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TRANSACTIONS

OF TIIE

ALBANY INSTITUTE.

VOL. VI

ALBANY :
J. MUNSELL, 82 STATE STREET.

1870.

CONTENTS.

Page.
Art. I. Prussia and the German System of Education, by

Arthur Bott, --------- 1

Art. II. The Flora of the Adirondacks, by Geo. T. Stevens,
M. D., 67

Art. III. The Trichina Spiralis, by Edward R. Hun, M. D., 83

Art. IV. The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants,
by George L. Ditson, M. D., 91

Art. V. Frogs and their Contributions to Science, by John V.
Lansing, M. D., 120

Art. VI. Remarks on the Galvanic Battery, by George W.
Hough, director of the Dudley Observatory, - - - 136

Art. VII. Life as a Physical Phenomenon, by George T.
Stevens, M. D., - - 147

Art. VIII. The Velocity of the Electric Current over Tele-
graph Wire, by Prof. Geo. W. Hough, A. M, director of
the Dudley Observatory, - ... ... 167

Art. IX. The Total Eclipse of August 7th, 1869, observed at
Mattoon, Illinois, by Prof. G. W. Hough, A. M., director
of the Dudley Observatory, - ... 176

^ Art. X. Fungi, by Charles H. Peck, 209

<■ "~.

Art. XL Narrative of a Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks, by
h Verplanck Colvin, - - - - - 227

I

iv Contents.

I'.M.fc.

Aur. XII. California and the North West-Coast one hundred

years since, by Benry A. Eomes, A. M., - - - - l' 1 1

Proceedings of the Albany Enstitnte (continued from Trans-

actions, vol, IV). 259

Manual of the Albany Institute ; prepared under the order of
the [nstitute, March, 1870, By Daniel J. Pratt, recording

rotary, - - 297

Origin of the Albany Institute, - 299

Charter of Society for the Promotion of Agriculture,

Arts and Manufactures, - 301

Charter of the Society for the Promotion of Useful

Arts, 305

Charter of the Albany Lyceum of Natural History, - 308

Charter of the Albany Institute. - 311

By-Laws of the Albany Institute, - 314

Proceedings of the First, Second and Third Depart-
ments, 320

Catalogue of the Members of the Albauy Institute,

from its organization, 321

Honorary Members. - 32]

Corresponding Members, ;;l';;

Resident Members, ---... 332

Resident Members, June 1, L870, - - - ;; ;

Officers Of the Albany Institute for 1870, - - 840

Classes in the several Departments for 1870, - - oil

Meetings and I Leports of Classes for 1870, - - 313

Table of Contents, :: 1 1

[ndex, 345

TRANSACTIONS.

■4 ■#■ » ». »

Art. I. Prussia and tlie German System of Education :
prepared and read by Arthur Bott, Esq.

The power which now speaks to Europe in the name of
Germany, and which certainly bids fair to unite all Ger-
man states under her sceptre, was unknown at the period
of the Reformation.

The counts of Hohenzollern descend from tributaries of
Charlemagne. Their house long maintained a precarious
existence as a fief of Poland. From the beginning, it
clutched at every territory within its reach, swallowed up
the smaller ones wherever found, near or far, and left to
time the consolidation of the fragments into one organic
body. If proprietors of intervening territory could not be
subdued, they were cheated in barter or caught in the
meshes of Venus. From the swamps of Brandenburg,
hardly larger than an English county, the counts of
Hohenzollern dotted western and northern Germany with
these demesnes. The Julich and Cleve duchies lay
leagues away from Brandenburg, as Brandenburg was far
away from Stettin ; and none of them had any topograph-
ical connection with eastern Prussia. All these acquisi-
tions were rather the outposts of a projected kingdom
than vital members of one political body. In every
European treaty Prussia secured some new dominion.
Early in the eighteenth century Austria permitted her to

[Trans. vi.~\ 1

2 Prussia and tfu German System of Education,

assume a royal dignity. This was the crisis of her history.
The sword of Frederic, by incorporating Silesia and
Posen, raised her from a fefcdatory of Austria, to a power-
ful rival; and while the latter still hugged the rude old
feudal system, Prussia, by employing every new, wise
principle of national progress, obtained the commercial,
and through this, the political control of all Germany.
In her enlightened system of public education, her com-
mercial codes based on strict reciprocity ; by political
representation and the widest religious freedom; she
presents, beside the neighboring despotism, all the con-
trast of science with ignorance, of integrity with corrup-
tion, of light with darkness.

In her political alliances, Prussia has one principle —
that of a selfish expediency. She accepts the hand of
either belligerent, like a partner in a dance. She lias
kidnapped the states wThich she could not honorably
annex, as Frederic kidnapped recruits for his giant regi-
ment. She has trampled on every principle of interna-
tional law and perpetrated every crime necessary to her
ends. She instigated and mainly procured the dismem-
berment of Poland. Her own original fief was torn from
the knights whose interests she had sworn, as chief and
guardian, to defend. Two of the most important mem-
bers of the empire were seized by acts of buccaneering
unsurpassed in the history of nations. While accepting
British money to despatch troops to Austerlitz, she was
negotiating with Napoleon for British Hanover as the
price of neutrality. She pledged herself to Napoleon to

guard the rear of his Russian army and then fulfilled the
pledge by turning thirty thousand bayonets against his
frozen, perishing fugitives. Treacherous to the last, she
made a tool of Austria to subdue Bchleswig-Holstein and
then seized the whole prize, kicked Austria out of doors,
and ground the whole confederation to dust.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 3

But she has characteristics which might redeem her
rapacity. Her kings and electors have been frugal,
even to parsimony, in their households — not for family'
aggrandizement but to lighten the public burdens and to
create an efficient civil and military department. They
have melted their plate, slept on hard beds, dressed in
frieze, eaten peasant's food, to keep the national expenses
within the receipts. William I. sold his jewels, sent his
spoons to the mint, abolished the costly court ceremonies,
even dismissed the wig-maker and barber, in order to
establish a school for the army. As a consequence,
Prussia shows, up to this day, the cleanest yearly balance
sheet of Europe. While other nations become insolvent
in peace, Prussia clears off her debts even in time of war.
New states are made to pay the expenses of their own
annexation. The sinking fund will remove the present
indebtedness within twelve years. This personal interest
thus extended to the people by their rulers gives a peculiar
freedom to the life of the latter ; absolute in its social and
religious elements and yet modified by the sovereign's
paternal care. A Jew may guide the Prussian parliament,
a Roman Catholic may mount the throne. To every child
in the laud, of either sex, however remote or however
poor, the government furnishes freely seven years of sound,
generous education. The Prussian people thus enjoy all
the splendid advantages of a great empire with the finan-
cial ease and social and religious liberty of a petty state.
Although the countries which she has violently seized,
struggled at first like the Sabine women, they now seem
only to desire the closest intimacy with their captors.
Certainly they have gained much and lost little by their
change of masters.

Prussia and the German System of Education.

A I' MINISTRATION OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

The administration of Schools was centralized only
in the present century, by transferring it to the Ministry
of the Interior. Here it was placed under the imme-
diate direction of William Humboldt, as State Councillor.
Since 1817, Educational and Ecclesiastical matters have
formed a special Ministerial department.

Under this Central Department, stand eight Provincial
Administrations, which recognize local and sectarian pe-
culiarities. In each province, a Deputation regulates all
the internal affairs of church and school ; determining the
general object of the educational institutions ; examining
their statutes and discipline ; proposing plans of improve-
ment and designating text-books ; supervising the higher
schools and appointing or removing teachers. The pro-
vincial boards manage the property of church and school
and regulate the elementary and primary departments of
the latter, and report to the minister six commissions,
distinct from these boards, examine teachers for the
higher schools, and revise the examinations for graduation.
Each commission has seven members ; one for each of the
following branches — Philology, History, Mathematics and
Physics, Science of Teaching, Theology, and Hebrew,
Natural Sciences, Modern Languages.

J3y the Prussian constitution, all schools and universities
are declared Institutions of the State : they cannot be
established without the consent of the state and are
subject to its supervision ; they are open to all sects but
persons dis-eming from their religious system are not re-
quired to attend the religious instruction : school and
Gymnasia for the higher sciences and the arts and*rades,
enjoy the same powers as corporations and are controlled
immediately by the state authorities ; teachers not appointed
by persons or corporations, through legacy or special

Prussia and the German System of Education. 5

privilege, are appointed by the state ; schools conducted
by private persons or corporations are subject to super-
vision of the Provincial Boards, as to their teachers and dis-
cipline and instruction. Also, the supervisors must dissuade
persons evidently incompetent, from entering the learned
professions ; they must encourage and aid youth of superior
talent ; no dismissal can take place, without a testimonial
of mental and moral character. The mode of education
of the child is left to the father's choice, but the necessary
instruction in religion and useful knowledge according to
his position must be imparted. Any person may instruct,
after authorization by the state. Teachers of the Gymnasia
and other higher schools are declared officers of the state.

In Germany, education is compulsory on both sexes, for
seven years from the child's sixth or seventh year. This
education is merely elementary. The state, however, is
obliged to prepare the indvidual for his future vocation.

In the large cities, free schools especially for the poorer
classes are maintained by the municipality aided by the
state ; all teachers are appointed by the government and
the municipality jointly, and the schools are supported by
the latter.

In 1857, Prussia contained 27,963 elementary schools
with over 30,000 teachers and 2,859,694 scholars ; and
1,171 private schools, with 3,635 teachers and 83,021
scholars ; leaving about 11,000 non-attendants. In France,
at the same time, nearly one-third of the children of proper
age were non-attendants and another third attended school
during a few months of the year only.

Prussia has long paid special attention to its Normal
system. It honors teaching as a regular profession. The
teacher consequently loves his calling with enthusiasm.
In the higher schools of the cities, he associates with the
elite. In the elementary and the village schools, he and
the pastor are the gentlemen of the place. He considers

6 Prussia and tfu German System of Education.

himself not as laboring for a livelihood hut a- shaping the
destinies of hie nation, lie retains his position, generally
during life, growing ol<l among his own pupils, whose
reverent affection breathes over his declining years an
idyllic charm.

The Normal Seminaries contain 39 protestant and 16
catholic instructors with 2,000 students. Before entering,
the student must pass examination in the three lower
branches of the Gymnasium, at least. The course lasts
three years and embraces all the branches of the common
school course, but especially the science of education and
catechetics. The instruction is practical; the pupils ap-
plying daily their principles, under the supervision of the
professors, in instructing the pupils of the schools con-
nected with the seminary. At graduation, they pass a
rigid examination pro facilitate docena%&ii& enter the Bervice
of the state according to their several qualifications.

The examination pro facilitate docendi comprises German
Latin, Greek, French and Hebrew; mathematics, physics,
natural history ; history and geography, antiquities,
mythology, history of Greek and Roman literature ;
philosophy and theology. It is conducted before the
royal commission, is both oral and written, and includes a
trial-lesson in one of the higher classes of the Gymnasium.
Lately, a trial year has been introduced, to secure fuller
proficiency.

There are a few seminaries for the preparation of
teachers for the higher schools. Their course follows that
of the University and presumes a previous complete
scientific ('duration, and a degree pro facuUaU docendi.
They are conneeted more or less closely with the University
and seek less to teach the art of teaching than to produce
independent application and development of science. A
Philological seminary is connected with every university.
Philosophical, historical or mathematical seminaries are

Prussia and the German System of Education. 7

rare. Students stay two years, rarely four. They com-
pose educational and scientific treatises, and criticise them
in special conferences. They take classes in the Gymnasia
or study the methods of certain teachers and practice un-
der them.

The Grammar schools are exclusively designed to pre-
pare the sons of citizens for the pursuits of common life.
Admission takes place at the ninth year, and presumes
facility in reading German and Roman print, knowledge
of the parts of speech, a readable and clear hand-writing,
fair spelling, knowledge of the four fundamental rules of
Arithmetic and acquaintance with the narratives of the
old and the new Testament. After six years, the pupil is
expected to write good German, to translate correctly
from other tongues, to understand thoroughly the Latin
grammar, and read well Cesar and Ovid ; to pronounce
correctly English and French and write them freely from
dictation ; to know the outlines of general history, the
most important events of Greek and Roman history, and
especially that of Germany and Prussia since the Thirty
years war. He must be acquainted with the most import-
ant conditions of the earth's surface, with the topical and
political geography of Europe and especially with that of
Germany and Prussia; with the elements of Mathematical
Geography, the chief botanical, zoological and mineralo-
gical systems, the physiology and anatomy of the plants
and animals especially valuable in commerce and the arts,
the general properties of bodies, the laws of heat, the
elements of Chemistry, Geometry, Stereometry, Plane
Trigonometry, Equations, Logarithms, and Progressions.

There are countries in Germany in which the school
system is even more rigidly enforced than in Prussia.
Wurtemberg, for instance, with its University, its primary
schools established in every hamlet, its compulsory educa-
tion of children from the 6th to 14th year, has given

Priissi" and tfu Ghrmcm System of Education.

birth to a greater number of scholars and literary men
than any other land ; among them. Schiller Wieland,
Uhlaiul, Schnbart, Kerner, Knapp,Schelling and Hegel.

The Schools of Industry and Arts (Real Schulen), are
public institutions in which especial attention is paid to
instruction in natural sciences and mathematics, and which
prepare their pupils for practical life. They treat ancient
languages as secondary and give to the natural sciences,
geography, chemistry, history, technology, mathematics
and modern languages the first rank. They dismiss their
pupils to the military, postal, forest and architectural
schools and services, and to all professions for which a
University education is not required. There are 83 real
schools with 1,037 teachers.

The following is the plan of study and number of hours
per day allotted to each branch.

Religion , Hours per W ee lv .

I rerman, "

Latin "

French, "

English "

(iengrajihy and history,... "

Natural sciences, "

( I u< une try and arithmetic, "

Penmanship) "

Drawing "

CLASSES.

VI.

3
4

8

3

•1
5

3

•>

:;n

3
4
6
5

3
■>

I

L'
•»

81

IV.

2
3
6

5

I
^>

6

•>

:;•_•

III.

•1

3
5

4
4
4

6

:vi

ii.

3
4
4
3
3
6
5

32

3
3
4
3
3
(i
5

:vi

Before leaving the school, the pupil must pass a thorough
examination, both oral and written ; the latter consisting
of a German, French and English composition, a transla-
tion into the Latin, the solving of two arithmetical ami
two geometrical problems and a treatise on some theme
in Natural Philosophy and on another in Chemistry; the

Prussia and the German System of Education. 9

oral examination testing his acquirements in religion,
history, geography, mathematics and the natural sciences.
In the German language, the student must be able to
work out a theme in logical order and in correct, good
language. He must also speak the language correctly and
fluently, and must be acquainted with the principal periods
of German literature. In Latin, he must be able to
translate into good German, portions of Csesar, Sallust,
Livy, Ovid and Virgil, read before. In French and
English he must possess a thorough knowledge ot
grammar and be able to write an exercise and a dictation
from the German without strong Germanism or gramma-
tical mistakes. He must also converse with some facility
in these languages and have some acquaintance with their
literature. He must have a systematic knowledge of
universal history and general chronology. In natural
philosophy he must know its laws and fundamental
ideas, as well as the methods of experiment ; the laws of
gravitation and motion ; the principles of heat, electricity,
magnetism, sound and light. In chemistry and orycto-
gnosy is required a knowledge, based upon experiments, of
the affinities of the more common inorganic and organic
substances. The student must be able to describe and to
employ the best processes for the more common chemical
products and also to state the nature and uses of the latter.
He must exercise a scientific knowledge of the whole field
of mathematics, as algebra, proportions, equations,
progression, binomial theorems, logarithms, plane trigo-
nometry, stereometry, descriptive and analytic geometry,
conic sections, statics, and mechanics.

The Polytechnic Schools prepare their pupils by
scientific instruction for the arts and technical profes-
sions. They differ from the common schools of art or
industry in that they enter more systematically into the
technical sciences, and presuppose a complete course of

\_Trcms. vi.] 2

10 Prussia and tin Qerm vn System of Education,

the mathematical and natural sciences. They differ from
other schools of learning in their manifold relations to
industrial life; they treat their subjects no less scientifically
hut at the same time rarnish opportunities for practical
applications. The instruction comprises a three-years
course after the manner of academies or universities;
the pupil selecting his own branches. This course is
divided into two parts ; the first being the technical,
teaching the lower and higher branches of mathematics,
physics and mechanism, general chemistry, machinery
and drawing. This section is subdivided into three
faculties for engineering, machine-building and technical
chemistry. The students in the first, study also, the
higher .sciences of surveying, hydraulics, road and rail-
road architecture, and construct plans ; those of the second
are instructed in mechanism, machine-buildine: and mecha-
nical technology, and the planning of single machines and
whole lactones; and those of the third, study physics,
theoretical and analytical chemistry and chemical
technology and practice chemical analyses and prepara-
tions. Some branches of jurisprudence and political
economy, as well as modern languages, being of equal
importance to all the faculties, are taught in them all.
The second section is the commercial and comprise the
instruction in mercantile correspondence, in commercial
sciences, commercial laws and laws of exchange, in mer-
cantile calculations and book-keeping, in commercial
geography and history and modem languages. At the
end of each term, an examination is held and testimonials
are given according to its result.

Germany possesses '24 schools for architecture, 1 J for
mining, 17 for forestry (arboriculture etc.), 31 for com-
merce, 46 military schools, 70 for agriculture, 10 for
music, 81 naval schools, 1- veterinary schools, 12 surgical,
♦ it for various other sciences.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 11

The Universities of Germany.

Universities were first founded in Germany in the 13th
century. They were modeled after the high schools of the
Arabs in Bagdad, Cordova, Salamanca, Seville, Toledo,
and Alexandria. The studies were grammar, poetry,
philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy, mathematics and
practical sciences.

The Universities are the pride and glory of Germany.
They exert more influence there than similar institutions
in any other country. They are the centres of the higher
intellectual and literary life of the nation and the labora-
tories of new theories of action. They reflect a picture ;
the whole world of nature and of mind under its ideal
form. They develop the talents and form the principles
of nearly all who fill the places of power in church and
state, from the village pastor to the oberconsistorialrath,
from the advocate at the bar to the head of the cabinet.

They receive the best minds from the lowest as well as
the highest ranks and fit them for public usefulness.

From them, emanate principally the ideas and maxims
whether conservative or progressive which rule the land.

It is characteristic that the Reformation in Germany,
proceeded, not from princes and bishops as in England, but
from theological professors.

The great philosophical and theological revolution of the
last century and the counter revolution of the present
century, have likewise proceeded mainly from the studies
and lecture rooms of the academic teachers.

Such supremacy of literary institutions and literary men
has, however, its disadvantages. It could not exist in a
country like ours or England, where politics and commerce
engage so large a proportion of the best talent and energy
of the nation. But in Germany, it is closely connected
with the genius, history and condition of the people, and

12 P)-ussia and the German System of Education.

no one can form a correct idea of the nation's higher and
deeper lite without a knowledge oi" its universities.

Each nation has its peculiar mission* and excellency.
Ancient Israel was elected to prepare the true religion

for the world ; Greece to develop the principles of science
and arl ; Rome to actualize the idea of law and civil
government. So in our times, the chief significance of
Germany lies neither in politics nor in war nor in commerce,
but in science and literature. The German universities
exert also a powerful influence upon other countries.

Situated in the heart of Europe and visited by strangers
from all quarters of the globe, they are the strongholds of
general learning and literature and of the highest culture
of Europe and America.

Twenty six Universities exist in the entire German
confederation. Of these, six belong to the kingdom of
Prussia (at Berlin, Halle, Bonn, Breslaw, Konigsberg,
Greisswalde, to which may be added the Roman Catholic
High School of Munster ) ; six to the Empire of Austria
(Vienna, Prague, Olmutz, Gratz, Salzburg, Innsbruck) ;
three to the kingdom of Bavaria (Munich, Erlangen,
Wurzburg) ; two to the grand Duchy of Baden (Heidelberg
and Freiburg); one to the kingdom of Wurtemherg
(Tubingen); one to the kingdom of Saxony (Leipsic).

Eight are Roman Catholic, thirteen Protestant, live of
both creeds.

These institutions are maintained by princely or by
private donations, by tithes and by annual appropriations
of the government. The popes frequently transferred to
them the proceeds of a part of the church property. At
the Reformation, the wealth of the secularized abbeys and
since 1773, that of the order of Jesuits have been largely
devoted to them. They are also generally exempt from
taxation and enjoy certain temporal privileges. Tuition
forms the least source of income. The students pay besides

Prussia and the German System of Education. 13

the matriculation fee, a certain sum ($2 to $10) for each
course of lectures ; but the chief resource of the professors
is a fixed salary paid by the state, ranging from a few
hundred to several thousand dollars, according to age,
merit and reputation.

The university is divided into four faculties. Each
faculty elects annually from itself, its own dean. At the
head of the whole academic body, stands the rector or
chancellor, likewise chosen annually from the regular
professors of each faculty in its turn. The legislative
power resides in the academic senate, composed of all the
ordinary professors or a delegated number. A university
is thus a complete republic of letters, highly independent of
church and state, although furnishing to both, all their
higher officers. This academic liberty, both intellectual
and moral, the utmost liberty to teach and to learn, is
cherished as one of the most precious privileges.

The four faculties embrace all the sacred and the
secular sciences and make up the idea of a university ; a
term which was first applied to the body of teachers and
pupils (universitas scholarium), but is now understood
mainly of the totality of letters (universitas literarum),
and the completeness of the system of instruction.

We now proceed to a separate notice of the four profes-
sional schools which form a German University :

1st. The theological faculty still has the supremacy,
since, when most of the universities were founded theology
was emphatically the queen of sciences. The great insti-
tution at Paris was at first simply a theological and
philosophical school ; the philosophical studies served as a
preparation to scholastic divinity, and the philosophical
professors were all ecclesiatics.

In the middle ages, theology was confined to the inter-
pretation of the Latiu Bible on the basis of the Catense-
Patrum and to scholastic dogmatics and ethics, under the

14 Prussia an' 1 1 ht German System of Education.

guidance of the Sentences of Peter the Lombard, called
the "Magister Sententiarum." In modern times, the
field has been greatly enlarged by the addition of Oriental
philology, biblical criticism, hermeneutics, antiquities,
church history and doctrinal history, homiletics, eatc-
chetics, Liturgies, pastoral theology and theory of church
government. No theological faculty is now considered
complete without separate professors for the exegetical,
historical, systematic and practical branches of divinity.
Professors may lecture however, in any department, if not
neglecting their immediate duties, Sehleiermacher, for
instance, taught in turn almost every branch of theology
and philosophy.

2d. The Philosophical faculty is by far the most nume-
rous in its teachers and departments ; and besides
philosoph}' proper, it embraces history, ancient and modern
languages, mathematics, belles lettres. It was formerly
called the faculty of Arts (facultas artium liberalium,)
whence the terms, Bachelor and Master of Arts.

In the middle ages, all human sciences, as distinct from
theology, were divided into seven artes liberates, viz.,
grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, music, geometry
and astronomy.

The first three constituted the Trivium ; the remaining
four the Quadrivium. The principal text-books in these
departments were the dialectical, ethical and physical
works of Aristotle, until the Reformation and the philo-
sophy of Bacon and Cartesius deposed the great Btagyrite
from his long reign. Since that time, although the
historical, philological and natural sciences have made
immense progress, the faculties have not kept pace with
them, in their reorganization.

The Philosophical study, properly so called, includes
Logic, metaphysics, philosophy of nature, anthropology
and psychology, philosophy of law or political ethics,

Prussia and the German System of Education. 15

philosophy of history, philosophy of art or aesthetics,
moral philosophy, philosophy of religion, and history of
philosophy.

3d. The faculty of Law (facultas juris canoniciet civilis)
embraces a greater variety of studies (especially the history
of civil, criminal, and common law, the exposition of the
ancient Roman Code, and the canon law) than our own
law schools. But on the other hand, these latter, with
the many opportunities for public speaking and our
republican institutions, produce stronger advocates and
more practical statesmen. The German law-schools were
modeled after the oldest in the world, that of Bologna.

4. The faculty of Medicine comprehends chemistry,
physiology, anatomy, phrenology, pathology and similar
sciences, which are taught also in all our regular medical
colleges.

The universities of Berlin and Vienna, enjoy the great-
est medical reputation.

The system of academical degrees originated likewise
in the middle ages. In Germany, the lower degrees have
disappeared except for divinity, but the doctorship remains
for each faculty. This may be acquired after the com-
pletion of the prescribed course, by a special examination,
printed dissertation or book and public disputation con-
ducted in Latin ; all involving considerable expense. The
diploma of Doctor of Philosophy, however, which
corresponds somewhat to our Master of Arts, and also that
of Doctor of Medicine, can be more easily secured ; at
least, from several smaller universities. Some years ago,
complaint was entered at the Diet of Frankfort against
the traffic in the lower diplomas which brought them into
disrepute ; and the lesser states were compelled to check
it. The Prussian- universities demand very scrupulously a
rigorous examination and public disputation, and never
waste a degree honoris causa.

10 Prussia and the German System of Education,

In theology, there are still two degrees, that of the
Licentiate (corresponding to the English Bachelor oi

Divinity), which confers the right of public teaching in
the university, and thai of D.D. The latter is the highest
academic honor and hence much rarer than the doctor's
diploma of any other faculty. It may he acquired by the

regular process of a written work and Latin debate, in
which every member of the university can attack the
published theses of the candidate ; but it is now generally
given honoris causa, as an acknowledgment of dis-
tinguished literary merit, or of eminent usefulness in the
church.

The Gymnasia, unlike the colleges of England and
America, confer no degrees.

There are three classes of teachers in the universities.

1st. The ordinary professors ; who are regular members
of the faculty and receive a full support from the state
independently of the proceeds of their lectures and can be
elected to the academical senate and the rectorship.

2d. The extraordinary professors ; who have no seat in
the faculty nor in the senate, and have a smaller income
but are generally promoted to a vacant regular professor-
ship.

3d. The private lecturers (privatum docentcs) ; who have
passed through the examen rigorosum and deliver lectures
like the regular professors but are without appointment
and generally receive no salary from the state. They de-
pend therefore, upon the fees for lectures or private
tuition or extra literary labor. Unless they have means of
their own or eminent popular talents which attract crowds
and secure sometimes a special appropriation from the
minister, they drag out a very weary existence.

Most of the professors must pass through these stages
before reaching the honor and benefits* of a regular or
ordinary professorship. Some few distinguished men,

Prussia and the German System of Education.- 17

however, are called directly, from the ranks of the ministry
or of the law or medicine.

The number of teachers varies from thirty to a hundred
and fifty or even more. At Berlin, there are 186 professors
for 2435 students ; at Vienna, 181 professors for 4608
students ; at Munich, 119 for 1213 students ; at Gottingen
144 for 711 students ; at Leipsic 112 for 1007 students ; at
Heidelberg, 98 for 850 students; at Bonn, 98 for 935
students ; at Breslaw, 101 for 946 students.

One of the most important characteristics of the German
university is the professorial or lecture system as distinct
from the English tutorial system. Instead of a number of
colleges, as in Oxford and Cambridge, where the students
live together under moral supervision, one large building
with a number of halls (Horsaal) receives them during a
part of the day for the lectures, as they may choose to
attend. Attendance is left to their own sense of duty.
The studious and conscientious frequent four or five
lectures daily. When the clock strikes, they take their
seats in the Horsaal, unfold their portfolios and strike the
ink-horn (armed below with a sharp iron spike) into the
wooden desk, waiting for the learned oracle. After an
intermission of ten or fifteen minutes, the professor ascends
the rostrum and with the familiar address, "Meine Herren,"
begins his lecture standing or sitting, reading or extem-
porizing or both alternately. Some of the hearers take
down in short-hand every word that drops from the mouth
of living wisdom. Others show their contempt for goose-
quill learning by merely listening or noting the general
heads.

The most judicious appropriate the lecture to their
mind as it goes on, and reproduce it in a condensed form.
If the professor speaks indistinctly, some give him a hint
with a motion of their feet, to repeat the sentence. But
not all professors pay attention to this linguam pedestrem.

[Trans. vi.~] 3

1* Prussia and the German System of Education.

Each lecture lasts about three quarters of an hour till the
clock gives its accustomed -ouud, when the professor folds
his manuscript, the students wipe their pens, shut the
ink horn, take hat or cap and portfolio and crowd to the
door, to return to their Lodgings or to attend another lecture
or to walk the hospitals or enter the laboratories.

This is generally all the instruction imparted in these
institutions. In Berlin and Halle, however, meetings
(Seminare) are held in the professors' houses for the dis-
cussion of Biblical, and patriotic or of classical authors and
for the composition of Latin prize essays.

Thus Neander used to read in this familiar way
Tertullian's Apolegeticus, Origen's^ Commentaries and
De Principiis, Augustine's Confessions, Chrysostom De
Sacerdotio, etc. These meetings are conducted in Latin.
In Tubingen, the lecture-s}Tstem is accompanied by weekly
recitations and examinations conducted by the repententen,
who may be compared to the tutors or teaching-fellows
of British universities.

Until the middle of the eighteenth century, the lectures
were all delivered in Latin : a method which was very in-
jurious to the cultivation of the German language. The
scholars of the seventeenth century wrote and spoke the
classical or the scholastic Latin better than their mother
tongue. It was the merit of Thoniasius, professor in
Halle, that he began the gradual abolition of this ped-
antry, and introduced the national language : at p resent
very few lectures arc delivered in Latin, while this
language is still used very properly in academic disserta-
tions, the conferring of degrees and other public solemni-
ties.

It is easy to see that the lecture system has great advan-
tages both for the professor and the student. The task of
writing one or more learned lectures every day, at least
early in the professorial career, draws out all the powers

Prussia and the German System of Education. 19

and produces that high scholarship and marvellous literary
fertility in which Protestant Germany surpasses all other
countries, and by which it furnishes to England and
America, directly or indirectly, most of their classical and
scientific text books. To the student, this system is gene-
rally the most impressive. When a science comes clothed
in flesh and blood from the mind and lips of the professor
like Minerva from the head of Jove, it inspires the hearer
with a consciousness of the creative power slumbering
within himself and fires it into action. And the habit of
writing, pursued by the student, accompanied by thought
is generally the best method of mental appropriation and
digestion. But on the other hand, it must be admitted
that the German universities promote an excessive indi-
viduality of intellect and fertility of opinions ;• an extreme
opposite to the stagnate steadiness, uniformity and tradition-
alism of Oxford and Cambridge. If the government allow
too little political liberty, the universities allow too great
intellectual and doctrinal liberty. With a vast amount of
invaluable learning and useful systems they have brought
forth also many fantastic, absurd and revolutionary
theories.

They have been the hot houses of rationalism, skepticism
and pantheism, and all sorts of dangerous innovations.

A model university, while affording the widest cultivation
of all sciences, should never lose the great aim of benefiting
society and of training the rising intellect for practical
usefulness in church and state. It should reconcile the
claims of authority and of freedom and guard the unity and
harmony of truth as well as the diversity and universality
of science. The lecture system can and should be
combined with the recitation system — thus ascertaining
the student's progress, explaining the subject fully and
supplying the peculiar needs of each young mind for its
future career in life.

20 Pnissia and the German System of Education*

The German universities maintain the principle of

universal admission both for those who wish totem-h and
for 1 lmsr who wish to learn, on the sole condition of
intellectual capacity. There are no sectarian or religious
disabilities, as at Oxford and Cambridge, except for the
professorship of the theological faculty. Thus you tind
amongthe students Lutherans, lie formed, Roman Catholics,
Greeks and even Jews, and many foreigners from all
countries of Europe and America. Here they enter an
unlimited field of independent study, where they may for
four or more years conduct their education and acquire, on
examination, an academic degree.

The students have generally passed their eighteenth or
twentieth year when they leave the dull routine of the
gymnasium.- Their sojourn in the university is an era of
perfect intellectual freedom, such as they never enjoy in
subsequent life. They choose their profession, their
professors and the lectures; they may attend them with
scrupulous regularity or waste their precious time in
idleness and dissipation. They arc supposed to possess
full intellectual and moral maturity except in politics.
The only compulsion to study are the examinations
requisite for the Doctor's diploma or for the active service
of church and state. But the strongest stimulus is sup-
posed to be an enthusiasm for science and the highest
culture.

The universities arc not training schools, like the
gymnasia and our American colleges, but they represent
the unity and universality of scientific knowledge, the
field for the presentation and dissemination of truth ; and
they afford unlimited opportunity for original study and self
development. To many a youth, this academical freedom
proves disastrous; bul the German student is proverbial
for his plodding disposition and his unwearying toil. It
must be confessed that drinking, duelling (although the

Prussia and the German System of Education. 21

latter is strictly prohibited) and other lawless and vulgar
habits still disgrace several of these learned institutions,
especially in smaller towns, as Jena and Geissen, where
the students hold the citizens or " Philistines," under
their control. But with proper allowance for national
genius and taste, German students lose nothing by com-
parison with those of Oxford and Cambridge, while in
industry they generally surpass them.

"A German student," says a recent English writer,
" does not feather his oar in a university boat or regatta
day ; he does not kick the foot-ball on Parker's piece ; he
does not skilfully take the balls at a cricket match.

" These gentle pastimes would not satisfy his bolder and
noisier disposition. His thoughts are more excitable and
somewhat enthusiastic. His manners are more cordial
and unreserved. His appearance and demeanor are less
aristocratic. Yet he is well-bred, spirited and high-
minded ; he is frank and open ; a faithful friend and an
eccentric lover of his Fatherland. He is a sworn enemy
to all falsehood and all deceit. Peculiar notions of honor
and a deep love of independence and liberty belong to his
most deep-rooted principles. Song and music, social
parties, convivial fetes, a martial, undaunted spirit, and
excitement of the patriotic feelings throw over his life an
enchantment which gilds it yet in all his later recollections."

The students live not in one building, as is generally
the case in our colleges, but are scattered through the
town. They spend . from two to five hours every day in
the lecture rooms and the rest of the time in reading
and writing at home or in intercourse with tbfeir fellow
students. The majority, especially the "foxes," as the
fresh-men are called, join the social clubs, the members of
which generally wear or used to wear peculiar colors on
their caps, flags, and breast-bands, and meet on special
days at a particular inn or private room. At their meet-

22 Prussia and the German System, of Education.

ings, they discuss their professors and sweethearts, arrange
a serenade to a favorite teacher or a practical joke upon
some sordid landlord or "philister ; " they apostrophize
Fatherland in putriotic speeches, pour out their hearts in a
noisy flow of jolly good-fellowship, with pathos and pipes,
lampoons and lager, sarcasm and sausages, shouts of
laughter and song till midnight ; like the uproarious
crew in Auerbach's cellar. It must not be supposed,
however, that all share in this boisterous mirth. The
steady fellows live in almost ascetic retirement or seek
friends of strict moral and literary habits.

"Providence has given to the French the empire of the
land, to the English that of the sea, to the Germans that
of the air. By this famous saying, Jean Paul, himself
a denizen of the air, proclaimed the strength as well as
the weakness of his native country; and those critics who
in good or ill humor quote it to the disparagement of the
Germans, seem to forget that the air is the habitation of
the warbling nightingale and the soaring eagle, and is as
necessary and useful to man as are the land and the sea ;
and situated as Germany is, in the heart of Europe, she fur-
nishes the heart's blood, the ideas and principles of modern
history and holds the intellectual mastery of the world."

As in times past, she produced the priutiug-press and
the Reformation, the two levers of modern civilization and
Christianity, so she reigns at the present day in every
department of science and art, and these are, after all, next
to virtue and religion, the noblest pursuits and the highest
ornaments of immortal man.

In concluding this topic, permit me to say a few words
on the transfer of German institutions of learning to
American soil. What we need is :

1st. The obligatory education.

2d. More discipline in our schools.

3d. A thorough system of education in all branches.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 23

It needs no argument to show that our college system is
incomplete and that we need institutions of the first order,
deserving the name of University in the full and proper
sense of the term. The day is not distant when this great
country will equal any on the globe in every branch of
education.

As regards the organization of these future universities,
however, we would by no means advocate a slavish copy
of the German institutions, but such an adaptation of
their features to the peculiar genius of our country, as
will make them truly American and a real educational
advance upon the old. It has been proposed already to
establish such an institution in the city of New York ;
and it seems to me that we need at least one in every
state and territory, to which the colleges will be preparatory
like the German gymnasia. These universities ought to
be planned on the largest scale, liberally endowed by the
states and accessible to all. In these, our national system
of education, which has so rapidly advanced of late, would
find its necessary and natural completion. If the legislatures
neglect this duty, the leading churches or private indi-
viduals should assume it. Such a movement would be
more consistent with our national genius and would infuse
a religious spirit into the institutions, without which they
cannot permanently flourish and promote the highest
interest of society.

24 Prussia and the German System of Education.

A Course of Instruction.

1. Primary Schools.

The general outline of the eight years' course is nearly
as follows :

I. First part, of two years, including children from Bix
to eight years old ; four principal branches, namely :

1. Logical exercises, or oral teaching in the exercise of
the powers of observation and expression, including reli-
gious instruction and the singing of hymns.

2. Elements of reading.

3. Elements of writing.

4. Elements of number, or arithmetic.

II. Second part, of two years, including children from
eight to ten years old — seven principal branches, namely :

1. Exercises in reading.

2. Exercises in writing.

3. Religious and moral instruction, in select Bible
narratives.

4. Language, or grammar.

5. Numbers, or arithmetic.

6. Doctrine of space and form, or geometry.

7. Singing by note, or elements of music.

III. Third part, of two years, including children from
ten to twelve years old — eight principal branches, namely :

1. Exercises in reading and elocution.

2. Exercises in ornamental writing, preparatory to
drawing.

3. Religious instruction in the connected Bible history.

4. Language, or grammar, with parsing.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 25

5. Real instruction,, or kuowledge of nature and the
external world, including the first elemeuts of the sciences
and the arts of life — of geography and history.

6. Arithmetic continued through fractions and the rules
of proportion.

7. Geometry — doctrine of magnitudes and measures.

8. Singing and science of vocal and instrumental music.

IV. Fourth part, of two years, including children from
ten to twelve years old — six principal branches, namely:

1. Religious instruction in the religious observation of
nature; the life and discourses of Jesus Christ; the his-
tory of the Christian religion, in connection with the
contemporary civil history; and the doctrines of Christ-
ianity.

2. Knowledge of the world, and of mankind, including
civil society, elements of law, agriculture, mechanic arts,
manufactures, etc.

3. Language, and exercises in composition.

4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to
the business of life, including surveying and civil engineer-
ing.

5. Elements of drawing.

6. Exercises in singing, and the science of music.

V. Fifth part, of two years — children from twelve
to fourteen.

1. Religious instruction, in the religious observation of
nature, the life and discourses of Jesus Christ, the history
of the Christian religion, in connection with the cotem-
porary civil history, and the principal doctrines of the
Christian system.

The first topic of instruction mentioned under this head

is one of peculiar interest and utility. The pupils are

taught to observe, with care and system, the various
\_Trans. vi.~\ 4

26 Dmssia and the German System of Education.

powers and operations of nature, and to consider them as
so many illustrations of the wisdom, power, and goodness
of the Creator; and at each lesson they are directed to some
appropriate passage of the Bible, which they read and
commit to memory: and thus the idea is continually im-
pressed on them, that the God of nature and the God of
the Bible are one and the same Being.

For example, as introductory to the whole study, the
first chapter of Genesis, together with some other appro-
priate passage of Scripture, as the 147th Psalm, or the 38th
chapter of Job, may be read and committed to memory.

The surface of the earth, as illustrating the power and
wisdom of God, may be taken as a lesson.

Then the varieties of surface, as mountains, valleys,
oceans and rivers, continents and islands, the height of
mountains, the breadth of oceans, the length of rivers,
remarkable cataracts, extended caverns, volcanoes, tides,
etc., may be taken into view, and the teacher may impress
upon the class the greatness, power, and intelligence neces-
sary for such a creation. The whole is fortified by the
application of such a passage as Psalm civ, 1-13.

" Bless the Lord, O my soul ! 0 Lord my God ! thou art very
great; thou art clothed with honor and majesty. Who coverest thy-
self with light as with a garment : who stretchest out the heavens like
a curtain : who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters : who
maketh the clouds his chariot : who walketh upon the wings of the
wind: who maketh his angels spirits; his ministers a flaming fire.
Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed
forever. Thou coverest it with the deep as with a garment : the
waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled ; at
the voice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the
mountains ; they go down by the valleys into the place which thou
hast founded for them. Thou hast set a bound that they may not
pass over ; that they turn not again to cover the earth. He sendeth
the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills. They give
drink to every beast of the field ; the wild asses quench their thirst.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 27

By them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which
sing among the branches. He watereth the hills from his chambers :
the earth is satisfied with the fruit of thy works."

" 0 Lord, how manifold are thy works ! in wisdom hast thou made
them all : the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great and wide
sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great
beasts. There go the ships: there is that leviathan, whom thou
hast made to play therein."

The fruitfulness and beauty of the earth, as illustrating
the wisdom and goodness of God, may serve as another
lesson. Here may be exhibited the beauty and variety of
the plants and flowers with which the earth is adorned ;
the manner of their growth and self-propagation, their
.utility to man and beast, their immense number and
variety, their relations to each other as genera and species ;
trees and their varieties, their beauty and utility, their
timber and their fruit; and in connection with this lesson,
Psalm civ, 14 - 34, may be committed to memory.

" He cause th the grass to grow for the cattle; and herb for the
service of man : that he may bring forth food out of the earth ; and
wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face
to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man's heart. The trees of
the Lord are full of sap ; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath
planted ; where the birds make their nests : as for the stork, the
fir trees are her house. The high hills are a refuge for the wild
goats ; and the rocks for the conies. He appointeth the moon for
seasons: the sun knoweth his going down. Thou maketh darkness,
and it is night: wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth.
The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meat from God.
The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them
down in their dens. Man goeth forth unto his work and to his
labor until the evening."

" These wait all upon thee ; that thou mayest give them their
meat in due season. That thou givest them they gather ; thou
openest thine hand, they are filled with good. Thou hidest thy face,
they are troubled : thou takest away their breath, they die, and re-
turn to their dust. Thou sendest forth thy Spirit, they are created :

28 Prussia and the German System of Education.

and thou renewest the face of the earth. The glory of the Lord
shall endure forever; the Lord shall rejoice in his works. He
looketh on the earth, and it treuibleth : he toucheth the hills, and
they smoke. I will sing unto the Lord as long as I live : I will sing
praise to my God while I have my being. My meditation of him
shall be sweet : I will be glad in the Lord."

Iii like manner, the creation and nourishment, the
habits and instincts of various animals may be contem-
plated, in connection with Proverbs, vi, 6-8; Psalm civ,
17-22 ; Proverbs, xxx, 24 - 31 ; Gen. i, 20 - 24 ; Psalm cxl v,
15-16.

" Go to the ant, thou sluggard ! consider her ways, and be wise :
Which having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in,
the summer, and gathereth her food in the harvest."

" There be four things which are little on the earth, but they are
exceeding wise : the ants are a people not strong, yet they prepare
their meat in the summer; the conies are but a feeble folk, yet
make they their houses in the rocks ; the locusts have no king, yet go
they forth all of them by bands ; the spider taketh hold with her
hands, and is in king's palaces. There be three things which go
well, yea, four are comely in going : a lion, which is strongest among
beasts, and turneth not away for any : a greyhound ; a he-goat also ;
and a king, against whom there is no rising up."

" And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after
his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beasts of the earth after his
kind : and it was so. And God made the beasts of the earth after
his kind, and cattle after their kind, and everything that creepeth
upon the earth after his kind : and God saw that it was good."

" The eyes of all wait upon thee : and thou givest them their meat
in due season. Thou openest thine hand, and satisfiest the desire of
every living thing. The Lord is righteous in all his ways, and holy
in all his works."

The phenomena of light and color, the nature of the
rainbow, etc., may make another interesting lesson, illus-
trating the unknown forms of beauty and glory which exist
in the Divine mind, and which he may yet develop in

Prussia and the German System of Education. 29

other and still more glorious worlds ; in connection
with Gen., i, 3, 5, 9, 13, 14, and other passages of like
kind.

So the properties of the air, wind, and storm, Job, xxviii,
25 ; xxxviii, 33, 34, 35 ; Psalm cxlviii, 8.

" Knowest thou the ordinance of heaven ? canst thou set the do-
minion thereof in the earth ? Canst thou lift up thy voice to the
clouds, that abundance of waters may cover thee ? Canst thou
send lightnings, that they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are ?
Who hath put wisdom in the inward parts ? or who hath given under-
standing to the heart ? Who can number the clouds in wisdom ?
or who can stay the battles of heaven ? "

Then the heavens, the sun, moon, planets, fixed stars,
and comets, the whole science of astronomy, so far as it
can be introduced with advantage into common schools,
can be contemplated in the same way. The enlightening,
elevating, and purifing moral influence of such a scheme
of instruction, carried through the whole system of nature,
must be clearly obvious to every thinking mind ; and its
utility, considered merely with reference to worldly good,
is no less manifest. The second topic of religious instruc-
tion is more exclusively scriptural. The life of Christ, and
the history of the apostles, as given in the New Testament,
are chronologically arranged, and tables formed as before.
(Ill, 3.) The discourses of Christ are examined and ex-
plained in their chronological arrangement, and in the same
way the discourses and epistles of the apostles. The history
of Christianity, in connection with the cotemporary civil
history, is taught in a series of conversational lectures. To
conclude the whole course of religious instruction, a
summary of the Christian doctrine is given in the form of
some approved catechism.

2. Knowledge of the world and of mankind, including
civil society, constitutional law, agriculture, mechanic arts,
manufactures, etc.

30 Prussia and the German System of Education.

This is a continuation and completion, in a more sys-
tematic form, of the instruction commenced in III, 5. The
course begins with the family, and the first object is to
construct a habitation. The pupil tells what materials are
necessary for this purpose, where they are to be found,
how brought together and fitted into the several parts of
the building. The house must now be furnished. The
different articles of furniture and their uses are named in
systematic order, the materials of which they are made,
and the various trades employed in making them are enu-
merated. Then comes the garden, its tools aud products,
and whatever else is necessary for the subsistence and phy-
sical comfort of a family. Then the family duties and
virtues; parental and filial obligation and affection ; rights
of property: duties of neighborhoods ; the civil relations of
society; the religious relations of society; the state, the
father-land, etc. ; finally, geography, history, and travels.
Books of travels are compiled expressly for the use of
schools, and are found to be of the highest interest and
utility.

3. Language, and exercises in composition.

The object here is to give the pupils a perfect command
of their native tongue, and ability to use it on all occasions
with readiness and power. The first exercises are on
simple questions, such as, " Why ought children to love
and obey their parents?' or they are short descriptions
of visible objects, such as a house, a room, a garden, etc.
There are also exercises on the various forms of expressing
the same idea, as, " The sun enlightens the earth."
"The earth is enlightened by the sun." "The sun gives
light to the earth." " The earth receives light from the
sun." " The sun is the source of light to the earth."
"The sun sends out its rays to enlighten the earth."
" The earth is enlightened by rays sent out from the sun,"
etc. There are exercises also of the same sort on meta-
phors and other figures of speech. Familiar letters are

Prussia and the German System of Education. 31

then written, and short essays on themes such as may be
furnished by texts from the Book of Proverbs, and other
sentences of the kind ; and thus gradual advancement is
made to all the higher and graver modes of composition.

4. Application of arithmetic and the mathematics to the
business of life, including surveying, civil engineering, etc.

The utility of this branch of instruction, and the mode
of it, after what has already been said, are probably too
obvious to need any further illustration.

5. Elements of drawing.

For this the pupils have already been prepared by the
exercises in ornamental writing, in the previous part of
the course. They have already acquired that accuracy
of sight and steadiness of hand which are among the most
essential requisites to drawing well. The first exercises
are in drawing lines, and the most simple mathematical
figures, such as the square, the cube, the triangle, the paral-
lelogram; generally from wooden models, placed at some
little distance on a shelf, before the class.' From this they
proceed to architectural figures, such as doors, windows,
columns, facades. Then the figures of animals, such as a
horse, a cow, an elephant; first from other pictures, and
then from nature. A plant, a rose, or some flower is
placed upon a shelf, and the class make a picture of it.

From this they proceed to landscape painting, historical
painting and the higher branches of the art, according to
their time and capacity. All learn enough of drawing to
use it in the common business of life, such as plotting a
field, laying out a canal, or drawing the plan of a building;
and many attain to a high degree of excellence.

6. Exercises in singing and the science of music.

The instructions of the previous parts are extended as
far as possible, and include singing and playing at sight,
and the more abstruse and difficult branches of the science
and art of music.

32 Prussia and the German System of Education.

In Bavaria, Wirteraburg, the Duchy of Baden and
Nassau, as much, and in Wirtemburg and Baden, perhaps
even more, has been done to promote the intelligence,
morality, and civilization of the lower orders of society,
than in Prussia. In each of these countries, every village
has a good school-house, and at least one learned and
practically efficient teacher, who has been educated for
several years at a college ; every town has several well-
organized schools, sufficiently large to receive all the child-
ren of the town, who are between the ages of six and
fourteen ; each of these schools contains from four to ten
class-rooms, and each class-room is under the direction
of a highly educated teacher.

In each of these countries, every parent is obliged to
educate his children, either at home or at some school,
the choice of means being left to himself. In none of
these countries are children left to grow up in vicious
ignorance or with debasing habits.

In none of these countries, is there any class of children
analogous to that which swarms in the back streets, alleys
and gutters of our great cities and towns, and from which,
our paupers, our disaffected, and our criminals grow up,
and from which our " ragged schools " are filled. All the
children are intelligent, polite, clean, and neatly dressed,
and grow up from their sixth to their fourteenth year under
the teaching and influence of educated men.

In each of these countries a sufficient number of normal
colleges has been founded, to enable it to educate a suffi-
cient supply of teachers for the parishes and towns.

In each of these countries, all the schools of every sect
and party, private as well as public, are open to public
inspection, and are visited several times every year by
learned men, whose business it is to examine both teachers
and scholars, and to give the government, the chambers,
and the country, a full and detailed account of the state,

Prussia and the German System of Education. 33

condition, character, and progress of every school, so that
parents may know where to send their children with safety ;
that good teachers may be encouraged, rewarded, and pro-
moted ; and that unworthy teachers may not be suffered to
continue long in their situations.

In each of these countries, the laws prohibit any person
being a teacher of any school, until he has proved his effi-
ciency to the committee of professors, appointed by the
state to examine candidates, and until he has laid before
such committee testimonials of character from his religious
minister, his neighbors, and the professors of the college
at which he was educated.

2. Burger or Middle Schools.

Religious Instruction.

Class VI. Four hours per week. Narration by the
teacher of stories from the Old Testament, in the words
of the Bible, repeated by the pupils. Easy verses learned
by heart.

Class V. Four hours. Stories from the gospels, except
the latter portion of the life of Christ. Church songs
and Bible verses learned.

Class IV. Three hours. The Old Testament in a more
connected form. The moral of the history is impressed
upon the children. The Ten Commandments and church
songs committed to memory.

Class III. Two hours. The life and doctrines of Christ,
to the period of his imprisonment. Church history.
Four weeks are set apart for learning the geography of
Palestine.

Class II. Two hours. The Protestant catechism com-
mitted to memory and explained. Church songs and
verses committed.

[Trans. vi.~\ 5

34 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Class I. Two hours. A compendium of the history of
the Christian Church, particularly after the apostolic age.
History of the Reformation. Review of the Bible. Com-
mitting to memory psalms and hymns continued.

German Language.

Class VI. Four hours. Exercises of speech. Stories
narrated to the children and repeated by them. After
learning to write, these stories are written upon the slate.

Class V. Four hours. Exercises in orthography. Ety-
mology begun.

Class IV. Four hours. Exercises in orthography and
style. Every week a short composition is written on some
subject which has been narrated.

Class III. Grammar continued.

Class II. Four hours. Original compositions, wnich are
corrected during the recitations. Syntax commenced.

Class I. Three hours. Compositions on historical sub-
jects. Essays written at home, and corrected in the class-
room. Syntax continued.

Latin Language.

Class IV. Three hours. Declensions of nouns, adjec-
tives, and pronouns learned. Examples learned by heart,
and others written as an exercise at home. Auxiliary
verbs conjugated.

Class III. Four hours. Comparison of adjectives. Re-
gular verbs conjugated.

Class II. Four hours. Irregular verbs. Syntax begun.
Translation from Latin into German.

Class I. Six hours. Grammar continued. Written ex-
ercises at home and in the class. Every four weeks
an extempore exercise is written, which the teachers
correct out of school hours. Cornelius Nepos read and
construed.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 35

French Language.

Class III. Three hours. Exercises in reading. Ele-
ments of grammar. Words learned by heart. Easy exer-
cises written at home and in school hours.

Class II. Four hours. Regular and irregular verbs
learned. Syntax. Translations from French into German.
Words learned by rote.

Class I. Four hours. Written exercises of increased
difficulty. Tables dictated and learned by heart. Vol-
taire's Charles XII read.

Arithmetic.

Class VI. Four hours. Practical arithmetic. The
fundamental operations taught with numbers from one to
one hundred ; first mentally, then with blocks, and after-
ward with figures. Exercises prepared at home twice a
week.

Class V. Four hours. The four ground rules continued,
with numbers as high as one thousand. Exercises in
reading and writing large numbers. Mental arithmetic
especially practiced. Addition and subtraction of abstract
numbers.

Class IV. Four hours. Addition and subtraction re-
vised. Multiplication and division of abstract numbers.
Weights and measures explained.

Class III. Four hours. The four ground rules with
fractions.

Class II. Three hours. Revision of the above. Rule of
three.

Class I. Three hours. In the first year practical arith-
metic finished. Proportions and decimal fractions. Ele-
ments of algebra. Mental algebra.

36 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Geometry.

Class IV. Two hours. The essential preparatory exer-
cises in form, in connection with drawing. Rudiments
■ explained.

Class III. Two hours. Practice in the position of points,
drawing of lines, angles, plane figures, representations of
solids.

Class II. Two hours. Elements of geometry proper, the
point, line, angles, triangles, and measures of straight lines,
surfaces, and contents.

Class I. Two hours. Plane geometry completed, with
practical exercises. Every alternate six months, lessons in
physics are given.

Natural History.

Class II. Two hours. In the summer term, study of
certain classes of plants. In the winter term, of animals.
The subject is illustrated by drawings.

Class I. Two hours. Systematic botany during the win-
ter term, and zoology and mineralogy during the winter.

Geography.

Class III. Two hours. Knowledge of home. Berlin
and its environs. Regency of Potsdam. Province of
Brandenburg. Necessary technical terms explained, as
horizontal, vertical, etc.

Class II. Two hours. Geography of Prussia and Ger-
many.

Class I. Two hours. General geography, particularly
Europe and America. Asia more generally, Africa and
Australia very briefly.

History.

Class II. Two hours. View of universal history, bio-
graphical rather than chronological.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 37

Class I. Two hours. First year universal history com-
pleted. Second year the history of Germany, and par-
ticularly of Prussia. The most important inventions and
discoveries are noticed in connection with the history of
these countries.

Reading.

Class VI. Seven hours. Beading hy the phonic (lautir)
method. Analysis of words in regard to division into
syllables and sounds.

Class V. Seven hours. Mechanical reading continued,
but with reference to the meaning of the words. The
pupils are examined upon words, sentences, and para-
graphs.

Class IV. Four hours. • Explanatory reading continued
Accentuation. No piece is allowed to be read without it
being understood.

Class III. Two hours. Rythmical reading begun. In-
teresting portions of the matter read, narrated by the pupils
in their own words.

Class II. Two hours. Rythmical reading continued.

Class I. Two hours. Reading of some of the German
classics. Analysis of the subject read.

Writing.

Class VI. Five hours. Introductory exercises of draw-
ing upon the slate. Copying the small letters from the
blackboard. Writing on paper. Capital letters. "Writ-
ten exercises at home twice a week.

Class V. Five hours. Writing of German characters
continued. Roman letters begun. Copying from a book
at home, with special reference to orthography.

Class IV. Four hours. Writing in German and Roman
characters continued. Two hours copying from copy-slips.
Two hours writing from dictation.

38 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Class III. Three hours. Exercises of Class IV, con-
tinued. Pupils who write well are allowed to write with-
out lines. Writing without copies, according to progress.

Class II. Two hours. Exercises continued. Most of
the pupils write without lines, or by directing points merely.

Class I. The written exercises in other departments are
examined, to ascertain the character of the handwriting.
No special lessons are given.

Drawing.

Class IV. Two hours. Drawing straight lines in various
directions and of various lengths. Making definite angles.
Drawing triangles, squares, and other rectilinear figures.

Class III. Two hours. Drawing of circles and ovals.

Class II. Two hours. Drawing of bodies bounded by
planes and straight lines in perspective. Drawing of
curves.

Class I. Drawing from natural objects, from plaster casts
and models.

Singing.

Class IV. Two hours suffice to learn fifteen or twenty
songs, of one or two verses, by note, and some ten choral
songs.

Class III. Two hours. Songs with two parts continued.
Chorals with one voice.

Class II. Two hours. Songs with two or three voices
continued.

Class I. Two hours. Songs and chorals with three or
four parts.

Once during the morning there is an interval for recrea-
tion in the court-yard of the school, and the pupils are
directed in their exercises of marching and counter-march-
ing, and the like, by one of the teachers.

The course marked out in the foregoing programme, as
far as it extends, seems to me well adapted to educate the

Prussia and the German System of Education. 39

moral and intellectual faculties, as well as the senses; to
give mental vigor, while it furnishes information useful to
the pupil in after life.

3. Teacher's Seminary.

The following table will show what the subjects of in-
struction are :

Time Table in Teachers' College in Dresden.

s

ummer

Winter

Half Year.

Half Year.

Number of hours

Number of hours

each Week in

each Week in

Classes.

Class.

(

Dlass.

I.

II.

in.

I.

II.

in.

2

2

2

2

2

2

1. Religion.

0

1

1

2

1

1

2. Explanation of the Scriptures.

0

1

1

0

1

1

3. Scripture history.

3

1

1

3

0

0

4. Catechism.

1

0

0

1

0

0

5. Religious exhortation.

2

0

0

2

0

0

6. Pedagogy.

0

3

3

0

3

3

7. Special methods of teaching.

2

1

1

2

0

0

j 8. I. Rhetoric and reading exercises ;
( II and III. Mental calculations.

1

1

1

1

1

1

9. Recitation.

2

0

0

2

0

0

10. Natural philosophy.

0

2

2

0

2

2

11. Natural history.

0

1

1

0

1

1

12. Geography.

1

0

0

0

0

0.

13. Mathematical geography.

1

1

1

1

1

1

14. History.

1

2

2

1

2

2

15. German language.

2

0

0

2

0

0

16. Latin language.

2

2

2

2

2

2

17. Writing.

1

2

1

2

2

2

18. Arithmetic.

0

1

2

0

0

0

19. Geometrical drawing.

1

0

0

1

1

1

20. Geometry.

2

2

2

2

2

2

21. Drawing.

0

0

1

1

1

2

22. Singing.

1

1

1

1

1

1

23. Choral singing.

1

1

0

0

0

0

24. Quartet singing.

2

2

2

2

2

2

25. Concert singing.

6

3

2

3

1

6

j 26. I. Organ playing. II and III. Violin
\ playing.

13

19

19

7

12

6

27. Preparation and exercise hours.

2

2

2

2

2

2

28. Gymnastic exercises.

52

51

50

42

40

40

Total number of hours per week.

40 Prussia and the German System of Education.

The students rise in summer at 5 o'clock, and in winter
at 6 o'clock, in the morning : as soon as they are dressed,
they meet in one of the class-rooms, where the director reads
the morning prayers ; their hours of study are from 7 to 12
a. m. and from 2 to 5 p.m.

Connected with the college is a primary school for child-
ren of that district of the city, in which the college is
situated : this school is under the direction of a regularly
appointed and experienced teacher, and is attended by 105
children, who are divided into three classes, to each of
which is assigned a separate class-room in one part of the
college buildings. In these classes, a certain number of
students from the college first practice teaching under the
eye, and aided by the advice of the teacher.

At the end of this long and careful preparation, they are
called before the board of examiners. If the young man is
a Protestant, his religious examination is conducted by the
board of examiners themselves ; but if he is a Romanist, a
priest is joined to the board, and conducts the religious
part of the examination.

The examination lasts three days. On the first day the
subj ects are —

From 1 to 10 o'clock, A. M., Scripture history.
" 10 to 12 "■ . . " Pedagogy.
" 2 to 4 " P. M., Mathematics and the theory of music.

The answers to the questions of the first day's examina-
tion are given in writing. On the second day the subjects

are —

{Catechising a class of village school
children on some subject of ele-
mentary instruction.

( Reading ;

« i-i to 19 m a J Arithmetic ; and

j An object lesson given to school child-

l ren.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 41

From 1 to 2 o'clock p. M., <

' A viva voce examination —
In religion ;
The Scriptures ;
Luther's catechism ; and
Pedagogy.

f German language ;
" 4 to 5 " " <j Logic ; and

[_ Psychology.

" ft to 6

' History ;

Geography;
j Natural philosophy ; and
(^ Natural history.

On the third day the subjects of examination are —

Organ playing ;
Singing ;
Piano-forte; and
Violin.

If the young candidate, who had been educated for four
years in a teachers' college, can not pass this examination so
as to satisfy the examiners,, he is obliged to continue his
studies until he can do so. But if he passes the examina-
tion in a satisfactory manner, the examiners grant him a
diploma, which is marked " excellent," " good," or " passa-
ble," according to the manner in which he acquitted
himself in his examination.

If the young candidate does not obtain a certificate
marked " excellent," but only one marked "good," or
"passable," he can not officiate as teacher, until he has
spent two years in some school as assistant to an expe-
rienced teacher.

At the end of this time, he is obliged again to present
himself to the board of examiners, who examine him again
in the most careful and searching manner. If he passes
this examination, he receives another diploma marked " ex-
cellent," "good," or " passable," according to his merit,
and if he obtains a diploma marked " excellent," he is
enrolled among the members of the teachers' profession,

\_Trans. vi.~\ 6

42 Prussia and the German System of Education.

and is allowed to officiate either as a private tutor or as a
village teacher. But if he can not obtain this diploma, he is
obliged to continue to act as an assistant teacher until hecan
do so. Seminar Director Dr. Otto, the principal of the
normal college, and a member of the board of examiners,
assured me, that it was a common thing for candidates
to be examined four or five times, before they succeeded
in obtaining a teachers' diploma. When they have at last
succeeded, they, as well as those who obtained the diploma
marked " excellent " in the first examination, are eligible
as teachers.

The school committee of the different parishes elect
their own teachers. The only condition, to which this
right is subjected is, that they may not elect any person,
who has not obtained a diploma of competence from the
board of examiners.

4. City Trade School.

The City Trade School is to give a more appropriate edu-
cation for the mechanic arts and higher trades then can be
had through the courses of classical schools. It is a great
point gained, when the principle is admitted that different
kinds of education are suited to different objects in life ;
and such an admission belongs to an advanced stage of
education. As a consequence of a general sentiment of
this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruc-
tion of those not intended for the learned professions grow
up by the side of the others.

Third Class.

Physics. Electricity and magnetism, with experiments.
Two hours. Chemistry. Water and non-metallic bodies
with experiments. Two hours.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 43

Writing. Two hours. Architectural and topographical
drawing. Two hours. Some of the pupils during this
tim'e are engaged in ornamental drawing.

Vocal music. Two hours.

Second Class.

Religious Instruction. Explanation of the first three
gospels. History of the Christian religion and church to
the reformation. Two hours.

German. Correction of exercises written at home, upon
subjects assigned by the teacher. Oral and written exer-
cises. Introduction to the history of German poetry.
Three hours.

French. Grammar; extemporalia for the application of
the rules. Written and oral translations from German
into French, from Beauvais's Manual, and vice versa, from
Ideler and Norte's Manual. Four hours.

English. Exercises in reading and speaking. Transla-
tion into German, from Burkhardt. Dictation. Verbs.
Two hours.

Arithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to
include simple and quadratic equations. Logarithyms.
Three hours.

Geometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonom-
etry. Three hours.

Geography. The states of Europe, with special reference
to their population, manufactures and commerce. Two
hours..

History. Principal events of the history of the middle
ages and of later times, as an introduction to recent history.
One hour.

Natural History. Mineralogy. Physiology of plants.
Three hours.

Chemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, with
experiments. Three hours.

44 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Architectural, topographical, and plain drawing.
Drawing with instruments. Introduction to India ink
drawing. Beginning of the science of construction.
Two hours.

Drawing. From copies, and from plaster and other
models. Two hours. This kind of drawing may be
learned instead of the above.

Vocal music. Two hours.

First Class.

Religious Instruction. History of the Christian religion
and church continued. References to the Bible. One
hour.

German. History of German literature to recent times.
Essays. Exercises of delivery. Three hours.

French. Reading from the manual of Buchner and
Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic authors read. Review
of grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free
delivery. ■ Correction of exercises. Four hours.

English. Syntax, with written and extempore exer-
cises from Burkhardt. Reading of classic authors. Writ-
ing of letters. Exercises in speaking.

Arithmetic. Algebra. Simple and quadratic equa-
tions. Binomial and polynomial theorems. Higher equa-
tions. Commercial arithmetic continued. Three hours.
Geometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications.
Conic sections. Descriptive geometry. Three hours.

History. History of the middle ages. Modern history
with special reference to the progress of civilization, of
inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry.
Three hours.

Natural History. In summer, botany, the principal
families, according to the natural system. In winter,
zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of exa-
mining specimens, to the Royal Museum.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 45

Physics. In summer, optics with experiments. In
winter, the system of the world. Three hours.

Technology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades,
described and illustrating by models. Excursions to visit
the principal workshops. Four hours.

Architectural and machine drawing. Two hours,
those pupils who do not take part in this, receive lessons
in ornamental drawing from plaster models.

Vocal music. Two hours.

The pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in mani-
pulating in the laboratory of the institution several hours
each week.

The facilities for the courses are furnished by a collection
of mathematical and physical apparatus, a laboratory, with
a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and a series of
tests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures
(or technological collection) a collection of dried plants,
and of engravings for the botanical course, and a small
garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collec-
tion of insects, a collection in comparative anatomy, aseries
of engravings for the drawing course, and of plaster models,
a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some
astronomical instruments, and a library. The pupils are
taken from time to time, to the admirable museum attached
to the university of Berlin, for the examination of zoological
specimens especially.

5. Royal Real Schools.

The Royal Real School of Berlin was founded as early
as 1747, by Counsellor Hecker. At the period in which
this school was founded, Latin and Greek were the exclu-
sive objects of study in the learned schools, and the avowed
purpose of this establishment was that "not mere words

46 Prussia and the German System of Education.

should, be taught to the pupils, but realities, explanations
being made to them from nature, from models and plans,
and from subjects calculated to be useful in after-life."
Hence the school was called a " real school," and preserves
this name, indicative of the great educational reform which
it was intended to promote, and the success of which has
been, though slow, most certain.

In the Royal Real School the branches of instruction
are — religion, Latin, French, English, German, physics,
natural history, chemistry, history, geography, drawing,
writing, and vocal music. The Latin is retained as practi-
cally useful in some branches of trade, as in pharmacy, as
aiding in the nomenclature of natural history, and as pre-
venting a separation in the classes of this school and that
of the gymnasium, which would debar the pupils from
passing from the former to the latter in the upper classes.
It must be admitted that, for all purposes but the last, it
occupies an unnecessary degree of attention, especially in
the middle classes.

The following table shows the distribution of time
among the courses. There are seven classes in numerical
order, but ten, in fact, the third, fourth, and fifth being
divided into two ; the lower fourth is again, on account
of its numbers, subdivided into two parallel sectious. Of
these the seventh, sixth, and fifth are elementary classes,
the pupils entering the seventh at between five and
seven years of age. In the annexed table the number,
of hours of recitation per week of each class in the several
subjects is stated, and the vertical column separating the
elementary classes from the others, contains the sum of the
hours devoted to each branch in the higher clases, exclud-
ing the lower section of the fourth class, which has not- a
distinct course from that of the other division.

Prussia and the German System of Education.

47

Table Showing the Number of Hours op Recitation per Week, op
each Class, in the Subjects taught in the Royal Real School
op Berlin.

Subjects of Study.

Latin, . . .
French, .
English,.
German,.

Religion, ,

Mathematics,* . . .
Natural History,. ,

Physics,

Chemistry,

Geography,

History,

Drawing,,
Writing, .
Singing,..

Total,.

4
4
2| 2
3 3

36

CD CD
CD CD

Co

+^ -p

3 9

O O

CD

d g

" CD

CD CD

u e3

m 35

35

32

32

d

H > P2

32

28

22

6

20

12
35
9
8
8
9
15

12

4
15

d

>
. to
rjl W.

Proportion of other
studies to German
in the

26

26

26 26

o
o

.a

ci
o

1.4
1.1
0.3
1.0

0-6
1.7

0.6
0-2

0.7

0)

si

00 O

s a
it

2.9
0.7

0.8

0.6
1.1
0.1+

0.2+

0.5
0.3

0.4
0.3
0.6

3
0.9

1.0

0.8
1.6
0.1
0.2

0.5

0.7

0.4
0.3
0.6

Pupils who enter this school between five and seven
years of age, and go regularly through the elementary
classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher classes, or
to enter the lowest of the gymnasium. It is thus after
the fifth class that a comparison of the two institutions
must begin. The studies of the real school proper, and
of the gymnasium, have exactly the same elementary basis,
and they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil,
by taking extra instruction in Greek, may pass from the
lower third class of the former to the lower third of the
latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real

* Including arithmetic, geometry, and trigonometry.
+ These numbers include the entire course.

48 Prussia and the German System of Education.

schools must be institutions for secondary instruction, since
the pupils have yet three classes to pass through after
reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to
separate the real schools from, the higher burgher schools,
since the extreme limit of the courses of the latter, with
the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables the
pupil to reach the lower third class of the gymnasium.
In general, a pupil would terminate his studies in the real
school at between sixteen and eighteen years of age. The
difference between the subjects of instruction in the real
school and the Frederick William gymnasium, consists in
the omission in the former of Greek, Hebrew, and phi-
losophy, and the introduction of English and chemistry.
The relative proportions of time occupied in the same
subjects in the two schools, will be seen by comparing the
two columns next on the right of the numbers for the
seventh class, in the table just giveu. The first of these
columns contains the proportion of the number of hours
per week devoted to the different subjects in the six classes
of the real school above the elementary, the number of hours
devoted to the German being taken as unity ; and the
second, the same proportion for six classes of the gymna-
sium, beginning with the lowest, the same number of
hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding column.

6. Frederick William Gymnasium of Berlin.

The numbers attached to the names of the different
classes, in the following programme, show the number of
hours of study per week in the regular branches in which
the division of classes takes place. In like manner, the
numbers attached to the several subjects of study show
how many hours are occupied per week in each of the
subjects by the several classes.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 49

Sixth Class, Thirty Hours.

Latin. Inflections of nouns, etc. Comparisons. Con-
jugation of the indicative moods of regular and of some
irregular verbs. Translation from Blume's elementary
book. Exercises from Blume. Extemporalia. Ten hours.

German. Etymology and syntax. Exercises in writing
upon subjects previously narrated. Exercises in ortho-
graphy, reading and declaiming. Four hours.

French. Etymology, to include the auxiliary verbs, in
Herrmann's grammar. Oral and written exercises. Read-
ing and translation. Exercises on the rules from the
grammar. Three hours.

Religion. Bible history of the Old Testament. Com-
mitting to memory selected verses. Two hours.

Geography. Delineation of the outlines of Europe,
Africa, Asia, and America, from determinate points given.
Divisions of the countries, with their principal cities, rivers
and mountains. Two hours.

Arithmetic. The four ground rules, with denominate
whole numbers. Their applications. Four hours.

Writing. Elements of round and running hand. Dic-
tation. Writing from copy slips. Three hours.

Drawing. Exercises in drawing lines. Two hours.

Fifth Class, Twenty-Nine Hours.

Latin. Etymology. Use of the prepositions. The accu-
sative before an infinitive, practiced orally and in writing,
and extempore, and in exercises. Translation from Blume's
reader. Ten hours.

German. Parsing, reading and declamation. Exercises
on narrations. Fourhour3. French. Etymology, by oral
and written exercises. Easier stories from Hermann's
reader. Three hours.

Religion. Explanation of the gospels, according to
St. Matthew and St. Luke. Committing to memory the

[ Trans. vi.~] 7

50 Prussia and the German System of Education.

principal facts. Two hours. Geography. Review of the
last year's course. Rivers and mountains of Europe, and
chief towns, in connection. Two hours.

Arithmetic. Review of the preceding. Fractions.
Four hours.

Writing. Running hand from copy slips. Two hours.
Drawing. Drawing from bodies, terminated by planes and
straight lines. Two hours.

Fourth Class, Twenty-eight Hours.

Latin. Review of etymology. The principal rules en-
forced by oral and written exercises and extemporalia.
Translation from Jacob's reader and Corn. Nepos. Ten
hours.

German. Compositions on subjects previously read.
Declamation. Reading from Kalisch's reader. Parsing.
Three hours.

French. Review of etymology. Irregular verbs. Re-
ciprocal verbs. Anecdotes and narrations from Hermann's
grammar, and committing the principal to memory. Two
hours.

Religion. Gospel according to St. Matthew, explained.
Verses and psalms committed to memory. Two hours.

Geography. Political geography of Germany, and of the
rest of Europe. Review of the geography of the other
parts of the world. Three hours.

Arithmetic. Review of fractions. Simple and com-
pound proportion. Partnership. Simple interest. Three
hours.

Geometry. Knowledge of forms, treated inductively.
One hour.

Writing. Running hand, from copy slips. Two hours.

Drawing. From bodies bounded by curved lines. Two
hours.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 51

Lower Third Class, Thirty Hours.

Latin. Syntax. Rules of cases from Zumpt. Exercises
and extemporalia. Inflections formerly learned reviewed.
Cornelius Nepos. Eight hours.

Greek. Etymology, from Buttmann's grammar to
regular verbs, included. Translations from Greek into
German from Jacob's, from German into Greek from Hess's
exercises. Six hours.

German. Compositions in narration and description.
Declamation. Two hours.

French. Repetition of inflections, and exercises by
extemporalia and in writing. Translation of the fables
from Herrmann's reading- book, 2d course. Two hours.

Religion. Morals, and Christian faith. Two hours.

Geography. Physical geography. Europe and the
other parts of the world. Two hours.

History. General view of ancient and modern history.
Two hours.

Mathematics. Legendre's geometry, book 1. Decimals.
Algebra. Square and cube root. Four hours.

Drawing. Introduction to landscape drawing. Two
hours.

Upper Third Class, Thirty Hours.

Latin. Division 1. Syntax, from Zumpt. Review of
the preceding course. Oral exercises in construction of
sentences. "Written exercises and extemporalia. Caesar
Bell. Gall., books 1, 2, and 7, in part. Ovid's Metamor-
phoses, extracts from books 7 and 8. Prosody, rules
from Zumpt. Ten hours.

Greek. Division 1. Etymology, from Buttmann's gram-
mar. Oral and written exercises and extemporalia.
Jacob's reader. Six hours.

German. Examination of exercises on historical subjects.
Poetical selections for declamation. Two hours.

52 Prussia and the German System of Education.

French. Exercises in translation. "Written exercises.
Extemporalia. Two hours.

Religion. Principal passages from the gospels gone over.
General view of the Old Testament writings. Two hours.

History and Geography. Roman history from the Punic
Wars to the destruction of the western empire. History
of the middle ages, three hours. Review of the five general
divisions of the world, one hour. Four hours.

Mathematics. Geometry. Legendre, books 1 and 2,
and part of 3. Algebra, with exercises from Meyer Hirsch.
Four hours.

Lower Second Class, Thirty-one Hours.

Latin. Extracts from Livy and Csesar de Bell. Civ.
Review of Bell. Gall., books 2 and 3. Syntax. Exercises
and extemporalia. Committing to memory exercises from
Livy and Csesar. Ovid's Metamophoses, books 11 to 14.
Eight hours.

Greek. Homer's Odys., 11 12, 13, and 14. Exercises
on the dialects. Xenophon's Anab., 1, 2, and, part of 3.
Excerpts from the grammar reviewed. Exercises and
extemporalia. Syntax. Six hours.

Hebrew. Grammar, ending with irregular verbs. Easier
parts of historical books of Scripture translated. Vocabu-
lary learned by rote. Exercises on regular and irregular
verbs out of the recitation room. Two hours.

German. Correction of written exercises and essays.
Exercises on delivery. Two hours.

French. Voltaire's Charles XII. Exercises and extem-
poralia. Two hours.

Religion. Explanation of the principal parts of the
Epistles of St. Paul, with historical sketches, and a view
of the life of early Christian communities. Two hours.

History. Roman history, from the Punic Wars. History
of the middle ages concluded. General view of history.
Three hours.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 53

Mathematics. Geometry to proportions and simple
figures. Elements of algebra. Logarithms. Four hours. '

Natural History. Mineralogy. Botany, especially of
native plants. Two hours.

Upper Second Class, Thirty-two Hours.

Latin. Cicero's Orations, pro. Rose. Amer., de Amic,
de Senectute. Livy, books 22 to 25, inclusive. Virgil's
iEneid, books 1 and 2. Some eclogues and excerpts from
Georgics. Exercises and extemporalia. Nine hours.

Greek. Homer's Iliad, books 4 to 11, inclusive. Arrian
Alex, expedition, books 1 and 2. Buttmann's grammar
with exercises and extemporalia. Six hours.

Hebrew. Books of Judges and of Ruth, with exercises
of syntax. Easy exercises, and committing vocabulary to
memory out of the class-room. Two hours.

German. Essays. Delivery. Two hours.

French. Excerpts from Harmann and Briichner's
manual of the more recent French literature. Two hours.

Religion. Christian faith and morals. Two hours.

History. Review of ancient history and geography,
using the Latin language. Three hours.

Mathematics. Arithmetical geometry and plane trigo-
nometry. Algebraic exercises. Polygons. Stereometry.
Simple and quadratic equations. Four hours.

Physics. General physics. Electricity and magnetism.
Two hours.

First Class, Thirty-one Hours.

Latin. Horace's Odes, books 3 and 4. Cicero against
Verres. Tacitus Annals, books 11 and 12, and extracts
from 3 to 6. Cicero, Tusc. quest. Extempore transla-
tions from German into Latin. Exercises. Declamation.
Eight hours.

54 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Greek. Homer's Iliad, book 16, Odyssey, books 9 to 16,
inclusive. Hippias Major, Charmides and Gorsias of Plato,
(excerpts.) Sophocles' Edip. tyr. and Antigone. Gram-
matical exercises. Buttmann's grammar. Six bours.

Hebrew. Second book of Kings. Genesis. Psalms,
16 to 100. Grammatical criticisms of historical excerpts,
or of psalms, as an exercise at home. Two hours.

German. Criticism of compositions. General gram-
mar, and history of the German grammar and literature.
One hour.

French. Selections from Scribe and Delavigne. Exer-
cises and extemporalia. Two hours.

Religion. History of the Christian church, to the times
of Gregory VII. Two hours.

History. Modern history, and review. Three hours.

Mathematics. Plane trigonometry and application of
algebra to geometry. Algebra. Mensuration and conic
sections. Binomial theorem. Exponential and trigon.
functions. Four hours.

Physics. Physical geography. Mechanics. Two hours.

Philosophy. Propaedeutics. Logic. One hour.

There are five classes for vocal music, the fifth receiving
two hours of instruction in musical notation and singing
by ear. The fourth, time and cliffs, etc. Exercises in the
natural scale and harmony. Songs and chorals with one
part. The third, two hours formation of the scale of sharps,
running the gamut with difficult intervals, combined with
the oractical exercises of the last class. The second, two
hours, repetition of tones ; sharps, and flats. Formation
of the scale of flats. Exercises of songs and chorals, in two
parts. The first class is an application of what has been
learned, as well as a continuation of the science and art,
and all the pupils do not, of course, take part in this stage
of the instruction. The course is of four hours per week,
two for soprano and alto, one for tenor and bass, and one

Prussia and the German System of Education. 55

for the union of the four parts. The proficiency is indicated
by the fact, that the pupils perform very creditably such
compositions as Haydn's Creation and Handel's Messiah.

6. Institute of Arts of Berlin..

Winter Course.

Monday. First Class, first division — drawing and sketch-
ing machines, eight a. m. to twelve o'clock. Discussion of
machines, estimates of power, etc., two p. m. to five p. m.
Second division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo-
deling in clay, ten to twelve. Physics, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo-
deling, ten to twelve. Elements of geometry, two to four.
Repetition of the lecture, four to five.

Tuesday. First Class, first division — architectural plans
and estimates, eight to twelve. Practical instruction in
machinery, two to five. Second division — ornamental
and architectural drawing, eight to twelve. Trigonometry,
two to five.

Second Class. Ornamental and architectural drawing,
eight to twelve. Physics, two to four. Repetition of the
lecture, four to five.

Wednesday. First Class, first division — original designs,
eight to twelve. Discussion of machinery. Second
division — mineralogy, eight to nine. Machine drawing,
nine to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve.
Practical arithmetic, two to five.

Thursday. First Class, first division — drawing and
sketching machines, eight to twelve. Architectural in-
struction, estimates, two to five. Second division —
decorative and architectural drawing, eight to ten. Mo-
deling in clay, ten to twelve. Trigonometry, two to five.

56 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing,
eight to ten. Modeling in clay, ten to twelve. Physics,
two to four. Repetition of the lecture, four to five.

Friday. First Class, first division — architectural plans,
eight to twelve. Practical instruction in machinery, two
to five. Second division — machine drawing, eight to
twelve. Physics, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve.
Elementary mathematics, two to four. Repetition of the
lessons, four to five.

Saturday. First Class, first division — perspective and
stone-cutting, eight to twelve. Original designs, two to
five. Second division — mineralogy, eight to nine. De-
corative and architectural drawing, nine to twelve. Tri-
gonometry, two to five.

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing,
eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to five.

The summer term, which follows this, embraces the
practical instruction.

Summer Term.

Monday. First Class, first division — in the workshops
from seven a. m. to twelve, and from one until seven p. m.
Second division — machine drawing, eight to twelve.
Applied mathematics, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo-
deling, ten to twelve. Chemistry, two to four. Repeti-
tion, four to five.

Tuesday. First Class, first division — analytical dyna-
mics, eight to ten. Drawing of machines from original
designs, nine to twelve. Machinery, two to five. Second
division — decorative and architectural drawing, eight to
twelve. Chemistry, two to five.

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing,
eight to twelve. Elementary mathematics, two to four.
Repetition, four to five.

Prussia and the German System of Education. 57

• Wednesday. First Class, first division — in the work-
shops from seven to twelve, and from one to seven.
Second division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Mo-
deling, ten to twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve.
Practical arithmetic, two to four. Materials used in the
arts, four to five.

Thursday. First Class, first division — in the workshops
from seven to twelve, and from one to seven. Second
division — machine drawing, eight to ten. Modeling,
ten to twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five.

Second Class. Decorative and architectural drawing,
eight to ten. Modeling, ten to twelve. Chemistry, two
to four. Repetition of the lesson, four to five.

iriday. First Class, first division — analytical dyna-
mics, eight to nine. Drawing of a machine for an ori-
ginal design, nine to twelve. Machinery, two to five.
Second division — chemistry, eight to nine. Applied
mathematics, nine to twelve. Chemistry, two to five.

Second Class. Machine drawing, eight to twelve.
Elementary mathematics, two to four. Repetition of the
lesson, four to five.

Saturday. First Class, first division — in the workshops,
from seven to twelve, and from one to seven. Second
division — decorative and architectural drawing, eight to
twelve. Applied mathematics, two to five.

Second Class, Decorative and architectural drawing,
eight to twelve. Practical arithmetic, two to four. Ma-
terials used in the arts, four to five.

The chemical division of the practical classes is engaged
every day in the laboratory. On Tuesday and Wednes-
day, the library is open for reading from five to eight, p. m.

The collections for carrying out the various branches of
instruction are upon the same liberal scale with the other
parts of the institution. There is a library of works on

[Trans. vi.~\ 8

58 Prussia and the German System of Education.

architecture, mechanics, technology, the various arts,
archaeology, etc., in German, French, and English. This
library is open twice a week, from five to eight in the
evening, to the pupils of the first class of the school, and
to such mechanics as apply for the use of it.

There is a rich collection of drawings of new and useful
machines, and of illustrations of the different courses,
belonging to the institution. Among them is a splendid
work, entitled Models for Manufacturers and Artisans,
(Vorlegeblatter fur Fabricanten und Handwerker) con-
taining engravings by the best artists of Germany, and
some even from France and England, applicable to the
different arts and to architecture and engineering. Among
the drawings are many from original designs by Shenckel,
of Berlin. There is a second useful but more ordinary
series of engravings, on similar subjects, also executed
for the use of the school. These works are distributed to
the provincial trade schools, and presented to such of the
mechanics of Prussia as have especially distinguished
themselves in their vocation. The collection of models of
machinery belonging to the school probably ranks next in
extent and value to that at the Conservatory of Arts of Paris.
It contains models of such machines as are not readily com-
prehended by drawings. Most of them are working models,
and many were made in the workshops of the school. They
are constructed, as far as possible, to a uniform scale,
and the parts of the models are of the same materials as
in the actual machine. There is an extensive collection
of casts, consisting of copies of statues, basso-relievos,
utensils, bronzes, and vases of the museums of Naples,
Rome, and Florence, and of the British Museum, and of
the models of architectural monuments of Greece, Rome,
Pompeii, etc., and copies of models, cameos, and similar
objects; those specimens only have been selected which
are not in the collection of the Academy of Fine Arts of

Prussia and the German System of Education. 59.

Berlin, to which the pupils of the Institute of Arts have
access. There are good collections of physical and chemi-
cal apparatus, of minerals, of geological and technological
specimens.

The instruction is afforded in part by the lectures of
the professors, aided by text books specially intended for
the school, and in part by the interrogations of the pro-
fessors and of the assistants and repeaters. At the close
of the first year there is an examination to determine
which of the pupils shall be permitted to go forward, and
at the close of the second year to determine which shall
receive the certificate of the institute. Although the
pupils who come from the provinces are admitted to the
first class of the institute, upon their presenting a testi-
monial that they have gone through the course of the
provincial schools satisfactorily, it frequently happens that
they are obliged to retire to the second, especially from
defective knowledge of chemistry.

