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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

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TRANSACTIONS

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ALBANY INSTITUTE.

VOL. ¥ FE,

“ALBANY: .-
J. MUNSELL, 82 STATE STREET.
1872.

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CONTENTS.

_——__—____—_--e @ e——— _--

PAGE.

Annual Address, prepared and read May 25, 1871, before the

Albany Institute, on invitation; by Orlando Meads, Esq., 1
Report of the Second Class in the Second Department (Botany),

by Charles H. Peck, A. M., - - - - - - 85
Present State of the Inquiry into the Origin and Primal Con-

dition of Man, by Wm. H. Hale, Ph. D., - - - 44

Remarks on Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals, and a new
Method with the Blowpipe, by Leroy C. Cooley, Ph. D., - 60

Description of a Printing Chronograph, by Prof. Geo. W.
Hough, Director of the Dudley Observatory, - : - 66

Report of the Third Class in the Third Department, Ries
Literature), by Leonard Kip, Esq., - - - 7

Nitro-Glycerine, as used in ihe Construction of the Hoosac
' Tunnel, by Professor George M. Mowbray, of North
Adams, Mass., - = - . : : ‘ abr QO

The Palatine Emigration to England, in 1709, by Henry A.
Homes, A. M., - - : - . - - - 106

Report of Third Class, Second Department (Zoology), by Geo.
T. Stevens, M. D., - - - - - - - 182

Report on the recent Progress of Chemistry, by Leroy C.
Cooley, Ph. D.,_~— - . - : - : : - 144

iv. Contents.

PAGE.
The Isthmus of kk Mexico, by Theron Skeel,
Sy ee ‘ i - 2 - - - - 156
On Certain New Phenomena in Chemistry, by Verplanck
Colvin, - - ah ad SE a a
Report of the Second Class, in the Second Department (Bo-
tany), by Charles H. Peck, A. M., - - - - - 186
From Newton to Kirchoff, by Leroy C. Cooley, Ph. D., - 205
Synopsis of New York Uncinule, by Charles H. Peck, - 218
Report on the Water Supply of Albany, - ~~ - - - 218
Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Sacamcan ” Joha
Paterson, A. M., - : - = 2 ~* 998

Widest; p60) ee Th ey, a ei

TRANSACTIONS.

Annual Address, prepared and read May 25, 1871, be-
fore the Albany Institute, on invitation, by O. MEaps,
Esq.

Mr. President, and Gentlemen of the Albany Institute :

Coming before you this evening, by your invitation, to
address you, for the second time, after an interval of more
than a third of a century, I am reminded of the long career
of influence and usefulness this society, now one of the
oldest of the kind in the country, has had: of the array of
eminent men who have been associated with it, and of the
great and lasting benefits to the state and the country
which have resulted from their labors. Of those who were
the founders of this society or who directed its early efforts,
none now remain: of those who were its members at the
time of my former address, all, with but few exceptions,
have also passed away; and I have, therefore, been led to
think, that it would not be unacceptable to you, as it cer-
tainly would be in harmony with my own feelings, that I
should endeavor, even in a very imperfect way, to recall
to your remembrance some of the leading facts in the his-
tory of our society, and to bring before you some of the
more prominent persons who have been connected with it.

Highty years have gone by since the formation of the
original society from which the Institute sprung, and which
still constitutes its first department. We can hardly, at
this day, adequately estimate its importance to the great
interests it was intended to promote. We had then just
passed through the war of our independence; our new

[ Trans. vii.] 1

2 Annual Address.

national and state governments had but recently been
organized; our finances were disordered; a debt, very
heavy in proportion to our small means and population,
pressed upon us; our internal resources were undeveloped ;
our agriculture was rude and unscientific, and we had no
journals or other means of diffusing information on the
subject; we were dependent upon foreign countries for
almost every article of manufacture we used; our com-
merce was small and mainly by way of exchange of pro-
ducts with some of the West India islands; Hurope was
separated from us by a voyage ordinarily of from sixty to
ninety days —its scientific publications and the transactions
of its learned societies were accessible to but few among
us; the western part of our own state was but little known
and still partially occupied by remnants of the Indian
tribes, and all beyond was an unbroken wilderness. Be-
tween England and ourselves the resentments and aliena-
tions, growing out of the war, still burned in the breasts
of both peoples, and all the more that we were of the same ©
family ; while France, to whom we had been indebted for
sympathy and aid in our struggle, was herself in the midst
of that revolution that broke up the very foundations both of
her society and of her political institutions. Thus we stood,
isolated from the rest of the civilized world, occupying only
the eastern margin of the great continent, over which we
were destined soon to extend our power and population,
few in numbers and weak in all but our own resoluteness
and energy of character. But we had great men among
us—men of keen foresight and large grasp and compre-
hension of mind — men accustomed to grapple with diffi-
culties and who had learned in the great training school
of the revolution both the needs and the resources of the
country, and who now brought to the new task of leading
us up through the arts of peace, to the condition of a
prosperous and self-reliant people, the same practical

Annual Address. 3

wisdom that in their political action had called forth the
admiration of Burke and the eloquent commendations
of Chatham.

