injured
by certain of its parts if they act wrong. And it represents their acting
wrong as a matter of possibility or accident, neither inevitable nor yet to
be infallibly warded off." — "The Dilemma of Determinism," by Wiiliam
James.

VI. Concerning the Relation between Ethics and Religion.

" If the infinite Spirit so communicates itself to the soul of man as to yield
the idea of a possible perfect life, and that consequent sense of personal
responsibility on the part of the individual for making the best of himself
as a social being from which the recognition of particular duties arises,
then it is a legitimate expression by means of metaphor — the only possible
means, except action, by which the consciousness of spiritual realities can
express itself — to say that our essential duties are commands of God. If
again the self-communication of the infinite Spirit to the soul of man is
such that man is conscious of his relation to a conscious being, who is in
eternal perfection all that man has it in him to come to be, then it is a
legitimate expression of that conscious relation by means of metaphor to
say that God sees whether His commands are fulfilled by us or no, and an
appropriate emotion to feel shame as in His presence for omissions or vio-
lations of duty incognizable by other men." — "Prolegomena to Ethics,"
by T. H. Green.

" A moral world order, a future life, and a moral world governor who
assures the final triumph of goodness, are the assumptions to which we
inevitably come when we attempt to thinls the moral problem through." —
"The Principles of Ethics," by Borden P. Bowne.

"Our main reliance, then, for social progress must be on 'the law
written on the heart,' the law of love accepted by reason and enforced by
conscience. Religion can reinforce the power of the moral ideal, but it
does this, not chiefly by offers of future rewards and threats of future
punishments, but by setting before men, as the object of faith and worship,
a God whose inmost nature is love." — " The Moral Order of the World,"
by Alexander Balmain Bruce.

" In their essential contents, religion and morality are wholly indepen-
dent of each other. Religion, as we have seen, is a creed and a cult, a
belief and form of worship, directed to the supernatural ; morality is good
will and conduct directed to the welfare of man, in some cases is nothing
more than right social relations. Thus God is the object of one and man
the object of the other. This single fact stamps them as distinct prov-
inces."— "The Elements of Ethics," by James H. Hyslop.

138 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

" Some ask whether there can be any morality without religion. The
question is ill expressed. It should be: Can the moral, be complete
without the religious life? Experience proves that men can be just,
honest, temperate, and sincere, without possessing piety. But is not the
lack of piety in itself a lack of virtue, a diminution of the moral being?
Should not the moral life express and contain the entire man in all his
relations to God, as well as to men and to himself?" * * * "Religion
is generally confounded with belief in the supernatural; but this is
only the form of religion, not its essence." — ''Theory of Morals," by
Paul Janet.

•'Religios sind — so kann, glaube ich, allein geantwortet werden — alle
diejenigen Vorstellungen und GeJiihle, die auf ein ideales, den Wiinschen
und Forderungen des menschlichen Gemiithes vollkomraen entsprechendes
Dasein sich beziehen." — " Ethik," by Wilhelm Wuudt.

" Haben wir uns aber mit Hilfe des Denkens auf unsere Stellung in der
Existenz besounen, haben wir eingesehen, dass wir mit all unserera Trachten,
mit all unseren Planen und all unseren Idealen als einzelne Glieder der
grossen, unabsehbaren Reihe voa Ursachen und Wirkungen dastehen, — so
entsteht ein Gefiihl des Lebens, nicht nur des Lebens, das sich in unserem
eignen Orgauismus regt, sondern auch des Lebens, das sich ira gesamten
Universum regt, dessen Glieder wir sind. Unser Lebensgefiihl wird durch
den Lanf des Lebens und der "Welt, soweit wir uns eine Vorstellung von
demselben bilden konnen, erweitert und bestimmt. Es entsteht ein
kosmisches Lebensgefiihl, welches ein Analogon des orgaaischen Lebensge-
fiihls bildet." — " Ethik," by Dr. Harald Hoffdiag.

" Wir werden vielmehr sagen: was immer fiir eine Ansicht von der Natur
der Dinge jemand sich gebildet haben moge, die Gesetze der Moral behielten
fiir ihn die gleiche Verbindlichkeit: sie seien eben nicht willkiirliche Vor-
schriften, deren Befolgung durch die Riick«icht auf Lohn und Strafe
seitens des Gesetzgebers geboten sei; veilmehr seien es Naturgesetze in
dem Sinn, dass auf ihrer Befolgung die Wohlfatirt eines Lebens beruhe." —
*' System der Ethik," by Friedrich Paulsen.

" To view even the selfhood that passes away, even the deeds of the hour,
as a service of God, and to regard the life of our most fragmentary selfhood
as the divine life taking on human form, — this is of the deepest essence of
religion." — "The World and the Individual," Ijy Josiah Royce.

" I find that I undoubtedly seem to perceive, as clearly and certainly
as I see any axiom in Arithmetic or Geometry, that it is 'right' and
' reasonable ' for me to treat others as 1 should think that I myself ought
to be treated under similar conditions, and to do what I believe to be ulti-
mately conducive to universal Good or Happiness. But I cannot find
inseparably connected with this conviction, and similarly attainable by
mere reflective intuition, any cognition that there actually is a Supreme
Being who will adequately reward me for obeying these rules of duty^ or

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 139

punish me for violatinpr them. Or, more generally, I do not find in my
moral consciousness any intuition, claiming to be clear and certain, that
the performance of duty will be adequately rewarded and its violation
punished." — " The Methods of Ethics," by Henry Sidgwick.

" God is the surety for morality — not in the gross and common mean-
ing, that he stands ready to assure us the price and recompense, as though
we feared we might make a fool's bargain by being virtuous gratuitously,
but in the nobler and true sense, that his existence bears witness that we
are not consecrating our lives to a chimera, or a dream of the imagina-
tion."— " Theory of Morals," by Paul Janet.

"Assuming that we at last have entered a period of the reverse move-
ment, then the steady decline of the faith in the Christian God might lead
us to infer with no small degree of probability that the human conscious-
ness of guilt is, at this moment, likewise experiencing a considerable
decline; indeed, the prospect cannot be rejected that the perfect and final
triumph of atheism might altogether rid and quit mankind of this entire
feeling of obligation to its beginning, its causa prima. Atheism and a kind
of second innocence are parts of a whole." — " A Genealogy of Morals,"
by Friedrich Nietzsche.

"Morality without being backed by the rational intuition of religion
would, indeed, have little chance of surviving all the weeds that threaten to
choke it." — "The Rational or Scientific Ideal of Morality," by P. F. Fitz-
gerald.

" The attitudes of the moral and religious man are not merely unlike, but
there is a certain conflict between the two. The reason of this will be
apparent. When attention is turned in one of these directions, it is in some
degree withdrawn from the other. I cannot at the same moment be con-
ceiving of God as the only being of worth, and yet of my life — this frag-
mentary life — as itself a matter of worth. I alternate." * * * ''When
full of the thought of God, it is not impossible to allow a room to go dusty,
a neighbor to be hungry, a bill to remain unpaid. Not impossible? It is
dangerously natural. We shall be wise to warn ourselves, when thoughts
of God are so dear and uplifting, that we must watch the little world which
lies around us, and not, because of devoutness, neglect to hear its needy
calls. * * * Morality fulfills itself in religion, even though its gaze is
directed manward rather than Godward." — "The Field of Ethics," by
George Herbert Palmer.

" Vollkommene Sittlichkeit ist identisch mit vollkommener Religiosilat.
Sie verlangt ein Leben in Gott, ein Verstehen seiner das Universum bewe-
genden Gedanken, wenigstens in dem Ausschnitt, welcher sich jedem in
seiner individuellen Anschauung und Kenntnis der Welt darstellt." — " Das
Problem der Ethik in der Gegenwart," by Hans Gallwilz.

"Will man ein personliches Wesen anerkennen, welches die absolute
Giite, Wahrbeit und Scbonheit an sich ist und Gott geuannt wird: so kann

140 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

der Vernunft das Recht dazu nicht bestritten werden; und dann ist Re-
ligion die Begeisterung fiir Gott. Wer aber eine solche Personiflcirung
eines lebendigen Got.tes der Giite, Wahrheit und Schoniieit nicht bilden
mag, also Atheist ist, der kann darum von der Anerkeunung des Inhaltes
des absoluten Wesens nicht entbunden werden: liir ihn ist Religion die
Begeisterung fiir ganz denselben Inhalt, aufgefasst in unpersonlicher Weise
als das intelligible Reich der Huraanitat. ' Dein Reich komme ' lautet des
jiidischen und christlichen Glaubigen, wie des Atheisten; denn es ist dem
Inhalte nach nur ein und dasselbe Reich." — "Allgemeine Ethik," by H.
Steinthal.

" Si la devise de la science devant I'^nigme des origines du monde est:
Ignorabinius, la devise de la morale devant l'6nigme des destinies du
monde peut etre: Sperabimus." — " Critique des Syst^mes de Morale," by
Alfred Fouill^e.

" Wir glauben uns zur Mitarbeit an dem Aufbau einer iibersinnlichen
Weltordnung berufen, und wie unklar uns auch der Plan der letzen und der
Sinn unseres eigneu Beitrags zu ihr bleiben mag, so fiihlen wir doch, dass
AUes, was uns als Pflicht er^cheint, den letzten Grund seiner Verbind-
lichkeit darin hat, dass es nicht nur dem BegrifE unserer that-iachlich vor-
handenen Natur, sondein ihrer Bestiramung entspricht. Und diese
Bestimmung liegt nicht mehr bios in einer Selbstentfaltung, die von riick-
warts durch den Keim getrieben wird, sondern in der Bewegung nach einem
Ziele zu, das uns vorwarts gesetzt ist." — " Mikrokosmus," by Lolze.

•' Nehmen wir das Wort im iiblichen Sinne, so zeigt die Erfahrung un-
widersprechlich, dass Sittlichkeit ohne Religion moglich ist und ebenso
Religion ohne Sittlichkeit. Und doch wiirde man sich taiischen, wollte
man daiaus den Schluss Ziehen, dass beide Gebiete nichts mit einander zu
thun haben." — " Sittliches Sein und sittliches Werden," by Ziegler.

" Religion im weitesten Sinn ist eine wesentliche Seite der ethiechen
LebensaufEassung. In der achten Liebe, in der achten Pflichterfiillung, in
der achten Hingabe an eine Berufsarbeit liegt Religion. Religion ist die
Tilgung des einseiiigen Individualismus, sie ist das Ich, das in einem
grosseren Ganzen sich aufhebt; sie ist die voUendete Versdhnung alles
Zwiespalts und Widerstreits. Darum, und zwar als die Seele jedes hohern
Aufschwungs, haben die schonen Kiinste eine so hohe Bedeutung fiir die
Ethik." — " Grundlegung der Ethik," by Carneri.

" Wir erkeunen heut die deistische Ansicht des vorigeu Jahrhunderts,
nach welcher die Moral an die Ideentrias von Gott, Freiheit, und Dnster-
blichkeit gekniipft war, fiir einen iiberwundeuen Irrthum; aber wir erken-
nen die eulgegengesetzteBehauptung des subjectiven Idealismus, Material-
ismus und Skepticismus, dass die Moral von der Beschaffenheit der theoret-
ischen Weltanschauung voUig unabhangig sei, noch entschiedener fiir einen
Irrthum. * * * Die Phanomenologie des sittlichen Bewusstseins sich
nicht Yollenden kann, ohne sich durch eine Phanomenologie des religiosen

Sheldon — The Literature of Ethical Science. 141

Bewusstseins zu erganzen, und andererseits, die Religion nur dann einem
gelauterten sittlichen Bewusstsein genugthun kann, wenn sie die Bezie-
hung des Menschen zu Gott im Sinne der Wesensidentitat beider, also
unter dem Gesichtspunkt des concreten Monismus (und nicht unter dem
des Theismus) auffasst." — " Phiinomenologie des sittlichen Bewusstseins,"
by Eduard von Hartmann.

VII. Miscellaneous.

"Action is right, not because God wills it; but God wills the law as
the expression of absolute right." — "Handbook of Moral Pailosophy,"
by Henry Calderwood,

" On the whole, we find that the progress of society depends less on
education and the transmission of acquired characteristics from one gen-
eration to the next, than on a steady progress of elimination of inferior
strains." — " The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct," by Alexander
Sutherland.

" If in some distant planet lying were as esssential to human welfare
as truthfulness is in this world, falsehood might there be a cardinal
virtue." — " The Science of Ethics," by Leslie Stephen.

" Instead of admitting that there is in every case a right and a wrong,
it may be contended that in multitudinous cases no right, properly so-
called, can be alleged, but only a least wrong; and, further, it may be
contended that in many of these cases where there can be alleged only
a least wrong, it is not possible to ascertain with any precision which
is the least wrong." — "The Data of Ethics," by Herbert Spencer.

" There is no scientific short-cut to the ascertainment of the right means
to the individual's greatest happiness; every attempt to find a 'high priori
road ' to this goal brings us back ultimately to simple empiricism. For
instead of a clear principle universally valid, we only get at best a vague
and general rule, based on considerations which it is important not to overlook
but the relative value of which we can only estimate by careful observation
and comparison of individual experiences. Whatever uncertainty besets
these processes must necessarily extend to all our reasonings about happi-
ness. I have no wish to exaggerate these uncertainties, feeling that we
must all continue to seek happiness for ourselves and for others, in what-
ever obscurity we may have to grope after it: but there is nothing gained
by underrating them, and it is idle to argue as if they did not exist." —
"The Method of Ethics," by Henry Sidgwick.

"No doubt or disproof of any existing theory can any more extinguish
that self other than myself, jwhich speaks to me in the voice of conscience,
than doubt or disproof of the wave -theory of light can put out the noonday
sun." — " Lectures and Essays," by William Kingdon Clifford.

142 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

" Besteht die individuelle Seele immer nur in der actuellen seelischen
Thatigkeit, nicht in einem davon verschiedenen flir sich existirendeu Sub-
strat, so ist damit von selbst die Berechtigung gegeben jenem Gesammt-
willen keinen geringeren Grad von Realitiit zuzuschreiben als dem
Individualwillen. Selbst die historische Continuitat, die unser Bewusst-
sein mit demjenigen einer andern Zeit verbindet, besitzt genau so viel
Wirklichkeit, als ihr im Bewusstsein zukommt. Vergangene und kiinftige
Geschlechter leben mit uns wirklich ein Leben, nicht bloss scheinbar, vpie
dies der psychologisclie Atomismus annimmt. Cultur und Geschichte bilden
ein wahres Gemeinleben, nicht bloss eine zufallige Resultante zahlloser
Einzelbestrebungen^ die sich nur ausserlich beriihren und in ihren letzten
Zielen weit auseinandergehen." — "Ethik," by William Wundt.

Issued Augrist 21, 1903.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL.. Xril. No. 5.

THE LAW OF CONTRACTION OF GASEOUS

NEBULAE.

FRANCIS E. NIPHER.

Issued October 1, 1903.

THE LAW OF CONTEACTION OF GASEOUS

NEBULAE.

Francis E. Nipher.