The cost of this school to the government is about
twelve thousand dollars annually, exclusive of the amount
expended upon the practical courses and upon the collec-
tions—a very trifling sum, if the good which it is calcu-
lated to do throughout the country is considered.

60 Prussia and the German System of Education.

Catalogue of Lectures Delivered in the Polytechnical

School at

preparatory school.

Low Mathematics,

Hours.

Grelle,
Guthe,

Theology arid Botany, Miihlenpfardt, I
Mineralogy, Guthe,

, Schulz
Sketching, -j Blank,

Kiisler,

Outline, Bruns,

( Schulz, )

\ Blank, V

( Kiisler, \

PRINCIPAL SCHOOL.

High Mathematics,

Grelle,

Geometry,

J Slegemann,
1 Busing,

Practical Geometry,

J Huniius,
| Busing,

Mechanics, I course,
" II course,

Ritter,

66

Construction of machinery, Grove,
" I course, "
" II course,

Theory of machinery,
" I course,
" II course,

Riihlmann,

66

66

Architecture, I course

Constructions and
Material,

j Debo,
1 Giier,

Ornamental,

Liier,

15

4

7
• 5

-10

8
7

5
5

5
5

\ 6
4

Hanover.

Hours.

Theory of Form and
Perspective,

•j Kohler,

. 7

To sketch buildings,

j Hase,
| Kohler,

11

Delivery,

j Debo,
1 Giier,

I*

Ornamental,

Giier,

3

History of Archit3Ctui

e, Hase,

4

Roads, Rail-Road
Constructions,

■j v. Kaven,

12

Water-works,

Trenting,

13

Con. of Bridges,

j Trenting,
i V. Kaven,

34

Geognosy,

Huniius,

3

Theoretical Physics, v. Quintus Talius, 5

Practical Physics, " 5

Theoretical Chemistry, Heeren, 5

Technical Chemistry, " 5

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY

Experimenting in the
Laboratory,

Analytic Chemistry,

Mechanical

Technology,

Embossing works,

Moulding works,

■J Kraut,

Kraut,

( Karmarsch,
1 Hoyer,

Engelhardt,

Bruns,

22
3

h

Catalogue of the Lectures to be Delivered in the Fre-
derick William University at Berlin, from Oct. 15, 1868,
till March 19, 1869.

theology.

By Prof. Dr. Hengstenberg : Hours.

The Introduction to the canonical

books Old Testament, 5

The Prophecies of Isaiah, 5

The History of the Passion and Re-
surrection of Christ according to
the four Gospels 2

By Prof. Gic. Vatke :

The Introduction to the Old Testa-
ment, 5

The Origin of the Pentateuch, 1

By Prof. Benabt :

Genesis, 5

The Book of the Judges, 1

By Gic. Kranicbteld :

Genesis, 5

The Book of Daniel, 2

Homiletic Exercises, Exercises in the
Arabian and Hebrew language, —

By Gic. Gerlach :

The Psalms, 5

Difficult Parts of the Old Testament
explained in the Latin Language, 2

By Prof. Dr. RSdiger : Hours.

The Book of Job 4

Solomon's Song 1

By Prof. Dr. Dieterici :

The Lesser Prophets, 2

By Prof. Gic. Strauss :

Biblical Archaeology, — 2

Homiletics, 1

Homiletic Exercises, 1

Catechetical Exercises, 1

By Prof. Dr. Dorner :

The Gospel of John, 5

The Christian Symbol ism, 5

By Prof. Dr. Frommann :

The Epistle to the Romans, 5

The Homiletics, 3

By Prof. Dr. Twesten :

The Epistles to the Thessalonians,
Galatians, Philippians, Colossians,
Ephesians, 5

The Principles of the Dogmatical
Interpretations of the New Testa-
ment, 1

Christian Dogma, 6

Prussia and the German' System of Education.

61

By Prof. Gic. Messner : Hours.

PartB of the Revelations, 1

The Biblical Theology of the New
Testament, 5

By Prof. Dr. Piper :

The 2d part of the Church History, . . 5
The Archaeological aud Patristic Ex-
" ercises, 2

By Prof. Gic. Weingarten :

The 2d part of the Church History, . . 5
The History of the Reformation, 2

By Prof. Dr. Semisch :

The 3d part of the History of the

Church, 6

The Christian History of Dogma, ... 6

By Gic. Preuss :

The Apology of Christianity, 5

A Disputation on the Augsburg Con-
fession, 1

By Prof. Dr. Steinmeter :

Practical Theology, 5

The Catechetics, . . 1

Homiletic Advices, 1

By Gic. Kleinert:

Theological Disputations, 1

JURISPRUDENCE.

By Prof. Htdemann :

Encyclopedia or Methodologia of

Jurisprudence, 3

The Prussian Common Law, 5

Disputations on Prussian and French .

laws, 2

The Code Napoleon, 3

By Prof. Berner :

Law by Nature, 4

Laws of Nations (International Law), 3
German law of Punishment (penal

justice) 4

Penalty Process, — 2

Criminal Psychology, 1

By Prof. Michelet :

Law by Nature in connection with
Universal History of Law, 4

By Prof. Rudorit :

Institutions and Antiquities of the

Roman Law, 5

History of the Roman State Law, ... 1

By Dr. Schmidt :

Encyclopaedia or Methodologia of
Jurisprudence,

On the Pandects and International
History of the Roman'law, also Ex-
egetic Exercises . , 6

By Dr. Baron :

Institutions and Antiquities of the

Roman Law, 4

History of the Roman State 1 aw, — 4
Dogmatical and Exegetical Exercises

on th<; Roman law, 1

The Prussian Common Law, 5

By Dr. Degenkoll :

Institutions and Antiquities of the

Roman law, 5

Practical exercises, 1

By Dr. Eck :

Institutions of the Roman law, 4

History of the Roman State law, 4

Selected Civil law Cases, 1

By Dr. Rtck : Hours.

Institutions of the Roman law, 4

Law of inheritance, 2

By Prof. Bruns :

Practical law of pandects, 6

Law of Inheritance, , 3

Selected Pandects, 1

By Prof. Gneist :

Law of Inheritance, ■ . . . 3

History of the English Constitution, 1

Common and Prussian Civil Law, ... 4

By Prof. Hepfter:

Canon Law, 4

The Public Law of Prussia and other
German States, 4

By Dr.' Hubler :

Canon Law, 2

Canonical Civil Law, ?

By Prof. Hometer :

History of the German Empire and
Law, 2

By Prof. KiinNS :

History of the German Empire and
Law, 2

German Law concerning Bills of Ex-
change, 1

Exercises of the German law, especi-
ally of the Commercial Law, 1

German Statute Law, 4

By Dr. Lewis :

History of the German Empire and

Law, ' 4

Definition of the Sachsenspiegel, ... 2

By Dr. Gierke :

History of the German Empire and
Law, 2

By Dr. Behrend :

Definition of the Sachsenspiegel, ... 1

German Statute Law, 5

German Commercial Maritime and

Exchange Law, 4

On Exchange and Banking Business, 1

By Prof. Beseler :

German Statute law including the
Feudal, Commercial, Exchange

and Maritime Law, 5

German Law, : 1

By Prof. V. Holtzendoref :

State Law, regarding especially the
Documents of the Prussian Consti-
tution, 4

Politic and Common State Law, ..... 2
Common German and Prussian

Penal Justice, 4

Penalty Process, 2

On Death Penalty, 1

By Prof. Hinschius :

Prussian Family Law 1

MEDICAL SCIENCE.

By Prof. Schulz Schubzenstein :

Encyclopaedia aud Metdodologia of

the Medical Science, 2

General Pathology and Therapeutics, 4
Remedy Theory'; Essays of the Effect

of Medicine on Animals, 6

By Prof. Hirsch :

General History of Medical Science, 3
General Pathology and Therapeutics, 5

6S I*ru8sia and ih <> - >, m of Education.

Bj Prof. Kin iikht : Hours.

tomy B

Anatomy <if the Brain and Bplnal

Marrow i

The Theoretical Histology 1

a Microscopical Anatomical Conne, !
D ctions 19

Bv Prof. II mm urw:

The < tsteology and Byndesmologj ol

Man 2

Anatomy >>i the Powerol - . .. l

By Prof, m r.c.i- Ri i hoitd :

The 2d part of Physiology 5

Physiological I - in the Phy-
Biological Laboratory, assisted by
Prof. Rosenthal " ':

By Pn>f. Rosenthal:

The Experimental Pari of Physio-
logy 2

Theory of Electricity l

By Dr. Mink :

Selected Chapters of Physiology, . . -1
Physical and Physiological Base of
the Electrotherapy, with experi-
ments 1

Bv Dr. IIki:m.\n\ :

About the Physiological Effects of
i -. with experiments 1

Medical Chemistry, with experi-
ments

Physiological and Pathological
< fhemical Tasks '■•

The Theory of Poison, 2

By Dr. BlKBBBK n :

Chemistry of Digestion 1

Practical Medical Chemical Course,
with experiments 3

By Prof. Tibohow :

General Pathology and Therapy, in-
cluding General Pathological Ana-
tomy, 4

, A l>< monstrative Course of Patho-
logy, Anatomy and Microscopy
with advice to Pathological See-

tions 3

Practical Courses of the whole Medi-
cal Diagnosis,

By Dr. WxsTPHAL :

Percussion and Auscultation, with

practical exercises r

Laryngoscopic Course, ?

By Prof, i.kwin :

Bj phUie

The Clinical Medicine of ByphUitlc

and ' lutaneous l tiseases. :'.

Laryngoscopy, with practical exer-
cises,

Auscultation Ion and Larj □

opj . with demonstration!

By Dr. Wai.dknbi BO

Laryngoscopy, wiili practical exer-
cises,

Practical Course on Auscultation,
Percussion and Laryngoscopy,...

By Dr. Eui.i HBl BO :

I lemonsi i it Ions of Diseases of the
Nerves, with practical exercises;

for three months -1

Electrotherapy,.

By Prof. Gbtesingbb :

( Linical Medicine of the Diseases of
Nerves and Mental Debilities ... 5

By Prof. Mn-' in ni u b i Houtb.

The Theorj ol Remedy 6

On the Agitating — 8

■ neral, and Special Surgery with

demonstrations,

By Dt. Hi i i i :

on Medical Climatology 1

on tli" i so of Medical Springs fur
( Ihronic Die isei 4

l!v Dr. Vaiimimi;:

On the Mi Mineral Water
for ' in'< 2

By Prof. ^ i

Genera) and Special Surgery 4

On the" Ruptures of the Human Body, S

Bj Dr. i i-< m b:

i leneral and special Surgery 4

( in Kiipi in. - in the Abdomen and
their Treatment 2

By Prof. V. Lahgi nbv b :

Chirurgery, with Burgles! anatomi-
cal di monstrations 3

Burgical-Clinical-Mediclne in the
Royal Surgical University Clinl-
cnin 5

Bj Dr. I.' itoth :

On Chlruryery, ?

Bj Prof, i Idblt:

i dissections 6

The Themy of Osteoceles and Dislo-
cations 2

By Prof. V i. km i: :

The Eye— its Diseases and Reme-
dies, !•

By Prof. Bobh:

Eyeglasses and their Medical Effects, l

By Dr. Bbhakd:

Diseases of the Auditory Nerve in
connection with demonstrations, 1

By Dr. Ltjoab :

On the Bye and Par. with denion-

Btrations and experiments 1

By Prof. A i r.Ki i ii r :

Diseases ol the Teeth and Mouth,.. 2

Bj Prof. M mitin :

Gynaecology and Midwifery 5

Clinical and Policlinlcal Medicine in
conned inn with Midwifery and
Gynaecology C

By Prof. Khkht :

Policlinlcal and Clinical Medicines
of Diseases of Children, 3

MEDICAL .11 RISPR1 DENI B

By Prof I.im \s :

Dissections ?

By Prof. sm;zh eh \ :

I lisBections ?

Medical Jurisprudence 6

Selected Chapters of the Medical
police 2

By Dr. BoHULTS:

Medical Climatology 2

On the Climate of Italy 1

PHILOSOPHICAL Bl EENCES.

Bj Prof 'i bi M'i i i hbi bo :

General History of Philosophy 5

Psj chology,. . . .' 4

Bxplanal ton of Aristotle's 2d Book
of Physics, in the Philosophical
Exercises, 2

Prussia and the German System of Education.

63

By Prof. Althaus : Hours.

General History of Philosophy, up
to the 18th century, 4

History of Philosophy from the be-
ginning of the 18th century, 2

Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical
Sciences, including Logic, 4

By Prof. Gruppe :

History of Greek Philosophy, 2

By Dr. Marker :

Natural Philosophy of the Ancients,
according to Aristotle's Physics, 4

By Prof. Michelet :

Logic and Encyclopaedia of the
Philosophical Sciences, 4

Philosophical Conservatory Disputa-
tion, 1

By Prof. Harms :

Logic and Metaphysics, 4

Practical Philosopny, or Ethics, 4

Philosophical Exercises, 1

By Dr. Dtjhring :

Logic, combined with a course of
Philosophy, according to the prin-
ciples of Natural Dialectics 4

Philosophical Privatissimis, 4

By Prof. Werder :

Psychology and Anthropology, 3

By Prof. Steinthal :

Philosophy of Language and Gene-
ral Grammar 4

By Prof. Massmann :

Pedagogical Questions, 2

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

By Prof. Kummer:

Theory of Numbers, 4

By Dr. Kronecker :

Theory of Algebraic Algebra, 2

By Prof. Weierstrass :

Theory of the Elliptical Functions, 6

By Prof. Puchs :

Theory of the Differential and Inte-
gral Calculus, 4

By Dr. Hoppe :

Litegral Calculus, 4

Analytic Geometry, 4

By Prof. Ohm :

Analytic Mechanics, 3

By Prof. Forster :

Selected chapters, Astronomical Me-
chanics, 4

The History of Astronomy, 2

By Dr. Auwers :

The Double Stars, 2

THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

By Prof. Poggendorf :

General History of Physics; from
Galileo to the present time, 2

By Prof. Magntjs :

Physics with Essays, 5

Practical Physical Exercises, ?

Physical Colloquia, ?

By Prof. Dove :

Experimental Physics,. 2

Meteorology, 2

By Prof. Erman : Hours.

Physics of the Earth ; or the Theory
of the Geographical and Cosmo-
graphical Phenomenon, 3

Theoretical and Practical Advices
regarding Scientific and Physical
Observations, ?

By Prof. Quincke :

Theory of Electricity, 4

Optics, 2

By Dr. Paalzow :

Mechanical Theory of Warmness, ... 1

By Dr. Oppenheim :

The History of Chemistry of our Age, 2
Organic Chemistry, 3

By Dr. Sonnenschein :

The History of Chemistry, 1

Judicial Chemistry, with Essays,. ... 2

Practical Chemical Tasks, 6

Chemical Colloquia, ?

By Dr. Remele :

History of Analytic Chemistry, 1

The Quantitative Parts of Analytic

Chemistry, with experiments, 3

Chemical Mineralogy, 3

By Prof. Hofmann:

Experimental Chemistry, 3

Introduction to Analytic Chemistry, 1

Chemical Experimental Exercises,.. 6

By Dr. Wichelhaus :

Organic Chemistry, 4

Scientific Chemical Researches, 6

By Prof. Schneider :

Organic Chemistry, especially for

Medicine and Pharmacy, 5

Organic Bases, 1

Inorganic Pharmacy, 3

Practical Chemical Exercises, 6

Summary of Zoology 3

Natural History of Tape-worms of

Man, 5

A Zoological Course directed by him

By Prof. Baeter:

The 2d part of Organic Chemistry,
with experiments, 4

Practical Exercises on Organic Che-
mistry, 6

By Prof. Rammelsberg:

The 1st part of Special Inorganic
Chemistry, 4

The Chemical Principles of Metal-
lurgy, 3

By Prof. Rose :

Mineralogy, 6

Crystallography, 1

By Prof. Betnch :

Petrifications, 4

Geogmosv with regard to Mountains
formed in Horizontal Layers, 2

By Prof. Roth :

Geology, 2

Volcanoes, 1

By Dr. Laspetres :

General Petrography, 4

By Prof. Bratjn :

General Botany, regarding especially

Medical and Economical Pfints, .. 5
Exercises to determine Cryptogami-

cal Plants, ?

Botanical Conservatory, ?

64 Prussia mid the Crinan S</s/< „t <>/ Kd a ration.

By Prof, Karsi i\ : Hoars.

Medical Botany showing Medical

Plants and Drags, 6

Pharmacognosy 4

Anatomical Physical Exercises ?

By Dr. Km :

Fructification ofPlants 2

Anatomical and Physical Exercises, 6

Bj Prof Pi 1 1 as :

General and Special Zoology 6

Xnu ogical Zootomic Exercises, 2

By Dr. Qxbstaokxb:

General and Special Entomology
with Microscopical Demonstra-
tions, 3

By Prof, dxj Bois Reymond :

Physical Anthropology, 1

SCIENCES OP STATE FINANCE AND
I Mil 8TRY.

By Prof, Hakbsbn :

People's Political Economy, 4

Science of Finances, 4

Financial Exercises 1

By Prof. 1'i:ii:i>i.aeni)KU :

National Economy, 4

By Dr. DiimtiNO :

National Economy acordlng to Prin-

dples of Critical Foundation 4

Parties in the State and Society 1

Political Bonomy,

Prussian Finances, Police and Ad-
ministration,

By Prof. IIki.wim;:

Police Science or Theory of intrinO
sic Administration, aiso Theory
of State Economy, > 4

Agricultural, Industrious. and Com- |
menial Police. J

Examinations and Disputations on
the Science of Politics and Finan-
ces, 1

By Dr. Sciiui.z :

Police, 2

By Prof. Tiiaer:

Principles of Agricultural Credit and

Insurance 1

Agricultural Production of Animals, 4
Colloquia on Selected Part?- of the
Practical Management of Agricul-
ture, 1

by Prof. Koi it :

Agricultural Botany, with demons-
trations on living plants, 2

By Dr. Qkhbtai m B :

insects Pernicious and Dseful to

\ rieulture, 2

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY.

By Prof. V. Rai U

History of constitutions and Politics, 1

By Prof. Koi'M :

History of the Middle Ages 4

Historical Exercises, l

By Dr. Kni'M vnnsiioki I

History from the end of the Middle
Ages with regard to Literature

and Civilization 4

History of the English devolution, 2

By Prof. V. Uaski. : Hours.

History of the Present ^ge, since
the Declaration of independence

Of the United Stales of America, 1

Historical ] . 1

By Prof DBOJ -ia :

Htetorj Blncel816, 5

creek Hlstor • 4

Exercises of the Historical Society, I

By Dr. ll lbbbl :

History Ol Prussia from 17S1-1815, 1

Bj Prol i mi:

Historical Exercises, 1

By Pro! Kuciiit :

History of the Earth and Geographi-
cal Discoveries, 3

By Dr. Hash \n :

History of Colonic- from the 16th

Century till the present time l

Ethnology and Anthropology, 4

Bj Prof. Mollbb :

Geographv and Knowledge of Dif-
ferent States Of the New World. 4
The History of the New World 1

THEORY AND HISTORY OF ART.
By Prof. IIotho:

Esthetics, With a Summary on His-
tory of Art, 2

Bj Prof. Wbrdbb :

i in Dramatic Art, 1

Bj Dr. M lbbobkb :

Rhetoric : .. 1

Rhetorical Exercises, 1

P.y Prof. Cruris :

History Of Plastic Arts of the i ,r> , i,-.

and Romans 5

Exercises of Classical Archaology
and .Monuments, ?

P.y Prof. l'nii:i)i:i:i('lis :

History of Greek Roman Art,

Archaeological Exercises, 1

By Prof. Lbpbiub:

Egyptian Monuments, 1

l'.v Prof. I'.KI.I I KM ANN :

History of Music of the middle Bj

from beginning ol ( hristlanlty till
Franco of Cologne, 18th century, . . a

Counterpoint Exercises 2

PHILOLOGICAL BCTJENCE8 AND EX-
PLANATION OF AUTHORS.

l'.v Prof. S'l'l IN I'M u :

The st vie of the [ndo-Germanlc Lan-
guage, with regard to the Greek,
Latin and i lerman Language, ... 4

Historj of the Bci< nee of the Lan-
guages of the Greeks and Romans, 1

By Prof. Mass* \n\ :

Science of Handwriting, ?

Explains the I lermania ol Tacitus,, t
Monuments regarding the Gothic
Languages, combined with the
History of the Gothic Language, 4

By Prof. Krai shot r i

History of Greek Literature till time

of Alexander the < lr< at 4

Explains Medea of Euripides, 4

By Prof. II u pt:

Explains the Birds ol Aristophanes, 4
Explains iheEunuchusof Terentius, 4

Prussia and the German System of Education. 65

By Prof. Mullach : Hours.

Explains Thucydides in the Latin

Language, 1

Explains Cicero De Oratione, 4

By Prof. Hubner ;

The Funeral Oration of Pericles over

Thucydides, 1

Histo.y of Roman Literature, 4

On Roman Private Antiquities, with

the Help of Monuments of Art, ... 3

By Prof. Bekker :

Oration of Isocrates, 2

By Dr. Bonitz :

On the Life and Literary Works of
Plato, with the explanation of
the Dialogue, Theaetel, 2

By Prof. Geppert :

Roman Antiquities, 4

The Casina of Plautus, 2

By Prof. Taffe :

Latin Paleography, 3

By Dr. Maerker :

Lucrez's books, Treating the Things
of Nature, 1

By Prof. Memmsen :

Selected Parts of Gaius's Institu-
tions, 1

By Prof. Mullenhoff :

The Nibelunge Noth, 4

The Songs of the Old Edda, 4

The German Exercises to be con-
tinued, 1

By Prof. Tobler :

French Grammar, 4

On the NovelaB Ejemplares of Cer-
vantes, 2

Exercises of his Romanian Society, 1

By Lee. Fabbrttcci :

History of Italian Literature in the

Italian Language, 3

Italian Language, 2

Oners an Italian and French course,
Privatissimis

By Lee. Solly :

History of English Literature from
15th century, in the English Lan-
guage, 1

Oners a Privatissimis in the English
Language

By Prof. Weber:

Sanskrit Grammar, 3

Explains Buavabhutis Malatiniful-

hava, 2

Hymns of Rigveda or Atharvaveda, 3

Zend, or Pali Grammar, 2

Offers Privatissimis in Sanskrit,

Pali or Zend

By Dr. Tohaentgen ; Hours.

The Grammatical Sutra of Panini, . . 2

By Dr. Haarbrucker ;

The Syrian Language, 2

The Arabian Language, 3

By Prof. Rodiger :

Solomon's Song, 1

The Book of Job 4

The Koran and other Arabian tenets,

also the Arabian Syntax, 3

Offers Privatissimis for the Hebrew,

Arabian or Ethiopian language. . .

By Prof. Dieterici :

Grammar of the Arabian language, 3
Explains some Arabian Authors, — 1

By Lie. Dr. Kranichfeld :

Grammar of the Arabian language,
with practical exercises, 2

By Dr. Wetzstein :

On the Idiom of the Zeltaraber, 1

On the Lyric Poetry of the Arabians, 2

By Prof. Benary :

The Hebrew language and the other
similar Dialects, Privatissimis

By Prof. Lepsius :

Egyptian Grammar, 3

By Dr. Pietraszewski :

The Persian Grammar, and Zend
Language, also the Polish and
Russian Language, 2

The Turkish Grammar with Trans-
lation of Kirk Wezir, 2

Offers Privatissimis in the Persian
and Turkish Language

By Prof. Schott :

On the Literature of People of Fin-
land Descent 2

The Finland (Suomi) Language, 2

The Chinese Language, 2

By Lee. Michaelis :

German Stenography, with Practical

Exercises, 2

Practical Stenographical Exercises, 1
Offers Privatissimis in the German,

English and French Stenography. .
On the Principles of the German

Orthography 1

GYMNASTICS.

Mr. Neumann teaches Fencing.
Mr. Freising " Dancing.

Mr. Hildebrandt " Riding horseback.

Public Institutions.

To the Royal Library, and University Li-
brary, every student i3 admitted. The
Observatory, the Botanic Garden, An-
atomical Zoolomical and Zoological
Museum, the Herbarium, the Mineral
Department, the Collection of Surgical
Instruments and Bandages, the Physi-
cal Apparatus, the Pharmacological

[Trans. »i\] <j

Collection, the Collection of Charts of
the Royal Chartographic Institution,
the Christian Archfeological Collection
of the University, the Museum of Arts,
the Collection of Plaster Casts, the
Archreological Collection of the Univer-
sity, can be used during the course.

00 Prussia and the German System of Education.

The KtegeUcal Exercises of the Theologi-
cal Seminary, regarding the N<« T< -

tanient, will be directed by Prof. Dr.
Tweston ; thoMt- til the Old Testament
bj' Prnf. I>r. IIi:m.-tkmiki:i; ; those of
the History of the Church and Dogmas
by Prof. Dr. Semish. The following
Institutions are for the study of Medi-
cine and Surgery :

The Anatomical Theatre and Physiological
Laboratory, the Medical, Surgical Poly-
clinical Institution, the Clinicum for
Surgery and Medical Science for Eyes,
the Clinicum of the University, for
Midwifery, the Polyclinic for Midwifery,
the Clinical Department of the Charite
Hospital.as the Operation Clinicum for
Surgery, the Clinicum for Medical
Science for Eyes, and Perfection of
Oculists, the Clinicum for Syphilitic
Patients, Psychiatric Clinicum and the

Clinicum for the Disease ol the Nerves,
the Clinicum for Midwifery and Treat-
ment of Women lying-in, and New-burn
Children, the Pathological Institution
in the Charite. and the Department for
Practical Kxrrcises of Judicial Medi-
liiii', in the Anatomical building.

In the Philosophical Seminary nnder the
direction of Prof. Hatnr, the Dialogue

of Tacitus will be explained every
Wednesday.

The Orations of Lysias will be explained
under the direction of Prof. Km B>
hofp, every Saturday.

The Disputation Exercises will be di-
rected also by Prof. Kirciihoff.

The Exercises of the Mathematical Semi-
nary will be directed by Prof. Kummeh
and Prof. Weieustrass.

Art. II. The Flora of the Adirondacks. By Geo. T.

Stevens, M.D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, February, 1868.]

In the midst of the great state of New York lies the
Switzerland of America ; a region where huge mountains
elevate their summits against the deep blue sky, and
thick forests spread over tens of thousands of acres.
Here, between the vast rugged hills whose sides are, even
in winter, perpetually green, lie sleeping almost innumer-
able lakes, reflecting the green of the hills, like gems in
their caskets of unhewn granite.

Deep gorges and beautiful valleys divide the towering
hills, and hundreds of creeks and rivulets wind in crooked
channels their ways to the lakes, now gliding silently
between the overhanging trees and shrubs, whose deep
shade shuts out the sunlight, now tumbling noisily over
stony bottoms and anon plunging over the side of some
rocky declivity in foaming cataract or laughing cascade,
sometimes dissolving into light spray before reaching the
far down bottom, and then collecting in crystal streams
overhung by long grasses and kissed by bright flowers.

Here, among the wildnesses of forests and mountains,
stalk the red deer and the moose, ranging their pathways
from the mountain tops to the lake sides, or cropping the
green herbage from glen or marsh. The speckled trout
in great numbers disport in the shining waters, of the
lakes or timidly shrink under the overhanging banks of the
streams. The thrumming of the partridge is heard along
the hill sides, and the raven and the eagle are seen wheel-
ing in elegant circles above the mountain cliffs. Here,
too, the tourist is startled by the piercing screams of the

lis 77-, Flora of the Adirondacks.

catamount and the harsh cry of the lynx. Beds of iron,
enough to supply a world, arc hidden among these rude
crags, and untold wealth of pines far in the interior of
this region, await the opening of railway transportation
to supply our lumber markets. If, with great toil, we
climb to the summit of some commanding peak, strug-
gling upward through gaping chasms and cragged defiles,
avoiding precipitous dill's, pulling ourselves up rocky
steeps by rootlets and branches until we reach the emi-
nence, we shall see that this mountainous region is not
all an untamed wilderness. Looking from the summit of
Mt. Marcy or "Whiteface, on one side we shall gaze upon
a sea of mountains rising in huge billows like great waves
upon the storm-swept ocean; a hundred lakes, lying
in their rugged bosoms, glisten in the sunlight before
our eyes, and the utmost rudeness pervades the scenery ;
but turning about and looking in an opposite direction.
the eye falls upon a landscape beautiful and varied
beyond description. Before us, far to the northward and
southward and eastward, fertile valleys and verdant
fields alternate with groves and forests, and the little
hamlets of the interior dotting the landscape here and
there among the hills, contrast beautifully with the
thriving villages along the borders of Lake Champlain.
Away, as far as the eye can reach to the northward, may
be seen the waters of the St. Lawrence, a silver ribbon
stretched just below the horizon. Confronting us from
the east, beyond Lake Champlain is the noble range of
Green mountains, no longer green at this distauce, but
misty blue, their rounded and regular summits contrasting
strongly with the sharp and rugged peaks of the sur-
rounding Adirondacks. The beautiful Champlain lies
between the slopes of these two ranges of mountains, an
object of surpassing loveliness, its green islands resting
emerald-like upon its surface.

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 69

Throughout this wildly picturesque region, varied in
soil, in altitude, and even in climate, the flora is as diver-
sified as the country. In no section of our state can the
botanist find a field so rich in choice and beautiful species,
yet few regions in the country have been less thoroughly
explored by botanists than this.

If, now, we traverse this region for its plants, commenc-
ing at the borders of the Champlain, and making our way
toward the heart of the wilderness, we shall find our
territory divided into several floral sections or zones,
depending on geological formation, the degree of culture
to which the country is subjected, and the altitude. These
conditions are not, however, entirely independent of each
other.

In our present paper our observations will be confined
chiefly to the county of Essex for several reasons. This
county embraces a great portion of what is called the
wilderness ; it is well known as the most broken and
mountainous county in our state. Here are found the
highest mountain peaks and the deepest gorges ; and here
also is found, perhaps, the finest natural scenery in North
America. The wonderful diversity of its forest scenery
renders this county particularly attractive to the botanist.
Its limits include about twelve hundred square miles,
extending along Lake Champlain forty-three miles, and
westward into the wilderness forty-one miles. All the
mountain ranges north of the Mohawk cross this county
in a series of almost parallel ridges extending nearly north
and south. Here arise the Hudson, the Ausable and
the Saranac rivers, and within the limit of this county
are more than one hundred lakes, some of them among
the most beautiful sheets of water in the world, imparting
great variety to the scenery, while they so modify and
reduce the temperature as to produce decided effects upon
the vegetation.

70 Th> Flora of tin Aavrondaeks.

We shall find little difficulty in drawing our geological

chart. If a map of this whole Adirondack region were
colored to correspond with its geological character, we
should find an almost unbroken gray surface, representing
the primary rocks. Only a narrow strip along the borders
of Lake Champlain breaks the monotony of the gray.
A blue line, extending from near Tieonderoga to Wills-
borough, tells of the calciferous and ('hazy limestone ; a
little belt by the lake side, more then thirty miles long
and averaging a mile wide ; then the belt changes to red,
indicating the Potsdam sandstone, which creeps behind the
limestone a little to the southward, and from Willsborough
northward forms the whole of the belt to the north boundary
of the county. It is in this sandstone, at Keeseville, that
nature has played the curious freak of riving the rocks
asunder for a great distance, forming a wonderful gorge
with high precipitous walls on either side through which
flows the Ausable river.

We shall find the profile chart of our territory far more
complicated. Yet we may, perhaps, draw a rude outline
which will impart some idea of its characteristic features.
The slopes rising from the lake are not, like those of the
Vermont side, gentle, rising in monotonous undulations
toward the great mountain range. These are bold and
broken by sharp spurs and crags. In places, as at Port Henry,
the mountain thrusts its precipitous sides fairly into the lake.
Yet along these slopes are found grassy plains, pleasant
valleys traversed by streams of clear water, and gently
undulating hills. Thriving and beautiful villages are
situated at short intervals by the lake where the smoke of
the furnace stack and the steam from the factory tell of the
industry of the people.

The land rises rapidly, and range after range of hills
mount higher and higher, until we reach the principal
cluster in the extreme western part of Esses county.

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 71

Along the lake's side, and for a mile westward we find
but few rare or specially interesting plants. The flora
here is generally that which belongs to the state at large ;
yet we have a few species not found elsewhere in the state,
and some, which although by no means rare in other
localities, are not found further in the interior of our
region. Among the latter class is the Juniperus Virginiana,
or red cedar, which I have found only along the lake's
side. Near Port Henry is a little cluster and among the
rocky pastures at Whallons bay it grows in some pro-
fusion. In this last named locality is found also the
Hedyotis Cosrulea, bluets, a delicate little herb with blue
salverform flowers ; and in the crevices and on the dry
mould covering the slaty rocks, the Arenaria Squarrosa
shows its thick clusters of white star like-blossoms. On
the sandy plain about Keeseville may be found the Spiran-
thes Gracilis, by no means a common plant elsewhere in
this county, its delicate stalk of white fringy flowers
gracefully curling upon itself. The hickory is found
along the borders of the lake wherever the lime rock
prevails, but is rarely, if ever, seen in the interior.

The button bush, with its clusters of little white balls,
and several species of Cornus, frequent the sides of pools
and eddies. The Quercus Mocrocarpa (overcup white
oak), and Quercus Montana (rock chestnut oak), are found
on the islands and shores of the lake, and on the sandy
beaches grows the diminutive sand cherry ( Cerasus Pumila),
rare in other sections of the state. Many forms of rush
and carex are found along the shallow borders, some of
them rare species.

Leaving the lake side and taking a higher range, includ-
ing a belt of territory averaging from fifteen to twenty
miles wide, extending from the north to the south bound-
ary of our district, we shall find ourselves in a floral
region scarcely equaled for the great diversity as well as

72 The Flora of th Adirondack*.

beaut}' of its species. Here we have the llora of hill and
valley, of sandy plain and rich meadow land, of spliagnous
marsh and clear running stream. The forest trees include
all, or nearly all that are found elsewhere in the northern
states. The maples, the beech, the birches and the oaks,
butternut, hard hack and cherry, the tall white pine and the
Norway pine, the single and the double spruce, the hemlock,
balsam and arbor vitffi, the linden and poplar, the larch
and the willow, the elm and the ash meet us wherever
we turn, giving great variety of form and shade of greeu
in summer, and contributing to the gorgeous colors of
autumn for which these forests are so celebrated.

A few rarer species of forest trees are here. On the
sandy plain two miles west of Keeseville I have often seen
the PimiS Inops, Jersey pine, which has never been reported
by any other observer in the limits of Xew York. There
is also a group of these rare pines in a little grove half a
mile west of Mrs. Wadhams's bouse in Westport. The
canoe, or paper birch, rare in other sections of New York,
is here found in abundance on the hill sides, and the
Abies nigra or double spruce, although found in other
parts of the state, abounds nowhere else, and it is among
these hills that it attains its greatest dimensions. Of
shrubs and herbs we have an almost endless variety. We
may only mention some of the rarer and more beautiful
forms, as our limits permit no attempt at making a cata-
logue. One of the most striking beauties of the Ad iron-
dack forests is the elegant climber Clematis Veriicilaris^
virgin bower. This superb plant, supporting itself upon
small trees and underbrush, often reaches a height of
twenty or twenty-five feet, and when in bloom covers the
trees upon which it twines with rich purple campanulate
blossoms, each nearly two indies in diameter, hanging in
elegant festoons and appearing amidst the green foliage
like swarms of butterflies. Another twining clematis, the
C. Virginiana,\s more common, often covering the hedges

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 73

and adorning the rough stone fences with an exuberance
of dark green leaves and clusters of white flowers which
are succeeded by large panicles of fruit with long white
silky plumous tails. Where the meadows are clothed
with their emerald mantle, we find the Anemone Cylindrica
and Pennsylvanica. While under the shadow of the forest
trees the little Anemone Nemorosa is swayed to and fro by
the wind.

A dozen species of buttercups (Ranunculus), among
them the Ranunculus Reptans and R. Aquatilis, two
rare species, adorn our region. The first creeping among
the mosses in shady woods, and on the shores of lakes,
the other floating gracefully in the shallow waters of
streams and ponds. Of violas the welcome harbingers of
spring, we have eleven species. The various hued
hepatica pushes its star like blossoms through the
dead leaves in early spring, and the Aquilegia appears
among the rocks, delighting the eye with brilliant colors.
At Ticonderoga I found a variety of Aquilegia Canadensis
with pure white flowers, a variety which I have never
seen described. The weak-stemmed Claytonia, with its
exquisitely painted pink bells, peeps out of the grass from
groves and meadows, and the Geranium Maculatum, Gera-
nium Caroliniaum and Geranium Robertianum adorn the
shady woods and rocky ravines. The Fringed Polygala
forms a purple carpet for many a grove, and three other
species of the genus are found on the hill sides. Of Legu-
minous plants we have many beautiful species, but the
order is not so rich as we find it farther south.

The order Rosacece furnishes many more choice and
beautiful species. Four species of the rose proper find
a home in the pastures and meadows, and the genus
Spirea furnishes several of the most ornamental shrubs.
The Viburnum Paucifiorum (mountain bush cranberry),
rare elsewhere, is here not uncommon in mountain mea-
[ Trans. vi.~] 10

74 Tim Flora of th< Adirondacks.

dows. The Rhododendron Hispidum is found in abundance
in tin- high lands, a rare and moat beautiful shrub. iNear
tin- village <>f Lewis, opposite the old yellow tavern, I
found in 1858, and often >\un- that time the Iris Ockrolewoa,
5Tellow Iris, the largest and finest species of Iris native
iu this country, a magnificent aquatic plant, now for the
first time reported as a native of New York.

The Scirpus Sylvalicus I found in Crown Point a number
of years since, and I believe that it has never been found
in the state by another botanist until my friend, Mr Peck
of this city, found it in the same region last summer.

It were vain to attempt in this connection any catalogue
of the plants of this section, but before passing to the
highest mountain regions, let us collect some of the
flowering plants from a single locality; a circle less than
an eighth of a mile in diameter, one half of which is occu-
pied by a pond of water, the other half by a swamp of
sphagnum.

Among the mountains in the western part of Crown
Point lies a little pond not more than forty rods long, in
no place more than two or three feet deep. Primal
forests surround this little sheet of water, but between
the forests and it, lies a belt of sphagnum. If we push
through a little pathway, or trail among the alders, we
shall find in this little open space, objects of interest enough
to en^aire the attention of the botanist for many hours.
Rich as is this little Bpol in the rare and beautiful forms of
its flora, it is but the representative of many a quiet place
hidden among these mountain dales, which nature delights
to adorn with some of her most exquisite and unusual pro-
ductions.

First, as we approach the opening, and the alders begin
to be replaced by the larch, we discover a shrub two feet
high, with evergreen leaves, dark and shiny above, and
with long rust-colored fur beneath ; it is the Ledum

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 75

Palusire, Labrador Tea, and is one of the order Ericaceae.
If the peculiarity of its leaves, with their under gar-
ments of dark brown wool attract our attention, much more
shall we be pleased with its large clusters of white flowers.
We shall find several other plants of the order
Ericaceae here, and we have not long to look, for close
by the side of the Ledum grows a tall species of Andro-
meda, A. Calyculata, with a profusion of pink bell-shaped
flowers, and a few steps further on, a smaller species,.
A. Polifolia, with nodding white blossoms ; and as we
come full into the opening, another little Andromeda with
flowers larger than either and more beautiful, the Andro-
meda Mariana. A superb shrub scarcely more than a foot
high, seems to set the whole mossy surface of the swamp in a
bright red blaze. It is the Kalmia Glauca, dwarf laurel,
with corymbs of brilliant red cup-shaped flowers. An-
other shrub nearly two feet high lines the borders of the
pond and occupies many of the little mounds in the space.
Its leaves at once betray its relation to the other, and
when its buds expand to flowers a little later, we shall
find them as bright and as showy as the first. It is the
Kalmia Angustifolia. We now spy creeping along the mossy
carpet, a delicate vine, almost concealing the moss in many
places. It is the Oxyocus Palustris, cranberry, a graceful
and delicate plant with light pink corollas and bright
crimson berries. We have scarcely entered upon this
garden of choice plants when our eye falls upon a group
of singularly interesting plants. In a depression where
the water rises to the surface of the sphagnum is found
the Menyanthes Trifoliala, each plant consisting of a single
trifoliate leaf and a spike bearing a pyramidal raceme of
flesh colored flowers remarkably distinguished by the
delicately fringed petals with soft hairs filling the floral
tube.

76 77m Flora of ih Adirondaeks.

Scattered in all parts of the sphagnum the Sarraeenia
Purpurea, huntsman's cup, sends up its remarkable hollow

pitcher-form leaves whose cavities are almost always
nearly tilled with water. The verticiles of purple and
green pitchers from the centre of which springs the tall,
straight, stiff scape, crowned by a single nodding purple
and yellow flower, two inches in diameter and as curious
in structure as the leaves themselves, make up one of the
most singular plants of this state. The variety with yellow
flowers observed, I helieve, nowhere else in our state, except
in Seneca county, is found here. The Calla Paluslris, the
nearest American relative of the stately Egyptian Lily
finds a place in the sphagnum ; its broad green leaves
and pure white flowers contrasting with the slender
grasses with wooly heads growing close by. Floating on
the surface of the pond is the Nymphea Odorata or white
pond lily, one of the most ornamental plants of the
United States, and the yellow pond lily whose strong smell
is in unpleasant contrast wTith the delightful odor of its
neighbor. Here, too, by the water's edge is the pickerel
weed with its spikes of blue flowers. The round-leafed sun-
dew, a curious little plant, with leaves beset with glandular
hairs and tipped with a drop of clamny fluid which
glistens like dew in the sunlight, would escape our notice
did we not search carefully for it. The Uiricttlorio ( Wiiuia
sends up its naked slender scape, crowned with two or
three handsome yellow flowers, and its minute companion
the Utricularia Subulaia, creeps about among the mosses.

The class of plants which would most fix our attention
in this little repository of northern flora but of which we
have thus far tailed to speak, belong to the Orchis tribe,
a class of plants eminently calculated by their beauty to
delight the eye and by the curious and unusual forms of
their flowers, to attract especial attention from the
botanist. No less than thirteen species of these curious

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 77

and interesting plants are to found in this little belt of
sphagnum. Among the most beautiful are the Arethusa
JBulbosa, an interesting and highly ornamental plant, con-
sisting of a simple leafless scape, surmounted by a bright
purple fragrant flower, the throat richly bearded within.

The Pogonia Ophioglossoides resembles the arethusa in
appearance, but the flower is of a paler purple and the
scape is furnished with a single bract-like leaf. The
Calopogon Pulchellus with its half dozen fragrant and elegant
purple flowers crowning its grass-like stalk, if not as deli-
cate as the arethusa is far more brilliant and conspicuous.
The white and purple fringed orchis are conspicuous for
beauty, and the large white and yellow ladies' slippers grow
where the mould of the woods meets the sphagnum.
These are but a part of the rarest and fairest species found
within this little space, of less than two acres. There
are many grasses and sedges, mosses and aquatic plants
which we need not stop to mention.

Leaving this little pond and its rare collection of plants
we may strike directly for the Alpine region, which we
can only reach by many hours of toilsome travel over
roads rough with rocks and logs, and through hamlets,
whose inhabitants gain a scanty livelihood by the rude
culture of a few acres of stony land or by the more primi-
tive means of the chase. As we approach the great
mountains we are almost overpowered by the majesty of
the scenery. Let it not be supposed by those who have
not visited this region that there are no mountains but in
Switzerland, or that we are to look for sublimity in
American mountain scenery only among the Rocky
mountains. Here, too, we have a grandeur of mountain
scenery which can be felt but must be witnessed to be
appreciated. Mount Marcy and Mclntyre, Nipple top,
and McMartin, Dix peak and Whiteface, each a mile
high, are some of the points which tower above the sur-

78 The Flora of tin Adirondack^.

rounding peaks and cover their tops with the clouds. As
we approach nearer we find our way more and more
obstructed by inaccessible cliffe and thickly matted firs
ami brush. Swamps impenetrable and streams impass-
able compel us to find our way by most circuitous routes.
I cannot forbear to quote a few lines from the language of
Professor Emmons, in describing this scenery from some
lake: " It must be witnessed ;" he says, "the solitary sum-
mits in the distance, the cedars and firs which clothe the
rocks and the shore must be seen, the solitude must be
felt, or if it is broken by the scream of the panther, the
shrill cry of the northern diver, or the shout of the hunter,
the echo from the thousand hills must be heard before all
the truth of the scene can be realized."

It may readily be concluded that in these wild solitudes
and on these immense elevations we shall find a m-w and
characteristic flora. Our conclusion is well founded. In
examining the flora about us we might suppose that we
had been suddenly transported to some boreal region, For
here we have many of the characteristic plants of Labra-
dor and other frozen climes. Hence we have a rich and
peculiar field of research. In passing from the lakes to the
mountain summits, each of the great mountains will
afford many of the peculiar species, but as in the hour
allowed us we cannot climb them all, there are reasons
why our principal examination should be confined to the
sides and summit of Whiteface. This mountain is more
accessible than the others. From its comparatively iso-
lated position, although not so high as Marry, it overlooks
the mountain region with its multitude of lakes in Essex
and Eamilton counties, affording a view unequaled from
any of the other elevations. The top of the mountain is
comparatively fiat, and a long ridge runs off to the north,
affording a much greater extent of surface on the summit
than any of the others, and thus surpasses them all as a

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 79

field for botanical research. Climbing from the border of
Lake Placid on the west side, or ascending by the more
easy path cut by John Hickock on the east, even the
unscientific observer will be struck with two important
characteristics ; first, the gradual change in the classes
of vegetation ; and second, the apparent change of seasons.
We are passing rapidly from the flora of the temperate
zone to that of the frigid, and from the full development
of summer, or the ripe perfection of autumn to the buds
and blossoms of spring time. The change is first ob-
served in the trees. As we wait at the foot of the moun-
tain or commence the ascent, we see about us familiar
trees; the beech and maple, birch and bass, spruce and
hemlock, with many stumps showing where the wood-
man has reaped his harvest of pine ; but ascending, the
deciduous trees gradually give place to the evergreens.
The broad-leafed maples and birches are replaced by arbor
vitas and spruces. At length the broad leaves are all
gone, and only the evergreens surround us. The trees
are closer and smaller. It is an almost impenetrable
forest, even where our path leads us upward ; but now,
balsams are thinly interspersed among the spruces, and
soon there are as many of the former as of the latter. Still
higher, the spruces and cedars are scattering, but the
balsams cover the precipitous sides with matted green.
At length the spruces are all gone, only the balsams
remain. They grow smaller and smaller. The straight
and symmetrical tree becomes a stunted, crooked stalk
with straggling branches. In the battle for its life the ele-
ments have the advantage. The tree is dwarfed and
dwindles to an unsightly shrub, then to a weak and
almost prostrate vine, and then disappears ; but we have
not reached the top. One little tree is braver than its
comrades, and challenges the bleak winds, even on the
summit. It is the mountain ash. No longer a beautiful

80 The Flora of the Adirondack*.

tree to which birds Hock to gather its red fruit, but a
little stem six inches high never daring to put forth a
blossom and always barren of fruit. Of lesser plants,
a few meet us at every step of our progress. The
little Oxalis Acetocclla and the Clintonia Borealis have
met our eye from the foot of the mountain to its very
summit.

We have found along the path the Solidago Thgrsoides,
which has never been reported as a native of this state, but
which I found in abundance here in 1859 and at other
times since. The Solidago Virga Aurea also finds its only
home here.

My friend, Mr. Peck, in his tour among the mountains
last summer, gathered a rich harvest of rare and new
plants from the sides of Whiteface and its vicinity.
Among them were the Carex Seirpoidni and Qircx Aperta,
not before reported ; Carex lloiiijhloiiii from the shores of
Lake Placid and Alopecurus Aristulah/s, a species of great
rarity, a little way from the lake. Fine specimens of the
rare and to this state, but recently known Potamogeion
Pradongus he found in the lake, and several species of rush
and carex not before reported.1

"rin- following arc Borne of the rare mosses of the Adirondack* which
have been found by Mr. C. II. Peck, who has recently visited this region
under the direction of the Regents of the University. Except as here speci-
fied they are doI found elsewhere in this st;itr. and but few of them else-
where within the limits of the United States ;

Sphagnum PylcBsii, Mt. Marcy, Lake Avalanche.

dpTiagnum Sedoidx, same localities, also Mt. Mclntyre.

Sphagnum LindenbergH, alideof Whiteface, also in British America.

Andraa Orasrinervia, Whiteface.

Din, i a a in Polyearpum, Marcy.

Dieranum Blytii, Adirondack Pass.

ZHcranum Elongatum, Marcy and Mclntyre,

Orthrotrichum GbtusifdUum, .North Elba.

( irimiiii'i Ovata, Mt, Marcy, Lake Avalanche,

BUndia Acuta, Keen, Edmonds Point; also on Catskill and White
Mountains.

Pogonatum Arnigenun, Adirondacks.

The Flora of the Adirondacks. 81

The summit of Whiteface though bare of trees is by no
means destitute of vegetation. A species of whortleberry
Vaccinium Ccespiiosum, not found elsewhere in the state
grows among the crevices in great abundance. Here we
find the rare Sireptopus Roseus with its clasping taper-
pointed leaves and pendulous, bell shaped, rose-purple
flowers, and the Luzula Parviflora. The Diapensia Lap-
ponica which, save on the White mountains, has no home
elsewhere than on these peaks this side of Labrador and
the northern regions of Europe; the Empetrum Nigrum,
black crowberry, a native of the coldest regions of British
America, is here ; the Nabalus Bootii with its haliber-shaped
leaves and the Nabalus Nanus are both peculiar to these
Alpine summits, the highest peaks of the White mountains
of Mount Marcy and Whiteface, being the only home of
either as far south as the United States.

But these towering peaks are also crowned with beauty.
There can be none with senses so obtuse as not to be
delighted with the minute and delicate little Arevaria
Groenlandica whose little white stars fill up the crevices of
the rocks, fearless in its spotless innocence of the cold
storms that sweep about it all seasons, and the beautiful
white-flowered Potentilla Tridentata forms an elegant
carpet over many an unsightly rock. The Arbutus Alpine,
found only by myself in this state, creeps among the
wortle bushes, upon the very summit.

We have passed hastily from the Champlain valley
through the hilly country, and to the mountain tops,

Aulacomnion Turgidum, Mt. Marcy.

Bryum Pollens, Whiteface. Found also by Mr. James, about the same
time on White Mountains.

Conostomum Boreale, Marcy, Mclntyre.

TetrapModon Mnioides, Whiteface, also on Catskills.

Pylaiscea Polyantha, Adirondacks and Catskills not found elsewhere on
this continent except in British America.

Hypnum Montanum, H. Dimorphum, and H. Sarmentosum, Adiron-
dacks and White Mountains.

[Trans, vi.'] 11

s- The Flora of tfie Adtrondaeks.

stopping- for :i moment at the different stages of our
j »urney, not to tind all the floral treasures of the region,

but to notice a few of the more interesting' specimens.
We have made no attempt to describe at any length the
botany of the region. Our object has been by calling
attention to a few of the evidences of the floral wealth
of our territory, to awaken an interest in it, and to add
the influence of this hasty sketch to the promotion of
further and more systematic research, in this almost un-
explored section of our state.

*-*« i

Art. III. Tlie Trichina Spiralis. By Edward R.

Hun, M. D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, January 5, 1869.]

The Trichina Spiralis is a round worm belonging to the
class of Nematoidea, and is found as a parasite affecting
man and certain animals.

It was first found in human muscles by Mr. Hilton in
1832, and three years later was described by Professor
Owen, who gave to it the name of Trichina Spiralis, from
its slender form and habit of coiling itself up in a spiral
shape. From this time, until 1860, the Trichina was fre-
quently observed in the muscles of subjects in the dissect-
ing room, but no account was given, and no theory formed
as to how it got there. In all these cases the worm was
found enclosed in a calcareous cyst.

Zenker of Dresden, in 1860, first called public attention
to the fact that these little parasites, hitherto considered
harmless, might be, and often were, the cause of severe and
fatal diseases. A farmer, his wife and several other per-
sons were attacked with a severe illness after eating of the
flesh of a pig raised and slaughtered on their farm near
Dresden — a servant who had eaten some of the meat died.
Zenker, upon examination, found Trichinae in the ham,
head cheese and sausages made from the pork, and the
muscles of the dead girl were filled with them. He sent
some of the muscle to Professor Virchow of Berlin, who, by
a series of experiments upon animals, developed the follow-
ing interesting facts:

The Trichina, as found free in the muscles, is a round
worm about one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length, rather
more pointed at its cephalic then at its caudal extremity.

M 77/, Trichina Spiralis.

A digestive canal runs the whole length of the animal,
and at its posterior part is a closed aac running about oue-
third of its whole length and filled with granular matter.
No sexual organs are to be seen.

If portions of this muscle are introduced into the stomach
of certain animals (as rabbits For example), and these ani-
mals are killed and examined at difFerenl intervals, we find
that the Trichina passes through the following stages of
development.

During the three days following its ingestion it grows
rapidly iu size, becoming from three to four times its ori-
ginal length. At the same time sexual organs are deve-
loped, and the closed sac, mentioned above as occupying the
posterior portion of the body, becomes ovaries in the female
and testicles in the male, and within from eight to ten
days from the time of their entrance into the stomach each
female Trichina gives birth to living young whose number
has been estimated at from two hundred to one thousand
from each parent. Whether the same individual becomes
pregnant more than once, is not yet fully determined, but
from some of the facts observed it is probable that they do.
The young Trichina- are exceedingly minute and thread-
like, and commence immediately afterbirth to bore through
the walls of the stomach and intestines containing them,
and disseminate themselves with wonderful rapidity all
through the muscular tissue. It is a curious fact that they
are found to locate themselves only in the tissue of those
muscles which are under the control of the will, never
having been found in heart or muscles of organic life.
After reaching their destination in the muscle they in-
crease gradually in size until they attain one-twenty-iifth
of an inch in length, and then coil up in a spiral form and
remain quiel in the midst of the deposit of fibrinous matter,
which the irritation of their presence has caused to be depo-
sited around them by the vessels supplying nutriment to the

The Trichina Spiralis. 85

part. This afterwards contracts, enclosing each worm in a
separate sac, which is finally in its turn enveloped by a
deposit of calcareous matter. The Trichina now remains
quiescent in his shell for an indefinite period of time, wait-
ing until some unfortunate animal shall receive him into
his stomach, when the acid contained in the gastric juice dis-
solves the walls of his prison house, and sets him free to
give birth to a new generation, who go through a similar
cycle of existence, while the parent worm dies and passes off"
with the intestinal evacuations. It follows from the above
observations that the Trichinae have four distinct phases
of existence:

1st. The Trichina?, when swallowed, stop in the intes-
tine, complete their development there, give birth to young,
and then die.

2d. The little Trichinae, as soon as born, migrate into
all the striated muscles, except those of the heart.

3d. Haviug reached the muscular system they increase
in size but not in number.

4th. They become encysted and remain quiescent until
eaten by man, or certain animals, when they in turn give
birth to a new generation, after which they die.

The symptoms produced by this parasite vary according
to the number swallowed and to their different locations
in the body, and the disease called Trichinosis may
be divided into three stages: 1st. The period of a intes-
tinal irritation. 2d. The period of muscular irritation; and
3d. That of convalescence or termination.

The severity of the symptoms of course vary greatly in
different cases. Sometimes the intestinal irritation is so
slight as to pass unnoticed by the patient, while, on the
contrary, it at other times results in diarrhoea with bloody
discharges, with severe abdominal pain, and more rarely in
constipation. The tongue is ordinarily dirty and coated.
There is nausea, with mucous or bilious vomiting, tumefac-

86 Tin Jrichma Spiralis.

tion of the abdomen, and in Be vere cases painful colics. The
puke is always rapid, an. 1 the -kin hot. The patient hardly
ever « I i * ■ -s during this stage of the disease. The second

period of muscular irritation is always present, unless the
number of Trichina ingested is very small. When we con-

sider that each female gives birth to lour hundred or live
hundred young at least, we can -understand how a few
mouthfuls of the infected meat may give rise to millions of
little worms, each of which bores its way ad over tin- body
of the patient. This period usually lasts from four to five
weeks, and commences with languor and chills, followed by
pains in the limbs, and a puffy swelling of the eye-lids and
face, which is scarcely ever absent. This swelling often
attacks the upper and lower limbs as well as the face. The
muscular pains are very acute, and the slightest motion or
pressure produces extreme agony. The tongue becomes
swollen and painful, and the pulse rises from 115 to 130
per minute, while the diarrhoea often continues, and the
abdomen is tumid and tender. Sleep is almost entirely
destroyed, and the thirst becomes very urgent. There is
often a troublesome cough, which increases the pain and
soreness. During this period the patient, if he is able to
walk at all, does so upon his toes, as if unable to put his
heel to the ground. These symptoms usually abate after
from the twentieth to the fortieth day, but the patient
remains worn out and exhausted, and the third period, or
that of convalescence, is usually long.

Unfortunately all cases do not reach the Btage of convales-
cence. Death often takes place during the second period,
or at the commencement o[' the third, and the patients die
with symptoms resembling those of a severe case of typhoid

fever.

Thus far it has always been observed that Trichinosis
in man ha- resulted from eating pork, but the hog is not
the only animal in which this parasite has been found

The Trichina Spiralis. 87

to exist. Among; the animals in which Trichinae are
found without the intervention of human agency, are: the
hog, cat, rat and mouse, mole, badger, etc.; and of
birds, the owl, crow, raven, hawk, etc. Besides these, it
is found that the administration of diseased meat will pro-
duce the Trichinae in the Guinea-pig and rabbit, and the
chicken and pigeon. It has been found impossible to tri-
chinose beef, horse, ass, mutton, etc., in the goose, duck or
turkey. Experiments have also been tried on fishes, but
with a negative result. It is by no means probable that
Trichinosis is so rare a disease as it is commonly supposed
to be.

It is not an easy disease to detect, because it has
no pathognomonic symptoms. During the first period
the symptoms might easily be mistaken for those of dys-
entery while during the second stage the cedema of the
face and limbs greatly resemble the early stages of Bright's
disease of the kidneys, and the muscular pains are not
unlike some severe cases of rheumatism. The third period
has, according to Virchow, been mistaken for consumption.
The epidemic of Trichinosis which occurred at Hettstadt
was at first considered to be cholerine, while that at Mag-
debourg was for some time called by a false name.

In a medico-legal point of view, this disease presents
points of great interest. The following case will give a
just idea of its importance ;

In February, 1865, Langenbek operated upon a man at
Berlin for a tumor of the neck. During the operation, he
remarked that the muscles were filled with encysted trich-
inae. Upon asking this man if he had ever had any
previous illness, he stated that in 1845, he had with others
inspected the schools at Jessen; that eight of them had
breakfasted together upon ham, sausage and white wine,
with the exception of one who only took a glass of red
wine. All the other seven, including the man who had

88 T/a Trichina Spiral .

been operated upon, fell sick, and lour of them died.
Suspicion naturally Pell upon the innkeeper, and an inves-
tigation whs made without result. Nevertheless the inn-
keeper continued to be suspected of having poisoned his

guests, and he was obliged to emigrate to America. The
mortality of this disease is not so great as is usually
estimated, as is shown by the following statistics taken
from some of the epidemics. At IMauen, two dent lis out
of fifty cases. At Calbe, seven out of thirty-eight. At
Hettstadt, twenty-seven out of one hundred and fifty-eight;
and at Bourg, eleven out of fifty.

Virchow arranges the measures to be taken in order to
prevent the propagation of the Trichinse under three
heads: 1st. Preventing as far as possible the infection of
mine I// Trichina. This can only he done by close attention
to their food and cleanliness, for, since we cannot admit the
spontaneous generation of Trichinie in the pork, their pre-
sence necessarily presupposes that infected meat must
have been taken into the stomach ol' each diseased hog.
2d. The meat should be carefully inspt <•/< </ befon b\ ing di Im n d
to the consumer. This can only be done properly by means
'of the microscope ; for, to the naked eye, the diseased meat
offers no abnormal appearance, except in cases where the
parasites have existed in the muscles fora long time, and are
surrounded in a thick cyst of calcareous matter, when they
may be seen upon careful examination as little white
specks. 3d. Before being placed upon the tablework should
In thoroughly cooked. It is not an uncommon habit among
certain classes to eat the pork raw, in which case the greatest
danger, of course, threatens the consumer. But even after
cooking or smoking, tin' central part of a large piece of
pork, often does not reach a sufficiently high degree of
temperature to destroy the vitality of the Trichinae, and
as now-a-days hams are often sold as smoked which have
simply been rubbed over with creasote, pyroligneous acid

The Trichina Spiralis. 89

or some other empyreumatic substance, we find that eating
cooked pork is not entirely devoid of danger. It has, how-
ever, been shown by Virchow that a temperature of 210°,
or a warm fumigation of twenty-four hours duration, infal-
libly destroys the Trichinae.

I have given this short account of the Trichina this even-
ing, thinking that it might be of interest to the members
of the Institute, aud especially because I have met with
two cases of this disease in this city. I was invited by Dr.
C. D. Mosher to see two of his patients, one of whom was
evidently dangerously sick, and yet presented a train of
symptoms which did not conform to any of the ordinary dis-
eases which prevail in this locality. Two boys of German
parentage came into the house hungry one morning, and
finding a piece of pork upon the table ate some of it raw.
The remainder was cooked and eaten by the family at din-
ner time. A few days afterward the elder boy, aged four-
teen years, became sick and vomited several times. Was fe-
verish, and his eye-lids and face were swollen. Then a
general soreness attacked his whole body and limbs, which
confined him to the bed for a few days, after which it
gradually abated, so that when I saw him some six weeks
afterward he was quite well, except slight soreness on pres-
sure about the muscles of the arms. The younger boy,
aged ten years, was not so fortunate. He, too, became sick
a few days after eating the pork. His face and limbs be-
came swollen, and he was attacked with a severe diarrhoea.
The muscular soreness became intense, and he walked on
his toes with the heels off" the ground for three weeks,
after which he was obliged to lie still in bed, the least
motion causing extreme pain. About this time a trou-
blesome cough commenced, and the effort of coughing
increased the soreness. He could not sit up, but remained
stiff and extended upon his back. The least pressure
[Trans. vi.~] 12

90 The Trichina Spiralis.

upon the limbs caused him to cry out in agony. This
was his condition when I saw him last.

By means of a small instrument, which I had constructed
for the purpose, I removed a little piece of muscle from the
shoulder of the eldest boy, which I have examined under
the microscope, and find studded with trichina} which
are coiled up and quiescent, preparatory to becoming en-
cysted. The younger boy was so tender to the touch that
I was unwilling to submit him to the pain of the opera-
tion.

Note. — Since the above paper was read before the Insti-
tute, the younger boy has died, and a microscopic exa-
mination of the muscles showed them to be everywhere
filled with Trichina}, in some of them enveloped in a newly
formed cyst, and others free and full of life and motion.
In order to give some idea of their number I may state that
I counted forty-one trichina} in a single field presented by
a lens of one-inch focal distance.

Art. IV. The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabit-
ants. By G. L. Ditson, M.D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, January, 1869.]

The subject to which I wish to call your attention is
the Caucasian mountains and their inhabitants. You are
acquainted, doubtless, with the geographical position of
these fabled heights and their romantic valleys. Bounded
on the west by the Euxine or Black sea, on the east by
the Caspian ; lying between latitudes 40° and 45° north,
and having a climate, when relative elevations are con-
sidered, like our own ; attaining in some places a height
of eighteen thousand feet, and a breadth of one hundred
and fifty miles, with a direction through the isthmus
nearly northwest and southeast like the Andes and Hima-
layas, they are physically worthy of study. Formerly,
and as laid down in our old maps, they pertained wholly
to Asia; but since the Cossac put his iron heel upon their
borders, and broke a highway through their barriers, they
have become a part of the boundary line between Europe
and Asia.

The perpetual snow range is between ten and eleven
thousand feet. Grain is grown on the plateaus at a very
great height — some seven or eight thousand feet — while
tobacco, rice, cotton and indigo are, to a limited extent,
produced on the southern slopes where they are sheltered
by the great range we are considering. Here, too, the
vine grows luxuriantly ; I have seen it in its wild state
festooning the trees for hundreds of feet; the trees them-
selves being such as we are familiar with, the oak, maple,
ash, walnut. The latter yield in abundance, those which
we call the English walnut. Game is plentiful, more

92 The Caucasian Mountains and tl><ir Inhabitants.

particularly in the dense forests that border the Black
sea. The beautiful pheasant (of which their are some
excellent specimens in our State Geological rooms), is
common ; at least it formed one of the frequent dishes
that graced the table of Prince Woronzofl", the governor
general of that realm. There are also myriads of ducks
on the waters of the Rion and Kur. In the mountains,
bears, jackals and wolves are hunted, and their furs turned
to good account. I met one of these four-footed natives.
When traversing a plain through upper Colchis on my
return from the interior of Asia, I discovered that I was
regarded with great interest by a large wolf, a few hun-
dred yards distant. I had a revolver in my belt and felt
a certain degree of desperate security. The security,
however, was probably very small, for I was breathing
more freely when the driver of my sledge, applying his
whip with prodigious energy to his good fleet horse,
increased the distance between ourselves and our unwel-
come neighbor, and I saw that we were not followed. In
noting the physical aspect of the country I should have
said that the waters of these mountains flow both eastward
and westward. The Kuban at the north, the Rion or
Phasis at the south flow into the Black sea ; the Kur (or
Cyrus) and the Terek into the Caspian. It was the Rion,
so famous in ancient history or fable in connection with
the Jason exploits, that I ascended to reach Tiflis, the
capital of Georgia; but I had to leave those waters when
about two-thirds on the way from the Euxine to said city,
as they were no longer navigable even for a row-boat.

The river that flows through Tiflis runs eastward to the
Caspian ; so that the highlands which I ascended after
leaving my boat at Marane, and whence the scenery is
often extremely attractive, were the dividing line between
the two great inland seas, which, on two sides, bound the
isthmus. The Kur, or Cyrus, or Kuros, just mentioned,

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 93

was named after or dedicated to the sun. Many places,
as well as rivers and fountains, were sacred to this deity,
and called Cura, Curia, Curapolis, Curene, Cureschata,
Curesta, Curestica regio. In Thessalia, we have the river
Cuarius or Curalius; others in Media and Persia.

There are now no volcanoes in the Caucasus, but suffi-
cient evidence of their former existence ; for the secondary
parallel chains on the inner side are largely formed of
Plutonic rocks. Argillaceous slate accompany them,
while the outer side is of limestone. The central chain
is of trachite. There are said, however, to be on the
coast what they call mud volcanoes. Never having seen
any such, I will not attempt to describe them. At Baku,
a seaport town at the eastern extremity of this semi-Eu-
ropean, semi-Asiatic barrier, the soil is impregnated with
naptha ; there are also celebrated fountains of the same
substance, and it forms an important article of export.
As these fountains sometimes take fire, it is believed,
spontaneously, the place came to be regarded as holy by
the Parsees. This, however, was not peculiar to this
place. Arsina and Arsiana in Babylonia had fountains
of bitumen, and hence were sacred places. Also Arsena
in Armenia which had a nitrous lake, and Arsinoe near
the Red sea, as also near Ephesus, both of which had
streams of bitter waters. An Arabian historian, 31esudi,
writing of Baku about the year 950, mentions a great
volcanic mountain in its vicinity. It can also boast of an
oil well, and when on any great festive occasion, an ex-
tensive brilliant illumination is required, the oil is poured
.upon the waters of the Caspian and set on fire.

Quite a variety of minerals, those of the most importance,
such as iron, lead, copper, with coal and sulphur, are
found in the Caucasus ; but I think as yet no gold. Silver,
however, had recently been discovered ; or as lately as
1848. While I was at the palace of the General, com-

04 7% Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants.

mander of the northern military district, a large pure
mass of this metal was brought in by a Russian miner
who had dug and smelted it in thai region.

The population of the Caucasus is variously estimated
in numbers between one and two mil lions. They are
divided into a great many different tribes, belonging to
distinct races, and though the Turkish-Tartar language
is used as a general means of communication, they speak
collectively about a hundred different dialects.

Ethnologically, this region opens a wide field for study,
for research, for speculation. The Caucasian variety of
mankind, a division adopted by Blumenback, "included
all the inhabitants, ancient and modern, of Europe (except
the Fins) ; in Asia, the higher class of Hindoos, the Per-
sians, Assyrians, Arabs," etc., and "the Caucasians." Later
writers have made very different divisions. Some from
features, classing them with the flat-faced Mongols, some
from the radical difference of language. Dr. Prichard
makes two varieties of the so-called Caucasian, the Syro-
Arabian or Semitic, and the Indo-European or Aryan.

Whatever decision ethnologists may come to on this
subject, I am willing myself to believe that we have
descended from some of the fine manly races which dwell
in these mountains, and I am willing to take Blumcn-
bach's deductions derived from a well-shaped female
Georgian cranium in his possession, though it has been
facetiously said, that, " Never has a single head done more
harm to science, than was done in the way of posth union-
mischief by the head of this oriental lady."

The term Circassian has in a wide sense been applied
to all the independent tribes within the limits of the lati-
tudes heretofore mentioned. This is not strictly proper.
The true Circassians inhabit only the northwestern wing
of the range, with the exclusion of the Abhazians. The
Turks and Russians call them the Tcherkess, but among

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 95

themselves their general name is Adighe. They constitute
about one-third of the entire population, and are divided
into a dozen or more clans. Of their form of government
I cannot speak with much certainty. I believe, however,
that with some it is purely patriarchal ; with others it
partakes of some features of feudalism. One thing is
especially worthy of note, that all mountain tribes have
a social polity and a characteristic independence and
lawlessness, which almost mark them as one family.
Among the cliffs of northern Africa, in the Himalayas
(which among the Indians signifies the dwelling place of
the snows), in these that overlook the Euxine and the
Caspian, and the highlands of Scotland, we can trace
many and striking resemblances. I will read you a por-
tion of Mr. Chambers's account of the latter, and it will
answer for the former.

" The word clan was used to designate the freebooters
of the border as well as the Celtic tribes of the highlands ;
and there were two characteristics common to both ; their
predatory habits and their distribution into communities,
each with a common surname." After speaking of an
act of the Scottish parliament of 1587, which requires
landlords to find security for the conduct of their tenants,
he says, " Clans that could find no security were called
broken clans, and their members were outlaws. * * The
Macgregors were a celebrated broken clan whom the law
pursued for centuries with savage ingenuity." * * The
following passage in the act of 1581, which virtually
authorizes any lowlander, injured by any member of a
clan, to take vengeance against all or any of his clansmen,
contains a highly-colored account of the social condition
of this people : ' The said clan of thieves for the most part
are companies of wicked men, coupled in wickedness by
occasion of their surnames or near dwellings together, or
through keeping society in theft, or receipt of theft, not

in; Tht Caucasian Mmntame and their Inhabitants.

subjected to the ordinary course of justice, nor to any our
landlord that will make them answerable to the laws, but
commonly dwelling on sundry men's lands against the
good-will of their landlords, where through true men
oppressed by them can have no reineid at the hands of
their masters, but for their defense are -oftentimes con-
strained to seek redress of their skaiths of the hail- clan,
or such of them as they happen to apprehend. Likewise the
hail-clan commonly bears feud for the hurt received by any
member thereof, whether by execution of laws, or order of
justice, or otherwise." The highland clans are often
spoken of as a feudal institution. * "All

feudality has a relation to lands from the serf, bound to
the soil, through the free vassal who possesses it, up to
the superior or feudal lord, who commands services out
of it. The descent of all rights connected with it is
hereditary. Among the highbinders, on the other hand,
the relation was patriarchical, and had no connection
with the land, save as the common dwelling place of the
tribe."

The clans of the Caucasus were divided into five classes,
though their common miseries, misfortunes and dangers,
have done much, I think, towards obliterating the lines
of distinction between them. The first class embraces
the chiefs or princes, who are sometimes eminent as
religious teachers. Schamyl, for instance, among this
people, and Abdel-Kader among the African Arabs.
Then follow the nobles, common freemen, dependents
and slaves. Common freemen compose the large ma-
jority, have the same political rights as the nobles, and
hold properly. The dependents serve their lords, or
master.-, who have no right over their persons, and cannot
sell them, unless proved guilty of some crime, by the
decision of a properly constituted assembly. The fifth
class are those who have been captured in war and are

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 97

nominally slaves ; but one may rise among them to dis-
tinction and power and be another Sparticus.

Respecting the religion of this people, it is said that
Mahometanism prevails. This is so, but then I think
they mix up with it considerable, both in faith and
practice, that has a much higher antiquity than the
Medinan prophet. I say prophet, because Irving and
other learned writers generally so call him ; but this is
not the proper translation of that most common phrase in
the Arabic language which embraces Mahomet's mission ;
Alia il Alia Mahomet resoul Alia — resoul meaning envoy,
one sent by God and not a prophet. " God is great and
Mahommed is his envoy."

Conning the pages of ancient lore in search of the early
history of the origin of this tribe or nation, we almost
invariably arrive at the conclusion that it is involved in
impenetrable obscurity ; that like the source of the Nile
(till recently at least), towards which we may for a long
distance seemingly ascend, it is lost in some vast, sterile,
unexplored desert, or springs from inaccessible regions of
rocks, girt about with fearful mysteries. One of the
obstacles we so often encounter in our gropings for data
in dusty antiquity, is brought into our path, I doubt not,
by the habit of giving literal construction to the letter of
such ancient records as are only symbolical. We read
that Prometheus was the son of Clymene and Japetus, and
that he was chained to a rock of the Caucasus, where his
liver, renewed every night, was torn by a vulture or an
eagle. (The liver is still considered by the Turks to be
as much the seat of life and love as the heart). Mnohy-
lus makes Prometheus the son of Themis Apollodoris
Asia. Themis is a mere epithet for earth, and may refer
with Apollodoris Asia to a birthplace. Japetus is per-
haps intended to signify the origin of the human race.
Now may we not, without using any more license than is

[ Trans. vi.~] 13

98 The Caucasian Mountain* and their Inhabitants.

commonly taken by interpreters, conclude that this Titan,

Prometheus, represents a people of Asia, who by cunning
and ingenuity, excited the jealousy of a superior power
(that -Jupiter represents in this myth), that drove them to
the Caucasian rocks and fastened them there; and while
their life and energy were renewed by constant additions
to their numbers, they were daily harassed and torn by
cruel enemies, represented by the vulture and eagle?

About the origin of the name of this vast chain of moun-
tains, there is a wide difference of opinions. The term is
foreign to its people, and is thought by Klaproth to conn
from the, Persian Kohckaf, which signifies the mountain-
of Ckaf. By the Turks these mountains are called Ckaf-
thagi.

The Adighc, applied by the Circassians to themselves,
is said to be derived from ado, which in Tartar language
corresponds to island, but a learned writer declares that.
the Circassians have no word for island in their language.
That this highland, however, had once the appearance of
an island, there can be no doubt, for there is incontestable
evidence that the Caspian, Black and Azoft" seas were
formerly one, while the Ural lake can be considered as
only a fraction of the former. The whole triangle between
the Don and the Volga, with the Caucasus for its base,
is a low, saline, sandy plain, covered with shells and other
evidences of its having been submerged, in which case it
must have connected the seas just named.

This may account perhaps for the fable, that Prome-
theus, as king of the Scythians, had his country wasted by
a river named Eagle whose inundations he was unable to
prevent.

There is a tradition in Asia, that when the earth was
given to Adam, the people anterior to him were exiled to
the Caucasian mountains. The same oriental tradition
has it, that colonies went from the Caucasus and spread

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 99

themselves over neighboring mountains. This is sup-
ported by agreement with others which state that the
ancestors of the generations which cover the great plateau
of Tartary, the vast Scythia of the ancients, Persia and
Asia Minor, were descended from the Caucasus.

Still the question recurs, who were the original inhabit-
ants of this realm ? It is a natural supposition that they
were one people, speaking one language ; but history does
not fully sustain this idea. The Caucasus was rather a
refuge, for the oppressed of all nations. From a discovery
made by Mr. Biberstein, in the Georgian chronicles, of an
account of an invasion of Magogs at precisely the period
in which Herodotus places the invasion of the Cimmerians,
it has been inferred that they were the same Tartars or
Mongols (bearing a name signifying heathen, and whom by
prediction the Jews were to destroy), driven out of Tar-
tary by the Scythian into the Caucasian mountains,
whence they descended on Asia Minor about B. C. 950.
Dr. Clarke says: "The Tcherkessi continually repelled
from their ancient boundary, the Tanais and Lake Meotis,
and ultimately driven beyond the Kuban and Terek, hung
on the northern sides of the Caucasus." Pallas says:
" That the tribe of Cabardians consider themselves as
descendants of the Arabs; " and adds that the Abhasians
are distinguished from the neighboring natives by their
'faces, by the figure of their heads which are compressed
on both sides, by their prominent noses and dark- brown
hair." The same author after giving cogent reasons for
supposing that the Amazons were not a fabulous race says:
" It is obvious that they and their husbands (which they
eventually took, at least for a time), lived in Cabadar of
the Caucasus." As they were Sauromatians from whom
probably are descended the Ossetis who resided further
north and are the Alanes of the middle ages, it plainly
appears that the Amazons, Mcetians, Sauromatians,

100 The Qatcasian Mountains and their Inhabitants.

Alanes, and Ossettis belong to one of the same race of the
descendants of Japhet.

We have not time to pursue this branch of the subject
any further.

The costume of the Circassians like that of the orien-
talists generally, is, as you are aware, extremely pic-
turesque. But toilets differ there as they do here, and
wealth and poverty make their respective marks in the
chaumiere of the lowly and the sarai of fortune's favorites.
When circumstances permit, the large pantaloon of silk
are an indispensable article. The number of breadths
they contain would almost seem to indicate the number
of dependents pertaining to the wearer. Drawn in rich
folds about the ancles (apparently), they give to the feet
a diminutive appearance to which ladies are never averse,
I believe, in any country ; and as females ride on horse-
back there as the men do, this article of apparel is as
useful as ornamental; and I might add, incidentally, that a
cavalcade of this people, met with sometimes in the passes
of the mountains, startles one with its wild and gleaming
beauty, and will live in the memory till all its records are
obliterated. The loose jacket with open sleeves, often
richly embroidered with gold, covering a silken vest with
like elaborate ornature, has also its dainty dazzlements.
These are left slightly open in front from the throat to
the girdle and have there a bordering of braided hair or '
long silken tresses brought forward for that purpose by
the fair wearer — raven tresses and long flexible braids.
inwrought with threads of gold. Their feet, often uu-
stockinged, are kept with great care, and play their role
in the arts of coquetry as the white arms of the Syrian
women did in olden times when with sounding cymbals
they danced to the joy and melody of their hearts.

Their feet, I have said, are kept with great care, and
among the higher classes are beautifully delicate. This

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 101

arises from the habit of leaving off their slippers when
they seat themselves upon a rug on the floor, or upon a
divan where they draw their feet up in front of them
somewhat a la Turque. Toes, you would probably say,
are not a very poetical theme, yet I can imagine that a
young enthusiastic poet could and would write many a
welcome verse on these little, despised, imprisoned,
appendages — this wondrous fringe to our pedal extremi-
ties— had he but one glimpse of them in their untor-
mented license of action, in their blushing freedom, one
view of their sculptured perfections, of their dainty
dimpled physiognomy as they peep from under folds of
ample drapery of oriental damsels ; but I am not aware
that in Circassia they are ornamented with rings of gold,
as are those of Armenian ladies, at least in India.

In the smaller villages of the mountains, the dames go
abroad unveiled, but in the large towns they are en-
veloped from head to foot, usually in a blue striped cotton
garment kept in place and made to conceal, in part, the
face by being held in the mouth. Yellow morocco boots
complete the visible street costume.

This out-door garb, you can imagine, is anything but at-
tractive ; makes the wearers what their fathers, husbands
and masters wish them to be, undistinguishable, perambu-
lating monuments of other peoples' personal property. But
when one of these ladies is richly attired, and has a little
vanity — and who of us has not? she is apt to allow (by
accident of course) one or both sides of her uncouth
covering to slip from her lips, and thus give to the passer
by a view of her elegant costume beneath. The head-
dress of this class, when within doors, is generally a close-
fitting crimson cloth cap embroidered with gold thread or
bordered with a band of small gold or silver coin.

The attire of the men is not less picturesque, and when
we contemplate their fine forms, their manly bearing,

102 The Qnaxuian Mountains (md their TnhabUca

their chivalric deportment, our admiration keeps pace
with their historic fame, and the sublime fortitude
with which for centuries the}' have defended their moun-
tain homes. The arms they bear form always an attract-
ive feature. Seldom one is seen without the Circassian
knife, of world-wide reputation, shining handily in his
belt; or, the still more famous Damascene blade, hanging
at his side.

Some still carry the long bow and arrow, and know
how to use them very effectively, while others wear a
brace of highly ornamented pistols. The long Turkish
gun is also a favorite weapon with them, and many a poor
Russian, when least expecting it, has received from it his
death warrant. If they have fire-arms they wear on each
1) rcast a row of cartridge tubes, tor their cartridges of
powder. These are not a little conspicuous, lying neatly
arranged on the white ground of their well -fitting over-
coats, are very handy in case of need, and might perhaps
say to an enemy, as Rogers has so beautifully done in one
of his artistic groups, seen in our shop windows, " One
more shot."

The common head dress of these warriors is unlike
any I have seen in any other country. It is made of goat
skin, well prepared, well fashioned, and its long black
silky hair falls about the I'acc and Deck, thoroughly pro-
tecting them in the bleakest of bleak weather among the
snow-bound dill's of the Caucasus.

These hardy men — and I may well add the women
too — are cavaliers of the true Arab type; bold, fearless,
graceful; but this is a part of their training, a part of
their early education, and to this they are much indebted
for their successful assaults upon the Etuseian troops and
their masterly retreats and dispersion, when their ends
have been accomplished. Their horses should not go
unnoticed here, for they too have been trained to climb

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 103

like goats the wierd and rugged paths that lead from
ravine to ravine and from cliff to cliff. I have had some
experience myself with these fine animals, one having
swam with me across a dismal lagoon and carried me
safely in the darkest of nights through a dense, tangled,
pathless forest. I have also ascended the old Syrian
mountains on horseback, the beast, like these just referred
to, making his sure way up steps that had been cut in
the rocky declivity ; and it is at such times, if ever, that
one becomes attached to his four-footed companion, for
you cling to him then for safety and he does not disap-
point, you, and your memory returns gratefully to him
when years have glided away.

With such tribes as these of the Caucasus, with such
means of escape, with such almost inaccessible homes,
can you not imagine with what terrible difficulties, with
what loss of life, with what expense, suffering, and some-
time humility, war has long been waged with them by
the Northmen. And this struggle has at times been
carried on, apparently in mere sport ; but we know that
the Russians are not a cruel, but a generous, hospitable
people. I am aware, however, that a military expedition
was gotten up and sent into the mountains against Scha-
myl, the Garibaldi of that realm, to please a distinguished
Frenchman. This foreigner, doubtless, wished to see, to
know, all the details of these desperate raids, that .he or
his master might use the same, if effective, against the
Kabyls of Algeria with whom the French were then waging
a similar warfare.

Had the propriety, or humanity, of this thing been
questioned, the reply doubtless would have been, that
sooner or later it would necessarily have taken place ;
and that ordering it and putting it into execution at that
particular time, was merely precipitating the affair, and
hence could not be a subject of censure.

104 Ike Caucasian MotmUans and their Inhabitants.

This expedition was a failure, as most of the kind wore;
the Russians retreating with great loss ; and, from what
has been said, it is easy to see why this should be so, and
why for so many long weary years, numbers of these
mountain tribes have maintained their independence.

In connection with one of these raids in the earliest
years of the invasion I will relate a story. In the villages
generally, it had been noised abroad that the Russians in
large force had left Tin* is and were ascending the great
military road which led up into, and through the centre
of their territory. This was enough to rouse every native,
and horses and arms were at once looked to, and every
thing gotten ready for fight or flight, but no signal first
had yet been lighted to give them positive warning, or
summon them to some preconcerted rendezvous. Watch-
ers were placed at every available point, and scouts sent
out. Finally, when the invaders had proceeded about
twenty miles, they turned from the main road and entered
a by-way. This indicated the quarter or district that was
to be attacked, and from the highest peak of that region
soon blazed the first signal fire, that ere long was re-
sponded to from far and near, till the heavens reflected
the blaze of a thousand warning lights. It was immedi-
ately agreed upon, that the villages should be deserted by
all the men, and that the women were to entertain the
enemy courteously wherever they came, and thus avoid,
if possible, the burning of their houses. The first town
entered by the Russians was to them the most unfor-
tunate one they could have encountered, for it was more
famed for the beauty of its females than any other from
the Euxine to the Caspian. The colonel commanding
the troops, and all the minor officers, were utterly bewil-
dered, and allowed themselves to linger over such enter-
tainments as the fairest of the fair could hastily provide
for them. In the meantime the Circassians were gather-

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 105

ing in the rear of the Russians from every quarter. A
consultation was finally held by the officers of the invading
force — themselves the willing captives — and the questions
which naturally arose were these : " Can we with any sort of
honor, burn the humble homes of these peerless creatures
who have so heartily welcomed us ? Should we proceed fur-
ther into the interior of the country when we are assured that
every village like this has been deserted ? Can we fight and
overcome an enemy where none is to be found ? Negative
answers very naturally followed, and when further delay
would have exhibited a too apparent weakness of charac-
ter, a retreat was sounded. Then the long and almost
interminable line of the Russian forces began to rethread
its way down the narrow gorges whence it had come.
When the last of the column had left the town, and the
colonel for the tenth time had bid adieu to the most
gorgeous of the gorgeous Circassian belles, a signal gun
was fired which found an echo in the hearts of the thou-
sands of mountaineers who lay concealed along the way
of the uow careless, unsuspicious, receding troops ; and
had the escarpments of rocks on either hand closed upon
them they could not have been enervated more effectually
than they were, when from every acclivity, every crag and
ravine, hot, flaming, hissing missiles of death descended
like a shower of hail upon their devoted ranks. Escape
was impossible. Those in the rear could only push for-
ward by trampling on those in front, and those in front
were shot down so rapidly, that the ravine was bridged
with the dead.