In view of this state of things, a meeting of some of the
most eminent citizens of this state was held in February,
1791, in the Senate chamber in the city of New York, that
being then the seat of government of the state, for the
purpose of organizing a state society for the promotion of
agriculture, manufactures and the arts. At this meeting
Ezra L’Hommedieu, one of the most distinguished agricul-
turists of the state, presided, and Chancellor Livingston,
Simeon DeWitt and Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill were appointed
a committee to prepare and report rules and regulations for
the government of thesociety. The scheme of organization
which they reported and which was adopted, was in breadth
of view worthy of the men who presented it, and of the
great interests it sought to promote. It at once gave to
the society a scope that embraced the three leading inter-
ests of agriculture, manufactures and the arts, and an
organization coextensive with the state. It provided,
among other things, and this may be mot unworthy of
notice, for the division of the state into districts corre-
sponding with the several counties as they then existed,
and for the election of a secretary residing in each district
who should organize local meetings, oversee local work
and be the medium of influence and communication
between the district and the central society. Chancellor
Livingston was chosen as the first president and held the
office up to the time of his death in 1813. An act of in-
corporation was obtained in 1793, which expired by its
own limitation in 1804, when it was permanently renewed,
and as thus organized the society still continues and forms
the first department of the Institute.

Let us pause here a moment and glance at some of the
remarkable men who were among the founders of this

4 Annual Address.

society. At their head stood Robert R. Livingston, a man,
who for high and varied ability and eminent public ser-
vice, had no superior in that day of great men. Descended
from an ancestry distinguished in two lands for their love
of liberty, their patriotism and their talents; himself the
representative of one of the leading manorial families of '
the state—with intellectual endowments of the highest
order, and with every advantage for their culture and exer-
cise —the inheritor of ample estates and of everything
that would make private life elegant and attractive, he
gave himself unreservedly, from the outset to the close of
his life of nearly three-score years and ten, in earnest and
successful labors, in high public station, or in the not less
valuable occupations of his leisure, to promote the welfare
of his country and of mankind. Early in life he was
recorder of New York; soon afterwards, and at the age of
only thirty years, a leading member of the’ first congress,
and one of the committee appointed to draft the declara-
tion of independence, and an eloquent advocate of that
measure; then appointed by congress as secretary of state
for foreign affairs; then one of the most active and influ-
ential members of the convention that formed the first
constitution of this state; then an earnest co-worker with
Hamilton and Jay to secure the acceptance by this state
of the constitution of the United States; then as chancel-
lor of this state for seventeen years, and until his appoint-
ment as minister to France; then as minister to that
government during the consulate, with which he negotiated
the purchase of Louisiana and thus extended our domain
to the shores of the Pacific. In all these, one would think
there was enough to have filled up the measure of the
work and the usefulness of one man; but the recreation
and by-play of a great mind are oftentimes of more worth
than the life-toil of ordinary men. Through all this course
of engrossing public duty, he never relinquished his philo-

Annual Address. 5

sophic tastes, or his interest in agriculture, natural science
and the mechanic arts. Ourrecords bear witness to the zeal
and intelligence with which he labored for these objects.
He maintained an active correspondence on these subjects,
with men of science, in other countries; he kept himself
acquainted with all the foreign publications of the time;
he was unwearied in his agricultural experiments on his
- own farm, and the results of all these investigations were
constantly communicated to the public through this society.
During his four years’ residence and travels in Europe, no
member was more constant in contributions to our journals;
nothing that could benefit the interests of agriculture or the
_ arts at home escaped his attention — the nature, treatment
and productions of various soils, the succession of crops, the
peculiarities and effects of climate, the modes of tillage,
the qualities of different kinds of stock—in fact, everything
that could be serviceable to the agricultural or economic
interests of his own country was observed, with quick and
practised eye, and the results communicated to the public
through our Transactions. To him the country owes the
introduction of the merino breed of sheep; and also a
treatise on sheep, which appeared in our Transactions, and
was long a standard work on the subject. He was also
the first to introduce in this state, and establish by a course
of experiments, the use of gypsum as a restorative to the
exhausted soils of some of the older parts of the state. He
was also the founder of the old Academy of the Fine Arts
in the city of New York; and through his influence, he
procured from Napoleon, then first consul, an admirable
_ collection of casts from the masterpieces of ancient sculp-
ture, which the conqueror of Italy had brought as his
trophies for the glory and adornment of Paris. I know
not whether this collection be still preserved, but it was,
at that day, one of great value as a means of art education
in this country, and I well remember the pleasure and