In the discussion which follows it will be assumed that a
nebulous mass of spherical form, is gravitating towards a
central nucleus, and that the gas follows the law

Pv=CT. (1)

At any point in the mass, the heat dQ, added to unit mass
of volume v, under increasing pressure is,

dQ=C\dT+Pdv (2)

Let it be assumed that when thus subject to compression
due to gravitation, the relation between pressure and specific
volume is represented by the equation

Pv- = j,,=A. (3)

It is required to find the value of u. Eliminating P in (1)
and (3),

C

By differentiation

C

dv = v'* ~m X dT

A{1 — n)

Combining this equation with (3)

Hence if this quantity be expressed in heat units, the spe-
cific heat of the gas will be

(143)

144

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

dQ

dT

?=C' +

C

J{l—n)

(5)

Equation (3) may be considered as representing a projec-
tion on the P, V plane of a curve drawn on the thermodynamic
surface P, v, T. The equation of this surface is (1), and its
form is the well-known hyperbolic paraboloid shown in the
figure.

Lines represented by (3), in

the figure are wi, v, a line of

constant volume, for which n

= oc ; m, K, an isentropic line,

C'
for which n =7t = l-^l = «;

m, t, an isothermal line, for
which ?i = 1 ; and m, p, a line
of constant pressure, for which
n = o. The projections of
any of these lines, or of any
line represented by (3) inter-
mediate between these principal lines, on the three reference
planes, are represented by the equations,

Fv"

Tv"-i =

A

C

(3)
(6)

A

(Jn

(7)

For hydrogen, (7 = 4.143 X 10^ and 6\ = 2.420. Putting
these values in (5), together with the value of J" = 4.19 X 10^,
and the specific heat of hydrogen, for various values of n is
computed as given in the following table. In the table the

values

- m.

are computed for compression only. For

the same value of n in expansion, the sign oi dT would be in
every case reversed.

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 146

SPECIFIC HEAT OF HYDROGEN.

n

/dQ\
KdTJn

+ CC

+ 2.420

Vol. constant.

+ 5

+ 2.173

+ 4

+ 2.090

+ 3

+ 1.925

+ 2

+ 1.431

+ 1.8

+ 1.184

+ 1.6

+ 0.772

+ 1.5

+ 0.442

+ 1.41

0.000

Entropy const.

+ t

— 0.547

+ 1.3

0.876

+ 1.2

2.525

+ 1.1

7.480

+ 1.0

00

Temp, const, sign of c^T reverses.

+0.8

7.365

+0.6

4.392

+0.4

4.068

+0.2

3.656

0.0

3.409

Pressure const.

—1.0

2.915

2.0

2.749

3.0

2.667

4.0

2.617

5.0

2.584

X)

2.420

Vol. const, sign of n reverses.

The values of the table which lie between those for constant
volume, and those for constant entropy, correspond to paths
on the surface of the figure, lying in the angle v, m, k. In
these cases, pressure and temperature are increasing, volume
is diminishing and heat is being added to the gas. The spe-
cific heat is positive. The specific heat becomes zero on the
isentropic line m, /c, and between tliis'line and the isothermal,
m, t, the specific heat is negative. The temperature is rising,

146 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

and heat is being taken from the gas. For isothermal com-
pression, the specific heat is of course infinite. In the cases
lying in the angle t, in, p, compression is still going on, but
the temperature is falling, while heat is being removed from
the gas. In the angle ^, m, v' , both temperature and pres-
sure are falling, and the specific heat is still negative. It is
evident that the gas at any point in a gravitating nebula,
must be going through an operation which would be repre-
sented by a line in the figure lying within the angle «, 7n,p.
We shall make an attempt to locate this path.

At a distance R from the center or nucleus of a cosmical

'• gaskugel," where the density of the gas isS=-, the

mass internal to R being M, the law of gravitation gives the
equation

dP _ ^

where k is the gravitation constant.
By eq. (3) this becomes

1

dP _ M/PY

dR ^r\Aj

Hence

k dR

.A\^ R^dP
M

-(I)

By differentiation,

1
dM_ ^n

dR^ — J
By Geometry

1 — «

dP. -1

B^ d^ , dP(iPnR ^^^ " dR

'^^ dm "^ dR\ ' ~i

1

dM , Pn

-^ = 47ri?2S = 47ri?2 — ^

A"

Nipher — The Law of Conlractioii of Gaseous Nebulae. 147
Equating these two values of yW'

dR^^ li dll^lH' \dnj + T^ /'"=0....(9)
This equation is satisfied by the primitive,

Since

iry _ 1

By (6) and (11),

n— 1

A'-"/ 4n-Sn' x^-- (12).

C' I (2 — n) 2'jrkB^ I

These three equations satisfy equations (1) (3) and (4).
The mass internal to i? is

r

M= 47r WBdB

Inserting S from (11) and integrating,

/ 2 — 7i\ /^ (4n— 37i2)\2^„ 4_3„

^ = ^4^:37^ U-rrk (2-71)0 i?^-'- (13)

The weight of a gramme at the surface of this mass is

g=k^ = i^k /2_^^ V^di'n^'DX^ _L . (U)

148 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

It will be observed that the value of P in (10), is

00

P = I gSdR

I

where 8 and g are given in (11) and (14j.

If (12) be combined with (10), (11), (13), and (14), bj
the elimination of A, we have the equations,

^— (2 — ?i)^ 2^rrkB' ^^^^

4?i— 3w2 CT

n 2CTR

n 2CT

^ — 2 — 71 ^H

(18)

K (13) be similarly combined with the other equations we
have

4_3n M'k

P=-^ -»r (19)

oirn H* ^ ^

4_3;i 3/
^ = 4,^2=^ ^' ^''^

2 — n Mk
^=^Ur -2B (21)

Equations (17) and (21) are of course identical.

In equations (15) to (18), the values P, S, and g, are values
of these quantities at a distance i? from the center. M \^ the
mass internal to the spherical surface of radius R.

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 149

According to these equations the density and pressure are
infinite at the center of the mass. This is, however, the value
at a single point. At any small finite distance from the cen-
ter, both are finite. Of course the gaseous matter at and
immediately around the center is, or may be, also liquid and
solid. There may be no dividing surface between solid, liquid
and gas, by reason of the enormous pressures in the central
part of the nebula.

By inspection of equations (19) (20) and (21), it will be
observed that, entirely irrespective of the value of n.

(23)

p ±

S3

— B

T 1

B

C

A. ±

B

^ 1 J-

0^

(24)

(25)

irhere

By eq . (17) this equation may also be written

/ ZTTK \J- / \ 2.

^ = ((-4ir3S)s)"((2-»)era)-

The product CTB is constant at the surface of any
constant mass forming the core of a gaskugel, as eq. (17)
shows, whatever maybe the gas of which it may be composed,
and whatever may be the radius of the contracting core.

These equations should be compared with (3), (6) and (7).
These equations involve the relation between P, 8 and T, at
the surface of any fixed mass forming the core of a gravi-

150 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

tating gaskugel, the pressure being due to the alleged at-
traction of this core for the superposed, layers. Equations
(3), (6) and (7), involve no such conditions.

If we a.ssume that the mass 31 has initially a radius li,,
and that it contracts to a radius JR, so that Rg = pli, then
the two equations for P will be

4 — 3n M^k

P

87rn RJ'

4 — 3n M'^k

Sttti i?«

Hence

P ~ \RJ

or P^p*P„- (26a)

In a .similar way it may be shown that

S=p^8, (27)

and T= —• ('^^)

P

In Ritter's well-known paper of 1878* he established the
relations involved in the last three equations, by an ingenious
train of reasoning. He assumes a gravitating weltkugel to

so contract, that any and every linear distance has become —

•' - m

of its original value. Then the volume of unit mass at any
point, in terms of the initial volume, is

By reason of this contraction, the gravitational pull on each

* Annalen der Physik unci der Cheraie. B 1. V, 8. 549-50.

Nipher — The Law of Contraction oj Gaseous Nebulae. 151

and every unit mass has been multiplied by wi^. Each unit
mass may be supposed to lie as a piston in a fixed radial cone.

After the piston descends, its area becomes — s of its initial

value. The force per unit area, due to the weight of super-
posed layers, becomes m^ times as great, or

P = m* P, ■

The product Pv has therefore become m times as great
as it was in the initial stage. Therefore by the equation
Pv=CT

Eliminating m in these equations Ritter obtained equations
corresponding exactly to (23) (24) and (25), viz.:

Pv^ = P,v/ ; Tv^ = Ty^ and ^^ :^,

but he did not determine the values of these constants,
as is done in (26). Ritter saw very clearly, however,
that these three equations were characteristic of a gravi-
tating mass in equilibrium under its own forces, as dis-
tinguished from the case where a few grammes of gas
are held in the cylinder of a heat engine. In the latter
case the gas may be compressed and cooled or heated
in any way that can be imagined. The value of n
in eq. (3) may be anything between + oo and — X) , and the
range in specific heat will be as wide as that of ?j, as is shown
in the table at the beginning of this paper. He concluded
that his equations, last given, were the projections on the
three reference planes, of the path on the surface represented
by eq. (1), traced by a point representing the changing con-
dition of any unit mass in his gravitating gaskugel. Ritter

therefore concludes that the value of n in eq. (3) is _ and

3

152 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

computes the specific heat of gravitational contraction as
follows : —

By a well-known equation

C C

dQ =jj vdP + jr Pdv.

From the equation of a perfect gas,

dT=jj vdP + jj Pdv.

Hence for the

specific

heat

dQ
dT~

c.

dP
P

+

Cp

dv

V

dP
P

-j-

dv

V

From eq.

(3)

dP

dv

P

- n

V

where /c = y=^ = 1.41.

4
3

Assuming ?i = - Ritter obtains

For hydrogen C p = 3.409, which gives

dQ

(29).

This equation in (29) gives

dQ Cp — nC, Cp(k — n\

ST= i-„ •^TlTrrJ- (30)

^ = —0.16312 Cp (31).

NipJier — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 153

This is of cour«e the value for specific heat given in the

4
table for n = -.
3

The values called for in (29) may also be found from

equations of this paper. From eqs. (10) and (11),

where P and ^ ^= - are given in terms of li, as will be seen,

V

dP 2n dR

p

~~ 2 n R

dv

V

2 dR
2 n R'

These values, in eq. (29) give eq. (30). This equation is

the same as (5) as may be easily seen by equating the values.

But all of this leaves the value of n wholly undetermined.

4
If the value n = -^ which Kitter assumed, be substituted in

o

(19) and in various other equations containing the factor
4 — 3n, the co-efficients in ?i reduce to zero. This value of
n calls for an impossible distribution of matter, in a grav-
itating nebula. This will be pointed out more fully as we
proceed.

What we have done is to assume the general relation
Pv^ = A. We find as a consequence, that at the surface of
any fixed mass M, forming the core of a gravitating gaskugel,
(eq. 26)

^ ^ ^' / 47r \i i

' M\

4
How can this result justify the assumption that w = ^^ for

o

such a gravitating mass?

This matter has been under consideration for several years,
and it was only recently observed, that n could be computed
by an independent method, as will now be explained.

154 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

By a well-known equation, the specific heat along any path
determined by n is

This equation assumes expansion of the gas, with the
addition of heat. To correspond to eq. (5) the sign of dQ
must be reversed.

If eqs. (19) and (21 ) be combined by the elimination of H,

the value of ( -pj,) may be found at any of the concentric

spherical surfaces in a contracting gaskugel.
That value is

\dT)„^ Trk^3P(2—ny "

By (21)

2 — n Mk
^ ~ 7iC 2E

By differentiating (16) with 7? constant,

(dv\ _ 2'7rk(2 — nyir-
\dTJF^~n(4.—3n)CT'

2

These values in (32), by further substitution from (17)
give (reversing the sign of dQ)

{§l-0.-^ (33),

This is the specific heat at any point in a gravitating gas-
kugel, in terms wholly independent of ?i. If this value be
equated with (5), the value of n is found to be

2CV + 4^'

n

2Cp+3 -r

C
J

(33a).

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 155

The value of 71 for various gases is computed in a table.
It seems to be a constant.

Gas

C\

C

C
2Cp+Sj

0

26V + 4j

?i

H

N

0

Air

3.409
0.2438
0.2175
0.2375

4.13 X 10"^
2.97 X 106
2.59 X 106
2.88 X 106

9.775
0.700
0.621
0.681

10.761
0.7712
0.6830
0.7498

1.101
1.101
1.100
1.101

If eq. (33a) be solved for Cp we have

(7 3n — 4
"^p J 2 — 2n

C

From the equations of a gas we have Gp — ^\=-t 5 ^^d

Cp = kC,. Hence

__ (7 /c

These two equations give for n,

n

6/c— 4
5k — 3'

(336)

The value of the specific heat of hydrogen for gravitational
contraction is from (33)

\dT)n

365.

Ritter's value computed from his equation is as before
stated : —

(!£)__ 0.547.
XaTJn

156 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

If the value of n determined in (336) be substituted for the

4
value o in Ritter's equation (30), of this paper, his result will
o

also be — 7.365.

The coefficients and exponents involving n in the equa-
tions which precede, may now all be written in terms of k but
nothing is gained by doing so. They are very interesting in
form, but they are no more simple than those involving n. If
we replace n by the value 1.1, equations (10) to (14) become

* " \27rkBy

T =

^i-"/0.95 \'-''^

\2-7rkRV

C V27rA'i?2

yo.95^

i.u

M=5.U7r\'li:^ ) i?o.-7 (^13y

In these equations, the value of the gravitation constant A-

1

IB 1 rAo ^y 1A7- The radius i? is to be measured in cm. A is
1.543 X 10'

of course determined by eq. (3), for any assumed locus.

Equations (15) to (18) become

^=0-95 ISO? (15)'

^ = 0-35 2^?^ (16)'

it/— 1.22 — T— (17)'

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 157

y x.^^ ^

ioi

as (19) to (22) become

0.636 M^k
^ Stt B'

0.78 M

^ 47r i^s

0.818 IR'
^ - 2CB

MJc

9 - m

(19)'

(20)'

(21)'

(22)'.

Equation (23) also becomes (see (26) ),

A

Pv^ = i.ou kjyr . (23)'

Equations (24) and (25) need not be rewritten.
The work done in compressing a mass M, from an infinite
volume to a sphere having a radius B is

00

Tr=47r \BTdB.

f

The value of P being obtained from (19) this integral is

= 0.636 J^
2B

If an isothermal distribution of temperature were possible
during the compression, n would be unity and the coeflScient

158 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

in n would also be unity. Since —-^ is the mass, in astro-

nomical units of 3928 oframmes, the expression would then be
precisely like the one for the compression of an electrified

M

spherical surface having a charge numerically equal to --7=-.

It may be of interest to point out that if V represents the
resulting volume of the sphere

3 3n 27?

This is o of the work represented in (34).
o

Equation (20) enables us to determine the average density

h^ of the mass ilfat any time during compression.

We have

4 2 — n ^

3 " 4 — on

S^=S 1 8 = 3.868. (35)

"4 — 6n ^ ^

4

If n were ^ the average density would be infinite.
o

To find where in the sphere, the gas would have average

density, we have from eq. (11),

B' 2 — n B'

— 2=3 -j — -^- 2

7-> 9-n 4 371 -rt

where B' is the constant coefficient in (11). Hence

_ ( ^~^'' ] ' R = 0.545 R. (36)

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseoxis Nebulae. 159

4

If n were ^ the average density would be at the center.