When I was in Africa a similar expedition was set on
foot by Marshal Randon against the Kabyls of the Atlas.
This was successful, for the commander pitched his tent
upon the plains and sent the Zouaves to assail the heights,
and the segis of beauty threw no fictitious shadow over
the slaughter.

[Trans. vi.~\ 14

106 77. Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants.

The domestic life of the Circassians cannot, in a short
paper like this, be fully portrayed. I must, however,
touch upon those habitudes which mark them as a pecu-
liar people. In the iirst place, education is hardly known
among them. There may be a village schoolmaster who
teaches the boys to read and write sentences from the
Koran or from the Zend-a-vesta, the sacred book of the
Guebers and Parsees, for there are still some fire-worship-
era among the Caspian cliffs of the Caucasus; hut a well
educated person is probably not to be found among any
of the tribes of this entire territory. The girls are espe-
cially neglected, for the men say they cannot Bee of what
possible use learning can he to the gentle sex ; and,
situated as they are, ignorance may he bliss. But fancy
if you can such a state of thing- and the necessary
sequence. If they were of a low type, like those in the
interior of Africa, our dreams of a mundane paradise and
a millenium would be banished both from our Bleeping
and our waking hours, and a gloomy grave for humanity
would seem to open before us; but here an' a people
w7ith finely shaped heads, and large well developed brains,
and what is to be done with them '( If one cannot read,
and there are few or no shopping exactions, no pleasanl
streets for a promenade, what remains bin domestic cares
and the toiletU .' For these then they are valued, and for
these alone, though in the word Unbette I would embrace that
beauty, abstract or otherwise, which its arts are designed
to enhance. That they are strong, healthy wives, careful,
affectionate mothers, 1 cannnot doubt: and it is possible
that their position may be an enviable one. if we compare
them with the picture recently drawn of our fair Christian
BOX, by the able and elegant writer, W. K. Alger; for
he says, "There never were so many morally baffled,
uneasy, and complaining women on earth, as now, be-
cause never before did the capacities of intelligence and

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 107

affection so greatly exceed their gratifications. New
perceptions are the scouts of fresh desires ; fresh desires
precede their own fulfillment; a just reconciliation is a
slow, historic process. The lives of a multitude of women
all around us contain a large element of unsuccessful
outward and inward ambitions, vain attempts and prayers.
This drives them back upon themselves into a deeper
and sadder seclusion than that naturally imposed by their
housekeeping, and their historic withdrawment from the
bustling business of the world."

When poverty, hard labor, scanty fare, grapple with
the delicate sensibilities natural to women of all countries,
in Circassia as well as elsewhere, melancholy forebodings,
sadness of the face, deep depression of spirits necessarily
ensue; and here we may find the cause and some of
the consequences of the enslavement (so-called), of the
Caucasian damsels. To this I shall return again.

This people, I have said, are universally steeped in
ignorance, and they are as universally poor, as all warlike
tribes and people are. The fine arts cannot thrive in such
an atmosphere, hence their entire absence, and the want
of their refining influences. Sculpture, painting, the
higher elements of music and poetry, are not the children
of fierce, hostile camps, of low, smoky huts, of earth-
caverned hovels ; they haunt and hallow the sanctuaries
of refined tastes, and breathe their inspirations through
the tents of peace.

The men here think first of their horses, then of their
arms, then of their wives and children. The women
think first of their costume, then of their domestic duties.
If they have any music or poetry in their souls, it may
burn for a moment in their beautiful eyes, then sinks
away under a sigh of uncomprehended longings, but
never breaks into its legitimate metre, never soars into
that divine expression which smgs itself through the ages.

lus 77,, Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants.

Besides weaving cloth from the wool which they them-

sclvs have prepared, making the garments required for
the household, they have much of the out-door work to
do. This devolves more particularly upon the oldest, the
worn-out BO-called, women, while the younger are kept
with considerable seclusion, are regarded with no little
jealousy. The dress, too, of these females who are termed
passe, is often disjointed, scanty, neglected ; while that of
the unmarried, or the newly married, is in the Mending
of colors, in janty grace, in brilliancy of effect, all that
exquisite feminine taste can possibly make it.

The out-door work that I have alluded to, consists prin-
cipally in attending to the sheep, goats, cows, in bringing
wood from the wooded heights, and hay, which perhaps
they had cut and stacked.

The architecture of this people would not particularly
interest a poet, nor hardly a common pedestrian. The
Georgian style in many places, though there are noble
exceptions, is no better, is indeed similar in every respect.
I remember having passed a place a great number of
times and never having had my attention attracted to it
except as the natural declivity of a small hill or embank-
ment on the southern side of a broad, dirty, unpaved
street. Oue day, however, much to my astonishment, I
saw a door open at its base and quite a' family issue from
it. On the eastern banks of the Kur, almost in the very
heart of the capital of New Russia, many Georgian
families live under ground or nearly so ; live in excava-
tions made in the hill-side, where nothing is required but
a roof; and this roof, after being timbered, is often
covered with the very sods that had been removed from
that very place. A gentleman told me that he once rode
along over some of these habitations and was not aware of
their existence till his horse fell through one of them.

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 109

Throughout the Caucasus the various tribes take ad-
vantage of these ever-present slopes, dig into them, and
make there their warm but sombre and smoky abodes.
One village that I visited near Vladi-Caucasse, on the
northern side of this giant range, stood on level ground,
was built mainly of wood, of sticks and stones, dried clay
and straw, one-story buildings, low at that, and thatched.

The best families construct a number of edifices in such
a situation as to form a hollow square ; all the doors, and
windows if there be any, open on this engirded area,
which affords at night quite a secure place for the flocks and
herds of the proprietor. The only access from the street
is by a gate-way, always kept closed. Near this entrance
is the master's house, hall or apartment, while the dwell-
ing for the women is on the other side of the yard. In a
visit to one of these enclosures — not particularly neat or
attractive — I saw at an open window opposite, two heads
as pleasing, and as pleasingly decorated, as you would
expect to see represented in the finest of oriental paintings.

It reminded me of our lilies — for the Circassian
women have fair complexions — of our delicate pond
lilies afloat on the turbid waters of a filthy stream. They
must indeed be the oasis in that strange, thought-sterile,
desert-life ; the light, the poetry, the music, in that wild,
weird wilderness of ideas and ideality.

Another house which I entered in Vladi-Caucasse, had
a very low thatched roof and two rooms. The room
nearest the street was extremely dark and full of smoke.
When I could see, I discovered that a considerable portion
of the apartment was occupied by a huge oven of clay, at
which an old, poorly-clad woman was baking bread.

The sister of the young man who was my guide there,
favored us a moment with her presence ; but in accord-
ance with their education, instinctively it would seem,

110 The Gnicas>'>ui M^mtaiM and (heir Inhahltmits.

shrinking from the presence of strangers, shfl in a moment

timidly retreated to her own window-lens dormitory.

Another village in a narrow ravine; where I passed the
night, and where the Russians have a post-station — for
it was by that great military road I have before referred
to, through which pass all the troops, couriers, mails,
from St. Petersburg and Moscow, destined for the capital
of New Russia, Titiis. in Georgia — it was there I was
agreeably surprised at the neat and cheerful aspect of the
dwellings; and was forcibly reminded of the English
James Town, nestled under beetling cliffs, from four to
eight hundred feet in height, in a rent in the rocks of the
island of St. Helena; that colossal monument nature
seems to have reared for the tomb, and to perpetuate the
memory of the greatest of modern heroes — adding one
more to the numberless marks of infamy with which the
English nation has been branded.

The apartment of the lord of the manor and that
of his wife and family, are, as I have indicated, separated
by the court-yard ; that is, wdiere the proprietor is
wealthy enough to build more than one edifice ; for his
dignity would be lessened, would be seriously impaired,
in fact, should he appear to admit, at any time, any of
the gentler sex on a plane of equality with himself. As
helpmeets indeed, yet inferior; idols, it may be, yet to be
broken and spurned at will like one of potter's clay;
mothers of their children, yet their servants or slaves;
companions, if we insist on the name, yet only when
night, has put an end to the strife of war, to raids upon
neighboring tribes; when the horses have been housed, the
leashed dogs loosened, and the pipe smoked with equals;
such and no more, for education and immemorial custom
raise here their adamantine barriers which do religion
pierces, no social habitudes surmount, no sentiment, no
moral enthusiasm, no love breaks down. A Magdalen

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. Ill

may walk with unsandaled feet the thorny path of duty,
but her triumph must be of the soul, an inward exaltation,
looking with resignation and trust to that ever beaming
star of Bethlehem circling unwearied round the mountain
of her faith, fadelessly above the clouds of her plaintive
pilgrimage.

Here I am reminded of a feature in the moral code of
this people, and with which there is connected a rather
ludicrous custom. I say in the moral code of this people,
but it exists among the Kabyls of the Atlas, among the
Arabs, and I believe also, among our Indians, and among
the highlands of Scotland as we have seen. Where one
person causes intentionally the death of another, the
brother or nearest relative, or some one of the same tribe
as the deceased, is bound to avenge it, and the murderer
must pay the forfeit of his life. The night time is gene-
rally chosen for seeking this redress, and as these moun-
taineers are constantly making raids upon each other,
almost every man can boast of having caused the death of
one or more of his enemies, and hence at any moment is
liable to receive the customary reward. When one then
is about to sally out to visit his family, he first hangs his
cap on the end of his cane and thrusts it cautiously, as if
his head were in it, out of the door ; if he receives no
bullet in it, and hears no report of a gun, he ventures
forth.

Marriage among this people is neither a sacrament nor
a ceremony of much moment. When a father says to a
young man who solicits the hand of his daughter, " I
have supported this child for fourteen, fifteen, sixteen
years or more, and you would have me give her to you as
if she were some worthless game, some wild bird that
had flown into my hut, and had cost me nothing. You
must be a mad mountain boor to think of such a thing.

112 '/'/<< Ooii-tis-itui Mountains and their Inhabitants.

Give me a gun and the powder I need, a cow, ami the
finest horse you can find in the country and she is yours."

" You know, dear sir," he replies, " I have not these
things and have not the means of buying them."

" Go then and fight the Letsghini, the Tcherkess, the
Mingrelians, or any other of our enemies and take from
them what I require."

Love may make here a daring, a fearless warrior, when
nothing else, perhaps, would, and the young man claims
his bride sooner than might be expected ; and this is
called a sale. Should we throw stones at such before
looking at home, and observing how much of this loving
humanity is bought with gold ? If, occasionally, mid
the desperate feuds of these tribes, damsels are stolen,
carried off and distributed among the victors, or sold,
they have at least one consolation, which is, they might
be worse off at home.

As a further illustration of the painfully low and humi-
liating condition in which many of these people exist, I
will state, in brief, what occurred on my way from the
Black sea to the region of which I am speaking. As-
cending in a small-boat the Rion, that old historic Phasis,
before mentioned, where the Argonauts went for the
golden fleece ; as we could not advance after dark, our
little craft was fastened to the shore and we either slept
in it, on our blankets on the bank, or in some neighboring
hut, if there < latticed to be any.

Several times we passed the night under a native roof,
and invariably found it sheltering extreme poverty. One
only I will particularly designate. It consisted of a single
room surmounted by a high conical roof of thatch. The
walls were low, and of clay, and the only light it had by
day was that admitted by the doorway ; and at night that
flickering uncertain gleam which faggots throw up to
make darkness visible. In the centre of the room, on

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 113

the ground, the floor nature had kindly provided for
them, the fire was built. To economize heat, there was
no chimney to this primitive saloon, the smoke, conse-
quently, was equally economized. The cooking utensils
consisted of a single kettle, and in this there was being
cooked the only article of food in the dwelling — a dish
of beans. There was no bedding; the people did as we
did — wrapped themselves in what clothing they pos-
sessed, and lay down on the broad wooden divans or
benches which ran along two sides of the apartment.

Two women and two children graced this wretched
shelter. We were hospitably received by the former,
though a certain amount of diffidence characterized their
movements, for they seemed to feel conscious of the
poverty of their attire. Each wore a long blue cotton
gown and a scarf or handkerchief about the head ; but
the lack of a gay or costly garb could not eclipse the glory
of inimitable beauty or faultless forms. The face of the
mother of the children was almost divine. No sculptor
could have done it justice, and only some inspired painter
could have reached the height of its calm, its classic, its
chaste perfections. Her brows were beautifully arched ;
her eyes were large, seemingly deep blue, full of sad
eloquence and tears. She raised her hand and her finely
chiseled arm was revealed ; for there fell back from it a
wide open sleeve, which she took, and with it — will you
pardon me for stating a very simple fact ? — wiped her
nose. But I have not said what I particularly wished to
in regard to this visit. In the morning, before our de-
parture, the poor mother offered me her eldest child, a
kind, gentle girl, some ten or twelve years of age, saying
to me through the Georgian Colonel Cargonoff, who was
my companion, friend and interpreter, " Take her I pray
you, for I love her dearly, and the more I love my child-
ren the more anxious I am that they should fall into the

[Trans, vi.'] 15

114 The Caucasian 31ountains and their Inhabitants.

hands of such as are able to take care of them. If she
remains here she must many some poor boatman as /did,
and her whole life will be one long wail for bread, and
the ordinary comforts of life. Toil, toil, will be the
burden of her morning, her mid-day, and her evening
song; and at night, weary as she may be, she must find
her rest on these hard boards, such as you see around us."

"When in memory I wander again in that far-off land,
I often think of that poor woman, willing, in her deep
love and tenderness to part with her child, and perhaps
never more gaze on its delicate face, all mother in its
classic lineaments, its gentle expression, its tearful hope ;
never more, perchance, even hteat a word of her first-born ;
whether in sunshine, in soft chaste gladness, she danced
away the hours of golden-slippered existence, or in the
depth of degradation, in wretchedness of soul, she turned
her garments of simplicity and faith into rags of remorse,
and lay down in the early grave of the most unfortunate.

Perhaps it would be unmanly in me to say that my
eyes have more than once been filled with tears when
contemplating the sorrowful life of this unique, this
strange people ; and when I have thought of their limited
means for education and enjoyment, or rather their lack
of all means, of every resource, for successful intellectual
culture, I have turned with a grateful heart, and perhaps,
some pardonable pride, to our own glorious institutions.

It is not to be supposed that you will appreciate this
as I do, for you all may not have seen a whole nation
slumbering in the darkness of a rayless, pitiable ignorance.
You, perhaps, have never thought of comparing our varied
means of enjoyment with those of the untutored of whom
I have been speaking. It is, indeed, like comparing the dead
with the living, the fertile summer with sterile winter.
We revel in the splendors of an ideal garniture, which from

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 115

its universality and common aspect, we cease to prize, or
even heed. In the realms of poetry, music, painting, sculp-
ture, the sciences, history and romance, what fragrant flow-
ers, what glistening streams, what emerald banks, what
sunny slopes, what embowered paths, greet us as we ad-
vance. Every step has its compensating joys and smiles,
but like the inevitable sun and the stars, the eternal belt of
light that girds us as we walk, and envelops all our life,
they come as a matter of course, and their worth gains
nothing, let me repeat, by comparison, forgetting as we
do, the shadow that falls on the other half of the men-
tal world, the capable but dormant intellects of our fair
unfortunate sisters of the dreamy orient.

Our memories are studded with priceless gems, our
soul-treasures are innumerable, and though the graces of
culture, the charms of knowledge are of ancient heritage,
they are no less precious.

We have not fully comprehended the import of those
gods and goddesses that stood at the portals of the Gre-
cian temples. If it had all been engraven on their
pedestals, how long would it have taken each comer to
read it? Such a record was not needed. Each figure
was replete with a mute eloquence, felt and compre-
hended by all. Diana, Apollo, Mnemosyne, whose
children were song, memory, and meditation ; Clio with
her laurel wreath, her stylet and papyrus; Euterpe
crowned with flowers ; Erato with her lyre ; Calliope with
her book of gold. There, stood breathing ecstatic grace,
celestial harmony, wild fleet joy, placid empire, rapturous
sentiment, fountains of thought, feeling, mental fertility,
emotion, ravishing ideality, peace, concord. The wise
weighed well their actions in the marble scale of justice,
heard notes of harmony on the silent flute, and took sage
counsel from the book of gold.

110 The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants*

I wish now to return to a subject which I have several
times touched upon, but have not fully explained — Cir-
cassian slaver>/.

Let me at once say, that here I have no picture of woe
and despair to present to your imaginations; none of
those horrors to portray, which you naturally attach to
that odious word. The Russians at first (having then
only possession of the sea-board), entertained on this traffic,
so-called, pretty much the same opinions as we do, and
occasionally captured a sandale or boat-load of Circassian
damsels on their way to Stamboul ; but I think they
finally lessened their zeal, except only from political
motives, when they came to understand better its true
character. The arbitrary measures of the invader were,
in fact, just such as we suppose 31assachusetts would have
adopted under the circumstances ; for that state seems to
have taken upon itself to regulate the moral and political
status of this small world.

Some years ago, in this country, quite a number of
young women banded together and sailed for California
to better their conditions ; it is somewhat surprising that
Massachusetts did not have them all arrested, and, having
distributed them among themselves as their servants —
mere servants to whom they should pay nothing because
they were rescued — all of course for the glory of religion —
rescued from some great possible gulf; having, I say,
taken them as servants, they would consider their captives
sufficiently honored, and give thanks accordingly. It
would have repeated what Russia has done in the east.
I will single out only one instance. On board a boat on
the Black sea, my attention was particularly called to a
young girl who had been thus taken and given as a
serving maid to the wife of a Russian official. I had the
opportunity of noticing her one whole day, as, in a Rus-
sian steamer, we coasted along under the frowning cliffs of

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 117

the Caucasus, where, in some of its ravines, nestled the
humble cottage of the little captive. Byron's words of
the dyirig gladiator, breathed there then, their sad music
through my memory. Do you suppose this rescued child
to have been happy ? I could read on her face a painful,
discontent ; that her fair young hopes had been blighted ;
that her almost infantile dreams, which like bright
winged humming-birds had flitted about her pillow, had
vanished; the sultana's garb and jewels had turned into
the drapery of servitude.

I have mentioned this California expedition because it
happened to be a parallel case with many in the Cauca-
sian realm which are stigmatized and loaded with all the
epithets that can harrow up one's soul, and fill the heart
with grief. I have said enough to show you how much
more beautiful our life is; but I speak of things as they
are in the orient, as they must be with their necessary
surroundings. You cannot make the lily of the valley
thrive on the bleak mountain tops. You must prepare a
congenial soil and atmosphere ; then you may begin your
transplanting.

To return : I knew of two young women of Mingrelia,
on the banks of the Phasis, persons of considerable
beauty, who told an acquaintance of mine in Tiflis, that
they were going voluntarily to Stamboul, our Constanti-
nople, as soon as one of these slave expeditions was
inaugurated, and they could avail themselves of it. Now,
if on their way, full of hope and joy, full of the belief that
they were to better their condition — that same belief,
hope and trust, which multitudes of our own country-
girls have when they go from their staid homes on farms,
to large and brilliant cities ; now I say, if on their way, these
two Mingrelian sisters were captured by the Russians,
deprived of their liberty of action, and made servants of,

118 The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants.

where is the justice, and whence the questionable good to
be deduced.

If these two sisters, on their departure for the Bospho-
rus, had taken charge of that destitute child who was
offered to me ; and of another, still younger, and still
more attractive, whom I also saw in a hut in Abhasia,
would the lot of these little ones, with any degree of
probability, have been worse, more hopelessly wretched ?
Moreover, when free, is there not always in the human
soul a little star of bouyant expectations, of cheering
faith, that rises o'er the verge of all life's sad forebodings ?

Again, the hopes of their families often rest on these
departing ones, from whom, indeed, thousands of bless-
ings and comforts have heretofore flowed homeward.
"When a daughter sets out for Stamboul with a fair pro-
spect of reachiug that Eldorado in safety, she leaves a ray
of sunshine in the house; for the parents look forward
with confidence to the time when they shall hear from
their child, and perhaps receive from her some of those
bags of gold we read of in oriental romances. There is
perhaps not a mother in all the land, from the Euxine to
the Caspian, who has not sometime or other had the
possible thought, flit through her reveries, that her daugh-
ter may yet be a sultana, for is not the mother of the
sultan a Circassian?

If Spain is proud of having a daughter sit on the throne
of France, they have no less pride in saying, " Our
daughters have long been the queens, the very glory of
the Ottoman empire." There is, we all know, a halo
about this princely power that diffuses itself through every
land ; the very peaks of the Caucasian mountains have
not escaped its iuflueuce.

I have said that blessings and comforts flow home-
ward from this exodus. The Irish afford us an illustra-
tion. Independent of the money and clothing, rich

The Caucasian Mountains and their Inhabitants. 119

silks, cotton goods and various wares, which find their
way from the city of the sultan to these sterile cliffs, the
sandales, which bring to the former that gentle, flut-
tering, living freight we have been contemplating, carry
back those arms and ammunition which have enabled the
Circassians for so many years to maintain their successful
war against the Russians.

In this last named traffic, lie the strongest incentives
the invaders have to stop the Circassian slave trade ; and
if they can be persuaded by their priests that it is for the
good of the souls of these willing emigrants to have them
arrested and made to serve involuntarily, those whom
they detest as the desolators of their homes, the murderers
of their fathers and brothers, of course the moral influence
is presumed to be the paramount one; and perhaps the
generous large-hearted Russians persuade themselves that
it is so.

God's light falls mid the deepest shadows of a tangled
forest ; there are germs of beautiful life in the meanest
sod of our common earth ; should we not then look
gently, compassionately, affectionately even, on those
compelled to live so far beneath our own good fortunes;
for they have souls, but only sparse and flickering light to
make them lovable ; they have capacious intellects, but
no golden book of wisdom in which to read of higher,
brighter things.

Art. V. Frogs, and their Contributions to Science.
By John V. Lansing, M.D.

[Read before the Albany Institute.]

The little tail-less animal we have chosen as the subject
of this evening's paper, has few attractions of form, is
quite retired in its habits, and stands not very high on the
scale of animated beings. To most persons indeed, there
is usually something forbidding in the appearance, cer-
tainly something repulsive in the touch; while the common
thought thinks of frogs as it does of reptiles, such as
snakes and lizards, as things to be shuddered at and
avoided.

A moment's consideration, however, of the position
they have occupied in the world's history, thoughts and
progress compared with more pretentious animals, removes
from them the idea of insignificancy, invests them with
exceeding interest, and even dignifies their creation as
having been designed for special, wise and holy purposes.

They figure by no means meanly in mythology, in
ancient song, in sacred writ, and in later years prominently
upon the page of science.

We learn from Esop, the classic and accomplished ani-
mal linguist as well as naturalist, some facts in regard to
frogs in their social and individual relations, that we
could not have learned in any other way. We learn that
they were originally democratic in their government, and
happy in their condition, but like mortals touched with
feelings of vanity and ambition, they became discontented
and sighed after royalty, and that Jupiter yielding to their
wishes, gave them a king in the shape of a cruel stork,
who, while he reigned over, amused himself by devouring

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 121

his subjects. Frogs have been essentially democratic ever
since, as their free speech and seemingly equal rights in
the pursuit of animal happiness testify.

Homer, the broadest winged of the Grecian poets, did
not deem them unworthy of his song. The battle of the

Frogs and Mice, -rolt^x^^^x1^ w^ ^ve asl°ng as tne story
of the siege of Troy. Once are they spoken of in sacred his-
tory and though in a way not pleasant to think of, as a
plague, yet as the ministers of God, to turn the heart
of Pharaoh, we in vest that croaking army of frogs that came
up from pool, and river-side, and covered the borders of
Egypt with #11 sthe awe and sanctity of a divine mission.
However poorly esteemed, they can never lose the sacred
character attaching to them, from this fact, that they were
once selected as the special instruments of a divine pur-
pose.

The geological record of animal forms, that lived
unnumbered ages ago, unfolds here and there a fossil
representative of the class we are considering. In those
days of exuberant vegetable and animal life, batrachian
forms of wondrous size and beauty perhaps, lived and
sported, and departing left behind them foot-prints if not
on the " sands of time," yet, most certainly, on the new
red sandstones of Saxony and Connecticut. Admitting
their antediluvian existence, it would not, from our know-
ledge of their natant powers, require much imagination
to suppose them independent survivors of the flood, did
not plutonic action and a probably high temperature of
water — for the frog dies at 107° F. — forbid the idea.
I have read that in a German museum there is a single
specimen, that was found imbedded in amber, and that
this is the only known instance of an antediluvian amphi-
bian, that has come down to us, with its external charac-
teristics preserved. A fitting entombment this, in fragrant

[Trans. vi.~\ 16

122 Frogs, and their Contributions io Science.

goldcn-co'ored, pellucid amber, of the only representative
of his race as it lived in primitive and prenoachian times.

It is proper here that we should assign our subject its
precise zoological rank and position. Until recently, fol-
lowing the division made by Cuvier of the vertebrate
animals into four groups, viz : Mammals, Birds, Reptiles
and Fishes, frogs were classed with reptiles. We are glad,
as well for the name of the thing, as for its greater scien-
tific accuracy, to have them now ranked in an order by
themselves, that of amphibia, allied only to reptiles on the
one hand, and fishes on the other. Strictly speaking, how-
ever, they are not capable of a double life in air and
water, and therefore are not like the Banded Proteus, of
pure amphibian nature. It is true, the enrly tadpole por-
tion of their existence is passed in water, and respiration
effected by gills ; but lungs and gills are both necessary for
respiring in either element. The frog dies if long enough
immersed in water, and the tadpole quickly in the air.

liana, the Latin name for frog, designates the genus
under which he is classed, while under the family name
of Ranidre, resembling frogs, we find included several
other genera of which the common garden and tree toads
are types. But it is with the genus Rana, that we are
concerned, or rather with the single member of that genus
known as the Rana fontinalis or liana esculenta, the common
spring or green frog. In doing this we pass by the attrac-
tions of that sturdy denizen of our pools and lakes, the
sonorous, rana pipiens, the bull-frog, the "bloody noun " of
our school boy days, the lithsome leaping leopard frog,
the Rana paluslris, and his sober drab-coated brother, the
wood-frog, the Rana sylvatica.

The proper study of mankind, that is, of the animal
man, begins with his frame work, and after mastering this,
rises to the consideration of his organic life. His habits,
intellectual phenomena, and the philosophy of his being,

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 123

become thereby less difficult to understand. In a some-
what similar, and yet by no means scientific way, we pro-
pose to study frogs.

The skeleton of the frog, if placed upright, has a suffi-
ciently human appearance to pass at first sight for that of
a lilliputian child, which had been affected by some disease
of the spine. There is certainly enough resemblance to
permit the use in masquerade or comic woodcut of the
batrachian form as the basis of caricature, a thing which
cannot be done with many other animal forms.

The maxillary bones differ from each other, in that the
upper alone is furnished with teeth. These are set closely
together around the jaw, not springing from alveoli, but
implanted on the bone. They number forty-two, with
eight placed traversely on the vomer, called the palatine
teeth. In taking their food, there seems nothing like
mastication, the teeth serving rather as prehensile agents
to prevent the escape of the struggling insect although to
a certain degree the palatine teeth must triturate it, as
pressed upward by the tongue it passes into the esophagus.
The cavity of the cranium is quite small, and we cannot
claim for the frog from its phrenological developments, a
large degree of intellectual power. It is sufficient, how-
ever, for all the practical purposes of his being. His per-
ceptive faculties are good, as shown by his capture of
insects in their rapid flight upon the wing; his judgment
as to distances tolerably accurate, as shewn when dis-
turbed on land by his reaching his haven of water by a
single leap ; he has a quick ear to apprehend danger, and
one seemingly appreciative of his own music, and he is
eminently sociable with his kind in the spring time of the
year, and also during the season of hybernation.

His spinal column is made up of nine vertebrae, all of
which, except the atlas, have long transverse processes,
the coccyx is peculiar in its length, being almost as long

124 Frogs, and their Contributions to Science.

as all the vertebrae together, and reaching to the symphysis
or union of the iliac bones, liibs are wholly wanting, a
fact which bears upon his method of respiration. Like
man the frog rejoices in his upper and his lower extremities,
particularly his lower. He has his femur, and his humer-
us, his radius and ulna united in a single bone, his tibia,
and fibula also united, his carpal and metacarpal, tarsal,
and metatarsal bones, and phalanges for his fingers and
his toes.

The muscular tissue that invests the skeleton we de-
scribe, is of whitish appearance, very firm in texture and
very susceptible to galvanic action. Of its delicacy as a
thing of diet, or its beauty as a thing to be studied under
the microscope, we will not now speak. It is with little
difficulty one can pick from the thigh of the frog muscles
that are analogous to those of the thigh of man. The
flexors and extensors, the recti, the glutei, the gastro-
cnemii are all to be found well developed, and suggest
from their form, origin and insertion, a series of movements
similar to those made by man. Thus in swimming, man
and the frog strike out peculiarly alike. It may be noticed
here in regard to his aquatic feats, that he has not the
power of balancing himself and moving about at different
depths of the water like a fish, but is either at the surface
or closely hugging the bottom, and the same is true of him
to a certain degree even in the tadpole state.

A tough membranous skin invests the body, webbing
the toes of the hind feet only, green and marked with
dark pigment patches on the back, and tawny or golden,
colored about the throat, and full of pores that serve alike
as important aids in respiration and for the secretion of
the slimy mucus that keeps the body cool, glistening,
supple, and difficult to hold when caught by any preying
enemy. The color of this tissue is not constant, but
darker, greener, brighter or more leaden-hued on some

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 125

days than others, depending doubtless on the weather and
the state of the circulation. Some of the Hylee, a species
of frog inhabiting trees, possess an undoubted chameleon
faculty of assuming different shades of color quite perplex-
ing to those in search of them.

The mouth of the frog is large. The tongue springing
from the lower jaw is long, bifid, and when at rest turned
back upon itself. A wide esophagus leads into a single
stomach capable of much distension. The small in-
testines are slightly convoluted and terminate in a kind
of pouch or cloaca, into which also empty the ureters and
ovarian and seminal ducts. The anus opens on the
back. The length of the alimentary canal is three or four
times that of the body. In the tadpole state it is nine or
ten. In man it is between five and six. The food of
frogs is insects and worms which are taken on the wing
or when crawling before them by a sudden darting out of
the tongue and sometimes with a leap. Like the lion,
styled the king of beasts, the frog preys on no dead car-
cass. There must be life or motion to tempt him to strike.
Like man also, styled the highest animal, he sometimes
preys upon his own species. In a jar, in which I once
kept some frogs, there was a rare specimen of a Hyla, a
dimunitive kind of tree frog which I one day missed.
Noticing an undue fullness of the stomach of one of his
larger companions I performed upon him the operation
of gastrotomy and delivered my Hyla, like a second Jonah,
a little the worse for the gastric juice of his devourer but
still living.

The lymphatic and lacteal system of the frog is highly
developed. A pair of pulsating lymphatic hearts may be
easily detected, one on each side of the coccyx, while
another pair is found not so easily, under the posterior
edge of the scapulae. Their nervous system is also exceed-
ingly well developed. The peculiarity attending the

126 Frogs, and their Contributions to Science.

course of the femoral nerve, made up as it is on each
side by four filaments given oft' from the spinal cord at the
last four vertebras, and passing down on the outside of the
ilia, permit its easy isolation, and the making of it for
purposes of experimental inquiry, the sole channel of com-
munication between the lower extremities and the trunk.
The nerves of special sense, those of sight, hearing, taste,
and smell, are easily traced. Sensation is more perfect
about the head than the body. The eye is comparatively
large, promiuent and lustrous, and is beautiful to look at,
or study. Its iris is not dilatable, so far as I can perceive.
Besides two palpabrse, it is guarded by a semi-transparent
membrana nictitans. The ear has no external orifice. A
scale like membrane covers the auditory canal, like a drum-
head, and communicates its vibrations to the nerve. The
sense of sight is keen, that of hearing good, while those
of taste and smell, from anatomical reasons, are not deemed
sources of very exquisite enjoyment.

In the early tadpole portion of his life, the frog respires
like a fish, by the aid of branchiae or gills, but in the pro-
gress of his development, these, with the single heart
connected with them, give place to the true lungs and
the true heart, having a ventricle and two auricles. From
the manner in which the circulation is thereby effected,
the venous and arterial currents being mingled, aeration
of the blood is but imperfectly accomplished. The frog
breathes through his nose, never by his mouth. The air
is drawn in by the expansion of the muscles of the throat
and forced by their contraction, the nostrils being plugged
as it were by the tongue on the inside, into the lungs.
Expiration is effected by the muscles of the abdomen.
The want of ribs in the formation of the thoracic cavity
make this process of swallowing the air a necessity. The
number of respirations is about eighty per minute, the
aeration of the blood being as already stated greatly aided

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 127

by means of the skin. He would die as certainly if his
skin were covered by viscid oil or varnish, as if his mouth
were held open, and in either case it would be death by
suffocation.

Behind the ear of the male frog, for they alone are
provided with the apparatus, there is a membranous sac
into which the air is forced as into a bladder by the action
of the muscles of the throat and abdomen. On its pas-
sage inwards, not outwards over the tongue, it gives rise
to the peculiar croak, or croassement, as the French have
it, of the frog. Aristophanes, in one of his comedies, speaks
offrogsasthe song living race, the marshy offspring of
the fountains, and tried to express the chanting of their
varied watery choral music amid the noise of burst-
ing bubbles, by the Greek words B^£xsxsx£xoaxoaf-xoa|. There
are three different sounds emitted by the frog, as I have
noticed them, a kind of wooing, muttering on the part of
the male in the spring, the regular orthodox croak, and a
cry of agony or pain which I have heard him utter while
being swallowed by the snake. There is a popular mis-
apprehension in regard to these sounds, I think, which
confounds the long monotonous roll of the toad, and the
sharp cry of the newt, with those of the frog. It is, b}? no
means an unpleasant thing, however, of a warm spring
evening to listen to the lively music of a densely popu-
lated frog swamp. The continuous clatter of a thousand
croaking throats rising and falling in intensity, accompanied
perhaps by the deep bass of some lonely rana pipiens, or
the plaintive cadence of the sluggish toad, or the shrill
piping of the little water newt, make up, if listened to
aright, a veritable concord of sweet sounds.

The first notes of the frog in spring are pleasant,
through association. Like those of the robin or blue bird
they are listened to as the harbingers of sunny days, and
budding flowers, and a new life. It is a common saying

128 Frogs, and (heir Contributions to Science.

with fanners that after their first appearance they must be
three times driven to their marshy beds by frost and i«-e
before the reign of winter ceases and that of gentle spring
begins.

With the first warm days of spring, however, in this
latitude about the last of March, an upward impulse
seems to bring him from " the depths where he did lie"
and as the temperature of the water rises towards 60° his
activity and clamor increase. The blood, long stagnant,
courses with renewed activity, and desires, dormant for a
twelve month, awake to a new life. The little membra-
nous sacs we have spoken of vibrate unceasingly, pealing
forth what has been called "the tocsin of copulation." A
Frenchman once wrote and published a Memoir ou Les
Amours des Sauricns. A Frenchman alone is qualified to
describe the loves of the frogs.

The male has no intromittent organ, and therefore im-
pregnation occurs without actual coitus. Establishing
himself on the back of the female with his arms clasped
firmly in a kind of tonic spasm about her body below the
scapulae, he resigns himself for a period of from fifteen to
thirty days to a seemingly passive enjoyment of his posi-
tion. The impregnation of the ova takes place after they
have left the female. In their passage forth they are
enveloped in a gelatinous covering, which absorbing water
makes an aggregate floating jelly-like mass many times
the size of the body from which it emanates. It is
commonly known by the name of frog spawn. Each
female lays from six to twelve hundred eggs, lays them
but once a year, and does not reproduce them after the
third or fourth year.

The natural age to which the frog attains is not well
determined. It probably reaches from six to nine years.
The rana pipiena certainly lives much longer. JSoine
specimens that I have seen had all the marks of being

Frogs and their Contributions to Science. 129

ancient patriarchs. An old farmer told me that he had
distinctly recognized, for over twenty years, the peculiar
form and tone of one of these burly lords of the pool.

The tadpole is developed from the egg in from seven to
ten days according to the warmth of the air and water.
It is instructive to watch from day to day the progress of
this embryonic life, and amusing at the last to see some
precocious member bursting his cell wall and come wig-
gling forth rejoicing as a polliwog. The life of the tadpole
is in all respects like the life of a fish. It breathes by gills,
and feeds on minute animalcule and vegetable growths.
By aid of these, and warmth, and sunlight ; and by the law
of his being he approaches in from seven to ten weeks the
limit of his aquatic life. Little papillae appear on each
side at the back of the neck where legs, the hind legs, of
the future frog are soon to burst through. The tail grows
shorter and stumpier, and he rises oftenerto the surface to
breathe in and out a bubble of air as if to test the veritable
lungs that are to replace his primitive gills. At length
thejaws, already apparent through the skin, have separated,
and the mouth becomes an open fact, and then the upper
legs or arms follow in the footsteps of the lower. Little
by little the tail has kept decreasing, not dropping off
suddenly, but absorbed atom by atom by the action of the
capillary blood vessels, until at last it serves no longer as
a source of locomotive pride. The change is now com-
plete, and the young frog, a tadpole no longer, enters in a
new element upon another and higher stage of existence.
There is something wonderfully interesting in this change
from an inferior to a superior life. Bishop Butler's analo-
gical argument to prove the immortality of the soul drawn
from the worm, the chrysalis, and the butterfly, might be
strengthened here, if need be by another and no less
striking illustration. Less grave, also, are the social analo-
gies it presents of human polliwogs, whole families of them,
[Trans. vi.~] 17

130 Frogs and their Contributions to Science.

who may be -con wiggling along through life in the tad-
pole state, and whose transition to a higher grade of social
being, although earnestly striven tor, cannot possibly 1"'
accomplished under one or two generations.

Saving spoken of frogs anatomically, physiologically,

and in a measure, aesthetically, it remains tor lis to speak of
them historically in connection with important discoveries
in science to which they have contributed.

In 1770, at Bologna, Italy, in his own domestic labora-
tory, a tall, thoughtrul-browed professor was busy testing
and watching the manifestations oi that mysterious agent,
electricity, to the study of which the learned men of
Europe, incited by the discoveries of our own Franklin,
were just then giving especial attention. Perhaps to
cheer his weary brain, perhaps to worry him with some
trifling household topic, his wife hearing in her hand a
plateful of dressed frogs' legs tarries on her way to the
kitchen. The professor stops the turning of his cumber-
some machine to listen, the wife sets down her plate to
talk. It might have happened in a dozen ways, but the
startling fact was then first remarked, that contact with
the metallic conducting rod threw the frogs' legs into
violent convulsions. Although as yet uncooked, they
were food indeed for the professor. The germ of discovery
had here its inception, and began its growth in his mind.
From that day the laboratory consumed more frogs than
the kitchen. After a year's patient experimenting, there
was announced to the scientiiic world in 1791, the re-
markable discovery of the electrical effect produced by the
contact of animal parts with metallic substances, in a
publication entitled, Aloysii Qnlvani, <lc Viriims KUdrici-
totfis in Motu Mu8cidari, Oommentarius.

Since that time the earth lias been girdled with the
name and the fame of Galvani. His discovery was the start-
ing point for numberless experiments on frogs and metal-,

Frogs and their Contributions to Science. 131

until Volta, in 1800, extended it to the production of
electrical effects by contact of different metals, and con-
ceived the grand idea of what is known as Volta' s pile.
From this, progress in the knowledge and applications of
electricity was wonderfully increased, until now we can-
not estimate its influence. In chemistry, in the arts, in
the spread of printed leaves, and in the transmission of
thought regardless of intervening space, it has become the
great agent of the world's civilization. In this very build-
ing, where this last and crowning application of the electric
current to telegraphic purposes was first conceived and
actually put in practice, is it not meet that we should link
the glory of the achievement with the memory of the mar-
tyred frogs that gave the primitive idea birth ? Could they
speak from beneath the scientific altars upon which they
were so freely sacrificed, might not each one exultingly
croak at the recital of the fact we have stated

Quorum pars minima fui?

It is, however, in the great field of physiological re-
searches, and in the solution of. questions relative to man's
organic being, that we find the frog most intimately and
happily associated.

Probably one of the most important discoveries in physi-
ology of the present century is that of Marshall Hall
published in 1826, of the true spinal, or, as now called
diastaltic system, or system of reflex action. It is that
system of incident and reflex nerves connected with the
spinal axis as a centre, and which presides over all the .
functions of the body, and on which depends the preserva-
tion of the individual and the continuance of the species.
We breathe, we swallow, we wink the eye, we sneeze, we
vomit, we excrete, emit, extrude, and do a hundred
things beside by virtue of the operation of this law. It is
a kind of motion or action, the first to be exhibited in the

182 Frogs and their Contributions to Sri, nee.

foetus, and the last to disappear upon death. Kadi Sanc-
tion we have mentioned has it- diastaltic arc as it is <•; lied,
that is, a aerve famishing tin- way <>r commanicatioa from
the surface to the centre, which would be the cord and its
extension the medulla oblongata ami a nerve from the
centre communicating t<» tin- surface. For instance, the
presence of carbonic acid in the capillaries of the lung
stimulates the fibres of the pneamogastric nerve, and
gently says, I want more oxygen. The message travel to
the centre, and the response comes back along different
nerves to the muscles of the back, the intercostal mus.
and the diaphragm. The cavity of the thorax widens and
air rushes in. Now it is only by knowledge of the true
physiology of functions that we can rightly or rationally
proceed to restore them if disordered. It becomes, there-
fore, a practical and all important matter in the treatment
of disease to know just how far we are permitted to lift
the veil that hides its true locality and nature, as well as
to know the true and proper direction in which to bend
our efforts and address our remedies. Since the promul-
gation of Marshall Hall's discovery, the diagnosis of di-
seases has been greatly sharpened, and the practice of medi-
cine simplified and rationalized. The law of diastaltic
action is to the medical world what gravity is to the physical.
If we have spoken of it at tedious length, its importance
and the application we wish to make of it must be our
excuse. That application is simply this: that the disco-
very was suggested to Dr. Hall's mind by witnessing the
automatic motions of decapitated frogs and newts, and
elucidated by a systematic series of experiments upon these
and other animals, hut especially upon frogs, by reason of •
the facility with which they could be procured, and the
peculiar BUSCeptibility of their nervous system.

We do not claim for frogs, that they were the instru-
ments ushering in Harvey's great discovery of the circula-

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 133

tion of the blood, but we do say that they furnished the
last fact required for the full and perfect proof of the doc-
trine he maintained. The actual transition of the blood
from the arteries to the veins was first observed by Mal-
pighi in the large capillaries of the web of the frog's foot.

To sit in some window above a crowded street and
watch the different currents of thronging humanity beneath,
is attractive to most minds, merely as an exhibition 01
moving life. So to sit above the little world, the micro-
scope discloses in the transparent tissues of the frog, and
watch the moving blood currents through the capillaries,
even to unprofessional eyes, is strangely interesting. Now
the quick throbbing arterial wave, now the sluggish venous
flow, catches the eye. Now the tumbling procession of
globules crowd through some larger capillary, now each
individual globule glides along some narrow passage way,
in single file. Now the crimson tide stops a moment,
recedes, goes on, stops again like the heart beat, watched
by Uncle Toby. Altogether, the spectacle is one seldom
tiresome to the beholder.

Our knowledge of almost all the important facts in phy-
siology connected with the circulation, has been obtained
by the study of its phenomena as exhibited in the frog.
Thus, for instance, that the capillary circulation is not
controlled by the heart's action, but depends on the nutri-
tive, and other chemical changes which the blood under-
goes in its passage along the walls of the minute capillaries.
Thus also was established the existence of the white cor-
puscles of the blood, as well as the red, and their peculiar
route of travel. Indeed, in no class of animals can the
corpuscular changes of the blood be better, or more
readily studied, than in the frog. Again in the true
appreciation of that condition of the circulation, known as
congestion, and its distinction from the process called
inflammation, about which as many vague things have

1 3 1 Frogs, and >/>• <r ( 'ortfributions to 8cu

been written, and B8 many crude ideas held as any other
in medicine, *we are able to eliminate much of the confu-
sion that has so Long attended these terms, and prevenl

the mistakes by no means uncommon in the treatment of
disease occasioned by this wry confusion.
But we have said enough, perhaps, of these medical

associations of our subject, for while there is much mate-
rial remaining, showing how intimately connected have
been the lives and deaths of frogs and the progress of
physiological science, it would doubtless have more of
professional than general interest. We pass by therefore,
the many questions making up the mystery of our being,
which they have helped to elucidate or solve ; questions,
about the workings of the nervous system, about rudi-
mentary or embryonic life, changes of form, transitions
from inferior to superior organizations, and finally ques-
tions in medical jurisprudence, even, where they have lent
their mute though striking testimony in the detection of
hidden crime.

If, what we have said, removes from any mind the idea
of their insignificancy, or redeems them from the reproach-
ful utilitarian inquiry sometimes made of animals lower
than ourselves, of wherefore were they made, it will have
answered our purpose.

In conclusion, we are, for ourselves, free to confess that
we love the frogs. We love them as table delicacies, for
the music they make, and for the good they bave been to
man. We never pass them by, when their full chorus is
ringing upon the night air, with its deep bass, and airy
alto mingling harmoniously, without a thrill of pleasure
intensified by the recollection of their history and associ-
ations. Individually they are full of interest. They have
a certain grace o\' form and motion, a certain beauty ot
color, a bright eye, ami a tongue not devoid of melody.
As a class they deserve respectful recognition by virtue of

Frogs, and their Contributions to Science. 135

the uncomplaining and unnumbered sacrifices made of
them upon the shrine of science. Yes! let us all love
the frogs ; we will be better physiologists for it, and I
doubt not, more devoutly minded. For, as Coleridge says,

He prayeth best, who loveth best,
All things, both great and small.
For the dear God, who loveth us,
He made, and loveth all.

Authorities referred to in the foregoing paper :
Griffith's Animal Kingdom, vol. ix.
Natural History Report, State of New York.
Cyclopedia Anatomy and Physiology, Todd & Bowman.
Charlesworth Magazine, Natural History, vol. in..
Aristophanes' Comedies. — The Frogs.
Albany Academy Semi-Centennial Historical Discourse.

Akt. VI. — Be/marks an (he Galvanic Battery. By G.

W. Hough, Director Dudley Observatory.1

[Read before tin- Albany Institute, November, 1868.]

The constant use of Daniell's battery tor nearly ten years,
made us desirous of more fully understanding the mode of
its action, and the cause of the decline in the strength of
the electric current. For this purpose, during the past
year, a series of experiments were instituted, with batteries
of various forms. As they were undertaken solely for the
purpose of securing the best form of battery for every day
use, delicate instruments were not provided, and conse-
quently great precision of measurement could not be
obtained.

The Galvanometer consisted of a steel needle one and a
half inches in length, attached to a light strip of brass,
having a radius of five inches. This needle was mounted
horizontally over a coil of silk-covered copper wire. The
graduation of the instrument was effected by two methods,
viz : by means of the divided current, and by the revolving
disk.

The Rheostat was constructed by winding No. 30 silk-
covered wire, around a wooden cylinder ten inches in
circumference and 8 inches in length. The coils were
separated in different groups, and so connected with
switches that any number could readily be Introduced in
the circuit.

For measuring the comparative resistance of different
Liquids, two small platinum plates, attached to protected
wires, were fastened to a block of wood, and maintained
at a uniform distance from each other.

' Read Nov., 18G8. Abstract read at the Chicago meeting of the American
Association.

Remarks on the Galvanic Battery. 137

DanieWs Battery. — The battery originally constructed by
Daniell consisted of a copper cylinder 6 inches high and
3J inches in diameter, with a porous cell or ox-gullet pass-
ing through the centre, in which was suspended a rod of
zinc 6 inches in length, and ^ inch in diameter. The
porous cell passed through the bottom of the copper cylin-
der and the end was connected with a glass siphon, bent
in such a manner that the top was on a level with the
surface of the liquid. The battery was excited with a sa-
turated solution of sulphate of copper and water acidulated
with sulphuric acid. When fresh water and acid was
poured in the top of the porous cell, an equal amount of
liquid was forced out from the bottom through the siphon.
It was intended by this arrangement to maintain at all
times the same strength of acidulated water about the zinc.
After this battery came in general use, porous clay cells
were substituted for the membranous bag, and the siphon
was discarded.

Hill's Battery. — As many of our experiments were made
with Hill's modification of Daniell's battery, a description
of its peculiarity is deemed necessary. This battery con-
sists of a glass jar, with a sheet of copper placed in the
bottom and a disk of zinc, perforated in the centre, sus-
pended horizontally near the top. Protected copper wires
are attached to the zinc and copper forming the two poles
of the battery. When thus arranged the jar is tilled with
a solution of s. z.,1 after which a few crystals of s. c. are
dropped in through the orifice in the zinc, and lie on the
copper plate. If the liquid is not agitated the copper will
lie in a solution of s. c. and the zinc in a solution of 5. z.,
so long as the specific gravity of the latter is less than 36°
B. The intervening liquid s. z. acts as a protection in the
same manner as the porous cell in Daniell's battery.

1 The following abbreviations are used : q. Quantity of electricity flowing
in tbe external circuit ; s. c. sulphate of copper ; s. z. sulphate of zinc.
[Trans. vi.~] 18

188 Remarks on ih Galvmiic lldtio-j.

Tin formation of Sulphate of Zxna — As soon as the poles
of the battery are joined . z. is formed in the cell contain-
ing the zinc, and metallic copper is deposited on the
copper plate. A long series of experiments were insti-
tuted to determine the rate of formation of the s. z. during
the various conditions of the battery. A Hill's element
was put on a closed circuit through the galvanometer,
without any external resistance, and the specific gravity
of the 5. z. was measured daily, by means of a Baurne
hydrometer. The indications of the galvanometer needle
and the temperature, was also ascertained at the same
time. The jar containing the liquid was 7 inches high
and 6 inches in diameter. The zinc and copper plates
each presented a surface of 28 square inches. The dis-
tance between the plates was 5| inches. The battery was
started with s. z. at 21° B. specific gravity. This element
was on a closed circuit for 30 days ; at the end of that
time the s. z. was nearly saturated 43° B., temperature 50°,
and q. had decreased to only one-seventh of its normal
value. For the first 23 days, or while the specific gravity
of the s. z. was less 40° B., q. was sensibly the same from
day to day.

It is a fundamental principle that the formation of 5. z. is
directly proportioual to the quantity of electricity passing
in the circuit. This would be strictly true, provided there
was no local action; but actual experience demonstrates
that this condition is never fulfilled. On laving down the
daily results in the form of a curve, having the specific
gravity of the s. z. for one ordinate, and the time for the
other, it was found that the observations could be well
represented by an equation of the second degree in which
a j = + 1-46° and a 2 =—0-08°. For this element, the
amount of liquid saturated with 8. z. between the limits
12° to 40° B., was 3-6 cubic inches daily. A second
element of the same size in which the distance between

Remarks on the Galvanic Battery. 139

the plates was reduced to 4 inches, gave similar results.
But the amount of liquid saturated daily was nearly twice
as great, with but a small increase in the quantity of elec-
tricity generated; showing a much greater local action.

The experiments with a Daniell's element of the usual
size, using a porous cell 2 J inches in diameter and 7 inches
hio-h. o-ave 5*7 Cubic inches for the amount of liquid satu-
rated daily, during the normal condition of the element.
As q. was nearly double that of Hill's element, and the
amount of liquid saturated, less in proportion, it shows
less local action. From these experiments it follows that
once having determined q. the length of time the battery
will maintain the current at its normal force can readily
be computed; since it depends entirely on the capacity of
the cell holding the sulphate of zinc. With a porous cell
of the usual size, when no external resistance is intro-
duced, the battery will begin to decrease at the end of
three days and at the end of five days there will be scarcely
any action. On the contrary with Hill's element, of the
size before described, q. will continue uniform for more
than thirty days, and will be but little less at the end of
fifty days. Most of the writers on galvanism seem to
imagine that sulphuric acid is essential for exciting the
battery, but our experiments show that this is not the
case ; in fact we consider it a detriment; for if too great a
quantity is used, crystals of sulphate of zinc are deposited
on the zinc, thereby greatly lessening q. It seems to me
that the only office of the sulphuric acid, is to make the
water a better conductor ; since nitric acid, muriatic acid,
salt, sulphate of copper, or sulphate of zinc, will answer
equally well. By using a solution of s. z. of a certain
specific gravity, the same quantity and electro-motive
force is obtained, as with sulphuric acid. This is also true
for Grove's and the bi-chromate of potash battery.

140 J{> murks cm tin Galvanic Battery.

The use of a number of porous cells in the same jar. — Since
the decrease of 7. is due to the formation of s. z., the ques-
tion naturally arises, how can a battery be constructed that
will give a uniform current for a long period of time '.'

The answer is plain, we must increase the capacity of
the cell in which the zinc is placed.

In a two-gallon stone jar, three porous cells were placed
with a sheet of copper surrounding them. The current
was then passed through the galvanometer and rheostat,
and sufficient resistance inserted to make q. equal to that
due to single cell, when used alone. The amount of s. z.
formed in a given time was then measured, when it was
found each cell made as much s.z. as if only a single on.'
had been employed. This combination showed very great
local action. Nothing, therefore, would be gained by such
an arrangement, but on the contrary a much greater
amount of zinc would be consumed without advantage.

We next had constructed large porous cells 6 inches in
diameter and 7 inches high having a capacity of 180 cubic
inches. Our previous experiments enable us to calculate
with considerable precision the length of time one of these
elements will maintain a maximum current of electricity.
Allowing 5-7 cubic inches for the amount of liquid satu-
rated daily between the limits 12° to 40°, it is apparent that
a battery of this size should remain constant for more than
30 days, without any external resistance being introduced
in the circuit. When electro-magnets are operated, as
tin' external resistance should at least be equal to that of
the battery, the current would remain constant for more
than two months on a continually closed circuit.

The relation between ihe quantity of electricity and the specific
gravity of the sulphate of zinc. — Svanberg's experiments are
quoted by recent writers to prove that the electro-motive
force for Daniell's battery is not materially changed by the
nature of the liquid about the zinc. Although this state-

Remarks on the Galvanic Battery. 141

merit is strictly true, yet it does not give us correct views
in regard to the battery. We prepared different solutions
of s. z. ranging from zero to saturation. These were alter-
nately used in the porous cell and q. measured by the gal-
vanometer. The time for each experiment was about five
minutes. Above the specific gravity of 15° B. q. was
sensibly the same up to saturation. These results were so
directly contrary to all our experience with the battery in
actual use, that at first we were at a loss to understand
them. The experiments were accordingly continued, by
putting an element on a closed circuit through the galvan-
ometer. The quantity of electricity and the specific gra-
vity of the s. z. was noted from time to time. So soon as
the s. z. approached near saturation, from 43° to 46° B.
depending on the temperature, it was found that the
element gradually decreased in force untill finally q. was
less than one twentieth of its normal value. As the
electro-motive force remained constant it indicated an in-
ternal resistance more than twenty times as great. But
we know by direct experiment that a saturated solution of
s. z. is a better conductor than a dilute solution, and hence
we ought to expect the resistance to be less. A careful
study of the phenomenon led us to conclude that the
increased resistance was due to the polarization in the bat-
tery itself. When the current is passed through a volta-
meter or electrolyte solution, it is found a much greater
resistance is introduced, than that due to the liquid alone.
This increased resistance is ascribed to polarization of the
electrodes in the solution and has been ably discussed by
a number of scientists. But the polarization in the battery
itself does not appear to have been investigated. After
an element has been on a closed circuit for a long time,
if the circuit be opened for a few minutes, on closing it,
the galvanometer will at first indicate the maximum quan-
tity due to the element, but in a few seconds the needle

142 Remarks on tht Galvanic Battery.

will gradually recede and stand as before. It appears that
wIk'u the .specific gravity of the 8. z. approaches saturation
it becomes charged with electricity like a Leyden jar or
prime conductor. From numerous experiments, we find
q. reaches its maximum when the specific gravity of the
s. z. is between 20° and 30° 13. However, for practical
purposes the battery gives essentially the same force be*
tween 15° and 38° 13. Below 15° 13. the conducting power
of the 5. z. is considerably less, and consequently the re-
sistance greater, and above 38° B. the resistance is again
increased by polarization. The conducting power of s. z.
was found to be essentially the same between 30° B. and
saturation. At 1° B. it was one-fourth, at 7° one-half
and at 14° three-fourths as great as for a saturated so-
lution.

On the use of the negative metal in DanieWs Battery. — The
negative metal in Daniell's Battery isonly useful as a con-
ductor of the current.

For the purpose of testing the correctness o[" this con-
clusion, experiments were made with the following metals
as the negative plate: 1, copper; 2, sheet lead ; 3, sheet
iron ; 4, sheet iron tinned (the ordinary sbeet tin) ; 5, sheet
zinc; 6, cast zinc.

The s. c. was a saturated solution, and the 8. z. had a
specific gravity of 25° B. The quantity of electricity and
the electromotive force was found to be the same for
copper, lead, iron and tin. When zinc was used for both
the positive and negative metal, the action was somewhat
different. For two or three seconds alter immersion in
the .?. c. there was a small negative current, after which
the galvanometer needle was gradually deflected until it
indicated a quantity of electricity nearly equal to the
normal condition of the element. It then remained at
rest for a few seconds after which it receded and stood at
a degree indicating about one-half the quantity. The

Remarks on the Galvanic Battery. 143

whole time required to bring it to rest, was three minutes
from the time of immersion. During the progress of the
experiment the hydrogen was evolved so rapidly from the
zinc immersed in the s. c. that the bubbles could be ex-
ploded by holding a lighted match near the surface of the
liquid. As soon , however, as the galvanometer came to rest
the evolution of hydrogen had nearly ceased. On remov-
ing the zinc it was found covered with a loose copper
powder, not reguline metal but such as is deposited when
a large battery is employed to act on a small surface.
This powder did not adhere closely to the zinc, but was
separated by a thin layer of 5. z. or hydrogen. On wash-
ing the zinc and repeating the experiment precisely similar
results were obtained. Although the zinc was capable of
conducting the maximum quantity of electricity, yet the
electro-motive force was considerably less than for the other
metals. A careful examination of these experiments, leads
us to the conclusion that the negative metal in Daniell's
battery, only acts as a conductor of the electricity.

On the internal resistance of the battery -In a battery with
two liquids the internal resistance is made up of two ele-
ments, viz : the specific resistance of the liquid and
the resistance of the porous cell. Although recent writers
have remarked the variation of resistance due to different
kinds of earthen cells, yet we have not learned that any
one has determined separately the resistance due to the
cell and that due to the liquids. By our method it is
necessary to use at least two cells of different size. In
these experiments three were employed.

No. 1, White clay cell 0-81 inches in thickness, 6 inches in diame-
ter and 7 inches high.

No. 2, White clay cell 0-15 inches in thickness, 3 inches in diame-
ter and 7 inches high.
. No. 3, Split-leather cell 006 inches in thickness, 5 inches in diame-
ter and 7 inches high, fitted to a bottom of inch pine.

144 R< marks on the Galvanic BaW ry.

The resistance of the element was determined for each
cell separately. Then the cells were placed one inside of
the other and the total resistance determined as before.
After which it was found for two at a time. These several
determinations gave us a series of equations, involving
the resistance of each separate cell together with the
specific resistance of the liquids.

The following are the results expressed in an arbitrary

unit:

No. 1, Resistance, -2

No. 2, " 17

No. 3, " 7 .

Specific resistance of the liquids s. c. saturated solution,
s, :. 25° B. 13. From which it appears that the specific
resistance of the liquids is about the same as for a white
clay cell of the ordinary size.

As q. is increased by lessening the interval resistance
other things being equal, it is apparent that the leather
cells are superior to those made of white clay.

On the construction of DanielVs Battery. — For a local bat-
tery, where the external resistance is small, two-gallon
stone jars may be used for the vessel holding the s. c.
solution. The negative plate is best made of sheet lead
instead of copper as heretofore ; as it is less expensive and
is easier bent in the proper form. It is desirable to per-
forate the sheet with an ordinary punch, in order to secure
a more free circulation of the liquid surrounding it.
Ordinary sheet tin makes the cheapest negative plate, but
it is unfit for general use, where the battery is required to
be kept in constant action for a long period. For if the
s. c. solution is not kept saturated, chemical action takes
place between the iron and tin which soon dissolves the
plates. I have, however, used it successfully. If the
solution is kepi saturated, in a month or so the sheet will
be covered with a fine plate of copper, which may be easily

Remarks on the Galvanic Battery. 145

separated, provided the original plate has been properly
prepared by being oiled and black-beaded before being
used. The porous cell in which the zinc is placed should
have a capacity of at least 150 cubic inches. As the resist-
ance of large clay cells is more than three times as great
as for those made of leather, the latter are preferred ; since
with the same surface of zinc q. is nearly doubled. The
constant use of leather cells during the past year fully
demonstrates their superiority over those made of white
clay. For it is found in practice that for working magnets
such as are used in telegraph offices for local sounders, one
element as described above, gives more effective working
force than two of those in ordinary use. The zinc cast-
ing may be of any form; for cells of this size, it should
have an external surface of 50 square inches.

The battery should be started with s. z. at 15° B. specific
gravity. Sulphuric acid should never be used in the cell
containing the zinc. Crystals of s. c. are suspended in a
bag or perforated cup near the top of the liquid sur-
rounding the negative plate, in order to keep the solution
at saturation. After a battery has been in constant use
for a number of months, crystals of s. c. will be found pre-
cipitated on the bottom of the jar. When this is the case
the liquid must be poured in another vessel, and all the s.
c. removed, as it seems to lessen q. During cold weather
the battery may be improved by adding occasionally a
little sulphuric acid to the s. c. solution. Between 40° and
100° Fahr., the specific resistance of the liquids is increased
about one-sixth for every 10° decrease of temperature. It
is not desirable therefore, to work the battery at a tempera-
ture below 50° Fahr.

The zinc need not be amalgamated, but it should be
cleaned once in two or three months, and all the sediment
removed from the porous cell.

[Trans. vi.~\ 19

14fi Remarks on the Galvanic Battery.

When the specific gravity of the s. z. approaches 40° B.
one-half of the liquid should be removed, and fresh water
added. It is always best, however, to keep the specific
gravity of the s. z. between the limits 15° to 38° B.

If Hill's form of battery is employed, a jar of the same
size may be used. With plates of 50 square inches each,
placed at a distance of 5 inches from each other, q. is the
same as for Daniell's element of the ordinary size. The
negative plate may be made of sheet lead, having a pro-
tected copper wire firmly attached to it. The zinc should
be cast with an opening in the centre of one and one-
half inches in diameter. Iron bars for supporting it near
the top of the jar, can be cast in the zinc. This
battery should be started with a solution of s. z. having
a specific gravity of 15° B. The s. c. is dropped in through
the orifice in the zinc plate. The battery should be ex-
amined occasionally with the hydrometer, and the specific
gravity of the liquid never allowed to become greater
than 36° B.

Art. VII. — Life as a Physical Phenomenon. By
George T. Stevens, M.D.

[Read before the Albany Institute May 5, 1869.]

Naturalists have recognized as the first step in the
classification of those beings of which we have knowledge,
three great classes or kingdoms. These kingdoms are :
mineral, vegetable, animal. Within these great classes
are included all objects which come within the limits of
uman observation, whether visible to the unassisted eye
or only revealed to vision by the aid of the most powerful
glasses of the microscope ; whether ponderous enough to
be felt or so light and infinitely diffused that they float
about in the atmosphere, a single volume of which out-
weighs a score of volumes of these subtle elements.

Curiously enough, the elementary constituents of beings
in these three great divisions are in one sense common ;
that is, all the elements of vegetables are also found in the
class of minerals, and the elements of animal structures are
none other than those of vegetables. Indeed, certain
mineral elements, under certain influences, become plants;
and the tissues of plants under certain other influences, or
possibly under the same influences, differently applied, as-
sume the character of animals.

Individuals, which are extreme types of each of these
classes, appear to indicate a most unmistakable line of de-
markation between the classes ; no one could fail to see
the dibtinction between a quadruped and a mushroom, or
between a rock and a rose ; but as we descend to the lower
orders of vegetable and animal existence, it is often a
question requiring the nicest discrimination to determine to
which of the classes a being may belong.

148 Life as a Physical Phenomenon.

There are even naturalists of profound learning and re-
search, who declare that certain beings belong to both of
these two classes, and are at one period of their existence
plants and£t another animals. This is mentioned not with
a view of endorsing the theory, but to illustrate the ex-
treme difficulty of separating the two classes. It is
scarcely less difficult to draw the line of distinction be-
tween minerals and vegetables.

Notwithstanding the striking peculiarities pertaining to
each of the kingdoms, when we reach beings sufficiently
developed to represent to any certain degree the class to
which they belong, there are very many characteristics
which are commou beside the material which enters into
their composition.

The first common characteristic which we observe, aside
from material, is a tendency on the part of the ultimate
particles or molecules of each of the classes to arrange
themselves in certain definite, specific forms ; and if the
circumstances surrounding any being be favorable, it will
invariably assume the form peculiar to its class.

Any variation from this law is the result of opposing in-
fluences which the molecules cannot overcome. And as
here is one of the first fundamental structural laws common
to all beings, so here we observe the first indication of
a line of distinction upon which any classification can be
founded.

In minerals, where a specific form is assumed, the mole-
cules unite in crystals, they are usually bounded by
straight lines and angles, while vegetable and animal
structures are built of cells ; the prevailing idea is a sphere,
and the parts are bounded by curved lines and surfaces.

Here, it would seem, that there is an absolute line of
separation were it not for some exceptions which we may
have occasion to mention.

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 149

If there is not an absolute line of classification in the
general outline of minerals, as compared with plants and
animals, we have but to advance one step and we find what
seems to be a remarkable and invariable difference.

Plants and animals are always built up from cells,
minerals, never.

Here then is our first absolute line of departure from
a common type in the construction of beings, and it may
be regarded as extremely doubtful whether we find
another. Between plants and animals, it is doubtful
whether there is more than the single distinction, a plant
deoxydizes, an animal oxydizes.

Beings of neither of these classes are, where the typical
form exists, formed by simple accumulation of particles.
The assumption in most physiological works that minerals
are built by simple accretion of particles is not true ; but
there is a process, wonderful in its perfection, by which
certain particles, under certain circumstances, are arranged
in the form of a crystal, and certain other particles, under
certain other circumstances are made to constitute a cell.
That the cell differs widely from the crystal all must admit ;
but that there is less perfection in the arrangement of the
particles of the crystal than of the cell has never been de-
monstrated.

That peculiar formative process by which particles or
molecules are arranged into cells has received various
names, which are perhaps well enough in themselves but
they have been so long used in a vague and undefined
manner that the idea conveyed is often, if not generally,
erroneous.

The phenomena which distinguish plants and animals
from minerals are called collectively, life, or the vital process
— vitality — by which terms is usually understood far more
than seems to be indicated by the actual processes. Phy-
siologists, recognizing the difficulties attending the use

150 Life as a Physical Phenomenon.

of words which seem to imply so much that is unknown
and so little that is known, have substituted the word
organization as the dividing characteristic between the

first and the other two classes. Possibly this might con-
vey a more definite idea if it could be assumed that there
ie no such thing ae organization in minerals.

As I believe that it can be shown that the process of
arranging the molecules of a crystal is as truly a process of
organization as the arrangement of the molecules of a cell,
and inasmuch as the terms organization f formative process
should indicate generally and not specially, the process by
which beings are formed, it would seem that there is little
of definite meaning to the terms as used, and that so far
as any idea is conveyed it is essentially erroneous.

If it is true that crystallization is really organization, it
follows that we have two forms or varieties to study, the
one working silentl}' among minerals, the other building
up the wonderful structures which we call living bein
Except in this cell form of organization there is no anima-
tion. Without this peculiar process, the earth would be a
cheerless desert. There would be no longer green hillsides
with flocks and herds; forests and groves, fields of waving
grain and gardens of flowers would disappear; the singing
of birds and the voices of childhood and youth would be
hushed, and the gloomy earth would become a realm of
desolation and death.

What is this process that builds the tree and paints the
flower: that tonus the beast that grazes upon the hillsides,
and the bird that wings its way through the air; that gives
the brilliancy to the eye and the bloom to the cheek ?

It is impossible to begin the study of the laws which
divide and unite the three great kingdoms in beings of
complex nature; for so curiously and so mysteriously are
the forces brought to bear, that we are confounded and

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 151

overwhelmed by the surprising manifestations that meet
us at the very outset of our investigations.

He who would learn to read does not begin at once to
discuss and analyze the literary beauties of Milton or
Shakespeare, but he learns first the simplest symbols and
combinations. So when we would learn to read from the
book of nature the secrets of life we are not to commence,
as many do, with the most complex forms of existence ; but
we are first to learn what we can from .the simplest forms,
and trace the processes we find higher and higher as we
become more and more familiar with the elements of truth
they teach us.

The simplest living structure is a single cell. Some
plants and some animals are composed of just this one cell.
Now what can we learn from one of these minims of creation ?

We find the green scum that floats on a stagnant pool,
we place a little of it under a powerful glass, aod we see
that the scum is made up of hundreds of individual plants,
each plant a single cell.

How does it look under the glass ? It looks like a bag
containing a transparent sac, within which is a fluid, and
in the centre a dot ; around the dot are many minute points
or smaller dots arranged like a system of planets about a
central globe.

Every one of these little plants of this simple construc-
tion consists of this outer bag, this inner sac, this contained
fluid, and the dot. These cells or individual plants are very
minute ; a hundred of them would rest upon a pin's head.

Here then under the glass of the microscope we have a
living being in which we can inspect each of its parts, and
see all its little plans of life. Are these plans in any way
similar to the operations in higher structures? Yes ; what
transpires within the limits of this little sphere is a type
of all the operations carried on in every tissue in every
living creature ?

152 /. / as a Physical Phenomenon.

[ndeed, at one period of its existence, every living thing,
from the lowest plant to the highest animal, to man him-
self, was nothing more then one of these little spheres;
and the most complex being can be traced back to its con-
dition as a sac with its contained fluid and dot.

The higher forms of existence are made up by the
multiplication in numbers and modification in form of
these same cells ; and life in man himself is but the mul-
tiplication of what may be seen in this little cell under the
glass.

Now let us see what goes on in the little being. If it
continues to live under the glass we shall presently see that
the minute granules, which are within the cell, are moving
about. Watch them closely, and we find that they are
all revolving about the nucleus or dot. We may observe
what seems at first some confusion, for while the granules
seem nearly all to be revolving in the same direction some
very small ones seem to have an irregular motion; but by
closer inspection we see that these smallest granules are
revolving like satellites about other granules, which are
larger and which have entered upon a stage of their exist-
ence hereafter to be described.

I shall now crave your indulgence for a moment while
I call your attention to what seems to me at least a very
curious analogy. I would like to leave the little cell with
its revolving granules, and exchange the microscope for
the telescope. If on some bright evening we goto yonder
observatory, and watch the eye-piece of the telescope as
the instrument is made to point to the stars, we shall gaze
upon objects of wondrous interest. Jupiter and his satel-
lites, Saturn with his moons and rings, and other planets
are brought to view with greatly magnified splendor. As
the instrument sweeps from one point of the heavens to
another it brings to our notice a hazy, cloudy mass larger
than hundreds of stars, looking in the distant heavens like

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 153

an illuminated mist or as though some comet in its rapid
flight had left a portion of its train behind. Such luminous
masses are always found in the same part of the heavens,
as fixed as are the fixed stars themselves. Astronomers
call them nebula.

There is a theory now accepted by astronomers that our
solar system was formed from just such a nebulous mass.
Let me recall very briefly the main points of this theory.

The nebula of which our system was formed was set in
motion by the power of omnipotence, and made to revolve.
By its swift motion and by the attraction of particles for
each other a central globe was drawn together, leaving
the nebula divided into this central sphere, and a great
ring of nebulous matter revolving about it. This central
mass is the sun. At length the great ring, by the velo-
city of its motion, was broken into lesser rings, one
within the other, all revolving in the same direction. The
force of attraction and the swift revolution of the rings
caused them again to break up, but not as before. Now
instead of dividing into thinner rings the matter gathers
into globular masses, and these masses revolve upon them-
selves while they continue to fly in the great orbit origin-
ally occupied by three several rings.

Here, then, we have a great central globe, around which
was a ring of nebulous matter, which ring has broken up
into smaller globes which revolve about the central one ;
and all these are surrounded by and contained in an atmo-
sphere or ether, which, while it may be unlike our own, is
still a surrounding and enveloping element for them all.

Now do we see between this system of globes and this
little cell with its nucleus and revolving granules any re-
semblance ? Is there not at least a very strong sugges-
tion : that a single thought prevailed in the creation of the
microscopic plant and the almost infinite system of worlds ?
And when we remember that this same principle of the
[Trans, vu] 20

164 /. '" as a Physical Phenomenon.

cell reaches through all phases of living existence (as I
shall presently show it does) does not the suggestion he-
come a conviction that a -ingle mind has designed and

created them all ; and that they are all, solar systems and
living beings, designed on the same plan — different mani-
festations of the same grand idea, a single law governing
them all ?

The little granules contained within the cell walls at
length enlarge. They appropriate the nourishment in the
little sac of flu id, and the sac in turn continues to draw
more from the surrounding medium. The little granule
is seen to collect about itself a thin transparent ring of
matter which becomes an envelope like the original sac,
and we are reminded of Saturn and his rings. Here, in
one part of the field of the microscope is the miniature
Saturn. There is another granule growing rapidly, around
which other smaller granules revolve, reminding us of
Jupiter and his moons. In another part of the field a little
group of granules revolve together, recalling to mind some
constellation, while the clear liquid in which this little cos-
mos is contained is like the celestial spaces. We cannot
watch the process under the microscope without the con-
viction that the little plant is a repetition, on a small scale,
of the systems of stars about us.

It maybe said that the existence of cell walls destroys
the analogy. That in one case we have but the circulation
of a fluid within a closed cavity, while in theotherwe have
tin; revolution of great masses in open spaces. But the
cell wall is not essential, for these revolutions of granules
may be seen in masses of protoplasm in which there is no
indication of a cell wall, the granules are gathered about
the nucleus and independently of any boundary but the at-
traction by which they are related to the nucleus, perform
their revolution. Thus the analogy becomes perfect, the
cell wall is au addition to the ideal cell, placed about it by

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 155

infinite wisdom to protect the little system, and to assist
in its relations with surrounding systems. Divesting the
cell of its investments, and there remains but the difference
in magnitude between the galaxy of the planets and the
group of microscopic granules.

As the sac of the cell continues to draw within itself
materials for protoplasm, and as the granules increase in
size, they become too large to be contained in the parent
cell, which bursts, and we see that each larger granule has
become a new nucleus, has surrounded itself with cell
walls like its parent, and is prepared for a separate existence.
Each of the new cells is seen to teem with new granules;
and each, as these granules enlarge, bursts and gives rise
to a new brood of living beings.

Particles have been drawn from the mineral world, car-
bouic acid, water, and ammonia, have been taken up and
decomposed, and certain quantities of oxygen returned to
the atmosphere. Thus far, the process is purely chemical.
But these materials are no longer carbonic acid, water, and
ammonia. Each of these minims of the vegetable world
has not only imbibed from the mineral kingdom certain
elements, but it has assimilated this pabulum, converting
it into products for its own enlargement or growth, and
for the nourishment of still another class of beings. The
elements which have been used in this process have taken
a form never known to them in any other relations than
when combined in living structures, and instead of remain-
ing amorphous or assuming a crystalline form are arranged
in cells. Whether the force which causes these particles
when thus brought together in these proportions and under
these peculiar circumstances is an inherent property of
matter and corelated to the other forces which are mani-
fested in the mineral world, or whether it is a new and
peculiar force superadded to beings of this construction,
and which is called vitality, is a question which we will ex-

156 Life as a Physical Ph n<<menon.

amine when we have briefly considered how these units of
living structures are related and combined in higher
organisms.

We have seen the life process in the most simple struc-
ture, let us trace its workings in more complex beings.
Cells do not always retain their spherical form, even when
they are originally BphereB. One of the first modifications
is an elongation in the direction of growth.

Let us now advance one step in theprocess of existence.

Here I represent a being, a plant consisting of several
such cells as have been described, and as we see, they are
elongated in the axis of growth. The cells are connected
at the extremities, and are thus united to make up a single
individual. Now the little green filaments which Ave have
all seen floating on the still waters, are, many of them,
made up just in this way — a single row of cells, con-
nected at the extremities.

Let us examine another form. Here is a filament made
up of a single row of cells, but instead of being elongated
they are flattened. This is the appearance of certain sea-
weeds when placed under the lenses of the microscope.

Now, let us take a very small thread of muscular fibre,
and place it in the field of the microscope. It will present
the'appearance of several of these little threads of sea-weed
placed side by side, and if we separate these lows of cells
and place a single ultimate fibre of muscle under the
glass, it may bo hard to tell which is the fibre of muscle
and which the thread of sea-weed. Thus we see that
a very large and important portion of the human body
is built on the identical plan of the structure of the hum-
ble weed. And do we not see also how rapidly we have
advanced in the scale of being? We commenced with the
Bimplesl living Btructure, the slime in the pool, then we
examined a being scarcely higher in the scale of life, and
theu by the most natural and easy advance came directly

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 157

upon the principal tiss lie of man himself. Thus far we have
spoken only of cells that retain very nearly the typical,
spherical forms ; but many cells are so modified that a casual
examination detects no relation to the type. The cell is
modified in form according to the purpose it is to serve in
the economy of the individual. In the fibre of the linden
or oak it is long and flexible, more like a thread than what
we have figured as a cell. In what are called fibrous tis-
sues too in the bodies of animals it is often drawn out in
the form of a long cylinder. Perhaps we may be able to
trace the transition from the round cell to the cylindrical
one so that we may keep the relationship in view.

Let us make a hollow sphere of india-rubber in imi-
tation of a round cell, the rubber taking the place of
cellulose. Let the sphere be large enough to illustrate the
changes we desire to witness and the walls thin enough to
be transparent. In the centre is a fluid, and within it
some elastic substance which may represent the dot. Now
let us fasten two fine hooks, one to one side and one to
the other of our elastic, transparent sphere. Draw upon
the hooks and do we not see that the rounded body be-
comes pointed ? Draw a little more, it is fusiform ; still
more, it is like a fibre, and now we can only see it as a
tube. The first, or rounded form is found in blood cor-
puscles in our own vessels, and discs of essentially the
same structure are also found in the mucous membrane lin-
ing the mouth, in the skin and in other tissues of the body,
and we have already seen how slight is its modification in
muscular fibre. The other forms are found in fibrous tis-
sues. The long tubular form is common in woody fibres.
The fibre of cotton is an example of a cell greatly extended.
It might be shown, had we the time and were it neces-
sary, that every part of a plant or an animal is built of
cells, but the proposition that such is the case will doubt-
less be accepted by all.

158 Life as a Physical Phenomenon.

As I have already intimated, the cells draw from the
surrounding fluids the materials necessary for their growth,
and it is a remarkable fact that every kind of cell has the
power, or faculty, of selecting and appropriating jast such
materials as arc needful for its own peculiar structure.
This faculty is, however, confined within certain limits.
Thus the cells of plants will absorb carbonic acid, water,
and ammonia, and unite these elements in the form of
cellulose, hut to the animal these materials would fnrnisb
only starvation diet. But these same compounds, carbo-
nic acid water and ammonia, when once united in the
plant, become food for the animal.

Having traced the history of the cell and its relations to
living structures, thus far, it requires no stretch of imagin-
ation to perceive clearly that all living forms are funda-
mentally alike, and that the cell or more exactly the
protoplasm, from which the cell is built, is the real basis of
all life. It is also easy to show that the movements of
living beings are the result of changes of form in these
structural units. Thus muscular contractility, which is
regarded as one of the crowning marks of distinction be-
tween animals and all other classes of beings, results, sim-
plv from the flattening or shortening of multitudes of
individual cells, and this effect may be produced by the
action of electricity as well as by the force which passes
along the line of a nerve, and this phenomenon of con-
tractility is, by no means, confined to animals, but is found
also in plants, and it might be shown that the identical
principle exists also in minerals. But aside from this last
statement, it is evident from what we have already sen,
that the dillerence in faculty between the lowest plant or
the lowest animal and the highest of its class is but one of
degree, and not of kind. There would seem to be the
widest contrast between the simple being we have figured
as the unit of the vegetable world, and the giant tree that

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 159

withstands the storms of ages, or between the deer that
flies over the plains with fleetness and grace, and one of the
microscopic inhabitants of a drop of water.

But as we trace the faculties of each to its origin we
find that the contrast consists in the fact that in the lowest
organisms each part is capable of performing all the functions
of the being while in the higher structures the functions
are distributed to different organs. This is an apparent
rather than a real distinction, and hence it follows from
this and from all that we have seen of the plan of living
being's, that so far as the essentials of life are concerned we
may regard the microscopic plant as a representative
living structure; and in this light let us compare it with
other beings which are not usually regarded as organized,
and let us, if we are able, see where the process of organ-
ization begins, and when it becomes necessary to call to
the aid of the ordinary forces and properties of matter,
that peculiar and mysterious something called vitality.

Let us inquire whether we shall accept the theory that
an all-wise architect has brought together the molecules of
a cell, placing them in definite positions and arranging
them for a specific purpose, while the atoms of a crystal
have fallen together by chance and are the result, not of
growth but of aggregation.

Certain elements unite to form protoplasm. They are
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, but these ele-
ments refuse to combine directly to form this protoplasm
demanding first a binary union among themeselves. Car-
bon and oxygen unite as carbonic acid, hydrogen and
oxygen as water, and nitrogen and hydrogen as ammonia.
By the action of light, heat and electricity, which are
but names for certain vibratory motions of matter, these
compound molecules are made to move upon each other
in such a way that protoplasm, a substance more complex
in its chemical composition than mineral structures, and

1G0 Life as a Physical Phenomenon.

at certain ranges of temperature more uustable than some
of them, ie) formed.

On the other hand, from a solution containing oxide of
calcium and carbonic acid two binaries instead of thn
a selection of atoms takes place. The liquid solvent with
all the substances it contains, other than the two we have
mentioned, are rejected, while the compound atoms of
lime and carbonic acid, are united as a solid body having
greater perfection of outline than the cell, and equal
chemical purity. Here we have a crystal of calcareous spar ;
there we have a cryptogamous plant ; the one is made of
calcium, carbon, and oxygen, the other of carbon, hydrogen
oxygen, and nitrogen. Neither of these groups of elements
combine spontaneously under any and all circumstances.
Pass a current of carbonic acid over a quantity of quick
lime and you have not a crystal. Mingle carbonic acid,
water, and ammonia, and you have not a plant. Around
the plant are certain elements in solution which by a con-
tinual process of selection are assimilated to itself. Neither
the auimal nor the crystal differ from it in this respect.

The undulations of light, of heat, or of electricity, singly
or in unison, cause these compound atoms to oscillate in
harmony with the moving force, and as the particles are
thus agitated by this tremulous molecular motion, the
crystal or the cell result according to the nature of the
ultimate particles interacting upon each other; and it is
more than probable that could we but measure the waves
that move the atoms, and weigh the molecules which enter
into the structures, we might mathematically deduce the
cell or the crystal from the materials and the force.

In considering the relations of minerals with plants and
animals, we may perhaps soonest arrive at the real nature
of these relations by examining some of the reasons almost
universally accepted for regarding these classes as having
no relations at all.

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 161

The principal features which distinguish what are
called organic from inorganic bodies are thus given by
one of the latest as well as one of the best and most com-
plete works on physiology : '

1st. Minerals grow by accretion, plants and animals by
living processes.

2d. The form of organic bodies is determinate ; but a
determinate form is not essential to minerals.

3d. In size organic bodies are determinate, while mine-
rals deviate from any given standard of bulk.

4th. They differ in chemical composition.

5th. They differ in structure.

6th. Minerals are more permanent than organic structures.

7th. Organic bodies are all derived from parents.

Here, then, we have the full array of causes for vitality,
and our author comments at length upon each of these
distinguishing characteristics.

But will they stand the test of a rigid examination,
so far as establishing the necessity of a new force is
concerned?

" Minerals " are said " to grow by accretion, plants and
animals by living processes."

Let us examine a living structure, and see whether it
has any comment upon this proposition.

There exist in more or less abundance in most plants,
crystals which often occupy the centre of a cell. In the
tissues at the base of an onion may be found myriads of
the most beautiful crystals. Here we have a compound
crystal, in the form of a Greek cross, perfect in its sym-
metrical beauty, with its angles and planes more exact than
could have been formed by the most skillful human mecha-
nism, composed of four prisms grouped in such geometri-

1 Marshall.

'[Trans. vi.~\ 21

162 TJ.fi as a Physical Phenomenon.

eal perfection as to excel the most complete work of art.
Are we to be told that this exquisite gem, found within
the walls of tbis cell, results solely from accretion of
matter, while the envelope in which it is contained is the
result of organization or of vitality?

But the " form of organic bodies is determinate, while
a determinate form in minerals is not essential."

Properly viewed this is an absurd proposition. Matter
has two determinate methods of uniting; in the form of
the crystal, and in the form of the cell. We might with
equal propriety select out the crystals, and say that because
the remainder of matter is not invariably arranged in cells,
therefore a determinate form is not essential to living
structures.

It is also said that organic bodies are determinate in
size, and that minerals are not. Are not the diamond, the
calc-spar, the emerald and the garnet as determinate in
size as the pine, the oak, or the cedar ?

u They differ in chemical composition. The compound
chemical substances contained in or derived from organie
bodies are not imitated in the laboratory of the chemist,
and must result from some force not known to ordinary
chemistry."

This might have been a plausible proposition before
Wohler produced the organie compound urea, from inor-
ganic elements in the laboratory or before tartaric acid,
oxalie acid and other vital compounds were made with-
out the intervention of any vital process.

"They differ in structure." " Organic bodies are com-
posed of different parts having specific relations to each
other. They are also heterogeneous as compared with the
homogeneous structures of inorganic' bodies, and from this
heterogeneous structure arises the tendency and necessity
during the life of an organized body of undergoing cease-

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 163

less internal motions and constant changes, while minerals
may remain unchanged for an indefinite period of time."

Of course it is admitted that the structure of a plant
differs from the structure of a mineral. It seems to be a
fixed law of nature that when the compound atoms of
water, ammonia, and carbonic acid, are subjected to certain
influences, are agitated by certain ethereal waves, these
atoms assume a certain form ; while the simple atoms of
oxygen and hydrogen, agitated by the waves of an electric
current, assume a different form. The product of the four
elements may be a sea-weed ; the product of the two, a snow
flake. This transformation by certain ethereal undula-
tions into molecular rearrangements, which are unlike,
demands for its explanation no new force.