6 Annual Address.

interest which my visits to it gave me in my early days.
Many years before leaving his-own country he had become
deeply interested in the subject of steam and its applica-
tion to the propelling of vessels, and among his early
‘papers in our journals will be found some suggestions for
the improvement of the steam engine. His experiments
on this subject were steadily prosecuted up to the time of
his departure for France, and so confident was he of success, »
that in 1796 he procured, in advance from the legislature,
certain exclusive privileges within this statein case he
should succeed in constructing a boat propelled by steam
at a rate of not less than four miles an hour. This caused
him to be regarded, popularly, as a mere theorist and
visionary, and his projected boat was referred to as the
chimera. His mission to France interrupted his experi-
ments, but while in Paris he became acquainted with
Fulton, whom he associated with him in a renewed course
of experiments with a boat on the Seine, and which were
continued afterwards on their return to this country, and
finally, after a vast outlay on the part of Livingston,
resulted in complete success. On his return home he
withdrew from his long career of public life, to the quiet
of his ancestral estate on the banks of the Hudson. Here,
with all the appointments of comfort and elegance which
wealth and cultivated tastes could supply, amid scenes of
natural beauty not inferior to those of Tusculum and the
Alban hills, he, like the great statesmen and orators of old
Rome, found the solace and happiness of his declining
years, not in ignoble sloth and luxury, but in his books,
in his memorials of foreign travel, in converse with chosen
friends, and in those useful and elevating studies and pur-
suits which through all the labors of his public life had
ever constituted his highest enjoyment. Here he renewed
those experiments by which he sought to raise agriculture
from the dead level of routine to something of the intelli-

Annual Address. 7

gence and dignity of science. Here he made those curious
observations, recorded in oyr Transactions, of the peculiar
effects produced upon certain crops by the sun’s rays fall-
ing upon them through the foliage of certain kinds of
trees; and here it was, that in connection with Fulton,
those plans were perfected that enabled them to launch
upon the Hudson the first steam boat that ever navigated
its waters. Without attempting to apportion among the
various claimants to this great invention their respective
shares of merit, I'think it may be fairly said in regard to
Livingston, that he was among the earliest to believe in
its practicability, that through long years of vast expendi-
tures, baffled hopes and abortive experiments, he gave to
it his influence, his money and his best efforts, and that
through these it was first brought to a successful result.
It was a fitting consummation of a career which, from the
beginning, had-_been one of eminent usefulness and honor.
There are moments in life which bring with them the fulfil-
ment and reward of years of toil and sacrifice. Such, we
may well believe, was to him the time, when looking down
from the portico of his own stately mansion on the heights
of Clermont, he first caught sight of his own little steamer
rounding the hills of Dutchess and cleaving its way, like
some strong swimmer, against wind and tide up the waters
of the Hudson. I have thought it fitting to call your
attention somewhat at length to the obligations which the
state and the country owe to this great man, because he
was the chief founder of this society —for more than twenty
years its president, and always its most faithful supporter
and contributor. More than half a century has gone by
since his death, and we have had other great men in the
state and at our own head to carry forward the work to
which his life was devoted, but none of them have been
distinguished by higher intellectual qualities, by a loftier

8 Annual Address.

patriotism, or by labors of more lasting marae than
was Robert R. Livingston.

Around this grand central figure was grouped a body of
men not unworthy to be associated with him. Among
those whose names are enrolled in the charter of 1793 as
corporators, or who appear in our early annals as pro-
moters of its objects, were Simeon DeWitt of whom more
will be said hereafter; John Stevens, one of the earliest
and most persevering laborers in the cause of steam navi-
gation, and in whose family inventive and constructive
genius has been hereditary: associated with Livingston in
his earlier experiments, he afterwards prosecuted them
independently, and was enabled very soon after Livingston
and Fulton’s success, to follow it with a boat of his own
construction. There was Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, dis-
tinguished for his varied learning and his rare attainments
in almost every department of natural science; and Hd-
ward Livingston, a near kinsman of the chancellor, of .
world-wide fame as a legislator, as a statesman, and as a
diplomatist. There, too, were George Clinton, and John
Jay, and Matthew Clarkson, and John Watts, and Philip
Van Cortlandt, and Richard Varick, and Josiah Ogden
Hoffman, and Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, and Stephen
Lush, and James Duane, and David Ogden, and Samuel
Bard, and David R. Floyd Jones, and others, all repre-
sentative men of that day, distinguished for intelligence,
influence, and large interests identified with the develop-
ment and improvement of the country. The custom of
having annual addresses before the society was early
established, and the first was delivered by Dr. Mitchill and
was marked by the learning and ability which was charac-
teristic of him. It may be of interest that I should men-
tion that in 1796 one was delivered by James Kent, then
recorder of New York, but afterwards known and to be
known as long as jurisprudence shall last, as the great