The average pressure within radius R may be found by
substituting P from eq. (10) in the equation

t

pR

X

47r I i?2 PdH
^» = h =3«-T7P- (87)

6 — hn
47r I RHR

It is to be observed that if n were as large as 1.2 the aver-
age pressure within the mass ilf would be infinite. Making
w = 1.1 the average pressure is found to be 5.4 P .

By (10) the average pressure is distant from the center of
mass

2 — n
_ ,1 6 hn\ 'in

R

"a

(-sSV" ^ = «-*»^^- (38)-

If ?i ^ 1.2 the average pressure would be at the center.
It is therefore clear that n must be less than 1.2 in order that
the distribution may be physically possible. The value with
n = 1.1 is given above. It locates the gas of average pres-
sure almost exactly midway between the center and the spher-
ical surface of radius R.

The average temperature, deduced in the same way from
(12), is

^« = 3^=^i r=1.08 T. (39)

The distance from the center to the surface having this tern-
perature is

160 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

These values in T are very interesting. Tliey show that
while the average temperature within any concentric spherical
surface is but little above the temperature at the surface, the
gas has this average temperature at a distance 0.707^ from
the center. It will also be observed that if the temperature
were uniform throughout the mass, or n = 1, the value of i?„
computed from the above equation would be I'^i?. This, of
course, means that the average temperature would be anywhere
between 0 and R.

Ritter computes the ratio of the heat per unit mass radiated
from the nebula during contraction from a condition P^, v^, T^,
to a condition _P, v, T, to the total work done on this unit mass
during the same operation. Both quantities are measured in
heat units. He finds the ratio to be

Q

-^=0.187.

According to this only 18.7% of the heat developed by
the work done on each unit mass, is radiated. The remainder
of the heat goes to raise the temperature of the mass. By
the equations of this paper, the heat radiated is (28), (33),

= -[Cp + 4^)r,(p_l) (41).

The work done on unit mass in the same operation is
(since P^r/ = Py")

^ V.

V
dv

Nipher — TTie Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 161

n—l\ ^ j — J {n—\) ^^ ^

By (5) and (33) this becomes

W = -I^O„+ ep+4r) ^o(p-l). (42;

Hence

O C

^= 0= ^==0.75. (43)

(7„+(7^+4j 2CV+3^

According to this equation, the heat radiated is 75% of the
heat equivalent to the work of compression, and not 18.7%,
as Ritter found. Only 25% of the energy of compression is
used in causing a rise of temperature.

The same result may be obtained from Ritter' s equation

4
(80), p. 554, by making his value e = 1.1 instead of -g.

The numerator of (43) is the specific heat of gravitational
compression as determined in (33). It is evident that
W — Q must be the heat applied to the unit mass of gas, and
causing a rise of temperature. By (43)

C C

^ — ^ "^==3.0. (44)

W—Q ^ C- C\

This ^result deduced in (44) is exactly what we know to be

true. Equations (43) and (44) assert that for a rise of tem-

C
perature of 1° C, energy equivalent to 2 (7^+ 3 -7 heat units

'J

C
H applied to the unit mass, of which (7^+4-y heat units

C
are radiated, and Cp — -j=i C^ heat units are used in raising

the temperature.

162

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

0
The ratio -fj^ is computed for various gases which conform

closely to eq. ( 1 ) at high temperatures. The results are given
in the annexed table. The fifth column gives the specific heat
of gravitational compression represented in eq. (33).

Gas

Up

C

26V + 3^

C, + 4^

Q
w

jsr

0

Air

3.409
0.2438
0.2175
0.2375

4.13 X 107
2.97 X 106
2.60 X 106
2.88 X 106

9.775
0.700
0.621
0.681

7.352
0.5274
0.4655
0.5123

0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75

It will be observed that this ratio is constant for all these
gases. Representing this ratio by c we have by (43)

_£4-3c^
^p- J 2c— 1

(45)

From the equations C p
have

C
G^= -J and C p = kC^ we

6V =

C K

J K—l

Hence by (45) and (46)

5 K

b K — 3

= 0.753.

(46)

(47)

Also from (43) and (47)

W—Q 1

W "~5«— 3

= 0.247

(48)

If we consider only that part of the heat energy which is
applied to the mass M, of radius R we may also write an

Nipher — The Law of Contraction of Gaseous Nebulae. 163

equation involving a specific heat. It is not the specific heat
of the operation, but a specific heat s in a more restricted
sense. Let T^ represent the average temperature of the mass
M. Thenby (48) and (34),

* D K — 6 n 2 Jit

Replacing T^ by its value in (39) and M by its value in
(21)

s =

(50)

(8 — 5n) (4 — 3n) 2(7
3 (2 — n) {5k — 3) ~T

C
= 0.331 -J-

If there existed a series of nebulae, of various pure gases,
like those represented in the last table, we might suppose that
they had each advanced to such a stage, that each had the
same mass ilf^ within a sphere of the same radius, R. Equa-
tion (21) asserts that the product CT would then be
constant for the series. Those having a larger constant G,
would have a correspondingly smaller temperature T, or T^.
This is also the meaning of eq. (50).

This also follows from equations (19) and (20). Under
the conditions just assumed, both P and h would be con-
stant for the series. As a consequence from eq. (1) the
product CT must be a constant for all gases.

To show the extent to which our own sun has, in its last
days, of thermal decrepitude, departed from the gaseous
condition, we may compare its mass, as computed from eq.
(17)', with that obtained from observation. We have for

hydrogen, C = 4.14 X 10^ R = 6.97 X lO'" cm, -j^ =^

1.54 X 10^, and Tat the surface of the sun may be taken as
10000»C. This gives for M the value 1.08 X lO^" grammes.
Taking the mass of the earth at 6.14 X 10^^ grammes, and
the mass of the sun as 3.549 X 10^ times that of th« earth,

164 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

the mass of the sun is 2.18 X 10^ grammes. This is about
2000 times the mass computed from (17)'.

The conditions here discussed, may perhaps be brought
about in some such way as this. An infinitely diffused mass
of gas occupies an infinite space. It is surrounded by an in-
finite series of infinite spaces, having perhaps an increasingly
higher order of magnitude. A great meteorite, or a world,
strays into the nebula, and probably sets it into rotation. The
nebulous mass gravitates towards the solid nucleus, which has
been already slightly warmed by frictional contact with the
diffused gas. As the gravitating action continues, the tem-
perature rises, and the solid mass, while still remaining solid,
becomes also a liquid and a gas. The bounding surface
between solid and gas has disappeared. How else can gaseous
pressure develop in an infinitely diffused mass of gas having a
temperature at which all gases are solid?

This pressure thus developed, is automatically applied in a
perfectly definite way, as radiation and contraction proceed.
If, as the temperature rises, the heat radiates more and
yet more rapidly, the operation is thereby hastened, but the
law of contraction remains unchanged. The relations between
P, 5, and Tmust remain invariable.

These equations are now in condition to be linked with the
solar radiation constant, and the time element. They may
thus serve to permit a re-examination of the history of the
evolution of the solar system.

Issued October 1, 1903.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

VOL.. XIII. No. 6.

A NEW METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
FREE LIME, AND ON SO-CALLED DEAD BURNT
LIME.

EDWARD H. KEI8ER AND S. W. FORDER.

Issued December 4, 1903.

A NEW METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
FREE LIME, AND ON SO-CALLED DEAD BURNT
LIME.*

Edward H. Keiser and S. W. Forder.

A great many attempts have been made to devise a quanti-
tative method for the determination of free lime in Portland
cements, basic phosphate slags, commercial quick lime and
similar substances but none of the methods thus far proposed
have been satisfactory, nor have any of them come into gen-
eral use. The difficulty is that in the substances mentioned,
besides the free lime there are basic lime compounds, such as
the basic di and tricalcium silicates which are decomposed by
water with the formation of calcium hydroxide. When these
substances are treated with aqueous solutions, as, for example,
sugar solution, for the purpose of dissolving the free lime,
the water of the solution at once acts upon the basic lime
compounds and forms calcium hydroxide. It is, therefore,
impossible to determine how much of the lime that is found
was in combination and how much was in free condition.

The method described below depends upon the fact that
uncombined lime, that is, free lime, combines almost instantly
with water whereas the basic calcium silicates are acted upon
much more slowly by water. The process is carried out as
follows: A weighed quantity of the substance, .2 to .5
grams in a platinum crucible is first heated to drive off mois-
ture, or, in the case of cements, is heated with the blast lamp
for a few minutes to expel any carbon dioxide, and after
cooling in a desiccator is again weighed. A few drops of
distilled water, which has been recently boiled, are then
added and the crucible placed in the brass protector Z), shown
in the figure, (i) is simply a cylindrical box provided with a

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, October 19^ 1903.

(165)

166

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

screw top carrying a brass inlet and outlet tube. The thread
of the cap is made air tight with a little white lead and oil.)
The protector is put into the air bath and the temperature is
raised to 85 degrees C. and allowed to remain at about this
point for 20 minutes. Then a slow current of air is drawn
through the apparatus and the temperature raised to 185
degrees. The air is freed from carbon dioxide and moisture
by passing through the potash bulb and calcium chloride tube
A and £ as shown in the figure. After drying in this way
for 30 minutes the apparatus is disconnected, the protector
removed from the air bath and the crucible taken out and

placed in a desiccator and when cold is weighed. The in-
crease of weight is the weight of water taken up by the quick
line to form calcium hydroxide.

The method and apparatus was first tested by hydrating
pure lime obtained by the ignition of Iceland spar. A
weighed quantity of Iceland spar was heated from 5 to 10
minutes in a platinum crucible with the blast lamp. After
cooling in a desiccator the weight of quick lime ^vas deter-
mined. The hydration was then carried out as above de-
scribed. The following results were obtained: —

Reiser & Forder — Determination of Free Lime. 167

Weight of Lime

Weight of Water

Weight of Lime

Per cent of Lime

taken.

absorbed.

found.

found.

.2239

.0724

.2252

100.60

.3287

.1049

.3263

99.26

.2368

.0757

.2355

99.45

.2799

.0909

.2828

101.00

.5322

.1704

.5300

99.60

.1579

.0507

.1577

99.90

.1810

.0581

.1807

99.88

.2425

.0852

.2433

100.30

.2487

.0794

.2470

99.33

These results show that the method is quantitative and that
lime that has been heated to the highest temperature attainable
in a platinum crucible with the blast lamp is completely slaked
in twenty minutes at 85 degrees. In fact in the case of pure
quick lime the slaking is very rapid. The calcium hydroxide
was found to be constant in weight up to 250 degrees, beyond
which it was not tested. The calcium hydroxide when
exposed to the air, of course takes up carbon dioxide. It is,
therefore, necessary to keep the crucible in a desiccator con-
taining caustic potash instead of calcium chloride and to
weigh as rapidly as possible.

HYDRATION OF COMJIERCIAL LIME.

For the determination of calcium oxide in commercial quick
lime a large piece was taken and the exterior portions broken
away and a sample for analysis taken from the interior of
the lump. This was quickly placed in a tightly stoppered
weighing tube. Portions of this were weighed off in a plati-
num crucible and then water was added in a little greater
quantity than was necessary for slaking, the crucible put
into the protector warmed to 85 degrees for some minutes
and then a slow current of air free from carbon dioxide
drawn through for half an hour, the temperature now being
raised to 185 degrees. After cooling in the desiccator the
increase in weight was determined and from this the percent-
age of lime in the sample calculated. The following results
were thus obtained : —

168 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Per Cent of CaO,

Cent of H2O.

Calculated.

29.11

90.56

29.21

90.88

28.98

90.20

This same specimen of quick lime after ignition over the
blast lamp and immediate hydration gave the following : —

Per Cent of Water Per Cent of Lime by

taken up. Calculation.

32.30 100.50

32.36 100.70

Thus showing the extent to which the lime had been acted
upon by the moisture and carbon dioxide of the air.

The method is also well adapted for rapidly determining the
value of limestones for the purpose of making quick lime.
Thus a small quantity of the limestone is weighed in a platinum
crucible then ignited with the blast lamp and after weighing
the quick lime is hydrated by this method. From the weight
of water taken up the per cent of lime is calculated. The
first series of determinations given above show what results
would be obtained with a pure limestone such as Iceland spar
or calcite. The following: determinations were made with a
siliceous dolomite from Arkansas : —

"Weight of Water
Weight of Dolomite. taken up. Per Cent of Lime.

.2974 .0137 14.33

.2896 .0134 14.40

HYDRATION OF DEAD BURNT LIME.

It is generally believed by practical men that lime that has
been very highly heated becomes dead burnt or inert to water.
Statements to this effect are found in chemical literature.
Thus Dammer, Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, II,
2, 294, states that very high temperatures must be avoided in
the preparation of lime, especially if impure calcium carbo-

Keiser & Forder — Determination of Free Lime. 169

nate is used, because the lime at too high temperatures be-
comes dead burnt, that is, it becomes incapable of uniting
with water. Zulkowski, Chemische Industrie, 1901, page
290, maintains that a portion of the lime in Portland cements
is in this dead burnt condition. In an article in the Thonin-
industrie Zeitung, 1902, the same author suggests the formula

.. /^^

Ca^ Ca for dead burnt lime.

For the purpose of determining the behavior of highly
heated lime towards water, powdered Iceland spar was placed
between the carbon pencils of an electric arc and the current
passed for one hour. A number of particles of semi-fused
lime were thus obtained. These particles were carefully
separated from the powder that had not melted, and weighed
quantities were hydrated by the above described method. It
was found that this lime that had been heated in the electric
arc slaked more slowly than that which had not been heated
to so high a temperature, but still it combined slowly with
water at ordinary temperatures and on allowing it to stand
with water at the ordinary temperature for 24 hours it had
slaked completely. When the temperature was raised to 85 de-
grees, the slaking was complete in two hours. The following
results were obtained : —

Per Cent of Lime calcu-

Wt. of Lime taken.

Wt.

of Water taken up.

lated from Water,

.2799

.0909

101.0

.2050

.0661

100.3

.5322

.1704

99.6

.3909

.1279

101.0

Another specimen of lime that had been heated with the
oxy-coal gas blowpipe gave the following result : — •

.3557 .1163 100.5

These experiments show that pure lime that has been
heated to very high temperatures, even semi-fused lime is not

170 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

inert to water and that it slakes comparatively rapidly if the
water is warm. That the slaking with cold water is slower
than in the case of ordinary lime may be due to the fact that
lime that has been heated to very high temperatures is much
more compact and less porous than the ordinary lime. The
surface exposed to the action of water being much less the
time required for slaking would necessarily be greater. We
see from these experiments that pure lime cannot be made
inert to water by heating to high temperatures. The inert-
ness of commercial lime is probably due to the presence of
compounds of silica and iron oxide w^ith the lime which are
decomposed very slowly by the water.

HYDRATION OF CALCIU3I SILICATES.