"We can hardly be required to explain the ceaseless
changes, which are observed in living structures by any new
force if they can be produced from forces already known to
exist. It is a well established rule in science to eliminate
unknown quantities from the problem when known quanti-
ties can supply their places as elements of the problem.
Protoplasm is but the arrangement of certain atoms which
are peculiarly subject to molecular change, and this may be
said of all nitrogenous compounds.

The decomposition of substances containing nitrogen
often evolve a sudden and surprising evolution of force.
Witness the explosion of gunpowder when once its atoms
are relieved from their unstable relationship by the vibra-
tory action of heat. Mineral substances are only stable
within certain limits.

The snow flake which falls upon your hand, a crystal of
almost unparalleled beauty, is instantly resolved into an
amorphous condition, and from this it is presently trans-
formed into thin vapor. Can permanency of structure be
claimed as a barrier to the relations of minerals and plants?

1G4 Life as a PI Phenomenon.

It may be said that the sudden destruction of the snow
flake, or the more startling decomposition of gunpowder

are unlike tlie ceaseless transformations which from hour
to hour and from year to year may be observed inaliving
being of the higher orders. The cases are however alike.
and the tart that one is an instantaneous change while the
other is a succession of changes does not destroy the ana-
logy.

But are there no gradual decompositions in the mineral
world that correspond not only in the result but in time
with those of living structures?

These ceaseless internal changes are the manifestations
of an evolution of force, and force is never evolved with-
out change in the relations of particles. Every contrac-
tion of a muscle, every exercise of the mind implies
evolution of force with corresponding destruction of living
tissue ; that is, a breakingup of the relation^ of atoms with
each other and resolving live matter hack to its mineral
elements. If much force is evolved much organized
matter is resolved, and all the varied manifestations of
life depend on the amount of force.

The laborer who employs muscular force requires a large
amount of material to replace the tissues broken down in
maintaining the necessary movements. The student who
labors severely with his brain may find On the following
morning that phosphates in large quantity are eliminated.

Let us turn to the mineral world, and see if similar in-
ternal change- accompany the evolution of force.

Let us pour into a cup a solution of sulphate of copper;
place in the cup also a strip of zinc and one of copper.
The solution will remain for an indefinite time unchanged.
But connect these strips by means of a wire, at once
force is evolved, and we call that force electricity ; ami
just in proportion to the evolution of this force is the de-

Life as a Physical Phenomenon. 165

composition of the solution. Now is it not plain that these
ceaseless internal changes in living beings in noway differ
from those observed in minerals and that they are the
necessary physical results of evolution of force ? And were
it necessary to illustrate this point further we might refer
to seeds which after remaining buried beyOnd the disturb-
ing influences which cause germination, for hundreds of
years, have, when brought to the surface, sprouted and
grown as readily as those which ripened but the autumn
before. If a seed may remain alive for a thousand years
with no internal changes why may it not for six thousand ?
If it is not subjected to certain forces which disturb the
relations of its particles it may be as permanent as the gran-
ite hills.

So the solution of copper, so long as the disturbing
element is not introduced, is a permanent solution ; but
once stretch the wire between the plates and let force be
evolved, and the destruction of the solution has com-
menced.

There remains but the difference of origin. Why it is
that protoplasm is not organized except by the aid of a
nucleus of like nature we know not. But there are very
many things in nature of which we can give no account.
Are we assisted by bringing a name to our rescue, and
saying that it is vitality ? This method of resolving hard
problems in science has been too long in fashion, and should
be discarded.

Why not frankly confess that we have not found out the
mystery of generation, and if it is worth finding out apply
ourselves to the solution of the mystery and not cover it
with a name which is but a dream of the imagination and
carries with it not the shadow of any scientific intrinsic
value ?

166 Life as a Physical Phenomenon.

For my own part I see no manifestations in living organ-
isms which are not hetter explained by calling them the
properties of matter than by calling them the result of
vitality; and we have never been able to explain any
phenomenon in which the ordinary, recognized forces of
nature have not been our only aids.

"Why then satisfy ourselves with mythical and mystical
words which shall deceive us with an appearance of wis-
dom, but whose only office must be to point us away from
the true path of investigation?

Art. VIII. — On the Velocity of the Electric Current over
Telegraph Wire} By Prof. G. W. Hough, A. M.?
Director of the Dudley Observatory.

[Read before the Albany Institute, June, 1869.]

The velocity of the electric current over land lines of
telegraph has been the subject of numerous experiments
during the past twenty years. The great discrepancies
existing between the different determinations, led us to
suspect that the so-called velocities were mixed up with
some other phenomena ; since they were found to vary be-
tween 13,000 and 30,000 miles per second.

My attention was especially called to the subject by Mr.
C. S. Jones, manager of the Albany W. U. Office. He
expressed a desire to undertake some experiments for ve-
locity determinations, which were finally begun in April
last.

Whatever value may attach to these results, Mr. Jones
is entitled to an equal share of credit ; since without his
assistance and cooperation it would have been impossible
to make them. "We would also express our thanks to the
officers of the W. IT. Telegraph Co.", for the use of the
necessary wires, batteries, etc. We might here state, that
the company have on other occasions shown great libe-
rality in furnishing us wires, for the use of scientific inves-
tigations.

The following table will exhibit the principal results
heretofore deduced for the velocity of the electric
current :

1 Abstract read at the Salem meeting of the American Association.

o

l-O

52

z

7!

a
p

•—
d

-

i

i

<

^

a

—

—

u.

q

a

7-.

\f

'■

—

■

~

D9

pej

■-

5

:.

O o

< N

= I

u

Velocity of the Electric Current.

169

Velocity

Date.

Length
of Circuit.

per
second.

Observer.

Remarks.

1833-4,

% mile

288,000

Wheatstone

Leyden Jar

Jan., 1849,

880

18,700

Walker

Relay

Oct. 31st, 1849,

590

16,000

Nov., 1849,

607

28,500

Mitchel

ic

1850,

260 Iron

60,000

Fizeau & Gounelle

Galv. Needle

1850,

130 Copper

114,000

It fct u

ti ii

1850.

1045

15,000

Gould

Relay

1850,

447

17,000

Walker

&(

1850,

230

13,000

.4 l(

Chemical Telegraph

1854,

104 Iron

115,000

Guillemain & Burnouf

Diff. Galv.

An examination of this table reveals no law, except that
apparently the shorter the circuit and the more delicate
the instrument, the greater is the velocity.

Circuits were secured on the nights of April 8th, May
20th and May 27th. But owing to want of uniformity in
the adjustments and manipulations of the instruments,
only those results, obtained on the 27th, can be employed
for determining the law of propagation.

Relays.

Three different relays were used in these experiments
the approximate resistances of which, are as follows :

No. 1, . 30 miles of No. 9 wire, Tillotson, maker.
2, 55 " " " " " ' Day, "

35 " " " " " Williams, "

Nos. 1 and 3 were placed at the ends of the circuit. No.
2 could be switched in either end at pleasure, or cut out
entirely.

Switch Board.

A special switch board, was constructed which was capable
of the following manipulations :

1. Relay No. 2 could be thrown in either end of the circuit.

2. Relay No. 2 could be thrown out entirely.

[ Trans. vi.~] 22

170 Velocity of t?u Electric Current.

3. The olook could he made to open and close the circuit, at either

end of the line.

4. Bach relay could record the clock heats OD the chruiioyraidi.

5. Eaoh relay could work a local .-minder.

For accomplishing these changes, ten movable switches
wore necessary.

Chro?iogra]>/t.

The chronograph used in these experiments is a revolv-
ing disk, provided with two recording pens, worked on
an open circuit. It is capable of recording time to the one-
thousandth part of a second, and has been fully described
in vol. i, Annals of Dudley Observatory.

The local circuit passing through the sidereal clock,
included chronograph pen, No. 1, together with a small
pony sounder, arranged to close the main line circuit in the
same manner as an ordinary relay. When the clock was
thrown in circuit its beats were recorded on the chronograph,
by pen No. 1. As the sounder worked simultaneously with
the chronograph pen, the main circuit would necessarily be
opened and closed at the same instant, and the rcla}'s would
be operated. If then the necessary connections were made,
the relay would record the clock beats on the chronograph
with pen No. 2. Now in case the length of the main line
was only a few miles, and the armature time of the mag-
nets zero, the two chronograph pens would record tho
clock beats simultaneously. This condition can be se-
cured, by increasing the armature time of pen No. 1, so
that it shall equal the sum of the armature times of the
pony sounder, relay, and pen No. 2. We have, however,
thought it preferable to reduce all the armature times to a
minimum, and determine it for each separate magnet.

Velocity of the Electric Current. 171

Armature Time.
The armature time depends on the following conditions :

1. Strength of Battery.

2. Tension of Spring.

3. Distance of Armature.

4. Motion of Armature.

5. Permanent Magnetism.

In order to eliminate as much as possible the source of
error arising from variations of armature time, 2, 3, and
4, are reduced to a minimum. More especially is this
necessary for (4), the motion of the armature. In our
final experiments, the play of relay armature was reduced
to one or two-thousandths of an inch.

When (5) is zero (which is the case with a local circuit
or short line), and (2), (3) and (4)' are reduced to a mini-
mum, the strength of the battery does not essentially
change the armature time.

In working over a long line of telegraph wire, the
escape is always considerable ; consequently, in order to
work from both ends of the circuit without change of ad-
justment, 3 cannot be reduced to a minimum, but will
depend on the amount of escape, and the strength of the
battery.

In our experiments, the armature time of relay, plus
recording pen No. 2, was determined for each separate
adjustment.

Circuits.

The circuits were made up by Mr. C. S. Jones manager
of the Albany office by looping together wires leading to
Buffalo, N. Y., Boston, etc., until a sufficient length of
circuit was secured. The connections at those points were

172 Velocity of th Electric Current.

ma.de by the managers or operatora in charge. I cannot
Inn express my thanks to them for the courtesies and
facilities afforded us in these experiments.

When all the arrangements were completed for the ex-
periments, the operator at the Observatory requested a
certain Length of circuit with a given number of battery
elements. As soon as the necessary connections were
made, Mr. 'Jones stated the length of circuit; together
with the number and position of the Battery elements.
The clock was then thrown in circuit and the line was
opened and closed at one end, and each one of the three
relays were used to record the beats on the chronograph.
The same thing was also done by opening and closing at
the other end.

Each complete experiment gave the following results:

1st. Armature time of relays.
2d. Armature time, plus time of transmission.
3d. Armature time, plus time oi' transmission in the oppo-
site direction.

For the second experiment, additional length of circuit
was secured and the same class of results deduced.

In this manner, the longest circuit was used which the
batteries and instruments were capable of operating.

The circuits were continuous, without any repeater or
relays, except those used at the Albany office and the
Observatory.

As the repeater time varies from 0.803, to more than
O.'IO, any results for velocity through them would be
greatly impaired, if not entirely vitiated.

The longesl circuit employed, was 2,400 miles. Intel-
ligible signals and clock beats could be sent over it, but
owing to trouble on the wire, we were unable to use the
results for velocity determinations.

Velocity of the Electric Current. 173

Each separate result was the means of at least twenty-
five measures, from the chronograph sheets.
The following table exhibits the final results :

April &th.

>V5

■Sg

■

a)

■3

'3
o

°3

[> i.

> ft

o> to

£a

.55 •

°a

5a

S 2

o

60-"

o

a

oa

B

Hi

12,200

120

1,000

14,400

165

1,000

Remarks.

f Not comparable, owing to the
-j change of'adjustment between
(^ the experiments.

May 20th.

C Not comparable. Trouble on

6,700

9,300
12,400

205

250
295

1,300 -< the line. Tension of spring

(_ adjusted very taut.
1,300
1,300

May 27th.

10,200

20,000
29,450
18,200

70
160
295
295

400 Adjustment of relays not changed
400
400
1,000

An inspection of these results show at a glance, that the
velocity increases with the number of battery elements
employed ; also for the same battery it decreases with the
length of the circuit. The question then generally arises,
can the apparent velocity be expressed by a rigid mathe-
matical formulae ?

The great difference between the velocities obtained on
different nights, as also on the same night, leads us to
inquire whether this is a real velocity of the electric im-
pulse, or only a mechanical phenomenon manifested in
the electro-magnet.

174 Velocity of the Electric Current.

If the celerity of the motion of the armature, is propor-
tional to magnitude of the force acting on it, then, our ap-
parent velocities ought to be directly proportional to the
magnetic force of the current. If this is found to be the case
our results can only be regarded as mechanical effects, en-
tirely distinct from the real velocity of the electric wave.

Ohm's celebrated law enables us to compute the mag-
netic forces for circuits of all kinds, and from these, to
deduce the relative ratios of the velocities.

The general formula? is

er

— Magnetic force of the current.

J = n R + r J =

e = Electro-motive force.
n = Number of battery elements.
11= Resistance of one battery element.
r = All the other resistances in the cir-
cuit.

This formulas will be somewhat modified by the escape,
but as the amount was not measured, the computation will
be made without taking it into account.

If we make the resistance of the relays equal to 200
miles of line wire (which cannot be more than tV in error,)
and will not materially aftect the computation, we will
have the following equations, for the expression of the
magnetic force, for the four experiments of May -Tth.

73= s

70 e 70 e

70 R + 400 + 200

70 R + 600

160 c

=

160 e

100 R + 400 + 200

100 11 i coo

295e

=

295 e

295 R + 400 + 200

895 B + 600

295 e

=

295 e

295 R + 1000 + 200

2!I5 li ; 1200.

Velocity of the Electric Current

175

The ratio of the velocities observed, making the first
unity, is as follows :

V1==l

y8=i.97

V3 =2.89
V4 =1.79

Substituting these values of Vi , V2 , &c, for f f
&c, in the four equations and determining e & R we find,

e-

K:

10.05
: -j- 1.43

Now with the computed values of f f &c, we may

compute the apparent velocities,
result:

The following is the

Observed
Velocity.

10,200

20,000
29,450
18.200

Computed
Velocity.

10,200
19,700
29,580
18,560

Diff.
o — c.

+ 000-
+ 300

— 130

— 360

Length
of Circuit.

400

400

400

1000

No. of

Elements.

70
160
295
295

From which it appears, that the apparent velocity, is di-
rectly proportional to the magnetic force of the circuit.
Hence, we are led to conclude that in such experiments
we do not determine the velocity of the electric impulse,
but only the mechanical force of the current.

There was no difference in the apparent velocity whether
the current passed from the positive to the negative pole,
or vice versa. Neither was there any measurable differ-
ence whether the battery was all on one end or divided.
It was, however, found to be impracticable to work a long
circuit, say 1000 miles, with the whole battery at one end
of the line.

The computed value R = 1.43 miles of line wire, is ap-
parently many times too great, but when we consider that

17G Velocity of the Elcctr'u- ( %em nt.

no less than from 15 to 20 wires are fed from the same
battery at the same time, it is not an impossible value.
It would perhaps be preferable iu such cases to modify the
general formulae, by dividing the electro-motive force by
the number of lines fed from the battery, which would
give R more nearly its true value. But there are so
many modifying causes at work in such experiments, that
refinement in mathematical computation is not possible,
or desirable.

In case we had a Galvanometer and Rheostat, the values
of e and R could be measured directly, and the magnetic
force of the current at once ascertained. This is by far
preferable, and we hope at some future time to continue
the experiments with such apparatus.

w

X

-

K

TOTAL ECLIPSE, AUGUST Ini. 1869.
Observed ;it Muttoon, Illinois.

Art. IX. — Total Eclipse of August 7 th, 1869, observed at
Mattoon, Illinois.1 By Prof. G. W. Hough, A. M.,
Director of the Dudley Observatory.

[Read before the Albany Institute, October, 1869.]

The station chosen by the Dudley Observatory party for
the observation of the total eclipse was at Mattoon, Illinois.

The latitude and longitude of the station had previously
been determined by the United States coast survey : lati-
tude 39 deg., 29 min., 10.5 sec; longitude 45 min., 20.2
sec, west of Washington.

Prof. J. H. C. Coffin, Superintendent of the Nautical
Almanac, kindly furnished us with the necessary data for
the observation of the phenomena.

Observers.

The corps of observers was composed of the following
persons :

Prof. David Murray, Rutgers College, New Brunswick.
Telescope 3 in. achromatic, 3 ft. 4 in. focus, power 35.

Mr. Lewis Swift, Marathon, N. Y. Telescope 4| in.
achromatic, power 36;

Mr. J. C. House, Waterford, N. Y. Telescope 3^ in.
achromatic (direct vision), power 35.

Mr. Thomas Simons, United States Attorney's office
New York city, Prof. L. F. M. Easterday, Hillsboro, 111.
Telescope transit, 2 in. objective, 2 ft. 6 in. focus, power 30.

Prof. Twining, St. Louis, and Rev. Mr. Marshall, Indian-
apolis. Naked eye observations on stars visible.

1 Read at the Salem meeting of the American Association.
[Trans, vi.~\ 23

178 Total Eclipse of August 7, 18G9.

General J. W. Keifer, Springfield, Ohio, C. B. Bost-
wick, Mattoon, 111. Naked eye, observations on corona, &c

Trot'. F. II. Smith, Mattoon, 111. Observation of bud
thermometer.

President Thomas Hill, Cambridge, Mass. Naked eye
observations on corona, shadow and other phenomena.

Prof. G. W. Hough. Dudley Observatory — Equatorial
comet-seeker, 4 in. objective, 3 ft. 6 in. focus, power 44.

The station at Mattoon was near the west side of the
school building, twenty feet north of the South monument,
erected by the United States Coast Survey. The position
was a good one, as there was an uninterrupted view to the
south, west and east.

In the south-west room was mounted the sidereal clock
and chronograph. The clock was a compensated mercury
pendulum, made in two sections for facility of transporta-
tion; the mercury being held in an air tight iron cylinder.
This clock was made expressly for the eclipse expedition
b}7 Charles Fasoldt, of Albany, to whom we are also under
obligations for a mean time pocket chronometer, beating
three times per second.

Before packing, the clock was set up in the Observatory,
and rated on sidereal time, and the necessary connections
attached for recording minutes and seconds on the chro-
nograph. Its running for nearly a week, as compared
with the standard clock, showed a steady and reliable rate.
On arriving at Mattoon, Aug. 2, it was immediately
mounted on a solid brick wall, and started on Mattoon si-
dereal time, as deduced from the watch by applying
difference of longitude, <vc. In the afternoon of the same
day. by comparison with the watch, it was found going too
slow. A small brass weight equivalent to five seconds per

day on the rate, was placed on the pendulum. After
which time it was not disturbed. By subsequent compa-
risons with Dudley Observatory time, obtained by means

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 179

of the telegraph, its rate was ascertained to be fifteen se-
conds slower, daily, and the arc of oscillation a little shorter
than when running at the Observatory. On its return,
after being cleaned, it was again set up, when the rate was
found to be essentially the same as at Mattoon.

Time.

To Mr. Orton, the president, and Gen. Anson Stager,
superintendent of the Western Union Telegraph Company,
we are especially under obligations for putting a continu-
ous line of telegraph wire of nearly one thousand miles in
length at our disposal, for the purpose of securing time
from the Dudley Observatory. Our thanks are also due
to the managers of the following offices, all of whom were
interested in the success of the work: Mr. C. S. Jones,
manager of the Albany office ; Messrs. Hucker and Slacer,
Buffalo ; Messrs. Wright and Tindall, Cleveland ; Messrs.
Armstrong and Warren, Cincinnati ; Mr. J. F. Wallack,
Indianapolis; Mr. Patten, of Mattoon. The necessary
connections at the Dudley Observatory were made by Mr.
Thos. E. McClure and Mr. H. L. Foreman.

A continuous circuit was secured on the nights of the
5th and 7th, when the Dudley Observatory sidereal and
mean-time clocks were compared with the clock and chro-
nometer at Mattoon.

The mean daily rate of the clock was found to be 15.34
seconds slow. As the last comparison with the Dudley
Observatory time was only 5 hours after the eclipse, it is
presumed the time was very accurately determined.

Chronograph.

The chronograph used for the eclipse observations was
of the cylinder form, and was constructed expressly for

180 Total Eclipse of .\>i,jast 7, 1869.

this purpose. The cylinder was 6 inches in length and 10

inches in diameter, driven by clock work regulated 1 >\ the
Frauenhofer friction balls. For securing a motion of sta-
ble equilibrium, an escapement held by a lighl spring was
connected with the shaft next to the friction balls, which
was regulated by a magnet beating every two seconds, by
opening and closing the circuit with the pendulum of the
clock. The sheets were previously ruled for every minute,
and the clock dots were recorded every two seconds. A
second pen was employed for recording the observations.
The connections were so arranged on the clock, that at the
end of every minute, the clock pen recorded in addition
the 61st second, thereby giving the zero of the clock with
absolute certainty — the whole mechanism performing in
a very satisfactory manner. In order to enable more than
one observer to use the chronograph during the progress
of the eclipse, wires were connected with the clock pen
and battery, so that observations could also be recorded
with it. It was so used by Mr. Lewis Swift.

Another set of wires were connected with a battery and
local sounder-magnet, placed near the observers. This
magnet gave the clock beats for every two seconds and the
extra beat at the 61st second, by making connection
through the clock pen, causing it to act as a repeater.

The Telescope.

The telescope employed by myself was the Comet seeker
made by Alvan (Mark. The focal length is three feet six
inches, and the objective four inches clear aperture. A
parallel wire micrometer and position circle divided to de-
grees, was constructed for this work. There was one
fixed vertical and one horizontal wire, and three movable
micrometer wires. The eye-piece holder was so con-
structed that the eye-pieces belonging to the transit instra-

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

181

merit could be used. A brass tube beld in position by a set
screw, was fitted over the eye-piece, to which was attached
a disc of brass, three and a quarter inches in diameter, in
which was set six plates of glass of different colors and
density.

This apparatus is here represented, on a scale two-thirds
the full size. The colored glasses are marked, b, c, d, e,

/, and g. The latter was provided with a cap, for holding a
double or triple glass. The position of the eye-piece is at
a. "When in the position here represented, no colored
glass is over the eye-piece. The set screw, for clamping to
the eye piece tube, is at A. In order to bring any one of
the colored glasses over the eye-piece, the plate is revolved
about the centre o. By this arrangement, any color can
almost instantly be brought before the eye. It has been
surmised from the observations of previous eclipses, that
perhaps the color of the glass used, might materially

182 TokH Eclipsi of August 7, 1809.

modify the phenomena. This apparatus was constructed
for the purpose of testing it.

It may here be stated, that the color of the glass had no
appreciable effect on the character of the phenomena.

For the observations during totality no colored glass was
used.

For regulating the aperture of the objective, holes of
one, two, three and four inches in diameter were cut in a
disk of thick card board. This was firmly screwed to a
block and made to revolve in front of the objective, by
means of a hand rod attached to the side of the telescope
tube. A spring dog, dropping in a notch, always brought
the opening over the centre of the objective.

The telescope was equatorially mounted with hand rods
for giving slow motion in right ascension and declination.
' A day or two previous to the eclipse, three posts were
firmly set in the ground for the observing stand. The
telescope was brought in the meridian and appropriately
adjusted for the latitude of the place, by observations on
the sun, made some time previous to the beginning of
the eclipse.

The eye-piece used during the eclipse gave a power of 44.

The Weather.

The night preceding the day of the eclipse was one of
unusual anxiety to the observers, from the tact, that about
six o'clock it began to rain, and continued almost without
intermission until 11 P. m. In order to learn the worst we
went to the telegraph office and asked for weather reports
from west and east. At nearly all the stations from which
reports were received, extending from Omaha to Cincin-
nati, it was rainy or cloudy. These reports led us to
expect a storm extending over a large area of territory.
And it was presumed that it would be a day or two in

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 183

passing over. But fortunately our prognostics were in
error, for at 11 o'clock p. m., the rain ceased and stars be-
gan to make their appearance. The morning of the 7th
was clear, with not a cloud to be seen, and it so continued
during the whole day and subsequent night. It was one
of those rare days but seldom seen in this climate : the
atmospheric disturbance being at a minimum.

The Eclipse.

One hour before the beginning of the eclipse, observa-
tions were made on the solar spots, and their position and
magnitude mapped on a diagram prepared for the purpose.
As the time drew near for the first contact of the moon's
limb, each observer examined carefully the region where
the moon was expected, to see whether it would be visible
before contact with the solar disk. The closest scrutiny
of five observers failed to discover it.

At 10 seconds before the true contact of the limbs, a lu-
nar mountain, distant 8 or 10 degrees north of the contact
point, plunged into the solar disk and was recorded on
the chronograph. The true contact of the limbs was well
observed by all and at nearly the same instant. ' The
moon's limb, instead of appearing round, as it should, was
nearly flat and a little notched, showing a mountainous re-
gion. As the eclipse advauced, observations were made
by means of the micrometer and chronograph, to deter-
mine the relative position of the two bodies. When the
sun was about one-half eclipsed, a red band of light was
seen surrounding the limb of the moon over the solar disk.
Later, during the progress of the phenomenon, tails of
light were seen projecting out tangent to the moon's limb
and extending 15 or 20 degrees along the edge.

As the crescent of solar light grew less and less, every
eye was intently watching for any unusual appearance.

184

Total Eclipsi of August 7, 1869.

Nearly a minute before totality, we saw with wonder a red
flame suddenly shoot out from the upper edge of the
moon, and shortly after, the remarkable and beautiful phe-
nomenon of Bailey's beads. The slender crescent of light
was suddenly broken up in numerous globules, resembling
drops of water flowing together, or a string of beads. One
observer compared it to a chain of sausages of unequal
lengths.

This peculiar breaking up of the solar crescent was no-
ticed by Bailey in 1836. But during subsequent eclipses
it has not generally been seen. This fact has led some of
the ablest astronomers to doubt its reality, believing it to
be an optical illusion.

The accompanying wood cut is intended to represent
the appearance of this phenomenon, but it can only be
regarded as an approximate illustration.

At Mattoon, the appearance was distinctly seen by all
the observers, aud its duration recorded on the chrouo-

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 185

graph by Mr. Swift and myself. That the phenomena is-
real we have no doubt. It is well known that the limb
of the moon is exceedingly rough and jagged, with moun-
tains projecting to a great height. Now it is reasonable
to suppose that when this mountainous limb of the moon
cuts off' the slender crescent of light it must be more or
less broken up in sections, depending on the irregularities
of the surface and the position of the observer. We are
more strengthened in this opinion, since previous to the
first contact, Mr. Swift saw five mountain peaks on the
moon, and he reported the beads the most conspicuous in
the region towards this part of the lunar disk.

The duration of Bailey's beads was accurately recorded
on the chronograph by Mr. Swift and myself, and found
to be five and one-half seconds. This is the first exact
record ever made for the duration of the phenomena.

As the light grew less and less, suddenly the sun seemed
to dart under the black disk of the moon, producing a
a feeling of chilliness. Now was seen in all its splendor
the large red protuberance sitting on the edge of the moon,
and appearing very much like a great ship under full sail.
Farther to the left was another, nearly as large, with two
bent rays, somewhat resembling the antlers of a deer.
Five others, not quite as large, were seen on different parts
of the disk, all of a deep red color.

After looking with astonishment for a few seconds, we
proceeded to measure with the micrometer the height and
position of the largest flame. But just at the critical mo-
ment, fortunately or unfortunately, one of the hand rods
for moving the telescope came off", and it was necessary to
remove the eye from the tube to fix it. On looking up,
one of the grandest spectacles met the eye of which it is
possible to conceive. Surrounding the dark body of the
moon was a crown of light, with rays shooting out in five
great sheaths, to a distance equal to the sun's diameter,

[Trans. viJ] 24

186 Total Eclipse of August 7, 18G9.

or nearly a million of miles. For a time everything else
was forgotten, and we gazed, for eight or ten seconds with
astonishment akin to awe, at this magnificent spectacle.
No painting can represent it, and no pen can describe it.
It is one of those sights which must be seen to be appre-
ciated. But we soon realized that precious moments were
slipping away. The telescope was again brought in posi-
tion and the observations continued. While still gazing,
a ray of light suddenly flashed forth, and the total eclipse
of August 7 was over.

The duration of totality, according to the chronograph
records, was two minutes and forty-two seconds.

The accompanying drawing, prepared by Prof. David
Murray, from the combined observations and sketches of
all the observers, will give a general idea of the appear-
ance of the corona, and the red protuberances projecting
from the disk of the sun.

The drawing represents the sun as seen through an in-
verting telescope. The line across the disk of the moon,
is the projection of the earth's equator.

Owing to the difficulty of representing by any drawing
a phenomenon of this kind, no great degree of precision is
attainable.

A sketch of the corona was made during the time of
totality by Mr. Bostwick, of Mattoon, and General Keifer,
of Spingfield, Ohio, and is presumed to be a pretty faithful
representation of the position and magnitude of the rays.

Prof. David Murray, at my request, prepared a paper
on the physical phenomena, which is here appended.

Physical Phenomena.

"The peculiar phenomena which have attracted so
much attention in solar eclipses, are only visible during
the brief period of totality. This in the present case, only

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 189

extended through two minutes and forty-two seconds.
The difficulty of observing them lies in this exceeding
brevity, and in the fact, that no matter how much the ob-
server may have studied the experiences of others, the
phenomena come upon him as a complete surprise. The
moment the last ray of light disappears with the extin-
guishment of Bailey's beads, there bursts upon him a
vision so marvelously beautiful, so startling by its novelty,
that his self-possession and self-control desert him, and
leaves him for an instant a helpless gazer. As soon as he
can collect his thoughts and tries to marshal them into
order, he will find especially two phenomena of notable
interest:

1. The Corona.

" In immediate contact with the solar disk it appears as
a clear silvery light, as bright as the brightest part of an
aurora, and somewhat resembling it in consistency. Far-
ther out it appears streaked with pencils radiating in the
direction of the centre. These rays are more especially
noticeable at five points of the circumference, two of them
pointing upwards and outwards, and three having a gene-
ral downward direction. These prongs could be traced
through a distance, even exceeding the diameter of the
sun, and near one of them was visible a curved mass of
light, in shape resembling the petal of a flower. On the
upper edge of the disk was plainly seen an arch of light,
parallel with the edge, and within the boundary of the
corona.

" It should be stated, that this phenomenon of the corona
is best observed with the naked eye, and cannot be included
within the field of an ordinary telescope.

" The commonly received explanation of the corona, has
attributed it to an atmosphere surrounding the sun, which

190 Total Eclipse of August 7, 18G9.

was illuminated by the light of the sun in the same way
that our atmosphere is illuminated in twilight. This will
undoubtedly explain the luminosity found nearest the
disk; but it can hardly be received as satisfactory in re-
gard to the luminous prongs which extend out to such a
great distance. It musl be remembered that these prongs
projected a distance greater than the whole diameter of
the sun, and must have reached an attitude, if they be-
longed to the sun, of at least a million of miles. This is
of course, beyond all possibility, and the idea of the whole
phenomenon being of solar-atmospheric origin is unte-
nable. Equally untenable must be the idea that it is a
solar aurora, because an aurora supposes an atmospheric
medium in which it exhibits itself.

"The impression which was firmly made upon my mind
by witnessing it, was that in some way, the interstriated
part at least, was formed in the earth's atmosphere."

2. Red Protuberances.

" The second phenomenon attracting attention, was that
of the sudden appearance of a number of protuberances of
various shape and magnitude, which projected beyond the
black disk of the moon, and were of a bright rosy red
color. We saw six or eight in all. It must be remem-
bered that these were of immense size. The largest was
not less than 30,000 miles in altitude. They seemed to
have a cloudy consistency, and the form of some of them
forbade the idea that they could have been either solid or
liquid. These protuberauco.s are seen in all total eclipses,
but in no two are they in the same place or of the same
form. They are thus shown to be of a changeable and
transitory character. This was really all that could cer-
tainly be known about them, until the application of the
spectroscope to celestial bodies gave us a new road to a

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 191

knowledge of them. By means of this we are able to dis-
tinguish a solid body from a gaseous, a self-luminous from
a reflective body, and even more, to determine with
certainty the very elements comprising the incandescent
body. This mode of investigation, used first in the total
eclipse of 1868, and still more in that of the recent eclipse,
has revealed to us that the red protuberances are mainly
a mass of incandescent hydrogen gas. The thought is
overpowering. Here are vast accumulations of blazing
matter reaching to a height of many thousand miles.
"What convulsions in the matter of the surface of our sun
does this view of it reveal !

"That the spots which are seen on the surface of the sun
will finally be proved to be identical with the protube-
rances, I venture to predict."

The most remarkable of the red flames, is that repre-
sented at the top of the drawing. It was seen nearly a
minute previous to totality, and remained visible almost
six minutes after totality had ended. We had it under
observation during nearly the whole duration of the total
eclipse. Its height was measured with the parallel wire
micrometer, and found to be 1' 05", equivalent to 30,000
miles. It may be necessary to state, that the micrometer
screw head was not read until after the end of totality.
The fixed wire then stood between two movable ones, di-
viding the interval in spaces of 1' 05", and 2' 45". We
assumed the smaller interval as the height of the protube-
rance ; but on discussing the subject with the other ob-
servers, it was considered altogether too small. We
thought it possible, there might have been a mistake in
the interval used, and accordingly adopted the largest
measure. But observations made at other points seem to
show conclusively, that the smaller measure is the correct
one. Its position was 20° to the apparent north of the
equator, and its base was estimated at three times its

192 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

height. Directly under it was seen a white spot, nearly
as large as the protuberance Itself This was probably its

reflection on the disk of the mOon. Its physical consti-
tution is well described by Mr. Swift, in his report.
While under our observation, no radical changes in its
appearance were noticed. The color was a deep red near
the base, gradually changing to pink towards the top.

The spectroscope shows, that these flames are hydrogen
gas in a state of combustion. Its illuminating power,
however, must be very great; since this flame was seen,
for nearly six minutes after the end of totality. Its disap-
pearance was peculiar and entirely contrary to our expect-
ations. It was presumed that a luminous flame, when
brought in opposition to a stronger light, would gradu-
ally grow less and less, until it finally faded away. No
such phenomenon was manifested during its disappear-
ance. It seemed to retain its intensity, until it was en-
tirely cut off, or apparently lifted up by the advancing
crescent of solar light. This phenomenon was also re-
marked by Mr. Swift.

Another flame to the left had two branches bent out-
wards, looking somewhat like the antlers of a deer. Its
height was not measured, but was estimated to be nearly as
great as the large one before described. To the right a
small one projected out, which was bent in the form of a
hook. The remaining four noticed, were small, and did
not present any unusual appearance.

Stars visibk .

Previous to the beginning of the eclipse, we set up a
number of licjht wooden rods, Indicating the direction of
stars and planets. Prof. Twining and Mr. Marshall suc-
eeeded in seeing Saturn, eight minutes before, and Venus
four minutes before totality. During the totality, Mer-

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 193

cury, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and a number of bright stars
were visible to the naked eye.

Temperature.

Observations made by Prof. Smith, with a thermometer
exposed to the direct rays of the sun, showed a variation
of 42 degrees during the progress of the eclipse.

The observations of Mr. House, with a thermometer
placed in the shade, showed a variation of 13 degrees.

Floating Bodies.

During the progress of the eclipse, all the telescopic ob-
servers noticed faint whitish bodies darting past the field
of the telescope. At the time they made no impression
but were presumed to be thistle down, midges or swal-
lows. But when the observations were compared, it was
found, that they were all seen falling in one direction, viz :
downwards. The idea that thev were meteoric is more
plausible, and it is strengthened by the fact, that the time
nearly corresponded to the August period of meteoric
showers.

External Phenomena.

To the naked eye, a total solar eclipse exhibits one of
the grandest spectacles in nature. On the sudden extinc-
tion of the light, the whole aspect of the landscape seems
changed, the faces of our companions assume an ashy
paleness, and all nature is surrounded with an unearthly
light, producing, insensibly, a feeling of terror in the mind
of the beholder.

The intensity of the darkness is not as great, however,
as many have imagined. The light is about equal to that

194 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

during a clear moonlight night at the full. I found it
impossible to read a coarsely divided circle, without the
aid of a lamp; but I should judge that coarse book print
could be read if exposed directly to the light of the corona.

The etfect on plants and animals has long since been
observed. A few of the numerous incidents collected by
our party are appended.

A dog, at the beginning of totality, looked around in
all directions, then tucked down his tail and ran rapidly
under a building, from which he could not be induced to
come out until after the sun's rays again appeared.

A team of horses tied to a post, became so uneasy and
frightened, that it was found necessary to quickly unhitch
them from the wagon.

A small child was jioticed to look around in amaze-
ment, and then exclaim, "Oh, mother, it's going to thun-
der loud!"

During totality, frogs, which had not been heard doling
the day, began to croak, chickens went to roost, and hens
hurriedly called together their broods. People instinc-
tively shouted, when the first beam of light appeared.

An unruly cow, accustomed to jump into a cornfield at
night, was found there after the eclipse.

During the most exciting period of the eclipse, General
Keifer saw a man goiug at full speed across the street,
who said he was going to see what his chickens were do-
ing. He soon returned in a state of intense disgust,
declaring in a very emphatic manner, that they were
scratching away as if nothing had happened.

For a description of the naked eye phenomena, visible
to the scientific observer, the reader is referred to the
able and interesting report of President Hill.

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 195

The following quantities measured from the chrono-
graph sheets, will show the progress of the phenomena :

Mattoon Mean Time,
h. m. s. obs.

Lunar mountain in contact with the sun 4 11 07.5 H.

Beginning of the eclipse 4 11 16.8 H.

« , 4 11 15.2 S.

Red flame seen 5 10 50.0 H.

Bailey's Beads 5 11 23.6 H.

« 5 11 22.4 S.

Beginning of totality * 5 11 28.5 H.

« * 5 11 28.0 S.

End " " 5 14 11.3 H.

Duration " " 2 42.8 H.

" " « (Naked eye) 2 40.0

Disappearance of red flame 5 20 06.5 H.

Red flame seen after totality 5 55.2 H

End of eclipse 6 09 09.4 H.

Duration of Bailey's Beads 04.9 H.

« " " « 05.5 S.

* Record on the chronograph sheet very faint.

The initials H, and S, refer to the observation of Hough
and Swift.

These observations depend on Dudley Observatory time,
using the longitude of Mattoon as determined by the U. S.
Coast Survey, viz : 58m. 33.0s. west of Dudley Observatory.
The probable error of the Dudley observatory clock, will
not exceed ± 0.20s.

The Armature time for the "repeaters" and "relays"
was found to be 0.21s. This quantity has been used in
the comparison of the chronographs, at Dudley Observa-
tory and Mattoon.

Great precision, in the observation of the beginning or
end of a solar eclipse, is not at present attainable by any
method. Until we have a complete chart or delineation
of the moon's edge, it will be impossible to observe the
contact of the sun's and moon's limb, within one second
of time.

[Trans. vi.~\ 25

196 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

Report by Lewis Swift, Esq.

Marathon, N. Y., Aug. 12,1869.
Prof. G. W. How//,,

Dear Sir : I herewith send you, as chief of our party, a
report of my observations on the Eclipse of August 7th,
as observed by me at Mattoon, 111.

I shall describe the phenomena just as they appeared
to me and nearly in the order in which they occurred.

The telescope used, has a 4.5, in. objective and a
focal length of 6 feet, mounted temporarily for the occa-
sion as an altitude and azimuth instrument. The eye-
piece used gave a power of 36.

About two hours before the eclipse, I marked on a cir-
cular disk the positions of four of the principal solar spots,
numbered «, 6, c, and d, in the order in which they were
severally occulted by the advancing edge of the moon.

The device used to do this, and also to measure the
position of the protuberances, was constructed for the occa-
sion as follows :

Two circular sheets of metal of 6 and 8 inches in dia-
meter, concentrically placed upon each other, writh a disk of
card board between them, was graduated to 5° of arc.
The centre was pierced with a hole equal to the size of the
screw on the spring tube which holds the eye-piece, and
which, wrhen screwed into its place, holds it firmly. In the
focus of the eye-piece was a wire, and on the eye-piece was
soldered a brass spring, reaching to the graduated circle,
and carrying a pencil parallel with the wire, which when re-
volved with the pencil inserted would trace a continuous
mark ; the design being to lift it while passing a protube-
rance, the space left, not only showing the position, but
also its width.

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 197

The wire, the pencil, and the zero of the graduated disk
were set parallel to the equator a few minutes before con-
tact, by causing a small solar spot to traverse the wire
across the field. Wind prevented setting it as accurately
as I desired. The accuracy of measurements made in this
way, depends on the nearness to which the sun and the
field are brought to concentricity.

The position of four of the principal spots, were roughly
as follows : a, 33°, b, 102°, c, 105°, d, 183°.

Estimated distances from sun's centre in solar radii
were about, a, two-thirds, b and c, one-half, d, seven-
eighths.

In this manuer I recorded the position of first contact,
which was about 341°. Some 15 minutes before the com-
puted time of contact, I tried to see the limb of the moon,
but with no power or aperture could I get the least
glimpse of it, though I continued the effort until within
one minute of contact.

A bright spot was seen on the sun near the point of
contact, and the mottled appearance showed remarkably
well and steady, although some dancing undulations were
visible around the limb of the sun, yet on the whole,
atmospheric disturbances were nearly at a minimum ; one
reason for it, I think, being that I took the precaution to
set my instrument where it was entirely surrounded by
grass.

The time of first contact was recorded by chronograph,
and though well observed, I call it recorded about one and
a half seconds too late, as I was deceived by an unlooked
for phenomenon.

For about two seconds after the contact that portion of
the sun covered by the moon was bounded by a straight
line, instead of a curve, as I expected it would and
ought to be. A little to the right of the point of contact
were five lunar mountains. I distinctly saw them enter on

198 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

the solar disk, looking like the straight edge of a saw,
whose teeth were worn to bluntness. The times of first
and second contact with each of the several nuclei of the
solar spots were recorded by chronograph.

The instant I saw those lunar mountains, the thought
occurred to me, that if, as is generally supposed, Bailey's
beads are caused by the sun being seen between them,
then they ought to be .seen more conspicuously in that
vicinity, and I found by observation that my conjecture
was fully realized. I recorded by chronograph the time
of their first appearance and end. In appearance they
bore but little resemblance to the illustrations in the books.

At 5h. 3m. a naked-eye observer came and announced
the appearance of Saturn, and at 5h. 7m. the appearance
of Venus.

A short time before the appearance of Bailey's beads
I saw that never to be forgotten protuberance sitting in
queenly beauty on the crest of the sun. The color was
much brighter, the size much larger, and altogether much
more conspicuous than any I expected to see. In fact, I
was so captivated with its wonderful unexpected beauties,
as to amount to a perfect fascination. So tenaciously
was my eye riveted to it, that my observations on Bailey's
beads were not as good as. I would have been pleased to
have had them. At the instant of totality, seven or eight
protuberances of indescribable beauty and splendor were
seen, all but one or two, being between 10° and 180°. At
the first attempt to record them, a mishap occurred which
for a time seriously disturbed my equanimity. My re-
cording pencil was partly encased in a brass tube, which
when inserted the spring was held by friction, but a
two hours exposure to the hot sun so expanded the brass
and contracted the wood, that at the first attempt to insert
it, the wood was forced from the tube and lost in the grass.
I had another on a shelf near by, which I must have

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 199

found, although I have no recollection of it, by which I
recorded their position, only in a different manner.

The internal structure of the great protuberance was
remarkable. It appeared to me to be interlaced with
long narrow black stripes crossing each other like irre-
gular lattice work. To my eye, from first to last, this
feature of it, was one of its distinctive characteristics.

To compare it with something familiar, I would say it
looked like a ship with her hull, masts, spars, etc., painted
red, and the ropes painted black. It also looked like a
red, inverted capital W, interlaced with fine black lines.
I watched its disappearance with strict attention, and am
able to give you data for computing it. As the light in-
creased, it did not gradually fade away in all its parts, as
I expected it would, but instead, it began to disappear on
the left side as soon as the slender lune of the sun arrived di-
rectly under it. When it, arrived at the centre of its base,
the left half, and no more had disappeared ; not a gradual
fading away, but sudden extinction as though some mov-
ing object had interposed itself between me and it, and
had a progressive motion equal to the advancing lune.
It was a most beautiful sight to see it thus disappear a
little at a time.

Another protuberance shaped like a hook was visible on
the right side, about 90° from the other. I find it re-
corded at 118°. It was of unequal width throughout, and
had it continued on in its normal direction, would have been
nearly as high as the great one. At about a quarter of
its distance from the end, it was bent upwards at an ob-
tuse angle. You will find it represented in the drawing.
It looks to me absurd, to suppose a cloud would ever as-
sume such a singular shape, and yet the same thing has
been seen before.

The most wonderful thing about the eclipse, I will now
describe. I will not undertake to say it was real, but to

200 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

me it seemed as mucli so as the corona or the protube-
rances. -The accompanying sketch will convey a better
idea of its appearance than a loug description.

At first I thought the upper edge of the moon had
dropped down about a minute of arc below the upper edge
of the sun, but instantly seeing that that was impossible I
thought it might be caused by some false reflection on the
inside of the telescope. But shaking the telescope and
finding its relative position unchanged, I concluded it was
a bona fide phenomenon and observed it as such. It was
visible during the entire period of totality.

The limb of the pseudo-moon was faintly illuminated,
and between a and 6, somewhat strongly, and a soft
mellow light was faintly reflected downwards as repre-
sented. The protuberance a, was plainly seen with the
naked eye, looking as several expressed it, like a ship on
fire.

Directly under it was a strong light visible on the moon
extending downwards, as far as the protuberance did
upwards, and was seen by the naked eye as plainly as the
protuberance itself. After the total phase of the eclipse
was over, the first question asked by the hundreds of
visitors was: "What is the cause of the notch in the
moon?" they thinking the light was a part of the sun seen
through an open space in the moon.

The protuberance d, I have no recollection of seeing,
but I find it recorded, or rather an attempt to record one.

Owing to the time lost by the mishap, I did not observe
the corona very minutely, though I noticed it was very
unequal in outline and deeply striated.

Once only did I take my eye from the telescope, and
then merely to observe the general appearance of the
phenomena ; but finding from long continued exposure
to the sun, my eye unfitted to do so, and knowing that
the time for the reappearance of Bailey's beads was nearly

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 201

up, I again took my seat at the instrument. But while
in the act of doing so, like a flash of lightning the shadow
passed, and not only Bailey's beads but the end of totality
was not seen ; but seizing the wires I made the record
about 2 seconds late.

The crowd, which up to this time had behaved remarka-
bly well, thinking the eclipse ended, rushed around the
instruments and broke the wires, and I was obliged to
complete the records by observing the time by watch,
which by comparison with sidereal clock was 53 seconds
fast. My records are for :

Reappearance of centre of spot a, 5h. 26na. 30s.

d, 6h. 3m. 35s.
Last contact, 6h. 8m. 20s.

Respectfully Yours,

Lewis Swift.

Eeport by President Hill.

Mattoon, Illinois, Aug. 7, 1869.
Prof. G. W. Bough.

Sir : During the total eclipse this afternoon I was in an
open field near a small barn, about 1,600 feet west and
550 feet south of your station. According to your request
I herewith give you a memorandum of what I noticed.
This memorandum has been twice read to a party of five
gentlemen who were with me and they agree, after full
discussion, in every statement.

A cow grazing in the field became uneasy at 5 o'clock,
and started for home at 5h. 7m. Soon after a hen gathered
her brood under her wings. Swallows were skimming
the ground. About two minutes before the total obscura-
tion, about 70 cocks and hens went to roost in the barn.

202 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1860.

A flock of birds flew south in a hurried and confused
manner just after the darkness became total. Soon after
the reappearance of the sun, the chickens came from under
the hen, then the fowls came down from their roosts, and
the cocks which had crowed occasionally all the afternoon
took it up by general consent and crowed vigorously.

No other animals were near us. No plants sensitive to
light were in the field, and it was not until after the
eclipse was over that I discovered cassia in an adjoining
field. Some of us thought there was a slight deposit of
dew upon the grass, but others failed to perceive it.

Venus appeared a minute or two before the total
obscuration and remained visible for several minutes after
the reappearance of the sun. At the instant of total
obscuration Mercury, Arcturus, and Vega appeared.
Even Arcturus was of a silvery whiteness. Arcturus re-
mained visible some seconds after the total phase had
passed.

We looked sharply for Capella, Procyon, Castor and
Pollux, Regulus, and Altair, and also looked less care-
fully for Saturn, Antares, Spica and Mars, but we had
nothing but our general recollection of the stars to guide
us as to the direction in which to look, and we saw no-
ing either with the naked eye or our opera glasses, beyond
the two planets and two stars first mentioned. At the
instant of total obscuration one or two of us had a feeling
that we were seeing half a dozen stars bursting into sight
at once, but we could only find the two.

The approach of the deep violet shadow in the air from
the W. N. W., a little to the right of the sun, and its
receding in the opposite quarter was much slower and
more majestic and beautiful than we had been led to
expect.

The gradual diminution of light during the eclipse, had
revealed the presence of faint cirro-stratus clouds in the

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1 869. 203

horizon, of what appeared both before and after a cloudless
sky. The transition from penumbra to umbra, although
rapid, did not seem absolutely instantaneous, it was a sweep-
ing upward and eastward of the dense violet shadow. This
shadow then stretched from the west north-west to the
east south-eastern horizon, while in the transverse direction
it did not reach the horizon by 6° or 8°, and the low arch
beneath was full of a deep orange yellow twilight. No dif-
ference was observed between the height of these arches.
The transition from the orange yellow of the northern
and southern horizon to the deep dusky violet of .the
zenith, during the total phase, was accomplished at an alti-
tude of 12° or 15°, and there the violet seemed darker than
in the zenith ; as though two broad dark arches ran, one
on each side the zenith from "W. N. W. to E. S. E.

The coronse appeared to us a white ring of 4' or 5' in
breadth, with white rays 30' to 35' in length and a few
white petals 6' or 8' iu length, one of which on the right
upper limb was curved. No change was observed in the
coronse during the total phase, except that one of us
thought there was a tremulous flashing at the instant
before the reappearance of the sun.

A crimson cloud on the lower limb was particularly
brilliant ; one on the left limb was brilliant at the begin-
ning ; and one on the right limb at the end of the total
phase.

Respectfully yours,

Thos. Hill.

Trans, vi. 26

204 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

Report by J. C. House, Esq.

Waterford, Aug. 16, 1869.
To Prof. G. W. Hough:

Having been so kindly received by yourself and given
a place among your party of observers during the recent
eclipse at Mattoon, I take pleasure in transmitting to you
the results of my observations.

My station was near that of your own (about 5 feet
N. W, as marked on the diagram. The observations, were
made with an achromatic telescope 3.25 inch aperture,
with a terrestrial or direct eye-piece, having a power of
about 35. A convenient arrangement for reducing the
aperture was attached to the telescope tube. In the shade
of the brass standard supporting the telescope was sus-
pended a Fahrenheit thermometer having an ivory scale,
with which the observations for temperature, during the
progress of the eclipse, were noted.

A portion of the observations were timed by a watch
previously set to Mattoon mean time, but the most import-
ant coinciding with your own, which were recorded by
the chronograph within my hearing, I did not note the
time. I did not see the first contact of the projecting sur-
face of the moon, but caught the real contact of the moon's
limb, at the instant I heard your signal key record the
same.

At 4h. 30m. 0s., by watch, as the moon's limb advanced,
I noticed its eastern edge slightly tinged with red.

At 4h. 35m. 40s., by watch, noted the contact of moon's
limb with 1st solar spot.

At 4h. 52m. 24s. with 2d ")
" 4h. 54m. 20s. " 3d I Central group.
" 4h. 56m. 42s. „ 4th )

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 205

While sweeping the disk in search of the red protube-
rances if any should appear before totality, I missed the
contact with the large eastern spot, but noticed soon after
the formation of Bailey's beads, and as I heard the signal
key record the time, I did not note it by the watch.
The beads appeared to me to cover about 60 degrees of arc,
and their duration to be from 5 to 8 seconds. They were
somewhat irregular in their formation and of different
lengths, but presenting a very beautiful appearance. Ap-
pearing as they did at a point coincident with the mount-
ainous or rough edge of the moon, observed at first contact,
it seems to me not difficult to account for their formation.

My observations of the total phase was also coincident
with the record of your signal key, and as soon as noted, I
commenced sweeping the disk for the red protuberances.
I was first struck with the size and appearance of the one
on the lower quarter, then the double hooked one on the
western edge, and then the two upon the eastern side, as
marked in the accompanying diagram. The color was of
dark deep red, having a somewhat lighter shade near the
outer edge.

I was also conscious for a few seconds of the appearance
of a continuous series of small ones or rather perhaps a
red line with an occasional break on the S. W. quarter.

My observations of the corona were imperfect in conse-
quence of not taking it all in the field of my glass. It
showed white rays of varying lengths in different positions,
giving the appearance of fine points. With regard to its
general features, my impressions accord well with the dia-
gram prepared by Prof. Murray. I, however, received an
impression of its assuming a roseate tint near the end of
totality. I regret that I had not been more particular in
my observations, as the apparent change of tint does not
appear to have been noticed. Probably it was an effect
produced by the colored shade I had previously used.

206 Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869.

The burst of sunlight at reappearance seemed instanta-
neous, and so brilliant and overpowering that I omitted to
note the time. The change of temperature during the
progress of the eclipse was very marked, every one noting
the chilliness increase as the shadow advanced. The
thermometer showed the following record in the shade :

3h.

30m.

P. M.

before eclipse

80°

4h.

10m.

«

at beginning of eclipse

77°

5h.

0m.

a

eclipse partial

70°

5h.

12m.

<(

" total

64°

5h.

30m.

u

" partial

68°

6h.

10m.

u

" ended

70°

showing a change of 13° during the progress of the eclipse.
Both before and during the eclipse I saw in the telescope
shooting swiftly across its field, a number of bright white
objects, perhaps 20 in all, never more than one or two at
the same time, generally moving in the same direction,
downwards. It is possible they might have been small
meteoric bodies, but I imagined at the time that they were
insects.

Yours, very truly,

J. C. House.

Observations of Thermometer in the Sun by
Prof. T. H. Smith.

Mattoon M. Time. Ti

smperature

3h. 40m.

100°

3h. 45m. cool wind

97°

3h. 50m.

99°

3h 55m.

102°

4h. 00m. breeze

98°

4h. 05m. "

96°.5

Total Eclipse of August 7, 1869. 207

Mattoon M. Time. Temperature.

4h. 10m. 97° Beginning of Eclipse.

4h. 15m. 96°

4h. 20m. 94°.5

4h. 25m. 94°

4h. 30m. 90°

4h. 35m. 90°

4h. 40m. 87°

4h. 45m. 85°

4h. 50m. 81°

4h. 55m. 76°

5h. 00m. 72°

5h. 05m. 67°

5h. 10m. 62°

5h. 15m. 60° Totality.

5h. 20m. 61°

5h. 25m. 63°

5h. 30m. 69°

5h. 35m. 69°

5h. 40m. 72°

5h. 45m. 76°

5h. 50m. 80°

5h. 55m. breeze 77°

6h. 00m. 74°

6h. 05m. 75°

6h. 10m. 73° End of Eclipse.

Art. X. — Fungi. By Chas. H. Peck.

[Read before the Alb. Inst., Feb. 15, 1870.]

Mushroom, toadstool, smut, mildew, mold and rust are
'familiar names applied to various plants, all of which are
included in the more general and scientific term Fiingi.
These constitute a large class of cellular, Cryptogamous
plants, generally small and often microscopic, extremely
diverse in form, habits and appearance, yet in all their
diversity retaining certain characters common to all.

It is a favorite rule with skillful instructors to. begin,
in teaching, with the elementary principles of a science,
to assign as first lessons that which naturally precedes all
the rest and which is less complex in character. Bota-
nists appear to a certain extent to have reversed this rule.
They have studied thoroughly the higher and more com-
plex forms of vegetable life, they are familiar with the
names, history, habits, classification and uses of these
plants, but they seldom claim even a moderate know-
ledge of the simple, cellular, Cryptogamous plants, and
least of all, of the Fungi. Through the efforts of Drs. Tor-
rey, Gray, Wood, Eaton and others, among whom is our
own lamented Dr. L. C. Beck, the Phsenogamous plants
of our country have been quite thoroughly investigated
and carefully described in manuals adapted to the wants
and within the reach of all lovers of botanical knowledge.
Mr. W. S Sullivant has written a descriptive manual
of our Mosses, and, aided by L. Lesquereux, a most
excellent bryologist, has illustrated it by two editions
of sets of dried specimens. A similar work has been

[Trans. vi.~] 27

210 Fungi

done among the Lichens by Prof. E. Tuckerman, whi
the Late lamented Dr. W. E. Barvey, ander the aaspicee
of the Smithsonian Institution, has described and figured
in an admirable manner, a large number of our Alga-.
But no one has been found t<> write a treatise upon or
perfect a manual of our species <>f Fungi. That class of
Cryptogamia which exceeds all others combined, in its
number of species, and which is full of interesting
peculiarities, has been strangely neglected.

It might be interesting to dwell a little upon the proba-
ble cause of this neglect, to inquire if a toadstool really is
such- a repulsive object, or if there really are such formi-
dable difficulties in the way of their investigation as this
aversion of botanical authors would indicate. Hut as it
is our purpose merely to give a simple rehearsal ^>l' what
has been published on this subject in our country, to call
attention to some of the more conspicuous and interesting
traits of these singular plants, and to point out some of
their more important relations to other objects, we will at
'present dismiss that inquiry.

L. D. Schweinitz was one of the earliest and most active
mycologists of this country. His " Synopsis of the Fungi
of North Carolina " contains a list of nearly fourteen
hundred species, of which three hundred and ten, or nearly
one-fourth, aredescribed as new species. The descriptions
are in Latin and generally brief. This was followed in
1834 by his "List of North American Fungi." published
in the Transactions of the American Philosophieal Society,
second series, Vol. IV. It includes the names of nearly
thirty-one hundred species, of which more than nine
hundred are described as new. These descriptions also
are in Latin and much more full and satisfactory than
those of the former list. In neither case, however, are
the dimensions ^i' the spores of the microscopic species
given, a character sometimes quite important. Most of

Fungi. 211

the species in this list were found in the Carolinas and in
Pennsylvania.

In 1849 a Catalogue of the Plants of Cincinnati collected
by Thomas G. Lea was issued. In the Catalogue are the
names of three hundred and nineteen species of Fungi, ot
which fifty four are described as new, the descriptions,
drawn up by Rev. M. J. Berkeley, being given both in
Latin and in English. There are descriptions, in Eaton's
Botany, of nearly four hundred species, but they are
scarcely sufficient for the satisfactory identification of the
species, being necessarily reduced to the greatest brevity
on account of the comprehensive character of the volume.

Dr. Curtis's " Catalogue of the Plants of North Caro-
lina," issued in 1867, contains a list ot almost twenty-four
hundred species of Fungi of which four hundred and
ninety-one are uew species and referred to the joint author-
ship of Berkeley and Curtis. Descriptions of a part of
these may be found in Sillirnan's Journal. Sets of dried
specimens in four volumes, each volume containing speci-
mens of one hundred species, have been prepared by H.
"W. Ravenel of South Carolina. The names are neatly
printed on the labels and each volume has a printed index
of its species. These specimens afford a valuable aid to
the student of mycology. A few other local lists of species
and an occasional short article in scientific journals com-
plete our present literature of the Fungi. From the
foregoing data it appears that descriptions of only about
fifteen hundred of our species have been published in this
country, and that about twelve hundred of these are in
Latin alone so that they are not available to students
unable to read that language.

The present classification of Fungi is essentially that
introduced by the celebrated Cryptogamic botanist, Elias
Fries, in his " Systema Mycologicum." There are five
principal divisions ; viz, the' Hyinenoinyeetes or membrane

212 b\mgi.

Fungi, in which the membranous spore-bearing surface is
a prominent character; the Gtasteromycetes, which may

be called the vmtrioote or bellied Fuu<ji, in which thesporee
are inclosed in the central cavity of the Fungus : the Con-
iomycetes or dust Fungi, in which the small dust-like spores
constitute the mostconspicnous part of the plant; the llyp-
homycetes or thread Fungi, in which the filaments are
especially developed; and the Ascomycetes or sack Fungiy
in which the spores are contained in small delicate asci or
sacks. The .common mushroom with its radiating spore-
bearing lamelhe is an example of the first kind ; puff balls,
filled with masses of spores beautifully explosive under
sudden pressure, are examples of the second ; corn smut
is a familiar instance of the third ; the potato mold of the
fourth and the common morel of the fifth. Further divisions
and subdivisions have been adopted, distributing these
plants in orders, genera, subgenera and species. These
subdivisions and the characters on which they are founded
are interesting to botanists, but cau scarcely be expected
to engage the attention of others. But the arrangement
of the Agaricini, the principal order of the Ilymenomv-
cetes, is so peculiar and presents so many unusual features
that you will bear with me if I devote a little space to its
consideration. This order contains many species and
occupies the first or highest rank among the Fungi.
Because of their soft perishable nature they are called
fleshy, putrescent Fungi. Their texture is wholly cellular,
though varying in degree of hardness and in durability
according to the density of the tissue. This difference in
the texture of the plants or of certain parts of the same
plant and the variations in the lamelhe furnish the chief
characters for distinguishing the genera. For example,
it' the plant is of a dry coriaceous texture with sharp-edged
lamelhe it is a Mara8miU8 ; with thin, eroded, or serrated
lamelhe it is a Lemtinu&i with auastoniosiug lamelhe it

' Fungi. 213

is a Lenzites ; if the texture is soft and fleshy with the
edge of the lamellse obtuse, it is a Gantharellus ; with their
edges acute and their juice milky or colored the plant
is a Ladarius ; with their edges acute but with no colored
or milky juice it is an Agaricus ; if the lamellae dissolve
into an inky fluid it is a Coprinus. The genus Agaricus
is the largest one of the order. More than a thousand
species are attributed to it in the "Epicrisis" of Fries.
A genus so large is inconvenient and perplexing to the
student, especially wheu, as in this case, all the forms can
be readily seen to be mere modifications of a single type.
"In no instance," says the immortal Fries, "not even
among the Composite, does nature repeat herself in so
many similar forms." Hence the necessity arises for sub-
divisions. In this case the divisions are into series and
subgenera. The series are five, and singularly enough,
they depend simply upon the color of the spores. They
are the Leucospori, made up of species having white spores;
the Hyporhodii, with flesh-colored spores ; the Dermini,
with ferruginous or rust-colored spores ; the Pratellce, with
brown or brownish purple spores ; and the Coprinarii,
with black spores. It becomes necessary, therefore, in
determining to which of these series a given specimen
belongs, to determine the color of the spores. This can
sometimes be inferred from the corresponding color of
the lamellBe in mature specimens, but this test is scarcely
reliable and it is more satisfactory to decide from direct
observation of the spores themselves. For this purpose
they are collected upon paper either black or white, according
as the spores are white or not, since the color of the paper
sometimes gives a peculiar hue to the spores. For in-'
stance, Panus dorsalis is described as having white spores
because they appear thus when collected on black paper.
If collected on white paper they appear to be of a beauti-
fully delicate flesh color. In each of the above mentioned

214 Fungi

series we find closely related forms making subgenera
which correspond with certain subgenera of the other
series in every respect save the color of the lamella? and
the spores. Thus the five subgenera Mycena^ Leptonia,
Gain-'/, Psathyra and Psathyrella, belonging respectively
to the live series already characterized, all agree in their
slender form, suboonica] or bell-shaped cap and hollow
stem, and but for their differently colored spores they
would all have been placed in one division instead ol being
distributed in five. I have thus noticed this unusaal use
of color alone in the classification of these plants because
it is without example in any other instance save that of
the Alga1. These are divided into three series, red,
green and olive colored Alga-, one <>r another of these
colors not only characterizing the spores, but also pervad-
ing, for the most part, the whole plant. And it is worthy
of remark that in these two classes oi plants, the Fungi
and the Alg;e, the departure from the ordinary style of
plant coloration is more wide and more general than in
any other class. In the latter, the Chlorospermous divi-
sion exhibits the green color, but this division scarcely
constitutes a third part of the Alga*. In the former, a
pure vegetable green is rarely seen. Now and then an
Agaric may be found, having grayish green or brownish
green tints, or a bluish green mold may remind US by its
color of its vegetable character, but these are exceptional
cases, not at all prevalent. We might naturally expect of
plants that love to grow in secluded recesses and shaded
places, or that spring up and develop in the darkness of
the night, a pale sickly color or at least an absence of
green hues, but we would scarcely be prepared to look
among such plants tor the beautiful and infinitely varied
shades of yellow, red and brown that are so prevalent in
the Fungi. The color- are sometimes brilliant, but more
often without especial splendor. It is rarely that an in-

Fungi. 215

dividual plant exhibits a great variety of colors, though a
species is sometimes variable in color. Generally the
margin of the cap is paler than the disk or central portion,
but seldom of a different color. When different colors do
occur in the same plant they are generally found in different
parts of it, as the stem, lamellge or cap, or as differently
colored zones or belts encircling the disk of the cap. The
prevailing colors of the microscopic species are yellow,
orange, brown and black. The colors of the soft fleshy Fungi
are very imperfectly retained in drying, while those of the
dry coriaceous species change but little.

Passing from the consideration of color to that of num-
ber, we may safely assert that theFungi in number of species
as species are now understood, not only far surpass any
other division of Cryptogamic plants, but probably equal
or even exceed all these combined. By referring to the
catalogue of plants of North Carolina, and the reference is
made with much confidence, since the author has been an
enterprising life-long botanist and the list is without doubt
very nearly a complete one, we find the whole number of
species recorded to be 4,849, of which 1,873 are flowering
plants and 2,392 are Fungi, showing an excess of Fungi
over the flowering plants of 519 species and that with thirty-
two more species of Fungi they would constitute one-half
the entire flora of the State. It is quite certain that these
proportions do not exist in every locality, but they afford
good ground for considering the number of species of
Fungi in any locality greater than we are accustomed to
think. There are comparatively few species of flowering
plants that have no species of Fungus parasitic upon them,
either while living or decaying. And sometimes a single
species is subject to the attacks of a half dozen of these
parasites. The question naturally suggests itself, if these
plants are so numerous why is it that they are so seldom
seen ? Chiefly for two reasons. A vast number of them

216 Fungi.

are quite minute, inconspicuous even when occurring in
considerable numbers, forming small spots on leaves or
pustules on twigs, occupying mere chinks in bark or mak-
ing mold stains on damp decaying organic matter. Again
a considerable number of species, though sufficiently large
to be noticeable, are ephemeral in character and grow
especially in deep woods, lonely swamps and dark ravines,
places seldom visited save by the most ardent lovers of nature.
Therefore while the watchful and scrutinizing botanist may
detect many species of these plants, the superficial observer
will notice but few.

If we consider their number in respect to individuals
instead of species we shall find the larger ones, at least,
to fall far behind most species of flowering plants in abund-
ance. The grasses form a continuous green carpet in lanes
and pastures ; weeds, if left to themselves would crowd and
choke our cultivated plants; and a few species of trees by
the multiplication of individuals form dense groves and
extensive forests. On the other hand the larger Fungi are
seldom found in extensive patches. They occur most fre-
quently in small tufts or collections of few individuals,
scattered here and there, often at distant intervals. The
rule among them appears to be, the larger the plant the
fewer the individuals. Occasionally, under favorable con-
ditions of location and weather, some species may be found
quite plentifully sprinkled through considerable tracts, but
it is not usual. Among the microscopic species, however,
individuals are numbered by hundreds and thousands.
Indeed they could scarcely be detected except for the ag-
gregation of a multitude of plants.

The conditions of growth in Fungi are in some respects
peculiar. The germination of the spores gives rise to deli-
cate, creeping, interlacing filaments, called in botanical
language mya litun. From this mycelium, in due time and
under favorable conditions of moisture and temperature,

Fungi. 217

the fruit bearing part of the plant develops. A full supply
of moisture and a moderately high temperature are neces-
sary for the growth of most Agarics. He who seeks them
in time of prolonged drought, will seek in vain. A cor-
respondent writes thus ; " My journey to the Cumberland
Mountains was tolerably pleasant, but the weather was
dreadfully hot and dry, even on their summit. JSTot a
mushroom did I see. We have had scarcely any about here
since spring. On the 3d inst. we had a hard rain, the first
in a long time, and the next day I found an abundant crop
of pink gills, (Ag. campestris.) " In ordinary dry weather
Agarics may be found in shaded swamps when not occur-
ring elsewhere. From one-half of a certain swamp in a
neighboring town the trees and bushes had been cleared.
In passing through the cleared portion of this swamp, two
species of Fungi were found, they being species commonly
growing in places exposed to the full rays of the sun ; but
in passing on through the wooded shaded portion, twelve
species were detected. It should be stated that in spring
and early summer, comparatively few species occur, no
matter how copious the rains or moist the atmosphere.

The black-spored Coprinarii and the vernal species and
such as recur throughout the season, as Agaricus laccatus,
Agaricus campanella, etc., are the principal ones then to be
found. This part of the season seems to be required for
the development of the mycelium. But let frequent showers
and warm rains occur from July to October and the har-
vest of Agarics will be abundant. If the weather be not
too cold nor too dry they continue quite plentiful until the
frosty, freezing nights of November put an end to their
further development. The season of 1868 being quite warm
and toward the latter part abounding in rain was one very
favorable to the growth of Agarics. The past season, 1869,
though by no means excessively dry in our section, was
less productive of these Fungi, owing doubtless to the gene-

[Trans. vi.~\ 28

218 Fangi.

ral coolness of the atmosphere. It was also observed that
the spores were not shed in a very low temperature.
Several specimens were placed upon paper for the purpose
of collecting their spores and put aside in a cool room.
They remained two or three days without giving any signs
of fertility, but the weather becoming warmer, these same
plants yielded a copious supply of spores.

The small species, parasitic upon the leaves and tissues
of living plants seem to be less dependent upon the moisture
of the atmosphere for their growth as they derive a part of
their nourishment from the plant they inhabit.

The rapid growth and short continuance of some species
has given rise to a proverbial expression signifying sudden
development and speedy termination and decay. It is true
that some species, and especially some Coprini spring up in
a night and wither in a day, but more require a longer
period for their growth. Some continue a great part of
the season and a few tough species of Pobjporus are peren-
nial. It has already been stated that most Fungi are of
small size. Occasionally specimens are found compara-
tively large. I have seen specimens of Polyporus lucidus
more than a foot in diameter and weighing nearly two
pounds. An individual of some unknown species, probably a
J'u/j/porus, was reported to me from the Lake Superior region
to be three feet in diameter. An oblong or kidney-shaped
puff-ball which I have not yet been fortunate enough to find,
has been reported to me two or three times and is said to be
from eighteen inches to two feet in length. Another puff-
ball, Lycoperdon giganteum, attains a diameter of five or six
inches, or even more. The liver Fungus, ffistulim hepaiica,
is said to grow sometimes sufficiently large to furnish four
or five men with a dinner from a single plant. It is even
affirmed that it sometimes attains a weight of thirty pounds.

The odor of many species of Fungi is not very decided,
still there are some species in which it is very distinct ; in

Fungi. 219

one, agreeable, in another disagreeable. It is in some in-
stances very perceptible while the plant is fresh, but disap-
pears when the plant has become dry; again it is very
very slight in the fresh state of the plant, but distinct
enough in the dry. Ladarius glyciosmus is an example of
the first kind, L. camphoratus, of the second. The odor
of the last, however, is more like that of melilot or dried
Cyperus inflexus than like that of camphor. Some species
emit an intolerable order while drying or decaying, although
not offensive while growing. Some species have the odor
of radishes, others, of aromatic plants, and some of new
meal. Odor in some instances affords a very good charac-
ter for readily determining species.

Fungi not only vary in fragrance, but also in flavor.
Generally in the raw state they have a mushroomy or fun-
goid flavor more or less distinct and not especially agreeable
to a palate not educated to such a taste. Aside from this,
many species have a taste peculiar to themselves ; one
which, like their odor, may be of service to the student in
the identification of species. This flavor is in some cases
similar to the odor of the species. It may be sweetish, bitter,
nauseous, in some, like meal, in others, like rich oily nuts,
and in the Ladarii especially, it is frequently acrid, that is,
hot, pungent or peppery, rivaling in some species the pun-
gency of the famous Cayenne pepper. In the case of Ladar-
ius piperitus, this pungency disappears by cooking, so that
this species is classed with the edible Fungi, although far from
palatable in the raw state. The flavors of various species
when cooked have been compared to the taste of beef
steak, lamb kidney, brain fritters and fried oysters. Fungi
are propagated by spores and by their mycelium. The
fertilizing process is yet involved in some mystery. It has
not been fully shown whether the fertilization takes place
in the mycelium or primary state, or in the fully developed
plant. Upon the .lamellae of Agarics some of the cells are

220 Fungi.

found to produce little points or spicules each of which
bears a spore at the apex. Other cells, generally a little

larger, bear no spores. These have been supposed to be
the male organs, corresponding to the antheridia in Mouses
or the stamens in flowering plants. The impregnation
may also be supposed to take place in the mycelium, in a
mode analogous to that of some Algse, the contents of
the cells of one filament being mingled with those of
the cells of another by means of the previous union of the
contiguous cell walls. This would nearly correspond in
point of time with the fertilization of Ferns, it occurring in
them in an early stage of the existence of the plant. It
is not improbable, indeed, that both these methods may
be found to have place in this large and exceedingly
diversified class of plants. The typical number of the
Cryptogamia is seen in the arrangement of the spores in
many Agarics. If we take a small portion of one of the
lamellae of a Panceolus and place it carefully under a
microscope it will be seen that the spores are arranged in
fours, i. e. : each spore-bearing cell gives rise to four spores.
In the Ascomycetes the number of spores in each sack is
generally eight, a multiple of four. The exceptional eases
are numerous, but not sufficiently so to make the normal
number unworthy of notice; especially since it is so strongly
exemplified in the quarternary division of the peristome of
Mosses, the four-valved capsules of Liverworts and the
tetraspores of many Algre. The fact that Fungi may be
propagated by their mycelium is observed in the cultiva-
tion of mushrooms and in the ordinary use of the yeast
plant. The spores are neglected and the propagation of the
plant is carried on by placing a portion of the mycelium
(or spawn as it is called in the case of the mushroom) under
proper conditions for its growth. This process is really
not much unlike that employed in the cultivation of

Fungi. 221

potatoes, dahlias and many other tuber and bulb bearing
plants.

Other points of interest might be noticed in connection
with these strange plants, such as the tendency of some to
grow in circles, their unusual places of growth, their gro-
tesque shapes, their dual forms and their alternate genera-
tions, but we must hasten to a brief notice of their relations
to other plants and to animals.

Fungi are essentially parasitic plants. Even in many
instances in which the Fungus appears to grow from the
ground like other plants, a careful examination reveals the
fact that the mycelium is attached to the roots of grasses or of
other plants, to buried sticks or bits of wood, or is creeping
amidst vegetable mold or the excrement of some herbi-
vorous animal. These plants revel upon and hasten the de-
composition of dead or dying plants. Old trunks of trees,
rotten wood and dead twigs are favorite abodes of many
species, the mycelium creeping among the woody tissues,
loosening, softening and sometimes discoloring them. The
numerous instances of " dry rot " in timber are often to be
attributed to fungoid origin. Merulius lacrymans, in this
way, has proved a great pest to buildings and shipping in
England. Living plants, too, and these sometimes both
vigorous and useful, become the victims of these destruc-
tive little agents which have not inaptly been styled
" princes of the powers of putrescence." It has been a
mooted question whether parasitic Lichens are injurious to
the plants they inhabit, or not; but in the case of plant-
attacking Fungi there is but one side to the question so far
as the plant attacked is concerned. Cultivated plants are
sometimes attacked by them more unrelentingly and more
fatally than uncultivated ones. This fact is exemplified in
the case of Sjrfioeria morbosa, a Fungus commonly known as
Black knot. Dr. Schweinitz, more than thirty years ago,
wrote concerning it as follows : " This species occurs on

222 Fungi.

our native species of Primus, but I have observed no case
in which it proved fatal to the tree. About forty years ago
Primus Cerasus was abundantly cultivated about Bethlehem,
but soon after nearly all these trees were destroyed by the
united agency of this Fungus and a small Cynips. So de-
structive were the works of these pests that our fruit-
growers have not restored their trees to this day. A
remedy has been sought but has not yet been found."
The observations of the learned mycologist have since his
time been repeatedly and sadly confirmed. In our own
section, farmers have too often been made' to realize the
injury-inflicting power of this Fungus, by their diminished
crops of plums and cherries, and eventually by the loss of
their trees.

Another instance of the terrible consequences following
the attack of a cultivated plant by a Fungus is seen in the
potato rot. Within the last twenty-live years thousands
upon thousands of bushels of this staple article of food of
the civilized world have been destroyed by the insidious
workings of this almost invisible enemy.

Let the variety of potatoe cultivated be one whose vigor
has been impaired by long cultivation, let the tubers be
planted in heavy moist soil, and let there be an abundance
of warm rain in late summer and early autumn and a large
per centage of the crop is quite certain to be lost.

But uncultivated plants do not always escape death at
the hands of their parasitic enemies. In one instance at
least I have found the choke cherry, Primus Vtrginiana,
killed by the Black knot. A singular case of the destruc-
tion of forest trees occurred twenty-five or thirty years
ago, in the eastern part of the adjoining county of Rensselaer.
In a tract of timber land of two or three thousand acres it
was found that a large number of the spruce trees, Abies
nigra, had been killed. It was said at the time that "some
disease " had killed them, but no one felt called upon to

Fungi. 223

say what disease. The owners of the tract made haste to
get out and work up as many of these dead trees as possi-
ble, before their decay should have progressed so far as to
render them worthless. But with all their promptness
they sustained considerable loss. The entire sap wood of
the affected trees was in the condition aptly termed dry rot.
Its color had changed to a pale dull yellowish hue, the
woody fibres had lost their tenacity, large pieces were
easily broken short off; it was in fact, soft, brittle, crumb-
ling, dusty, rotten ; and only the heart wood of the trees
was of any value. Thoughts of pestilent Fungi had not at
that time entered my boyish mind, but at the present time,
though it is not affirmed that the trouble was of fungoid
origin, I do not hesitate to say that it is probable that some
dry-rot Fungus was the author of the mischief.

If we consider the relations of Fungi to animals we shall
find that they as well as plants are subject to the attacks of
these parasites and are sometimes deprived of life through
their agency. It is, however, more often that benefit rather
than injury arises from these relations. In support of the
former assertion it is only necessary to call attention to the
ravages of Botrytis bassiana among the silkworms, or to the
agency of various species of Cordyeeps in destroying multi-
tudes of various insects by attacking them in the larval or
pupal state. In the former case the injury is wrought
both upon the insect, in its destruction, and upon man in
his diminished crop of silk ; in the latter, though the insect
is destroyed, the farmer is benefited, the enemies to his
crops being overcome by a Fungus innoxious to the crops
and to himself. The Texas cattle disease is an illustration
of the terribly pernicious effects some Fungi may produce
in their attacks upon animals, a connection between this
disease and Coniothecium Stilesianum having been traced.
And there are not wanting men of great learning and

224 Fungi.

sound judgment who attribute many dire diseases of the
human race to fungoid agencies.

But leaving these matters which are yet to be more fully
investigated let us glance at some of the benefits derivable
from Fungi. They afford food, that most direct of all
benefits, to multitudes of Coleopterous and Dipterous insects.
Indeed so eagerly is that food sought by them and in such
numbers, that it is sometimes difficult for the botanist or
collector to obtain specimens not infested by them.

Snails and slugs also feed upon them with great avidity ;
and here is apparent one of those beautiful arrangements
of Providence so often seen in the works of Nature. The
sun 10 warm showers that call into activity these slugs and
snails develop also the numerous Agarics on which they
love to feed, so that when they most need food they find it
just at hand in the greatest abundance.

But some may say : " It matters little what good insects
and snails may derive from Fungi ; are they of any use to
men ? "

We answer they have been, and still are of no incon-
siderable importance to the human race. I need but refer
to the extensive employment of them in some foreign
countries as an article of food. In this respect some of the
European nations are considerably in advance of the people
of this country. They are eaten in considerable quantities
in Austria, France, Italy and Spain. In the city of Rome
alone, according to Dr. Badham, the annual consumption
as shown by statistics is from G0,000 to 80,000 lbs. In
France the Champignon is not only cultivated and eaten ex-
tensively but is also made an article of commerce.

The Japanese are said to employ many varieties of
Fungi for food : and in Australia, the MyUtta Australia, a
kind of truffle, is eaten under the name of Australian
bread. It is stated on the authority of Dr. Hooker that
the inhabitants of Hermit island derive a large part of their

Jihmgi- 225

support from a Fungus that abounds in that island; and
Dr. Berkeley affirms that a species of Cyttaria is a staple
article of food among the Fuegians during several months
of the year.

It may be said that such food is good enough for savages
and for those who cannot obtain better; that only persons
of gross habits and strong stomachs will resort to such a
diet. This objection might have some place were it not
for the fact that the most enlightened people do eat them,
that they often adorn the tables of the wealthy and refined,
that they are sometimes served up in England at the lead-
ing hotels on great public occasions, that those who have
tried them, like them, and find them not only less repul-
sive to the taste and the stomach but also to every sense of
delicacy, than are stale venison, oysters, lobsters, cased
sausages, disease breeding pork and other articles of a simi-
lar nature in common use.

I take the liberty to quote the following lines from a
letter of an estimable correspondent :

"There are people all over the country who would be
glad to eat mushrooms if they only knew how to discrimi-
nate them. Wherever I go I am called upon to teach people

the right kinds. While in C last August, gentlemen

and ladies had me out in the woods and fields with them every
day in search of these edibles. Within a small circuit there
I found twenty good sorts. Many persons who had never
before tasted them pronounced them l de-licious.' I know
persons about here, where we eat them by bushels in a year
who rather eat them than meat or oysters." Again he
writes : " There are a dozen families in this little borough,
that have a passionate love for mushrooms and eat all they
can get, some preferring them to every other edible."

I can affirm from personal experience that some kinds,
so far from being coarse, unpalatable and indigestible, are
most savory, digestible and nutritious. Indeed from the pre-

\_Trans. vi.} 29

226 Fungi.

6ence of nitrogenous properties in many of them they afford
an abundance of nourishment and supply to a great extent
the lack of animal food ; and on this account we can readily
see the great advantage that would accrue to the poorer
classes were food more commonly drawn from this source.

Some Fungi make an excellent catchup, others may be
kept in pickle, and some may be preserved in the dried state,
so that the enjoyment of this kind of food need not neces-
sarily cease with the termination of the season of Agarics.
Objection is sometimes made to the use of such food be-
cause some of the species are poisonous. But the same
objection may be urged against the higher orders of plants
from which we derive the chief part of our vegetable food.
We have only to learn the good from the bad in one case
as well as in the other.

The medical profession have placed the Fungi under con-
tribution for some of their remedies. The use of puff-balls
as a styptic and in some instances as an anaesthetic and of
ergot in womb affections are sufficient examples. The
various other uses to which they have been applied as of
Polyporus fomentarius for amadou or tinder and for razor
strops, of this and other related species for smudges by
backwoodsmen, of Agaricus muscarius for intoxicating pur-
poses and for fly poison, of the yeast plant in fermentation,
and for poultices, all tend to show that these plants are not
without important relations to man, and that a more inti-
mate knowledge of them than we now have will doubtless
be attended with important and valuable practical iesults
of which we now have no adequate conception.

Art. XL — Narrative of a Bear Hunt in the Adiron-
dacks. By Verplanck Colvin.

[Read before the Albany Institute, Jan. 18, 1870.]

Gentlemen of the Institute: I have been requested by our
secretary to give a statement of a recent hunt in the Adi-
rondack wilderness of northern New York, during which
I was so fortunate as to kill a large and very splendid
specimen of the American black bear, after two days chase
upon snow-shoes.

The comparative scarcity of the animal, the dangers and
fatigues incurred in its pursuit, would render it seldom an
object of the chase but for its value to the hunter and
trapper, and as a trophy.

On Friday the 31st of December 1869, while deer hunt-
ing on snow-shoes with David Sturgis of Lake Pleasant,
Hamilton county, in the direction of Jessups or Indian
River, we struck the trail of a large bear. It was of the
black species and, according to naturalists and hunters,
should at this season have been hybernating. The bear
had passed during the previous night, and we immediately
determined to pursue him, being willing to undergo the
fatigue on the mere possibility of success. Besides, we
had each our theory in relation to the habits of the bear,
which the successful result of this chase would settle.
In the Adirondack wilderness, hunters generally hold to
the opinion that bears, when adult and prime, cannot be
run down by man ; and that just previous to the first deep
snow of winter they suddenly disappear and are not seen
again till spring. Those killed in" that region are ge-

228 A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks.

nerallj7 shot in traps in which they have been caught; or,
when accidentally met with, shot on sight if the hunter
happen to be prepared.

"When we discovered the trail, we immediately aban-
doned all thoughts of deer hunting and commenced the
pursuit of the bear. Sturgis was armed with a Ballard
breech-loading carbine, I carried a Spencer repeating rifle
[with seven shots in the magazine and one in the barrel]
besides bowie-knife and revolver.

I will not tire you with the details of the first days
chase; but will merely remark that the bear would go out
of his road to walk the prostrate trees, and when approach-
ing a stream, which had a precipitous bank, he would
make directly towards it for a quarter of a mile to the only
log spanning it. He did not hunt wood or deer-mice or
other small game, which he could easily have taken, and
which swarmed in some localities ; but where beech-nuts
were found, he turned up the deep snow and the earth in
search of them. He did not descend to the valleys to re-
ascend the mountains, but continued along the ridges, from
mountain to mountain, in a south-easterly direction with an
evident and' reasoning purpose which was surprising. He
waded into spring-holes, and followed in their beds the little
slush and snow-filled streams; whereby I judged him to
be fat and heated by traveling, for he loved to wallow
like a pig, and came out on the snow dripping with muddy
water. In this he resembled the racoon, another planti-
grade, whose generic name of lotor is obtaiued from his
habit of playing in the water, even though it be icy cold.