The hydration of lime and its compounds was further
studied by making synthetically the compounds that are as-
sumed to be present in Portland cement, and then hydrating
these substances by this method. Pure lime and silica were
mixed in molecular quantities so as to give when fused the com-
pounds, CaO, SiO,, 2(CaO)SiO„ 2^(CaO)Si02, 3(CaO)SiO„,
and 4(CaO)Si02. The lime was obtained by the ignition
of pure precipitated calcium carbonate. The silica was pre-
pared by conducting silicon tetrafluoride into water and then
drying and igniting the gelatinous silicic acid thus formed.
Intimate mixtures of lime and silica in the proportions to
form the above compounds were heated by projecting verti-
cally the flame of the oxy-coal gas blow-pipe down upon the
mixtures in a cavity made in a fire brick. The heat thus
obtained was sufficient to melt all except the last mixture,
namely the 4(CaO)Si02. The fused masses were in each
case carefully separated from the unfused portions, they were
chilled by sprinkling with cold water, dried and preserved in
stoppered bottles. Weighed quantities were then hydrated
by this method. The hydraulic properties of each compound
were also examined by mixing some of the powdered com-
pound with water and observing whether the mass set and
became hard. The following table contains the results that
were obtained : —

Reiser & Forder — Determination of Free Lime. 171

Hydraulic Weight

Wt.

of Water

Per Cent of

Per Ceni

Compound.

properties. talien.

talien up.

Water.

Lime

CaOSlOa

None. .4829

.0004

.082

.26

2(CaO)Si02

Not quite as .3988
hard as cement

.0017

•43

1.33

<<

" .3997

.0012

.30

.93

3i(CaO)Si02

ditto .4241

.0022

.52

1.61

3(CaO)Si02

Hard as cement .4841

.0044

l.Ol

3.15

4('CaO)Si02

None .4241

.0262

6.16

19.15

We conclude from these results that lime in combination
with silica in quantities not exceeding three molecules of lime
for one molecule of silica is only slowly acted upon by water
and that this method of determining lime can be used to
determine free lime in the presence of the basic di- and tri-
calcium silicates that are assumed to be present in Portland
cements.

HYDRATION OF CALCIUM ALUMINATES.

The mono, di, and tricalcium aluminates were also prepared
synthetically by fusing molecular quantities of pure alumina
and lime with the oxy-coal gas blowpipe flame. The alumina
was prepared by heating the hydroxide that had been ob-
tained by precipitation from the chloride by ammonia. The
aluminates all fused much more easily than the silicates under
the oxy-coal gas blowpipe. Weighed quantities were hydrated
by our method as in the case of the silicates and the hydraulic
properties were also noted. It was found that the aluminates
differ markedl}'^ from the silicates in their behavior towards
water. This is shown by the following results : —

Hydraulic Weight Wt. of Water
Compound. properties. taken. talien up.

(CaOAlaOa Set very hard, .4886 .0652

2(CaO)Al2b3 liiie a cement .4543 .0716

SCCaOAlaOg None. .4072 .0796

We see from this that the aluminates are hydrated very
much more rapidly than the silicates, in fact they behave
like free lime when warmed with water to 85 degrees for 30

Per Cent

Per Cent

of Water.

of Lime.

13.34

41.52

15.76

49.04

19.55

60.80

172 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

minutes. In the case of the monocalcium aluminate the per-
centage of water taken up shows a hydration of the alumina
as well as of the lime. It is our intention to make a further
study of this part of the subject. In determining free lime,
therefore, by this method in substances containing calcium
aluminates this fact must be borne in mind and the lime in
combination with the alumina must be deducted from the total
lime found.

BEHAVIOR OF CEMENTS.

As in commercial cements the proportion of alumina usually
varies from 5 to 9 per cent we have prepared several cements
by fusing with the oxy-coal gas blowpipe pure alumina, lime
and silica in definite proportions and have then hydrated the
resulting cements by our method. The following results were
obtained : —

Composition of

Per Cent of Water

Cement.

Hydraulic properties.

taken up.

5 per cent AlgOg

Set slowly, did not become

25 " SIO,

quite as hard as Portland

1.43

70 " Cao'

cement.

9 '« AI3O3

Set slowly and became quite

21 " Si02

as hard as Portland cement.

2.16

70 " CaO

15 " AljOa

Set slowly and became very

15 " SiOj

hard.

4.65

70 " CaO

We see from this that as the proportion of alumina increases
the percentage of water taken up increases, but if the per-
centage of alumina does not exceed 10 per cent, as is the rule
in commercial cements, then the amount of water taken up
does not exceed 3 per cent.

A number of the best known varieties of commercial cements
were then examined by our method. In each case the sample
was weighed in a platinum crucible, then ignited for a few
minutes over the blast lamp and after cooling in the desiccator
it was weighed. The cement was then moistened with a few
drops of water, the crucible put into the protector and warmed

Keiser & Forder — Determination of Free Lime. 173

to 85 degrees for 30 minutes. Then the temperature was
raised to 185 degrees and a slow current of air drawn through
until constant weight was obtained. The following results
were obtained : —

Per Cent of Water

Per Cent of Water

Cement.

taken up.

Cement.

taken up.

A,

1.16

I,

1.81

B,

1.97

J,

2.99

c,

2.09

K,

2.77

B,

2.67

L,

2.18

E,

2.88

M,

2.61

F,

2.66

N,

2.64

G,

3.01

0,

3.04

H,

3.10

These cements all gave good ' ' sound ' ' tests and in nearly
all cases less than 3 per cent of water was taken up. We
conclude from this and from the preceding experiments
upon cements that this water was taken up by the aluminates
and that little or no free lime was contained in these cements.
One variety of Portland cement that we examined gave 10.17
per cent of water taken up. We concluded that 7 per cent
of this must be due to free lime being present. Our conclu-
sion was justified, for on making a pat of the neat cement
and allowing it to set thoroughly it was immersed in boiling
water, and on removal from the water it showed signs of
cracks and had become quite soft and readily disintegrated.

Two varieties of natural cements were tested and gave the

following values : —

Per Cent of Water

Natural Cement.

taken up.

A,

5.76

B,

3.70

Finally we have tested our method by adding weighed
amounts of pure lime to a cement of known behavior and
then after ignition with the blast lamp have again determined
the percentage of water taken up. Thus cement A which

174 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

took up 1.16 per cent of water had 15.40 per cent of lime
added to it. Then on retesting it took up 6.25 per cent of
water. Per cent of lime corresponding to 1.16 per cent of
water equals 3.60. This plus the 15.40 per cent added equals
19.00 per cent. Lime corresponding to 6.25 per cent of water
equals 19.44.

We conclude from our experiments that if a Portland cement
containing less than 10 per cent of alumina takes up more
than three per cent of water then this excess is due to the free
lime present.

I8$ued December 4, 1903.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

vol.. XIII. No. 7.

A NEW GENUS OF GRASSES.

B. F. BUSH.

Issued December 11, 1903.

A NEW GENUS OF GRASSES.*
B. F. Bush.

While making a collection of plants along the sandy banks
of the Brazos River, at Columbia, Brazoria County, Texas,
on April 14, 1899, my attention was attracted by a robust
matted, spreading form of Eragrostis very much like Era-
groHtis hypnoides (Lam.) B. S. P., but which was so different
in the thicker stems which were pilose with short viscid hairs,
the shorter, thicker short-pilose leaves, and the densely
short-pilose sheaths, that I at once suspected I had found an
undescribed species.

A careful examination of all the specimens of the creeping
forms of Eragrostis seen at Columbia, Texas, during that
day and the following days of my stay there, resulted in the
discovery of another supposedly undescribed species of creep-
ing Eragrostis, but did not disclose the presence of the real
Eragrostis hypnoides.

I had provisionally named the two plants collected at
Columbia, Texas, which were very different in appearance,
the first having greatly elongated spikelets, and the other
much shorter ones in a capitate cluster. While ransacking
the synonymy of Eragrostis in the Kew Index at the li-
brary of the Missouri Botanical Garden to ascertain if the
names I proposed to give these two plants were preoccupied
in the genus Eragrostis, I was led to make an examination of
Poa also, as many of the species of Eragrostis were first
described under Poa, and there learned that there had been
described a Poa capitata by Nuttall, in the Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society, n. s. 5 : 146 (1837).

Being curious to learn what had become of this species
described by so acute an observer as Nuttall, I consulted the

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, November 2, 1903.

(175)

176 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

paper above-mentioned, and was very much surprised to learn
that the two plants I had collected at Columbia, Texas, for
two different species, had been described by Nuttall as I^oa
capitata from specimens collected by him in Arkansas about
seventy years ago.

Nuttall characterizes his Poa capitata as being dioecious
and viscid pilose, a fact which is all the more remarkable
in that the makers of the Kew Index have referred Nuttall' s
species to Ei^agrostis reptans Nees, a disposition wholly un-
warranted. A careful examination of my specimens revealed
the fact that what I had collected and proposed to describe as
two new species, were really staminate and pistillate plants of
one and the same species, the first with the elongated spikelets,
the staminate, the other with a capitate cluster of spikelets,
the pistillate, a fact I have had abundant proof of in exten-
sive field observations since learning of Nuttall' s Poa
capitata .

Nuttall's description of Poa capitata in the above-mentioned
paper is as follows : —

" Dioica, viscido-pubens; culmo reptante; paniculafoemineasubrotunda
lobata obtusa, mascula conferta; spiculis subduodecemfloris, lanceolatis;
foliis distichis brevibus. — E.ah. On the sand-beaches of the Arkansas.
Flowering in July. . . . Annual and pilose . . . ; sheaths very short;
stipules obsolete, pilose; female flowers spiked, the spikes subcapitate
and lobed; male panicle acute, the spikelets less crowded, compressed,
larger than those which are styliferous, and all 3-nerved, after the man-
ner of this section, with which it arranges."

Nuttall evidently, in the above, refers to the flowering
scales as being 3-nerved, and not to the spikelets, as worded
in the description.

Since Nuttall's Poa capitata had been reduced to Eragrostis
reptans in the Kew Index, and as very likely other related
apecies had been treated likewise, I was desirous of seeing as
much material of Eragrostis 7'ep)tans as I could get, and also
of consulting all the descriptions of species reduced to that
species that were given in that work.

Amongst the many specimens examined in the herbarium
of the Missouri Botanical Garden was one sheet of Poa

BusJi — A Neio Genus of Grasses. 177

Weigeltia7ia B^chb . , collected in Surinam by Weigelt in 1827,
and described by Reichenbach in Mem. Acad. Sci. Peterbs.
Ser. VI. 1 : 40 (1831), which is, at least in the Garden
specimen, Nuttall's Poa capitafa, and this name of Reichen-
bach's therefore antedates Nuttall's some six years. Nuttall
was probably unaware of Reichenbach 's species, or if aware
of the publication, had not the least idea that his proposed
species from Arkansas and the one from far away Surinam
were one and the same. This Weigelt specimen (PI. VII.) is
represented by both male and female plants, and agrees per-
fectly with those collected by me at Columbia, Texas, and
Fulton, Arkansas.

Reichenbach' s label on the Weigelt specimen above men-
tioned, which is cut from the original publication, reads as
follows : —

" PoA Weigkltiana Rchb. Eragrostis: repens cespitosa, vaginis ad oras
ciliatis, paniculae (vix pollicaris) spiculis liaeari-lanceolatis 15-20. floris
gluraisque (hyalinis viride-) triaerviis acutis. — AflSuis P. thalassinae
K. H. B. sed paniculata. Surinam, leg. et exsicc. Weigelt. 1827. deterra.
Rchb."

Nothing is said about the dioecious character, which the
observant Nuttall detected, and it is likely that Reichenbach
never suspected that the species was dioecious.

Much field observation during 1900, about Columbia,
Texas, showed that this species of Nuttall's was very
common there, and also resulted in the detection of the real
Eragrostis hypnoides, which may now be said to be very rare
along the Brazos River. Nuttall's species was also discov-
ered on the sandy banks of the Red River at Fulton, Hemp-
stead County, Arkansas, in the same year, accompanied by
the real Eragrostis hypnoides, with which it formed quite a
contrast. This last locality is not very far from where
Nuttall collected his species on the Arkansas. During 1901
the study of the two plants was continued in the field, both
at Columbia, Texas, and at Fulton, Arkansas, and the convic-
tion was formed that these two related species are generically
distinct from Eragrostis, not only by habit, but bv the

178 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

imperfect flowers. I therefore propose the following new
genus : —

NEERAGK08TIS.

Prostrate, creeping and rooting, dioecious or monoecious
grasses, with short flat leaves, and contracted paniculate in-
florescence. Staminate and pistillate spikelets unlike; stylif-
erous in subcapitate panicles, the spikelets closel}'^ flowered,
the scales very acute, appressed; staminate in looser, elon-
gated, acute panicles, usually larger and longer, the flowering
scales longer and less acute, spreading. Spikelets many-flow-
ered, more or less flattened ; the two lower scales empty,
unequal, shorter than the flowering scales, keeled, 1-nerved,
or the second 3-nerved; flowering scales membranous, keeled,
3-nerved; palets shorter than the scales, prominently
2-nerved or 2-keeled, usually persisting on the rachilla
after the fruiting scale has fallen ; stamens 2 or 3 ; styles
distinct, short; stigmas plumose; grain free, loosely in-
closed in the scale and palet. — Two known species, both of
the New World, much alike in habit, but differing consider-
ably in character, both annual in North America, but prob-
ably perennial in tropical regions. Type species, Poa Wei-
geltiana Eeichenb. Mem. Acad. Sci. Peterbs. Ser. vi. 1: 40
(1831), collected in Surinam, — to which I have referred Poa
capitata Nutt., of Arkansas.

Name composed of ]SFeo, new, and Eragrostis, — New
Eragrostis.

ANALYSIS OF SPECIES.

DioeciouM. Flowering scales longer, pubescent: sheaths densely pilose

pubescent. 1. N. Weigeltiana.

Mo7ioecious. Flowering scales shorter, smooth ; sheaths smooth or nearly

BO. 2. N. HYPNOIDE8.

1. Neeragrostis Weigeltiana (Eeichenb.) B. F. Bush.
Poa Weigeltiana Reichenb. Mem. Acad. Sci. Petersb. VI. 1 : 40 (1831).
Poa capitata Nutt. Traus. Am. Phil. Soc. N. S. 5 : 146 (1837).
Eragrostis capitata (Nutt.) Nash ia Britton, Man. Nor. States and Can.
Append. 1042 (1901).

Bush — A New Genus of Grasses.

179

VV

Culms prostrate and creeping,
rooting at the nodes, sending up
branches 5-15 cm. long; stems
and especially the upper sheaths
densely short-pilose ; leaves short,
flat, thick, spreading or ascend-
ing, 1-3 cm. long, 1.5-3 mm.
wide, lanceolate, pubescent; pan-
icle 2-3 cm. long, nearly or
quite as broad, oval, subcapitate;
spikelets crowded, clustered ; pis-
tillate spikelets longer and more
narrow than the staminate, 2-4
cm. lono;, and 2-3 mm. wide,
25-100-flowered ; lower scales
unequal, awl-shaped, the lowest
1 mm. long, 1-nerved, the
upper 1.5 mm. long, 3-nerved;
flowerins: scales 3 mm. long,
closely appressed, long-acumi-
nate, the tips spreading in fruit,

densely pubescent, 3-nerved; staminate spikelets shorter, wider,

more spreading, 1-2 cm.
long and 2-4 mm. wide,
15-40-flowered ; lower
scales unequal, awl-shaped,
1-nerved, the lower about
1 mm. long, the upper
1.5 mm. long; flowering
scales 3 mm. long, spread-
ing, acute, but tips less
spreading, densely pubes-
cent, strongly 3-nerved. —
In wet, sandy soil along
streams, Nebraska to
Kansas, Arkansas, Texas,
Louisiana, New Mexico,
Mexico, Porto Rico, Cen-
Plates VII, VIII.

PISTILLATE SPIKELET.

STAMINATE SPIKELET.

tral and South America.

180 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Those who prefer Eragrostis to this genus may call this
Eragrostis Weigeltiana (Reichenb.) Bush.

Specimens examined: —

Surinam: No locality, Weigelt, 1827.

Mexico: Matamoros, Berlandier 2325, date of collection
not given, Gregg 911, June 6, 1847; Reynolds, Gregg 889,
June 6, 1847 ; no locality, Berlandier 1949, date of collec-
tion not given.

Bolivia: Guanai, Rusby 230, May 1886.

Texas: Brazos Bottom, Lindheimer 213, 214, 111, Au-
gust, 1843; no locality, Berlandier 895, date of collection not
given; Aransa« Bay, Berlandier 559, date of collection not
given; no locality, Wright 2045, date of collection not given;
Corpus Christi, Heller 1455, March 14-21, 1894; Columbia,
Brazoria County, Bush 159, 159A, April 14, 1899; 265,
October 26, 1899; 199, 199A, May 3, 1900; 1306, 1307,
October 5, 1900; 1669, October 6, 1900; Graham, Rever-
chon 3500, October 29, 1902; Dallas, Reverchon 3499,
October 24, 1902.

Arkansas: Fulton, Hempstead County, Bush 997, Sep-
tember 20, 1900; 1038, September 22, 1900.

Kansas: Chautauqua County, Hitchcock 932A, 1896,
pistillate plant.

Nebraska: Lincoln, Webber, July 7, 1887, an unusually
slender form with fewer spikelets in the clusters than in
typical forms.

2. Neeragrostis htpnoides (Lam.) B. F. Bush.

Poa hypnoidea Lam. Tabl. Encycl. 1 : 185 C1791).

Poa reptans Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 1 : 69. t. 11 (1803).

Eragrostis reptans (Michx.) Nees in Mart. Fl. Bras. 2 : 514 (1829).

Eragrostis hypnoides (Lam.) B. S. P. Prel. Cat. N. Y. 69 (1888).

Megastachya hypnoides Pal. de Beauvais, Essai d'une nouv. agrosto-

graphie 74 (1812).
Megastachya reptans Pal. de Bauvais, Essai d'une nouv . agrostographie

74 (1812).

Culms creeping and rooting, 3-5 cm. long, much branched,
the branches erect or ascending, 3-15 cm. high ; sheaths villous

Bush — A New Genus of Grasses. 181

at the summit; leaves 2-5 cm. long, 1-2 mm. wide, flat,
smooth beneath, rough above; spikelets dioecious, 10-40-
flowered, 4-16 mm. long; lower scales unequal, the first
one-half to two-thirds as long as the second; flowering
scales about 2.5 mm. long, the lateral nerves prominent;
scales of the pistillate flowers more acute than those of the
staminate. — On sandy or gravelly shores, common through-
out nearly all North America and in the American tropics.

iSpecimens examined : —

District of Columbia : Washington, Steele, 1896.

Connecticut: No locality, D. C. JEafon, 1859.

New York: No locality. Gray exsicc, date of collection
not given.

Kentucky: No locality, Short, 1840; Hadley, Sadie F.
Price, 1899; Harlan County, Kearney 55, 1893.

Ohio: Milan, Moseley, 1894; Cincinnati, Lloyd, 1884.

Iowa: Ames, Hitchcock, 1888; Clinton, Pammel 239,
1896; Boone County, Pammel and Ball 108, 1896; Des
Moines, Ball 1379, 1898; Turin, Pammel 1032, 1894.

Wisconsin: LaCrosse, Pammel, 1887; LaCrosse Kiver,
Hall, 1861.

Nebraska, Wabash, Williams, 1889 ; Lincoln, Wehher,
1877; Fort Pierre, Zra?/(Zen, 1853.

North Carolina: Wilmington, McCarthy, 1885; Lincoln
County, Curtis, 1847.

Louisiana: Baton Eouge, Joor, 1885; New Orleans,
Hale 1603, 1605, date of collection not given; Alden Bridge,
Trelease, 1898; Jackson, Buckley Herbarium, without date;
Comite Swamp, Joor, 1885.

Arkansas: Fulton, Bush 963, 1900; no locality, Beyrich,
145, 1834.

Tennessee: Columbia, Shimeh, 1891.

Indian Territory: Sapulpa, Bush 825, 1894.

Missouri: Jeiferson Barracks, Pammel, 1886; Courtney,
Bush 591, 1896; Kennett, Bush, 1893; Jackson County,
Bush, 1891; Campbell, Bush 810, 1894; Swan, ^ws/i 602,
1899; St. Louis, Engelmann 108, 1838.

182 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

Kansas: Riley County, J. B. I^orfon 932, 1896; Keller-
man, 1888; Manhattan, J. B. S. Norton, 1892; Sedgwick,
Sumner and Cherokee Counties, Clothier and Whitford,
1897; Douglas and Labette Counties, Hitchcock, 1899;
Atchison County, Hitchcock, 1896; Jewell and Republic
Counties, J. B. S. Norton, 1895; ^Johnson County, H. S.
Pellet, 1890; Topeka, E. A. Poijenoe, 1876; Bourbon
County, Hitchcock, 1892; Wyandotte County, Mackenzie,
1896.

Texas: No locality, Joor, date of collection not given;
Texarkana, Heller, 1898; no locality, Lindheimer 214,
1843; Columbia, Busli 1304, 1900; Mineola, Reverchon
2815, June 9, 1902; Rusk County, Vinzenf, date of collec-
tion not given .

Oregon: Multnomah County, Howell 430, 431, 1877; no
locality, Hall 631, 1871.

Florida : No locality, Chapman, date of collection not
given.

California: Sacramento, Thurber Herbarium, an un-
usually pubescent form otherwise typical.

Illinois: Belleville, Engehnann 108, 1833; Cahokia,
Engelmann, 1859.

Michigan: Kalamazoo, 1838, in Thurber Herbarium, col-
lector not noted.

Mexico: Papantla, X^e6??^a?^7^ 537, 1841.

Nicaragua: No locality, Wright, l^b?>-Q.

Brazil: Para, Ditplum, date of collection not given ; Ama-
zon River, Spruce, date of collection not given; Bahia,
Bernhardi Herbarium, without date or collector.

Cuba: Bernhardi Herbarium, 1824, without locaHty or
collector.

Porto Rico: Cabo-Rojo, Sintenis 674, January 23, 1885.

San Domingo : Bernhardi Herbarium, without other data.

Bush — A Neio Genns of Grosses. 183

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATK8 VII-VIII.

Plate VII. — Neeragrostis Weigeltiana. Sheet of Weigelt's Surinam col-
lection of 1827, in the Bernhardi Herbarium of the Missouri Botanical
Garden. Reduced.

Plate VIII. — Neeragrostis Weigeltiana Texas, Bush, 1900. The upper
figure (No. 1306), represents typical pistillate inflorescence: the lower
(No. 1307), typical staminate inflorescence Nntural size.

Issued December 11, 1903.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIII.

PLATE VII.

I'oa \\ (■!:;( i!i,iii,i. I

L'

NEERAGKOSTIS WEIGBLTIANA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIII.

Plate VIII.

r

PISTILLATE.

STAMINATE.
XEER.\GIlO.STIS WEIGELTIANA.

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Transactions of The Academy of Science of St. Louis.

TOL. XIII. Hfo. 8.

POLYGAMY AND CERTAIN FLORAL ABNORMALI-
TIES IN SOLANUM.

THE GERMINATION OF PACHIRA, WITH A NOTE
ON THE NAMES OF TWO SPECIES.

J. ARTHUR HARRIS.

Issued JJecember 12, 1903.

POLYGAMY AND CERTAIN FLORAL ABNORMALI-
TIES IN SOLANUM.*

J. Arthur Harris.

The genus Solanum is generally characterized as hermaph-
rodite. No indication to the contrary is given in Gray's
Manual, Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora, Britton's
Manual, Chapman's Flora of the Southern United States,
Bentham's Flora Australiensis , Hooker's Flora of British
India, or Trimen's Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon. No
indication of any but perfect flowers is given in the treat-
ment of the genus in Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plan-
tariim, or Engler and Prantl's Naturliche Pflanzenfamilien.

While the presence of polygamy is infrequently noted in
characterizing the genus in general systematic works, it has
by no means remained unnoticed, for the abortion of the
pistil has been recorded in the description of many species,
and, indeed, has been several times considered in the descrip-
tion of the genus. Dunal, in 1813 (Ilistoii'e des Solanum),
mentions sterile flowers in his characterization of the aenus
and in another place in the same work enters into a quite
detailed discussion of the phenomenon, stating that a large
number of Solanums have fertile and sterile flowers which
are usually smaller and owe their sterility to the failure of
the pistil to develop, it being shorter than the stamens,
usually of about tbe length of the filaments, and so not in a
position to receive the pollen, while in the fertile flowers the
pistil is at least as long as the stamens so that the stigma is
placed in the most favorable position to secure the pollen.
Furthermore, he says, in some species provided with prickles
the calyx of the fertile flowers is provided with these append-
ages while the sterile ones are without them; thus in the

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, November 2, 1903.

(185)

186 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

section Melongena where the inflorescence is divided into two
branches, one being shorter, stouter and bearing but a single
flower which has a calyx armed with prickles, the other bear-
ing several flowers which are smaller and bear but few or no
prickles on the calyx, the large flower is fertile while the
others are usually sterile.

In a recent paper Heckel,* after quoting the statement to
which reference has just been made, states that while he cannot
speak for all the species of Dunal's section Melongena^ in S.
Duchartrei as in S. esculentutn there exists a real monoecious
unisexual condition realized by the complete abortion of the
pollen in the stamens of the female flower in the egg plant,
while in S. Ducliartrei the stamens of the female flower con-
tained pollen of a much smaller dimension than that of the
male flower which is very well developed. Furthermore the
physiologically male flower had a small stigma covered with
short dry papillae, while in the female flower the stigma was
very capitate, green, and covered with long moist papillae.
The ovules seemed to have the same development in both
cases.

It is of interest to notice that Dunal, in Histoire ties
Solanum says : t " Dans le Sol. longifolium j'ai vu le stylesim-
ple d'abord, se diviser en trois vers la fin de la floraison."
Heckel says of S. DucJiartrei : " L'ovaire, le style et le
stigmate sont tres reduits en dimensions dans la fleur male :
la stigmate est quadrifide, dans la fleur male et capite dans
la fleur femelle." In his laborious monograph of the genus
in De Candolle's Prodromiis Dunal says : " Flores hermaphro-
diti, rarius polygami, saepe pistillo abortivo steriles."
Sendtuer, in his treatment of the Brazilian forms in the
tenth volume of Martins' Flora Brasilieiuis^ says: "Flores
hermaphroditi, rarius polygami, saepe gyuaeceo abortivo
steriles. * * * Pistillum in plerisque speciebus in
ejusdem plantae diversis floribus, nunc completum, nunc in-
completum occurrit. * * * Stylus terminalis, longus

* Heckel, E. Uue Nouvelle Espfece de I'Afrique Tropicale. Solanum
Buchartrei. Rev. Geo. Bot. 2 : 49-54. 1890.
t Page 92.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 187

(vel in abortivis decurtatus)." Gray, in the Synoptical
Flora, says: " Sometimes polygamous, through the abortion
of the pistil of many of the flowers."

Dunal, in De CandoUe's ProcZromifs, recognizes, in his Con-
spectus Generis Solani, two sections, Pachystemonwn and
Leptostemonum , which he further divides quite extensively.
One of these ultimate divisions, Polygama, of the subsection
Euleptostemonum of his second section Leptostemonunn, he
devotes to those species with " floribus polygamis, calycibus
florum femineorum post anthesin auctis," and includes in it
his numbers 477-479. Of Mogenoplum of the third subsec-
tion, Asterotrichotmn, of Leptostemonum, he says: " Floribus
pluribus abortivis. In flore fertile, stylus antheris longior;
in floribus sterilibus, stylus filamentorum longitudine," and
of Melongena of the same subsection he says : ' ' Pedun-
culis * * » interdum solitariis unifloris, saepius inferne
bifidis; pedicello infero, e caule nascente, florem unicum fer-
tilem gerente, post anthesin cernuo; pedunculi altera parte
multiflora, flores steriles gerente. In flore fertile, calyx post
anthesin crescens, aculeatus in speciebus aculeatis; stylus an-
theris longior. In flore sterile, calyx inermis, aut vix acu-
leatus in spec, aculeatis; stylus longitudine filamentorum."
In Dunal's arrangement Mogenoplum includes numbers 773-
802, while the following section, Melongena, includes 803-851.
Thus from his synopsis of species, 82 of his 898 species would
be characterized as polygamous.

Sendtner in Flora Brasiliensis, uses a somewhat diiferent
method of division, employing three main sections, and
nowhere giving any division to those with polygamous
inflorescence. Wettstein in Die JSTaturlichen Pjianzenfamil-
ien recognizes five sections. Dunal has been criticised by
systematists for his treatment of the genus, and it certainly
seems not improbable that the arrangement may ultimately
be different from any so far proposed.

Darwin publishes * a letter from Fritz Mueller to himself in
which some South American species of Solanum with long-

* Nature 17 : 78-79. 1877-1878.

188 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

and short-styled flowers are mentioned and characterizes the
short-styled forms as male in function since as they are vis-
ited exclusively by pollen-collecting bees there is no way in
which pollen can be transferred to the stigma. In comment-
ing on the letter Darwin correctly interprets them as cases of
polygamy through abortion rather than truly heterostyled
forms .

Early in the summer of 1902, I noticed that there occurred
in many of the flowers of S. Carolinense L. a strong reduc-
tion in the size of the pistil, and concluded that some idea of
the frequency of the occurrence might be of interest from a
biological, and possibly from a taxonomic, standpoint.

While all the literature of S. Carolinense has not been
examined the most important has been consulted. The only
reference to the sterile flowers seems to be that of Sendtner,
who says of this species: "Flores vidi nonnisi steriles absque
pistillo." The pistil shows considerable range in form, being
sometimes exserted for perhaps as much as two-thirds the
length of the anthers, while again the capitate green
stigma extends onl}^ to the end of the anthers, or a less dis-
tance. Dunal, in the Prodromus, says: "Stylus * « *
rectus et staminibus longior vel apice recurvatus et stamin-
ibus brevior," which appears to be due to lack of material,
for in a very large per cent, of the iexserted styles examined
there is a more or less strong curvature, while in those of the
length of the stamens or less, it is either straight or curved.
In the sterile form the pistil is simply reduced in size, having
about the same length as the filaments. Sometimes the
stigma* has assumed the characteristic green coloration, and
sometimes not. The form of the pistil in the mature sterile
flower corresponds to that of the pistil in the young bud of
the perfect flower. The development of the stamens is at
first more rapid than that of the pistil.