The course taken by the bear was such as to return us
toward the settlements, and to bring us by evening to a
road, by following which for two miles the hotel of Mr.
Stur-is could be reached. Before arriving at the road I
had the misfortune, while sliding down hill on snow shoes,
to be precipitated from the edge of a little cliff some ten

A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks. 229

or twelve feet, snapping the heel rivet of one snow shoe
and tearing loose the foot straps of the other; filling
my gun muzzle with snow and slightly wounding my
left thigh, on which I fell. Sturgis had far outstripped
me when I reached the road ; and, being dinnerless and
lame, and night approaching, I took the way to the
hotel.

Sturgis had already arrived and lay upon a sofa per-
fectly exhausted; he declared that, trapper and moose
hunter as he was, he had never been so tired. It appeared
that he had followed the trail across the road into the
swamp of the Cundjemonk river; across the river, through
water a foot or so deep over the ice, and up an evergreen
covered mountain known as Rift hill.

From where the Cundjemonk empties into the bay of the
Sacoudaga river, a mountain ridge follows the Cundjemonk
two or three miles, on the south-east side of that stream.
This ridge has two summits separated by a little valley;
at the south-west is Burnt mountain, a bare and desolate
rock; and at the north-east, up the Cundjemonk, is the
Rift hill, darkly green with hemlocks ; its name derived
from a cleft or little pass that severs the summit; a
cleft twenty or twenty-five feet wide, perhaps an average
depth of twenty feet, with perpendicular walls. Around
the summit of this mountain Sturgis chased the bear
several times, yet never caught sight of the animal.
When he turned and ran back on the trail, in order to
outwit and meet the bear, he invariably found that the
bear had done the same, and "back-tracked" also. Be-
sides the bear would perform the technical back-track ;
which is stopping and walking backwards in the tracks
already made, a considerable distance, and then leaping
out clear of them to take another course. This generally
deceives the dog, but avails little with the skilful hunter.

230 A Bear Hunt in the Adzrondacks.

From Rift hill be pursued the bear to tbe summit of
Burnt mountain, and round and round it, till at length,
utterly fatigued and discouraged and night closing in,
he abandoned the chase for the time.

On hearing his narrative, I formed a plau for the hunt
of the following day. It was, that keeping together
we should follow the trail, and that the instant he com-
menced circling a mountain top, as he had previously
done, Sturgis should continue in pursuit while I would
await the approach of the bear, who, finding a man follow-
ing would not expect another waiting on the trail for his
return. If this worked as I expected, it would put
bruin between two fires; but, if he did not circle a moun-
tain summit the hound, which we could put upon his track
on the morrow, would with his voice tell as the course he
was running, when I could cut across on the hypothenuse
of the angle, and perhaps head him off and get a shot at
him. Sturgis would meanwhile follow up — after the
dog — and do his best to come within range and end
bruin's career.

This plan met with the warm approval of Mr. Sturgis.

That evening we were the butt of the trappers, who
lounged into the hotel to inquire our success. We hail
" attempted a thing impossible," it was a " wild goose
chase," "a bear could not be hunted down so." We
determined to prove the contrary.

After mending snow shoes, cleaning rifles and preparing
every thing for the morrow, we retired, thankful that the
chase had brought us home to warm suppera and comforta-
ble beds.

Aroused before daylight, I again took breakfast by the
light of the candle, and as soon as we could see to follow
the trail, we sallied. Sturgis led his hound " Patsey," and
carried on his back a knapsack containing provisions for
one week — a minimum — and a hatchet for shantying,

A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks. 231

for it was determined to pursue the animal to extremity.
It was about three miles to where we would strike the
trail and our. course was down the Sacondaga on the ice,
up the Cuudjemonk to the base of Rift hill, which we then
commenced to ascend. This mountain is so covered with
cliffs, huge blocks of stone and boulders, windslashes of
fallen trees and the like, as to slightly remind one of the
Indian Pass ; it was a fit retreat for the chased bear : here
he would throw off the dog by climbing the boulders and
walking logs across chasms. Here the crevices in the rocks
afforded comfortable retreats for great numbers of porcu-
pines, the snow was every where tracked up by them, trees
barked and little paths beaten through the snow. I
noticed that the track of a porcupine exactly resembled
that of a small bear ; having the plantigrade appearance.

At the foot of the Rift hill I separated from my com-
panion, and, climbing the mountain, went at his request,
over to a spot on the Burnt mountain, where he thought
the bear would come when chased. It was about a mile
from the summit of Rift hill to this place, and, if neither
the bear nor Sturgis came to me, I was to judge that the
bear had left the mountain, and act accordingly.

On my way over to Burnt mountain, I crossed the sum-
mit of Rift hill, through a recently deserted deer yard
that was there. I discovered by the signs, that the bear
and Sturgis had passed through the previous evening and
scattered them and, while examining the Rift, the cleft
summit of the mountain — a geological phenomenon unac-
countable to me — I noticed that near the deer yard the
bear had been four times. Through the Rift, along its
edge, across and around it; seemingly through necessity
from the conformation of the ground. This appeared
to me by far the best place to await the bear, but, ac-
cording to agreement, I proceeded to the summit of Burnt

232 A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks.

mountain and there awaited much longer than T had
promised.

It is unnecessary to state every incident and every move
taken in the chase; I will take a few hours from my

narrative.

I had stopped to Bketch a beautiful lake and forest scene,
for the chase seemed dull — I had heard nothing of it for
some time — when, tar away up the Cundjemonk, echoed
the distant cry of the hound. If it came this way Rift
hill was much the better place to await; I hurried round
the brow of Burnt mountain into the valley and up Rift hill
to a spot near the deer yard, where from a stump which
occupied the centre of the glade, I commanded a position
for many rods around. The Rift was about a rod to my
right, and I could have a shot at anything passing through
or around it; the only place where it might easily be
crossed was near at hand.

In coming from Burnt mountain I had started a deer
from his browse, where he was feeding on the long hanging
lichen, Usnea barbata, — improperly moss, — depending from
the dead branches of a fallen tree. As I was not prepared
he escaped, but in selecting my new stand I kept him in
mind, remembering also that our hound being a deer hound
might take to the chase of his usual quarry instead of the
bear. I seated myself upon the stump and waited: now-
glancing toward the vacant deer yard a few rods to my
left, now at the great tracks of the bear in the snow at my
feet.

It was noon when I took my new station and the sun
bright and warm ; snow birds, blue jays and red squirrels
chirped and frisked around. A quarter of an hour passed,
then, miles away, I faintly heard the hound on the Pine
mountain, toward Oregon, up the Cundjemonk. Once,
twice, three times and I heard the dog no more. I waited,
listened; half an hour passed; three-quarters — it grew

A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks. 233

tiresome ; I felt inclined to start up and be doing, but I
had lost an elk the previous fall by leaving the runway
before the dog came in and — I sat down again.

Another quarter of an hour. I was leaning drowsily for-
ward my rifle on my lap, — listening intently, however, —
when I thought I heard a faint distant tramp far down the
mountain.

I sat up. Jump, Jump, Jump, Jump, JUMP, JUMP
JUMP, JUMP, JUMP, JUMP! something came up
the mountain on a long swinging canter. I heard it crash
through the bushes, descend into the Rift and ascend,
and, though hidden by some hemlocks, come directly
towards me still at a canter. My rifle was at my shoulder
and sighted, and I could not rest my left elbow on my
breast for my heart thumped audibly. Another moment,
and he would clear the bushes that screened him from
view — No! he had stopped suddenly, and all was silent
for one long minute. Then there was a slow, dubious whine,
followed by a snuffing and snorts — so peculiar,' so wild —
that told me I was in the presence of the untamed savage,
scarce five rods of the forest glade between him and me.

The snowy woods were bright as ever; the snow-birds
still chirping and fluttering among the tall evergreens;
could there be a bear behind those hemlocks where my
rifle aimed ?

Another whine, another series of snorts, having expres-
sion in them like articulate language. There was doubt,
indecision, anger, surprise! hesitancy — he would be off!
Aiming a little lower I guessed his position behind the
hemlocks, sighted carefully and fired.

"With the explosion came a shrill scream of agony — hu-
man, though bestial — it almost unnerved me. No animal
that I had shot before gave such a cry ; had I mistaken ?
The expressions Oh ! Oh! Oh! Whew, Whew, WHEW!

[ Trans. vi.~\ 30 ,

234 A Bear Hwxi in the Adirondacks.

were as plainly uttered as ever by human voice, and in an
agonized way that was distressing. I heard a sudden
roll on the snow, then a tumble, and the animal pitched
oft' the bluft'; in a moment I was on the edge and beheld,
about ten or fifteen feet down, a huge black bear — an
immense fellow, biting and tearing at his bloody side.
He saw me and turned, showing jaws replete with white
teeth ; the rifle passed to my shoulder and I fired again,
but not before he leaped.

As he ran, following him closely, I fired once, twice,
three times ; each time he turned and showed his teeth I
shot again, when he would take to flight again, scarcely
seeming to be hindered by the bullets. Suddenly leaping
about eight feet up to a log that ran to the opposite cliff
of the rift, I saw him walking carefully yet nimbly, limp-
ing in his right fore paw, which was bloody, and it seemed
to me that I must have touched him. Aiming, I fired
again, and just as he reached the end of the log I dis-
charged my piece once more; but, as I fired, he leaped on
the cliff' top and ran — ran but three rods, when, with a
deep groan, he pitched forward and fell headlong in a heap.

This was about quarter past one, January 1st, 1870.

Leaping down into the rift recklessly, for I now began
to get excited, I dashed across it and up the opposite side ;
I know not how, I dared not descend there in returning.
In a moment I was on the opposite side of the pass ; no
bear was to be seen !

Rushing forward, I slid suddenly down over the icy
crust on my snow-shoes, into a hollow upon the dying
bear! His eyes were glaring with a yellow light of rage,
and seizing my right snow-shoe with one of his hind paws,
his claws catching in the net work, he struck at me ra-
pidly with his left front paw ; the long, black hairy claws
seemed to make the wind whistle past my face while his
jaws, over the ivory teeth of which streamed blood from

A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks. 235

his throat, opened and shut with a sound like a steel trap.
Bowie knife and revolver were in my belt, but I had no
ambition to try those romantic weapons. I jerked my
snow-shoe from his claws and scrambled up, back ; un-
strapped the shoes, pulled forward for dernier resort the
knife and pistol in my belt, then, slipping another car-
tridge from the magazine into the rifle, stepped down to
him again and held the muzzle near his breast.

He was now quiet, save his watchful, restless, glaring
yellow eye, heaving sides and the deep grumbling rattle in
his throat at every breath ; for he was choked with blood
and, besides the thick clots around his mouth, each second
a great, red bubble rose from his nostrils and burst. I
watched him, — with the rifle at his breast, — ■ so full of life
I thought he might be shamming; but he was dying.

I now shouted for my companion, and at length received
an answering cry from far down the mountain. It may
not have been many minutes, but it seemed to me half an
hour ere he came within speaking distance. I called to
him that I had killed the bear; breathlessly he climbed,
pulling himself up by the saplings and trees ; he was wild
with excitement. Breathlessly he leaned against a tree,
and surveyed the prize — then shouted : " You have killed
the biggest bear in Hamilton County!" breathed hard a
moment and continued, "many New Yorkers, whom
I have guided, would have given a thousand dollars to
have killed that bear!" and was beside himself.

Soon the hound came limping in, his feet cut by
the crust and bleeding. Like a staunch dog, as he was,
he had held to the track, and came in slowly now, wag-
ging his tail, he knew it was all over, and his poor skinned
feet did ache so on the cold snow. I led him to the bear
and, lifting him, laid him on the warm furred body. He
took it kindly and fell to licking his feet, so sore and
bleeding.

236 A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks.

Meanwhile, I commenced sketching; and Sturgis, after
looking the bear all over, discovered that my last bullet
had entered the skull near the ear and had shattered the
bone in pieces. Twisting a young black birch tree into a
wythe, he knotted it round the neck of the bear — three
feet in circumference — and started to " snake him out"
(phrase more expressive than elegant) down the mountain
and along the rivers, three miles to the road and the house.
I remained a little while to sketch and to measure dis-
tances. Just beyond the hemlocks through which I fired
the first shot, I saw some black hair on the snow, and
taking it up found a bloody bullet wrapped in it, the
lead indented and mashed, and fragments of bone inclosed.
This first bullet had passed through his chest; yet he lived
on ! "When that shot was fired I was distant from the bear
four rods, four yards and one foot; being twenty-four
lengths of my snow shoes and a foot. The last shot,
which pierced his brain, was fired at a range of about
seven rods ; at that distance it is a matter of nicety, with
a long-range rifle, to keep from overshooting, especially
when added to the excitement the object is in rapid move-
ment.

Hunters generally mention the fore shoulder as the pro-
per place to aim at ; for the head, they say, being always
in rapid motion makes a poor mark. I fired five shots at
this bear's right shoulder, and it was only at the last mo-
ment that I changed my aim to the head ; with what effect
I have already told. When skinned it was found that
his right fore shoulder bone was broken; pierced in two
places by bullets, while three other balls had entered and
passed through the chest, yet so far up or forward as to
escape the heart and lungs; cutting some arteries, how-
ever, from which he bled inwardly and very profusely.
Heavy and large as the bullets were (three-quarters of an
ounce) the muscles on his breast and shoulders were so

A Bear Sunt in the Adirondacks. 237

thick and elastic that they closed in after the bullet; even
a small pencil could not have been pressed into the wounds.
The sixth and last bullet entered the skull a little below
the right ear, penetrating the brain, and shattering the
posterior portion of the cranium. This bullet was mashed
and broken in three pieces, lodging in different parts of
the brain ; two of the fragments have been recovered and
are retained as mementoes. That he lived and offered
resistance after this wound is worthy of the attention of
naturalists, and bids the grizzly, the far famed Ursusferox,
look to his laurels. With this wound (besides the five
bullets already received) brains and blood streaming out
on the snow, he ran three rods — fell, yet was still fiercely
ready for conflict.

I will not relate in detail what followed ; how we dragged
the bear out to the settlement on his glossy back ; how
long it took, how wearied we were, how night was upon
us when we reached the road. How we laughed as we
thought of the surprise of croakers — not only at our return,
but at our success— of the guides and hunters who had
the previous day joked us on our " wild goose chase."
At length we neared the hotel, but before we reached it
the settlement had taken the alarm and was around us.
We had our triumph. " It was a great feat; the first bear
hunted down and killed in this manner, on snow-shoe3 in
that region ; " said those hardy northern hunters.

The bear weighed over three hundred pounds before
being disemboweled, and had bled so very profusely that
he must have lost gallons of blood. He measured seven
feet from hind claws to tip of nose; around the neck
three feet; around the chest, inside the arms, four feet
ten inches ; diameter of chest, from outside of shoulders,
two feet. Length of hind foot ten inches ; length of palm
of fore paw eight inches ; length of head one foot.

238 A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks.

I had him opened carefully ; and examined in detail the

viscera, and judge that they weighed between forty and
fifty pounds, though they were not put upon the balance
together, nor all of them weighed. The lungs were light
colored and- seemed uninjured, but had through and upon
them clots of coagulated blood. The whole cavity above
the diaphragm was filled with liquid blood to the amount
of several quarts. The heart was very large, firm and
healthy and had not been touched by the bullets. It mea-
sured five inches in length, the greatest diameter being
about four and a half inches; it resembled in shape the
heart of a pig. Here it may be noted that there is a sin-
gular resemblance between the vital organs of these ani-
mals; but forthe human like arms, clawed paws and furred
pelt, the likeness would be complete.

The liver was healthy in appearance, and both heart and
liver when cooked were excellent eating. To the entrails
were attached long strips of fat, yielding much oil when
tried.

The stomach of the bear was to me an interesting study ;
I carefully examined its contents before venturing to eat
any of the meat. First taking the size and shape, I pro-
ceeded to open it and found it filled with beech nuts; nor
could the most careful examination of the stomach's con-
tents evolve a trace of animal food. Had it been the sto-
mach of a wolf, a fox, or a wild-cat the minute teeth,
small bone splinters and rolls of hair of mice or squirrels
and the like, would have been found; there was no trace of
anything of this sort in the stomach of this bear. There
might have been two quarts or more of freshly masticated
beech nuts in the stomach when first opened; these he
had to procure singly from beneath the deep snow, by dig-
ging it away with his paws and rooting like a hog. When
started on the second day, he was ten miles from where the
trail was abandoned on the first day, and had rooted over

A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks. 239

about a quarter of an acre under the beech trees : with great
labor he had turned up the earth, discoloring the snow.
Notwithstanding the numbers of small animals of the
mice and squirrel kind, whose burrows abounded both
through the snow and in the ground beueath, in no
instance had this supposedly carnivorous beast stopped
to dig them. From observations, at this time and pre-
viously, of the habits of the true black bear of our state, I
am forced to the conclusion that he is not a carnivorous
animal. The tusks and claws, carefully examined, will
be found to be best suited to digging up roots, seeds, mast
and the like. The only carnivorous habit that I have ob-
served in the wild bear, is that of eating the common black
ant, and the grubs -found beneath rocks and logs; omni-
vorous he may be, but strictly carnivorous he is not. His
dental system, the number of tuberculous teeth in either
jaw do not support it; as for his ferociousness, he is like
any other animal, when wounded and cornered dangerous.

His eating flesh when kept in confinement or driven
to it by starvation, is no proof of his carnivorous habits ;
two of the rodenta, the beaver and musquash, have been
known to devour flesh, and they have no carnivorous teeth.
Baron Cuvier speaks of the bears' " almost frugiverous
dentition" and states that they have " three large molars
on each side in each jaw, altogether tuberculous." Tuber-
culous teeth are the posterior blunted ones.

The following seem to me facts : that bears are naturally
strict vegetarians ; that when the winter is mild and opeu,
and beech-mast, etc., plentiful, they remain out during the
entire winter and do nothybernate ; that when they "den,"
they seldom resort to caverns, but select a shelter beneath
a fallen tree or windslash, where the deep snows cover
and form their only blanketing; that even when strongest
and most powerful they may be run down and destroyed
by man. Abbe Dupratz speaks of their migrating during

240 A Bear Hunt in the Adirondacks.

winters when there was a scarcity of food; our Adirondack
wilderness affords no space for the habit, if such habit
they possess.

I have here the snow-shoes which I used during the
hunt and which, as they are rather peculiar in their con-
struction, may be of interest to the Institute. They differ
materially from those made by our north woods' hunters;
being longer and more pointed and fully netted, toe and
heel, they support one better on the snow, and served me
nobly throughout the chase, despite rough usage. They
were made by the Indians of Maine from the raw hide of
the Cariboo or American rein-deer, which is highly es-
teemed for the purpose. A light thin string of this skin is
as strong and durable as one much larger and heavier,
made from the coarser deer or ueat's hide. An Indian
made Cariboo snow-shoe is a marvel to our white hunters,
both from the material used and the skill displayed in
the manufacture. There is a fault in the Indian snow
shoes however; though their length enables one to go for-
ward rapidly, yet it is difficult to turn quickly on them ;
again, the toes being very pointed one is apt while running
to catch in the bushes or crusted snow and trip headlong.
These faults are obviated by practice, when great distances
may be traveled swiftly upou them through the dense
forests.

Minute details, merely interesting to hunters, I have
omitted. There remains the outline of the adventure and
a few notes, perhaps of scientific interest.

Art. XII. — California and the North-west Coast one
hundred years since. By Henry A. Homes, A.M.

[Read before the Albany Institute, Feb. 15, 1870.]

Our familiarity of late years with the geography, the
products and the increasing population . of the Western
empire of the United States on the shores of the Pacific,
makes the reflection seem the more astonishing that a cen-
tury since, this coast was unknown and had hardly been
touched by the foot of an European.

It is evident from the history of geographical discovery
that a century since, California, Oregon, Washington ter-
ritory and British Columbia were both in their coasts and
their interior almost absolutely unknown. At that time
the name of California was given to all the coast that
stretched north of the peninsula on the maps. More than
two hundred and eighty years had elapsed from the date
of the discovery of America, from 1492 to 1769, before
the mere outline of its north-west coast had been traced
by Europeans. From the date of the discovery of Mon-
terey, latitude 36° 40', and of Cape Blanc in latitude
43°, by Sebastien Viscayno (Biscaien) in 1602, for a period
of one hundred and sixty years, not a new point was made
on these west coasts of America, until the year 1775.
Even Viscayno had gone no farther north than Cabrillo in
1542.

When we remember that Lower California had been
discovered in 1535, by the same commander, Cortes, who
had conquered Mexico, it certainly becomes extraordinary
that a coast directly continuous with California, remained
still unknown, two hundred and thirty-five years afterwards.

[Trans. vi.~\ 31

242 California and the North-west Coast.

It can hardly be said that the question was settled in the
minds of geographers previous to 1764, whether Califor-
nia was an island or a peninsula. Purchas upon his map
of 1625, has engraved, " California was formerly supposed
to be a part of the continent, but now is known to be an
island," and he carries it up above the latitude of 43°,
makiug it, as did many geographers, 1,700 leagues long.
Many maps in the New York State Library, of as late
date as 1741, represent it as an island, as those of Overton,
Tillemon, DeFer and others, and they extend California up
to latitude 45°, including New Albion. Giustiniani's atlas
of 1755, makes California an island reaching to latitude 47°.
Engel in 1764, tries to prove that it is not true that Cali-
fornia, owing to the winds and tides, is sometimes a peninsula
and at other times an island.

One hundred years since, the only coast of the cons-
ents of the world that had not beeu delineated with more
or less completeness, excepting in the Arctic and Antarctic
regions, was that of the north-west coast of America from
lat. 35° to 80°.

The Russians under Behring in 1728 and Tchirikow in
1741 in successive voyages, had discovered points of land
in America, and on the archipelagos of islands. Behring
had discovered the strait that bears his name, but the dis-
coverers were still ignorant whether what we now call
Alaska belonged to America, and whether the lands which
they had discovered were islands, a new continent, or the
main land of America. As late as 1754 it was denied that
Alaska was part of our continent. (Letter of a Russian
officer, Dobbs). Bellin on a map of 1755 observes, " not
known whether the Russian discoveries are islands or con-
tinents, as they did not touch land."

The observations of Sir Francis Drake in 1578 added no
knowledge of regions north of 43°, but he gave a name to
a portion of the coast which he saw from the deck of his

California and the North-west Coast. 243

ship south of that latitude, calling it New Albion, and
entered a port in latitude 38°, north of San Francisco.
Cabrillo had discovered this coast before him in 1542 under
the orders of Gov. Mendoza. Finally came Viscayno's
voyage in 1602-3, and all discovery ceased for one hundred
and sixty-five years, when the Spainards in 1769 redis-
covered Monterey.

This ignorance of the western coast is strongly affirmed
by the geographer Delisle, in 1755. He observes :

" The part of the southern or Pacific ocean to the north
between Japan and California at present unknown is three
thousand and six hundred miles wide." (Hist. Ab., p. 11),
Dobbs, in his account of Hudson's bay (1744) says, "I do
not find that any countries have been discovered by Euro-
peans in all that great tract between California and Japan
from the latitude of 38° to the Arctic circle."

And in the same sentiment, Henry Ellis, writing the
preface in 1748 to the voyage of the ships Dobbs and Cali-
fornia says: "there lies a tract of country making part
of America from the Welcome or Ne Ultra to cape Blanco
in California, that is, from lat. 65° to 43° north, taking in
22 degrees of latitude and no less than thirty in longitude,
having an extent of coast upwards of six hundred leagues,
the coast of which wholly and the interior parts of it in
a great measure remain unknown." And we see how
mistaken he was in his suppositions as to the extent of
this ignorance, seeing that the continent stretches west
more than sixty degrees of longitude instead of thirty as
he supposed. Dobbs drew his map four years before, run-
ning an imaginary coast, starting from Hudson's bay lati-
tude 63° and from longitude 95° directly south-west to Cape
Blanco on the Pacific in longitude 35°, leaving room or
space between America and Asia for a continent larger
than New Holland, which new continent would on his
theory embrace the Russian discoveries of 1741.

244 California and the North-west Coast.

The reasons for the neglect to make voyages of dis-
covery to complete the coast outline of the new world,
are not difficult to be found, notwithstanding each new
discovery had excited the admiration and had been a
source of wealth to the old world. The principal reasons
are the following:

First: Spain, the only nation having territory on the
south seas or Pacific, was satisfied with the abundant flow
of wealth from her mines, and with annually dispatching
ships laden with silver from Acapulco for the East India
trade at the Philippines. These ships almost invariably
followed the same route, sailing on the same Hues of
latitude, rarely north of 15°. And the}' feared that the
extension and spread of the news of discoveries would
create for themselves, rivals in trade among the other
powers of Europe.

Second: The vessels of other powers that entered the
Pacific, went as buccaneers or privateers or for trade, and
not for purposes of discovery; such were the voyages of
Drake, Cavendish, Shelvocke, Van Noort and Spilbergen
and the successful one of Anson in 1743. They were satis-
fied in case they could fall upon the Spanish galleons
laden with silver. Anson watched more than a year for
the one which he captured with over a million and a half
of dollars.

Third: After the discovery of the passage around Cape
Horn which was mainly favorable to the Spaniards and
Portuguese, the English and Dutch flattered themselves
with the hope of becoming most effectually their rivals,
by a northern passage either to the west or east. They
were especially sanguine of securing a passage by the
west, on account of the universal persuasion that the new-
continent was narrow in its northern parts: and they de-
voted themselves for centuries to securing a passage
through Baffin's or Hudson's bays. As late as 1748, the

California and the North-west Coast. 245

English were butting their ships against the ice in the
western inlets of Hudson's bay, believing that they should
come out into the vast Pacific due west or south-west,
where we now find land stretching over fifty degrees of
longitude. The name chosen for the ship of 1749, the
California, indicates the region where the explorers hoped
to emerge. So well convinced was the British govern-
ment that the passage was through Hudson's bay, that
Gov. Dobbs secured, at this late period, that £20,000 should
be voted to the one who should discover a passage through
Hudson's bay to the Pacific.

While master Briggs, as mentioned in Purchas (III, p.
851), was making use of the argument of the narrowness
of the continent as a reason why the English should per-
sist in making voyages by the north, the Spaniards at a
very early period got out maps, on which the coast went
steadily north-west by west from California for eighty de-
grees of longitude to the fifty-fifth degree of latitude, for
the purpose one would think of discouraging their rivals
from the attempts they were making. This fact appears
plainly from the current maps which were published dur-
ing the seventeenth century.

Fourth: The English trading companies and those of
other nations concealed their own acquired knowledge of
the country, and discouraged rather than stimulated all at-
tempts at discovery, except what they made for themselves,
so as to secure the monopoly of the trade in furs. That
this allegation is true is manifest from the writings of
Dobbs, Middleton, Ellis, Barrow and others.

Thus much we state concisely as the reasons for the
long continued ignorance of the north-west coast.

I will now proceed to illustrate this ignorance and the
extent to which credulity and speculation took the place
of information, only a hundred years since, by exhibiting

246 California ami th Northwest Coast.

the geographical views of Delisle, in 1752, and ofEngel in

1765.

Joseph Nicolas Delisle, a member of the French Aca-
demy, and distinguished as a geographer, bad for 22 yean
lived at St. Petersburg as Astronomer of the government,
and had accompanied the Russian expedition of 1741 which
discovered the land which we now call Alaska. His elder
brother, First Geographer <>l the king of France, was called
the " creator of modern geography,'' and died in 1720. In
1750 Joseph Delisle presented to the French Academy a
memoir illustrated with maps to explain after his rich ex-
perience, his views of the geography of North-Western
America. Several editions of it were published.1 On these,
maps, copies of which are in the State Library, he has
drawn: First, a sea of the west, within the interior of the
continent, six hundred leagues in circumference, having
on its shores the great city of Quiviia. and communicat-
ing with the Pacific ocean at two points. Second and
third, two series of straits and lakes stretching towards
Hudson's and Baffin's bays from the Pacific, running north-
east by east. Fourth, the straits of Anian, communicating
with the Arctic ocean.

Delisle and his associate Buache, another distinguished
geographer of that day, defend this map, by arguments
which they thought convincing, during the four or five
following years.

The first novelty, the Sea of the West, he was led to be-
lieve in from an account to be found only in Purohas
His 1'ilgrimes (III, 849), which was from the pen of one

' Nouvrllrs cartes des decnuvcrtea de l'Amiral IV Fonte, et antrcs naviga-
te urs Espagnola, PortugaiB, Angle-is, Hollandois, Francois el Rosses dans Irs
mere fleptentrionales, avec leur explication. Par M. De Lisle. A Paris. I
4to.

CJonsiderationa g&ographiques el physiques but Irs aouvelles decouvertes
Nbrd de la grande mer. . . .du Sod, avec des cartes ...Par!'. Buache. A
Paris, 175;]. 4a..

California and the North-west Coast. 247

Michael Locke, being what a Greek pilot, Jean De Fuca,
told him at Venice in the year 1596. De Fuca told Locke
that when he was in the Spauish employment in the Pacific
Ocean in the years 1592-3, he entered into the North or
Arctic sea through certain straits very near those we are
now agreed to call Juan De Fuca's straits, and found him-
self in this Sea of the West, the size of which he gave
very indefinitely.

Delisle's brother had left manuscript maps of Western
America with this sea, stretching over 30 degrees of longi-
tude, which he had drawn in 1697, but did not publish till
1718, out of regard to the interests of France in Canada.
It was these maps which had led Joseph Delisle to re-
study the subject. They both believed that Hudson's bay
could be entered from this sea. Although De Fuca is now
generally regarded as a fabulist, still his Western sea re-
mained on maps up to at least as late as 1780. Tytler
says " the whole voyage of De Fuca rests upon apocryphal
authority."

Notwithstanding this is the belief at present, still after
the discovery of a strait near where De Fuca had assigned
one, his name became affixed to it. Delisle made a most
thorough study of the existeuce of this sea of the west,
his investigations into all travels and voyages were most
minute and he attempted a most painful adjustment of it
with all other discoveries, both pretended and real. What
acuteness of judgment would have been ascribed to him, if
his elaborate reasonings, instead of having been confuted
with the lapse of time, had been authenticated. He had
studied Marquette, Hennepin, the Jesuit relations of New
France, and every available source of information. The
southern strait of entrance, Delisle derived from an account
in Viscayno's voyage of an entrance into this sea in latitude
43°. Coxe in his Carolana (1699) had said that he had dis-
covered a west sea several thousand miles in circumference.

248 California and the North-west Coast.

The second and third of these novelties the straits we
have mentioned running X.X.K. were mapped out by
Delisle from the descriptions contained in a printed account
in English of a voyage by a Spanish admiral in 1640.

This account had first been published in 1708, in a peri-
odical called the Monthly Miscellany, or Memoirs forth*
Curious. Admiral De Fonte in this narration tells his
own story : lie narrates that in the year lt!4T he sailed
from Callao in Peru, accompanied by Capt. Bernardo in
a second ship, under orders to intercept ships from Boston
in N.E., which were in search of a north-west passage,
and that at latitude 53°, Bernardo left time and traced
the coast still farther north. Bernardo in latitude 61° as-
cended a river to 79°, whence one of his men went near to
the head of Davis's strait and found there was no passage
by water. When he rejoined De Fonte, the latter had re-
turned from his extraordinary voyage through straits and
lakes to the town of Gonasset: where leaving hie ship,
and ascending a river near Hudson's hay, he came to a
ship from Boston, Capt. Shapley, and conversed with him
and its owner, Mr. Seymour Gibbons. This ship was trad-
ing for skins in a port of Hudson's hay.1 The Admiral's
conclusions were that there was no water communication
to either of these hays, and he returned home with this
report. This Boston ship must have left Boston within
ten years from the founding of the Massachusetts colony.
The names of Shapley and Gibbons were Boston names.
This alleged voyage of De Fonte in 1640 was so well
accredited, that Dobbs made it the basis of an argument in
1744 to the British government for the certainty of a passage
west through Hudson's bay : Ellis sustained it in 1748,

1 This voyage from Boston is not the only one spoken of from independent
authority ; t'"r at ahoul the same period, | Ellis p, 71 1 Jeremie speaks of an-
other ship's crew from Boston having been mel with, whom some inferred
might have l" en those spoken of by De Fonte.

California and the North-west Coast. 249

and it was extensively believed in England np to 1776.
Delisle's maps of 1750-55 were constructed on the theory
of the voyage having been a reality. Lacroix in 1773 de-
fends the truth of the account. As late as 1792, the
Spaniards sent a ship to discover the Rio del Reys, the only
authority for which was De Fonte's voyage.

While the credit which was given to this voyage of De
Fonte by leading French and English geographers may
astonish us, we must remember the intensity of interest by
which it was stimulated, the desire to find a rapid pas-
sage to India by a northern route. Ou further investi-
gations, pursued by a rival French geographer, Robert De
Vaugondy and others,1 it was pretty clearly established
that although there were De Fontes or De Fuentes in
Chili and Peru, yet there never was a Spanish or Portu-
guese admiral of the name of De Fonte, and that the re-
cords of Mexico and Spain contained no account of a similar
voyage having ever been performed at any period. It was
further established that there was no Spanish original manu-
script, and that the account of the voyage in the English
magazine of 1708 was a jeu d'esprit of the editor, Mr. Pe-
tiver, who was disposed to write a moon story on the most
interesting theme of the day, i. e., the remaining undis-
covered limits of the New World. And perhaps he hoped
by showing from pretended Spanish sources almost the cer-
tainty of water communication from Hudson's bay to the
Pacific, notwithstanding the Spaniards affirmed that there
was no passage, to induce farther voyages to Hudson's
bay for exploration.

The fourth of the geographical legends sustained by De-
lisle and Buache in their maps was the traditional straits

1 Observations critiques sur les nouvelles decouvertes de l'Admiral De La
Fuente. Par M. Robert de Vangondy, fils., Geog. ordinaire du Roi. Paris,
1753. 12°.

[Trans. vi.~] 32

250 California and (he North-west Coast.

of Anian. It was a strait believed to be a passage by the

ni'itli i'rom east to west, commencing in from fifty-five to
sixty degrees of latitude. Cortereal had Darned it in the
year 1500 : Ladrillero in 1504, M. Chack in 1579, and

Maldonado in 1598, all pretended to have entered those
straits. Maldonado says that he sailed through it and
back again. De Fuca thought his straits were those of
Anian. Viscayno had been scut in 1602 to discover them.
Drake said that he had discovered them. Maldonado's
account which was the most detailed turned out to be sheer
invention. Even after Behring's straits had been disco-
vered, (Alaska being supposed to be an island and our
continent narrow on the north), the straits of Anian were
still searched for : and it was interred that Bernardo's orDe
Fonte's straits must be those of Anian. The discoveries
of the Russians were supposed to confirm the statements of
De Fonte. And even after the discoveries of Oapt. Cook,
and as late as 1791, the straits of Anian were songht for
by the Spaniards under Malaspina.

Torquemada in his Monarquia Indiana (liv. v, cap. 45),
says that Philip II of Spain had determined to discover
the coasts of California, because certain foreigners had
reported that they had passed by the north-wesl passage to
the South sea by the straits of Anian, where they had seen
a great town, and therefore Viscayno was sent on the
enteq)rise.

The final conclusion must be, that although we have in
Behring's straits, that which responds to the idea ofa water
communication to the Arctic ocean, yet that all the pre-
tended straits of Anian, were delusions of navigators or
inventions of others.

Ten years after Delisle, in 1765, only one hundred and five
years since, Kngel, the Swiss geographer, published a volume
containing his studies on Western geography, accompanied

California and the North-west Coast. 251

with maps, upon which were delineated his ideas of the
mountains and rivers of the interior and of the coast.1 He
rejected the notion of the truth of De Fonte's voyage, of the
sea of the west, and of De Fuca's strait, and preferred
generally the data given in the Spanish maps of the earliest
period. These, the Dutch and English geographers had,
with good reason, little by little disregarded in their maps,
or had given undue preference to the account of some one
of the navigators. In accordance with his theory, Engel
between 35 and 40° of latitude stretches our west-
ern coast through 25° of longitude to the west, instead
of less than five, as is the real fact ; and draws five
rivers running due west to the Pacific from the interior,
between 36 and 48° north latitude, one of them flowing
over 50 degrees of longitude.

The results of Engel's studies, when compared with our
present knowledge, show that as little value was to be
attached to the Spanish maps as to his own speculations.
They were all alike constructed from unreliable data as
regards the north-west coast in almost every particular.

Maps published in Loudon as late as 1775, (Sayer &
Bennett's), adopt Engel's views in part, and a river is re-
presented as flowing into the Pacific in latitude 45° due
west, out of Lake Winnipeg. These maps trace some-
times an imaginary north-west coast, but only refer to De
Fonte, De Fuca, Chinese or Japanese maps for their au-
thority. Some maps of this date treat the coast as unknown
north of 43°, and leave an absolute blank from that point.

We have thus followed the discoveries of the North
West coast up to one hundred years since. And one hun-
dred years since commenced the re-discovery by the Span-
iards of Upper California. An ecclesiastico-military expe-

'•Memoires et Observations geographiques et critiques sur la situation
des pays septentrionaux del'Asie et de l'Amerique. Lausanne, 1765. 4to.

252 Californ'i'i and tfo North-west Coast.

dition came by land from Lower California, and established
itself at San Diego <>n the firsl day of July. L769, making
the first historic day for California. Monterey was re-dis-
covered May 31, 1770, not having been seen - i n < . • 1<><)3 |»y
Viscayno. San Francisco was re-discovered by land, in
1770, made a mission in 1775, and a presidio in 177n'. The
harbor was entered by water for the first time in 177">
(Randolph, p. 22, 33). These proceedings caused gnat
rejoicings and ringing of bells in the city of Mexico, and
at Madrid.

The final general outline of our North-West coast w
not made till ninety years since, in Capt. Cook's great hut
fatal third voyage. From Drakes time to Cook, no English
flag had gone north of 43°. Simultaneously with our
revolutionary war, under instructions from the Admiralty
to survey that coast for the purpose of finding a northern
passage to the east, and to discover the limits of the con-
tinent, Cook left Plymouth in July, 1776, and reached lat.
44° 33' in March, 1778. It is not impossible that the
ideas prevalent during the twenty-five preceding year-,
both of the narrowness of the continent and of numerous
channels and rivers from the west, led the British irovcrn-
mentto surmise that their rebellious colonists might with
advantage be attacked from the rear as well as the front.
or at least might be prevented from settling remote from
her vengeance.

Alter Cook reached New Albion, the outline of the coast,
as high as latitude 7o , was for the first time seen by a
European, and surveyed with an accuracy thai with the
instruments of former navigators would not have been
possible. k' He effected more in a single season than the
Spaniards had accomplished in two centuries, though he
passed De Fuca'e -traits without seeing them." D'XJrville,
the French navigator, declares that he was the founder of

California and the North-west Coast. 253

the true geography of the Pacific ocean : and to him we
are indebted for the destruction of the geographical fictions
so readily embraced by many preceding geographers.

While Cook was preparing for his voyage, the viceroy
of New Spain sent out an expedition for the same purpose
underBruno Heceta, Juan de Ayala and Iuan de la Bodega
y Quadra, in 1775. The account of this expedition was
written by Maurelle the pilot of one of the vessels. Mau-
relle went as far north as 57°, and he obtained a tolerable
outline of the coast to that point, and sent home a note of
alarm regarding the progress of Russian settlement.
Maurelle had no better charts than the conjectural ones of
the French, such as Bellin's of 1766, and he was on the
lookout for DeFonte's pretended straits, which were in full
faith still retained upon those charts. In 1779, another
Spanish expedition, accompanied also by Maurelle, and
De la Bodega y Quadra, was sent over the same track,
apparently unconscious that Cook had preceded them
during 1778. This voyage went no farther north than 59°.
. In 1774 and 1755, Perez and Martinez, under the Span-
ish flagr, anchored at ISTootka sound and sailed as far as 58°.
The discoveries of Capt. Cook were not published until
1784. They produced a great excitement in favor of free
trade in furs, hitherto a monopoly of fur companies; and
the rivalry for this trade led to numerous voyages of ships
of all nations. The most prominent of these were those
of Portlock and Dixon in 1786 and 1787, chiefly for the
purpose of trading in furs : when a detour for discovery
was made, it was for the sake of finding new regions to
buy furs of the natives. Dixon chronicles our still exist-
ing ignorance of the continent by the observation, that " so
imperfectly do we know the coast that it is in some mea-
sure to be doubted whether we have yet seen the main
laud ; whether any land we have been near is really the

254 California and the North-west Coast

continent, remains to be determined by future navigators."
But he adds " the fur trade is inexhaustible."

Meares, a mercantile voyager, in 1786, was the first
European who had wintered on the coast north of Ban
Francisco, making it an event of historic importance. He
was a believer in Be Fonte's and De Fuca's voyages as
authentic.

The next discoverer was, as was proper, an American,
sailing under ship's papers given by the old Confederation
in 1787. Capt. Gray, of Boston, on his second voyage,
discovered the Columbia river, in 1792, and by right of
discovery, then the law of nations, secured that outlet on
the coast to the United States. lie discovered Bulfinch's
harbor, the only oue for seven hundred miles, discovered
Queen Charlotte's to be an island, and revealed De Fuca's
straits to Vancouver, and for the first time carried the
United States flag around the world. La Perouse had
discovered the archipelago of Queen Charlotte's in 1786.

Notwithstanding the discoveries of Capts. Cook and
Gray, the results of tbe fabulous voyages of De Fonte, De
Fuca and others were retained on maps till within eighty
years, and they were not overthrown, and the veritable
continent defined in its western limits until the memorable
voyage of Vancouver was completed in 171*4.

Vancouver met with Capt. Gray on the coast to the
great surprise of the former, and profited by the commu-
nications made to him. ITe surveyed and defined Van-
couver's island and its archipelago, aud visited in all nine
thousand miles of coast.

It was only after the results of his discoveries were
published that it could be said that we had a tolera-
bly correct map of the north-west coast. Aud yet absurd
as it may seem, aJ late as 1794, Vancouver was in the
hope, according to his instructions, of finding a river by

California and the North-west Coast. 255

which he could reach the Lake of the Woods, which is in
latitude 49° and longitude 95°, and writes of it as an im-
portant fact he had substantiated that there was no navi-
able passage to the east from latitude 30° to 56°. Capt.
Hendrick, an American, in 1789 went around Vancouver's
island.

While it is within eighty years since we have learned
what is the coast outline of our continent, it is not till
within a period less than half of that, that we have become
acquainted with the outlines of its interior geography.
The continent a hundred years since had never been tra-
versed by a European, north of Mexico; nor in Mexico,
north of the gulf of California. Delisle's map of 1785 has
in an immense blank space the record: "the whole inte-
rior is unknown."

The plan of Jonathan Carver of Connecticut for cross-
ing from ocean to ocean in 1772 had failed. His scheme
was to have a military post established at the straits of
Anian near Oregon. His map of 1778 contains a deline-
ation of the sea of the west, the straits of Anian and of
De Fuca, now fables of the past.

John Ledyard, also of Connecticut, in 1786, persevered
in a scheme, in which he was aided by Jefferson, to tra-
verse the American continent by entering it from Russia;
but was hindered from accomplishing it, owing to his im-
prisonment by the Russians.

Samuel Hearne of London, in 1772, by his journey of
thirteen hundred miles from Fort Prince of Wales in lati-
tude 60° to the Coppermine river, established the fact that
the continent did not extend to the North pole.

Alexander McKenzie in his first journey westward in
1789, reached only the Arctic ocean, but farther west
than Hearne, to the river still called after his name as dis-
coverer. In his second journey in 1793, he was the first

256 California and the North-west Coast.

European to cross the continent on the north, and in its
broadest part, latitude 52° 20'. He had started also from
the same fort on Hudson's bay, from which Ilearne had
proceeded. The British had no trading or military posts
west of the Rocky mountains previous to the year 1800.

A map of Mexico of Humboldt's, bearing date of the year
1811, designates the whole of the western territory of the
United States.as " unknown."

In concluding this representation of our ignorance of
California and the north-west coast until a comparatively
very recent period, I will simply enumerate very briefly
the prominent American exploring tours of the present
century, by means of which this ignorance has been re-
moved, and the country opened for settlement.

It was not until 1804, the continuous chain of the Rocky
mountains being as yet untraversed, and it still being
possible that an inland sea existed larger than Lake Supe-
rior, that the continent was traversed by explorers through
the territory of the United States. The expedition of our
government, for which so much credit is due to Jefferson,
was commanded by Lewis and Clark, and went down the
Columbia river to its mouth. Their full narrative was not
published till 1814, and down to 1844 was the principal
source of information regarding the interior.

Major Zebulon Pike's expedition in 1805 to 1807, was to
find the sources of the Mississippi, and of the Arkansas,
Kansas and Tlatte rivers.

Hunt's expedition of 1811 was to found the settlement
of Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia river. This settle-
ment was shortly after abandoned by the American interest,
owing to the war with Great Britain.

Major S. II. Long's expedition in 1819 and 1820, was up
the Platte to the Rocky mountains, and hack by way of
the Arkansas river.

California and the North-ioest Coast. 257

Schoolcraft and Cass's expeditions in 1820 and 1832,
were for the discovery of the sources of the Mississippi,
and to visit the copper deposits of Lake Superior.

Fremont's expedition to Oregon and California, in 1843
and 1844, made a virtual discovery of Great Salt lake, of
the basin of California, and established that there was no
principal river flowing into the Pacific besides the Co-
lumbia.

The magnificent series of explorations of the United
States government for a Pacific rail road route across the
continent, on eight parallels of latitude, were as late as
1853 and 1854.

jNo permanent settlements were made by us west of the
Rocky mountains previous to 1834, being those which were
commenced in Oregon.

It was in 1827, that the first American entered Cali-
fornia across the continent. He was an agent of the
American Fur Company by the name of Jedidiah S. Smith.
Finding himself in want, he resorted to misrepresentation,
so as to secure protection and food from the jealous Span-
ish settlers. He and his party of forty men were already
gold hunters rather than fur hunters.1

The future of California, its wealth, population and
prosperity, either under Spaniards or Americans, was as yet
anticipated or prophesied by no one. Two years before
the discovery of gold, a writer in the Southern Quarterly
Review,2 predicts for her a future of the greatest inferiority.
" Whether California will ever become of any great import-
ance in the history of the world, or advance to any con-
spicuous position, agriculturally, commercially, or po-
litically, is susceptible of the greatest doubt. In itself, it

1 E. Kandolph's Address, 1860, San Francisco.

2 Vol. vni, 1845.

[Trans. vi.~\ 33

258 California ami the Norih-Wi si Coast.

has little prospect beyond a nerveless imbecility." Such
were the prevailing anticipations only twenty-live yeare
since, regarding the destiny of the countries on the shores
of the Pacific.

It will always be a theme for wonder that by the pro-
gress of the aits and sciences within this one hundred
years, the shortest route from Europe to China and Japan,
to Cathay and India, has been found not in a passage by"
sea to the north of the continent, hut by means of steam-
ears on an iron road, through the territory of a people, not
then having an independent existence, and now having
more than five millions of inhabitants west of the Missis-
sippi.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE.

[Continued from Transactions Vol. IV.]

December 2d, 1863.

The Institute met pursuant to call, the president, Mr.
Pruyn, in the chair. Present, twelve members and a few
visitors.

Dr. F. B. Hough was appointed secretary for the evening.

The president read a letter from Prof. Murray, secretary
of the Institute, in which it was stated, that in consequence
of removal from the city he was under the necessity of re-
signing the office of secretary which he had held for
several years.

Dr. Howard Townsend presented the following resolu-
tions, which were unanimously adopted, and ordered to be
entered upon the journal of the Institute and a copy to be
transmitted to Prof. Murray:

Resolved, That whilst congratulating Prof. David Murray
upon the honor lately conferred upon him in his appoint-
ment to a Professorship in Rutgers College, New Jersey,
we must at the same time express our regret at the loss
with which our Institute meets in his acceptance of his
appointment.

Prof. Murray's services, during the long period he has
been connected with the Institute as member and secre-
tary, have been of such great value that their cessation
must necessarily prove a loss. And in order that Prof.
Murray's connection with the Institute should not entirely
cease, it is suggested that he now be appointed a corre-
sponding member of the Albany Institute.

260 Proceedings of the Albany Institute.

Professor David Murray was thereupon elected a cor-
responding member of the Institute.

The following persons were nominated as residenl mem-
bers: Prof. James Weir Mason, of the Albany A.cademy,
by Mr. Pruyn ; Jacob S. Mosher,ofthe Albany Academy,
by Dr. Townsend; Col. Lockwood L. Doty, Chief of the Bu-
reau of Military Statistics, by -Dr. Hough.

The rule as to nominations being suspended by unani-
mous consent, these gentlemen were duly elected resident
members.

Dr. J. 8. Mo-dier was appointed aecretary pro tem.^ until
the annual election of officers in January next.

December loth, 1863.

The president, Mr. Pruyn, in the chair. Present, nine-
teen members, and several gentlemen not members.

Dr. Howard Townsend read a paper upon the discovery
and publication of the ancient manuscript known as the
"Sinai Bible" or "Biblioruni Codex Sinaiticus." This
manuscript accidentally came to the knowledge ^\' Dr.
Tischcndorf, the well known biblical antiquarian, about
four years since, while making researches, under the pa-
tronage of the Czar, for Greek and Oriental manuscripts,
and especially such as might be serviceable in promoting
biblical and ecclesiastical learning. At the convent on
Mount Sinai, in possession of the Bteward, he found, by
mere chance, a large quarto volume written upon vellum,
and consisting of 345| skins, of which 199 belonged to the
Old Testament and the remainder to the New. On every
page there were four narrow and regular columns written
in Greek uncials, and supposed to date back to a period
certainly as old as the Vatican Codex, which is attributed

to the middle of the fourth century. Although mutilated,
Hi'' manuscript contains the New Testament complete.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 261

Dr. Teschendorf succeeded in obtainingthe original, which
in October, 1859, he placed in the hands of the Czar. Its
great value being at once appreciated, the emperor ordered
it to be printed in fac-simile for distribution among public
libraries.

Dr. Townsend exhibited a copy, in common Greek type,
of the JSTew Testament portion, and also copies of the
Alexandrian and Vatican Codices, giving a concise ac-
count of the origin, custody, and publication of these
venerable manuscripts, the first of which is in the British
Museum, and the latter in the Vatican Library at Rome.
He also laid before the Institute an ancient manuscript
belonging to his library, an illuminated volume illustrat-
ing palaeographic subjects, and some specimens of parch-
ment paper prepared by a chemical process, and closely
resembling true vellum.

The thanks of the Institute were voted to Dr. Townsend
for his able and interesting paper.

A committee, consisting of Mr. Hough, Mr. Munsell and
Dr. Mosher, was appointed to make examination of
certain packages of the Transactions of the Institute in
sheets, and to report such action as might be thought
advisable concerning them.

Upon motion of Dr. Townsend, the committee of pub-
lication was authorized to exercise a censorship of the
published proceedings of the Institute, with the view of
preventing errors in the insertion of matter not properly
within their province for publication.

Mr. Eugene Van Rensselaer was proposed and elected a
resident member of the Institute.

Prof. Hall called the attention of the members present to
the report on the condition of the State Cabinet now first
printed, in the appendix of which he had figured and de-
scribed ten new species of fossil plants of the genus Dicti/o-
phyton. He made some remarks on the habits of the

Proceedings ofiht Albany Institute.

marim algce to which the genua belongs, and observed that
the hollow stems had been mistaken tor fossil .-hells.
Adjourned.

December 29th, 1863.

The president, Mr. Pruyn, in the chair. Present, eleven
resident members, a corresponding member and two visi-
tors.

Dr. Howard Townsend proposed Mr. Edward E. Burnett
as resident member. The rule lor the election of members
being suspended, Mr. Burnett was elected resident mem-
ber of the Institute.

Prof. Hall called the attention of the Institute to some

fossils from the Potsdam sandstone, and made remarks :is

to the localities and depth of that rock in various parts of

the United States and Canada.

January 13th, 1864.

Present ten members and three visitors. In the absence
of the president, Dr. F. B. Hough presided.

The library committee, appointed at the regular meeting
of the Institute held Dec. 15, reported : That they have
found the signatures to complete the fourth volume of the
Transactions, and that nothing remains to delay the early
issue of this volume. They find a large number of im-
perfect sets of vol. i, and vol. n. and about 30 copies
in sbeets of vol. in, apparently perfect. In the course
of their labors they also met with 48 copies of vol. I,
half bound, 1*2 of vol. ir, and 7-"> of vol. in, in paper
eovers. The library has also a large number of duplicate
bound volumes of the Transactions of the Society of Arts

from 1801 to 1819, and 55 copies of vol. u, of the first
edition of the Federalist It would be very desirable

if by chance an equal number oi copies of the first volume
of this masterly work could be found, and thus the series
completed. Tie » find a large Dumber of duplicate

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. • 263

reports and other documents of the state and general
governments.

The committee would recommend that the copies of
Transactions of the Institute now in sheets be sent to some
proper office to be gathered up and sewed, with paper
covers, and that all that prove imperfect be sold for paper
stock. They also recommend that authority be given
carefully to examine the duplicate documents that remain
unbound in the library of the Institute, and that those
which are deemed to be not available for exchanges be
also sold.

It is suggested that an inquiry made among the scientific
and literary societies in correspondence with ours, might
result in a mutually advantageous exchange of many of the
duplicate volumes of reports above mentioned.

It is also recommended that measures be taken for ar-
ranging and binding the pamphlets and publications re-
ceived from other societies as donations. If the expense
of binding be considered too great for the present funds of
the Institute, they should at least be carefully gathered,
collated and tied in packages until a convenient time for
binding.

The recommendation of the committee was adopted.

A resolution was offered that a committee be appointed
by the chair to examine the duplicate documents in the
library of the Institute, and to prepare and issue a circular
to societies in correspondence, with the view of effecting
exchanges of such as may be available. This committee
shall have power, and is hereby directed, to dispose of im-
perfect sets of sheets and other duplicate matter deemed
unavailable, and to pay the proceeds of such sales into the
hands of the treasurer.

Mr. Burnett then read an elaborate paper on the Study
of Language. The object of this paper was to show the
advantages to be derived from a thorough acquaintance

264 Proceedings of th Albany Institute,

with the interchangeability and convertibility of letters as
b means of etymological research, and as a means of system-
atically acquiring the English and the Romance language
from a comparison with the Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit:
also, to show the mannerin which the differences of voice,
mood, tense, number and person of the verb are generated
by means of pronominal affixes, prefixes and angmenl
showing the common origin of the pronouns in different
languages. He also explained bow certain tenses of the
verb are formed in the Italian, French, Spanish, and Tor-
tuguese languages, from a combination of pthertenses with
the infinitive. This theory explains the law of formation
that governs the past tense of the regular verb in English,
and he pointed out the. effect of certain combinations of
the labial, lingual, and guttural elements with the ele-
ment of motion to express the different varieties of action.
He applied some of these principles to the discussion of
the genesis of the word as AS, and, from a comparison of
its use in English with its use in Sanscrit, * iiveh, and Latin,
to make evident its pronominal nature.

Mr. Burnet remarked that the length of time allotted to
such a paper would forbid a thorough exposition of the
variety of matters touched upon, and the best that could be
done was to foreshadow certain general principles that a
future paper will more fully embody and elucidate.
Adjourned.

January 20th, LS64.
Seventeen members present. Tn the absence of the
president, on motion of Dr. Eough, Mr. Carpenter took
the chair.

The treasurer's report of receipts and expenditures for
1863 was received and referred to the usual committee.
The chair appointed as such committee: Mr. Munsell, Dr.
Willard.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 265

The resolution to appoint a committee to examine and
make disposition of the unbound sheets, magazines and
duplicate volumes belonging to the library, which was
laid on the table at the last meeting, was called up and
adopted. The following were appointed as such committee :
Messrs. F. B. Hough, Munsell, Willard, Mosher.

The Institute then proceeded to the election of officers
for the ensuing year, and the following persons were
unanimously elected :

John V. L. Pruyn, President.
Andrew E. Brown, Treasurer.
First Department —

Richard V. DeWitt, President.
John Paterson, Cor. Secretary.
Jacob S. Mosher, Rec. Secretary.
GrEORGE W. Hough, Librarian.
Second Department —

Stephen Van Rensselaer, President.
Peter Gansevoort, Vice President.
S. Oakley Vanderpoel, Rec. Secretary.
Joel Munsell, Cor. Secretary.
Charles B. Redfield, Treasurer.
Third Department —

Alexander S. Johnson, President.
John IS. Campbell, Vice President.
Jacob I. Werner, Cor. Secretary.
Curators — James Hall, Howard Townsend, Charles
H. Anthony, Amos Dean, Andrew E. Brown.

An interesting paper was read by Dr. P. B. Hough on
the Battle of Cedar Mountain, being an extract from
his forthcoming work, The History of Duryea's Brigade,
now in preparation.

Mr. Munsell moved that a copy of vol. n of the Trans-
actions be presented to Dr. James Eights, one of the old
[Trans. vi.~] 34

266 Prori, dings of the . 1 JJbany TnsdtuU .

members and contributors to tl who w .

sent, which wa ed to.

Adjourned. /

February LOth, L864,

Ten members present. In the absence of the president,
on motion of Dr. Hough,Dr. Vanderpoel took the chair.

Prof. G. W. Hough presented an account of a series of
experiments with which he hasbeeu engaged during the
last year, in reference to the compensation of pendulums
for changes in temperature.

Prof. Hough prefaced his account with some general
remarks on the various kinds of pendulums.

Wooden pendulum rods expand one-fifth as much
steel, and steel expands B|, of its length, for a change of
180° in the temperature. In the mercural pendulum, the
expansion of the mercury varies the point of oscillation as
much as the expansion of the rod Lowers it. Mercury ex-
pands ^ of its length at the sunn' time thai steel expands
5J0, and the length of the column of mercury is to the
length of the rod as 55 : 833. So much having been de-
termined by calculation, the pendulum is compared with
another, and they arc closely watched to see if their vibra-
tions are alike. If the pendulum thus prepared vibrates too
rapidly, the point of oscillation is too high and some of the
mercury musl be taken out — if too slow more mercury
is to he added. The amount of mereury cannot be accu-
rately'computed beforehand.

Prof. Hough has made use of a new method ^A' com-
pensating, by which it can he done to a greater degree
of accuracy than by any process previously used. This
method of compensating a pendulum is another appli-
cation of electricity in connection with a chronograph.
By it we are enabled to know from Becond to second and
minute to minute exactly how our pendulum is performing.
We are aide to determine the late of the pendulum for

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 267

every degree of temperature lying between the two ex-
tremes. In case the pendulum moves with an uniformly
accelerated velocity in the process of heating, the chrono-
graph record will exhibit a curve bending towards the
left. By means of an angular micrometer, the difference
between the rates of the two pendulums down to the
hundredth of a second may be measured.

By this method, the compensation of any pendulum be-
comes an easy matter and susceptibl e of very accurate results .
After having computed the amount of mercury necessary,
the oscillations of an experimental pendulum are recorded
in the chronograph for half an hour or more, when com-
paring it with the standard pendulum which is also re-
corded at the same time, and the difference of rate between
the two pendulums is determined. On subjecting our expe-
rimental pendulum to a higher temperature and again mak-
ing the record, any change of rate is immediately detected.
Having determined the amount of this change, any con-
venient amount of mercury may be added or subtracted,
and repeating the same process, the effect of the amount
of mercury in compensating may be found. Now without
going into a rigid mathematical discussion to determine
what amount of mercury should be added or subtracted,
the simple proportional part corresponding to the change
of rate may be taken. In case a pendulum is nearly com-
pensated at the start, two repetitions of this process will
give an excellent pendulum.

Prof. Hough mentioned some other influences which
disturb the regular vibrations of the pendulum, among
which is the effect of the attraction of the moon, which acts
in two ways to affect the vibrations, by modifying the in-
fluence of the earth's attraction.

Changes in the atmosphere, giving at different times a'
medium of varying density to resist the motion of the
pendulum, were also mentioned. The amount of this varia-

268 Proceedings of ih* Albany Institute.

tion has never been computed, but it is of considerable
importance.

Tin- difference of temperature in the top and bottom of
the room is also a cause of disturbance, as it affects the
rod of the pendulum, and docs not compensate by expand-
ing the mercury. He Btated that it had been sup posed
that pendulums require some time after being disturbed
before they regain their regular vibrations. He has deter-
mined by accurate experiments with the chronograph,
that they will begin to vibrate regularly in about twenty
minutes.

Prof. Hough made some remarks during the discussion
that followed, upon the subject of personal equation ; and
announced a future paper on that subject.

The personal equation* of the eve may be divided. into
two classes. First: The recording of an instantaneous
phenomenon, as the sudden appearance of a meteor, and
Second : the recording of the transit of a star across the
wires of the telescope.

In the first case, there is but little variation between
different persons, the average time for the mind and muscles
to act being about 0.14 of a second.

In the second case, there is a wide range between differ-
ent persons, the different amounting in some instances to
nearly half a second of time.

It has been supposed by some, thai this error of observ-
ing might be removed by cultivation, but investigations
thus far goto show, that in attempting to do this we intro-
duce other errors of greater magnitude and uncertainty
than those wo propose to remove.

Dr. Willard offered the following report:

The undersigned who were appointed a committee to
examine the treasurer's account, beg leave to report that
they have compared the vouchers with the statement of

the treasurer, that they find his report correct and that

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 269

there is now a balance in the hands of the treasurer
amounting to $229.17. All of which is respectfully
submitted :

Joel Munsell,
S. D. Willard.

Report accepted and committee discharged.

Dr. Willard announced that Dr. John H. Griscom, of
New York, whose name is so prominently identified with
sanitary reforms in cities, was present, and Dr. Griscom,
upon the cordial invitation of the chairman, then addressed
the Institute on the subject of the sanitary reforms needed
in New York.

Mr. Munsell nominated Joseph W. Russell, as resident
member. Dr. Hough nominated Dr. John H. Griscom,
as corresponding member. The' rules being suspended,
Dr. Griscom was elected corresponding member of the
Institute.

Dr. Vauderpoel presented the matter of employing a
suitable person to examine and put in order the Museum
of the Institute, if in want of such repairs. On motion the
following were appointed a committee to examine into the
condition of the Museum and report : Mr. Brown, Mr.
Munsell, Dr. Mosher.

On motion of Prof. Mason, such of the curiosities in the
Museum as could be safely used for that purpose were
offered for exhibition at the fair now in preparation in aid
of the Sanitary commission.

Adjourned.

February. 23d, 1861.

Present, the president, and ten other members.

Dr. F. B. Hough from the library committee, reported
that the committee had in the performance of the duty
assigned them, found some useless and much valuable un-
bound material in the library, and asked for instructions as
to its disposal. On motion of G. W. Hough, the committee

270 Proceedings of the Albany TnstituU .

were authorized to nave bound auch unbound Bheete and
magazines as are of value.

Joseph \V. Ivusscll, nominated at the last regular meet-
ing, was elected a residenl member of the [nstitute.

Dr. Willard read a paper by his friend, Dr. Oliver White,
of tin- New Fork Academy of Medicine, which on account
of its interest and novelty he thought proper to present to the
[nstitute. [t was entitled [mpalemenl of the Vagina, illus-
trated by cases. En one case, the impalement was upon
the handle of a brush or broom, which entered the body
for ten or twelve inches; the other ease was that of a
woman sliding from a mow of hay, down the end of a
pitchfork handle which lay concealed in the hay below.
The walls of the vagina were ruptured, and the fork
handle passed into the bowels. A third case was some-
what similar: only one of these cases happened within
the observation of Dr. White.

Dr. Willard also rend a paper by Dr. Samuel R. Percy,
entitled, The Food of our Cities, which was a full exp
of the impurities in the production and adulteration ol' milk
in the city of New York.

Adjourned.

March 9th, 1864.

In the absence of the president, on motion, Prof. Mason
took the chair.

Mr. Brown nominated William J. White. The rules
being suspended, the Institute proceeded to vote on the
nomination, and Mr. White was elected a resident member.

Mr. Munsell announced that the fourth volume of Trans-
actions of the Institute, which had been ordered printed,
was now ready, some copies of the volume being upon the
table.

March 22d, 18(34.

Sixteen members present. - On motion ot Mr. Brown,
Dr. Howard Townsend took the chair.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 271

Mr. Brown nominated Leicester Allen for membership.
The rules being suspended Mr. Allen was elected resident
member of the Institute.

Prof. Anthony, in accordance with previous announce-
ment, gave an account of the late Prof. Amos Eaton, with
reminiscences of him, as connected with the Rensselaer In-
stitute. The building occupied by the Institute is a double
house standing about half way between Troy and Lansing-
burgh, near the west end of the state dam, and was origin-
ally erected to answer the purpose of a bank common to
both these places. The Rensselaer Institute was originally
established by General Van Rensselaer, the father of the
present Patroon. The course of instruction occupied about
a year, and was in the form of lectures. The Institute was
authorized to grant the usual collegiate degree, A.B., on
graduation, and A.M.,. three years after. Over the Insti-
tute, Prof. Eaton presided, assisted by professors. Among
the students in attendance at the time when Prof. Anthony
entered, were two brothers of ¥m. C. Bryant, and the
Hon. George W. Clinton, now of Buffalo. The classes,
which went to the rooms of the different professors at nine
in the morning, numbered from four to six students each,
and .at twelve o'clock all met in the library for mutual
criticism.

One room of the building was occupied by Prof. Eaton,
and in it all of his works were written. Prof. Anthony-
gave an- account of his family, and paid a fine tribute to
his kindly qualities, which it was now a pleasure to recall,
as well as to make record of many acts of kindness re-
ceived from him.

One of the means of amusement among the students was
reading. We spent one evening till late in the night listen-
ing to our best reader, George W. Clinton, who read Byron's
Corsair. The next morning it was announced that
Gov. De Witt Clinton had died the night before, and

272 Proceedings of th Albany Institute.

George had left, having heard of it just as he was about
to retire.

Prof. Anthony mentioned an amusing incident which
occurred totwo of the professors of the Institute, who while
on a mineralogical expedition, chipping some ape ;imens
from the high rock at Saratoga, were Bel upon as vandals
by an officer and his posse. One who was light escaped
by running, while the other who was too heavy thus
to Bucceed, managed to become mixed up with the pur-
suers and assisted them in their shouts of tl stop him," and
efforts to make a capture.

Prof. Anthony paid a warm tribute to the usefulness of
the Rensselaer Institute, now devoted especially to civil
engineering.

Dr. Willard Btated that he had in course of preparation
a volume consisting of biographical memoirs of the de-
ceased members of the Medical Society of the County of
Albany, from 1806. He read a sketch of Dr. Wilhelmus
Manc'ius, whose name was first on the list. The original
nembers ofthe society were : Wilhelmus Mancius, Bunloke
Woodruff, William McClelland, John G. Knauff, Caleb
Gauff, Augustus Harris, Joseph W. Eegeman, Cornelius
Vrooman, Jr., Alexander G. Fonda, Charles G. Townsend
and Elias Willard. Dr. Mancius was the son of a Dutch
clergyman, and was bom in Ulster county, in 1738. Ee
practiced his profession for many years in Albany, and

died in 1SOS. at the age of seventy.

The second sketch was thai of Dr. Eunloke Woodruff,
who was bom in Xew Jersey, in 1 7~>~». He was an accom-
plished Bcholar, gentleman and physician, and Berved as
surgeon in the Third New York regiment, commanded by
Col. 1* Dsevoortof Albany, during the revolutionary

war. After the war, he resided iii Albany, where he was
a leading surgeon, lie died in 1811, at the age of fifty-six
years.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 273

After the usual recess for refreshment, Mr. Bogart spoke
of Ezra Auies the artist, of whom he was reminded by-
some of the incidents mentioned in Dr. Willard's paper,
as a remarkable man and a skillful artist. After some
further remarks, on motion of Dr. Willard, Mr. Bogart
was invited to prepare for and present to the Institute, a
sketch of the life of Mr. Ames, with an account of his his-
toric paintings.

Mr. Munsell moved that a copy of the fourth volume of
the Transactions of the Institute be presented to each of the
members. Adopted.

On motion, the secretary was directed to place presenta-
tion cards in the volumes of the Transactions which were
donated.

Adjourned.

April 5th, 1864.

Seventeen members and a few visitors present. In the
absence of the president, on motion of Mr. Munsell, Dr.
Howard Townsend took the chair.

Prof. George W. Hough presented an account of the
Swedish Tabulating Machine of Mr. George Scheutz.

This machine, which bears the impression " Stockholm,
1853," is the only one of the kind that has ever been con-
structed. It is a well known fact that Mr. Charles E.
Babbage was the first to attempt the construction of a
Difference machine, but owing to some misunderstanding
between the inventor and the English government, under
whose patronage the machine was being built, it was never
completed.

About ^the year 1834 or 1836, Mr. Scheutz, a printer at
Stockholm, heard of Mr. Babbage's machine through the
public prints, and at once couceived the idea of building
one himself. After years of trial and difficulty, he finally
succeeded in producing the machine in question, which, we

[ Trans. vi.~\ 35

274 Vroceedmgs of th Albany Institute.

may remark, is totally different from the one contemplated
by Mr. Babbage.

The Scheiitz engine was put in operation at the Dudley
Observatory for a shorl time, id the year 1858, but Bince
thai time it has not been in working order. When we
undertook the study of it, a Bhorl time Bince, it was found
to be so much out of repair and in such a state of contu-
sion, that it seemed almost impossible to discover the
mechanical principles on which it was based; but from the
study of its details, in a few days the theory of the me-
chanism was revealed, after which it was an easy matter
to restore the whole theory of the machine for making any
class of computations comprised within its limits.

Prof. Hough then proceeded to explain the principle
upon which the mechanism is arranged. Its fundamental
principle is based on the mathematical truth, that in any
series of numbers the ninth order of difference will be zero,
when n may be any number whatever. This machine is
constructed for four orders of differences, and will conse-
quently compute any series in which the fourth orders of
differences are equal.

The manner in which the differences were marked by
the various wheels, was illustrated by a specimen brought
from the machine and by diagrams on the board, after
which some particulars were given of the action of the
machine. It may be used to fifteen places of figures, of
w hi eh eight places are printed at the time of making the
calculation. Thirty seconds is the time necessary for a
complete result.

Before starting the machine for any computation, it is
necessary to set the appropriate wheels, after which it needs
no further attention; for so long as the last order of dif-
ferences is constant, it will continue to produce the re-
quired numbers. Thus, for producing a table of squares it
is only necessary to give the machine three numbers 1, 3,

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 275

and 2, and from this data we can compute the squares
of all numbers up to 30 millions. In the same manner, by
giving the machine the numbers 1, 7, 6, 6, we can pro-
duce a table of cubes, the limit being 15 figures.

The same principles apply in the computations of Logar-
ithyms, or any series of numbers whatever.

Prof. Hough closed by giving an invitation to the mem-
bers of the Institute to call and examine the machine, which
is now in operation at the Dudley Observatory, and ex-
hibited specimens of its work printed on both paper and
plates of lead.

Dr. S. D. Willard read a brief biographical notice of
Dr. Elias Willard, a former member of the Institute.

Elias Willard was born in Harvard, Mass., on the 17th
of January, 1756. He was present at the battle of Bunker
Hill, and served duriug the war of the revolution, either as
regimental or hospital surgeon; subsequently, he settled
in Saratoga county, and in 1801 in Albany, where he died
March 20, 1827, at the age of seventy-one years. He was
a man of marked piety and patriotism.

Dr. "Willard also read a biographical notice of Dr. Lewis
C. Beck, contributed for his work by Mrs. Pierre Van
Cortlandt, the surviving daughter of Dr. T. Romeyn
Beck.

Lewis C. Beck was the youngest brother of Drs. T. Ro-
meyn Beck and John C. Beck, and was born in Schenec-
tady, October 4, 1798. He was largely instrumental, with
his brother, in the organization of the Albany Institute,
in the transactions of which are several of his valuable
papers. He filled professorships in several colleges, the
last being at Rutgers College, New Jersey, and the Al-
bany Medical College. He was the author of several
medical works, and of many scientific articles ; an inclus-

27G Procc of the Albany Institute,

trious, upright, good man. Ee died in Albany, April 20,
1853, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.

Adjourned.

April 19,1864.

Fourteen members present In the absence of the presi-
dent, on motion of Mr. Mnnsell, Mr. Redfield took the
chair.

Dr. Willard read a biographical notice of Dr. Jonathan
Eights. Dr. Eights was of Holland extraction. Hi-
grandfather was William Eights of Amsterdam, and his
grandmother, Mary Van Dyck, of Rotterdam. His father
was Abraham Eights, a prominent citizen of Albany.
Jonathan was born in Albany, November 26, 1773 ; stu-
died medicine with Drs. Manciue and Woodruff; was
licensed April, 1797. He practiced until 1810, in Mont-
gomery county, and then removed to Albany, where he
continued the rest of his life. Dr. Eights was an associate
contributor to the Medical and Physical Journal in New
York: president of the Albany County Medical Society
in 1814-15-16, and in 1841: president of the Medical
Society of the State of New York, in 1830 or 1831. Be
was well versed in medical literature, and diligent in his
profession. He died August 10, 1848, in the sevi nty-fifth
year of his age, having been in professional life fifty-three
yea

Dr. Willard also read a biographical notice of Dr. Joel
A. Wing, a former member of the Institute.

Joel A. Wing was born in Berkshire county, Mass.,
Augusl L3, 1778. Ee was a licentiate from the Mont-
gomery ( 'ounty Medical Society, and subsequently attended
medical lectures at the college of Physicians and Surgeons
in New 5Tork.

lie was a post-surgeon at the barracks opposite Albai
in 1*14 : president of the County Medical Society in 1826
and 1827: received the degree of doctor in medicine

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 277

from Williams College in 1825 : president of the medical
Society of the State of New York in 1843, and for several
years a manager in the State Lunatic Asylum at Utica.

Dr. Wing spent thirty-eight of the forty-one years of
his professional life in Albany. He read much, and his
memory was accurate and retentive. His business habits
were extremely laborious and methodical. In social life
he was gay and buoyant, and his fund of anecdote and
information almost exhaustless. He was a skillful phy-
sician, and a model of propriety and kindness towards his
patients. He was popular in the profession throughout
the state.

He died in Hartford, Connecticut, on the sixth of Sep-
tember, 1862, in the sixth-fifth year of his age. His oldest
son, Matthew Gregory Wing, a graduate of Yale College
in 1847, on account of ill health resided in the south of
Europe several years, and finally died at Santa Fe, New
Mexico, on the fifth of July, 1860, at the age of thirty-four
years.

Adjourned.

May 3d, 1864.

Seventeen members present. On motion of Dr. Howard
Townsend, Mr. A. E. Brown, in the absence of the pre-
sident, took the chair.

The Rev. A. S. Twombly, according to previous an-
nouncement, read the paper of the evening on the sub-
ject of Oriental Oddities. Mr. Twombly said that he
intended no harm to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, in these
caricatures of their descendants, any more than the eagle
meant disrespect to the mother owl in swallowing her
progeny, a scrawny set, so unlike her description of them ;
for the men of the east retained the costumes, manners, and
memories of patriarchal days, yet in comparison with
modern customs and ideas they are degenerate and utterly
unworthy of their origin.

278 Proceedings of th< Albany Institute,

The Orientals are at the antipodes of western culture,
grasping all ideas al the wrong end, as Arabs seize their
horses' tails and swing themselves into the saddle. Their
women therefore are of necessity degraded, their sons ap-
plying the rod sometimes in strange reversal of King
Solomon's suggestion, making it "spare the rod if you
would spoil your mother."

Their animals likewise partake of the rude and uncivil-
ized condition of things, wearing their tail- of ten or a
dozen pounds in weight

The praying -Mussulmans differ from men of western
churches, in being proud of their prayers and praying
everywhere and at all times, thus giving rise to the Mos-
lem proverb: " If your neighbor prays one time a day,
avoid him; if twice, let him alone ; if three times, move
into another street."

The maidenhood of Oriental women is passed in balanc-
ing water jars, gossiping, and wearing all their dowry on
their heads ; occasionally interrupted by coy flirtations with
Howadjis strolling through the land.

The Arabs of the Jordan and Dead sea remind one of
Sir Walter Scott's tales of crusading times, and are every
whit as nimble, thievish and intelligent as their Arab
steeds. The Dead sea (all former chronicles to the con-
trary notwithstanding) will allow a man to drown if he has
a mind to. If one bathes in it, however, his ears are sail
cellars; his eyes, a sea of briny iirc ; all abrasions of
his flesh a perfect Sodom and Gomorrah to his feelings;
and it' the water chances to get into him in any quantity, the
result is better fancied than described.

The doctors of the east were humorously alluded to by
Mr. Twombly, as enjoying a Lucrative profession, and not
like the hakims of the Hindoos, obliged to take their own
doses, and to die with any of their patients whom they
overdose; but, giving simple remedies according to the

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 279

days of the week, their patients, not themselves, are re-
sponsible for all results. The Turkish bath, is, however,
the usual sanitary method ; a steamy, joint-cracking, happy
operation, not unlike the boiling, peeling process of pota-
toes in a pot, but landing the recipient of hydropathic
favors in a heaven of delicious poetry and flowers, where
he must exclaim with every son of Islam, " Water is
indeed Great Allah's gift."

The camel is found to belie all school geographies and
works on natural history, by exhibiting the most growling
snarling nature possible, but a ride upon his humps proves
swift and joyous as upon the wings of wind.

Mr. Twombly gave some amusing instances of the gul-
libility of the Orientals, as illustrated by their reception
of such stories as the rabbis tell of Og, the King of
Bashan, whose shin bone was higher than a palm tree and
out of whose molars Abraham made a bed for his own
accommodations ! The tomb of Jonah also they confi-
dently believe to be upon the spot where he once more saw
light, when the dyspetic whale disgorged him as too indi-
gestible for the ordinary stomach of the catodontidse.

Arab education makes these stories more digestible
mentally than the prophet physically, for on visiting a
school and throwing some piasters among the attentive
pupils, all the arrangements of the school were thoroughly
disturbed except the school master, who offered the self-
constituted committee his dirty pipe, and thought his
scholars had obtained a new idea.

* It was apparent also that the gentle Moab-

itess (of whom Hood has written such a sweet sonnet)
would not recognize the mothers of these boys as in the
same sense her people, as was Israel of former days, much
less would their God be her God, since all they seem to
think of is the coins in their hair, the pipes that coil their

280 Proceedings f ' %y TnstituL .

snaky folds ap to their lips, and their liege lords who k
them in the utmost ignorance of any other gods.

The palm tree of the easl is its apt and mosl striking em-
blem, giving from a cluster no deep shade, bul letting sun-
Bhine fall difrusedly and cheerily on those below. These
trees, more than all other relics of the past, live in the tra-
veler's memory; for, like the story of the sultan, whom his
slaves propped up in death to receive the plaudits of his
people, there is a cry, "Long live the East," but its life,
except in natural objects, is gone.

To go by railroad from old Joppa to Jerusalem will
perfect the outrage on the past, and to telegraph from
Mamre, where Abraham entertained the angels, will almost
rouse that ancient worthy from his sepulchre : yet all these
things must come. " The arches of the grand old viaduct
of history (through which the streams of oriental life and
minstrelsy have flowed to us) already crumble over the
traveler's head ; soon none can count their stones. The
sand will cover them and no trace remain. Let, then, the
few scenes such as we have pictured, link the scientific
present to the dreamy past. Let these few relics of old
patriarchal times, yet to be seen in oriental lands, at Least
secure belief in that grand record of the early eras on which
our faith, our hope and destiny depend."

Adjourned.

May 24, 1864.

Ten members present. On motion, Mr. Munseil occu-
pied the chair.

Prof. G. W. Hough, of the Dudley Observatory, an-
nounced that he had intended to read a paper to the Insti-
tute on thesubjeel of Personal Equation, but his investiga-
tions on that subject being yet incomplete, it would lie

deferred to a future meeting.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 281

Prof. Hough called the attention of the members to an
alleged discovery of a new planet between the orbits of
Venus and the Earth.

In the New York Post of May 6th, appeared an article
signed by Samuel Beswick, in which he announced that a
planet had been seen by him to cross the solar disk, on
the 12th of February, 1864, at 8 h. 20 m. a.m. No partic-
ulars o. this observation are given, and the whole affair
is stated in such a manner, as to throw doubt on the
authenticity of the observation. And this doubt becomes
stronger in attempting to verify some of his computations.
It was also stated that this planet would cross the solar disk
on the 18th of June.

An ephemeris was given of its position from the 5th to
the 20th of May : this ephemeris is totally erroneous, since
it is impossible for any planet inside the Earth's orbit to be
in the position he had assigned.

Prof. Hough also made some remarks on the supposed
intermercurial planet alleged to have been seen by Dr.
Lescarbault, on the 26th of March, 1859. The experience
of the past seems to show that this planet does not exist.

Leverrier was the first to predict a planet, or zone of
planets, between Mercury and the Sun, from the fact that
the motions of Venus could not well be represented on
any other hypothesis. But it has recently been shown by
other able mathematicians, that this assumption is not
necessary ; but by attaching less importance to the ancient
observations, and introducing some slight changes in the
masses of Mercury and the Earth, all the modern observa-
tions can be well satisfied.

At the conclusion of Prof. Hough's remarks, Dr. F. B.
Hough read an extract from the History of Duryea's Bri-
gade, giving an account of the campaign in Maryland, in
1862, under General McClellan.

\ Trans. vi.~] 36

2 s 2 Pr<»', i dings of tht , 1 Ibany Institub .

Dr. S. D. Willard read a briei biographical Bketcb ol

Dr. Edwin James, a laic member of the Institute.

Edwin James was the youngest of ten sons of Deacon
Daniel .lames, a native of Rhode Island. Edwin was
born in Weybridge, Addison count}', Vermont, August,
1798. He was graduated al Middlebury College, and
studied medicine with his brother, Dr. Daniel James, of
Albany. He was adiligenl Btudenl in the natural sciences
and his talents attracted the attention of scientific men at
an early age.

He was appointed by John C. Calhoun, secretary of
war, botanist and geologist to Major Long's expedition
to the Rocky mountains in 1820, when he was scarcely
twenty-one years old. lie was many weeks with the
expedition, composed of twenty persons, in the wilderness
of the great west along the chain of the Rocky mountains,
and on the 13th and 14th of July, 1820, ascended the
highest peak of the mountains, which bears his name,
James Peak. The expedition traversed south towards
the source of the Red river, and reached Fort Smith on
the 13th of September, being over three months among
the Indians. The information gained, and the contribu-
tions to the botany, natural history and geology of the
country, were cordially welcomed by the scientific world.

An account of the expedition, Long's Expedition, etc., was
published in three volumes, pp. 344, 356, 347, in London,
1823, and is dedicated to John C. Calhoun.

I le was subsequently appointed surgeon in the army, and
was stationed at the West Troy Arsenal, and at Sault St.
Marie. He published a translation of tin New Testament
into the Chippewa language, under the title of "Kekitche-
manitomenahn G-abemahjeinnunk Jesus Christ Otoashke
Waweveendummahgawin, Albany: Packard and Van Ben-
thuysen, 1833; " also a Life of John Tanner, a lad stolen
by Indians, and found thirty years after, lie was as-

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. " 283

sociated with Edward C. Delavan, Esq., in 1835, in pub-
lishing a journal devoted to temperance. He was a man
of industry, energy and enterprise, fond of novelty and
adventure. He died from an accident near Burlington,
Iowa, on the 28th of October, 1861, at the age of sixty-
three years.

Dr. "Willard read also a notice of Dr. "William Bay, who
still survives in the ninety-first year of his age.

Dr. Bay is of French Huguenot extraction, his ancestors
fleeing first into Holland, and subsequently to Ireland,
from whence Mr. Bay with two sons came to Maryland,
about 1720. One these sous, John Bay, born 1743, and died
1818, was the father of "William Bay, who was born in
Albany, October, 14th, 1773. His mother was born 1745,
and died at the age of one hundred years. He went to
Princeton College, but left in his senior year, studied
medicine in New York, acted for four months as health
officer to the port of New York in 1795, graduated in 1797,
practiced in Columbia county until 1810, when he returned
to Albany, where he continued in practice until he had com-
pleted sixty-three years of professional life. A public
dinner was given to him upon the completion of his half
century in practice, by the physicians of the city. The
event took place at Congress Hall in 1847. He was pre-
sent at the semi-centennial meeting of the Albany County
Medical Society in 1856.

Dr. Bay's wife, Catharine Van Ness, lived with him
sixty-eight years, and died at the age of eighty-seven,
January 24, 1864. A brother, John Bay, lived with the
doctor for many years, and died April 13, 1864, at the age
of eighty-two years.

Dr. Bay's lifetime covers the birth and growth of our
nation. He survives, full of dignity and full of years, in
remarkable mental and physical elasticity, probably the
oldest physician in the country.

284 Procen/''n;/s of tfo Albany Institute.

At the conclusion of Dr. Willard'fl paper, Dr. F. B.
Hough made B verbal report of the volumes of unbound
material which the binding committee had sent to be

bound. Adjourned.

June 7th, 1864.

Sixteen members present. On motion of Mr. Brown,
Dr. Hough took the chair.

The paper of the evening was read by C. B. Redfield.
Esq., being an account of a Pedestrian's Tour through
the West, taken in 1810, from Connecticut to the Ohio,
by W. C. Redfield.

The account of the journey was read from the journal
of the traveler who made the trip, written at the time.
Commencing the journey October 5th, 1810, it was finished
on the -J'.'tli ot'the same month, making a distance of seven
hundred and thirty miles, and containing accounts of the
various places through which they passed and the people
that were met with. A village of Shakers which was
visited is minutely described, and the ceremonies which
are recorded are amazingly exact with those to be Been
at the present day in the same place.

The travelers left Schodack, October 8th, and proceeded
towards Albany. A race course was passed over which a
man was riding his horse to accustom him to the ground,
aud " this was one indication, that the travelers had left
New England." They had also noticed other differences
since entering New York. "About 8 o'clock we passed
through Greeubush and soon after crossed the Hudson.
One of the first objects that engaged our attention on
entering Albany, was the celebrated steamboat. The
streets are generally of a good width and are well paved
and provided with lamps. The immense number of
wagons that frequenl this city cause a great deal of rattling
which is very disagreeable to a stranger. The public
buildings are mostly in the modern style, and very hand-

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 285

some. The Capitol is a handsome structure, on the cupola
of which is a statute of justice leaning upon her sword and
lifting aloft her nicely balanced scales. The private build-
ings are many of them splendid, but some of the streets
contain a considerable number of old Dutch buildings
which with their conical roofs make a grotesque appearance.
The soil in the neighborhood of Albany is uncommonly
shallow and unproductive, but its advantageous situation
as a place of trade renders it one of the most flourishing
cities in our country."