While I have not now before me such a series of material,
I feel confident that in the material examined there was a
complete series of mature flowers extending from the longest-
styled forms to those in which the pistil is most reduced.
At the same time, transition stages are rare, the reduction,
where it occurs, being usually very pronounced.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 189

As to the relative number of perfect and sterile flowers
occurring at one time, the following list shows the condition
of flowers selected at random on the grounds of the Missouri
Botanical Garden and on vacant lots within a radius of two
or three miles of the Garden : —

Date.

Perfect.

Staminate

July 20

66

16

July 28

98

22

July 29

10

0

July 31

409

61

August 2

145

43

August 3

70

29

August 5

65

14

July 20-August5, 1902, 863 185

This gives 82.2 per cent, of perfect flowers and 17.6 per
cent, of those with undeveloped pistils. At Lawrence,
Kansas, in July, up to the 7th, of 205 flowers examined, 166
were perfect and 39 sterile. In 182 flowers examined at
Thayer, Kansas, August 5, 177 were perfect and 5 sterile.
While few tabulated countings were made, practically the
same conditions were found in material examined during the
summer of 1903.

The lower flowers of a cluster are almost always perfect,
while those near the end are much more likely to be simply
staminate. The reduction in the pistil may occur in any or
all of the flowers of the inflorescence. To gain some idea of
the relative position of the sterile flowers, 100 clusters were
selected as nearly at random as possible, the only limitation,
and that a rather large one, being the necessity of selecting
such material as had lost none of its individual flowers and
was yet of such maturity that the sexual condition of the
terminal buds might be determined with certainty. The
flowers were numbered from the base to the tip of the main
axis, which produced, in the material examined, from two to
fifteen flowers, with an average of eight. The inflorescence

190

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

of S. Carolinense is quite variable, and, while for the list of
1048 the flowers were selected perfectly at random, for the
following table the material was necessarily confined to the
simple racemose type of inflorescence.

The results have been expressed in the accompanying fre-
quency curve in which the fifteen vertical lines represent the
relative position of the flowers on the central axis, while the
percentage of perfect flowers present in that number is shown on
these lines by the percentage curve. Beginning with 98 per
cent, of the flowers perfect in the first two flowers in the one

, -

I .

Pistil reduction ix Solanum Carolinense.

hundred clusters examined, it runs down to zero in the
fifteenth, both of the terminal flowers in the two cases in
which fifteen were produced being sterile. In the fourteenth
place, there are present three staminate and one perfect
flower, 25 per cent., and in the thirteenth, three staminate and
three perfect, 50 per cent. Cases are frequent enough in
which all of the flowers are perfect, even where as many as
fifteen are produced, so that the table does not necessarily
represent the average condition. It does, however, show the
condition of one hundred individuals, selected as nearly as

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 191

possible without personal bias, and represents something near
the average condition.

The proportion of the two types is by no means the same
for different localities, in some spots the perfect flowers being
present in the average proportion, or even almost exclusively,
while at a short distance will be found an unusually high per-
centage of sterile flowers. On four plants growing quite near
together were noted August second : —

1 staminate.

Plant I 1 perfect

Plant II 2 perfect 2 staminate.

Plant III 4 perfect 4 staminate.

Plant IV 4 perfect 23 staminate.

Other groups of plants were noticed which would have given
similar results as well as those which would have siven almost
exclusively perfect flowers. The same condition was ob-
served during the summer of 1903 in an even more striking
degree. Whether the fact that these plants grew close
together has any significance or not was not determined. The
nature of the subterranean system of S. Garolinense will be
borne in mind in this connection.

In most of the descriptions of S. sisymhri folium Lam.
the reduction of the pistil is not mentioned, the only ref-
erence noticed being that in the Botanical Magazine, where,
in the description of Plate 2568, there is the parenthetical
remark: " Baron Jacquin remarks that in the sterile flowers
the calyx is hairy, and in the perfect flowers, prickly."
Dunal does not refer to it in his monograph.

In the Missouri Botanical Garden I have been able to watch
a considerable number of thrifty plants of this species dur-
ing two years. The pistils of the more terminal flowers are
reduced in a manner very similar to that of *S'. Carolinense
but more frequently, a plotted curve showing a much more
rapid fall than in the species particularly studied, there being
on some of the racemes only three or four of the lower flowers
perfect.

These instances suggest that an examination of living
material may show many more species of the genus to be

192 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

polygamous. The large percentage of sterile flowers, caused
by cessation of development of the pistil, might indicate that
the failure of the pistil of the more terminal flowers to
develop is due to defective nutrition. It seems highly prob-
able that the condition is not a pollination adaptation, that is
one evolved primarily to secure a division of labor in the
flowers. The flowers of both species are rather conspicuous,
those of S. sisymhri folium especially so, without nectar, as
is characteristic of the genus, and without odor in 8. Caro-
linense but with a very pronounced odor closely resembling
that of 8. rostratum in 8. sisymhrifolium . The only pub-
lished observations on the pollination of >S'. Cai^oUnense of
which I am aware are those of Robertson* who describes the
flowers as adapted to Humble Bee females which visit them
for pollen. He saw B. Americanorum F. collecting pollen.
The flowers of this species are very rarely visited by insects.
During the three summers I have been particularly interested
in Solanum pollination I have only once seen Bombus col-
lecting pollen but much of the time my opportunities for
field work were not the best. My sister informs me that at
Lawrence, Kansas, during the summer of 1903 the flowers
were not much visited but that especially in the early morning
one could usually find at least one Humble Bee working on the
flowers." The very noticeable perfume of 8. sisymhrifolium
suggests more frequent insect visits. During the summer of
1902 when only one bed of this species was grown at the
Garden no insect visits were observed, though fruit was borne
freely, but in 1903 when the collection was much more ex-
tensive large bees were observed collecting pollen with the
greatest frequency. In his paper on Brazilian Solitary Bees
Schrottky givesf 8. Balbisii Dun (^ = 8. sisymbinfolium) ,
as one of the principal flowers visited by Xylocopa.

It is certainly of interest to note that in at least one
species of the genus, 8. Amazoniuni, the pistil is not the
only organ markedly affected. The species was first described

* Robertson, C. Flowers and Insects. This journal 5 : 582. 1892.
t Schrottky, C. Eiisaio sobre as Abelhas Solitarlas do Brazil. (Revista do
Museu Paulista. 5:458). 1902.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 193

and figured in The Botanical Register,* the parts of the de-
scription concerning us in the present connection being:
" Flos priraarius cujusque racemi solus hermaphroditus, cae-
teri masculi. Cal. * * * jq hermaph. cum pedicello
echinatus, (fructu simul excrescens?) : in mare inermis atque
cadens cum corolla. * * * Anth. flavae, subsessiles
contiguae, declinatae; in ma-
ribus inaequalissimae, 3 imis
maximis corniformibus arcu-
atis parallelis corolla paulo
brevioribus: in hermaph. pa-
rum inaequales, * * *.
Flos masculus nondum ex-
pansus refert papilionaceum
non apertum." " The corolla
of both flowers is irregular,
but that of the barren one
more conspicuously so, the
angles or segments being sep-
arated by a much deeper
sinus than in the fertile one."

In Curtis' s Botanical Magazine f the species is described
as JSFycterium Amazonium. " The upper flowers in the
corymb are generally male, and, consequently, sterile, the
lowermost hermaphrodite and fertile ; of the latter, only the
calyx is covered with straight, sharp prickles, that of the
male is altogether unarmed. * * * Anthers unequal,
declined : in the male flowers generally three long and two
short, in the hermaphrodite two long and three short, or
frequently all nearly equal. * * * Jq the male flowers,
style and stigma defective."

LoddigesI mentions the thorny calyx of the "fruitful
flowers, which are usually the lowest." Nees ab Esenbeck,§
does not mention the polygamous inflorescence of this species.

Floral details of Solanum Ama-
zonium. — Edwards.

* Edwards. The Botanical Register. 1. PI. 71. 1815.

t 42. PI. 1801. 1815.

X Loddiges and Sons. Thie Botanical Cabinet. 4. no. 352. London. 1819.

§ Nees ab Esenbeck. Horae Pliysicae Berolinenses. 1820. p. 51. pi. 9.

194 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

The description by Duual in the I^rodromus is similar to
that in the Botanical Register. Rose * says : "In the sterile
flowers the calyx is naked and the lower anthers much longer
(6 lines long); in the fertile and lower flowers the calyx is
armed with prickles and the anthers nearly even or often
longer."

The only reference to the pollination of this plant known
to the writer is that of Delpino f who places in it his Seventh
Class under " Tipo Melastomaceo." " Solanum Amazoni-
cumX antere biporose all'apice. Stami superiori sterili, ab-
breviati e metamorfizzati in fulcri."

In 8. Amazonium^ then, the structure of the calyx, corolla
and stamens has undergone a strong modification in the two
types of flowers. From what we know of the pollination of
S. rostratxim and of certain species in other families there
can be no reasonable doubt that S. Amazonium is pollinated
by insects. In this case, then, it ma}^ be that certain of the
secondary modifications in the polygamous flowers of this
species are real modifications for the securing of pollination,
but for a clear understanding of the structures direct ecolog-
ical observations are desirable.

In the section Melongena there are found, according to
Dunal and Heckel, modifications in the inflorescence, in the
calyx and even in the stamens of the staminate and pistillate
flowers. In S. sisymbrifoliuvn a difference in the armature
of the calyx of the hermaphrodite and staminate flowers has
been recorded but it is not nearly so conspicuous in living
material as in 8. i}yracanthum where the difference is very
marked. In man}^ other armed species the same difference
will doubtless be found.

According to Heckel there exists in the flowers of some
species of the section Melongena a real unisexual condition so
that the plants are monoecious. In his key Dunal divides
his section Polygamia into monoecious and dioecious forms.

* Rose, J. N. List of Plants Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Western
Mexico and Arizona in 1890. (Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1 : 91-127. 18910

t Delpino, Federico. Ulteriori Osservazioai. Parte II. fasc. II. Milano.
1875. Estratto dagle Atti. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat. in Milano, 1873-1874,

X Evidently a typographical error, the name being S. Amazonium.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 195

The occurrence of some plants of S. Oarolinense with an
unusually high percentage of staminate flowers has already
been pointed out. On several plants of 8. robusium grown
at the Garden only staminate flowers were produced. No in-
sect visits were noticed but while not very large or highly
colored the flowers were visible for some distance and the
rosfratutn-like odor was quite strong.

In S. Carolinense synanthy was observed quite frequently
and in almost all stages. Four- and six-merous flowers were
abundant. Synanthy has been recorded as common for
some other species of the genus and 4- and 6-merous flow-
ers seem to occur normally in some species. In one case a
partially petaloid stamen, also a not uncommon occurrence in
the genus, was seen.

In S. sisymhrifolium one corolla divided to the base and
having on the free edges anther-like structures, more perfect
in one case but pollen-bearing in both, was found. According
to Penzig staminody of the petals has been quite frequently
noted in S. tuberosum.

In the genus 8olanuin the section Nycterium as defined by
Wettstein in Engler and Prantl's Naturliclie Pflanzenf ami-
lien contains fourteen species showing a markedly zygomor-
phic structure. The stamens are the organs primarily
affected, either the lower or the three lower showing a much
larger and longer anther which is usually strongly curved
upward at the tip. The corolla is in some species regular
and in some irregular, the two lower lobes being somewhat
produced so as to envelop in the bud the longer, lower, stamen
or stamens and pistil.

The occurrence of a dimorphism in the stamens of Solanum
as a teratological phenomenon is not unknown. Todd* says :
" The obliquity of the stamens, or their vertical asymmetry
as it might be called, appears in S. tuberosum sometimes.
I have observed it in the ' peach-blow ' variety ; I have
observed it more frequently in S. Carolinense.^^

Penzig t says for 8. coimutum Lam.: " Moquin-Tandon

* Todd, J. E. Ou the Flowers of Solanum rostratum aud Cassia chamae-
crista. (Amer. Nat. 16 : 281-87. 1882.;

t Penzig, O. Pflaijzen Teratologic 2 : 171.

196 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

giebt an ein Stamen weit liinger als die iibrio-en sjesehen zu
haben (iihnliche Liingendifferenz ist in andern Arten
normal)." I have examined Moquin-Tandon's* statement
and find that it is : " J'ai decouvert, pres de Toulouse, un in-
dividu de Solanum Dulcamara, dans lequel toutes les fleurs
superieurs offraient tantot deux, tantot trois etamines beau-
coup plus longues et plus grosses que les autres." In a foot-
note he then gives 8. tridynarnum (Poir) and 8. Amazonium
(Bellend) as producing three elongated stamens and 8. ves-
pertilio (H.Kew) and >iS'. cornuium (Juss.) as those in which
" uneetamine seulement acquiert une taille double du volume
habituel."

The citing as an abnormality of the production of one
stamen longer than the others in 8. cornutum Lam. is
evidently an error due to an oversight on the part of Dr.
Penzig. The " 8. cornutum (Juss.) " to which Moquin-
Tandon refers is apparently the 8. cornutum described by
Juss.jf which is 8. cornutum Lam. 8. cornuticm Lam. is
clearly one of the species with produced stamens, according
to the description given by Dunal in his monograph, and
the original description of Lamarck. J 8. corniLtum (Hort.
Monsp.) according to Dunal § equals 8. rosfratum Dun. Under
8. Dulcamara L. Penzig says: " Im Androeceum beobachtet
man bisweilen, dass zwei oder drei Stamina liinger sind als die
iibrigen," but does not refer to the literature, so that the
observation may be one of his own.

In one flower of several

taken from a plant of 8. ni-
— gru7n near St. Louis, Mo.,

one of the stamens was notice-

SoLA^uM TUBEROSUM. -Todd, ^bly longcr than the others,

the increased length being
partly in the filament and partly in the anther.

* Moquiu-Tandou, A. Elements de Teratologic Vegetale. Paris. 1841,
p. 138.

t Juss. in Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. 3:120. t. 9, as cited by Pursh, Flora
Americae Septentrionalis. Second Ed., London, 1816, and Danal in De
Candolle, Prodromus Regni Vegetabili. 13^. 1852,

X Lamarck, Tableau Encyclop^d. Methodique. Botanique. 2 : 25.

§ Dunal. 1. c.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 197

The figure given by Todd of the abnormal S. tuberosum
shows a marked difference in the anthers. He does not
figure the occurrence he describes in S. Carolinense, and I
have never been so fortunate as to discover such an example
in many hundreds of flowers examined. Of all these, the
anthers have been so nearly equal that the difference, if
present, was not readily detected with the naked eye. In a
large percentage of the flowers, however, the lower stamens
do project a little beyond the upper, owing to the oblique
rather than vertical position of the whole androecium. In S.
sis^/mbo-ifolhtm, where the filaments and anthers are longer, the
stamens are a little more declined from the exact longitudinal
axis of the flower. The same is true of jS. tuberosum and has
already been recorded by Mueller, who says in The Fertilisa-
tion of Flowers: " All the stamens bend very slightly down-
ward, and the lower anthers project somewhat in advance
of the others." It seems not improbable that the normal
projection of the lower stamens in S. Carolinense was mis-
taken by Todd for a real structural difference.

In this place some of the taxouomic literature on 8. hetero-
doxum Dunal is of interest. This species was first described
by Dunal* who placed it with S. cotmiitum Lam. and S. ros-
tratum Dun. in a section devoted to species with unequal
anthers, giving as the description of the anthers for this
species: "Stamina 5, antherae 4 luteae, interdum nunc inde
nigrescens subrectae, 5 decumbens, productissima, apice cor-
niculata, saepius nigricans, stylus rectus. Stigma bilobum."
In his monograph he regards it as one of his species, but in
his Histoire des iSolanum he cites " S. Tieterodoxum DeCand.
Hort. Monsp. Mss. Tabula picta " and gives as habitat " in
Horto Monspeliense cultum " where he saw living material.
His figures on PI. 25 represent the flowers as small, scarcely
half an inch in diameter, hardly zygomorphic, the stamens
not very unequal. In \\\'s, Syno'psis\ Dunal says: " Corollis
subregularibus, antheris parvis declinatis, infima longiori

♦ Dunal. Histoire des Solanum. 1813.

t Dunal, M. F. Solanorum Generumque afflnium Synopsis. Montpellier.
1816. p. 46.

198 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

apice curvata subfusca," and gives as habitat " In Mexico.
Humb. et Bonpl. (v. v. h. M.) Cor. coerulea." Kunth *
cites Dunal in the Synopsis. In his description the lobes of
the corolla are given as equal, anthers as " unequal ( ?),''
and stigma subcapitate. S. citridU folium A. Br. (^=8. Jiet-
erodoxum Dun.) is described f as follows: "Corolla ampla
(Solcmi tuhero.n corollam aequante), irregulari, coeruleo-
violacea; autheris declinatis, intima reliquis duplo longiore
productissima curvata. — Semina Texana Lindheimeriana sub
nomine Nycterii violacei communicavit Engelmann. ' ' Eegel %
describes 8. ciiridlifolium . Both his descriptions and the
figures, pi. 112 (?), represent the lower, fifth, stamen as
about twice the length of the others. In his monograph in
De Candolle's ProdromusT)\XTiQ\ does not cite S. citrullifoliu^n,
but in the Addenda et Corrigenda at the end of the work
Alphonse De Candolle gives the description of this species
and regards it as an insufficiently known species belonging
with their species 759-766. § S. lieterodoxum is described
in detail: "Antherae * * * 4 subaequales, 2 lin. longae
* * * quinta valide declinata, paulo longior, 2-2^ lin.
longa, superne arcuata," the citation of material being : "v. v.
et s. in h. DC, H.B. et Kth., Requien, Boiss." Torrey ||
catalogues 8. citrullifoUum K. Braunfrom Plains near Puerto
dePaysano and near theLimpio: July-September. " Flowers
large, violet, an inch in diameter. The last three species If
belong to a remarkable group (Cryptocarpum, Dunal) which
Nuttal regarded as a proper genus ( Androcera) . ' ' As the next
species he gives " 8olan'um lieterodoxum Dunal, 1. c, [in
Prod.] p. 331? On the Rio Grande, below Presidio del

* Kunth, C. S. Nov. Gen. et Sp. PI. 3 : 46. 1818.

t Ann. Sci. Nat. III. 12: 356. 1849.

X Kegel, Solanum citrullifoliiim R. Br. Kegel's Gartecflora. 4: 78-9. 1855.

§ These species are S. tribidosum Schau., S. cormitum Lam., S. rostratum
Dun., S. Fontanesianum Dud., S. chrijsacanthum Dun., S.propinquum Mart.,
S. Bejarense Dun. and S. lieterodoxum Dun.

II Torrey, John. Botany of the Boundary, p. 152. 1859.

t He evidently means this, the preceding, and the follovping species^
rather than this and the tv?o preceding or the last three species of the list,
since the latter arrangements which are the literal interpretation of his
statement, would include S. elaeagnifolium Cav. or iS". verbascifolium.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abnormalities. 199

Norte; August; Parry. Corallitos, Chihuahua; Thurber.
Differs from the hist in the excessively hispid stem and
branches, and in the much smaller flowers." In Gray's Sy-
noptical Flora the reference to Histoire des Solarium as the
place of first publication of this species is followed by the
parenthetical expression: "Small-flowered form cult, at
Montpelier."

I have seen none of the original material upon which
S. heterodoxum Dun. is based, but have seen in the Ensfel-
mann Herbarium at the Missouri Botanical Garden, a good
series of S. citrulU folium A. Braun (some collected by Lind-
heimer and one sheet with Braun's name). In all of this
material the structure of the flower is very similar to S. ros-
tratum Dun. The difference in the anther of the lower
stamen and the upper four is very pronounced and the stigma
is not at all capitate, while in the living material which I have
seen the differences in the size of large and small stamens is
even more pronounced than in S. rostratiwi. The species is
interesting in this connection since there is a strong indication
of two forms of androecium in S. heterodoxum Dun., the one
in which the difference in the anthers is very pronounced and
the other in which there is very little difference. Of course
there is a possibility that S. heterodoxum Dun. represents
two distinct species, in which case S. heterodoxum will be
retained for the small-flowered form with nearly equal anthers
and capitate or subcapitate stigma, while S. citrullifolium
A. Br. will be applied to the forms with the large strongly
zygomorphic flowers.

The appearance of a dimorphism in the stamens of a
normally regular androecium has been noted in more than
one case, but this is the only instance which has so far come
to my notice in which a reduction to an almost regular form
of a pronounced Nycterium type like S. heterodoxum Dun.
might be suspected.

The division of this vast genus of about 900 species is very
unsatisfactory. Wettstein \n Die Naturlichen Pflan?:enf ami-
lien has more than any other writer used the characters
offered by the stamens. The characters of his sections so
far as they concern us in this place are as follows : —

200 Trails. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

I. Pachystemonum. All stamens equal in length or nearly
equal. About 400 species.

II. Lycianthes. Filaments of unequal length, one exceed-
ing the other. About 80 species.

III. Leptostemonum. Filaments of equal length. About
400 species.

IV. Lycopersicum. All stamens equal. About 10
species.

V. Nycterium. Flowers zygomorphic, either with unequal
stamens only or with zygomorphic corolla in which the two
lower lobes are produced and envelop the large stamen, or
stamens, and pistil in the bud.

According to this arrangement about 94 species would be
expected to show a dimorphism in the stamens. He fails to
note the frequent difference in size of anther as well as length
of filament. So far as I know he has published no list of
species which he would refer to his several sections and some
parts of his arrangement are not clear to me. So far as I
have been able to learn from examination of descriptions of
the species of the genus 69 species show more or less pro-
nounced structural differences in the stamens, the list furnish-
ing a very interesting study in incipient zygomorphy,

Zygomorphy as a teratological phenomenon in three species
and its possible occurrence in a fourth, S. CaroUnense, is
certainly suggestive. Occurring in the forms in which it
does and in a generally actinomorphic genus precludes the
suggestion of atavistic reversion in these cases. The heredi-
tary nature of many malformations, or mutations, is well
known. The advantage of the projection of the lower be-
yond the upper stamens might be an immediate one in that
the adaptation to visiting insects would become more perfect
and so the aid of natural selection in the fixation of the new
form would become immediately effective. Direct ecological
work has been done in only one of the strongly zygomorphic
forms in this genus* but this is sufficient to show the great
difference in favor of the zygomorphic as compared with the

* Todd. Amer. Nat. 16:281-287. 1882. Harris and Kuchs, Kans. Uaiv.
Sci. Bull. 1 : 15-41. 1 pi. 1902.

Harris — Polygamy and Certain Floral Abiiormalities. 201

actinomorphic flower in securing insect visits and it seems
quite probable that flowers receiving occasional insect visits,
as many species of Solanum evidently do, might have the
frequency of these visits immediately increased upon the
assumption of a zygomorphic habit.

In S. rostratum the form of the flower is very constant.
In the large series of material which has passed through my
hands I have never observed synanthy or any variation
worthy of mention in the number, form, or arrangement of
the stamens. It is interesting to note, however, that in
8. Amazonium besides the floral variation noted in the de-
scriptions of the species Penzig * says : ' ' Ich f and hiiufig die
Corolla durch seitliche Verschmelzung der Lappen vier- oder
gar nur drei lappig. Hexamere Bliithen sind auch nicht

Androecium of Cassia occidentalis.

selten : in denselben sind dann gewohnlich zwei lange und vier
kurze Stamina vorhanden."

In several species of Cassia we have a zygomorphic condi-
tion in many respects very similar to that of Solanum. In
C. Marylandica and O. occidentalis the androecium is com-
posed of two large anthers on long filaments, four central
smaller ones and three staminodia above and one more or
less reduced stamen below the pistil between the two large
stamens.

In C. occidentalis I have observed the transformation of
one of the four smaller stamens into one of the large type.
The sterile staminodia sometimes produce well-formed anthers

* Penzig, O. Pflanzen Teratologie. 2 : 170.

202

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

in this species. In C. Marylandica one of the large stamens
was partially petaloid.

It is of interest to note that in the genus Monochoria of
the Pontederiaceae in which the general form of the flower
resembles somewhat some of the species of Solanum, the
Australian species M. cyanea Miill. has the stamens equal
and the lower one not produced as in the other two species of
the genus, but according to Bentham (Fl. Austral. 7:72)
one anther is often larger or smaller than the others. In
the other two sj^ecies the lower stamen is the larger, with

Monochoria hastata.

Roxburgh.

a longer stouter filament provided with a lateral spur. As a
possible origin for the lateral spur attention may be called
to the description and figures given by Roxburgh * in which he
states that in M. vaginalis the lower filament is usually broad
and two-cleft, the inferior division bearing the anthers, the
other nothing, and in M. hastata the anther of the lower
stamen is much larger or double while the filament is two
cleft or double.

Issued December 12, 1903.

* Roxburgh, Coromandel. Plants. 2. pi. 110, 111.

THE GERMINATION OF PACHIRA, WITH A NOTE
ON THE NAMES OF TWO SPECIES.*

J. Arthur Harris.

Systematically, the species of the genus Pachira Aubl. , often
passing under the generic name Carolinea Linn., have pre-
sented great difficulty. Bentham and Hooker, in the Genera
Plantarum^ place the genus in the tribe or sub-order Bom-
baceae with Adansonia, Bombax, etc., while Engler and
Prantl, in Die Naiurliclien Pjianzenfamilien, include Pachira
Aubl., Carolinea Linn., Eriotheca and Salmalia Schott and
Endl. , in the genus Bombax of the Bombaceae. In considering
the species of the genus the difficulty is quite great, owing to
the inadequate condition of herbarium material, and consider-
able confusion has reigned.

In the Missouri Botanical Garden are growing some speci-
mens of Pachira, which Dr. Trelease f has described and
figured, giving a key for six more commonly cultivated
species, but assigning no name to the Garden specimens on
account of the impossibility of affirming or denying identity
with Carolinea affinis as described in volume one of Martius'
Flora Brasiliensis or Don in the first volume in his History
of Dichlamydeous Plants. In 1898, Terracciano % published
an extensive paper on extra-floral nectaries in the Bombaceae,
and in a footnote under P. campestris refers the specimens
described and figured by Dr. Trelease to this species.

Early in February, 1903, my attention was attracted by
eight remarkable seedlings in the propagating house and I

* Presented to The Academy of Science of St. Louis, November 2, 1903.

t Trelease, Wm. Notes and Observations. I. Pachira sp. Ann. Rep. Mo.
Bot. Gard. 5:154-157. pi. 27. 1894.

X Terracciano, A. I nettarii estranuziali nelle " Bombacee." R. Istituto
Botanico di Palermo. Contribuzioni alia Biologia vegetale. 2: 138-191. pis.
15-18. 1898.

(203)

204 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

learned that they were grown from seed which had been
taken a few days before from the Pachira trees above men-
tioned. While my series of material is not so extensive as I
might wish, the observations seem to be worthy of presen-
tation.

From the gardeners I learned that the seed was planted as
soon as it had fallen from the tree, and germinated almost
immediately, the young plants appearing in three or four days
and making a vigorous growth. When I noticed them the
hypocotyl had attained a length of about five to eight cm.
and the plumule was just beginning to develop.

The fruit of P. campeslris is an ovoid capsule attaining or
somewhat surpassing the length of three inches, with a
diameter of two inches or more. When ripe, it splits into
five valves, each with a central septum. An axile five-winged
columella bears as many rows of about five seeds each. The
seeds vary considerably in size and shape owing to their
compression in the capsule. Roughly speaking, they are
spheroidal in form, somewhat flattened at the point of attach-
ment, and often much more so laterally where the neighboring
seeds come in contact. They have a brown ground color
while the very irregular, somewhat anastomosing, white bands
radiating from the hilum around the seed give it a very
characteristic appearance. The crustaceous covering is thin
but hard and moderately firm. The bulk of the seed is made
up of one large, much convoluted, fleshy cotyledon, enclosing
in its folds the rather large, thick radicle, the smaller cotyle-
don and the scanty, mucilaginous albumen. The larger
cotyledon is more or less reniform or cordate in outline, and
in the material I have examined is brought into the compass
of the seed by a folding in of the distal end and of the lateral
lobes which surround this and the radicle and small cotyledon
which has its ventral (inner) surface applied to the inner
surface of the larger cotyledon. The interstices are filled
with the scanty mucilaginous albumen. The plumule is
hardly developed, but the radicle is quite large.

Decaisne* describes the seed of Pachira as follows: " Se-

* Decaisne, J. Examen des especes des genres Bombax et Pachira. Fl.
des Serres. 23 : 43-52. 1880.

Harris — The Germination of Pachira. 205

mina magna, globosa v. mutua compressione angulata; testa
retiiulato-venosa. Albumen ov. sublaminarum mufcosarum
plicis embryonis interpositarum forma ; cotyledones inaequales,
exterior triplicata interiorem minorem involvens." On the
seeds of how many species this generic character is founded
is not stated, though he examined several species in the living
state. In support of the character, he refers to Tussac,*
Martiusf and Lynch 4 I have not been able to consult the
fourth volume of Flore des Antilles, but Decaisne and Index
Kewensis retain the species P. grandijiora Tuss., as a good
one. The form figured by Martins is C.pi'inceps, a synonym
of J-*, aquatica, the same species treated by Lynch. The
Pachira a Jleurs blanches, the seeds of which were figured by
Doumet,§ has been described as P. oleagina by Decaisne.
These with the P. campestris here described make four of
the thirty-one species recognized by Index Kewensis which
have unequal cotyledons, and perhaps Decaisne has examined
other species the names of which are not given.