This same evening the travelers were compelled by the
rain to spend the night at Schenectady, which is described
as " a city very compact and handsomely built, but, like
Albany, contains a number of Dutch edifices."

The next day they traveled forty-two miles in a westerly
direction from this place, and seem to have met with the
usual good and bad luck of travelers who need hotels.
After failing to suit themselves at one tavern, where
the proprietor was yet in bed in the bar room, when they
called at eight o'clock for breakfast, they passed on two
miles further, and found a tavern where they "were ac-
commodated with breakfast, and very agreeably entertained
with the spluttering Dutch lingo of the Dutch landlady and
her numerous family."

At Utica, where they arrived October 11th, the first men-
tion is made of Indians.

The Salina salt works are described, and the manner in
which the salt was sent from that place, at that time,
given: "It is carried in boats to Lake Ontario, and
shipped to Niagara, then carted to Fort Schlesser at the
head of the Rapids, from whence it is conveyed in boats
to Buffalo. Here it is put on vessels and conveyed to the
different ports on Lake Erie. Considerable quantities of it
are carried from Presque Isle to Pittsburgh, by way of

286 Proceedings of the Albany Institute.

French creek and the Alleghany river, from whence it is
sent down the Ohio."

October 25. The travelers remained for a day at Ashta-
bula, Ohio, to join in a wolf and bear hunt, in which
the whole township mustered out to form a long line of
attack, which fronted upon the lake towards which they
advanced.

October 28. At Cleveland, several parties of hunting In-
dians were passed, and one chief is described, who was
superbly decorated, and mounted on horseback.

Adjourned.

November 22, 1804.

Twelve members present. <>n motion of Dr. Town-
send, Mr. Munsell took the chair.

The report of the binding committee was received, an-
nouncing the binding of one hundred and thirteen volumes
for the library, and a bill of ss'.i.l'T from T. Seymour, for
binding, which accompanied the report. Ordered paid.

Dr. Howard Townsend mentioned an interesting circum-
stance conuected with the Sinai manuscripts of the Bible,
to which he had called the attention of the Institute
during the last year. Having received an application from
a biblical scholar, for information concerning the verse
found in I, John, v, 7, he had examined his copy of Dr.
Teschendorf's Sinai manuscript with reference to it. The
verse has been considered as an interpolation, the tradition
being that Saint Augustine had added this as a note to the
sixth verse, and as a side note it was printed between the
sixth and eighth verses, in smaller type. This was in
the fifth century, and during the sixth and eighth century.
During the tenth century, and in the King .James's transla-
tion, it was entered as the seventh verse of the text.

Bis examination had revealed the feci thai the verse
is wanting in this old manuscript.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 287

Dr. J. V. Lansing and Dr. J. L. Babcock, were nomi-
nated as resident members.

Dr. Howard Townsend nominated S. Alofsen. of Jersey
city, as honorary member, and John Fowler, Jr., of New
York, as corresponding member of the Institute.

Dr. Willard moved that the secretary be requested to
prepare a list of the resident, corresponding and honorary
members of the Institute for publication. Adopted.

On motion of the secretary, a committee was appointed
to examine the minutes of the meetings of the Institute,
and collect the various amendments which have been
made to the constitution and by-laws. The chair ap-
pointed as such committee, Dr. Mosher, and Prof. Mason.

Adjourned.

December 6th, 1864.

Thirteen members present. On motion of Mr. Brown,
Mr. Redfield took the chair.

Dr. Willard read a paper on the condition of the insane
poor in the county poor houses and asylums in the various
counties of the state. The paper was an exceedingly full
report, being a series of reports from all of the counties in
the state except four : the reports were in answer to a
communication from Dr. Willard, and were to be presented
to the legislature, at its next session, in order to bring
about much needed reforms in the treatment of this un-
fortunate class.

The names previously nominated for membership were
acted upon, and Dr. John. V. Lansing and Dr. James L.
Babcock were elected resident members of the Institute.

John Fowler, Jr., of New York, was elected a corre-
sponding member.

On motion of Dr. Hough, it was resolved, that a copy of
the fourth volume of our Transactions be presented to
Mr. William Menzies, a corresponding member of the In-
stitute.

288 Proceedings of tlu Albany Institute.

Dr. Willard nominated Henry T. Buel as a resident
member.

On motion H l.*roi. Mason the time of meeting was
changed to the i Uernatc Monday evenings daring the
winter.

Adjournal.

December 19, 1864.
Seventeen members present. On motion, Mr. Brown
t >ok the chair.

TLe secretary anno need the reception ot the first num-
ber ol the proceedings ot the Nova Scotia Institute
-Natural {Science, and on motion that society was placed
upon the exchange list of the Institute.

The secretary announced a communication from the
Essex Institute, inquiring if there are any names to be in-
serted in the work entitled, the Naturalist's Dictionary which
they are about to publish.

Dr. F. B. Hough moved that a special committee be
appointed to take charge of the matter. The chair ap-
pointed as such committee, Dr. P. B. Hough, and Prof.
Hall.

Henry T. Buel, nominated at the last meeting, was
elected a resident member of the Institute.

S. Alofsen, proposed at the meeting held four weeks
since, was elected an honorary member.

Dr. Willard nominated Dr. Levi Moore, for resilient
member ; Mr. Jackson nominated John A. Cooper, for resi-
: member; Mr. (Jruikshank nominated Michael P.
( avert, tor resident me uberj Mr. Reid nominated Sir J.
Bernard Burke, Ulster, King at Arms, Dublin Castle,
Ireland, lor honorary member.

I >r. Hough read ;i paper on i he proposed C( D -us of 1865.

Adjourned.

1 roceedings of the Albany Institute. 289

January 4th, 1865.
On motion, Dr. Howard Townsend took the chair. The
treasurer's report of receipts and expenditures for 1864 was
received.

The report was referred to the usual committee for ex-
amination, the following committee being appointed for
that purpose : Dr. F. B. Hough, Mr. Munsell.

The chair announced that this was the annual meeting
of the Institute, and that the election of officers would be
next in order.

On motion, a committee to nominate officers for the
ensuing year was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Munsell,
Brown, F. B. Hough.

The committee made the following report which was
received, the committee discharged, and the persons named
being balloted for were unanimously elected to the re-
spective offices for the year :

John V. L. Pruyn, President.
Andrew E. Brown, Treasurer.
First Department —

Richard V. De Witt, President.
James Weir Mason, Rec. Secretary.
John Paterson, Cor. Secretary.
Franklin B. Hough, Librarian.
Second Department —

Stephen Van Rensselaer, President.
Peter Oansevoort, Vice President.
S. Oakley Vanderpoel, Rec. Secretary.
Joel Munsell, Cor. Secretary.
Charles B. Redeield, Treasurer.
Third Department —

Alexander S. Johnson, President.
Howard Townsend, Vice President.
Jacob I. Werner, Rec. Secretary.
J. Meredith Read, Jr., Cor. Secretary.
James Cruikshank, Treasurer.
[Trans. vi.~] 37

290 Proceedings of the AH» hi ;j Institute,

Curators — James Hall, ChablbsH. Ahthokt, Sylvbsthb

D. Willard, Geori;k W. Bough, Amos Dean, Jacou S.

MoSHEK.

Mr. Munsell announced a letter of acceptance from Solo-
mon Alofsen, ejected honorary member at the last meeting
of the Institute.

The letter is accompanying. Ordered recorded on the
minutes.

Jersey City, Dec. 29, 1864.
Joel Munsell, Esq., Corresponding Secretary, Albany Institute.

Dear Sir : I acknowledge the receipt of your favor of
the 26th inst, advising me of my election as an honorary
member of the Albany Institute. I tender' my grateful
thanks to the Institute for this honor, which I the more
highly appreciate, as having been bestowed by an Institu-
tion located in a city, which of all American places, is by
Hollanders regarded with uncommon interest, as the spot
where Dutch literature and history yet find many eminent
and learned students and scholars. With sincere wishes
for the continued prosperity and usefulness of the Institute,
I have the honor to be,

Dear sir,

Yours, very respectfully,
S. Alofsen.

The committee appointed to examine the treasurer's ac-
count, reported that they have performed the duty assigned
to them, aud find the same correct.

The amount received during the year is $501.67. Ac-
counts paid during the year, $402.30 ; Leaving a balance
in the treasury of $99.37. Report received and committee
discharged.

On motion of Mr. Reid, the rules were suspended, and
the name of Sir J. Bernard Burke, proposed at the last
meeting, being considered, he was unanimously elected
honorary member of the Institute.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute 291

The names of Dr. Levi Moore, John A. Cooper, and
Michael P. Cavert, nominated at the last meeting, were
voted for, and they were unanimously elected resident
members of the Institute.

Mr. Cruikshank nominated Samuel T. C. Sweezey of
San Francisco, Cal., for corresponding member.

Dr. Mosher nominated Simon W. Rosendale for resident
member.

On motion, it was resolved that Prof. Hall be invited to
give an account of the recent discoveries in the Canadian
limestones, at the next meeting of the Institute.

Dr.F. B. Hough called attention to an original manuscript
copy of the proceedings of the commission appointed
by the United Colonies to confer with the Indian tribes in
1775, concerning their relations to the two armies, then at
war in this country, and requested permission to make use
of it for publication, a certain number of copies to be pre-
sented to the Institute.

On motion the permission was granted.

Adjourned.

January 17th, 1865.

Prof. Hall then read a paper on Recent Progress in
Geology, of which the following is an abstract :

Mr. Hall began by reverting to the early views of geolo-
gists regarding the structure of the earth, when all the
crystalline granite rocks were considered as a part of the
original primary nucleus of the globe ; and it was sup-
posed that the stratified rocks, derived from the gradual
breaking down and wasting of these crystalline masses,
had been deposited around them.

Even to the present time, these mountain ranges of
crystalline rocks were regarded as having been uplifted
or thrust upwards, by some internal force, and were still
considered as parts of the primary mass of the earth.

292 Proceedings oj tfu Albany Institute.

In the progress of ratified nature of some of

these crystalline rocks had been determined ; an. I it was even
proved that certain rocks, which in one pari Of the country
were Btratified aqueous deposits containing fossils, were in
other places crystalline, and without evidence of their
aqueous origin.

These crystalline rocks and mountain ranges were found
to have a longitudinal extension, and many of them in a
generally north and south direction; and his was ex-
plained by supposing Longitudinal fissures, or lines of out-
bursting of the interior mass.

This flanking of the older crystalline rocks by the newer
sedimentary rocks had been proved to a certain extent
true in New. York and Canada.

# Great impulse had been given to geological science in
this country by the institution of State Geological Surveys
in which we followed the example of the countries of Eu-
rope. The results of the New York Survey had done
more than all the others to promote true knowledge of
geology.

The reports of this survey had for the first time an-
nounced and demonstrated by abundant testimony the
true sequence among the American rocks.

In the process of this science it had been determined
that the crystalline granite rocks of northern Xew York
were Btratified, and though they were termed primary,
their stratified structure proved them to be of aqueous
and not of igneous origin. In the progress of the Cana-
dian Geological Survey, it had been determined that the
older gneissic and granite rocks alternate with extensive
limestone bands, and these limestone bands have been
traced over large area- of country, even in the most ex-
treme wilderness : their presence being usually indicated
by the growth of maple and similar woods, while beech

and evergreens mark the course ol the silicious rocks.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 293

These limestone bands and their associated gneissoid
rocks, had been traced to their junction with the great moun-
tain masses of Labradorish feldspar, such as formed the
highest mountains of northern New York, and were found
to pass beneath them, thus proving the more recent origin
of the latter, and since the limestone bands rested upon
the gneissic rocks, it was evident that these could not have
been elevated by outbursts from below.

Prof. Hall here went on to show how this discoverv de-
monstrated in these older formations the truth of the
origin of mountain chains which he had brought to the
notice of the Institute several years since : viz., that moun-
tain elevations were produced by the accumulations of
sedimentary materials, and that the highest portions were
in reality synclinal axes and not anticlinal axes, as usually
supposed.

He reminded the Institute that some years since, in
discussing the question of the age of the older crystal-
line rocks, he had announced the fact that in the older
granite rocks of Canada, Sir William E. Logan had dis-
covered pebbles of stratified rock. These pebbles, there-
fore, belonged to a preexisting stratified deposit, or one
older than the oldest granite rocks of northern New York
and Canada. This evidence proved that below all these
crystalline rocks, there were still another set of stratified
crystalline rocks ; and that we were still as far as ever from
the hypothetical crystalline nucleus of the planet.

More recently, certain appearances in these crystalline
limestones, lately regarded as primary, had led a few per-
sons to believe that they contained organic remains ; and
Sir William Logan, following up the investigations, has
been able within the last j^ear to demonstrate the occur-
rence of fossils in this rock. The fossils of these so-called
primary formations, belonged to the class of the foramini-
fera, a protozoon of peculiar and interesting type.

294 Proceedings of the Albany Institute.

At the close of the geological survey of New York, we
had carried the evidence of life to the lower beds of the
Potsdam sandstone, and this had been regarded by some EM
the final or earliest limit of life on this planet, and theories
had been framed accordingly.

There were some, however, who were unwilling to
assent to such views; believing in the probability thai
the older formations might yet give evidence of organic
existences.

This late discovery has carried back the evidences of
organic life infinitely beyond what was before known, for
below the Potsdam sandstone there was a great accumula-
tion of slates, sandstones aud conglomerates known as the
Huronian system, and below this the great formation of
Labradorite feldspar forming mountain masses, while
below all these the Kozoon had been found.

Mr. Hall regarded this discovery as the most important
for geological science of any during the present age, and
of more importance to the establishment of true views re-
garding geology than any single discovery ever made.

Adjourned.

January 30th, 1865.

Gen. Read then read a paper upon the family of Saxe
Coburg, tracing the history of the family from Frederick
the warlike, who in A. D. 423, obtained the electorate of
Saxony, and marking the various steps of genealogical
descent from that date, past the division into Albertine and
Ernestine branches, to Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg,
Prince Consort of England, and 15th in descentfrom Frede-
rick the warlike. The article contained many interesting
and little known incidents of early German history aud
family traditions.

Dr. F. B. Hough offered to the notice of the Institute, a
paper written by .Indue Dean, of Oneida count}', embody-
ing the Indian tradition upon the subject of the creation.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 295

Judge Dean, whose family removed from New England to
the banks of the Susquehanna, when he was very young,
graduated at Dartmouth College, before the Revolution, and
speut the rest of his life on the frontiers. He filled various
posts of trust and honor in his county, and was especially
noted for his knowledge of the Indians. This paper had
been supposed lost, and was so described in Jones's History
of Oneida County. Dr. Hough had discovered it in Utica.
The tradition, as here recorded, bore a striking resem-
blance to that published in 1825, by David Cusick, the
Tuscarora Indian, as current among his people. This
tract of Cusick, Dr. Hough also submitted to the Institute.

Prof. G. W. Hough called the attention of the Institute
to a recent article in the Scientific American, describing an
instrument for recording music as it is played, of which
the mechanism was said to be a secret. He proposed to
explain how such a thing .could be done. The method
employed (as he supposed) is to cause the keys, in their
motion when played upon, to break a complete galvanic
circuit, thereby alternately elevating and depressing mag-
nets connected with them, and causing marks to be made
upon strips of paper, which should be made to pass across
the magnets by simple clock work.

Prof. Hough further suggested a plan for a self-regis-
tering barometer, by arranging at different heights in
the tube of a syphon barometer, wires connected in a similar
way with the galvanic battery and with magnets, so that
the mercury in rising and falling should make or break
the circuit, and cause in the former case the magnets to
work upon paper moving under them by clock work.

As a modification of this plan, it was suggested to use
a float barometer, and have connected with the float a
needle, which should mark upon paper prepared in the
same manner as for Bain's telegraph..

_'.'•; Proceedings of th Albany Institute.

Dr. Mosher mentioned b fact concerning tin- presence of
arsenic in fuel, to which attention had been directed duriug
the trial of Mrs. McCarthy, for poisoning her husband.
" She bad thrown a package of poison into the Btoye, ami

as I found arsenic in the chemical analysis of portion
McCarthy's body, it Beemed probable that if this were the
substance which had been tin-own into the fire, it would be
found sublimed in the flues and pipes. At the request of
the district attorney, I examined some soot taken from the
cooler parts of the stove and found it to contain a com-
paratively large quantity of arsenic.

The important bearing of this fact upon the result of
the trial, made it proper to examine it more fully, and I
found that in all the stoves which were subjected to a
similar examination, arsenic was found in the flues where
it had been evidently deposited from the burning fuel.

The finding of arsenic in the soot has, in several crimi-
nal cases, been used to prove the possession of arsenic by the
accused. In the case of Mrs. Mary Roosa, tried at Syra-
cuse, N. Y., February 7, 1858, the finding of arsenic in
soot taken from the stove pipe, was used as showing that
some arsenic had been thrown into the stove. — United Stat* s
Medical Transactions for 1862, p. 160."

Gen. Read nominated as resident member, Mr. Robt.
L. Banks; and Dr. Hough nominated Mr. Daniel J.
Pratt. On motion, the rules were suspended, and the
Institute proceeded to vote on the candidates, viva voce.
Both were unanimously elected.

Mr. James AVier Mason nominated as corresponding
member, Mr. Russell Sturgis, Jr., of New York.

Adjourned.

February 13th, 1865.

The president being absent, ou motion, Dr. Hun was
called to the chair.

Prof. G. W. Hough ottered remarks on the subject of
Personal Equation.

Proceedings of the Albany Institute. 297

He gave a general discussion and exposition of the
subject, reviewing the ground of a previous lecture before
the Institute. In that lecture he had alluded to the method
of testing personal equation in use at the Dudley Observa-
tory, by means of the chronograph. At this time he had the
instrument in the room, explained its working to the
members, and tested its operation, by taking the personal
equations of those present.

The apparatus consists of a circular disk, divided by
radial lines into equal angular spaces. On the under edge
of the disk are placed large pins at equal intervals. The
disk being made to revolve at a uniform rate, by means of
simple clock work, and the observer looking towards it
from across the room through a small telescope, would see
these pins pass at equal intervals of time, across his line
of sight. The instant of the passage is marked by the
observer's completing the circuit of an electric current
by simple pressure of the hand on a small magnet,
thus causing a mark to be made upon a sheet of paper
stretched upon the disk, in the same way as marks are
made in an ordinary telegraphic instrument. The distance
of the mark behind the line passing through the pin
determine the equation of the observer.

Dr. Hough stated that a member was desirous of pur-
chasing a copy of the Transations published by the Institute.
On motion, the request was referred to Mr. Munsell and
the treasurer with authority.

The following nominations for membership were made :
By Paul F. Cooper, Mr. Leonard Kip ; and by Dr. Mosher,
Peter Hogan, both as resident members ; by Gen. Read, Mr.
Horatio Gates Jones, secretary of the Pennsylvania Histori-
cal Society, and Rev. Leighton Coleman, Wilmington, Del.,
as corresponding members ; by Dr. Hough, Mr. Henry B.
Dawson, of Morrisania, as corresponding member; by

[Trans. vi.~\ 37*

298 Proceedings of the Albany Institute,

Mr. Mason, Everett P. Wheeler, Esq., of New York, as
corresponding member.

On request of Dr. Hough, lie was authorized to have
certain pamphlets bound.

Adjourned.

February 27th, 1865.

Eighteen members present*

A |»aper was read by Dr. Howard Townscnd, entitled,
"Food and Digestion, with a review of the Banting pamph-
lets," a copy of which is contained in vol. v, of the Trans-
actions of the Institute.

Prof. Hough stated that he had worked out from the data
obtained at the previous meeting, the personal equation of
the members, and placed the figures on the black board.
They were found to vary from .01 anticipated, to .10 re-
tarded, the average being about .037 retarded.

Dr. Mosher reported having procured the pamphlet cases
as directed by the Institute.

For election of members, the rules were suspended
and the votes taken viva voce. The candidates for
election were all chosen, viz: Leonard Kip and Peter
Ilogan, as resident members; Russell Sturgis, Jr., Horatio
Gates Jones, Rev. Leighton Coleman, Henry 13. Dawson,
and Everett Wheeler, as corresponding members.

Adjourned.

MANUAL

OF THE

ALBANY INSTITUTE:

PREPARED

UNDER THE ORDER OF THE INSTITUTE,
MARCH, 1870,

By DANIEL J. PRATT,

RECORDING SECRETARY.

ORIGIN OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE.

The " Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts
and Manufactures ' was formed in February, 1791, at the
city of New York, then the seat of government of this
state, and was incorporated by the Legislature March 12th,
1793. Of this body, Robert R. Livingston (well known as
one of the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of
Independence, first Chancellor of the State of New York,
Minister to France, etc.), was designated in the act of in-
corporation as the first president, and so remained until the
year 1804, when the act expired by its own limitation. The
society was then reincorporated under the title of " The
Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts," by an act of
the Legislature, passed April 2, 1804, which also consti-
tuted Mr. Livingston its first president. Of the labors of
this Society, it is enough to say that four octavo volumes,
mainly composed of communications read at its sessions,
were published ; that it exerted a most favorable influence
upon agriculture ; and that it was for five years the organ
of the state in distributing premiums for improvements in
domestic manufactures.

" The Albany Lyceum of Natural History " was organ-
ized early in 1823, under the presidency of Stephen Van
Rensselaer, and was incorporated by the Legislature on the

23d day of April in that year. Directing its labors to the
[Trans, vi.] 38

300 Manual.

advancement of a knowledge of the natural sciences, it
succeeded in forming a museum embracing collections in
the various branches, especially geology, mineralogy and
palaeontology, which were for a time regarded as the most
extensive and valuable in the country.

Circumstances induced a majority of the members of
the two latter societies to believe that the objects for
which they had been incorporated would be promoted by
mutual cooperation ; and accordingly, in May, 1824, arti-
cles of association were agreed to, providing for the organ-
ization of "The Albany Institute." The substance of these
articles is embodied in the charter granted by the Legisla-
ture, February 27th, 1829. It appears from the several
charters above mentioned, copies of which are included in
this publication, that the Albany Institute is the legitimate
successor of the pioneer series of associations formed and
incorporated within this state for the promotion of science;
and it will be observed that the annexed roll of members
includes many persons of distinction as scholars, as well as
in professional and civil life.

Manual. 301

CHARTER

OP THE

SOCIETY FOE, THE PROMOTION OF AGRICUL-
TURE, ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

An Act to incorporate the Society, instituted in the State of New
York, for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures.

Passed March 12, 1793. Chap. 59.

"Whereas several persons in the state of New York have
by a voluntary agreement associated themselves together
for the laudable purpose of promoting agriculture, arts and
manufactures in this state ; And whereas the said society
have presented a petition to the legislature, setting forth,
that the petitioners, considering that the wealth and pro-
sperity of a country very much depend upon the nourishing
state of its agriculture, arts and manufactures, and observ-
ing the benefit[s] which in other countries have accrued from
the institution of societies for the purpose of encouraging
those great objects, have voluntarily associated themselves,
with a view of collecting from different parts of the state,
the differeut modes of agriculture that are in practice, to
suggest such improvements as may be found to be bene-
ficial ; to excite among their fellow citizens a spirit of
making experiments for the amelioration of lands which
have been exhausted, or in their natural state are unpro-
ductive or unfit for cultivation ; for increasing the produce
of such articles as are propagated amongst us, and pro-
moting the culture of others which have been found useful
in other parts, and for the improvement of field husbandry
in general ; and to introduce, as far as circumstances may

302 Manual.

render proper, an emulation for the establishment of useful
arts mid manufactures in those parts of the state where
they can be beneficially carried on; that the petitioners
conceive it would greatly conduce to advance the important
ends of their association, if they were authorized to act as
a corporate body, and possess property to such amount as
would enable them to effectuate their purposes more satis-
factorily to themselves and more beneficially to the public:
They therefore prayed, that the legislature would be
pleased, by law, to incorporate the society for the purposes
aforesaid, under such limitations and restrictions as to the
legislature shall seem meet ; Therefore,

§ I. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New York,
r< presented in Sonde and Assent/)!// : That Robert R. Living-
ston, John Sloss Hobart, Samuel L. Mitchill, John M'Kes-
son, Matthew Clarkson, Samuel Bard, John Cantine,
Samuel Jones. Thomas Tillotson, Joseph Ilasbrouck,
James C. Graham, Jacobus Swartwout, Melancton Smith,
Abraham Hardenberg, John Gelston, William W. Gilbert,
David R. Floyd Jones, George Clinton, Aquila Giles,
Ezra L'Hommedieu, John Skenck, James Hunter, Egbert
Benson, John Blagge, John P. Delancy, Francis Childs,
John Watts, Peter Vandervoort, Henry Will, Ebenezer
Purdy, Josiah Ogden Hoffman, John Smith of Suffolk
county, Cornelius J. Bogart, William Dunlap, Walter
Rutherford, Philip Van Cortlandt, John Williams, Rich-
ard Varick, John Jay, Elias Newman, Amasa Dingley,
Gilbert Colden Willett, Stephen Lush, John Stevens, John
Kemp, Abraham Beach, Samuel Nicoll, Jonathan N.
Havens, John L. Gardner, Frederick Rhinelander, Pierre
De La Bigarre, Edward Livingston, John Thurman, Jere-
miah Van Rensselaer, James Duane, Simeon DeWitt, Na-
thaniel Sackett, William Rhinelander, Samuel Russell,
Moses DeWitt, David Frederick Laring, John Nicholson,
Andrew King, John Barber, Joseph Barber, Johannes

Manual. 303

Miller, William Thompson, David Ogden, John Delafield,
Horatio Gates, Benjamin Strong, and Samuel Jones, Jr.,
and such other persons as shall from time to time become
members of the said society, shall be and hereby are
ordained, constituted and declared to be one body corporate
and politic, in deed, fact and name, by the name of, The
Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manu-
factures ; and that by that name, they and their successors
until the first day of May one thousand eight hundred and
four, shall have succession, and shall be persons in law
capable of "suing and being sued, pleading and being
impleaded, answering and being answered, defending and
being defended, in all courts and places whatsoever, in all
manner of actions, suits, complaints, matters and causes
whatsoever ; And that they and their successors may have
a common seal, and may change and alter the same at
their pleasure ; and that they and their successors, by the
same name, shall be persons capable in law to purchase,
take, receive, hold, and enjoy to them and their successors,
any real estate in fee simple, or for term of life or lives, or
otherwise ; and any goods, chattels, or personal estate, for
the purpose of enabling them the better to carry into exe-
cution, encourage and promote such measures as may tend
to promote agriculture, arts and manufactures in this state :
Provided, the clear yearly value of such real and personal
estates shall not exceed the sum of eight hundred pounds
lawful money of New York, and that they and their suc-
cessors shall have full power and authority to give, grant,
sell, lease, demise and dispose of the said real and personal
estates, or any part thereof at their will and pleasure; and
that they and their successors shall have power from time
to time, to make, constitute, ordain and establish such
by-laws, constitutions, ordinances and regulations as they
shall j udge proper for the election of their officers, for the
election or admission of new members of the said corpora-

304 ManuaL

tion, and the terms and manner of admission, lor the
better government and regulation of their officers and
members, for fixing the times and places of the meeting
of the said corporation, and for regulating all the affairs
and business of the said corporation. Prooidea^ That such
by-laws and regulations shall not be repugnant to the con-
stitution or laws of the United States, or of this state
And for the better carrying on the business and affairs of
the said corporation, there shall be a president, vice-presi-
dent, treasurer and two secretaries of the said corporation,
■who shall hold their offices from the time of their appoint-
ment or election, until the Becond Tuesday of January
then next, and until others shall he chosen in their places.
And that the said Robert R. Livingston is hereby appointed
president, the said John Sloss Hobart, vice-president, the
said Samuel Jones, treasurer, and the said Samuel L.
Mitchill, and Samuel Jones, junior, secretaries of the Baid
corporation ; and that their successors in office shall here-
after be chosen by the members of the said corporation,
in such manner and at such times and places, as shall be
directed by the by-laws of the said corporation to be made
for that purpose; and that the president or vice-president,
and any twelve or more of the members of the said cor-
poration, shall be sufficient to constitute a legal meeting of
the said corporation.

§ 2. And be it further enacted : That the members of the
legislature, who shall not be styled members of the said
corporation, be nevertheless in virtue of their stations
honorary members of the said corporation, and shall sit
but not vote as such for officers, or have any voice in the
disposition of their funds.

Manual 305

CHARTER

OP THE

SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF USEFUL

ARTS.

An Act to incorporate a Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts.
Passed April 2, 1804. Chap. 41.

Whereas the institution of a society calculated to pro-
mote, collect and preserve the knowledge of useful arts, is
intimately connected with the public welfare and prosperity :
Therefore,

§ 1. -Be it enacted by the people of the state of New York, repre-
sented in Senate and Assembly, That all such persons who
shall, at the time of the passing of this act, be members of
the society for the promotion of agriculture, arts and manu-
factures, and such other persons who shall from time to
time become members of the society hereby intended to be
incorporated, and shall within ten months after the passing
of this act, signify their intention in writing, subscribed by
them respectively, to Samuel L. Mitchill or Benjamin De
"Witt, the present secretaries of the said society, to become
members of the society hereby intended to be incorporated,
and shall pay to either of them two dollars for the use of
the said society, shall be, and hereby are, constituted a
body corporate and politic by the name of " The Society for
the Promotion of Useful Arts ; " that by that name the said
society shall have perpetual succession ; and that the said
society and their successors shall be capable in law to sue
and be sued, plead and impleaded, answer and be answered,
defend and be defended, in all courts and in all actions,

306 Manual

suits, matters and causes whatsoever, and to purchase, take,
receive, hold and enjoy, any real or personal estate, in fee,
simple or otherwise, and the same to lease, sell, dispose of
and convey for the purpose of the better enabling them to
carry into effect BUch measures as to the said society shall
seem best calculated to promote agriculture, arts and manu-
factures witfaiih this state: Provided, That the clear annual
value of such real and personal estate shall not exceed the
sum of two thousand five hundred dollars: That the said
society shall have a common seal, which may from time to
time be changed or altered at its pleasure.

§ 2. And be it further enacted, That the said society shall,
from time to time, forever hereafter, have power to make,
constitute, ordain and establish such by-laws and regulations
as they shall judge proper for the election of their officers,
for prescribing their respective functions, and the mode of
discharging the same; for the admission of new members
into the said society; for the government of the officers
and members thereof; for ascertaining an equal annual
rate of contributions towards the funds thereof; for regu-
lating the times and places of meeting for managing the
affairs of the said society, and for suspending or expelling
such members of the said society as shall neglect or refuse
to comply with the by-laws and regulations thereof, so as
such by-laws and regulations shall not be repugnant to the
laws of the United States or of this state.

§3. And be itfurther enacted, That a president and one or
more vice presidents, nine counsellors, two or more secre-
taries, a treasurer, and such other officers as the said society
shall, by any by-law, from time to time appoint, shall be
elected by a plurality of votes of the members of the said
society present at any election : That such election shall be
annually held in the senate chamber, or at such other place
as the said society shall from time to time by by-law direct
aud appoint, on the Tuesday next succeeding the day on

Manual. 307

which both houses of the legislature shall have been formed,
ready to proceed to business, after the first day of January
in every year : That the said officers shall respectively hold
their offices until the next annual election day, or until
others shall be elected in their stead ; That if the annual
election shall not be held at any of the days for that pur-
pose appointed, it shall be lawful to make such election at
any other day ; and that the president, or one of the vice-
presidents, with any twelve or more of the said society,
meeting at the place designated for that purpose by any
by-law, shall constitute a legal meeting of the said society.

§ 4. And be it further enacted, That the books, papers, mon-
eys and effects of the Society for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture, Arts and Manufactures, shall be, and the same are
hereby with the approbation, and at the instance of the
last mentioned corporation, vested in the said Society for
the Promotion of Useful Arts, from and after the fourth
day of May next, on which day the corporation aforesaid
expires by its own limitation.

§ 5. And be it further enacted, That the members of the
legislature shall in that capacity be honorary members of the
said society ; but shall not vote at elections, or have any
voice in the disposition of the funds of the said society.

§ 6. And be it further enacted, That Robert R. Livingston
shall be the president, and EzraL'Hommedieu the vice-presi-
dent of the said society, until the second annual election day.

[Trans. m."\ 39

:;ns Manual.

CHARTER

OP THE

ALBANY LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

An Act to Incorporate the Albany Lyceum of Natural History.
Passed April 23, 1823. Chap. 227.

"Whereas the members of the Albany Lyceum of Natural
History have associate! lor the purpose of encouraging
the study, and of disseminating a knowledge of natural his-
tory and other useful sciences, and have petitioned for an
act of incorporation : Therefore,

§ 1. Be it enacted by the People of the state of New York, repn -
sented in Senate and Assembly, That Stephen Van Rensselaer,
Theodoric Romeyn Beck, Simeon De Witt Bloodgood,
Lewis C. Beck, Matthew ITenry Webster, Frederick Ma-
thews, Richard VarickDeWritt and James Eights, and such
other persons as now are and may from time to time be-
come members, shall be and hereby are constituted a body-
corporate and politic, by the name of the "Albany Lyceum
of Natural History," and by that name they shall have
perpetual succession, and shall be persons capable of suing
ami being sued, pleading and being impleaded, answering
and being answered unto, defending and being defended,
in all courts and places whatsoever, and may have a com-
mon seal with power to change and alter the same from
time to time, and shall be capable of purchasing, taking
possession of, holding and enjoying, to them and their suc-
cessors, any real estate in fee simple or otherwise, and any
goods, chattels, and personal estate, and of selling, leasing,

Manual. 309

or otherwise disposing of said real and personal, or any
part thereof, at their will and pleasure : Provided, however,
That the funds of the said corporation shall be used and
appropriated to the objects contemplated in the preamble
to this act: And provided also, That the clear annual in-
come of such real and personal estate shall not exceed the
sum of one thousand dollars.

§ 2. And be it farther enacted, That the said society shall for-
ever hereafter have power to make, constitute, ordain, and
establish such by-laws and regulations, as they shall judge
proper for the election of their officers, for prescribing
their respective functions, and the mode of discharging the
same, for the admission of new members, for the govern-
ment of the officers and members thereof, for collecting
the fines, impositions and annual contributions from the
members, for regulating the places and times of meeting
of the said society, for suspending or expelling such mem-
bers as shall neglect or refuse to comply with the by-laws
or regulations, and for managing and directing the affairs
and concerns of the said seciety : Provided, such by-laws
and regulations be not repugnant to the constitution and
laws of this state or of the United States.

§ 3. And be it further enacted, That the officers of the said
society shall consist of a president, two vice-presidents, a
corresponding secretary, a recording secretary, a treasurer,
three curators, and a draftsman, and such other officers as
the said society may deem necessary, who shall be annu-
ally chosen, and who shall continue in office for one year,
or until others shall be elected in their stead; that if the
annual election shall not be held on any of the days for
that purpose appointed, it shall be lawful to make such
election on any other day, and that five members of the
said society assembled at the place and time designated
for that purpose by the constitution, by-laws, or resolu-
tions of said society, shall constitute a legal meeting there-

310 Manual.

of; and that in case a vacancy shall take place between
the annual meetings, then it shall he lawful to till Bach
vacancy at any regular meeting, and the person or persona
so chosen shall continue in office until the next annual
meeting, or until others shall he elected in their stead.

§4. And be it further enacted, That Stephen Van Rensselaer
shall he the president, Theodric Romeyn Beek the first
vice-president, Simeon De Witt Bloodgood the second
vice-president, Lewis C. Beck, corresponding secretary,
Matthew Henry Webster, recording secretary, Frederick
Mathews, treasurer, Richard Varick De Witt, James
Eights and Matthew Henry Webster, curators, and .hum's
Eights, draftsman, severally to be the first officers of the
said corporation, who shall hold their respective offices
until the fourth Monday of January next, and until others
shall be chosen in their places.

§ 5. And be it further enacted, That the present constitution
of the said society shall, after the passing of this act, continue
to be the constitution thereof, and that no alteration shall
be made therein unless it be proposed in writing at some
stated meeting, one month before it is acted upon, and
shall be decided by a majority of three-fourths of the mem-
bers present.

§ 6. And be it further- enacted, That the legislature may at
any time modify or repeal this act.

Manual. 311

CHARTER OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE.

An Act to incorporate the Albani/ Institute. Passed February 27,

1829. Chap. 43.

Whereas the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts,
and the Albany Lyceum of Natural History, have agreed
to articles of association, for the purpose of forming an
Institution for the promotion of Science and Literature, to
be called " The Albany Institute." Therefore,

The People of the state of New York, represented in Senate
and Assembly, do enact as follows :

§ 1. All such persons as shall at the time of the passage of
this act, be members of the said " Society for the Promo-
tion of Useful Arts," or of the "Albany Lyceum of Natural
History," and such other persons as shall from time to time
become members of the same, or of the third department
hereiu after mentioned, shall be and are hereby constituted
a body corporate and politic, by the name of " The Albany
Institute ;" and the annual income of the real and personal
estate which the said corporation is authorized to hold,
shall not exceed ten thousand dollars.

§ 2. The said corporation shall consist of three depart-
ments, viz : First, the department of Physical Sciences and
the Arts: Second, the department of Natural History, and,
Third, the department of Historyand General Literature.
" The Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts," as at
present constituted, shall be the First Department — "The
Albany Lyceum of Natural History," as at present consti-
tuted, the Second Department; and a Society for the pro-
motion of History and General Literature shall be formed
as soon as may be, which shall be the Third Department :

312 Mi it mi I.

but until Buch society shall be formed and duly organized.
the said corporation shall consist and be formed of the
aforesaid First and Second Departments.

§ 3. The officers of the said corporation shall be a presi-
dent, three vice-presidents, three corresponding and three
recording secretaries ; a treasurer, a librarian, and as many
curators as the Second Department may direct. The pre-
sident and treasurer shall be annually elected ; and the
presidents of the departments shall be the vice-presidents ;
and the corresponding and recording secretaries of the
departments shall be the corresponding and recording
secretaries of the Institute; the Librarian of the First De-
partment shall be the librarian, and the curators of the
Second Department shall he the curators of the [institute :
Stephen Van Rensselaer shall be the first president, and
Simeon De Witt, at present president of the Society for the
promotion of Useful Arts, and Theodoric Romeyn Deck, at
present president of the Albany Lyceum of Natural History,
shall be the vice-presidents, and William Mayell the trea-
surer of the Institute; who shall severally hold their re-
spective offices until others shall be chosen in their places.

§ 4. The elective officers shall be chosen by a plurality of
the votes of the members of the Institute present, at a
regular meeting for that purpose convened, according to
the by-laws of the Institute, of which previous notice shall
be given in at least one of the newspapers published in the
city of Albany.

§5. II* at any regular meeting of the Institute for the
election of officers, any or either of the Departments con-
stituting the Institute shall not continue organized or be
in any way dissolved, such officers of the institute as are
hereby declared to be ex officii* from the said Departments,
may be elected by the Institute in the same manner as the
other el '(live officers are directed to be chosen.

Manual. 313

§ 6. Nine members of the Institute, regularly convened,
shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business,
and five members of either of the Departments regularly
convened, shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of
business in such department.

§ 7. The books now belonging to or hereafter coming into
the possession of the aforesaid Departments, shall be depo-
sited in the library of the said corporation, and all specimens
of natural history or the arts, now or hereafter belonging
to or coming into the possession of either of the said
departments, shall be deposited in the museum of the said
corporation.

§ 8. The corporation shall have power to make, consti-
tute, ordain and establish such by-laws and regulations as
they shall judge proper for the election of their officers, for
prescribing their respective functions and the mode of
discharging the same, for the admission of new members,
for the government of the officers and members thereof,
for collecting the fines, impositions and annual contribu-
tions from the members, for regulating the times and
places of meeting, and for managing and directing the
affairs and concerns of the said corporation.

§ 9. The legislature may at any time hereafter amend,
modify or repeal this act.

BY-LAWS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE.

[Adopted MayBth, 1824; amended April let, 1829; and Jan. 4th, and 18th,
Feb. 1st. and March 15th, ls7n: the amendments being incorporated in
the text.]

I. Meetings.

1. The regular meetings of the Institute shall he held
once a fortnight during the first rive, and the last four
months of the year.

2. The first meeting in each year shall be held on the
first Tuesday succeeding the first day of January, at which
time the annual election for officers shall be held; the
Recording Secretary to give general notice of the same.

3. At the anniversary meeting, the order of business
shall be as follows:

(1.) Call to order by the presiding officer.

(2.) Heading of the minutes of the last meeting.

(3.) Election of officers.

(4.) Report from the Recording Secretary of the
number of members admitted during the preceding year.

(5.) Report from the Treasurer of the moneys received
and expended during the year.

(6.) Report from the Librarian of the number of books
received during the year, the number issued to members
during the year, and the number not returned according
to regulations.

(7.) Report from the Curators of the number of speci-
mens, natural and artificial, added to the collections.

(8.) Appointment of committees to examine the above
reports.

Manual. 315

(9.) Amendments to the by-laws duly proposed at a
previous meeting.

4. At the other regular meetings, business shall be
transacted in the following order :

(1.) Call to order by the presiding officer.
(2.) Eeading of the minutes of the last meeting.
(3.) Communications, papers, lectures, &c.
(4.) Reports of committees.
(5.) Miscellaneous business.

5. Special meetings may at any time be called by the
presiding officer, upon giving notice in one of the daily
city newspapers, or by messenger.

II. Duties of Officers.

6. The President shall preside at all the meetings,
nominate and appoint all committees, have a casting vote
in case of a tie, declare the decisions of the Institute, and
call extraordinary meetings when he shall consider them
necessary.

7. In the absence of the President, one of the Vice
Presidents shall preside, who shall have all the powers
granted to the President.

8. In addition to the Recording Secretaries of the several
departments, there shall be chosen annually a Recording
Secretary for the Institute at large, who shall keep the
minutes of the Institute, give notice of the anniversary and
other meetings, notify new members of their election,
and transact such other business as may be directed by the
by-laws, or by a vote of the Institute. In the absence of
the Recording Secretary, one of the Recording Secreta-
ries of the Departments shall perform the duties of his
office, on the request of the President.

9. A Corresponding Secretary of the Institute at large
shall also be elected annually. He shall conduct the carre-
ls 2m?ts. vi.~] 40

316 Manual.

Bpondence of the Institute, and shall from time to time
communicate such information as he may have {received

relative to it- objects. In his absence, one of the Cor-
onding Secretaries of the departments shall perform
his duties, on the request of the President.

10. The Treasurer shall receive the moneys belonging
to the [nstitute, keep an account of all receipts and
penditures, and pay accounts as follows ;

For periodicals directed to be taken, to he audited by
the Librarian, who shall certify that he has received the
same.

For contingent expenses, to be certified by the President
or either ofthe Vice Presidents.

For other purchases or expenditures directed by a vote
of the Institute, to he certified by the Recording Secre-
tary with a copy of the minutes relative thereto.

11. The Curators shall take charge of such specimens
in Natural History and the Arts as may from time to time
be received by the Institute, either on loan or by dona-
tion ; in the former case, they may give receipts lor .speci-
mens subject to the direction of the person who may
deposit the same, and they shall keep the collections
under such regulations as may be prescribed.

12. The Librarian shall take charge of all the books ami
manuscripts belonging to the Institute or on deposit. He
shall loan no books except to members, and in such
cases only in conformity with such regulations as may
be prescribed. He shall keep a record, in a book kept for
that purpose, of all books loaned to members, and when
returned, and shall at each annual meeting report in
writing the condition of the Library, the number of vol-
umes received during the year, tin- number issued to

tubers during the year, and tie; number not returned
according to regulations.

Manual. 317

13. The same person may, if the Institute so elect, hold
at the same time the offices of Recording Secretary, and
Librarian ; and the Institute shall pay to such person,
holding either or both of these offices, such annual salary
as shall from time to time be decided upon at an annual

meeting.

III. Members.

14. There are three classes of members, to wit : Resi-
dent, Corresponding and Honorary. ' Resident members
only shall be entitled to vote and to hold office.

15. Candidates for membership shall be nominated at a
regular meeting, and their names, together with the names-
of members proposing them, shall be entered on the
minutes. The vote on such nominations shall be taken
at the next or some subsequent regular meeting, and by
ballot, if desired by any member present. An affirmative
vote of three-fourths of the members present shall be neces-
sary to an election.

16. The annual fee of each resident member shall be
five dollars, payable on the first of January, in advance ;
but the payment of twenty-five dollars by or for any cler-
gyman of the city of Albany, duly elected a resident
member, shall exempt him from any further payment.

17. The Honorary Members heretofore elected by the
several departments are hereby recognized as Honorary
Members of the Institute ; but no additional Honorary
Members shall be recognized, unless elected by the Insti-
tute at large.

18. The Governor of the State and the Mayor of the
city of Albany shall be ex-officio Honorary Members ;
and shall be entitled to all the privileges of resident
members, except the right of voting.

'318 Manual.

19. A member of any of the departments may become
a member of cither of the others, on being duly elected
and paying the initiation fees and annual contributions
required by the by-laws of such department.

20. No member of one department shall be transferred
to another, without the consent of the department which
he leaves, and that of the Institute.

IV. Classes in the Several Departments.

21. The President of each of the Departments shall, at
the annual meeting or the first meeting thereafter, an-
nounce the names of members of three classes within his
department, of one of which he shall be chairman ; each
class to consist of three or more members. The duty of
these classes or committees shall be, to report annually
to the Institute such notes or selected items as may present
a brief record of matters of interest in science and litera-
ture. They shall report in such order as the Recording
Secretary shall arrange at the commencement of the year.

These classes shall be :

In the First Department {Physical Science and the
Arts) :

1. On Physics and Astronomy.

2. On Physiology and Chemistry.

3. On Arts.

In the Second Department [Natural History):

1. On Geology.

2. On Botany.

3. On Zoology.

In the Third Department (History and General Litera-
ture) :

1. On Modern History, especially historical records
possessing local interest.

Manual. 319

2. On Ancient History and Archaeology.

3. On General Literature.

Other classes may be formed whenever it is desirable.
The reports of these classes are not to take the place of
the usual original communications and papers.

V. Miscellaneous.

22. A by-law of any of the departments which may
conflict with any of the by-laws of the Institute, shall be
deemed void and of no effect.

23. No exchaDge or sale of any property of either of
the departments shall be valid, unless approved by the In-
stitute.

24. An address shall be delivered before the Institute
during the month of May in each year. The election
of the person to deliver the annual address shall be
held at least a year previous ; and on at least a fortnight's
previous notice.

25. The Rules of Order for the Institute shall be those of
the Assembly of this State.

26. No alteration shall be made in the by-laws, unless
proposed at a regular meeting, at least one month previous
to being acted on, nor without the concurrence of two-
thirds of the members present.

320 Mamud.

PROCEEDINGS

OK Tin:

FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD DEPARTMENTS.

For a number of years subsequent to the organization
of the Institute, the several departments were accustomed
to hold regular meetings tor the transaction of their ap-
propriate business, during which period new correspond-
ing and resident members were added to the Institute
only by virtue of election to some one of these depart-
ments. More recently, while the organization of the depart-
ments has been preserved in accordance with the provisions
of the charter, the proceedings have been almost wholly
conducted by the Institute at large, and new members
have not generally been elected to or classified among the
various departments. It is hoped, however, that the
operation of the new by-law of the Institute relative to
" Glasses in the Several Departments " (see pp. 22, 23), will
tend to renew their efficiency, and to secure to the Insti-
tute all the advantages of thorough organization for the
promotion of its objects.

Manual 321

C AT ALO GUE

MEMBERS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE

FROM ITS

Organization in 1824, with the Dates of their Election.

J^~ As the Institute was formed by the federal union of the Society for the Promo-
tion of Useful Arts, and the Albany Lyceum of Natural History, dates prior to 1824 are
to be understood as referring to membership originating in one or the other of these
societies, and continuing under the organization of the Institute. Several of the earlier
members of the Institute were also original members of the Society for the Promotion of
Agriculture, Arts and Manufactures, incorporated in 1793, their names appearing as such
in the foregoing charter of that Soeiety.

^SH The printed list of 1830 {Transactions, vol. i), and a manuscript list of 1858 (Min-
utes, pp. 50, 51), contain names of certain members known or presumed to have been
elected at an earlier date, though not so recorded. In such cases the date is that of the
list in which the name first appears.

Members understood to be deceased are indicated by an asterisk (*).

The residences given are the latest ascertained, and are to be understood as
within this state, unless otherwise indicated.

Information relative to the location, decease, etc., of the non-resident members,
and also in regard to any errors and omissions in the list, is solicited by the Recording
Secretary. Corresponding and other Members may render valuable service by furnishing
brief notices of any of the deceased, for the use of the Institute.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

The Governor of the State of New York, ex officio.
The Mayor of the City of Albany, ex officio.

1864 Salomon Alofsen, ------ Jersey City, N. J.

1835 Henry Beaufoy * ------ S. Lambeth, Eng.

1865 Sir J. Bernard Burke, Dublin, Ireland.

1823 De Witt Clinton, LL.D. * - - ' - ' - Albany.

1834 Erastus Corning, --•,-- '- Albany.

1823 Simeon De Witt * Albany.

1834 Volckert P. Douw * - - - - - Albany.

1828 Baron von Goethe,* - , SaxeWeimar.

1870 Joseph Henry, LL.D., ----- Washington, D.C.

1837 Sir John F. W. Herschel, F. R. S„ - - London, Eng.

1823 David Hosack, L.L.D. F.R. S. * - - New York City.

1816 David Humphreys, LL.D.,* - Canton, Conn.

1834 Washington Irving,* Tarrytown.

:)±2

Manuat.

1823 Elifiha Jenkins * .... . Hudson.

1823 Jolin Lansing, Jr., LL.D.,* - - Albany.

1830 Baron von Lederer ,* .Austria.

1828 John George Lenz, M.D., .... .SaxeWeimar

1815 Henry E. Muhlenberg, D.D. * .... Lancaster, Pa.
1863 George Sharswood, Philadelphia, Pa.

1816 Richard Peters, LL.D.,* Philadelphia, Pa.

1823 William Swainson,* ----- ,New Zealand.

1823 John Tayler * Albany.

1834 Philip S. Van Rensselaer, ... - Albany.

1870 Abram B. Weaver, ------ Deerfield.

1823 Samuel Young * Ballston.

Number of Honorary Members, 25.

Manual.

323

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

1806

Abraham Adriance,*

- Poughkeepsie.

1829

William E. Aiken, M.D., -

Baltimore, Md.

1830

Stephen Alexander, LL.D.

- Princeton, N. J.

1815

Benjamin Allen, LL.D.,* -

Hyde Park.

1868

Leicester Allen, - - -

- New York.

1806

Joseph Annin,*

Aurelius.

1814

Moses Austin,* -

- Cairo.

1870

Kev. Louis H, Bakler,

Deposit.

1830

Vestus Balch, -

- Johnstown.

1807

John Ballard,*

Homer.

1836

Robert Balmanno,

- Geneva, (?).

1815

Samuel Bard, M.D. *

Hyde Park.

1837

Arthur Barker, -

- Hudson.

1815.

Robert A. Barnard, -

Hudson.

1830

William H. Bassett,

-

1823

, Bassett, M.D., -

Manlius.

1823

David S. Bates, -

-

1828

Levi Beard sley,*

Cherry Valley.

1828

Jesse Beach, (Capt.), U. S. A., -

, Conn.

1823

John B. Beck, M.D. *

New York City.

1823

Timothy P. Beers, M.D.,*

- New Haven, Conn.

1833

Rev. Alva Bennett,*

Utica.

1812

Thomas Bicknell,

, Madison county

1823

William A. Bird, -

Black Rock.

1833

Samuel P. Bishop, M.D.,

- Cincinnati, O.

1870

Porter C. Bliss,

Washington, D. C.

1811

Francis A. Bloodgood,*

- Utica.

1810

Joseph Bloodgood, M.D.,* -

Flushing, L. I.

1814

John G. Bogart,*

- New York City.

1831

William H. Bogart,

Aurora.

1814

Herman H. Bogert*

- Geneva.

1830

Stephen V. R. Bogert, M.D.,

Staten Island.

1823

Richard M. Bouton,

.

1823

John P. Brace,

Litchfield, Conn.

1863

Alvah Bradish, -

- Fredonia.

1823

Samuel B. Bradley, M.D., -

West Greece.

1813

John Brainard, -

- Albany.

1830

Isaac Briggs, C. E., -

-

1810

Charles C. Brodhead* -

- Utica.

1841

J. Romeyn Brodhead,

New York City.

\Trans. vi.~\ 41

32 1

Manual.

1809 Micah Brooks,*-

1*08 .liihn Bmoi

1808 William Brooi

1803 Jacob Brown,*

J8 William Linn Brown,

1817 Richmond Brownell, M.D.,«

1812 ThomasC. Brownell, I'D.. 1. 1.. I',

1808 Archibald Brnee, M.D.,* -
1839 Cyras Bryant,*

1881 David BueL Jr.,* -

1803 Salmon Burl.* -

lsi-j (icor^c Bomford* -

L884 Joseph Burbank, M.D..

1883 Marmaduke Bnrrongh, M.D.,*

1827 William Campbell, M.D.* -
1870 William W. Campbell,

1812 Beth Capron, M.D.,* -

1812 William S. Card. -11*

1835 Matthew Can

! William M. Canni.ha.l. D.l>..

1859 Philip P. Carpenter, Ph. D., -

1823 George W. Cartwright,

1836 Loring D. Chapin,
1815 Moses Chapin,*

1814 Josiah Chapman,

1809 James Le Hay De Chanmont,*
1829 Asa Christy, M.D.,

1810 Philip Church*
IS-,1:! Sj Clapp,
1817 Aaron Clarke,

1815 Asahel Clarke, -

1811 George Clark

1817 George Byde Clarke* -
1880 Charles A. Clinton,*
1823 DeWitl Clinton, LL.D.*
1831 Franklin Clinton* -

George W, Clinton, LL.D., -

Stephen ClOSe,

1811 Timothy Clow< s, LL.D.,*

1818 James Cochran,*

1808 Walter L. Cochran,* -

1865 Rev. Leighton Coleman,

L820 Jndah Colt,

1886 Timothy A. Conrad,

1828 Sherman Converse,*
Fayetti

1815 Isaac Cooper,* -

1880 William Cooper* -

Ahxamhr Coventry, M.D.,* -

Brook*' Grove.
New York.
Hyde Park.

, Jefferson county.

Philadelphia, Pa.
Providence, R. 1.
Hartford, < !onn.
New Fork City-
Princeton, 111.
Troy.

Washington, D. C

■ranee.

Philadelphia, Pa.
< Sherry Valley.
Cherry Valley.
Walden.
Lancaster, Pa.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Hempstead, L. I.
Montreal, L.C.
Bing Bii

New York City.
Rochester.

. Renssi her county.

, Jefferson county.

Fairfield.
Belvidere.
Bennington, (?)

New York City.

Sandy Hill.
Springfield, N. Y.

. Eng.

New Fork City.
New York City.
I. S. Navy.

Buffalo.
Waterford.
Hempstead, L. I.

Palatine.

, Montgomery county.

Wilmington, DeL

, Pa

Philadelphia, Pa.

New Haven, t 'onn.
Nevi ity.

perstown.
New fork City.

I 'ilea.

Manual.

325

1830

Ithamar B. Crawe, M.D. ,* -

Watertown.

1823

Jolin B. Grouse, M.D.,

- Bethlehem.

1830

Hooper Cummin o-, D D.,* -

Charlestown. S. C.

1851

James D. Dana, LL.D., -

- New Haven, Conn.

1823

James F. Dana, M.D. *

New York City.

1823

Samuel L. Dana*

- Boston, Mass.

1823

Charles Davies, LL.D.,

Fishkill Landing.

1837

Thomas L. Davies,

- Woolwich, Eng.

1865

Henry B. Dawson, -

Morrisania.

1813

James Dean, Jr.,*

- Utica.

1830

James E. De Kay, M.D.,* -

New York City.

1806

Pierre De La Bigarre* -

, Dutchess county

1830

John Delafield, Jr. *

New York City.

1815

John Delamater, M.D. ,*

- Cleveland, O.

1830

Henry W. Delavan,*

Ballston.

1837

William H. DeVriese, -

- Amsterdam, Holland.

1853

Chester Dewey, D.D., LL.D.,*

Rochester.

1806

Benjamin DeWitt, M.D. *

- New York City.

1830

John DeWitt, D.D.,*

Brunswick, N. J.

1806

Frederick A. De Zeng,*

- Clyde.

1823

John D. Dickenson,*

Troy.

1836

Judah Dobson,*-

- Philadelphia, Pa.

1823

Isaac Doolittle,*

Rochester.

1825

Jonathan Dorr, M.D.,* -

- Cambridge.

1823

David B. Douglass, LL.D.,*

Geneva.

1823

Daniel Drake, M.D.,* -

- Cincinnati, O.

1823

Judah T. Ducatel* -

Baltimore, Md.

1823

Amos Eaton* -

- Troy.

1812

Caspar W. Eddy, M.D. * -

New York City.

1828

Bela Edgerton,*

- Fort Wayne, Ind.

1830

Fay Edgerton,*

Utica.

1830

Andrew Edmeston,*

- Edmeston.

1834

John Ehlers,

Hoboken, N. J.

1840

James Eights, M.D.,

- Albany.

1818

Andrew Ellicott,* -

West Point.

1860

Ezekiel B. Elliott,

- Washington, D. C.

1808

Effingham Ernbree,*

, Long Island.

1823

Ebenezer Emmons, M.D.,*

- Brunswick, N. C.

1815

Adam Empie, D.D.,*

Wilmington, N. C.

1837

Peter Ewart,

- Woolwich, Eng.

1811

Geo. W. Featherstonhaugh, F.R.S.,*

Duanesburgh.

1828

James Ferguson,*

- Washington, D. C.

1851

Jose Fell Ferrao,

Maranham, Brazil.

1852

John Finch,

, N J.

1837

William H. Fitton, M.D., F.R.S. *

London, Eng.

1829

Peter Fleming,

- , Lower Canada.

1802

Ebenezer Foot *

Delhi.

1828

Elial T. Foote, M.D.,

- New Haven, Conn.

1810

Benjamin Ford*

Albany.

:i*i

Manual.

1832

Elista Port, Jr.,

Joe] Foster, M.D .

- New Fork.

L861

John W. Poster,

Chicago, III.

L864

.i"li n Fowler, .Jr.,

.\. u \ ork <'ity.

1818

John w. Prancfe, Ml-., t L.D.,* -

Ni-h- York City.

1868

John 11. French, LL.D.,

Albany.

1880

Henry 1. Fn

Palatine.

1887

H 11. Gardiner,

i rardiner, lie.

1808

David Gardiner,*

Gardiner's Island.

|su->

John Lyon Gardiner,

Gardiner's Island.

1881

Jacob Gebhard,*

Schoharie ( Sourt II

1881

John Gebhai

Schoharie t 'ourt Hon-.-.

L884

John Gebhard, Ji

Schoharie Court 11

1806

James Geddi

- Onondaga.

L809

Edmond ('. Gem

Greenbush.

L81 I

George C. Gibbs,*

- New Fork City.

1886

Charles Gill,*

Flashing, L. 1.

1851

William M. Gillespie, LL.D.,*

- Schenectady.

is:;;;

Jonathan 1 toodhue*

New York City.

1828

Na1 taniel Goodwin,

- Hartford, Conn.

1806

James G. Graham, M.D.,* -

Bhawangnnk.

1880

Asa Gray, LL.D.,

< Cambridge, Mi

is;;:

George R. Gray,

London. BSng.

1887

John E. Gray, F.R.S., -

London, Lne-.

1811

Jacob Green, M.D.,*

Philadelphia, Pa.

1828

alphens S. Greene, M.D. *

- Watertown.

1S70

Dudley S. Gregory, -

Jersey Citj . N. J,

1816

John Griscom, LLJ).,*-

- New York City.

1817

. lames Hadley, M.D.,*

Ruthilo.

1884

Fletcher M. Height* -

- Santiago, CaL

1811

Samuel Haight,*

Athens.

is;;;;

William K. llaile*

Plattsburgh.

is;.i

Hiland Hall.

North Bennington, Ft.

isid

.lames Hall. LL.D.,

- Albany.

L881

Henry Hamilton.-* -

, Schoharie count v.

1828

William S. Hamilton, -

,111.

i-.'.;

Robert Hare, M.D., LL.D./

Philadelphia. Pa,

1886

Richard Harlan. M.D.,*

- Philadelphia, Pa.

1828

Xina II. Harris. Ml"

New York city.

1811

Samuel Hawkins,*

, Lister county.

is:;:;

Sidney Hawes,

is:;:;

Franda L. Hawks. D.D.*

New Fork.

L828

Horace Hayden, M.D.,*

Baltimore, Md.

L880

Isaac I I:in I B, M.D..

- Philadelphia, Pa

is:;:;

Hecker, (Prof .),

1883

Klihu Hedges, M.D., -

New Windsor.

1815

Cornelius I'. Heermance, M.D.,* -

Ithaca.

L886

William Hi in 1 1-

Philadelphia, Pa.

1880

William D. Hi ndcrson ,*

New York City.

Manual.

327

1809 Matthias B. Hildretk,* -

1830 Paul Hochstrasser,*

1832 William Hogan,*
1811 John C. Hogeboom,*
1819 Myron Holley,* -

1823 Charles Hooker, M.D.* -

1813 Adam Hoops,* -
1830 William E. Hopkins,*
1834 William Horton, M.D.,*
1851 Franklin B. Hough,

1833 Sidney Howe, -
1811 Ruggles Hubbard ,* -

1814 Jonas Humbert,*

1834 Charles Humphrey *
1823 SetkHunt*

1830 Rev. Joseph Hurlburt,*

1816 Jabish N. M. Hurd * -

1806 Isaac Hutton*

1830 Isaac G. Hutton *

1834 Rutger B. Huygens de Lowendahl,*

1809 James Hyatt,

1823 William Hyde, -

1823 Henry Innian,*

1836 Charles T. Jackson, M.D.,

1830 Isaac W. Jackson, LL.D., -

1833 Benedict Jarger *

1823 Edwin James, M.D., U. S. A*

1816 William H. Jephson,* -

1865 Horatio Gates Jones,

1830 Benjamin F. Joslin, M.D., LL.D.,*

1811 James Kent, LL.D.,* -
1830 Moss Kent *-

1830 William Kent, LL.D.,* -

1827 Chevalier de Kirckhoff, M.D.,

1812 Harman Knickerbacker*
1823 William Langstaff, M.D., -
1830 Oliver Lathrop, M.D.,* -
1830 Isaac Lea, LL.D., -

1830 Francis Le Barron, M.D. *

1806 Morgan Lewis,*

1806 Ezra L'Hommedieu * -

1811 John Lincklaen* ...

1809 Edward P. Livingston,*

1810 Henry W. Livingston,*

1806 Robert R. Livingston, LL.D.,* -

1815 William Livingston,*

1836 John Locke,* - , -

1862 Charles E. Loosey, -

1841 Henry W. Longfellow, LL.D., -

, Montgomery county.

Albany.

- , Franklin county.

Claverack.

- Lyons.

New Haven, Conn.

- Albany.
Philadelphia, Pa.

- Blooming Grove.
Lowville.

- Guilderland.
New York City.

- New York City.
Ithaca.

- Alabama, (?).
New London, Conn.

- Albany.

, Columbia county,

, Washington county.

, Holland.

New York City.

- Philadelphia, Pa.
New York City.

- Boston, Mass.
Schenectady.

- Princeton, N. J.
Burlington, Iowa.

- New York City.
Philadelphia, Pa.
New York City.

- New York City.
Plattsburgh.

- New York City.
Antwerp, Netherlands.

- Schaghticoke.
New York City.

- Albany.
Philadelphia, Pa.

■ Washington, D. C.
Clinton, (Dutchess county).

- Southold, L. I.
Cazenovia.

- Clermont.
Claverack.

- Clermont.
Claverack.

- Cincinnati, O.
New York City.

- Cambridge, Mass.

328

Manual.

1811 .Mm Low, M.D.,* -

1810 James Lynch,* -
1815 Jared Mansfield,*

1828 George Marvin, MD.,*-

18(»!) James Weir Mason, •

1814 Tliumas McAuley, I».I>., LL.D.,*
L888 John McLeod,

183*; Thomas McEwen, M.D.,

isos Archibald Mclntyre,

1815 Rev. John McJimsey,*

1811 LeviMcKean,*

is:;! Peter McKilvey, M.D., -

1818 Robert McMillan. M.D.* -

1828 Andrew McNab,

ls:;u William J. McNevin, M.D.,*

1812 JohnMelish* -
1815 Thomas Melville,* -

1857 William Menzies,
1828 William Merritt, -
L818 Morris S. Mill

1808 Sylvanns Miller* -

1813 Charles Mitchell,

1815 Samuel L.Mitchfll, M.D., LL.D.*

1858 David E. E. Mix,
1868 Lewis II. Morgan, -
1830 William H. Morrell, C.E. *
1812 William W. Morris*
1828 James O. Morse*

1833 Samuel G. Morton, M.D.* -
is-.1:; EHice Murdock, M.D., -
18G3 David Murray, Ph. D.,

lsii Rev. Ephraim H. Newton,* -

1818 John Nicholson,*

1828 Joe] B. Nott,

1818 Joaiah Noyes, M.D.,*

Thomas Nnttall/

L851 Edward B. O'Callaghan, LL.D.,

lsir JohnOgilvy,* -

1811 Beriah Palmer*

1834 Amasa.J. Parker, LL.D.,
1815 Alden Partridge* -

. James Pierce, -

1828 Jacob Pierce,
1811 Jonas Piatt,*

1829 Jacob Porter, Ml).*
181 ! William M. Price
1837 James Prinsep,

^dolphe Qoetelet,

1818 JohnRandel, Jr.* -

Charlton.
New Fork city.
Wi si Point.

- Ro
Springfield, Mass.
New Fork City.
Montreal, L. C.
Philadelphia, Pa.
-N.-w Fork City.

- Ponghkee]
Newburgh.

- Francisville, Ind.

U. S. Army.

- Geneva.

New Fork City.

- Philadelphia, Pa.
Boston, Ma

New Fork City,
rohns, N. B.

- Itica.

New Y<>rk City.

,Md.

New Fork City.

- Batavia.
Rochester.

- Cooperstown.
Ballston.

- Cherry Valley.
Philadelphia, Pa.
1 : rkson.

New Brunswick, N.J.

- Cambridge.
Newport.

- New Fork City.
Clinton, (Oneida oounty).

tnbridge, Mi

Albany.

- Montreal, L. C.
Ballston.

- Albany.
Norwich, Vt.

. Greene county.

Philadelphia, Pa.

- Plattsburgh.
Plainfield, Mass.

- N.-w Fork City.

Calcutta. A-

- Brussels. Belgium.
Philadelphia, i '

Manual.

329

1828

William E. Rapelye,*

Fishkill.

1823

David Raymond,

- Baltimore. Md.

1866

Peter Redpath,

Montreal, L. C.

1837

William C. Redfield *

- New York City.

1870

Kenneth Reid, M.D.,

New York City.

1823

James Renwick, LL.D.,*

- New York City.

1817

Stephen Reynolds, M.D., -

, Montgomery county,

1830

Walter Reynolds,*

- Pine Plains.

1809

Luther Rich,*

Cherry Valley.

1832

Obadiah Rich * -

- London, Eng.

1836

John D. Robertson, -

London, Eng.

1823

J. Smythe Rodgers, M.D.,

- New York City.

1811

John R. B. Rodgers, M.D., -

New York City.

1808

Nicholas Romayne, M.D.,*

- New York City.

1806

John B. Romeyn, D.D.,*

New York City.

1812

Erastus Root * -

- Delhi.

1808

William Ross,*

Newburgh.

1830

John Russell,* -

- Cooperstown.

1806

Samuel Russell,* ...

Buffalo.

1830

David Rust,* - - -

- Alabama, (?).

1810

Benjamin Sanford,*-

, Onondaga county.

1837

Adrian Schaff, Jr.,

- Amsterdam, Holland.

1823

Henry R. Schoolcraft,*

Washington, D. C.

1812

Philip I. Schuyler *

- Rhinebeck.

1810

Rensselaer Schuyler,*

Stillwater.

1811

John V. D. Scott,*

- Catskill.

1809

Theodore Sedgwick,*

Stockbridge, Mass.

1840

Edward 0. Sewall,

- Montreal, L. C.

1823

Stephen Sewall,*

Montreal, L. C.

1830

Thomas Sewall, M.D. ,* -

- Washington, D. C.

1830

William Shaler ,* -

Havana, W. I.

1812

Alexander Sheldon* -

- Charleston, N. C.

1830

Benjamin Silliman, LL.D.,*

New Haven, Conn.

1823

James Simonson (Lieut.) U. S. A.,*

, Cuba, W. I.

1816

Asa B. Sizer, M.D.,*

Madison.

1842

Avery J. Skilton, M.D.,*

- Troy.

1836

Augustus W. Smith, LL.D. *

Annapolis, Md.

1823

John W. A. Smith, (Lieut.) U. S. A.,* - , Me.

1833

Joseph W. Smith, M.D.,* -

Ogdensburgh.

1830

Isaac W. Smith, M.D.,* -

- Lockport.

1812

Nathan Smith,*

Fairfield.

1806

Peter Smith,* -

- Peterboro'.

1830

Richard L. Smith,* -

Auburn.

1828

Samuel Smith, -

, Greene county.

1830

William Souls,*

New York City.

1812

Horatio G. Spafford, LL.D. * -

- Waterford.

1825

Lyman A. Spalding,

Lockport.

1823

Thomas Spencer, M.D.,*

- Geneva.

1870

Ainsworth R. Spofford,

Washington, D. C.

:;::<>

Manual.

1819 John Stearns. M.D.,*

L828 Cyrus M. StebWii

1884 Ebeneaer Steele, M.D., *

182:: John B. Steele, M.D..

L807 John Stevens,* -

182:: Matthew Stevenson, M.D.,*-

L818 William 1,. Stone,*

1865 William L. Stone, Jr.,

1815 Farraii'l Siranalian. ■

1870 Edwin A. Strang, -

1808 Selah Strang* -

1818 Theodora Bfcrong, LL.D.,* -

L866 Bnssel] Bturgis, Jr.,

18G5 Bamael T. C. Sweeaey,

1815 Joseph it. Swift,

1827 Baron Alfonso de Syon,

I rge Taleott, (Gen.) U. S. A.,*

1888 Bichaid 0. Taylor *

L828 David Thoma

1814 Andrew Thompson,*
181."") George M. Tibbits,*
1810 Isaac H. Tifiany* -

L865 Samiu'l D. Tillman, LL.D.,

1833 IraTiUotson,

1810 Robert K. Tillutson* -

1823 William U. Titus, -

1823 Charles H. Tomlinson *

1808 Dank-1 D. Tompkins, *

1870 Joseph M. Toner, M.D.,

1837 Henry Tooley, Sr., M.D., -

1823 John Torrey, M.D.,

1834 Silas Totten, D.D., LL.D., -
1834 Charlemagne Tower, -
182:i Peter S. Townaend, M.D.,*

1828 William Tracy, I.L.D., -

1818 Amase Trowbridge, M.D.,*
1807 JohnTxyon,* -
lsos Eenry Tncker,*

L880 William Tally. M. I).,* -

L880 Comfort Tyler,*

180S Philip Van Cortlandt,* -

1815 Pierre Van Cortlandt,*
1812 John C Vanderveer, -

<i — A. Vandervoort,
1888 Jacob A. Van Euevel, -

L807 William W. Van NeSS/ -

L884 Alexander Van Rensselaer,
1823 Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, M.D.,
I860 Maun sell Van Rensselaer, D.D.,

- New Fork City.
Endson.

- Delhi
Saratoga spring.

- Hoboken, N. J.
Newborgh.
New York City.
New York City.

- Cooperstown.
Grand Rapids, Midi.

- New Fork < 'ity.
New Brnnsw ick, N. J.

- New Fork City.
San Francisco, < lal.

- New Fork City.
, France.

- Albany.
Philadelphia, Pa.

■ Scipio.

Bnffido.

- Tray.
Bsperanoe.

- New York.
Ithaca.

- Bed Eook.
New Fork City.

- Schenectady.

Statin bland.

- Washington, D. C.

Natchez, Miss.

- New Fork >"n_\ .
Lexington, Ky.

- Potteville, Pa
New Fork City.

- New Fork City.
Watertown.

- , Columbia county.

Newborgh.

- Springfield, Mass.
Bfonteznma.

1 irtlandt.
Cortlandt.

- . Kings county.

Amsterdam, Holland.
Vernon I ientre.
Eudson.

- New York.
( I reenbnsh.

- Geneva.

Manual.

331

1823 Lardner Vanuxeni*

1830 Henry D. Varick,

1870 Marvin R. Vincent, D. D., -

1809 Herman Vosburgh *

1808 William W. Vredenburgh *

1830 Alexander Walsh,*

1829 David B. Warden* -
1823 Charles M. Watson* -

1830 Winslow C. Watson,
1830 Ashbel S. Webster, M.D.,*
1823 Horace Webster, L.L.D.,
1830 Noah Webster, LL.D. *

1828 Cornelius D. Westbrook, D.D.,*

1865 Everett P. Wheeler, -

1823 Canvas White,*

1823 Delos White, M.D.,* -

1815 Charles Whitlow,* -
1851 Josiah D. Whitney,
1823 John C. Whitney, -
1808 James W. Wilkin,* -

1816 Jephthah A. Wilkinson* -
1830 Erastus Williams, M.D.,*

1817 Nathan Williams,* -
1823 Thomas S. Williams* -

1830 Thomas M. Willing*

1851 Westel Willoughby, M.D.,* -

1859 Jacob Wilson,

1867 John M. Wilson, (Col). U. S. A.,

1810 Polydorus B. Wisner,*
1828 William C. Woodbridge*
1817 Benjamin Wright ,* -

1831 John C. Wright*

1860 James Wynne,

1823 Christopher C.Yates, M.D.,* -

1807 Joseph C. Yates* -

1808 Peter W. Yates,*
1810 John Young*

Bristol, Pa.

- Poughkeepsie.
Troy.

- Kinderhook.
Skaneateles.

- Lansingburgh.
Paris, Fr.

- Port Kent.
Port Kent.

- Albany.
Geneva.

- New Haven, Conn.
Kingston.

- New York City.
Whitesboro'.

- Cherry Valley.
London, Eng.

- Cambridge, Mass.
Great Barrington, Mass.

- Goshen.
Cherry Valley.

- Knox.
Utica.

- Utica.
Philadelphia.

- New York City.
Newark.

- Albany.
Geneva.

- Boston, Mass.
Rome.

- Schenectady.
New York City.

- Parishborough, N. S.
Schenectady.

, Onondaga county.

Whitestown.

Number of Corresponding Members,

420.

[Trans. vi.~]

42

D:\-2

Manual.

resident aikmijkrs.

l-r.7

Rev. Reinhold Adelberg.

L868

18G7

Joseph Alden, D.D., LL.D.

1851

1*23

Joseph Alexandi

is:;::

lsiM

Leicester Allen.

1810

1869

Rev. John M. Allis.

L869

1830

William Alvoi

L870

L823

Julius li. An

L859

ls:;i;

William Anneal*

L840

L841

< Charles II. Anthony.

L832

L865

Oliver Are] .

I860

L840

James 11. Armsby, .M.I>.

1 852

1841

Charles L. Austin*

L870

1869

Eorace AverilL

L829

I860

Daniel 1.. Babcock.

1828

18G4

.hums L. Babcock, M.D.

18G4

1831

Marshall J. Bacon.

1829

1870

.lames S. Bailey, M.D.

1825

18G7

John M. Bailey.

1882

1870

William II. Bailey, M.D.

18G3

1830

Henry W. Bamman.*

ls.52

im;.-,

Robert L. Banks.

1830

is:;:;

Daniel D. Barnard.*

1830

1852

Frederick J. Barnard.

1813

1851

Bamnel W. Barnard.

1 s:,s

1852

William Barnes.

is::-.)

1852

Rnfus (i. Beardslee.

L851

1880

Lewis C. Heck. M.D*

1869

1S2SI

Nicholas F. Heck. LLD*

L829

1-1'.'

T. Romeyn Beck, M.D.. LL.D*

1841

INCH

Thomas Beckett, M.D.

1858

1 862

Luther F. Beecher, \kW

L881

1870

Henry M. Hell. diet.

is:,;

1862

Ephraim II. Bender,

1865

1841

Lewis Benedict, Jr.*

L870

1866

George II. Benjamin.

L866

L870

John M. Bigelow, M.D.

L880

I860

Reuben 11. Bingham.

1815

1829

S. De Witt Bl Igood*

1886

L869

Rev. William S. Boardman

1 82 l

1880

William II. Bo^art.

1 85 1

180G

Arthur Bott.

1827

Jephthah R Bonlware, M.D.

David I. Boyd.

William S. Boyd,

Rev. John M. Bradford, \i\i

John E. Bradley.

('has. D. w. Bridgman, D.D.

Marshall K. II. Bright.

Kdward Brinckerhoff. ;

1 leiin- Bronson, M.D.

Andrew E. Brown.

A. liver Brown,*

.lames t '. Brown.

Rev. David Brown.

Jesse BueL*

Henry T. Bnell.

Peter Bullions, D

Asa Burbank, M.D.

Henry Burden, 'Troy).

Edward E. Burnet.

Walter R. Hush.
Benjamin F. Butler, LL.D*

William Caldwell*

Archibald ( lampbell.*
Duncan Campbell.
John X. Campbell, D.D
William II. Campbell, WW
Edward A. ( larpenter, M.D.
< teorge W. Carpenter.
Ezra R Can-.
Eoward < iarroll.1

John P. I

William < as-idy.

Michael i\ ( iavert.
Frank » lhamberlain.
Alfred P. Chatfleld.
Asa Chester, M.D.

John Chester, D.D.-
Charles Clapp.
Walter Clark*
William W. Clark.

Aaron Clarke.

Manual.

333

1831

George Clarke.

1823

1826

George W. Clinton, LL.D.

1870

1831

Williain D. Cochran.

1866

1836

Mason F. Cogswell, M.D .*

1866

1835

Andrew J. Colvin.

1823

1868

Verplanck Colvin.

1823

1823

Alfred Conkling.

1812

1833

Lawrence Connor.

1866

1851

George H. Cook, LL.D.

1865

1867

Leroy C. Cooley.

1869

1865

John A. Cooper.

1842

1857

John Tayler Cooper.

1835

1858

Paul F. Cooper.

1830

1830

William Cooper.*

1830

1870

Clarence H. Corning.

1829

1828

Erastus Corning.

1868

1826

Alonzo Crittenden, Ph.D.

1832

1823

Edwin Croswell.

1833

1857

James Cruikshank, LL.D.

1833

1840

Thomas H. Cushman.

1834

1831

William M. Cushman.

1851

1869

Edward Danforth.

1851

1867

Henry Darling, D.D.

1833

1857

Gilbert C. Davidson.*

1832

1867

James Davis.

1866

1832

John Davis.*

1806

1832

Amos Dean, LL.D.*

1815

1829

Jesse De Graff.

1869

1828

Edward C. Delavan.

1834

1869

Philander Deming.

1841

1835

Hugh Denniston.*

1857

1870

Abraham V. DeWitt.

1857

1831

Lewis De Witt*

1825

1827

Kichard Varick De Witt.*

1852

1857

Richard Varick De Witt, Jr.

1858

1806

Simeon De Witt*

1836

1827

George Dexter.

1868

1834

James Dexter.*

1815

1830

John Ogden Dey.*

1828

1870

Andrew Dickey.

1870

1867

George L. Ditson, M.D.

1852

1833

John A. Dix, LL.D.

1809

1869

Rt. Rev. William C. Doane, D.D.

1857

1842

Edwin A. Doolittle.

1851

1833

O M. Dorman.

1841

1863

Lockwood L. Doty.

1867

1832

Volkert P. Douw *

1870

1870

Volckert P. Douw.

1867

1828

Charles E. Dudley *

1870

Edward Dunn * [A., West Troy.

Clarence E. Dutton, (Capt). U. S.

Alfred Edwards.

Isaac Edwards.

James Edwards *

James Eights, M.D.

Jonathan Eights, M.D*

Joachim Elmendorf, D.D.

George V. Emerson.*

James H. Emerton.

Ebenezer Emmons, M.D.*

James Ferguson.*

Isaac Ferris, D.D., LL.D.

Lancelot Fidler.*

Peter Fleming.

Townsend Fondey.

William H. Fondey.*

Edward W. Ford*

John M. Ford.

William W. Forsyth*

Samuel H. Freeman, M.D.

Abel French.

James M. French.*

William W. Frothingham.

Robert M. Fuller.

Peter Gansevoort.*

Peter Gansevoort.

Charles H. Gaus.

Rev. John M. Garfield.

John E. Gavit.

Joseph Gavit.

John P. S. Gifford.

James S. Goold.*

John Gott.

Benjamin A Gould, Jr., M.D.

Charles D. Gould*

William J. Graff.

Matthew Gregory.*

Henry Greene, M.D.*

Stephen B. Griswold.

Stephen Groesbeeck.

Henry Guest.*

William Hagen, M.D.

James Hall, LL.D.

John H. Hall .*

John Tayler Hall.

Lewis Benedict Hall.

Samuel Hand.

Thomas L. Harison.

:;:'.l

Man

Thomas W. Harman.*

L858

L851

Ira Harris, LL.D.

L870

L888

Henry Hart.*

1869

Beth Hasting

1866

1851

Henry B. Haswell.*

L866

1828

Gideon Hawley, LL.D.

L866

1851

Henrj Q. Hawley.

L881

L868

Adelberi D. Head, M.D., (Troy).

l si;:,

L858

James Hendrick.

1852

L828

Joseph Henry, LL.D.

L866

i-.-.;

John 11. Hickoox.

L888

1888

Roberi .1. Hilton.

L866

L868

John v. i:. Hoff.

L842

18G5

Peter Hogan,

L864

18G8

Almon Holland.

L829

18G9

Alexander L. Holley, (Troy).

1866

186*3

Henry A. Homes.

L866

L81 l

Philip Hooker.*

1815

18G9

Charles E. Home.

L869

1841

Eben N. Horsford.

is.-,i

is:,.-,

Franklin 15. Hough, M.D.

L828

18G0

George W. Hough.

L888

1866

John ('. House, (Waterfbxd).

1808

1819

Eetes Howe.*

1858

L870

Charles B. Hoyt, M.D.

18G6

is:;:;

Lorenzo Hoyt.*

1852

is:!5

Levi Hubbell.

1851

1832

Correl] II omphrey, M.D.*

1828

18G7

Edward R. Hum. M.D.

1852

is-js

Thomas Hun, M.D.

is",:,

1851

John McD. M<I nt \ iv.

1867

1 s.V.i

< teorge P. Jackson.

1826

L882

\\ illiam Jackson.

L869

L858

William A. Jackson.

L868

1843

Edward Jam

L880

Henry Jami

L815

1881

Jolm James. M 1 >.

1851

L881

John B. Jarvis.

is.-,:

1867

Charles M. Jenkins.

1852

1SDS

Elisha Jenkins.

1808

is:, 7

Ezekiel Jewett.

ISll

i--,;

Alexander B. Johnson, LL.D.

i 85 ;

is:,]

James 1. Johnson.

L820

L857

Benjamin IV Johnson.*

1836

1838

Hugh B. Jolly.

1 s.VJ

[869

Morvi-n M. Joins

1867

< Uiver Kane.*

1886

I-:;.;

Roberi L. Kearni

is:;:,

i-:;i

Rev. William L. Keese.*

1823

Edward B. Hendrick.

Addison A. Hi j • b.

Emerson W Kej

James Kidd.

Rodney G. Kimball.

Dwighl King.

Joshua I. King.

Leonard Kip.

Bt. Rev. William I. Kip. D.D.

William Lacy.

John B. l.a Forge.*
Abraham Lansing.
( lharles B. Lansing.
John \'. Lansing, M.D.
Augustus F. Lawyer, M.D.

William I.. Learned.
( reorge W. Lewis.
Btewart Lewis.*
Joseph A. Lintner.
Edwin C. Little.
Weare 0. Little.
Cicero Loveridge.*
James Low. M.D.*
Da\ id B. Luther.

Robert Macfarlane.

Henry Mamleville, 1U'.
Henry March. M.D.
Wi'liam L. Marcy, LL.D*
Benjamin N. Martin, D.D., L.H.I).
Henry H. Martin.

Henry T. Martin.
William Martin.
Seldi ii B. Marvin.
James Weir Mason.

Frederick Matthews.*
William Mayell*
William J. McAlpine.
Henrj B. McCall.

William Mc( 'amnion.

William MoClelland M.D.*
Archibald McClure.
Amasa Mc< toy.
William A. McCulloch.
Alexander 1> McDoual*

William M. 'Kirov.

William C McHarg.
Archibald Mclntj
Lev. Roberi McKi
Duncan McKercher.*

Manual.

335

1833

David McLaughlan, M.D.

1814

1869

John W. McNarnara.

1841

1823

James McNaughton, M.D.

1841

1860

Melvin N. Mead, M.D.

1869

1823

Orlando Meads.

1851

1828

Henry D. Meech.

1842

1830

Richard M. Meigs.

1851

1870

Otto Meske.

1834

1806

Rev. Alexander Miller.

1816

1852

Rev. William A. Miller.*

1852

1823

William C. Miller*

1865

1870

Theodore F. Miner.

1840

1859

W C. Minor.

1829

1840

Julien Molinard.*

1865

1865

Levi Moore, M.D.

1870

1866

William D. Morange.

1867

1869

Cornelius D. Mosher, M.D.

1831

1863

Jacob S. Mosher, M.D.

1833

1827

Isaac Mott.*

1870

1824

Joseph P. Mott*

1839

1841

Joel Munsell.

1842

1867

Frederick W. Munson.

1851

1857

David Murray, Ph. D.

1851

1842

David Newcomb, M.D.

1851

1830

George Newell.

1869

1835

George W. Newell.*

1858

1852

John Newland.

1851

1833

Luke F. Newland*

1867

1852

Richard H. Northrop.*

1858

1830

John T. Norton*

1852

1870

John T. Norton. [LL.D.

1869

1852

Edward B. O'Callaghan, M.D..

1810

1834

Howard Nott*

1870

1830

William O'Donnell, M.D .*

1852

1852

Thomas W. Olcott.

1841

1870

Abraham F. Onderdonk.

1828

1859

Lysander A. Orcutt.

1869

1851

Abijah 0 shorn.

1836

1830

John K. Paige*

1868

1863

Henry D. Paine, M.D.