The early stages of development of the seedling I have
not been able to study, since germination was quite well
advanced when I first observed my material and old seeds
from the herbarium did not germinate. When first noticed,
the stout green hypocotyl was from five to eight cm. in
length in the various examples, and the large green convo-
luted cotyledons well expanded, but the plumule had hardly
begun its development. The small cotyledon is not exactly
opposite the larger but is attached somewhat above it. Five
of the seedlings at this stage of development (PI. IX, 5,
6, 7. PL X, 9, PI. XI, 10) as well as another, the figure of
which was made somewhat later (PI. IX, 4), are figured, and
from these figures it will be seen that there is a very good
series of forms extending from the one in fig. 4 where the
cotyledons are almost equal in size, through those repre-
sented in figs. 10, y, 5, 6 to fig. 7 where the small cotyledon

* Tussac, F. U. Fl. des Antilles. 4. pi. 4.

t Martius. Nov. Gen. Sp. PI. 1. pi. 56.

X Lynch, R. I. On the seed-structure and germination of Pachira
aquatica. Jour. Linn. Soc. 17 : 147-148. pL 8. 1880.

§ Doumet, N. Le Pachira (Carolinea) a Fleurs Blanche.'*. Rev. Hoiticole.
\%Q&'.2Qi-2n. fig. 24-83. pi. 1. 1866.

206 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

is absent. A detailed description of the seedlings is unneces-
sary, since the figures are self-explanatory. The plumule
develops very rapidly when it once begins and after the first
lanceolate leaf the leaves are usually five foliolate and very
similar in form to those of the mature individuals. The coty-
ledons are persistent for about three months, a surprising
point of observation on the material available for this study
being that in 8ome cases the smaller cotyledon remained on the
plant the longer. The dilatation of the base of the main axis,
so prominent in the older individuals, soon exhibits itself in the
seedlings, the hypocotyl at the end of five months being quite
strongly developed, the expansion, however, being quite uni-
form throughout the greater part of the length to near the
prominent, brown, cotyledona,ry scars, where the brownish,
striated hypocotyl is rapidl}^ attenuated into the smooth,
green, epicotyledonary internodes.

So far as I am able to ascertain, the germination of Pachira
has been mentioned in the literature four times. Doumet*
describes and figures fruit, seed and abnormal seedlings of a
Pachira of the specific name of which he was uncertain.
Lynch t describes and figures the seed and seedlings of P. aquat-
ica and figures an abnormal seedling of Pachira sp. Harz, f
in the second volume of his Landioirthscho.ftliche Samen-
Trnnde (1885) mentions P. aquatica as one of many forms of
Dicotyledonous plants with one or both cotyledons rudimen-
tary. Lubbock II states with a reference to Lynch 's paper,
that in P. aquatica the cotyledons are subterranean, but this
is evidently an oversight on his part, since neither the text
nor the plate of Lynch's paper justifies such a statement.

In working over the material for this paper, my attention
was called to a point in the nomenclature of the forms which
is deserving of attention. Garolinea campestris was briefly
described b}^ Martins (Nov. Gen. et Sp. PI. 1 : 86) and from
this very short description the other descriptions (Don.

* Doumet. loc. cit.
t Lynch, loc. cit.

+ According to ttie review in Just's Jaliresbericht.

y Lubbock, Sir John. A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings.
1:246. 1892.

Harris — The Germination of Pachira. 207

Hist. Dich. PL 1:570. — Decaisne. Fl. des Serres. 23:52)
are 3viclently taken, Decaisne placing it among the inade-
quatelj^-known species of Pachira. Terracciano bases his
identification of P. campesti^is upon an examination of the
specimens collected and described by Martins, and it is upon
his authority (E. 1st. Bot. Pal. Cont. Biol. Veg. 2 : 168) that
my material is referred to this species.

In his examination of the species of Pachira and Bombax,
Decaisne describes as new P. oleagina from material cul-
tivated in the Hamma Botanical Gardens of Algeria and
refers to this species the Pachira a Jieurs blancltes of Doumet
(Kev. Hort. 1866: 208. Not P. alba, Lodd. or Hook.) .

In the vegetative characteristics, — the straight stem strongly
swollen at the base and provided with several spreading
branches at the top, rather smooth and green throughout the
most of its length and becoming grayish only near the base,
the form and division of the leaflets, — the Missouri Botanical
Garden material agrees well with Doumet's description, as it
also does for the most part in the time of putting forth new
leaves. In both, the flowers open at night and persist for but
a very short time. I have not been so fortunate as to see
fresh flowers, but those who have seen such tell me that the
resemblance to Doumet's colored plate is very close and so
far as I can determine from descriptions and the herbarium
material available, agreement is quite good though in the
androecium there seems to be considerable difference, Doumet
stating that the stamens in Pachira a Jieurs blanches are
united at the base into five bundles, while Trelease (loc. cit.)
places his material with those in which the stamen tube is
divided into ten clusters. There seem to be other minor dif-
ferences, but in the main the resemblance is very close. Fruit
and seed in the Garden herbarium agree perfectly with the
excellent text figures in M. Doumet's paper, so that I have
little doubt of the identity of P. campestris (Mart.) Decsne.
and P. oleagina Decsne. In this case P. campestris has
priority.

Polyembryony seems to be common in P. campestris.
Doumet gives excellent figures of more than one plantlet

208 Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

produced from a single seed and while the eight seedlings
which first attracted my attention were normal, dissection of
nine seeds from a single fruit collected in 1893( ?) shows more
than one embryo in three cases, while the others were with but
one. Lynch in his paper figures the seedling of a Pachira
sp. (PL VIII, fig. 7) showing the adherence of two others of
arrested growth, resulting from the production of several
embryos in one seed. Unfortunately the size of this seedling
is not indicated on the plate, but in general appearance it
agrees quite well with young stages of P. campestris and it
perhaps belongs to this species.

Some very striking differences are noticed between the ger-
mination of P. catnjjestris and P. aquatica. In both there is one
large and one small cotyledon, the smaller being in both a little
above the other. In P. aquatica, according to Lynch, the
small cotyledon soon falls away while the larger persists for a
long time, but in two or three cases in P. cavnpestris the smaller
cotyledon persisted the longer. The most striking point of
difference is in the relative development of hypocotyl and
epicotyl in the two forms. In P. aquatica, according to
the plate given by Lynch, the hypocotyl is developed hardly
at all, the cotyledons remaining almost if not quite on the
ground and but a short distance above the lateral rootlets,
while the epicotyl undergoes a very extensive development
extendinsf for a considerable distance before foliage leaves are
borne, while these are separated by fairly long internodes,
the whole presenting a very slender, graceful appearance. In
P. cainpestris the case is quite different. The cotyledons are
at once carried up for some distance on a strongly developed
hypocotyl, and it is some time before the plumule undergoes
much development. When it does, it does not reach a length
comparable with that figured for P. aquatica, while the large
foliage leaves are separated by but comparatively short inter-
nodes, the whole plant giving the impression of a much
stouter, more broadly spreading form than P. aquatica.
What may be the significance of these differences would be
hard to suggest, but it would be of great interest to know
the ecological conditions under which the two species are to.

Harris — The Germination of Pachira. 209

be f lund, since in some cases it seems that the habit of the
seedling may be traced to differences in ecological conditions.
From a taxonomic standpoint it is certainly worthy of note,
and especially so in a genus presenting the difficulties which
Pachira does. The comparative development of hypocotyl
and epicotyl is interesting when we compare the structure of
the seeds of C. insignis ( = -P. aquatica) as figured by Martins
with the seed of P. camjiestris, since in both the radicle and
the plumule seem to show about the same degree of develop-
ment.

The reduction of P. oleagina will take one from the list of
nominal species known from recorded examination to have one
cotyledon lareer than the other,

EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PI.ATKS IX-XI.

Plate IX. — 1, 2. Embryo of Pachira viewed from dorsal and ventral sur-
face of large cotyledon. — 3, Another seed viewed from inner surface of
large cotyledon: 2 and 3 with lateral lobes somewhat spread apart to show
small cotyledon. — 5-7. Young seedlings. — 4. A portion of a somewhat
older specimen, showing general habit and stages in the reduction of one
cotyledon. — All X 1-

Plate X. — 8. Later stage of No. 7, showing abnormal development. — 9.
Seedling of same age as those on Plate IX showing normal development
of plumule. — All X !•

Plate XI. — 10-12. Three stages in development of a seedling: 10 as in
Plate IX; 11 several days older; 12 some months older showing dilatation
at base of stem. — 10 X 1- — H. 12 X i-

Issued December 12, 1903,

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, Vol. XIII.

Plate IX.

SEEDLINGS OF PACHIRA.

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Loois, Vol. XIII.

Plate X.

SEEDLINGS OF PACHIRA.

TllANS. ACAD. SCI. OF ST. LOUIS, VOL. XIU.

Plate il.

SEEDLINGS OF PACHIRA.

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VOL. XIII. No. 9.

TITLE-PAGE, PREFATOEY MATTER AND INDEX.
RECORD FROM JAN. 1 to DEC. 31, 1903.

Issued Fehriiary 9, 1904.

--^

List of Authors. 211

m

LIST OF AUTHORS.

Alt, A. xliv

Barck, C. xxxix
Bean, T. H. xxviii
Bolton, B. M. xxxix
Bush, B. F. xlii, 175

Chessin, A. S. xxxii

Forder, S. W. 165

Greeley, A. W. xxlx, xl, xliii

Hambach, G. 1
Harris, D. L. xxxix
Harris, J. A. xliv, 185, 203
Holmes, J. A. xxxviii
Hurter, J. xxvii, 77

Keiser, E. H. xli, 165

Moore, R. xlv

Nipher, F, E. xxix, xxx, xxxvi, xli, xlii, 69, 143

von Schrenk, H. xxvii
Sheldon, W. L. xxviii, 87

Terry, R. J. xxviii
Trelease, W. xlii

Wheeler, H. A. xxxvii
Whelpley, H. M. xxix, xliv

212

Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.

GENERAL INDEX.

Agar-agar xxxix

Alaska xxviii

Amendments xv, xxi, xxxviii

Anatomy xxviii

Aortic arch xxviii

Apple i"ot xxvii

Authority xxi

Bitter-rot xxvii

Blastoideae 1

Building for Academy xxx, xxxi,

xxxix, xlvi
By-Laws xvii, xxxviii

Cafion of Colorado xxxix
Cataract xliv
Cements xli, 165
Charter xxii
Codasteridae 2
Colima lava xxxviii
Colorado Canon xxxix
Constitution xiii
Contraction of muscle xliii
Contraction of nebulae xli, 143
Council xiv, xviii
Crinoideae 3

Disk stresses xxxii
Dues XX

Egg segmentation xxix
Elections xviii, xix
Eliot gift xlvi
Endovyment fund xlvii
Ether waves xxix, xxxvi
Ethical science xxvii, 87
Explosion waves xxix, xxxvi
Expulsion XX

Floral structures 185
Forest preservation xxxviii

Gaseous nebulae xli, 143
Germination 203
Grand canon xxxix
Grasses xlii, 175

Herpetology xxvii, 77
History xxii, xlii
Horse speed xlii, 69
Hurter gift xxvii

Imbedding tissues xxxix

Lava xxxviii

Librarian xviii, xxvi, xlviii
Librai7 xxiv
Lime xli, 165

McMillan gift xxx, xxxi, xxxix,

xlvi
Meetings xv, xvii, xxiv
Members v, xiii, xix, xxiii
Missouri herpetology xxvii, 77
Monstrosities xxviii, 3
Museum xxv
Muscle contraction xliii

Nebular contraction xli, 143
Nominating committee xviii, xliv

Officers xiv, xviii, xxiii, xxvi, xlv

Olivanidae 2

Order of business xvii

Parthenogenesis xxix
Patrons v, xiv, xx, xxx, xxxii
Pentremidae 1, 2
Physiology xxix, xl, xliii
Pipe-stone xxix
President xxvi, xlv
Protoplasm xxix, xl, xliii
Publications xx, xxv, xxviii

General Index.

213

Quorum xvii

Radium xliv

Real estate xxi, xxx, xxxix
Reptiles xxvii, 77
Resignation xix *

Rotating disk xxxii

Salmon xxviU

Scenic protection xxxviii

Secretary xviii

Sectioning xxxix
Sections xv

Speed of horse xlii, 69
St. Louis statistics xlv
Stresses of disk xxxii

Treasurer xviii, xxvi, xlvii
Trotting horse xlii, 69

Vice-President xlv
Vital statistics xlv

214

Trans. Acad. Set. of St. Louis.

Acentotremites 33
Acris 80
Agassizocrinus 5
Amblystoma 78
Aromochelys 82

Bascanion 85
Blastoidocrinus 51
Bombus 192

Carolinea 203

Carpeuteroblastus 52

Cassia 201, 202

Chrysemys 80, 81

CidarobJastus 34, 45, 58, 67. p?. 3, 5

Clavaeblastus 34, 44

Codaster iv, 20, 34, 47, 48, 51, 52,

64
Codonites 34, 46, 47, 52, 55, 64
Coluber 84
Cribroblastus 34, 39-42, 57-9, 63,

66, 67. pi. 5
Cryptoblastus 7, 32, 33, 40, 41, 64
Cryptoschisraa 64

Echinus 3

Elaeacrinus 9, 22, 23, 25, 26, 33, 40,

49, 50
Eleutlieroblastus 35, 50, 51
Eleutlierocrinus 51, 64
Eragrostis 175, 178, 180

Farancia 83

Globoblastus 34, 46, 61, 62, 67.

pi. 3, 5
Gloeosporium xxvii
Goniomemius xliii
Granatocrinites 29, 30
Granatocriuus 1, 6, 9, 12, 21, 22,

24-8, 30-32, 40-42, 45, 46, 51, 52,

64, 65

Hemidactylium 78
Heteroblastus 32, 40, 65
Heteroschisma 9, 48

INDEX TO GENERA.

Liopeltis 83
Lophoblastus 52

Megastachya 180
Mesoblastus 34, 42, 45, 65
Metablastus 43, 44, 65
Millericrinus 3
Monochoria 202

Natrix 85, 86
Neeragrostis 178. pi. 7, 8
Nucleocrinus 22-5, 40, 49-51, 65
Nycterium 193, 198

Olivanites 16, 22, 35, 48-50
Orbitremites 40, 41, 45, 46
Orophocrinus 47, 65
Ozotlieca 82

Pachira xlii, 203, 209. pi. 9-11
Pentrematites 26, 28, 43, 45
Pentremites 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 13-20,

22-7, 31, 32, 34-44, 46-8, 50-6,

59, 65, 66. pi. 1-6
Pentremitidea 8, 44, 66
Phaeuoscliisma 48, 66
Phrynosoma 82
Piptopliis 85
Poa 175, 178, 180
Pseudemys 81

Saccoblastus 4, 34, 39, 42-4, 60, 67.

pi. 3, 4
Schizoblastus 33, 40-2, 66
Sistrurus 83
Solauum 185
Spelerpes 79
Stephanocrinus 48

Tricoelocrinus 39, 43, 44, 66
Troostocrinus 39, 43, 44, 48, 52
Typhlotriton 80

Zygocrinus 66

I

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