1816

1869

Horace M. Paine, M.D.

1829

1857

Erastuf. D. Palmer.

1834

1851

Amasa J. Parker, LL.D.

1865

1866

Amasa J. Parker, Jr.

1859

1829

Philip S. Parker*

1870

1831

William Parmelee.*

1864

1842

L. Sprague Parsons.*

1851

1869

Wesley W. Pasko.

1865

1833

John Paterson.

1859

George Pearson*

Erastus H. Pease.

Frederick S. Pease.*

Charles H. Peck.

George R. Perkins, LL.D.

John S. Perry.

William F. Phelps.

Henri Picard.*

Charles Z. Piatt .*

Josiah B. Plumb.

James E. Pomfret, M.D*

Horatio Potter, D.D.

Titus W. Powers, M.D.

Daniel J. Pratt.

Richard Prescott.

Erastus C. Pruyn.

John V. L. Pruyn, LL.D.

Lansing Pruyn.

Robert C. Pruyn.

Robert H. Pruyn.

Samuel Pruyn.*

John V. P. Quackenbush, M.D.

Samuel S. Randall.

Albion Ransom.

Clarence Rathbone.

Joel Rathbone.*

John F. Rathbone.

John Meredith Read, Jr.

Charles B. Redfield.

James Redfield*

Rev. J. Livingston Reese.

John Reid* [West Troy.

JamesW.Reilly, (Capt.) U. S.A.

Dexter Reynolds.

Marcus T. Reynolds *

Walter G. Reynolds.

William A. Rice.

Julius Rhoades.*

Charles A. Robertson, M.D.

Hugh Robison.*

William S. Rockwell*

Arthur H. Root*

Simon W. Rosendale.

George S. Rugg.

Charles E. Russ.

Joseph W. Russell.

James H. Salisbury, M.D.

James B. Sanders.

Joseph P. Sanford.

Maraud.

1861 Edward Batterlee.
LU69 Louis .M. Sautter.

L8 ■:; P H. Savery.

L869 John G. Saxe.

L868 William C. Schuyler.

Oliver Scovill.

L870 George Seeley.

L852 Rev. John Beanoi

L815 Joseph Shaw, LL.D.*

L859 Ashbel K. Shepard.

1835 Watts Sherman*

L841 Andrew Shiland.

1862 Thomas Simonda
1869 George S. Skilton
1880 EHsha W. Bkinner*

1869 Rev. William S. Smart.
1851 Adam H. Smith.

1870 Charles E. Smith.

1869 James H. Smith.
1868 J. Morean Smith.
1830 John S. Smith.

1870 J. Wesley Smith.

1868 Louis B. Smith.
1815 Henry W. Snyder*
1830 William Souls.*
1842 Arthur C. Bouthwick.*
is:;:; William Spencer.*

1830 William B. Sprague, D.D.

1869 Bev. Samnal T. Sprecher.

1858 Eben S. Stearns.
1868 Bev. Florida Steele.

lS-„>:{ Oliver St fM

is:;:, Samuel Steel,-.

1867 George T. Stevens, M.D.

IS)) Samuel Steve:

1812 .lames Stevenson.*

L869 Daniel M. Stimson, M.l>.

1851 Alfred B. Street.

1*41 Anthony M. Strong.

1859 Richard .M. Strong
1858 Bichard W. Swan.
L851 AaorTaber*

1841 S. VTascher Talcott

1884 William II. Talcott.

1806 JohnTayl

1870 Alfred H. Taylor.
1857 George W. Taylor.
L818 John Taylor, Jr.*
is 11 Bobert B. Temple*

1861
1828

1 SI ill

L882
1851
1851
1 86 1
L886
1880
L880
1852
L851
1830
L867
1867
1828
1881
1865
1870
L868
L866
isll
is:;:;

1*51

L870

1 852
1885
L828
L868

is-,". I

L827
1806
L828

is:; j

L851
1809
L806
L880
1842
1828
L820
1 852
L851
1858
L870
1882
L823
1831

Elisha V. Ten Eyck.
James Ten Eyck.
Philip Ten Eyck, M.D.
Lemon Thomson.
Ambrose S. Townsend*
Franklin Tovi osend.
Frederick Townsend.
Howard Townsen
Isaiah Townsend.*
John Townsend.*
John P. Townsend, M.D.
Robert Townsend.*
Theodore Townsend.
.lames G. Tra<

John <;. TreadwelL
Luther H. Tucker.
William Tully .*
William A. Tweed Dale*

Bev. Alexander S. Twombly.
Garrett A. Van Allen.

John II. Van Antwerp.
Arthur L. Van Hetithuyseii.
Isaac VanderpoeL*
James Vanderpoel*
s. Oakley Vanderpoel, M.D.

Alheft Van IVrveer, M.l'.
Henry II. Van Dyck.

Barmanns S. Van Ingen*
Cortlandl Van Rensselaer*
Engene Van Rensselaer.
John S. Van Rensselaer.*
Philip S. Van Rensselaer*
Stephen Van Rensselaer, LL.D*
Stephen Van Rensselaer, Jr.*
William P. Van Bensselaer.
Alfred Van Santvoord.

Anthony Van Sehaick.*
Gerrit Van Sehaick*

John B, Van Sehaick.*
Abraham Van Vechten*
Jacob T. B. Van Vechten*

Tennis Van Vechten.*
Hooper ( '. Van Voorst.
Maurice E. Viele.
Adolph \'<<n Bteinwehr.
Edward Wade.

Henry A. Walker.
JohnS. Walsh*
William Walsh *

Manual.

337

1832 Robert E. Ward. 1811

1870 Charles W. Ward. 1857

1867 James D. Wasson. 1870

1868 Daniel Waterbury. 1852
1857 Robert H. Waterman. 1858
1815 Charles R. Webster* 1859
1810 George Webster* 1832

1831 Horace B. Webster* 1815
1827 Matthew Henry Webster* 1870
1830 Rev. Henry R. Weed * 1837
1857 Harvey Wendell. 1841

1832 Herman Wendell, M.D. 1869
1851 John J. Wendell* 1869
1812 Peter Wendell, M.D* 1831
1832 Philip Wendell. 1830

1841 Jacob I. Werner. 1857
1830 Rensselaer Westerlo* 1857

1842 Henry G. Wheaton* 1852
1870 Jesse M. White. 1851
1864 William J. White. 1830
1870 Robert P. Whitfield. 1828

Elias Willard, M.D .*
Sylvester D. Willard, M.D*
Diedrich Willers, Jr.
Chauncey P. Williams.
Gilbert L. Wilson .*
Jacob Wilson.
James M. Wilson.
Joel A. Wing, M.D*
John M. Wilson, (Colonel),
John Wilson .* [U. S. A.

John Winne.
George Wolford.
Rev. Abel Wood.
Bradford R. Wood.
Samuel M. Woodruff*
William L. Woollett.
Samuel B. Woolworth, LL. D.
William Wrightson.*
William A. Young.
John W. Yates*
Richard Yates.*

Whole number of Resident Members, from the organization of the Institute to
May 17, 1870, inclusive, 520.

RESIDENT MEMBERS, JUNE 1, 1870.

1867

Joseph Alden, D.D., LL.D.

1870

1869

Rev. John M. Albs.

1866

1841

Charles H. Anthony.

1859

1840

James H. Armsby, M.D.

1866

1866

Daniel L. Babcock.

1866

1846

James L. Babcock, M.D.

1851

1870

James S. Baiigy, M.D.

1869

1867

John M. Bailey.

1870

1870

William H. Bailey, M.D.

1860

1865

Robert L. Banks.

1870

1857

Frederick J. Barnard.

1832

1867

William Barnes.

1852

1869

Thomas Beckett, M.D.

1858

1852

Ephraim H. Bender.

1869

Henry M. Benedict.

John M. Bigelow, M.D.

Reuben H. Bingham.

Arthur Bott.

Jephthah R. Boulware, M.D.

David I. Boyd.

John E. Bradley.

Charles D. W. Bridgman, D.D.

Andrew E. Brown.

James C. Brown.

Henry Burden, (Troy).

Walter R. Bush.

Duncan Campbell.

Edward A. Carpenter, M.D.

338

Manual.

1829

George W. Carpenter.

1868

1857

William < 'assidy.

1869

1870

Frank Chamberlain.

1857

18GG

Allied F. Chat field.

1869

1835

Andrew J. Colvin.

1860

1858

Verplanck Colvin.

L866

1867

Leroy ('. Cooley.

1870

18G5

John A. Cooper.

1867

1857

John Tayler Cooper.

1828

1858

Paul F. Cooper.

L859

1870

Clarence H. Corning.

1866

1828

K last us Coming.

1869

1869

Edward Danforth.

1S70

1867

Henry Darling, D.D.

1869

1869

Philander Doming.

1866

1870

Abraham V. Do Witt.

1866

1857

Richard V. De Witt, Jr.

1865

1857

George Dexter.

L866

1870

Andrew Dickey.

1866

1867

George L. Ditson, M.D.

1842

1869

lit. Rev. William C. Doane, D.D.

1864

1870

Volckert P. Douw.

1866

1870

Clarence E. Dutton, (Capt. U. S.

1866

A. ; West Troy.)

1869

1866

Isaac Edwards.

1828

1827

James Eights, M.D.

1858

1866

Joachim Elmendorf, D.D.

1866

1869

James H. Emerton.

1851

1861

Samuel H. Freeman, M.D.

1835

1868

Townsend Fondey.

1867

1832

William W. Frothingham.

1869

1815

Peter Gansevoort.

1851

1869

Charles H. Gaus.

1857

1857

Joseph Gavit.

1857

1857

John P. S. Gifford.

1841

1870

Scott D'M. Goodwin.

1852

1870

Stephen B. Griswold.

1S67

1857

Stephen Groesbeeck.

1869

1851

James Hall, LL.D.

1823

1870

Lewis Benedict Hall.

I860

1867

John Tayler Hall.

1823

1867

Samuel Hand.

1870

1870

Thomas L. Ilarison.

1870

1851

Ira Harris, LL.D.

1865

1851

Henry Cj. llawley.

1866

1868

Adelbert D. Head, M.D., (Troy).

1769

1858

.lames Hendrick.

1863

1833

Robert J. Hilton.

1841

1865

Peter Hogan.

1867

Almon Holland.
Alexander L. Bolley, (Troy).
Henry A. Homos.
Chailes B. Home.
George W. Sough.
John C. House, (Waterford).
Charles S. Hoyt, M.D.
Edward R. Hun, M.D.
Thomas Hun, M.D.
George P. Jackson.
Charles M. Jenkins.
Morven M. Jones.
Addison A. Keyos.
Emerson W. Keyes.
James Kidd.
Dwight Kino;.
Leonard Kip.
William Lacy.
Abraham Lansing.
Charles B. Lansing.
John V. Lansing, M.D.
William L. Learned.
George W. Lewis.
Joseph A. Lintner.
Weare C. Little.
David B. Luther.
Robert Macfarlane.
Henry March, M.D.
Henry II. Martin.
Henry T. .Martin.
Selden E. Marvin.
William J. McAlpine.
Henry S. McCall.
William McCammon.
Archibald MeClure.
William MeElroy.
William C. MoHarg.
John W. BicNamara.
Janus Me Naughton, M.D.
Melvin N. .Mead, M.D.
Orlando Meads.
Otto Meske.
Theodore F. Miner.
Levi Moore, M.D.
William D. Morange.
Cornelius D. MbsheT, M.D.
Jacob S. Mosher, M.D.
Joel Munsell.
Frederick W. Munson.

Manual.

339

1870 John T. Norton. 1867

1852 Edward B. O'Callaghan, M.D., 1869

LL.D. 1851

1857 Thomas W. Olcott. 1858

1870 Abraham F. Onderdonk. 1841

1869 Horace M. Paine, M.D. 1870

1866 Amasa J. Parker, Jr. 1870

1833 John Paterson. 1823

1841 Erastus H. Pease. 1869

1869 Charles H. Peck. 1851

1842 John S. Perry. 1851
1865 Daniel J. Pratt. 1851

1870 Eichard Prescott. 1867
1831 John V. L. Pruyn, LL.D. 1867
1833 Lansing Pruyn. 1870
1870 Robert C. Pruyn. 1868
1839 "Robert H. Pruyn. 1866
1851 John V. P. Quackenbush, M.D. 1851
1851 Albion Ransom. 1870
1869 Clarence Rathbone. 1863
1851 John F. Rathbone. 1851

1869 Rev. J. Livingston Reese. 1851

1870 James W. Reilly, (Capt.) U. S. 1870

A., (West Troy). 1870

1869 William A. Rice. 1867

1868 Charles A. Robertson, M.D. 1857
1865 Simon W. Rosendale. 1857

1870 Charles E. Russ. 1832

1864 Joseph W. Russell. 1841

1865 James B. Sanders. 1870
1859 Joseph P. Sanford. 1870

1869 Louis M. Sautter. 1852

1869 John G. Saxe. 1870

1870 George Seeley. 1870

1869 Rev. William S. Smart. 1841

1870 Charles E. Smith. 1869

1869 James H. Smith. 1869

1870 J. Wesley Smith. 1831

1868 Louis B. Smith. 1857

1869 Rev. Samuel T. Sprecher. 1851

George T. Stevens, M.D.
Daniel M. Stiinson, M.D.
Alfred B. Street.
Richard W. Swan.
S. Visscher Talcott.
Alfred H. Taylor.
James Ten Eyck.
Philip Ten Eyck, M.D.
Lemon Thomson.
Franklin Townsend.
Frederick Townsend.
Theodore Townsend.
John G. Treadwell.
Luther H. Tucker.
Garrett A. Van Allen.
John H. Van Antwerp.
Arthur L. Van Benthuysen.
S. Oakley Vanderpoel, M.D.
Albert Van Derveer, M.D.
Eugene Van Rensselaer.
Alfred Van Santvoord.
Maurice E. Viele.
Edward Wade.
Charles W. Ward.
James D. Wasson.
Robert H. Waterman.
Harvey Wendell.
Philip Wendell.
Jacob I. Werner.
Jesse M. White.
Robert P. Whitfield.
Chauncey P. Williams.
Diedrich Willers, Jr.
John M. Wilson, (Colonel),
John Winne. [U. S. A.

George Wolford.
Rev. Abel Wood.
Bradford R. Wood.
Samuel B. Woolworth, LL.D.
William A. Young.

Number of Resident Members, June 1, 1870, 203.

[Trans. vi.~\

43

OFFICERS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE

FOR 1870.

President,

JOHN V. L. PRUYN, LL. D.

Treasurer,

ANDREW E. BROWN.

Recording Secreta/ry, Corresponding 8

DANIEL J. PRATT. JOEL MUNSELL.

First Department — Physical Science and the Arts,

President, and ex-offlcio one of the Vice Presidents of tin Institute,
THOMAS HUN, M. D.
Recording S, en /'>>•>/, Corresponding Seen tary,

GEORGE T. STEVENS, M. D. JOHN PATERSON.

Librarian,
DANIEL J. PRATT.

Second Department— Natural History.

President, and ex-offieio one of the Vice Presidents of the Institute,

JAMES HALL, LL. D.

Vice President,

ARTHUR BOTT.

Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary,

EDWARD R. HUN, M. D. VERPLANCK COLVIN.

Third Department— History and General Literature.

President, and ex-offloio one of the Vice Presidents of the Institute,
S. OAKLEY VANDERPOEI-, M. D.

Vice Preside nt,
JOSEPH W. RUSSELL.

Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary,

LEONARD KIP." GEORGE W. HOUGH.

Curators of the Collections in Natural History and the Arts.

JAMES HALL, LL. D., JAMES L. BABCOCK, M. D.,

CHARLES II. ANTHONY, PETER HOGAN,

MAURICE E. VTELE, JOHN TAYLER HALL,

GEORGE W. HOUGH, JACOB S. MOSHER, M. D.,

JACOB I. WERNER.

CLASSES m THE SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS.

First Department — Physical Science and the Arts.

First Class — Physics and Astronomy.
George W. Hough, William J. McAlpine,

John Paterson, John M. Wilson,

Philip Ten Eyck, John E. Bradley,

George W. Carpenter, Horace M. Paine, M.D.,

Charles E. Home.

Second Class — Physiology and Chemistry.

Thomas Hun, M.D.,
James McNaughton, M.D.,
S. Oakley Vanderpoel, M.D.,
Leroy C. Cooley,
Jacob S. Mosher, M.D.,
John V. P. Quackenbush, M.D.,
Charles A. Robertson, M.D.,
Charles S. Hoyt, M.D.,
James H. Annsby, M.D.,
Jephthah R. Boulware, M.D.,

Charles D. Mosher, M.D.,
James L. Babcock, M.D.,
Charles H. Gaus,
Thomas Beckett, M.D.,
Louis M. Sautter,
Levi Moore, M.D.,
Edward R. Him, M.D.,
Daniel M. Stimson, M.D.,
Samuel H. Freeman, M.D.,
John M. Bigelow, M.D.,

Henry T. Martin.

Third Class

Orlando Meads,
Franklin Townsend,
Robert Macfarlane,
Robert L. Banks,
Abraham F. Onderdonk,
Frederick S. Munson,
Eugene Van Rensselaer,
Reuben H. Bingham,

Arts.
Charles M. Jenkins,
John S. Perry,
Maurice E. Viele,
Joseph Gavit,
Peter Hogan,
Edward Danforth,
George P. Jackson,
Luther H. Tucker.

Second Department — Natural History.

First Class — Geology.

James Hall, LL.D., S. B. Woolworth, LL.D.,

Charles H. Anthony, Clarence E. Dutton,

Verplanck Colvin, Peter Hogan,

Arthur Bott, Richard Prescott.

342 Manual.

Second Class — - Botany.

Charles IT. Peck, Henry II. Martin,

Alfred F. Chatfield Henry S. McCall.

Th ird < lass — Zoology.

George T. Stevens, M.D., James H. Emerton,

Joseph A. Lintner, Charles H. Anthony,

Edward R. Hun, M.D., Otto Meske,

John V. Lansing, M.D., Abel Wood.

Third Department — History and General Literature.

First Class — Modern History.

Joel Munsell, Morven M. Jones,

William Barnes, William L. Learned,

Andrew E. Brown, Daniel J. Pratt,

John Tayler Hall, Joseph P. Sanford.

William A. Young.

Second Class — Ancient History and Archaeology.

Henry A. Homes, Joel Munsell,

Wm. C. Doane, D.D., Rev. Wm. S. Smart,

George L. Ditson, M.D., Jacob I. Werner.

Third Class — General Literature.

Leonard Kip, Addison A. Keyes,

Duncan Campbell, Emerson W. Keyes,

Edward A. Carpenter, M.D., James W. Reilly,

William Cassidy, Joseph W. Russell,

Paul F. Cooper, Charles E. Rnss,

Henry Darling, D.D., .lames B. Saunders,

Isaac Edwards, John G. Saxe,

Joacbim Etmendorf, D.D., James Ten Eyck,

Stephen B. Griswold, Lemon Tbomson,

Bamnel Hand, Jobn II. Van Antwerp.

Manual, 343

MEETINGS AND REPORTS OF CLASSES

FOR 1870.

Regular Semi-Monthly Meetings, at the rooms of the Institute in the
Albany Academy, on the first and third Tuesday evenings of each
month from January to June inclusive, and from October to December,
inclusive.

Annual Meeting, in connection with the first regular meeting of the
year.

Four Special Field Meetings during the summer months of 1870 :
At Schoharie Court House, May 28.
At Luzerne, June 18.
[Other appointments to be made hereafter.]

First Regular Meeting after Summer recess, October 4, 1870.

Second Regular Meeting after summer recess, October 18, 1870.

Reports op Classes in the several departments, will be due, at subsequent
regular meetings, under the 21st by-law of the Institute, as follows :

November 1, 1870.

First Department — First Class, Physics and Astronomy.

November 15, 1870.

Second Department — First Class, . . Geology.

December 6, 1870.

Third Department — First Class, . . . Modern History.

December 20, 1870.

First Department — Second Class, . . Physiology and Chemistry.

January 3, 1871.

Annual Meeting.

January 17, 1871.

Second Department — Second Class, Botany.

February 7, 1871.

Third Department — Second Class, . Ancient History and Archaeology.

February 21, 1871.

First Department — Third Class, . . . Arts.

March 7, 1871.

Second Department — Third Class, . . Zoology.

March 21, 1871.

Third Department — Third Class,. .General Literature.

CONTENTS OF MANUAL.

r.s

Origin of tlu- Albany Institute 299, 800

Charter of Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and

Manufactures 301-30-4

Charter ol the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, 305-307

Charter of the Albany Lyceum of Natural History 308-310

Charter of the Albany Institute, 311-313

By-Laws of the Albany Institute, 314-319

Proceedings of the First, Second and Third Departments, 320

Catalogue of the Members of the Albany Institute, from its organ-
ization, 321-330

Honorary Members, 321, 322

Corresponding Members, 323-331

Resident Members, 332-337

Resident Members, June 1, 1870, 337-339

Officers of the Albany Institute for 1870, 340

Classes in the several Departments for 1870, 341,343

Meetings and Reports of Classes for 1870, 343

Table of Contents, 344

INDEX.

Abdel-Kader, chief, 96.

Abhasia, 118.

Abliasians, 99.

Abies nigra, 222.

Abraham, 279, 280.

Isaac and Jacob, 277.

Academy of Fine Arts, Berlin, 58.

Acapulco, 244.

Adam, 98.

Addison Co., Vt., 282.

Address, annual, to be delivered
before the Institute, 319.

Adelberg, Eev. Reinhold, res. mem.,
332.

Adighe, 95 ; mountains, 98.

Adirondac, forests, 72 ; mountains,
68, 80, 81 ; pass, 80 ; region, geo-
logy of, 70, 239 ; flora of, 67-92 ;
narrative of bear hunt in, 227 -
240.

Admiralty, English, 252.

Adriance, Abraham, cor. mem., 323.

^schylus, 97.

^sop, 120.

Africa, 95, 105; geographical study
of, 36.

African Arabs, 96.

Agaric (fungus), 214.

Agaricini (fleshy fungi), 212.

Agarics, 217, 220, 224, 226.

Agaricus (species of fungi), 213 ; cam-
panula ; 217 : campestris, 217 ;
laccatus, 217 ; muscarius, 226.

Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures,
Society for Promotion of, formed
and incorporated, 299 ; charter
of society, 301-304.

Aiken, William E., M.D., cor. mem.,
323.

Alanes, tribe, 99, 100.

Alaska, 246 ; early views concerning,
242 ; supposed to be an island,
250.

Albany, 178, 272, 275, 276, 283, 284,
285, 321, 322.
Academy, 260 ; Semi-Centennial

Discourse at, 135.
County Medical Society, 276 ;
semi-centennial, 283.

Albany, continued —

Institute, annual income allow-
ed by charter, of, 311 ; by-laws
of, 314 - 319 ; by-law relative
to annual address before, 319 ;
by-laws in regard to members,
317, 318 ; by-laws in regard to
duties of officers, 314-316 ; by-
laws authorized by charter,
313 ; catalogue of members,
321-339 ; charter of, 311 - 313 ;
honorary members, 321, 322 ;
corresponding members, 323 -
331 ; resident members, 332 -
337 ; resident members, June
1, 1870, 337 - 339 ; classes in
the several departments, 341 ;
departments of, 311 ; formed
by union of Society for Pro-
motion of Useful Arts and Al-
bany Lyceum of Natural His-
tory, 300, 311, 321 ; interest in
behalf of, 290 ; library and
museum of, 313 ; manual of,
299 ; membership, how con-
stituted, 311 ; officers for 1870,
340 ; officers enumerated, 312 ;
officers, how to be chosen, 312 ;
organized and incorporated,
300 ; organization of, largely
due to the Drs. Beck, 275 ;
origin of, 299, 300 ; proceed-
ings of, 320 ; quorum of, 313.

Lyceum of Natural History, col-
lections made by, 300 : organ-
ized and incorporated, 299 ;
merged into the Albany Insti-
tute, 300, 311, 321 ; charter of,
308-310.

Medical College, 275.

telegraph office, 171, 172.
Albertine branch of family of Saxe

Coburg, 294.
Albrecht, Prof., 62.
Alden, Joseph, D.D.,LL.D., res. mem.,

332, 337.
Alexander, Joseph, res. mem., 332.

Stephen, LL.D., cor. mem., 323.
Alexandria, high school at, 11.

346

Index.

Alexandrian Codex, 261.

AlgaB, 310, 214, 220.

Algebra, course in gymnasium of

l'» rlin, 51, 5 L.
Alger, W. :;.. L06.
Algeria, kabyls of, 103.
Allah, great, 279.
Allegany river, 2
Allen, Benjamin, LL.D., cor. mem.,

Leicester, cor. mem., 323 ; res.,
mem., 871, 332.

Allis, Rev. John SI., res. rn
332, 337.

Alu' Lomon, hon. mem., 287,

288, 321 ; letter from, acknow-
ledging certificate oi honorary
membership, 290.

Aloysii, Galvani, de viribus Electri-
citatis in motn muscularii, com-
mentaria -. 130.

Alpine region, 77 ; summits, 81.

Altair.202.

Althaus, Prof., 63.

Alvord, William, res. mem., 832.

Amazons, 99.

Amendmenl of by-laws of the Al-

bauy Institute, how to bo

made, 319.

to charter of Albany Lyceum of

iral History, bow to be

made, 310.

America, 67, 88, 243, 251 ; all parts
of, represented in German Uni-
ven JO ; British, 80, 81 ;

colleges of, 20 ; derives text
books from < Jermany, 19 ; dis-
co\ ery of, 24 1 ; g< ogra phi( aJ
study of, 36 ; North-Western,
246; Switzerland of, 07; trans
fer of German institutions to,
22, 23.

American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, 136, 177 ;
paper read a1 . 167 : black bear,
killed in the Adirondac region,

i 240; confederation,
continent, scheme to traverse,
255 ; explorer of north-west
coast, •.'."■ 1 ; exploring tours, 256 ;
first entry ol ( lalifornia by, across
the continent, 257 : Fur Com-
pany, 257; interest in Astoria
abandoned, 256 ; Phil
Society Transactions, 210 ; rein-
deer, 2 10 ; rorks. true Bequ
of, discovered, 292.

Ames, Ezra, remarks on, by Win. 11.

Bogart, 278.

Julius 11., res. mem., 332.

Andes mountains, 91.

Andi sinervia, 80.

Andromi culata, 75 ; uiiiriana,

75 ; polifolia, .

Anemone cj tin uorosa,

78 ; Pennsj Ivanica, 78.

Auian. stniii

Animals, functions of, 149 ; relal
of minerals to plants and, 1 is,
L60, L61, Hi'-'; structure of.
11'.), L5

ley Observatory, 170.

Anneslej . William, i

Annin, Joseph, cor. mete

Annual meeting, beld, 26

Anson, voyage by, for trade, .1 1.

Antarctic regi

Antares, 202.

Anthony. Chas. H., elected one of the
curators, 265, 290 ; curator. :i in ;
ns. n, :.7 ; sketch

Prof. Amos Eaton, by,
271 ; incident related by,
mem. 3d class, 2d department,
:; 12 ; mem. 1st class, 2d de-
partment, oil.

Apollo, 115.

Apollodoris, '.)7.

Apparatus, in Berlin Institute of
Arts, 59; i tc. in city trade ^ hools
of Germany, 45.

Aquilegia Cans - 73.

Arah education..; Qguage, 97;

type <>t cavaliers. L02.
Arabs, Ml. 99, 111: African, 96 : cha-

racl J78; high schools of

at Bagdad, etc., 11 : mode of

mount ino- liorst s practiced by,

278.
Arbut us. Alpine. SI .
Arc' . ancient b and,

clas> in, 842 : ancient history and.

report of (dass on. v

Architecture in Caucasus, 108, 10!),

110.

Arctic circle, 248 ; ocean, 2 1<>, 250.

■ : region, 212 ; -
Arcl urns, during eclips ■. 202.
Arenaria Groelandica, 81 ; squarrosa,

;i.

Arethusa bulbosa, 7 7.

Arey, Oliver, res. mem.. 382.
Argonauts, 1 12

Aristophanes, 127: comedies of, 135.
Aristotle, in German universities, 14.

Arithmetic, course of instruction in,

in burger schools of Germany, 35 ;
course of Btudy, in gymnasium

lin, 49, 50 : in city trade
oolsoi Germany, t:>. l 1-

Index.

347

Arkansas river, expedition to find
sources of, 256.

Armature time, 171.

Armenia, 93.

Armenian ladies, 101.

Armsby, James H., M.D., res. mem.,
332, 337; mem. 2d class, 1st
dept., 341.

Armstrong, Mr., 179.

Arsena, 93.

Arsenal at West Troy, 282.

Arsenic in fuel, fact in regard to
mentioned, 196.

Arsina, 93.

Arsinia, 93.

Arsinoe, 93.

Art, lectures on, 64 ; Prussian schools
of, 8.

Arts, Berlin Institute of, 55-59 ; char-
ter of Society for Promotion of
Useful, 305-307; class in, 341; etc.,
charter of Society for Promotion
of; 301, 304; Fine, Berlin Aca-
demy of, 58 ; Paris conservatory
of, 58 ; report of class on, when
due, 343 ; Society for the Promo-
tion of Agriculture, Manufac-
tures and, formed, 299.

Aryan, variety of Caucasian race,
94.

Ascomycetes (sack fungi), 212, 220.

Ashtabula, O., 286.

Asia, 91, 92, 94, 97, 98, 243, 251 ; geo-
graphical study of, 36 ; Minor,
99.

Assyrians, 94.

Astoria, settlement of, 256.

Astronomy, Physics and, class in,
341 ; report when due, 343.

Atlas mountains, 105, 111.

Auerbach's cellar, allusion to, 22.

Augustine's Confessions, 18.

Aulacomnium turgidum, 81.

Ausable river, gorge of, 70 ; source
of, 69.

Austerlitz, Prussian troops at, 2.

Austin, Charles L., res. mem., 332 ;
Moses, cor. mem., 323.

Australia, fungi used in, 224 ; geo-
graphical study of, 36.

Australian bread, made of fungi,
224.

Austria, 322 ; fungi used in, 224 ;
number of universities in, 12 ; re-
lations of with Prussia, 1, 2.

Avalanche lake, 80.

Averill, Horace, res. mem., 332.

Ayala, Juan de, expedition under,
253.

Azof sea, 98.

[Trans, vi']

Babbage, Charles E., first to attempt

construction of difference ma-
chine, 273.
Babcock, Daniel L., res. mem. 332,
327.

James L., M.D., res. mem., 287,
332, 337 ; mem. 2d class, 1st
dept., 341 ; curator, 340.
Babylonia, 93.
Bacon, Marshall J., res. mem., 332.

philosophy of, 14.
Baden, education of lower orders in,

32 ; number of universities in

Grand Duchy of, 12.
Badham, Dr., 224.
Baeyer, Prof., 63.
Baffin's bay, 244, 246.
Bagdad, high school at, 11.
Bahler, Rev. Louis H., cor. mem., 323.
Bailey, James S., M.D., res. mem. 332,
337.

John M., res. mem., 332, 337.

William H., M.D., res. mem.,
332, 337.
Bailey's beads as seen at eclipse of

1869, 184, 185, 195, 198, 200,

201, 205.
Bain's telegraph, 295.
Baker, tour of, 93.
Balch, Vestus, cor. mem., 323.
Ballard carbine, 228.

John, cor. mem., 323.
Ballston, 322.

Balmanno, Robert, cor. mem., 323.
Bamman, Henry W, res. mem., 332.
Banks, Robert, L., elected res. rnem.,

296, 332, 337 ; mem. 3d class, 1st

dept., 341.
Banting pamphlet, review of, by Dr.

H. Townsend, 298.
Barber, John, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.

Joseph, corporate member of
society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Bard, Samuel, M.D., cor. mem., 323 ;

corporate member of Society for

Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,

302.
Barker, Arthur, cor. mem., 323.
Barnard, Daniel D., res. mem., 332.

Frederick J., res. mem., 332, 337.

Robert A., cor. mem., 323.

Samuel W, res. mem., 332.
Barnes, William, res. mem., 332, 337;

mem. 1st class, 3d dept., 342.
Baron, Dr., 61.
Barron ; see Le Barron.
Barrow, writings of, 245.

44

348

/m! .1 .

Bashan, Og, king of,
Bas&ett, M.D.. cor. mem.,

William II.. cor. mem., 838.

dan, Dr., 84.
Bates, David S.. cor. mem., 838.
Battery, galvanic, remarks <>n. 186,

1 fo.
Bavaria, education of Lower orders

in, 83; number of universities

in, 13.
Bay, John, 383.

Dr. William, notice of, by Dr.
Willard,388.
Beach, Abraham, corporate member
pf Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 803.

Cn]it. Jesse, tJ. s. A., cor. mem.,

Bear hunt in the Adirondack, 227-

210.
Beardslee, Rufus <i., res. mem., 333.
Beardsley, Levi, cor. mem., 338.
Bears, hybernating habits of, 837,

58, 389.

regarded as non-carnivorous, 339.
Beaufoy, Henry, bon. mem., 831.
Beaver, the, 239.
Beck. John B., M.D., cor. mem.,

John C, 275.

Lewis ;'., M.D., 209; corporate
member of Albany Lyceum
of Natural History, 30S ; first
cor. secretary of Albany Ly-
ceum of Nat oral 1 1 ist > >iy, 310 ;
notice of, read, 275,270; res.
num., 332.

Nicholas F., LL.D., res. mem.,
332.

Theodoric Romeyn, corporate
member of Albany Lyceum of
Natural History, 308 ; first
vice president of Albany Ly-
ceum of Natural History, 810;
one of thr first vice presidents

of the Albany Institute. 812 ;
relatives of. 875; res. mem..

Beckett, Thomas, M.l> . res. mem.,

332, 337; num. 2d class, 1st

dept., 841.
B sher, LutherP., D. D., res. mem.,

883.
Beers. Timothy P., M.I>., cor. mem.,

833.
Behrend, Dr., 61.
Behring, discoveries by, in America,

Behring's straits, 850.
Bekker, Trot'.. 85.
Bellermann, Prof., oi

Bellin, map b

Bellin's chai

Bender, Ephraim II., res. mem., 883,

887.
Benedict, Henry M., res. mem., 388,

Lewis, -Ir., res. mem., 883.

Benjamin, < feorge II., res. mem., :

Bennary, Prof., 80, 65.

Bennett, Bev. Alva, cor. mem., 82

Benson, Egbert, corporate member
of Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 80 .

Berkeley, Dr., 335.
Rev. M. J., 811.

Berkshire Co., Mass., 376.

Berlin, 58, si;. 8*3 : Acad< my of Pine
Arts, 58 . '■' ederick " William
Gymnasium of, 48 55; Institute
oi Arts in, 55-59 . >•• penses of,
59 : meetings at professors'

houses in, is : medical reputa-
tion of University of, 15; num-
ber of professors and students in
University at, L7 ; Royal Real
School of, 45-48; University of,
13, 65, 66 ; museum of. 45.

Bernardo, Capt., 848 ; strait-, .

Renter. Prof.. 61.

Beseler, Prof., til.

Beswick, Bamuel, alleged discovery
of a new planet by, 881.

Bethlehem, 111 ; primus cerasus at,
833.

Beynch, Prof.. G3.

Biberstein, Mr., 99.

Bible, ancient manuscript copy of,
2H0 ; instruct ion given in German
primary schools. 84, 86; Latin,
13 ; quotations from, for school
purposes in Germany, 88 -"■l .

Sinai, the, abstract of paper on,

by Dr. Townsend, 860; taught

in larger schools of Germany, 88.
Bibliorum Codex Binaiticus, abstract

of paper on, by Dr. Townsend,

860.
BickneU, Thomas, cor. mem., 838.
Bigarre, Pierre De Pa. corporate

member of Society for Promotion
Agriculture, etc.. 808.
Bigelow, John M., M. I'., res. mem.,

333, 887 : mem. 3d class, 1st dept.,

341,
Binary compounds, 159, 160.
Bingham, Reuben IP. res. mem.,

'.'<■',", ; mem. 3d class. 1st dept., 841.
Bird, William A., cor. mem., 323.
Bishop, Samuel P., M. D., cor. mem..

333.

Index.

349

Black Sea, 91, 92, 98, 112, 116.

Blagge, John, corporate inember of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.

Blindia acuta, 80.

Bliss, Porter C, cor. mern., 323.

Blood, circulation of, 132-134.

Bloodgood, Francis A., cor. mem.,
323.
Joseph, M.D., cor. mem., 323.
S. De Witt, res. mem., 332 ; cor-
porate member of Albany Ly-
ceum of Natural History, 308 ;
second vice-president jof Albany
Lyceum of Natural History,
310.

Blumenback, 94.

Boardman, Rev. William T., res.
mem., 332.

Bodega y Quadra, Iuan de la, expe-
dition under, 253.

Bogart, Cornelius J., corporate mem-
ber of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 302.
John G., cor. mem., 323
William H., cor. mem., 323 ; res.
mem., 332 ; remarks by, on
Ezra Ames, 273.

Bogert, Herman H., cor. mem., 323.
Stephen V. R., cor. mem., 323.

Bohm, Prof., 62.

Bologna, 130 ; law school, 15.

Bomford, George, cor. mem., 324.

Bonitz, Dr., 65.

Bonn, University at, 12 ; number of
professors and students in Uni-
versity at, 17.

Bosphorus, 118.

Boston, 254 ; ships from, 248 ; tele-
graph office, 171 ; telegraph sta-
tion, 168.

Bostwick, C. B., 178.
Mr., 186.

Botany, report of class on, when due,
343 ; class in, 342.

Botrytis bassiana, 223.

Bott, Arthur, paper by, on Prussia
and German system of Education,
1 ; res. mem., 332, 337 ; mem.,
1st class, 2d dept., 341 ; vice pre-
sident, 2d dept., 340.

Boulware, Jephthah R., M.D., res.
mem., 332, 337 ; mem. 2d class,
1st dept., 341.

Bourg, 88.

Bouton, Richard M., cor. mem., 323.

Bowman, Todd and, Cyclopedia, 135.

Boyd, David I., res. mem., 332, 337.

Boyd, William S., res. mem., 332.

Brace, John P., cor. mem., 323.

Bradford, John M., D.D., res. mem.,

332.
Bradish, Alvah, cor. mem., 323.
Bradley, John E., res. mem., 332, 337 ;
mem. 1st class, 1st dept., 341.
Samuel B., cor. mem., 323.
Brainard, John, cor. mem., 323.
Brandenburg, province of, as a geo-
graphical study, 36; swamps
of, 1.
Braun, Prof., 63.

Breslau, University at, 12 ; number
of professors and students in
University at, 17.
Bridgman, Chas. D. W., D.D., res.

mem., 332, 337.
Briggs, John (C. E.), cor. mem., 323 ;

master, 247.
Bright, Marshall K. H., res. mem.,

332.
Bright's disease, 87.
Brinckerhoff, Edward, res. mem., 332.
British America, 80, 81.

Columbia, recently unknown,

241 ; government, 245, 252 ;

Museum, 58, 261 ; trading

posts, 256.

Brodhead, Charles C, cor. mem., 323.

J. Romeyn, cor. mem., 323.
Bronson, Henry, M.D., res. mem.,

332.
Brooks, Micah, cor. mem., 324.
Broome, John, cor. mem., 324.
William, cor. mem., 324.
Brown, A. E., resident member, 332,
337 ; appointed on committee,
269, 289 ; elected one of the cu-
rators, 265 ; treasurer, 265, 289,
340 ; in the chair, 277, 288 ;
mem., 1st class, 3d dept., 342 ;
motions by, 270, 284, 287 ; no-
minations by, 270, 271.
A. Hyer, res. mem., 332.
Jacob, cor. mem., 324.
James C, res. mem., 332, 337.
Rev. David, res. mem., 332.
William Linn, cor. mem., 324.
Brownell,Richmond, M.D., cor. mem.
324.
Thomas C. D.D., LL.D., cor.
mem., 324.
Bruce, Archibald, M.D., cor. mem.,

324.
Bruno, Heceta, expedition under, 253.
Bruns, Prof., 61.
Bryant, Cyrus, cor. mem., 324.

Wm. C, two brothers of, at
Rens. Poly. Inst., 271.
Bryologist (L. Lesquereux), 209.
Bryurn pallens, 81.

350

1 11(1 ! X.

Buaclic. geographer, 246 ; maps by,

•Jilt; title of work by, 848.
Buel, David, cor. mem,, 82 !.

I »: i \ 1 < 1 . Jr., cor. mem., 82 I.

Ji aem., ;;:;2.

Buell, Eenry T., res. mem., 288 382.
Buffalo, 1 ','.). 286 ; telegraph office,

1 i I : telegraph station, 168.
Bulfinch's harbor, discovery of, 254.
Bullions, Peter, D.D., res. mem.,!
Bunker Hill, battle of, 276.
Burbank, Asa. M.D.. res. mem., 832.

Joseph, .M.D.. cur. mem., 824.
Burden, Eenry, res. mem., 332,837.
Burner or middle schools in >•<!

many, 33.
Burke. Sir .1. Bernard, honorary

member, 288, 290, 821.
Burlington, towa, 2
Burnett, Edward !■'.. elected resident

member, 262, 832 ; abstracl of

paper by, on Study of Language,

263.
Buni'iiif, Guulemain and, observers,

1G9.
Burnt Mountain, 229,230, 231, 232.
Burrou£h, Marmaduke M.D., cor.

mem., 324.
Bush, Walter H., res. mem.. 832, 337.
Butler. Benjamin F..LL.D., res. mem.,

882.
Butler, Bishop, 129.
By-Laws of Albany Institute, 313,

81 l-:'.r.t.
Byron, Lord, 117 ; Corsair, reading

of, by Geo. W. Clinton, 271.
Cabadar, 99.

Lrdians, tribe of, 99.
Cabrillo, discovered, 211 ; discovery

by, 248.
Calbe, 88.
Calcliis, 92.
Caldwell, William, res. mem.. 382.

Caleopterous insects. 224.

Calhoun, John I '.. Bec'y of war,282.

California, 248, 291; discovery of,
'.Ml ; early uncertainty concern-
ing, 242; recent ignorance con-
cerning, '.' I i. 256 : effbrl to dis-
cover coast- BpbI historic
day of, 262 : Fremont's expedi
tion to, "J.")? ; Lower, 252; disco-
vered, 'J I I ; < •■-. | .edit ion of Women

to, 110, 117 ; and tlie.X. \\ . i
one hundred years since, 241-
268; recent article on probable

future of, 2.~.; ; Upper, redisco
verv of, by Spaniards, 261 ; gulf
of, 256; Bhip,24S, 245.
Calla paluBtris, 7(1.

Callao, in Peru. 248.
( alliope, 1 15.
Calopogon pulchellus, 77.
Cambridge, Eng., students at, 21;

MaBB.,

traditionalism of, p.i.
rjniversity, composed of several
colleges, 1 7.

I 'ainel, nature of the, .

Campbell, Archibald, res. mem.. I
Duncan, res. mem., 382, 387 ;

mem. 3d class, 8d dept., :: 12.
John X., D.D., res. mem.,

elected vice president of 3d

dept., 265.
William, M.D., cor. mem., 824 :

res. mem., !
William W., cor. mem., 324.
Canada, certain geological features,
of. 292, 298; French int. rests in.
'J 17: geological survey of, 292;
notice of Potsdam sandstone in,
by Prof. Hall, 2(12; limestones,
recent discover!, s in, 291.

Cantharellus (species of fungi), 218.

Cantine, John, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc.. 802.

Canton. ( lonn., 321.

Cap.- Blanco, discovery of, 241, 248.

Cape Horn, 244.

CapeUa,202.

;ol, at Albany. 2.v~>.

('apron, Beth, M.I>.. COT. m- in., 82 1.

Card.dl, William '1'.. or. 111.111.. 824.

Cares aperta, 80; Boughtonii, 80;
scirpoiilea, 80.

Carey, Matthew, cor. mem., 324.
Cargonoff; C., C<>1., 113.

( lariDOO ( American reindeer), 2 10.

Carmichael, Wm. M., 1>.1>., cor.

liien... 82 I.
t larolana, < loxe's,
Carolinas, the, 210, '211.
Carpenter, Edward A., M.D., res.
mem.. 882, •'■•o ; mem. 3d class,
:;.l d.pt.. 312.
George W., res. mem., :;;.2.338;

in the chair, 264 : mem. 1st
3B, 1st dept., 8 I I .

Philip P., rh. D.,cor. mem., 324.
Carr, Ezra !>'.. res. mem., 382.

Carroll. Howard, res. mem., 882.

Cart. sius. philosophy of, 1 1.
Cartwright, Geo. W.. cor. mem., 324.
< 'arv.T. Jonathan, 255.
Caspian ditt's. L06 ; Bea, 91, 92, 98, 95,

us. km. lis.
Cass, Schoolcraft and, expeditions by ,

Index.

351

Cassidy, John P., res. mem., 332.

William, res. mem., 332, 338;
mem. 3d class, 3d dept., 342.

Castor, 202.

Casts, collection of at Berlin Insti-
tute of Arts, 58.

Catalogue of members of Albany In-
stitute, 321 - 339.
of plants, 211 ; of N. Carolina,
215.

Catechism, Protestant, taught in
German burger schools, 33.

Catenae-Patrum, 13.

Cathay, shortest route to, from Eu-
rope, 258.

Catskill mountains, 80, 81.

Caucasia, women of, 113, 114.

Caucasian Mountains and their In-
habitants, paper on, by Dr. Geo.
L. Ditson, 91 - 119 ; origin of
name of, 98 ; race, 94.

Caucasus, 93, 94, 97 ; architecture of,
108-110; clans of, 95, 96; cliffs
of, 106 ; horses of, 102, 103 ; mar-
riage in, 111, 112; minerals in,
93 ; moral code of, 111 ; original
inhabitants of, 99 ; population
and dialects of, 94 ; religion of,
97 ; slavery in, 116 ; volcanoes
in, 93 ; warriors of, 102 ; women
of, 110.

Cavendish, voyages by, for trade,
244.

Cavert, Michael P., nominated as res.
mem., 288 ; elected res. mem.,
291 ; res. mem., 332.

Cedar mountain, battle of, 265.

Cells, functions of, 152, 155, 158 ; or-
ganic, 148, 149, 151, 152, 154,

155, 156, 159 ; different forms of,

156, 157.
Celtic tribes, 95.

Censorship of publications by Insti-
tute, authorized, 261.

Cerasus purnila, 71.

Certificate, teacher's, in college at
Dresden, 41.

Chack, M., voyager, 250.

Chamberlain, Frank, res. mem., 332,
338.

Chambers, Mr., 95.

Champignon (fungus), 224.

Champlain, lake, 68, 69 ; valley, 81.

Chapin, Loring D., cor. mem., 324.
Moses, cor. mem., 324.

Chapman, Josiah, cor. mem., 324.

Charlemagne, descendants of, 1.

Charlesworth Magazine, 135.

Charter of Albany Institute, 311-
313.

Charter of Albany Lyceum of Natural
History, 308-310.

of Society for the Promotion of
Useful Arts, 305-307.

of the Society for the Promotion
of Agriculture, etc., 301-304.
Chatfield, Alfred F., res. mem., 332,

338 ; mem. 2d class, 2d dept., 342.
Chaumout, James Le Ray De, cor.

mem., 324.
Chazy limestone, 70.
Chemical telegraph, 169.
Chemistry, physiology and, report of

class on, when due, 343 ; in city

trade schools of Germany, 43, 45 ;

lectures on, 60.
Chester, Asa, M.D., res. mem., 332.

John, D.D., res. mem., 332.
Chicago, 136.
Childs, Francis, corporate member of

Society for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 302.
Chili, De Fontes in, 249.
China, shortest route to, from Europe,

258.
Chinese maps, 251.
Chlorospermous algae, 214.
Christian church, history of, taught

in German burger schools, 34.
Christianity, the two levers of, 22 ;

history of, taught in primary

schools of Germany, 25.
Christy, Asa, M.D., cor. mem., 324.
Chronograph, Dudley Obs., 170 ; used

for eclipse observations, 179, 180 ;

use of, in compensating pendu-
lums, 266, 268.
Chronograph, records by, of eclipse,

195.
Chronometer, 178.
Chrysostom de Sacerdotio, 18.
Church, Philip, cor. mem., 324.
Cimmerians, 99.
Cincinnati, 179 ; plants of, 211.
Circassia, 101 ; women of, 100, 101,

106, 107, 108, 109, 110.
Circassian belles, 105 ; knife, 102 ;

slavery, 116 ; slave trade, 119.
Circassians, 94, 98, 104 ; costume of,

100, 101, 102 ; domestic life of,

106 ; war of, 119.
Circuits, telegraph, 171.
City trade schools of Germany, 42 ;

course of instructions in, 42-45.
Ckaf, mountains of, 98.
Ckafthagi, mountains, 98.
Clans, Caucasian, 95, 96.
Clapp, Charles, res. mem., 332.

Sylvester, cor. mem., 324.
Clark, Alvan, 180.

352

Index.

dark, Lewis and, 356.
Walter, res. mem., B
William \\ '., ree. mem., ■
Clarke. Aaron, res. mem., 882 ; o r.
mem., !
iiiel. cur. mem., 82 l.

Dr. A. lam, 99.

< teorge Hyde, cor. mem., 324.
I ■ l •■. res. nii-iii.. :;:;:; ; oor.
mem., 824.
Clarkson, Matthew, corporate mem-
ber of Society lor Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 80
Classes, in Teachers' * iollege, in I 'res
den, 89 : in the several depart-
ments. :;n : in the several de-
partments, by-laws in regard to,
318,819; reports of, when due,
843.
Classification of natural objects, 1 17.
( Haytonia, 73.
Clematis \ i rticilaris, 72.

Virginiana, 12.
Cleve, duchy of, 1.
Cleveland, O., IT'.t. 288.
Clintun, Charles A., cor. mem.,

DeWitt, hon. mem., 821 ; cor.
mem., 324 ; death of, announc-
ed, 271.
Franklin cor. mem., 324.
George, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc.. 802.
George W., I.L.I'., formerly a
student at Itens. Poly. Inst.,
271 : cor. mem., 324 ; res.
mem., 388.
Clintonia borealis, 80.
Clio, 115.

clock, sidereal, used in observing
total eclipse, 1 7s.
-■, Stephen, cor. mem.. 324.
Clowes, Timothy, LL.D., cor. mem.,

Clyineiie, 1)7.

-t survey, 195 ; r. S.. determina-
tions by, i ;;

Cochran, James, cor. mem., 82 1.
W'aiti r I.., cor. in. in., 32 1.

William l> . res. mem., '.',:',:',.

Cod( indrian, 261 ; Sinaiticus,

260; Vatican, 260.

Coffin. Prof. .1. II. C, Snpt. of Nau-
tical Almanac, 177.

I 3well,Masou P., M.D.,res.mem.,

888.
Coleman, Lev. Leighton, nominated
cor, mem., '.".'7 ; elected cor.

mem., 298 : cor. mem., '■■
Coleridge, i

Collections of charts, casts, and in-
struments, 66.

College of Physicians and Burgeons
.New \ ork, 276.

s_\ Btem incomplete,

teachers in I Dresden,
( Colleges, American, 20.

Normal, in Bavaria, etc., 32.
Colore of fungi, 214. 215.
Colt, .ludali, cor. mem., 8
Columbia, British, recently un-
known. •.' 1 1 .

county. 283.

river. 257; discovery of, 254;
lenl of Astoria at mouth
of. 256.
Colvin, Andrew J., res. mem., :;:;:'..
338.
v~erplanck, n s, mem.. 833, !
mem. 1st i id dept., '■'• 11 ,

cor. sec'y 2d dept..:! H); narra-
tive of a hear hunt by, 227 -
240.
Committee, auditing, on treasurer's
report, appointed, 2(11: library,
report of relative to binding, sub-
mitted, 269, :. re-
port by, 262,268 ; of publication,
authorized to exercise a censor-
ship, 261 : on name- to he added
to Naturalists' Directory, ap-
pointed, 288 ; on nomination of
officers, appointed, 289 ; on nomi-
nations, report of, 289 ; to audit.

treasurer's account, report by,

868, 269 ; to examine minutes

and collect amendments to con-
stitution and by-laws, appointed,
: treasurer's report, appoint-
ed, 289.

Composites, 213.

Conasset, tow n of, 218.

Congress Hall, Albany, half-century

dinner at, to Dr. Bay, '.'
Coniomyoetes (dust fungi), 212.

Coniolhecium stilesianum. 22

Conkling, Alfred, res. mem., ■■

Connecticut. 2-V> : red sandstones of,

121 ; riv. r, 284.
Connor. Lawrence, res. mem., ;;:;::.
Conostomum boreale, 81 .

Conrad. Timothy A., cor. mem., I

Conservatory of Arts. Paris. 58.

Constantinople, 1 17.
Converse, Sherman, cor. mem., 324.
Cook, Capt., 254 ; discoveries by, 250 :
voyage by, 252.
irge ll'., LL.D, res. mem..
Cooley, LeBoyC, res. mem., 833,8)
mem. 2d class, 1st dept.. 841.

Index.

353

Cooper, Fayette, M.D., cor. mem., 324.

Isaac, cor. mem., 324.

John A., nominated as resident
member, 288 ; elected resident
member, 291 ; res. mem., 333,
338.

John Tayler, res. mem., 333, 338.

Paul F., nomination by, 297 ;
res. mem., 333, 338 ; mem. 3d
class, 3d dept., 342.

William, res. mem., 333 ; cor.
mem., 324.
Copper mine river, 255.
Coprinarii (series of fungi), 213, 217.
Coprini (ephemeral fungi), 218.
Copriniis (species of fungi). 213.
Cordova, high school at, 11.
Cordyceps, 223.
Corning, Clarence H., res. mem., 338.

Erastus, res. mem., 333, 338 ; hon.
mem., 321.
Corona, during eclipse, 205 ; as seen

at eclipse of 1869, 186, 189, 190.
Corona?, seen during eclipse, 203.
Cortereal, voyager, 250.
Cortes, Fernando, 241.
Cossacs, 91.
Coventry, Alexander, M.D.,cor.'mem.,

324.
Coxe, statement by, 247.
Crawe, Ithamar B., M.D., cor. mem.,

325.
Crittenden, Alonzo, Ph. D.,res. mem.,

333.
Croswell, Edwin, res. mem., 333.
Crouse, John B., M.D., cor. mem.,

325.
Crown Point, 74.
Cruikshank, James, LL.D., res. mem.,

333 ; elected treasurer of 3d

dept., 289 ; nominations by,

288, 291.
Cryptogamia, 210, 220.
Cryptogamous plants, 209, 215.
Crystallization, 148, 150, 161.
Cuarius river, 93.
Cumberland mountains, 217.
Cumming, Hooper, D.D., cor. mem.,

325
Cundjemonk river, 229, 231, 232.
Cura, 93.

Curalius river, 93.
Curapolis, 93.
Curene, 93.
Cureschata, 93.
Curesta, 93.
Curestica regio, 93.
Curia, 93.

Curtis (Dr.), author of Catalogue of
Plants, 211.

Curtis, Prof., 64.

Cushman, Thomas H., res. mem., 333.

William M., res. mem., 333.
Cusick, David, the Tuscarora Indian

tract published by, 295.
Cuvier, Baron, 122, 239.
Cyclopedia of Anatomy, etc., 135.
Cynips (parasitic plant), 222.
Cypera inflexus, 219.
Cyrus (Kur) river, 92.
Cyttaria (fungus), 225.
Czar, Russian, 260, 261.
Damascene blade, 102.
Dana, James D., LL.D., cor. mem.,
325.

James F., M.D., cor. mem., 325.

Samuel L., cor. mem., 325.
Danforth, Edward, res. mem., 333,

338 ; mem. 3d class, 1st dept.,

341.
Daniell's battery, 136, 137, 139, 140,

142, 143, 144, 146.
Darling, Henry, D.D., res. mem., 333,

338 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept., 342.
Dartmouth College, 295.
Davidson, Gilbert C, res. mem., 333.
Davies, Charles, LL.D., cor. mem.,
325.

Thomas L., cor. mem., 325.
Davis, James, res. mem.. 333.

John, res. mem., 333.
Davis's strait, 248.
Dawson, Henry B., nominated as cor.

mem., 297 ; elected cor. mem.,

298, 325.
Day's relay, 169.
Dead sea, 278.

Dean, Amos, LL.D., res. mem., 333 ;
elected curator, 265, 290.

James, Jr., cor. mem., 325.

Judge, of Oneida Co., paper by

embodying Indian tradition

respecting the creation, 294,

295.

Declaration of Independence, Robt.

R. Livingston one of committee

to draft, 299.
Deerfield, 322.
De Fer, map by, 242.
De Fonte, Admiral, 246, 248, 251 ;

voyage by, 249 ; in Chili and

Peru, 249 ; straits of, 250, 253 ;

voyage of, 251, 254.
De Fuca, Jean, a Greek pilot, 247,

251 ; opinion of, 250 ; straits of,

247, 251, 252, 254, 255 ; voyages,

254.
De Fuentes (De Fontes), in Chili and

Peru, 249.
Degeukoll, Dr., 61.

354

Indt x.

De Graff, Jesse, ree. mem., 333.
Degrees, academical, origin of, 15 j

Open I" all in Herman univer-

Bitiee, 20; conferred by Reus.

Polytechnic Lnstitate, :!1 1 ; pro

causa honoris, 1~>.
Do Kay, James E., M.D., cor. mem.,

325.
Do La Bigarre, Pierre, cor. mem.,

825 : Bee Bigarre.

if M. John, c irporate member
of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., ;;d:;.

John, Jr., cor. mem., 325.
IV La Fuente, Admiral, 249.
Delamater, John, M.D., cor. mem.,

Delancy, John P.. corporate member
of Society f<>r Promotion of Agri-
culture, i'lr., 302.

Delavan, Edward ('., res. mem., 2^:;.
333.
Eenry W., cor. rnem., 825.

Delaware, 297.

I >.-lisJt-. Joseph, 218, 250; theory of
maps by, 2 19 ; maps by brol her
of, 247 : title of work by, 246 ;
opinion of, concerning west-
ern coast, 243.
Joseph Nicholas, Bketch of, 246.

Delisle's map, 255.

Demi n y;, Philander, res. mem., 333,
338.

Denniston, Hugh, res. mem., 333.

Departments, in Albany Institute,
in inn. rated, 311 ; proceedings
of, 320: by-laws in regard to
classes in the several, 318, 319 ;
classes in the several, 341.

Deriiiini (series of fungi), 218.

Detroit Telegraph Station, 1 OS.

De Vaugondy. Robert, a French geo-
grapher, 2 I'.i.

De Vriese, William II., cor. mem.,
825.

Dewey, Chester, l>.D., LL.D., cor.
mem., 325.

DeWitt, Abraham V.,res. mem., 333,

Benjamin, one of the secretaries

of Society for Promotion of

Dseful Arts, 805.
Benjamin, .M.l>.. cor. mem., 325.
John, !>.!>.. cor. mem.,
Lewis, res. mem., 383.
Moses, cor. mem. of Society for

Promotion of Agricull ore, etc.,

802.
Richard Varick, res. mem., 838 ;

corporate member of Albany

DeWitt, Richard Varick, com in. —
Lyo am of Natural Hi
:!(I8; one of the first curators
of the Albany Lyceum of Na-
tural II istoi v. :;Kt ; elei
president of 1st dept., 265, 289.
Richard Varick, Jr., n s. mem.,

333, 338.
Simeon, res. mem., 333; cor.
mem. of Society for Pro-
motion of Agriculture, etc.,
302 ; one of the first vice-pre-
sidents of the Albany Insti-
tute, 312.
Dexter, George, res. mem., 333, 338.

James, res. mem., 333.
Dey, John Ogden, tea mem., 888.
DejZeng, Frederic!. A .cor. mem.,825.
Diana, 115.

ensia lapponica, 81 .
in, I8i, 132.
Dickenson. John l>., cor. mem., 325.
Dickey, Andrew, res. m< m., 338,888.
Dicranum blytii, 80.
elongatum, 80.
polycarpum, 80.
Dictiophyton, genus, of fossil plants,

261.
Diet of Frankfort, complaint against,
on account of sale of degrees, 15.
Dieterica, Prof., 60, 85.
Diff.Galv., L69.

Difference machine, attempted con-
struction of, by C. E. Babbage,
273.
Digestion, Food and. paper on, read

by Dr. II. Townsend, 298.
Dingley, Amasa, corporate member
of Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 802.
Diploma, teacher's, in college at

Dresden, 41.
Dipterous insects. 22 1.

1 discipline needed ill schools, 22.

Ditson, George !>.. M.D., res. mem.,
883, 888 : paper by, on Cauca-
sian Mountains and their Inha-
bitants, 91-1 lit ; mem. 2d class,
3d dept., 842.

I>i\. John A., LL.D., res. mem., 333.

peak, 77.
Dixon, voyage by, 25i
Doane, Rt. Rev. William C, DJ),

res. mem., 888, 838 ; mem. 2d

class, 3d dept., 8 1 2.

Dobbs, Gov., 2 !■'» : Russian explorer.
242 : map by, 243 ; ship, 243 :
argumenl by, 2 Is ; opinion of,
concerning western coast, 243.

Dobson, Judah, cor. mem., 325.

Index.

355

Don river, 98.

Doolittle, Edwin A., res. mem., 333.

Isaac, cor. mem., 325.
Dorman, 0. M., res. mem., 333.
Dorner. Prof. Dr., 60.
Doty, Col. Lockwood L., elected res.

mem., 260 ; res. mem., 333.
Douglass, David B., LL.D., cor. mem.,

325.
Douw, Volkert P., lion, mem., 321 ;
res. mem., 333.
Volckert P., res. mem., 333,
338.
Dove, Prof., 63.

Dow, Jonathan, M.D., cor. mem., 325.
Drake, Daniel, M.D., cor. mem., 325.
Sir Francis, 252 ; discovery of
New Albion by, 242 ; voyages
by, for trade, 244,
Drawing, course of instruction in, in
burger schools of Germany, 38 ;
course in gymnasium of Berlin,
49-51 ; in city trade schools of
Germany, 44, 45.
Dresden, 83 ; Teachers' College in, 39.
Droysen, Prof., 64.
Duane, James, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Dublin, Ireland, 321 ; castle, 288.
DuBois, Reymond, Prof., 62, 64.
Ducatel, Judah T., cor. mem., 325.
Dudley, Charles E., res. mem., 333.
Observatory, 136, 167, 168, 172,
177, 178, 179, 180, 195 ; annals
of, 170 ; chronograph, 170 ;
method of testing personal
equation in use at, 297 ; tabu-
lating machine at, 274.
Duhring, Dr., 63, 64.
Dunlap, William, cor. mem. of So-
ciety for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 302.
Dunn, Edward, res. mem., 333.
Dupratz, Abbe, 239,
D'Urville, a French navigator, 252.
Duryea's Brigade, history of, 265,

281.
Dutch literature, 290.

the, 244 ; buildings in Albany
and Schenectady, 285 ; land-
lady and lingo, 285 ; geograph-
ers, 251.
Dutton, Clarence E., U. S. A., res.
mem., 333, 338 ; mem. 1st class,
2d dept., 341.
Eagle river, 98.
Earth, the planet, 281.
Easterday, Prof. L. F. M., 177.
East India trade, 244.

[Trans. vi.~\ 45

Eaton, Amos, 209 ; principal of Rens-
selaer Polytechnic Institute,
sketch of by Prof. C. H. An-
thony, 271 : cor. mem., 325.
Eaton's Botany, 211.
Ebert, Prof., 62.
Eck, Dr., 61.
Eclipse, total of Aug. 7, 1869, 177,

207 ; described, 183-207.
Eddv, Caspar W., M.D., cor. mem.,

325.
Edgerton, Bela, cor. mem., 325.

Fay, cor. mem., 325.
Edmeston, Andrew, cor. mem., 325.
Edmond's Point, 80.
Education, elementary, compulsory
in Germany, 5.
obligatory and thorough needed,
22 ; Prussian and German
system of, 1 ; moral, in pri-
mary schools of Germany, 24 -
29 ; hardly known among the
Circassians, 106 ; compulsory,
in Bavaria and other provinces,
32.
Edwards, Alfred, res. mem. 333.
Isaac, res. mem., 333, 338.
James, res. mem., 333.
Egypt, 121.
Egyptian lily, 76.
Ehlers, John, cor. mem., 325.
Eights, Abraham, of Albany, 276.
James, M.D., res. mem., 333. 338 ;
cor. mem., 325; vol. of Transac-
tions presented to, 265 ; one of
the first curators and the first
draftsman of the Albany Ly-
ceum of Natural History, 310 ;
corporate member of Albany
Lyceum of Natural History,
308.
Jonathan, M.D., res. mem., 333 ;
notice of, read by Dr. S. D.
Willard, 276.
William, 276.
Elba, North, 80.
Eldorado, 118.
Election of officers, 265, 289.
Electric current, law of velocity, 169,
175 ; velocity of over telegraph
wire, 167-176.
Ellicott, Andrew, cor. mem., 325.
Elliott, Ezekiel B., cor. mem., 325.
Ellis, Henry, opinion of, concerning
western coast, 243, 248 ; writings
of, 245.
Elmendorf, Joachim, D.D., res. rnem.,
333, 338 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept.,
342.
Embree, Effingham, cor. mem., 325.

356

Index.

Emerson, George V., res. mem.,
iiun. James EL, res. mem., 833,
■ ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept., :'■ 12.

Emmons, Prof. I . . 18 ; r» b. mem.,
338 : cor. mem., 825.

Empetrum nigrum, 81.

Empie, Adam, D.D., cor. mem., 825.

Engel, the Swiss geographer, 248,
■. 251 : opinion of concerning
California, 242.

England, derives text-books from
Germany, 19 ; dry rot in,
fungi used in, 225.

English, the, 34 I. 345; (Anglois) na-
vigators. 346; empire, thai of
sea, 22; Bag, 252; geograph-
ers, 349, 351 : government, mis-
understanding between C. E.
Babbage and. :;?:; ; language,
201 : snidy of, in city trade
schools of Germany, 43, 44;
magazine of, 1 70^. 349; nation,
IK): voyagers, 345; trading
companies, - 15 ; walnut, 91.

Eozoon, geological position of the,
394.

Ephesus, 93.

EpicrisiB, Pries', 213.

Erato, 115,

Erdmannsdorffer, Dr., 64.

Erhard, Dr., 62.

Ericaceae, 75.

Erlangen, oniversity at, 12.

Ernran, Prof., 63.

Ernestine branch of family of Saxe
Coburg,294.

Essex county, 09, 78; flora of, 69; hills
of, 7i).

[nstitute, communication from,
288.

Ethnology, as applied to inhabitants
of < iaucasus, '•) 1.

Enlenburg, Dr., 62.

Europe, s|. 91, Dl. Ho, 180,

powers of. -j 1 1 ; all countries of,
represented in German universi-
ties, 30; geographical study of,
36 ; shortest route from to < !hina
ami Ja] : geological sur-

v \ B iii. 292.

European, firsl crossing of northern

pari of America by, ".'•"iii : the
firsl to winter on the N . W.
coast, 854; cations, fungi used
l>y, 32 1 : exploration of America,
241 : western continenl untra-
versed by a, until within a hun-
dred V"
Europeans, discoveries by, 248; firsl
view of the N. W. coasl by

(lack sea. 91, 92, 96, 104,

lis.
Examinations, in Berlin Institute of
Arts, 59 ; for degrees in Prussian
universities. 15; in normal semi-
naries of Prussia, 0 ; in Prussian
olsof Industry and Arts

in Teachers' College a1 Dresden,
40, -11 ; of schools and teacl
in Bavaria, • B8.

Expenses of Berlin Institute of Arts,

.V.).
Fabbrucci, Lee., 65
faculties, university, 13.
Fahrenheit's thermometer, 204.
Fasoldt, Thai

a of i he Adirondacs, C7, 68.
Featherstonhaugh, Geo. W.( F. H. S.,
- mem., '■

Federalist, the, copies of Vol. II, of

first edition of, on hand. 262.
Ferguson, James, res. mem., 888;

. mem., 325.
Ferns. 220.

Ferrao, .lose Pell, cor. mem., 825.
Ferris, Isaac, D.D., LL.D., res. mem.,

333.
Fidler, Lancelot, res. mem., 888.
Finn Industry, lectures on, 64.

finch, John, cor. mem., :

Fine Arts, Berlin Academy of, 58.

Fins, 94.

Fischer, Dr., 02.

Fistulina hepatica (fungus), 218.

Fitton, William II., M.P., F. II. S..

cor. mem., 825.
Fizeau and Gounelle, observers, 100.
Fleming, Peter, cor. mem., 826 ; res.

Flora, Adirondac, 67,92; mountain,

Florence. museum at. 58.
Fonda. Dr. Alex. G., original mem-
ber ol AH.. Co. Med. loc, 2 72.
Fondey, Townsend, res. mem., 388,
888.

William II.. tvs. mem., '

food and Digestion, paper on, read
by Dr. II. Townsend, 298.

of our < 'ities. paper on, by Dr.
9am'] 1;. Percy, read, 270.
Foot, Ebenezer, cor. mem., 825.
Pooie. Elial T., M.D..cor. men...
Force, evolution of. accompanied by

changes of internal structure,

16

. Benjamin, cor. mem., S

Edward W., res. mem.. '■','■'>'■'<.

John M.. res. mem., 333.
Foreman, II. P.. I

Index.

357

Formula, Ohm's, 174.

Forster, Prof., 63.

Forsyth, William W., res. mem.,

333.
Fort, Elisha, Jr., cor. mem., 326.
Prince of Wales, 255.
Schlesser, 285.
Smith, 282.
Fossil plants, noticed, 261.
Foster, Joel, M.D., cor. mem , 326.

John W, cor. mem., 326.
Fowler, John, Jr., election of, as cor.

mem., 287, 326.
France, 118 ; Robt. R. Livingston,
minister to, 299; first geographer
of the king of, 246 ; fungi used
in, 224 ; interests of, in Canada,
247 ; school attendance in, 5.
Francis, John W., M.D, LL.D, cor.

mem., 326.
Frankfort, diet of, 15.
Franklin, Dr. Benj., 130.
Frauenhofer friction balls, 180.
Frederick the Great, 2.

the warlike, of Saxe Coburg,

.294.
William Gymnasium of Berlin,
48-55.
Free trade, in furs, 253.
Freeman, Samuel H., M.D., res.
mem., 333, 338 ; mem. 2d class,
1st dept., 341.
Freiburg, university at, 12.
Freising, Mr., 65.
Fremont, Gen. John C, expedition

by, to Oregon, etc., 257.
French, Abel, res. mem., 333.

Academy, 246 ; charts, 253 ;
course of study, in gymnasium
of Berlin, 49 - 54 ; empire, that
of the land, 22 ; geographers,
249 ; Huguenot stock, Dr.
Bay from, 283 ; language, 264 ;
study of, in city trade schools,
of Germany, 43, 44 ; study of,
in burger schools of Germany,
35 ; nation, 103, 127 ; (Fran-
cois), navigators, 246 ; (D'Ur-
ville), 252.
James M., res. mem., 333.
John H., LL.D., cor. mem., 326.
Crtek, 286.
Frenchman, a distinguished, 103.
Frey, Henry I., cor. mem., 326.
Friederichs, Prof., 64.
Friedlaender, Prof., 64.
Fries, Elias, 211, 213.
Frogs, aesthetically considered, 120,
121, 127, 128, 134,135 ; and their
contributions to science, 120-

Frogs, continued —

135 ; fossil, 121 ; structure of,
123-128 ; species of, 122 ; zoolo-
gical rank of, 122.

Frommann, Prof., Dr., 60.

Frothingham, William W., res. mem.
333, 338.

Fucbs, Prof., 63.

Fuegians, use of fungi by, 225.

Fuller, Robert M., res. mem., 333.

Fungi, paper on, by Charles H. Peck,
209-226 ; as food, 224-226 ; as
parasitic plants, 221, 224 ; bene-
fits arising from, 224-226 ; classi-
fication of, 211 ; colors of, 214,
215 ; conditions of growth of,
216, 217, 218 ; diseases caused by,
222, 223 ; edible, 219 ; flavor of,

219 ; medical uses of, 226 ; num-
ber of species, 215, 216 ; odor of,
218, 219 ; propagation of, 219,

220 ; relations of to animals, 223 ;
size of, 218 ; of North America,
210 ; of North Carolina, 210.

Fur trade, 253.

Galera (genus of fungi), 214.

Galvani, work by, 130.

Galvanic battery, internal resistance
of, 143 ; use of negative metal in
Daniell's battery, 142 ; use of a
number of porous cells in same
jar, 140 ; remarks on, by Geo.
W. Hough, 136-146 ; formation
of sulphate of zinc, 138 ; construc-
tion of Daniell's, 144; relation
between quantity of electricity
and specific gravity of sulphate
of zinc, 140 ; needle, 169.

Galvanometer, 136, 138, 176.

Gansevoort, Peter, res. mem., 333,
338 ; elected vice president of
2d dept, 265, 289.
Col. Peter, commander of third
N. T. regiment, 272.

Gardiner, David, cor. mem, 326.
John Lyon, cor. mem, 326.
R , H, cor. mem, 326.

Gardner, John L, corporate member
of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc, 302.

Garfield, Rev. John M, res. mem.,
333.

Garibaldi, the, of Caucasus, 103.

Gastoromycetes (ventricose fungi),
212.

Gates, Horatio, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc, 303.

Gauff, Dr. Caleb, original mem. of
Alb. Co. Med. Soc, 272.

358

Index.

Gaus, Charles H.,res. mem.,8
mem. 2d class, let dept, 841.

Gavit, John E . pes. mem., 81
Joseph, res. mem., 888,
mem. 3d class. 1st dept., :; i 1.

Gebhard, Jacob, cor. mem., 826.
John, cor. mem., '■'• I
John, Jr., cor. mem., 836.

Geddes, James, cor. mem„ 826.

.. law lessni Bsofsl adentsat,21 .
ston, .1 < >li ii. corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
cnltore, etc., 802.

Genesis, firsl chapter of, memorized
in primary schools of Germany,
26.

(icnct, Eilmond < '., cor. mem., :!'.'ii.

Geography, history and lectures on,
6 I ; coarse of Btndy, in gymna-
sium of Berlin, 49-54 ; in city
trade schools of Germany, 43,4 ! ;
course of instruction in, in burger
Bchools of < lennany, 36.

Geological Burveys in Europe and
the Qnited States, 292.

Geology, paper on re© q1 progress
in, read by Prof. Hall, 291 ; re-
port of class on, when due, 848 ;
of the Adirondac region, 7(i : class
in. 841.

Geometry, coarse of instruction in,
in burger Bchools of I Germany,
86 : course in Gymnasium of
Berlin, 50-64 ; in city trade
schools of (initially, 4:5, 4 I.

Georgia, in Asia. 92, 1 L0.

Georgian chronicles. :i'.i ; style of
architecture, 108.

(ieppel't, l'rof., 66.

Geranium caroliniaum, 78; macula-
turn, 7o : Robertianum, r8.

Gerliwh. Gic.,60

German empire, thai of the air, 22 .
Gymnasia, referred to, '->:'> ; his-
tory, incidents of. 294; course of
study, in Gymnasium of Berlin,
49 5 1 : instil utions, transfer of, to
America, 22, 28; language, c
of instruction in. in burger
schools of Germany, 8 ! ; Lan
guage, study tit', in city trade
schools of < lennany, 18, 1 1 ; Law
Bchools, 16 : museum, l'.'l .

Germany, academical degrees in. 16,

16 : city trade schools of, 12 : con

i n.Hed by Prussia, 2 ; habit
students in, 21 ; history of,
studied,:;?: geographical study
of, 86 ; influence of its universi-
ties, 1 1, 12 : mission of people of,

( lennany, continued —

rj ; Dumber of univ< rsities in,
12 : Protestant, literary fertility

Of, 19 : summary ol scientific

Bchools ill, K> ; BJ stem i

tion iii, 1 : students of, 21 : uni-
versities of, when rounded, 1 1 ;
unh of, free from bi

aabilitii b, 20 ; tl"' heart
of Euro] k , 22,

acker. I >r.. 64.

( libbons, Sej mour, 248.

Gibbs, George C, cor. mem.. 826.

Gierke, Dr., 61.

< lifford, John P. S., res. mem.. 883,

888.

Gilbert, William W., corporate mem
ber of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 802.

(tiles, Aquila, corporate member of
Socii ;\ for Promotion of Agri-
cult in-. , etc., 802.

Gill, Charles, cor. mem., 826.

Gillespie, William M., LL.D., cor.
mem., 826.

Giustiniani's atlas. 'l\'2.

Gneist, Prof., 61.

God, 279 : attributes of, illustrated
from Scripture, 26, 2*3 ; firoj
ministers of, in the Egyptian
plagues, L21.

< Joeiiie. Baron Von, bon. mem., 821 .

< Gomorrah, Sodom, and. \

( ; ihue, Jonathan, cor. mem.. 8S

Goodwin, Nathaniel, cor. mem.,

Scott, .M.l>.. res. mem., 888.
Goold, .lames S., res. nieiii., :;:;:!.
Gbtt, John, res. niein., 833.
t lot tine-en, number ol professors and

students iii University at, 17.

Gould, Benjamin A., M 1»., res. mem.,

;;;;;;

Charles D., res. mem., 888.

observer, 189.
( lounelle, Fizeau and, oba n i i b, 169.
Grafe, Prof. V.. 68.
Graff, William J., res. mem., 888.
Graham, .lames G., cor. mem., •"■>(> :

corporate member of Society for

Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,

802.
Grammar schools in Prussia, 7.
Gratz, university at, L2.
Gray, Asa, LL.D., 209; cor. mem., 826.

('apt., discoverer of Columbia
river, 26 I.

( leorge R., cor. mem.. 826.

John I' . K R.S., cor. mem.. 826.
( Jreat Britain, war with, 256.

salt lake, discovery of, 257.

Index.

359

Grecian poets, 121 ; temples and di-
vinities, 115.

Greece, mission of the people of, 12 ;
monuments of, 58.

Greek cross, 161 ; and Latin lan-
guages, exclusive objects of
study in learned schools, 45 ; lan-
guage, 264 ; manuscript, search
for, 260 ; pilot, Jean de Fuca,
247 ; uncials, 260.

Greeks, in German universities, 20.

Green, Jacob, M.D.,cor. mem., 326.
mountains, 68.

Greenbush, 284.

Greene, Alpheus S., cor. mem., 326.
Henry, M.D., res. mem., 333.

Gregory, Dudley S , cor. mem., 326.
Matthew, res. mem., 333.

Griesinger, Prof., 62.

Grieswalde, university at, 12.

GrifBtb's Animal Kingdom, 135.

Grimmia ovata, 80.

Griscom, Dr. J. H., elected cor. mem.,
269.
John, LL.D., cor. mem., 326.

Griswold, Stephen B., res. mem., 333,
338 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept.,
342.

Groesbeeck, Stephen, res. mem., 333,
338.

Grove's battery, 139.

Gruppe, Prof., 63.

Guebers, 106.

Guest, Henry, res. mem., 333.

Guillemain and Burnouf, observers,
169.

Gurlt, Prof., 62.

Gymnasia, German, referred to, 23 ;
powers in Prussia, 4 ; German,
no degrees conferred by, 16 ;
German, 20.

Gymnasium, Frederick William
Gym., of Berlin, 48-55.

Gymnastics, 65.

Haarbrucker, Dr., 65.

Hadley, James, M.D., cor. mem., 326.

Hagen, William, M.D., res.mem., 333.

Haight, Samuel, cor. mem., 326.
Fletcher M., cor. mem., 326.

Haile, William F., cor. mem., 326.

Hall, Hiland, cor. mem., 326.

Hall, James, LL.D., cor. mem., 326.
res. mem., 333, 338 ; elected
one of the curators , 265, 290,
340 ; invited to give ac-
count of recent discoveries in
Canadian limestones, 291 ; ap-
pointed on committee, 288 ;
chn, 1st class, 2d dept., 341 ;
pres. 2d dept., 340; paper on

Hall, continued —

recent progress in geology
read by, 291 ; notice of ma-
rine algae by, 261, 262 ; no-
tice of fossils of Potsdam
sandstone by, 262 ; notice of re-
port on State Cabinet, by, 261.
John H., res. mem., 333.
John Tayler, res. mem., 333, 338 ;
curator, 340 ; mem. 1st class,
3d dept., 342.
Lewis Benedict, res. mem., 333,

338.
Marshall, discovery by, 131, 132.
Halle, University at, 12 ; meetings

at professors' houses, in, 18.
Hamilton, Henry, cor. mem., 326.
William S., cor. mem., 326.
county, 78, 227, 235.
Hand, Samuel, res. mem., 333, 238 ;

mem. 3d class, 3d dept., 342.
Hanover (British), the price of neu-
trality, 2 ; Polytechnic school at,
60.
Hanssen, Prof., 64.

Hardenberg, Abraham, corporate
member of Society for Promotion
of Agriculture, etc., 302.
Hare, Robert, M.D., LL.D., cor.

mem., 326.
Harison, Thomas L., res. mem.,

Harlan, Richard, M.D., cor. mem. ,326.

Harman, Thomas W., res. mem., 334.

Harms, Prof., 63.

Harris, Ira, LL.D., res. mem., 334,
338.
Zina H., M.D., cor. mem., 326.

Hart, Henry, res. mem., 334.

Haitford, Conn., 277.

Hartman, Prof., 62.

Harvard, Mass., 275.

Harvey, Dr. W. H., 210 ; discovery
by, 132.

Hasbrouck, Joseph, corporate mem-
ber of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 302.

Hassel, Dr., 64.

Hastings, Seth, res. mem., 324.

Haswell, Henry B., res. mem., 334.

Haupt, Prof., 64, 66.

Havens, Jonathan N., corporate mem-
ber of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture etc., 302.

Hawes, Sidney, cor. mem., 826.

Hawkins, Samuel, cor. mem., 326.

Hawks, Francis L., D.D., cor. mem.,
326.

Hawley, Gideon, LL.D., res. mem.,
334.

360

Indea .

Hawley, Henry (,'., res. mem., 38 1.

Hay len, Horace, M.D.,cor.mem.,

ll:i. ■■. M i».. cor. mem.,

Head, Adelbert I).. M.D., res. mem.,
I

Heatne, Bamael, journey of, die-
■ TV 1 iy . 265 ; discoverer,
explorer, 856.

Hebi ■■'. in < iviiiiKisiuin, ni'

Berlin, 53, 54.

Heceta, Bruno, expedition under, 258.

Hecker, counsellor, founder of Royal
! school of Berlin, 45 ; Prof.,
cor. mem., 326.

Hedges, Elihu, M.D., cor. mem., 326.

Hedyotis ecerulea, i l.

Heermance, ( kxrnelius P., .M.D.. cor.
mem., 326.

Heffter, Prof., 61.

Hegel, educated in Wurtemberg, 8.

Hegeman, Dr. Joseph W., original
m. of Alb. Co. Med. E
lelberg, University at, 12; num-
ber of professors and Btudents in
University at, 17.

Helft, Dr., 62.

Helwing, Prof.. 64.

Hembel, William, cor. mem., 326.

Henderson, William D.( cor. mem.,

Hendrick, James, res. mem., 884, 338 ;

Oapt., wjyager, 255.
Hengstenberg, Prof. Dr., 60,86.
Hennepin, 2
Hem ph, LL.D., res. mem., 88 1 ;

ton, mem., 321.
Hermann, Dr.. 62.
Hermit island, 224, 225.
Herodotus, 99.
Herschel, Sir John P. W.,hon. mem.,

321.
Hettstadt, 87, 88.
Heymenomycetes (membrane fungi),

811,212.
Hickcox, John II.. res. mem., 38 L
Hickock, John, 19.
Hildebrandt, Mr.. 65.
Hildreth, Matthias B., cor. mem., 827.
Hill. Pxes. Thomas. 178, L94, 8

report of eclipse by, 801 208.
Hill's battery, description of, 187, 138,

L89, 146.
Hillsboro, 111.. 177.
Hilton, Robert J., res. mem., 884,

838; Mr., 88.
Himalaya mountains. 91, 95.
Hindoos, 94, 278.
Hinschins, Prof., <il .
Hirsch, Pro!'.. 61.

. (Penn.), 897.
History . Ancii nt. a >gy,

- .ii.
when du i, B igraphy,

- on, 6 I ; iin< -- on,

: natural, classes in depart-
ment of, 341 ; and general litera-
. classes in departmenl of,
:; \ ' : course of instruction in. in
burger schools of Germany, :i'i ;
oral, course <>t in-' ruction in.
in burger schools ol German]
in city trade schools of Germany,
43, -1 1 ; of D Brigade, re

ference t<>. 865 ; course in Gym-
nasium of Berlin, 51-54 ; modern,
report of class "ii, when due,
Hobart, John Bloss, corporate mem.
ber of Society ir Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 302 ; first
president of Society lor Promo-
tion of Agriculture, etc.. 804
Hochsl i 'ml, cor. mem.. 327.

Hoff, John V. R., res. mem.. :;;; i.
Hoffman, Josiah Ogden, corporate
member of Society for Promo-
tion of Agriculture, etc . 802.
Prof.. 63.
Hogan, Peter, elected resident mem-
ber, 297, 298; res. mem., ::::t,
:!:;s ; mem. 3d class, lsi dept.,
I) 1 1 ; mem. 1st clasr-, 2d dept.,

:;il ; curator, 340.
William, cor. mem.,
Hogeboom, John C, cor. mem., 8
Hohenzollern, counts of, 1.
Holland, Almon, res. mem.. 884, 838.
Hollanders, interest of, in Albany,290.
Hollandois navigators, 846.
Ilollev. Alexander I... res. mem., 884,
' 888.

Myron, cor. mem.. S

endorff, Prof. V.. 61.
Homer, 120.

Ilmnes. Henry A., res. mem., '•>'■> I.
838 : chairman 2d class, 3d dept.,

:! !'J ; paper by, on < 'alifornia and

the North-West < 'oast one Hun

dred Fears Sin. J58.

Homeyer, Prof., <>] .

I, Thomas, 879.
Hooker, Charles, M.D.,cor. mem...

Dr.. on fungus, 22 I

Philip, res. mem., 884.
Hooper, l>r., 68.

-. Adain, cor. mem.. 827,
Hopkins. William R.,oor. mem., 827.
Home. Charles K., res. mem., |

338 ; mem. 1st class, 1st dept.,

341.

Index.

361

Horsaal, name applied to a German
university building, 17.

Horton, William, M.D., cor. mem.,
328.

Hosack, David, lion, mem., 321.

Hosford, Eben N., res. mem., 334.

Hotho, Prof., 64.

Hough, Franklin B., M.D., res. mem.,
334 ; nomination by, of Dr. J.
H. Griscom, as cor. mem.,
269 ; cor. mem., 327 ; report
of library committee submit-
ted by, 269 ; extracts from
Hough's history of Duryea's
Brigade read by, 281 ; report
by, on binding, 284 ; allowed
to publish a certain manu-
script, 291 ; paper on pro-
posed census of 1865, read by,

288 ; authorized to have cer
tain pamphlets bound, 298 ;
paper on battle of Cedar moun-
tain, read by, 265 ; appoint-
ed on committee. 261, 265, 288,

289 ; paper written by Judge
Dean, furnished to the Insti-
tute by, 294 ; elected librarian
of 1st dept., 289 ; statement
by, 297 ; in the chair, 262, 284 ;
motion by, 287 ; nomination
by, 260, 264, 266, 296, 297 ;
secretary protem, 297.

Prof. G. W., 178, 195, 196, 201;
204 ; paper on personal equa-
tion promised by, 280 ; ac-
count of the Scheutz tabulat-
ing machine by, 273, 275 ;
paper by, on Total Eclipse of
Aug. 7, 1869, 177-207 ; notice
by, of alleged discovery of a
new planet, 281 ; curator, 340 ;
cor. sec, 3d dept., 340 ; chair-
man 1st class, 1st dept., 341 ;
remarks by, on the galvanic
battery, 136-146 ; remarks by,
on personal equation, 268 ; res.
mem., 334, 338 ; paper by, on
compensation of pendulums,
266-268 ; paper by, on personal
equation, 296,297, 298 ; method
of recording music, proposed
by, 295 ; elected one of the cura-
tors, 290 ; paper by, on velocity
of electric current over tele-
graph wire, 167-176 ; elected
librarian of 1st dept., 265 ;
motion by, as to binding, 269.

House, J. C, 177, 206, 334, 193, 338 ;
report of eclipse by, 204-206.

Howadjis, 278.

Howe, Estes, res. mem., 334.
Sidney, cor. mem., 327.
Hoyt, Charles S., M.D., res. mem.,
334, 338 ; mem. 2d class, 1st

dept., 341.
Lorenzo, res. rnern., 334.
Hubbard, Buggies, cor. mem., 327.
Hubbell, Levi, res. mem., 334.
Hubler, Dr., 61.
Hubner, Prof., 65.
Hucker, Mr., 179.
Hudson, 322.

river, 69, 284 ; source of, 69.
bay, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248,
249, 256.
Humbert, Jonas, cor. mem., 327.
Humboldt, William, entrusted with
direction of public instruction
in Prussia, 4 ; map of Mexico, 256.
Humphrey, Charles, cor. mem., 327.
Cornell, M.D., res. mem., 334.
David, hon. mem., 321.
Hun, Edward R., M.D., res. mem.,
334, 338 ; paper by, on Trichina
Spiralis, 83-90 ; mem. 2d class,
1st dept., 341 ; mem. 3d class,
2d dept., 342; rec. sec'y, 2d
dept., 340.
Thomas, M.D., res. mem., 334,
338 ; chairman 2d class, 1st
dept., 341 ; in the chair, 296 ;
pres. 1st dept., 340.
Hunt, Seth, cor. mem., 327.
Hunter, James, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Hunt's expedition to found Astoria,

256.
Hurd, Jabish N. M., cor. mem,, 327.
Hurlburt, Bev. Joseph, cor. mem.,327.
Huronian system, 294.
Hutton, Isaac, cor. mem., 327.

Isaac G., cor. mem., 327.
Huygens de Lowendahl, Butger B.,

cor. rnem., 327.
Hyatt, James, cor. mem., 327.
Hyde, William, cor. mem., 327.
Hydemann, Prof., 61.
Hyla, 125.

Hyphomycetes (thread fungi), 212.
Hypnum dimorphum, 81 ; monta-

num, 81 ; sarmentosum, 81.
Hyporhodii (series of fungi), 213.
Impalement of the vagina, paper on,
by Dr. Oliver White, read, 270.
Income, allowed by charter of So-
ciety for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 303.
allowed by charter of Albany
Institute, 311.

362

Index.

In. umiII.isv.mI by charter of Albany

Lyceum of Nat. Historj . 809.
allowed by charter of Society for
motion Useful An-, 806.

India, mi ; Bhortesl route to, from
Europe, 358; northern passage
to, Boaghl , 9 I'.t.

Endian Bnow Bhoes, 260; pass, 231 ;
river, 227.

Indianapolis, [nd., 177, 179.

Indians, 285, 886.
East, 95.

commission appointed bj '
< iolonies to i reat with, 291.

Indo-European variety of Caucasian
race, 94.

Industry, finance and, lectures on, ii 1.
Prussian Bchools of, 8.

[nman, I tenry, cor. mem., -'.'.'i .

[nnsbruck, aniversitj at, L2.

Institute ; see Albany Instil ate.
of Arts. Berlin, course of instruc
tinn. 55 59.

Instruction, course of, in Germany,
24; in primary schools of Qer
many, 2 1 83 ; in burger <>r mid-
dle schools of Germany, 33 ;
moral, in primary schools of
Germany, 2 1 29 ; normal in
Prussia, 5, 6 : public, Prussian
system of, !, 5 ; religious, in pri-
mary Bchools of Germany, 24, 26 ;
religious, in burger schools of
Germany, 33, :34.

Iowa, 283.

lreland,283, 288.

Iris ochroleuca, 2 1.

Irish nation. 1 IS.

Irving, Washington, 97 ; hon. mem.,

821.
Isaac. Abraham, Jacob and. 21 7.
Israel, ancient, 279; mission of the

people of, 12.
Italian Language, 36 1.
Italy, 180; fungi used in, 234
Jackson, Charles T., M. D.,cor. mem.,

George P., res. mem., 884, 888 ;
nomination bj . 288 ; mem. 3d
class, 1st dept., 341.
Isaac W., LL.D., cur. mi m.,
William, r is. mem., 88 I.
William A., res. mem., 38 1.
Jacob, Abraham, Isaac and. 277.
James, Dr. Daniel, of Albany, 283.
Deacon Daniel, of Rhode Island.

282.
Dr. Edwin, sketch of, by Dr.
Willard,282 ; cor. mem:,827.
Edward, res. mem., 334

James, Henry, res. mem., 884
John, .M.l>., res. mem., 33 L

.Mr., -I.

Town. English, 110.
Japan, 2 i-> ; Bhortesl route to, from

Europe, -
Japanese maps. 351.

of fungi bj . 32 I.
Japel us, :i7.
Japhet, 100.

Jarger, Bent diet, cor. mi i
Jarvis, John 15.. res. mem., 38 L
Jason, exploits ol
Jay, John, corporate member ol
cietj for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 303.
Jean De Puca's straits. 354, ■_■'
Jefferson, Pres. rhos., J55 ; credit
due to, for western explorations,
356.
Jena, lawles -1 udents at, 31 .

Jenkins, Charles M.. res. mem..

338 : mem. 3d class, 1st dept.,
341; bon. mi m., 332.
Elisha, res. mem., 33 1.
Jephson, William II.. cor. mem.,
Jeremie, Btatemenl by, 2 18.

y city, '.".i". 821.
Jerusalem, 280.
Jessen, 87.
•I ess tip's river, 2S i

Jesuits, in New France, 347; wealth
of, largely applied to German
universities, 12,
Jesus Christ, instruction concerning
in primary schools of Germany,
25, 29 ; in burger schools of Ger-
many, 83.
Jewett, Ezekiel, res. mem.. 83 I.
■lew a, 99 ; in ( ierman uni\ ersities, 20.
Job, portions of book of, memorized
in primary schools of Germany,
26 . > 1 not at ions from. 39.
Johnson, Alexander S., LL.D., res.
mem., 33 1 ; elected president
oi ;id dept.. 366, .
Benjamin 1!.. res. mem.. 83 1.
James I., res. mem., 83 1.
Jolly, Hugh 15., res. mi in., 88 1.
Jonah, rj~> ; tomb of, 379.
Jones, C. B., 171, 173, 179.

David K. Floyd, corporate mem.'
ber of Society for Promo-
tion of Agriculture, etc.,
History of Oneida county. 395.

Horatio Gates, nominated as
corresponding member. 397 ;

elected. 39S

Morveti M.. res. mem., 334, m;,'s ;

mem. 1st class, 3d dept., 8 18.

Index.

363

Jones, Samuel, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302 ; first trea-
surer of Society for Promotion
of Agriculture, etc., 304.
Samuel, Jr., one of the first secre-
taries of Society for Promotion
of Agriculture, etc., 304 ; corpo-
rate member of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,
303.
W. U., telegraph manager, 167.
Joppa, 280.
Jordan, 278.
Joslin, Benjamin F., M.D., LL.D., cor.

mem., 327.
Jove, allusion to, 19.
Juan De Fuca's straits, 247, 251, 252.
Julich, duchy of, 1.
Juniperus Virginiana, 71.
Jupiter, 98, 120, 154.
Jurisprudence, lectures on, 61 ; medi-
cal, lectures on, 62.
Kabyls, tribe of, 111 ; of Africa, 105 ;

of Algeria, 103.
Kalmia augustifolia, 75 ; glauca, 75.
Kane, Oliver, res. mem., 334.
Kansas river, expedition to find

sources of, 256.
Karsten, Prof., 64.
Kearney, Robert L., res. mem., 334.
Keene, 80.
Keese, Rev. William L., res. mem.,

334.
Keeseville, 71, 72 ; gorge near, 70.
Keifer, Gen., J. W., 178, 186, 194.
Kekitckemanitornenahu, Gabemah
Jeinnunk, Jesus Christ, etc., 282.
Kemp, John, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Kendrick, Edward E., res. mem., 334.
Kent, James, LL.D., cor. mem., 327.
Moss., cor. mem., 327.
William, LL.D., cor. mem., 327.
Kerner, educated in Wirtemburg, 8.
Keyes, Addison A., res. mem., 334,
338 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept.,
342.
Emerson W., res. mem., 334, 338 ;
mem. 3d class, 3d dept., 342.
Kidd, James, res. mem., 334, 338.
Kiepert, Prof., 64.

Kimball, Rodney G., res. mem., 334.
King, Andrew, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Dwight, res. mem., 334, 338.
James's translation of Bible,
286.

King, Joshua I., res. mem., 334.
Kip, Leonard, nominated as res.
mem., 297 ; elected, 298 ; res.
mem., 334, 338 ; rec. secy 3d
dept., 340 ; ch'rman 3d class,
3d dept., 342.

Rev. William I., D.D., res. mem.,
334.
Kirckhoff, Chevalier de, M.D., cor.
mem., 327.

Prof., 64, 66.
Klaproth, 98.
Kleinert, Gic, 61.

Knapp, educated in Wirtemberg, 8.
Knauff, Dr. John G., original mem.

of Albany Co. Med. Soc, 272.
Knickerbacker, Harman, cor. mem.,

327
Kny, Dr., 64.
Koch, Prof., 64.
Kohckaf, Persian, 98.
Konigsberg, university at, 12.
Kopke, Prof., 64.
Koran, 106.
Kranichfeld, Gic, 60.
Kronecker, Dr., 63.
Kuban river, 92, 99.
Kiihns, Prof., 61.
Kummer, Prof., 63, 66.
Kur river, 108 ; waters of, 92.
Kuros (Cyrus) river, 92.
Labrador, 78, 81 ; feldspar, 293, 294.
Lacroix, 249.
Lactarii (fungi), 219.
Lactarius camphoratus (fungus), 219 ;

glyciosmus (fungus), 219 ; piperi-

tus, 219 ; species of fungi, 213.
Lacy, William, res. mem., 334, 338.
Ladrillero, voyager, 250.
La Forge, John B., res. mem.. 334.
Lake Avalanche, 80.

Champlain, 68 ; Champlain, geo-
logy of borders of, 70.

Erie, 285.

Meotis, 99.

of the woods, 255.

Ontario, 285.

Placid, 79, 80.

Pleasant, 227.

Superior, 256 ; large fimgus from
the region of, 218; expedi-
tions to copper regions of, 257.

Winnipeg, 251.
Lancaster, Pa., 322.
Langenbeck, Prof. V., 62 ; of Berlin,

87.
Langstaff, William, M.D., cor. mem.,

327.
Lansing, Abraham, res. mem., 334,

338.

[Trans. vi.~]

46

yy.i

Index.

Lansing, Charles B., res. mem., 884,

John, hon. mem., 832.
John v., M.i>.. res. mem.,
88 1. 388 : mem. 3d class, 2d
dept., 8 12 ; paper by, on Pr*
ami their Contributions to Bd
ence, L20 L86.

Lansingburgh, 271,

La Perouse, discoverer, 264.

Laspeyres, Dr., 88.

Latl imp, Oliver, M.D.,cor. mem., 827.

Latin Bible, L3 ; language, 26 1 ;
course of instruction in, in bur-
ger schools of Germany, 34;
prize essays in, 18 ; disuse of in
Gorman university lectures, 18 ;
course of study, in Gymnasium
of Berlin, 49-6*3; and Greet
languages, exclusive objects of
study in learned schools, l~>.

Latitude of Mattoon, 111.. 1T7.

Lausanne, 251.

Law "I velocity of olectric current,
169, 1").

Lawyer, Augustus F., M.D., res.
mem., -534.

Lea, Isaac, M.D., cor. mem., 327.

Thomas G., author of Catalogue
of Plants, 211.

Learned, William L., res. mom., 334,
338 ; mem. 1st class, 3d dept.,

3 12.

Lebanon, scripture mention of, 27.
Lo Baron, Francis, M.D., cor. mem.,

827.
Lecturers, in German universities, 16.
Lectures, course of, in Polytechnical

school at Hanover, 60; on Art,

04 ; on Finance and Industry,
(i 1 ; on History and Geography,
(i I ; on Jurisprudence, 111 ; <>n
Mathematical Sciences, 68; "li
Medical Science, li| ; mi Medical
Jurisprudence, (12 ; on Philologi-
cal Sciences, li 1 ; on Philosophi-
cal Sciences, 62; on Physical

Sciences, li;! ; on Practical ( lie

mislay, 60; on Theology, 60;
system of teaching by, En Gar

man universities, 1 7, IS.

Lederer, Baron von, hon. mem., 322.

Pedum palustre, 7 1. 76.

Pedyard, John, scheme of, 266.

Leipsic. university at, 12; aumberof
professors and students in uni-
versity at, 17.

Peneospori (series of fungi) 213.

Lentinus (species of fungi), 212.

Lenz, John George, hon. niein., 322.

Pen i cies of fungi), 213.

Pepsins. Prof.. 64, 66.
Peptonia (genus of fungi). 214.

Lescarbault, Dr.. intermercurial phv
mi alleged to have been seen iiv,
281.

Lesquereux, Leo, 209.

Letsghini, tribe, 1 12.

Leverrier, prediction by. in regard to

an intermercurial planet, 381.

Lewin, Prof., 62.

Lewis and Clark, expedition com-
manded by, 266.
Dr., 61.

George SV., ivs. mem.. 334. 33*.
Morgan, cor. mem., 327.
Stewart, res, mem., 334.
village of, M.

Peyden jar. 142. 169.

L'Hommedieu, P/.ra, cor. mem. of
Society for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 302; firsl vice-president
of Bocietv for Promotion of 1 so
ful Arts, 807 . cor. mem., 327.

Libraries and museums, 05.

Library, of Albany Institute, 313;
committee, select report by,
262, 263 ; report of, relative to
binding, submitted, 269, 284,
286.
of Berlin Institute of Arts, 57,

58.
British Museum, 201.
Vatican, 261.

Lichens, 210; parasitic 221.

Life as a Physical Phenomenon, pa-
per on, by Dr. Geo. T. Stevens.
147- Kill.'

Lily, Egyptian, 7<>.

Pinian, Prof., 62.

Pincklaen, John, cor. mem., 327.

Lintner, Joseph A., res. mem., 884,
33S ; mom. 3d class, 2d dept..

842.
Literature, general, report of class on,

when duo, 848 : history and ge-
neral, classes in department of,
842.
Little, Edwin C, res. mem.. 884

Weare ( '.. res. niein.. 38 1. 888.

Liverworts, 220.

Livingston, Edward, cor. mem. of
Bocietv tor Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 802.

Edward P., cor. mem., 327.

Henry W., cor. mem., 327.

Robert P., cor. mem., 827;
1st president of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture,
etc. , 209, 304 ; first president

Index.

365

Livingston, continued —

of Society for Promotion of
Useful Arts, 299, 307; cor.
mem. of Society for the Pro-
motion of Agriculture, etc., 302.
William, cor. mem., 327.

Livzula parviflora, 81.

Locke, John, cor. mem., 327.
Michael, 247.

Logan, Sir Win. E., pebbles of stra-
tified rock discovered in granite
rocks of Canada by, 293.

Logarithms, computation of, by ta-
bulating machine, 275.

London, Eng., 282, 321 ; maps pub-
lished at, 251.

Long, Major, commanding expedi-
tion to Rocky Mountains, in
1820, 256, 282.

Longfellow, Henry W., LL.D.. cor.
mem., 327.

Longitude of Mattoon, 111., 177.

Loosey, Charles E., cor. mem., 327.

Loring, David Frederick, cor. mem.
of Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.

Lotor, generic name of racoon, 228.

Loveridge, Cicero, res. mem., 334.

Low, James, M.D., res. mem., 334.
John, M.D., cor. mem., 328.

Lucse, Dr., 62.

Lunar mountains, seen during eclipse,
195, 197, 198.

Lush, Stephen, cor. mem. of Society
for Promotion of Agriculture,
etc., 302.

Luther, David B., res. mem., 334,
338.

Lutherans, in German Universities,
20.

Lyceum of Natural History (Albany),
organized and incorporated, 299 ;
Albany, charter of, 308 - 310.

Lycoperdon giganteum (fungus), 218.

Lynch, James, cor. mem., 328.

McAlpine, William J., res. mem.,
334, 338 ; mem. 1st class, 1st
dept.,341.

McAuley, Thomas, D.D., LL.D., cor.
mem., 328.

McCall, Henry S., res. mem., 334,
338 ; mem. 2d class, 2d dept., 342.

McCammon, William, res. mem., 334,
338.

McCarthy, Mrs., trial of, for poisoning
her husband, 296.

McClellan, Gen. Geo. B., 281.

McClelland, William, M.D., res.
mem., 334 ; original member of
Alb. Co. Med. Soc, 272.

McClure, Archibald, res. mem., 334,
338.

Thos. E., 179.
McCoy, Amasa, res. mem., 334.
McCulloch, William A., res. mem.

334.
McDoual, Alexander B., res. mem.,

334.
McElroy, William, res. mem., 334,

338.
McEwen, Thomas, M.D., cor. mem.,

328.
Macfarlane, Robert, res. mem., 334,

338.
Macgregors, clan of, 95.
McHarg, William C, res. mem., 334,

338.
Mclntyre, Archibald, res. mem., 334 ;
cor. mem., 328.

John McD., res. mem., 334.

Mt, 77, 80,81.
McJimsey, Rev. John, cor. mem., 328.
McKean, Levi, cor. mem., 328.
McKee, Rev. Robert, res. mem., 334.
McKenzie, Alexander, first journey

by, 255.
McKenzie's river, discovery of, 255.
McKercher, Duncan, res. mem., 334.
M'Kesson, John, corporate member

of Society for Promotion of Ag-
riculture, etc., 302.
McKilvey, Peter, M.D., cor. mem.,

328.
McLaughlan, David, M.D., res. mem.,

335.
McLeod, John, cor. mem., 328.
McMillan, Robert, M.D., cor. mem.,

328.
McNab, Andrew, cor. mem., 328.
McNamara, John W., res. mem., 335,

338.
McNaughton, James, M.D., res.

mem., 335, 338 ; mem. 2d class,

1st dept., 341.
McNevin, William J., M.D., cor.

mem., 328.
Madrid, city of, 252.
Maercker, Dr., 64, 65.
Magdalen, 110.
Magdebourg, 87.
Magister Sententiarum, 14.
Magnus, Prof., 63.
Magogs, invasion of, 99.
Mahomet, 97.
Mahometanism, 97.
Mahommed, 97.
Maine Indians, 240.
Malaspina, voyager, 250.
Maldonado, voyager, 250.
Malpighi, 133.

3G6

Index.

Mamre, 2*0.

Mandus, Dr. Wilhelmus, 27<i ; sketch
of, read by Dr. S. D. Willard,

Mandeville, Henrv, D.D., res. mem.,

834
Mansfield, Jared, cor. mem.,
Manna] ofthe Albany institute, 299-

348.
Manufactures, Society for the Pro-
motion of Agriculture, Arts and,

tunned and incorporated, 299 :

charier of Society for Promotion

of, 301-804.
Manuscripts, ancient, 260, 201.
Marane, in Asia. 92.
Marasmius (species of fungi), 213.
Marathon, N. V.. L77, 196.
March, Eenry, M.D., res. mem. 334,

338.
Marcy, Wm. L., LL.D., res. mem.,

" 334.

Mt.,68, 78,80,81,177.
Marine alga?, habits of, noticed, by

Prof. Ball, 261, 262.
Marker, Dr.. 63.
Marquette, 247.
Mars, 202 ; visible during eclipse,

L93.
Marshall, Mr. 177, 192.
Marshall's Physiology, 161.
Martin, Benjamin N., D.D., L.H.D.,
res. mem., 334.

Henry II., res. mem., 334, 33S ;
mem. 2d class, 2d dept., :'.42.

Eenry T., res. mem., 334, 338;
mem. 2d class, 1st dept., 341.

Prof. 62.

William, res. mem., 334.
Martinez, voyage by, 253.
Marvin, George, M.D.,cor.mem.,828.

Belden E . n a. mem., 334, 338.
Maryland, 281, 283.
Mason, Prof. .lames Weir, elected

j. mem., 260, 88 1 ; cor. mem.,

828 : elected rec. sec, of 1st

dept., 289 : nomination by, 296,
298 : appointed on committee,
287; in the chair, 270 ; motion
by,
Massachusetts, 116; colony. •.

Ma— maim. Prof.. 68, 64.

Mathematical science, lectures nn, 63.

Mathematics, course in Gymnasium
of Berlin, 51 54

Matthews, Frederick, res. mem., 834 ;
first treasurer of Albany Lyceum
of Nat. History. 310; corporate
member of Albany Lyceum of
Nat. History, 808.

Mattoon, III., observation of total
eclipse at, 177-207 ; latitude and
Longitude <>f. 177.

Manrelle, narrative by, 253.

Mavell, William. n-s. m< m.. 834 : first
treasurer of the Albany Insti-
tute. 812.

Mead, Melvin X., M.D., res. mem.,
885, 888.

Meads, Orlando, res. mem.. 885, 338;

chairman, 3d class, 1st dept.,

841.
Means, a voyager, 25 1.
Media, 93.

Medical SOO. of State of New York,
276, 277.

jurisprudence. Lectures <>n. 62.

and Physical JournaLNew York,
276. '

science, lectures on, 61.
Meech, Henry 1 >.. res. mem., 885.
Meet in its of Albany Institute, by-laws

in regard to, 814 315 : field, when

and where held, 843; and reports

of classes tor 1870,843'; time of,

chatio-e,], -2s8.

Meigs, Richard M.. res. mem., 335.
Melish, John, cor. mem., :
Melville, Thomas, cor. mem.. 328.

.Members of tlie Albany Institute,
catalogue of, 821 -889; honor-
ary, 821, 322 : ex-offlcio, 821 ;
corresponding, 828 - 881 ; resi-
dent, 832 -887 : June I, 1S70,
337 -:>:!'.»; bv-laws in regard
to, 317. 818.
ex-offlcio honorary, of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture, etc,
804
ex-ollicio honorary, of Society for
Promotion of Cseful Arts, etc.,
807.

Membership, in Albany Institute,

how constituted, 811 ; list oi
cretary requested to prepart

Memlius Lacrymans (fungus), 221.

Memmsen, Prof., 85.

Mendoza, ' lov., 2 18.

Men] anthes, trifoliate,

Men/.ies. William, Trans. vol tv, pre-
sented to, 287 : cor. m. -in, 825.

Meotis lake. 98.

Mercury, visible during eclipse, 192,
L93, 202 : planet predicted be-
tween, and the Sun, 281 •

Merritt, William, cor. mem.. 828.

Meske, Otto, ns. mem. . 33.V 338;
niein. 3d class, 2d dept.. ■'• 12.

Messner, Prof. Gie., 61.

Mesudi, the Arab historian, 'J3.

Index.

367

Meteoric bodies during eclipse, 193,
206.

Mexico, 241, 252,255, 277; map of,
256 ; records of, 249.

Micliaelis, Lee, 65.

Miclielet, Prof., 61, 63.

Middlebury College, 282.

Middleton, writings of, 245.

Milk, adulteration of, paper on, read
by Dr. S. R. Percy, 270.

Miller, Rev. Alexander, res. mem.,
335.
Johannes, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302, 303.
Morris S., cor. mem., 328.
Rev. William A., res. mem., 335.
Sylvanus, cor. mem., 328.
William C, res. mem., 335.

Milton, John, 151.

Miner, Theodore F., res. mem., 335,
338.

Minerals in Caucasus, 93 ; formation
of, 155, 159 ; relations of, te
plants and animals, 148, 160,
161, 162.

Minerva, allusion to, 19.

Mingrelia, women of, 117.

Mingrelians, 112.

Minor, W. C, res. mem., 335.

Mississippi river, expeditions to dis-
cover sources of, 256, 257 ; popu-
lation west of, 258.

Mitchell, Charles, cor. mem., 328.
observer, 169.

Mitchill, Samuel L., M.D., L.L.D., cor.
rnem., 328 ; one of the secretaries
of Society for Promotion of Use-
ful Arts, 305 ; one of the first
secretaries of Society for Pro-
motion of Agriculture, etc., 304 ;
corporate member of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,
302.

Mitscherlich, Prof., 62.

Mix, David E. E., cor. mem., 328.

Mnemosyne, 115.

Moabitess, the gentle, 279.

Models for manufacturers and arti-
sans, 58 ; in machinery, 58.

Moetians, 99.

Mohawk river, 69.

Molinard, Julian, res. mem., 335.

Monarquia Indiana, work by Torgu-
emada, 250.

Mongols, 94, 99.

Monterey, discovery of, 241, 243 ; re-
discovered, 252.
Montgomery county, 276 ; Medical
Society, 276.

Monthly Miscellany of 1708, 248, 249.

Moon story as to limits of New
World, 249.

Moore, Dr. Levi, nominated as resi-
dent member, 288; elected res.
mem., 291 ; res. mem., 335, 338 ;
mem. 2d class, 1st dept., 341.

Morange, William D.,res. mem., 335,

Morgan, Lewis H., cor. mem., 328.
Morrell, William H., C. E., cor.

mem., 328.
Morris, William W., cor. mem., 328.
Morrisania, 297.

Morse, James O., cor. mem., 328.
Morton, Samuel GL, M.D., cor. mem.,

328.
Moscow, 110.

Mosher, Cornelius D., M.D., 89 ; res.
mem., 335, 338 ; mem. 2d claBS,
1st dept., 341.
Jacob S., M.D., elected res. mem.,
260; elected one of the curators,
290 ; curator, 340; appointed on
committee, 261, 265, 287 ; ap-
pointed on committee to ex-
amine Museum, 269 ; nomina-
tions by, 291, 297 ; appointed
secretary pro tern., 260; elected
rec. sec. of first dept., 265 ;
report by as to pamphlet cases,
298 ; fact in regard to arsenic
in fuel mentioned by, 296 ; res.
mem., 335, 338 ; mem. 2d class,
1st dept., 341.
Moslem proverb, concerning praying

neighbors, 278.
Mosses, manual of, 209.
Mott, Isaac, res. mem., 335.

Joseph P., res. mem., 335.
Mount Marcy , 68, 78, 80, 81, 177.
Mclntyre, 77, 80, 81.
McMartin, 77.
Sinai, discovery of ancient Bible

manuscript at, 260.
Whiteface, 68.

Muhlenbergh, Henry E., hon. mem.,
goo

Mullach, Prof., 65.

Mullenhoff, Prof., 65.

Muller, Prof., 64.

Munich, university at, 12 ; number
of professors and students in uni-
versity at, 17.

Munk, Dr., 62.

Munsell, Joel, resident member, 335 ;
mem. 2d class, 3d dept., 342 ;
elm. 1st class, 3d dept., 342 ; ap-
pointed on committee, 261, 264,
265, 289 ; one of the auditors of

368

///'/..'•.

Munsell, continued —

treasurer's account, 268, 869 ; re
ference to, by the Institute, '!'■>'• .
elected cor. Bee. ol M » 1 * - 1 >t . .

366, OS'.); publication OTvol. iv.,
of Transactions announced by,
870 ; Dominates J. \V. Russell as
res. mem., 869 ; In the chair,
880, 886; motion by, 865,
876.

Munson, Frederick W., res. mem.,
885, 888 ; mem. 3d class, 1st
dept., 341.

Munstcr.Ronian Catholic high school
at, 18.

Murdoch, Ellico, M.D., cor. mem.,
388.

Murray, David, Ph. !>., 177, 186,805 :
res. mem.. :;::."> ; resignation of,
as secretary, 259 ; cur. mem.,
:i2s ; elected cur. mem., 860 ; re
solutions complimentary to, 859.

Museum of Albany Institute, 818;

committee appointed to report
on condition of, 869.
Naples, Rome, Florence, and

British, 58.
and libraries, 65.

Music, course in Gymnasium <>(' Ber-
lin, 54 ; method of recording,
proposed by, 395 ; vocal, in city
trade schools of Germany, 48
45.

Musquash, the, 389.

Mussulmans, religious pride of, 27N.

Mycelium, in fungi, 816, 217, 219,
220, 221.

Mycena (genus of fungi), 214.

Mycologist (L. 1>. Schweinitz), 210,
220.

Mycology, 21 1.

.M \ litta australis (fun<rus), 221.

Mythology, 180.

Nahalus bootii, SI ; nanus, 81.

Naples, Museum at, 58.

Napoleon I, 2.

Nassau, education of lower orders in

duchy of, 83.

Natural History. Albany Lyceum of,
organized and incorporated, 399;
charter of Albany Lyceum of,
808 - 810 ; course in Gymnasium
of Berlin, 58; course of instruc-
tion in, in burger Bchoolsof < ter
many, 86 ; in city trade schools
of Germany, 1!. 11; classes in
departmenl of, 844.

Naturalists' Director] , 388.

Nautical Almanac. 1 ] ', .

Neander, Dr., fexniHar lectures by, 18.

Nebular theory, L58.

Nematoidea,

\. ultra. the,848.

New Albion, 353 : discovery of, 2
• u ly map including, 2 12.

New Brunswick, N. j7, I ; ;.

Newcomb, David, M.D., res. mem.,
885.

Newell, George, res. mem., 835.

New England, 884, 395.

New Holland, 348.

New Jersey/.';.'.

Newland, John, res, mem., 885.
Luke F., res. mem., 885.

Newman, Elias. corporate member
of Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., :;t)2.

Newmann, M r.,(»5.

New Russia, 108, 110.

New Spain, viceroy of 853.

New Testament, title of Chippewa
version of, 2S2.

Newton, liev. Ephraim II., cor.
mem., 838.

New World, limits of, 349.

New York, (17, 2*7, 308 : academy of

medicine, Dr. Oliver \\'hiti\ a
member of, 27(1 : city. 888, 399,

831 : Telegraph station, wis :
post, the, 381 : state, 72, 801,
303, 80S, 805, 808; Adirondack

wilderness of, 22? ; geological

survey of, 393, 894 : certain geo-
logical features of, 393, 393 : geo-
logical rooms, 9a ; state library,

maps in, 343 : maps by I telisle in,
846; Nat. Hist. of. 185; Robt. R.
Livingston first chancellor of,
399 : Switzerland of America in,

e *■

07.

New Yorkers. 385.
New Zealand, 838.

Niagara, 885.

Nicoll, Samuel, corporate member of

Society for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, eta, 808.
Nicholson. John, cor. mem., 888;

corporate member of Society for

Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,

808.
Nile, !)7.

Nippleton Mt„ 77.
Normal Colleges in Bavaria, etc., 88;

instruction in Prussia. 5 : semi-
naries in Prussia, statistics of, G.

North America, fungi of, 210.

North (Arctic) sea, the, 217.

North Carolina. 211: catalogue of
plants of. 211 ; fungi of, 210 ;
plants, 215.

Index.

369

North Elba, 80.

Northmen, 103.

North pole, continent not extending
to, 255.

Northrop, Richard H., res. mem.,
335.

North-West coast, 251 ; final general
outline of, when made, 252.

Norton, John T., res. mem., 335, 339.

Nott, Howard, res. mem., 335.
Joel B., cor. mem., 328.

Nova Scotia, Institute of Natural
Science, placed on exchange list,
288.

November, limit of fungi, 217.

Noyes, Josiah, M.D., cor. mem., 328.

Nuttall, Thomas, cor. mem., 328.

Nymphea odorata, 76.

Observatory, Berlin, 65 ; Dudley, 177.

Observers of total eclipse, 177, 178.

O'Callaghan, Edward B., M.D.,
LL.D., res. mem., 335, 339 ; cor.
mem., 328.

O'Donnell, William, M.D., res. mem.,
335.

Officers for Albany Institute enume-
rated, 312 ; for 1870, 340 ; how
to be chosen, 312 ; by-laws in
regard to duties of, 314-316.
Albany Lyceum of Nat. History,

309, 310.
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc.. 304.
Society for Promotion of Useful
Arts, 306, 307.

Og, king of Bashan, 279.

Ogden, David, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 303.

Ogilvy, John, cor. mem., 328.

Ohio river, 284, 286.

Ohm, Prof., 63.

Ohm's law, 174.

Olcott, Thos. W., res. mem., 335, 339.

Olmutz University, 12.

Onderdonk, Abraham F., res. mem.,
335, 339 ; mem. 3d class, 1st
dept., 341.

Oneida county, Jones's History of,295.

Oppenheim, Dr., 63.

Orchis tribe, 76.

Orcutt, Lysander A., res. mem., 335.

Oregon (Adirondack region), 232 ;
first settlements west of Rocky
Mountains made in, 257 ; Fre-
mont's expedition to, 257 ; re-
cently unknown, 241.

Organic bodies, structure of, 148,
149, 162, 163 ; views of a recent
author, 161.

Organic compounds, artificially pro-
duced, 162 ; instability of, not
peculiar, 163, 164.

Organization, vital, 150, 159.

Oriental manuscripts, search for, 260;
Oddities, paper on, read by Rev.
Alex. S. Twombly, 277-280;
women, maidenhood of, 278.

Orientals, gullibility of, 279 ; the an-
tipodes of western culture, 278.

Origen's Commentaries, etc., 18.

Orthrotrichum obtusifolium, 80.

Orton, Pres. W. U. Tel. Co., 179.

Ossetis tribe, 99, 100.

Ostrom, Abijah, res. mem., 335.

Otto, Dr., principal of Dresden Nor-
mal College, 42.

Ottoman empire, 118.

Overton, map by, 242.

Owen, Prof., 83.

Oxalis acetocella, 80.

Oxford university, composed of seve-
ral colleges, 17 ; students at, 21 ;
traditionalism of, 19.

Oxyocus palustris, 75.

Paalzow, Dr., 63.

Pacific coast, 244 ; of the United
States, 241.
Ocean, 243, 245, 246, 247, 249,
257 ; geography of, 253 ; rivers
flowing into, according to En-
gel, 251 ; recent anticipations
respecting countries on the
shore of, 258.

Packard & Van Benthuysen, print-
ers, 282.

Paige, John K., res. mem., 335.

Paine, Henry D., M.D., res. mem.,
335.
Horace M., M.D., res. mem., 335,
339 ; mem. 1st class, 1st dept.,
341.

Palestine, study of geography of, in
burger schools of Germany, 33.

Pallas, 99.

Palmer, Beriah, cor. mem., 328.
Erastus D., res. mem., 335.

Panaeslus (fungus), 220.

Pantheism, hot houses of, 19.

Parasitic plants, 215, 218 ; fungi con-
sidered as, 221, 224.

Paris, 249 ; Conservatory of Arts at,
58 ; university at, 13.

Parker, Amasa J., LL.D., cor. mem.,
328 ; res. mem., 335.
Amasa J., Jr., res. mem., 335,

339.
Philip S., res. mem., 335.

Parker's piece, 21.

Parmelee, William, res. mem., 335.

:;to

linlr.r.

Par-—. 08, IOC.

Parsons, L. Sprague, res. mem., 885.

Partridge, A [den, oor. mem.,

Pasko, \\ esley W., res. mem., 886.

Pateraon, John, ree. mem., 886, 888 ;
mem. Lei class, 1st dept., '■'• 1 1 ;
(Mr. Bee. Is! dent., 840 : elected
oor. » c of tirst dept.. 266, 889

Patten, Mr.. I 19.

Paul, .Iran. Baying of, 82.

Pnnus dorsalis (fungus), 213.

Pearson, George, res. mem., 836.

Pease, EJrastus II., res. mem., 836, 839.
Frederick S., res. mem., 386.

Peck, (.'lias. II.. 74, 80; res. mem.,
386, 888; chairman 2d class, 2d
dept., 342; papei on fungi by,
809-226.

Pedestrian's Tour through the West,
in 1810, 384

Pendulums, paper on Compensation
of, by Prof. G. \V. Hough, 388-
268.

Pennsylvania, 811; Historical So-
ciety, 397.

Percy, Dr. Bam'] P., paper by, on the
food of our cities, read, 270.

Perez, voyage by, 263.

Perkins, George P., LL.D.,res. mem.,
835.

Perry, John S., res. mem., 353, 339 ;
mem. 3d class, 1st dept., 3-41.

Persia. !•:!. 99.

Persians, 9-1.

Personal equation, remarks on. by
Prof. (i. \V. Hough, 368, 397,
280; method of testing, 297.

Peru, Call ao in. 248 ; De Pontes in,
349.

Peter thf Lombard, 14.

Peters, Pichard, hon, mem., 322.
Prof., 64

Petiver, Mr., editor, 249.

Pharaoh, L81.

Phasis, 93, ITT: river, 112.

Phelps, William K.. res. mem., 885.

Phenomena during eclipse, 198, 194,
301 303.

Philip II, of Spain, 260.

Philippines, 2 1 1.

Philological science, lectures on, 64

Philosophical science, lectures on, 82.

Physical phenomena of total eclipse,
L86-192 ; science, lectures on, 68 :
and the ai" - s in depart-

ment of, 311.

Physics, in city trade schools of Ger-
many, 43, II : and astronomy,
class in, 341 ; report of class on,
when due, 343.

Physiology and chemistry, class in,

:; II : report of class on, when

due, B48.
Physiology, important discoveries in.

L81- L83.
Picard, Henri, res mem., 335.
Pierce. Jacob, cor. mem., 828.

James, oor mem.. :;.

Pietras/.enski. Dr., 65.

Pike, Major Zebulon, expedition by.

356.
Pine mountain, '■!'■'>'!
Pintis mops, i .'
Piper, Pmf. Dr., 61.
Pittsburg, '.>v;"».
Placid lake, 79,80.
Planet, alleged discovery of a new,

381.
Plants, functions of, 1 I'.l ; Cincinnati,

811 ; N. Carolina. 811 : relat

of minerals to animals and. 1 Is!,

L60, I'll. L82 : structure of, 148,

149, LSI, L58, L54.
Plates, showing position of batteries,

etc.. lii^; representing Bailey's

heads, etc., I1-?. 1 ss ; appearance

of total eclipse, 184
Piatt. Charles Z., res. mem., 885.

Jonas, cor. mem., 828.
Platte river, expedition to find

sources of, 266.
Plauen, 88.

Plumb, .losiah B., res. mem.. 886.
Plutonic pocks, 98.
Poggendorf, Prof., 68.
Pogonatum ornigerum, 80.
Pogonia ophioglossoides, I i.
Poland, dismemberment of, 2 ; a fief

of, 1.
Pollux, 202.
Polygala, T3.
PolyporuB (perennial fungus), 818 ;

fomentariuB (fungus), 226 ; luci-

dus (large fungus), 2 1 8.
Polytechnic lectures, at Hanover,

'do.
Ponifret, James B., M.D., res. mem.,

885.
Pompeii, 68 : monuments of, 68.

Porcupines, 281.

Porter. Jacob, M.D., cor. mem., 328;
Port Benry, 7'C (duster of red cedar
at. 71.

Portlock, voyage by, 853.
Portugaese, the, 244 ; Language, 2(i4 ;
( Portugais), navigators, 2 W.

Posen, added to Prussia, i

Potamogeton pnelongus, 80.
Potatoe rot, caused by fungi, 222.
Potentilla trideutata, 81.

Index.

371

Potsdam, regency of, as a geograph-
ical study, 36 ; sandstone, 70,
294 ; notice of fossils from, by
Prof. Hall, 262.

Potter, Horatio, D.D., res. mem., 335.

Powers, Titus W., M.D., res. mem.,
335.

Prague, university at, 12.

Pratt, Daniel J., elected res. mem.,
296 ; res. mem., 335, 339 ; rec.
sec, 340 ; Manual prepared by,
299 ; mem. 1st class, 3d dept.,
342 ; librarian 1st dept., 340.

Prescott, Richard, res. mem.,
335, 339 ; mem. 1st class, 2d
dept., 341.

Presque Isle, 285.

Preuss, Gic, 61.

Price, William M., cor. mem., 328.

Prichard, Dr.,94.

Prince Albert, genealogy of, 294.

Princeton College, 283.

Prinsep, William, cor. mem., 328.

Proceedings of Albany Institute, 259-
300.

Procyon, sought during eclipse, 202.

Professors, classes of, in German uni-
versities, 16 ; number of, in Ger-
man universities, 17.

Prometheus, 97, 98.

Protestant catechism, taught in
burger schools of Germany, 33 ;
students, religious examination
ot, in teacher's college at Dres-
den, 40 ; universities, number of
in Germany, 12.

Proteus, 122.

Protoplasm, 154, 155, 158, 159, 165 ;
elements of, 159 ; real basis of
life. 158.

Proverbs, quotations from, 28.

Providence, gift of, to various nations,
22.

Prunus, 222 ; cerasus, 222 ; Virgini-
ana, 222.

Prussia, administration of public in-
struction in, 4 ; characteristics
of rulers of, 3 ; education in, 1 ;
education of lower orders in, 32;
geographical study of, 36 ; gram-
mar schools, etc., 7 ; growth of,
1, 2; history of, studied, 37;
number of universities in, 12 ;
Polytechnic schools iti, 9, 10 ; re-
ligious freedom and educational
privileges in, 3 ; schools of in-
dustry, art, etc., in, 8 ; sound
financial condition of, 3 ; statis-
tics of schools in, 5 ; universities,
examinations for degrees in, 15.

[Trans, vi.] 47

Pruyn, Erastus C, res. mem., 335.

John V. L., LL.D., res. mem.,
335, 339 ; nomination by, 260 ;
elected president, 265, 289 ; pre-
sident, 259, 260, 262, 340.

Lansing, res. mem., 335, 339.

Robert C., res. mem., 335, 339.

Robert H., res. mem., 335, 339.

Samuel, res. mem., 335.
Psalms, certain ones, committed to

memory in primary schools of

Germany, 26 ; quotations from,

26, 27, 28, 29.
Psathyra (genus of fungi), 214.
Psathyrella, (genus of fungi), 214.
Public institutions, 65.
Publication committee, 261 ; see com-
mittee.
Purchas's Pilgrimes, 246 ; map of

California by, 242 ; reference to,

245.
Purdy, Ebenezer, corporate member

of Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Pylaiscea polyantha, 81.
Quackenbush, John V. P., M.D., res.

mem., 335, 339 ; mem. 2d class,

1st dept., 341.
Quadra, Iuan de la Bodega y, 253.
Quadrivium, 14.
Queen Charlotte's archipelago, 254 ;

island, discovery of, 254.
Quercus ruocrocarpa, 71 ; montana, 71.
Quetelet, Adolphe, cor. mem., 328.
Quivira, city of, 246.
Quorum of Albany Institute, 313.
Raccoon, habits of the, 228.
Rana, 122.

esculenta, 122.

fontinalis, 122.

palustris, 122.

pipiens, 122, 128.

sylvatica, 122.
Randall, Samuel S., res. mem., 335.
Randel, John, Jr., cor. mem., 328.
Randolph, E., address by, at San

Francisco, 257 ; statement by

concerning San Francisco, 252.
Randon, Marshall, 105.
Ranidse, 122.
Ranke, Prof. V., 64.
Ransom, Albion, res. mem., 335, 339.
Ranunculus aquatilis, 73 ; reptans, 73.
Rapelye, William E., cor. mem., 329.
Rathbone, Clarence, res. mem., 335,
339.

Joel, res. mem., 335.

John F., res. mem., 335, 339.
Rationalism, hot houses of, 19.
Raumer, Prof. V., 64.

372

Index.

Ravenel. II. W., 211.

Raroth, Dr., 62.

Raymond, David, cor. mem., 820

Read, John Meredith, Jr., res. mem.,
886 : elected eor. see. <>f third
dept., 288 ; nominations by, 288,
296, 297 ; motion by, 290; paper
on the Family of Bare Coburg,
read by, 294.

Reading, course of instruction in, in
burger schools of Qermany, 37.

Real schools, royal ofGtarman] ,46-48.

Red river, 282.

Pea, 98,

protuberances, as seen at eclipse
of 1869, 190-192,196,199,205.

Redfiehl, Charles B., re8. mem., 335 ;
pedestrian's tour through the

W.st. in 1810, read by, 284 ;
elected treasurer of second
dept., 266, 289; res. mem., 886;
in the chair, 276, 287.
James, res. mem., 335.
William C, cor. mem., 329 ; ac-
count of pedestrian's tour
through the West, by, 284.

Red path, Peter, cor. mem., 329.

Reese, Rev. J. Livingston, res. mem.,
335, 339.

Reformation, the, produced in Ger-
many, 22 ; history of, taught in
German burger schools, 34;
effect of, upon study of Aristotle,
14 ; origin of, in Germany, 11 ;
wealth of abbeys at time of, ap-
plied to German universities, 12.

Regents of the university, 80.

Regiment, Third N. Y., during the
Revolution, 272.

Regulars, 202.

Reichert, Prof., 02.

Reid, John, res. mem., 335.

Kenneth, M.D., cor. mem., 329.

Reilly, James W.( U. S. A., res. mem.,
335,339 ;mem. 3d class, 3d dept.,
342.

Reindeer. American, 240.

Relays, galvanic, 169, 174, 195.

Religion of Caucasus, !l? ; course of
studv in gymnasium of Berlin,
49-54.

Religious instruction, in city trade
schools of (lermanv, 43, 44.

Remele, Dr., 68.

Rensselaer county, destruction of

forest trees ill, 222, 228.

Polytechnic Institute, brief ac-
count of, 271 . 272 : tribute to
usefulness of, by Prof. C. II.
Anthony, 272.

Renwick, James, LL.D.. cor. mem.,

829.
i:. pari of Committee to audit trea-
surer's account. 268, 269; on

iM'ininations, 289.
of library committee relative to

binding, submitted, 269, 284,
286 ; select, 262, 268 ; trea-
surer's for L888, submitted,
264 ; for 1864, submitted. 289.

Reports to be made by officers of the
Albany Institute at anniversary
meeting. 814.

Residences of cor. members, 828-881.

Resolution, relative to duplicate

documents, offered, 268 ; adopted,

265.
Resolutions, complimentary to Prof.

Murray, 259.
Revolution, the, 295.
Reynolds, Dexter, res. mem., 335.

Marcus T., res. mem., 886.

Stephen, M.D., cor. mem., 329.

W alter, cor. mem., 329.

Walter GL, res. mem., 886.

Rheostat, 186, 1 78.

Rhinelander, Frederick, corporate
member of Society for Promo
tion of Agriculture, etc.. 302.
William, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.

Rhoades. Julius, res. mem., 335.

Rhode island, 282.

Rhododendron, hispidum, 74.

Rice, William A., res. mem., 335,339.

Rich, Luther, cor. mem., 829.
Obadiah, cor. mem., 829.

Rift bill, 229, 280, 281, 282.

Rio del Revs, voyage to discover the,

Rion river, 92, 112 ; waters of, 92.
Robertson, Charles A., M.D., res.
mem., 886, 889 ; mem. 2d class,

1st dept.. 841.

John D., cor. mem., B29.
Robison. Hugh. res. mem.. 885.
Rockwell, William S., res. mem.

886.

Rocky mountains, 77. 266 ; expedition

to. in 1820, 282 ; first settlements

west of, 2o7.
Rodgers, John R. B., cor. mem., 329.

J. Bmythe, M.D., cor. mem., 329.
Rodiger, Prof.. 60, 65.
Rogers, saying of, 102.
Roman Catholic universities, Dum-
ber of, in Germany, 12.

Catholics, in Germany Univ.

ties, 20.

Index.

373

Roman code, 15.

Romance languages, 204.

Romanist students, religious examin-
ation of, in teachers' college at
Dresden, 40.

Romayne, Nicholas, cor. mem., 329.

Rome, 58 ; fungi used in, 224 ; mu-
seum at, 58 ; mission of the peo-
ple of, 12 ; monuments of, 88 ;
Vatican library at, 201.

Romeyn, John B., D. D., cor. mem.,
329.

Roosa, Mrs. Mary, trial of, 290.

Root, Arthur H., res. mem., 335.
Erastus, cor. mem., 329.

Rosacea?, 73.

Rose, Prof., 03.

Rosendale, Simon W., nominated as
resident member, 291 ; elected
res. mem., 335, 339.

Rosenthal, Prof., 02.

Ross, William, cor. mem., 329. ,

Roth, Prof., 03.

Royal Real schools of Germany,
45-48.

Rudorff, Prof., 01.

Rugg, George S., res. mem., 335.

Russ, Charles E., res. mem., 335, 339.
mem. 3rd class, 3ddept., 342.

Russell, John, cor. mem., 329.

Joseph W., nominated as res.
mem., 209 ; elected res. mem.,
270 ; res. mem., 335, 339 ; pres.
3d dept., 340 ; mem. 3d class, 3d
dept., 342.
Samuel, cor. mem. of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,
302 ; cor. mem., 329.

Russia, 110, 255.
New, 108, 110.

Russian discoveries, 242, 243; (Russes)
navigators, 240 ; settlement on,
N. W. coast, 253 ; troops, 102 ;
victims, 102 ; expedition of 1741,
240.

Russians, 94, 110, 117, 119 ; character
of, 103 ; discoveries by, 250 ; in
America, 242 ; expedition of,
104, 105 ; imprisonment of Led-
yard by, 255.

Russians, post station of, 110.

Rust, David, cor. mem., 329.

Rutgers College, 177, 275; Prof. Mur-
ray's accession to, 259.

Rutherford, Walter, cor. mem. of
Society for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 302.

Ryck, Dr., 01.

Sabine women, countries seized by
Prussia compared to, 3.

Sackett, Nathaniel, cor. mem., of So-
ciety for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., 302.

Sacondaga river, 229, 231.

St. Augustine, 280.

St. Helena, 110.

St. John, Gospel of, 280.

St. Lawrence, 09.
river, 08.

St. Louis, 177.

St. Petersburgh, 110, 240.

Salamanca, high school at, 11.

Salem, Mass., 177 ; meeting of Amer.
Asso. for Adv. of Science at, 107.

Salina Salt Works, 285.

Salisbury, James H., M.D., res. mem.,
335.

Salzburg, university at, 12.

Sanders, James B., res. mem., 335,
339 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept.,
342.

San Diego, 252.

Sanford, Benjamin, cor. mem., 329.
Joseph P., res. mem., 335, 339 ;
mem. 1st class, 3d dept., 342.

San Francisco, 254 ; rediscovered,
252 ; site of, passed by Sir Fran-
cis Drake, 243 ; E. Randolph's
address at, 257.

Sanitary commission, curiosities for
exhibition at fair of, offered, 209 ;
reforms, remarks on, by Dr. J.
H. Griscom, 209.

Sanscrit language, 204.

Sante Fe, Mexico, 277.

Saranac, river, source of, 09.

Saratoga, mineralogical expedition
to high rock at, 272.

Sarracenia purpurea, 70.

Satterlee, Edward, res. mem., 330.

Saturn, 154, 202 ; during eclipse, 198 ;
visible during eclipse, 192, 193.

Sault St. Marie, 282.

Sauriens, les amours des, 128.

Sauromatians, 99.

Sautter, Louis M., res. mem., 330,
339 ; mem. 2d class, 1st dept.,
341.

Savery, P. B., res. mem., 330.

Saxe, John G, res. mem., 330, 339 ;

mem. 3d class, 3d dept., 342.

Coburg, paper on family of,

read by Gen. Read, 294.
Weimar* 321, 322.

Saxony, electorate of, 294 ; university
iu kingdom of, 12 : red sand
stones of, 121.

Sayer & Bennett's maps, 251.

Schaff, Adrian, Jr., cor. mem., 329.
Schamyl, chiefs, 90 : of Caucasus, 103.

374

Ivd

ex.

Schiller, educated in Wuro mburg,8.

Schleiermacher, I I.

Schleswig I Lolstein, 2.

Schmidt, 'Dr., 61.

Schneider, Prof., 63.

Schodack, 284.

Schoolcraft, BDenrj R.,cor. mem., '■'■'"■ I ;
and < lass'e e :pi litmus. 267.

SchoohvArab high,ll ; burger or mid
die, in Germany, 33 ; free, in large
cities of < termany, •'> ; grammar,
in Prussia, i ; of industry and
art in Prussia, 8; primary, <»t'
Garmany, 24 - 38 ; burger or
middle, 33-39 ; primary of b

it's college, -III ; city trade, 42-

•r> ; royal real,45-48; course oi
instruction in, 24-88; Prussian',
under control of the state, Ger
man, scientific, summary of,
Hi; visitation of, in Bavaria, 82.

Schott, Prof., 05.

Schubert, educated in Wurtem>
berg, 8.

Sclnibzenstein, Prof. Schultz, 61.

Schultz, Dr., <>','. 64

Schuyler, Philip L, cor. mem., 329.
Rensselaer, cor. menu, 329.

William C, res. mem., ',Y6G.
Scliwrinit/,, Dr., 210, 221.
Science; German schools of, 10,
Scientific American, 206.
Scirpus svlvaticns, 74.
Scotland,'!).""), 111.
Scott. John V. 1).. cor. mem., ;S29.

Sir Walter, 278.
Scottish parliament, 96;
Scovil, Oliver, res. mem., :!:56.
Scripture, portions of, memorized in

primary schools of Germany, 26.
Scythia, 99
Scythians, 08.

Sea Ofthe West. the. '2 HI. 'JIT.

Seals, ase of authorized, 808, 806, 808.
Schelling, educated in Wurtemberg,

8.
Bchenckel, d< si^-ns by, 68.
Schenectady . 275, '.'s">.
Scheutz engine, a1 Dudley Observa
ton. 274, 275.

George, tabulating machine by,
described, 278, 275.
Sedgwick, Theodore, cor. mem.. 329.
Seeley, George, res mem., 886, 889.

Seminaries, normal, philological,

etc., in Prussia, 6, ?.
Bemisch, Prof., Dr., 61, mi.
Semitic variety of Caucasian race,

ill.
Seneca county, 76.

us. [lev. John, res. mem., 836;

Seville, bigb school at, 1 1.

Bewail, Edward 0., eor. mem., 880.
Stephen, <-nr. mem., 889,
Thomas, M.D., cor. mem.. :12!I.

Sej mour, 'I'., hill of, for binding, 286-.

Shaki rs, western village of, 28 i.

Shakespeare, William, 151'.

Shaler, William, cor. mem., 829.

Shapley, Catpt., 8

Sharswood. George, lion, mem., 822*.

Shaw, Joseph, LL.D., res. mem.. :;:!<i.

Sheldon, Alexander, cor. mem., B98*.

Shelvocke, voyagesby, for trade, '.Ml.

Shepard, Ashbel Iv. res. mem., 886.

Sherman, Watts, res. num.. 886.

Shiland, Andrew, res. mem., 886.

Sidereal clock of Dudley Obs., l<95.

Siebreich, Dr.. 62.

Silesia, added to Prussia, 2.

Si Hi man. Benjamin, LL.D.,cor. mem.,

129.
Silliman's Journal, 211.
Simonds, Thomas, res. menu, 886.

Simons, Thomas, 1??.

Simonsmi, Janus, U.S.A., cor. mem.,

3891
Sinai Bible, abstract of paper on, by

Dr. Townsend, 260 ; manuscript,

Supposed interpolation of, 286.
Singing, course of instruction in. in

burger schools of Germany, 88 ;

in city trade schools of Germany,

48 15.
Si/.er, Asa 1?., M.D., cor. mem., 829.
Skenck, John, corporate member of

Society} for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc.. 888.
Skepticism, hot houses of, 19.

Skilton, Avery J., M.D., cor. mem.,
889.
George S.. res. mem., 886.
Skinner, Elisha W., res. mem., 886.
Skrzeczka, Prof., 68.
Slacer, Mr., 1 79.

Slave trade, ( "uvassiali. 1 111.

Slavery, in < laucasus, 1 16, 1 1 r.

Smart. Rev. William S.. res. mem..

386, 889; mem.. 2d class, 3d
dept., 848.

Smith. A.hmi l.\. res. mem., :i:56.

AngUBtUS W.. LL.D.. cor. mem.,

889.
Charles E., res. mem.. 880, -539.
Isaac W., M.D.. cor. mem.. 889.
James 11.. res. mem., 886, 889.
Jedediah S.. agent of Am. Pur

( !o., and first to cross the con
tinent to Cal.. 857.
J. Moreau. res. mem.. 386

Index.

375

Smith, John, of Suffolk county, cor-
porate member of Society for
the Promotion of Agriculture,
etc., 302.
John S., res. mem., 336.
John W. A., U.S.A., cor. mem.,

329.
Joseph W., M.D., cor. mem., 329.
J. Wesley, res. mem., 336, 339.
Louis B , res. mem., 336, 339.
Melancthon, corporate member
of Society for Promotion of
Agriculture, etc., 302.
Nathan, cor. mem., 329.
Peter, cor. mem., 329.
Professor, 193.
Prof. F. H., 178.
Prof. T. H., 206.
Richard L., cor. mem., 329.
Samuel, cor. mem., 329.
Smithsonian Institution, 210.
Snow shoes used in bear hunt, de-
scribed, 240.
Snyder, Henry W., res. mem., 336.
Society of Arts, Transactions of, copies
on hand, 262.
for the Promotion of Agricul-
ture, Arts and Manufactures,
formed and incorporated, 299 ;
charter of, 301-304.
for the Promotion of Useful Arts,
incorporated, 299 ; publica-
tions and influence of, 299 ;
charter of, 305-307 ; merged
into the Albany Institute, 300,
311,321.
Sodom and Gomorrah, 278.
Solidago thyrsoides, 80.

virga aurea, 80.
Solly, Lee, 65.
Solomon, King, 278.
Sonnenschein, Dr., 63.
Souls, William, cor. mem., 329 ; res.

mem., 336.
South Carolina, 211.

Lambeth, Eng., 321.
Sea, the, 250.
Southern Quarterly Review, article
in, concerning probable future of
California, 257.
Southwick, Arthur C, res.' mem., 336.
Spafford, Horatio G., LL.D., cor.

mem., 329.
Spain, 118 ; fungi used in, 224 ;
Philip II, of, 250 ; records of,
249 ; wealth of, from mines, 244.
Spaniards, the, 244, 249; discovery by,
243 ; failure of, to discover north-
west coast, 252 ; maps of N. W.
coast by the, 245 ; rediscovery of

Spaniards, continued —

Upper California by, 251 ; search
by, for straits of Anian, 250 ;
ships sent by, 249.

Spanish Admiral, voyage by, 248 ;
flag, 253 ; expedition, 253 ; lan-
guage, 264 ; maps, 251 ; manu-
script, 249 ; (Espagnols) naviga-
tors, 246 ; service, 247 ; settlers,
western, 257 ; sources of inform-
ation, 249 ; vessels, 244.

Spalding, Lyman A., cor. mem., 329.

Sparticus, 97.

Spencer, Thomas, M.D., cor. mem.,
329.
William, res. mem., 336.
rifle, 228.

Sphseria morbosa (black knot fungus),
221.

Sphagnum lindenbergii, 80 ; pylsesii,
80 ; sedoites, 80.

Spica, 202.

Spilbergen, 'voyages by, for trade,
244.

Spiraea, 73.

Spiranthes gracilis, 71.

Spofford, Ainsworth R., cor. mem.,
329.

Sprague, Rev. William B., D.D., res.
mem., 336.

Sprecher, Rev. Samuel T., res. mem.,
336, 339.

Springfield, O., 178, 186.

Stager, Gen. Anson, supt., etc., 179.

Stanhoul, 116, 117, 118.

Stars, visible during eclipse, 192, 193.

State geological rooms, 92.

Lunatic Asylum, at Utica, 277.

Stearns, Eben S., res. mem., 336.
John, M.D., cor. mem., 330.

Stebbins, Cyrus M., cor. mem., 330.

Steele, Ebenezer, M.D., cor. mem.,
330.
John H., M.D., cor. mem., 330.
Oliver, res. mem., 336.
Rev. Florida, res. mem., 336.
Samuel, res. mem., 336.

Steinmeyer, Prof. Dr., 61.

Steinthal, Prof., 63, 64.

Stettin, location of, 1.

Stevens, George T., M.D., res. mem.,
■336, 339 ; rec. sec, 1st dept.,
340 ; chairman 3d class, 2d
dept., 342; paper by, on Life as
a Physical Phenomenon, 147 -
166 ; paper by, on the Flora of
the Adirondacs, 67 - 82.
John, cor. mem. of Society for
Promotion of Agriculture, etc.,
302 ; cor. mem., 330.

37(3

Index.

Stevens, Samuel, res. mem., 836.
Btei enseal, James, b s. mem., 886.

Matthew, M.I >., oor, mem., 880.
Stimson, Daniel M.,M.D.,zet. mem.,

330, 389 ; mem. 3d class, 1st dept.,

841.
Stockholm, tabulating machine made

at, 378.
Stone. William L.,cor. mem., 330.

William L., Jr., cor. mem., 330.
Stranalian. Farrard, COT. mem., 380.
Strauss, Prof.. Gic, 00.
Street, Alfred B., res. mem., 330,

339.
Streptopus rosens, 81.
Strong, Anthony M., res. mem., 33(5.

Benjamin, corporate member of
Society tor Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 303.

Edwin A., cor. mem., 330.

Richard M., res. mem., 336.

Selah, cor. mem., 330.

Theodore, LL.D.,cor. mem., 330.
Structure, mineral and organic dis-
tinguished, 148, 161, 102, 103,

104, 10.-,.
Students, habits of German, 21.

number of, in German univer-
sities, 17.
Study, plan of, in Prussian schools

of Industry and Arts, 8.
Sturgis, David, 227,228,220,230,231,
236.

Russell, Jr., nominated as corre-

sponding member, 2!)0 ; elected

cor. mem., 298 ; cor. mem., 330.

Sullivant, W. B.,809.

Sulphate of zinc, formation of, in

galvanic battery, 188.
Sun. the, 281 : total eclipse of, paper

on, by <i. W. Bough, L77-307.
Susquehanna river, 295.
Svanberg's experiments, 140.
Swains. hi, William, hon. mem., 322.
Swan, Richard W., res. mem., 330,

389.
Swartwout, Jacobus, corporate mem-
ber of Society for Promotion of

Agriculture, etc., 802.

Bweezey, Samuel T. C, nominated

as cor. mem., 291 ; cor. mem.,

33D.
Swift. Joseph GL, cor. mem.. 33(1.

Lewis, 177. 180, 201 ; report of
eclipse by, L96, -Jul.

.Mr. is:,. L92, L95.
Swiss geographer (Engel), 260.

Switzerland. 67, TT : of America, 67.

Syon, Baron Alfonse de, cor. mem..
880

Syracuse, trial for murder at, 296.

Syrian women. 100.

Syro-Arabian variety of Caucasian

race, in
Systema mycologicum, 21 1.
'I'aber, A/.nr. res. mem., 330.
Tabulating machine, account of, 273,

375.
Tadpoles, description of, L29.
Taflfe, Prof., 01. 65.
Talcott, <ien. George, P.S.A.. cor.

mem., 880.

S. VisBcher, res. mem., 330, 339.

William 11.. res. mem., 886.
Tanais river, 00.
Tanner. John, life of, 282.
Tarry town, 321.
Tartar language, lis.
Tartars, '.111.

Tartary, 99.

Tayler, John, hon. mem., 322: res.

niein.. 330.
Taylor, Alfred A., res. mem., 336,
889.

(ieorge W., res. mem., 836.

John. Jr.. res. mem., 886.

Richanl c, cor. mem., 330.
Tcherkess, 94, 112.
Tchirikow, discoveries bv, in Aim-

rica, 242.
Teacliers' college in Dresden, time-
table of. 30; primary schools
connected wit a, 40.
of Prussian Gymnasia, declared
officers of state, 6 ; parish, in
Germany, how chosen. 42 ; ex-
amination of. in Bavaria, etc.,
33; number of, in German
oniversil tes, l i ; classes of, in
German universities, L6i
Teaching, as a profession in Prussia,

5.
Technology, in city trade schools of

Germany, 45.

Telegraph, chemical, 100 ; wile, velo.
City of electric current over. 10?

i re.

Telescope, used during eclipse. 177,

17s. I'.m; ; in observing eclipse,
described, L80, L83, 304
Temperature, daring eclipse, 198.
Temple. Roberl I-"., res mem., 886.

Ten Eyck, Klislui ^ .. res. mem.. 886.
James, res. mem.. 330. 330 ; mem.
3d class. 3d dept.. 342.

Philip, M.D., res. mem., 886,
330 ; mem. 1st class, 1st dept.,
311.

Terek river. 02. 99.

TertuUian's Apolegeticus, 18.

Index.

377

Testaments, Old and New, 260, 261.
Tetraphlodon mnioides, 81.
Texas cattle disease, 223.
Tkaer, Prof., 64.
Themis, 97.

Theology, lectures on, 60.
Thermometer, observations with, dur-
ing eclipse, 206, 207.
Thessalia, 93.

Thomas, David, cor. mem., 330.
Thomasius, Prof., originator of uni-
versity lectures in German lan-
guage, 18.
Thompson, Andrew, cor. mem., 330.
William, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 303.
Thomson, Lemon, res. mem., 336,
339 ; mem. 3d class, 3d dept , 342.
Thurman, John, corporate member
of Society for Promotion of Ag-
riculture, etc., 302.
Tibbits, George M., cor. mem., 330.
Ticonderoga, 70.
Tiffany, Isaac H., cor. mem., 330.
Tiflis, 92, 104, 117 ; in Georgia, 110.
Tillemon, map by, 242.
Tillman, Samuel D., cor. mem., 330.
Tillotson, Ira, cor. mem., 330.
relay, 169.

Robert R., cor. mem., 330.
Thomas, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Time, armature, 171.

table of Teachers' college in
Dresden, 39 ; in royal real
schools of Germany, 47.
Tindall, Mr., 179.

Tischendorf, Dr., Sinai manuscripts

discovered by, 286 ; discoverer

of ancient Bible manuscripts.

260, 261.

Titan, Prometheus, mentioned as a,

98.
Titus, William U., cor. mem., 330.
Tobler, Prof., 65.
Toby, Uncle, 133.
Todd and Bowman's Cyclopedia of

Anatomy and Physiology, 135.
Tohaentgen, Dr., 65.
Toledo, high school at, 11.
Tomlinson, Charles H., cor. mem.,

330.
Tompkins, Daniel D.,cor. mem., 330.
Toner, Joseph M., cor. mem., 330.
Tooley, Henry, Sr., M.D., cor. mem.,

330.
Torquemada, author of Monarquia,
Indiana, 250.

Torrey, John, M.D., 209 ; cor. mem.,

330.
Total eclipse of Aug. 7, 1869, 177-207.
Totten, Silas, D.D., LL.D., cor. mem.,

330.
Tower, Charlemagne, cor. mem., 330.
Townsend, Ambrose S., res. mem.,
336.
Dr. Charles G., original mem. of

Alb. Co. Med. Soc, 272.
Franklin, res. mem., 336, 339;
mem., 3d class, 1st dept., 341.
Frederick, res. mem., 336, 339.
Howard, res. mem., 336 ; elected
one of the curators, 265 ;
elected vice-president of third
dept., 289 ; motions by, 261,
277, 286 ; nominations by, 260.
262, 287 ; in the chair, 270,
273, 289 ; vote of thanks to,
261 ; paper on Food and Diges-
tion read by, 298 ; abstract of
paper by, on Sinai Bible, 260,
261 ; circumstance relative to
Sinai manuscripts mentioned
by, 286 ; resolutions offered by
relative to Prof. Murray, 259.
Isaiah, les. mem., 336.
John, res. mem., 336.
John F..M.D., res. mem., 336.
Peter S., cor. mem., 330.
Robert, res. mem., 336.
Theodore, res. mem., 336, 339.
Tracy, James G., res. mem., 336.

William, LL.D., cor. mem., 330.

Transactions, Society of Arts, copies

of, on hand, 262.

of Albany Institute, packages of,

261 ; copies of, on hand, 262,

263 ; publication of vol. iv,

announced, 270 ; presented to

members, 273 ; presented to

Wm. Menzies, 287.

Treadwell, John G., res. mem., 336,

339.
Treasurer's account audited, 290 ;
report of auditing committee
on, 268, 269 ; report for 1863,
submitted, 264; for 1864, sub-
mitted, 289.
Treaties, European, 1.
Trendelenburg, Prof., 62.
Trichina Spiralis, paper on, by Ed-
ward R. Hun,M.D., 83-90; de-
scribed, 83 ; four distinct phases
of existence of, 85 ; found in
various animals, 87 ; destroyed
by heat, 89 ; microscopic examin-
ation of, 90 ; medico - legal as-
pects of, 87; statistics of mortality

378

Index.

Trichina Spiralis, continued —

resulting from, 88; epidemic,

91 : measures for prevention of,

88; Bymptoms of, 85, 86, 87, 89;

three Btages of, 85 ; resulting

from eating pork, in mosl cases,

86,87.
Trivimn. arts constituting, 14.
Trowbridge, Amasa, M.D., cor. mem.,

330.
'1W, 27; siege of, 121.
Tryon, John, cur. im'ni., 330.
Tubingen, university at, 12; recita

tions, etc., at, 18.
Tucker, Henry, cor. mem., 330.

Luther H., res. mem., 330, 339 ;
mem. 3d class, 1st dept., 341.
Tuckerman, Prof. K..210.
'fully, William, M.D., res. mem.,

330 : cur. mem., 330.
Turkish bath, 279.

gun, 108.
Turk*, 94, <J7, 98.
Tuscan irn Indian (David Cusick),

395.
Tweed Dale, William A., rets, mem.,

336.
Twesten, Prof. Dr., 60, 66.
Twining, Prof., 177, 192.
Twombly, Rev. Alexander S., res.

mem., 330 : paper on Oriental
Oddities read by, 278-280.
Tyler, Comfort, cor. mem., 330.
Tytler, remark by, 247.
Uhland, educated in Wurtemberg, 8.
Ulster count v, 272.

Ireland, 288.

Undulations of light, etc., 159, 160 ;
ethereal and molecular, 163.

United Colonies, commission appoint-
ed bv, to treat with Indians, 291.

United States, 80, 254, 308, 309 ; cast
survey, 177, 178; Longitude de-
terminations, 196 ; dag, tirst car
tied around the world, 25 1 ;
government, Pacific rail road ex-
plorations bj . 357 : Medical
Transactions. 396 : notice of Pol s-

dam Bandstone in, by Prof. Hall,
362 ; territory, 356 ; western
part of, 241.
Universities, English, tutorial sys-
tem ,,r, L7.
German, as distinguished from

(iyuinasia and colleges, '-'(I :

professional schools of, L3 15 .
faculties of 13-15 ; free from
sectarian disabilities, 20 ; when
founded, 11 ; influence of LI,

12; uidike the English as to

Universities, continued —

buildings, etc., 17 ; how found-
ed and supported, 12 ; number

of, 12 : exempt from taxa-
tion, 12 ; number of Soman
Catholic and Protestant, 12;
number of, in Grand Duchy
of Baden, 12 ; aumber of, Ln
Bavaria, 12 ; number of, Ln
Austria, 12 ; Prussian, under

the control of the state, 4.
Heeded. 23-

University, a model one. Hi ; of Bei
Lin, 65, 66 ; of Berlin, museum

Of, !•"> : in kingdom Ojf Saxony,

12 ; Regents of, in state of N. Y.,
80; in kingdom ofWurtembi rg,
12.
Ural lake, 98.

1'rsus ferox, 237.
1'snea harbata, 232.

I'tica, 285, 295.

I'tricularia corunta, 76 ; subulata, 76.

Vaccinum csespitosum, 81.

X'aleniiner. Dr.. 62.

Van Allen, Garrett A., res. mem..

336,889.
Van Antwerp, Johp H„ res. mem.,
336, 889 : mem. 3d class, 3d
dept., 342.
Van Benthuyseii, Arthur L., res.
mem., 336, 889,
Packard iY. printers, 282.
Van Cortland, Philip, cor. mem., 330.
Van Cortlandt, Philip, corporate
member of Society for Promo-
tion of Agriculture, etc., 302.
Pierre, cor. mem., 830.
.Mrs. Pierre, notice of Dr. L. C,
Heck, by, 375,276.
Vancouver, explorer, 354.
Vancouver's island, firs) circumnavi-
gated, 255.
Vanderpoel, Lsaao, res. mem., 886.
S. Oakley, M.l>.. res. mem.. 336,
338 ; pres. 3d dept., 840 ;

elected lee. Sec. of 2d dept.,

265, 289 : in the chair, 366 ;
suggestion by. in regard to

museum of the Institute, 869.
.lames, res. mem., 336.

Van Derveer, Albert, M.P., res. mem.,
886, 339.
John ( '.. cor. mem., 330.
Vandervoort, <>. A., cor. mem., 330
Peter, corporate member of So-
ciety for Promotion ol Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Van Dyck, Henry II.. res. mem., 880.
.Mary, of Rotterdam, 276.

Index.

379

Van Heuvel, Jacob A., cor. mem.,

330.
Van Ingen, Harmanus S., res. mem.,

336.
Van Ness, William W, cor. mem.,
330.
Catharine, wife of Dr. Bay, 283.
Van Noort, voyages by, for trade, 244.
Van Rensselaer, Alexander, cor.
mem., 330.
Cortlandt, res. mem., 336.
Eugene, elected res. mem., 261 ;
res. mem., 336, 339 ; mem. 3d
class, 1st dept., 341.
Jeremiah, M.D., cor. mem., 330 ;
corporate member of Society
for Promotion of Agriculture,
etc., 302.
John S., res. mem., 336.
Maunsell, D.D., cor. mem., 330.
Philip S., res. mem., 336 ; hon.

mem., 322.
Stephen, LL.D., founder of Rens.
Poly. Inst., 271 ; res. mem.,
336 : first president of the Al-
bany Lyceum of Natural His-
tory, 299, 310 ; elected presi-
dent of 2d dept., 265, 289;
corporate member of Albany
Lyceum of Nat. History, 308 ;
first president of Albany In-
stitute, 312.
Stephen, Jr., res. mem., 336.
William P., res. mem., 336.
Van Santvoord, Alfred, res. mem.,

336, 339.
Van Schaick, Anthony, res. mem.,
336.
Grerrit, res. mem.,, 336.
John B., res. mem., 336.
Van Vechten, Abraham, res. mem.,
336.
Jacob T. B., res. mem., 336.
Teunis, res. mem., 336.
Van Voorst, Hooper C, res. mem.,

336.
Varick, Henry D., cor. mem., 331.
Richard, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 302.
Vatican Codex, the, 260, 261;

Library, 261.
Vatke, Prof., Gic, 60.
Vanuxem, Lardner, cor. mem., 331.
Vega, during eclipse, 202.
Velocities of electric current, tabular

statement of, 169.
Velocity of electric current, paper
on, by Prof. G. W. Hough, 167-
176.

Venice, 247.

Venus, 281 ; visible during eclipse,
192, 193, 198, 202.

meshes of, 1.
Vermont, 282 ; Champlain slopes of,

70.
Viburnum pauciflorum, 73.
Viele, Maurice E., res. mem., 336,

339 ; mem. 3d class, 1st dept.,

341 ; curator, 340.
Vienna, university at, 12 ; medical

reputation of, 15 ; number of

professors and students in, 17.
Vincent, Marvin R., D.D., cor. mem.,

331.
Virchow, Prof., of Berlin, 62, 87, 88,

89,93.
Viscayno, Sebastien, discoveries by,

241 ; first discoverer of Monterey,

252 ; sent to discover straits of

Anian, 250.
Viscayno's voyage, 243, 247.
Visitation of schools in Bavaria, etc.,

32.
Vitality, phenomena of, 149, 155, 165,

166.
Vladi — Caucasse, 109.
Volcanoes in Caucasus, 93.
Volga river, 98.
Volta's pile, 131.
Von Steinwehr, Adolph, res. mem.,

336.
Vosburgh, Herman, cor. mem., 331.
Vredenburgh, William W., cor.

mem., 331.
Vrooman, Dr. Cornelius, Jr., original

mem. of Albany Co., Med. Soc,

272.
Wade, Edward, res. mem., 336, 339.
Wadhams, Mrs., 72.
Waldenburg, Dr., 62.
Walker, Henry A., res. mem., 336.

observer, 169.
Wallack, J. F., 179.
Walsh, Alexander, cor. mem., 331.

John S., res. rnem.,336.

William, res. mem., 336.
Ward, Charles W., res. mem., 337,
339.

Robert E., res. mem., 337.
Warden, David B., cor. mem., 331.
Warren, Mr., 179.

Washington territory, recently un-
known 241.
Wasson, James D., res. mem., 337,

339.
Waterbury, Daniel, res. mem., 337.
Waterford, N. Y., 177, 204.
Waterman, Robert H., res. mem.,

337, 339.

[Trans. vi.~]

48

Index.

Watson, Charles M.. cor. main,, 881.

Winsluw ( '.. cor. iiirin., B81.

Watts, John, cor. mem. of Society for

Promotion of Agriculture, ■

303.

Weather, a1 time of total eclipse, 182,

L83.
Weaver, Abram B., hon, mem., 8
Weber, Prof., 65.

Webster, Asahel S., M.D.,cor, mem.,
881.
Charles P.. res. mem., -Vol.
( leorge, res. mem., • i
Borace, LL.D., cor. mem., 881.
Horace P.. res. mem., 387.
Matthew Henry, res. mem., 337 ;
first recording secretary, and
one of the curators of the
Albany Lyceum of Natural
History, 810; cor. mem. of
Albany Lyceum of Natural
History, -:6s.
Noah, LL.D., cur. mem., 331.
Wei I, B iv. Henry 1!., res. mem.
WeierstrasB, Prof., 68, 66.
Weingarten, Prof., Gic, 61.
Welcome, or Ne i 'li ca, the, 2 18.
Wendell, Harvey, res. mem., 387, 839.
Herman, M.P., rea mem., 887.
John J., res. mem., 337.
Peter, M.D., res. mem., 337.
Philip.res. mem., 337, 339.
Wenl.-r. Prof., 63, 64.
Werner, Jacob l.. res. mem., 337,
339 ; elected cor. Bee. of 3d
dept., 365, 389; mem. 3d
class, 3d dept., 343; curator,
840.
Westbrook, Cornelius D., D.D., cor.

mem., 831.
Westcrlo, I.Vnsselaer, res. mem., 887.
Western geography, work on, by En
gel, 250, 351.
Union Telegraph Co., 107, 168.
Western Sea, the, 347.
Westphal, Dr., 63.
Westport, 73.
Wesl Troy Arsenal, 282.
Wetzstein, Dr., 65.
Weybridge, Vt.. 383.
Whallons bay, red cedar at, 71.
Wheaton, Henry <;.. res. mem., !
Wheatstone, observer, 169.
Wheeler, Everett P., cor. mem., 881;

elected. 398.

White, Canvas, cor. m m., 331

Deles. M.D., oor. mem., 881 ,
Dr. olivet-, paper by, on impale-

menl of the vagina, read by

Dr. Willard,370

White, JesBe M., res. mem.. 887, I
William J., ns. mem.,
elected, 370.
Whiteface mountain, 08, 77, 78,

80,81.
White mountains, 80, 81.
Whitfield, Bobert P., res. mem., 887,
•

Whitlow, Charles, cor. mem., 881.

Whitnej . John C, cor. mem., 881.

Josiah D.. cor. mem., 861.
Wichelhans, Dr., 68.
Wieland, educated in Wurtemb

8.
Wilkin, .lames W., cor. mem., 881.
Wilkinson, Jephthah A., cur. mem.,

381.
Will. Henry, corporate member of
Society for Promotion of Agri-
culture, etc., 803.
Willard, Elias, M.D., ree-mem., 8

original mem., of Alb. Co. Med.
Boa, '.' i'. : notice of, by Dr. S.
D. Willard, 375.
Sj LvesterD., M.D., res.mem.,337.
elected oneof the curators, 390;
nominationby, 288; motion by,
373,287; notice by, of Dr. Wm.
283 : notices of Dre. J.
Eights, and .1. A. Win";, read
by, 276, 27*3 ; notices of Drs. E.
Willard and L. C. Beck, by,
275 ; notice by, of memoirs of
members of Albany Co. Med.
Soc in preparation, 372 ; paper

on condition of insane poor

read by, 387 ; paper written by
Dr. S. R Percy, read by, 870;

sketch by, Ol Dr. Kdwin

James, 382 . appointed on com-
mittee,36 L365 ; paper written

by Dr. ( diver White, read l>y,
370 ; introduction of Dr. J. H.
Qriscom, by, 369 ; reporl on
treasurer's account submitted
by, 368,369.
Willers, Diedrich, Jr.,reamem., 887,

889.
Willett, Gilberl Colden, corporate
member of Society Pen Promo-
tion of Agriculture, etc, M2.
William I. of Prussia, sacrifices by,

to establish army Bchool, 3.
Williams, Cliauncev P., res. mem.,

Liege, 377.

BrastUB, M.D., cor. mem.. 881.

John, corporate member of Soci-
ety tor Promotion of Agricul-
ture, etc., :iU2.

Index.

381

Williams, Nathan, cor. mem., 331.

relay, 169.

Thomas S., cor. mem., 331.
Willing-, Thomas M., cor. mem., 331
Willoughby,Westel,M.D.,cor. mem.,

331.
Willsborough, 70.
Wilmington, Del., 297.
Wilson, Gilbert L., res. mem., 337.

Jacob, res. mem., 337 ; cor. mem.,
331.
Wilson, James M., res. mem., 237.

John, res. mem., 337.

John M., U. S. A., res. mem.,
337, 339 ; cor. mem., 331 ; mem.
1st class, 1st dept., 341.
Wing, Joel A., M.D., res. mem., 337 ;
notice of, read by Dr. S. D.
Willard, 276, 277!

Matthew Gregory, 277.
Winnie, John, res. mem., 337, 339.
Wirtemburg, education of lower

orders in, 32.
Wisner, Polydorus B., cor. mem.,

331.
Wohler, artificial preparation of urea

by, 162.
Wolford, George, res. mem., 337,

339.
Women of Caucasus, 100, 101, 106,

107, 108, 109.
Wood, Rev. Abel, res. mem., 337, 339 ;
mem. 3d class, 2d dept., 342.

Alphonso, 209.

Bradford R., res. mem., 337, 339.
Woodbridge, William C, cor. mem.,

331
Woodruff, Dr. Hunloke, 276; ori-
ginal member of Albany Co.

Woodruff, continued —

Med. Soc, 272 ; sketch of, by
Dr. S. D. Willard, 272.
Samuel M., res. mem., 337.

Woollett, William L., res. mem., 337.

Woolworth, Samuel B., LL.D., res.
mem., 337, 339 ; mem. 1st class,
2d dept., 341.

Woronzoff, Prince, 92.

Wright, Benjamin, cor. mem., 331.
John C, cor. mem., 331.
Mr., 179.

Wrightson, William, res. mem., 337

Writing, course in Gymasium of Ber-
lin, 49, 50 ; course of instruction
in, in burger schools of Germany,
37 ; in city trade school of Ger-
many, 43.

Wurtemburg, university in kingdom
of, 12 ; rigid school system of, 7.

Wurtzburg, university at, 12.

Wynne, James, cor. mem., 331.

Yale College, 277.

Yates, Christopher C, M.D., cor.
mem., 331.
John W., res. mem., 337.
Joseph C, cor. mem., 331.
Peter W., cor. mem., 331.
Richard, res. mem., 337.

Young, John, cor. mem., 331.
Samuel, hon. mem., 322.
William A., res. mem., 337, 339 ;
mem. 1st class, 3d dept., 342.

Yungken, Prof., 62.

Zend-a-vesta, 106.

Zenker, of Dresden, 83.

Zoology, class in, 342 ; report of class
on, when due, 343.

Zouaves, 105.

ERRATA.

Page 80, third line from bottom, for "Keen," read Keene.

last line, for " Arnigerum," read Urnigi rum.
Page IIS, line 34th, for " Argouants," read Anjonauts.
Page 190, line 23d, for " Esop," read ASeop.
Page 178, Birth line from bottom, for "formula," retAformula.
Page n i. lines n and 18, ditto.

• I7<i, line 5, ditto.

Page 328, ninth line from bottom, for " racoon," read raccoon.
Page 349, last line but one, for "Vangondy," read Vaugondy.
Page 288, lines 2d and 23d, for " Henry T. r.uel." read Henry T. 8

line 17th. for ■• tfaturalUfs Dictionary" read A '« Directory.

fifth line from bottom, for " Mr. Iteid."' read Mr. Bead.
Page 200. fourth line from bottom, same correction as last above.
1'aL'e -,".i ;. line 3d, for " Labradorish," read Labradoriti .
Page 302, line 18th, for "James C. Qraham," read James &, Graham.
Page 324, line 12th, George Bomford is not in proper alphabetical position;
should be on preceding page.

Page 338, second column, 4th line from bottom, for " 1789," read l I

Page 841, line 10th, second column, for "Charles D. Kosher," read GomeUui
D. Mosher.

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New York Botanical Garden Librar

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