¥

Annual Address. 9

chancellor. It shows not only his interest in the objects
of the society and his acquaintance with such subjects, but
the clear and decided judgment which some of the leading
minds of that day had in regard to some of the great
economical questions which at this time interest the
country. Speaking of the advantages of our condition, he
says: “‘The Americans are happily rid of the pernicious
system of regulating industry by law. This system has .
been the reigning taste in Europe and especially in Eng-
land for centuries past. In almost every department of
business, the people found themselves controlled by the
voice of power intruding into all their rural concerns, and
by a code of restraint on the one hand and of preference
on the other, insolently dictating the course of industry
and the path of emolument which the keen eye of private
interest would have much better discovered.” No advo-
cate of free trade of the present day could have presented
his ‘principle more clearly and forcibly than does the
chancellor. Indeed his mind was one of rare breadth and
culture, enabling him to grasp any subject that came un-
der his consideration, in its largest bearings, and to bring
to its investigation all the light derived from the wisdom of
others, as well as the careful scrutiny of his own calm and
disciplined judgment. To him might fitly be applied the
line from Johnson’s epitaph on Goldsmith — “ Nullum
quod tetigit, non ornavit.’’.

Another of the most valuable members of that day was
Dr. Benjamin DeWitt of New York, a man of large scien-
tific acquirements and for many years one of the secretaries
of the society. He was one of the first, in an elaborate
paper read before the society and published in 1798, to
furnish a scientific examination and analysis of the Onon-
daga salt springs, with an account of the modes of manu-
facture then in use.

[ Trans, vii.] ; 2

10 Annual Address.

The removal of the seat of government of the state from
the city of New York to this city in 1798, led also to the
removal with it of the collections and place of meeting of
the society. |

I cannot venture to detain you with even a brief recital
of the services rendered by the society and its members,
to the agricultural, scientific and manufacturing interests
of the state during the first twenty-five years of its exist-
ence. Its four volumes of transactions published during
this period bear witness to the earnest spirit of research it
had awakened in every department of science and the arts
bearing upon the immediate condition of the country. It
was for a series of years, within this period, the appointed
agent of the state for awarding and distributing premiums
for the encouragement of domestic manufactures.

On the death of Chancellor Livingston in 1813, Simeon
DeWitt, who from the very beginning had been one of
the most efficient members of the society, succeeded to the
presidency. Bearing an historic name, always identified
with patriotism and public and private virtue, and con-
nected by birth with some of the leading families of the
state, his life was not unworthy of his ancestry. His
classical, mathematical and general scientific education
seems to have been unusually thorough for that day, and
to no man of his time was the state more indebted for
faithful and accurate scientific labor in her service. Called
from his studies by Burgoyne’s invasion, he joined the
army and took part in the battles that resulted in the con-
vention of Saratoga. Soon afterwards appointed, at the
instance of Washington, as assistant geographer, and in
1780 as geographer (or topographical engineer)-in-chief to
the army; he, in the discharge of his duties, accompanied —
the army to Yorktown and was present at the surrender
of Cornwallis. At the urgent request of Washington, he
continued to hold this office after the close of the war and

Annual Address. 11

until 1784, when on the resignation of Gen. Philip Schuy-
ler as surveyor-general of this state, Mr. DeWitt was
appointed in his stead, and continued in the office for more
than half a century and up to the time of his death in 1834,
Associated with his uncle, Gen. James Clinton, and with
Gen. Schuyler as commissioners on the part of this state, he
assisted in running and establishing the boundary line be-
tween this state and Pennsylvania. The whole south-
western part of this state and also a portion of the northern
section were surveyed and laid out into townships under his
direction, and a map of the state was prepared at the request
of the legislature, and subsequently published by him.
To have had the esteem and confidence of Washington was
an honor which any man might value, and no event of his
life gave him higher gratification than his appointment in
1796, as surveyor-general of the United States, on the
unsolicited nomination of Washington, although for per-
_ sonal and family reasons, he found it necessary to decline
the appointment. The means of education in civil
engineering were then so few and imperfect, that in order
to discharge his official duties, it became requisite for him
in a large degree, to instruct and train up the assistants
whom he found it necessary to employ. Among those
thus trained by him, were John Randal, Jr., a former
member of this Institute and eminent in his day as one of
the best engineers in the country, and James Ferguson
and others who became distinguished in the public service.
He took a lively interest in the success of the canal system
of this state, and the preliminary surveys were at an early
day made under his direction; and afterwards, during the
construction of these works, the commissioners constantly
availed themselves of his advice and assistance. He was,
for more than thirty-five years, one of the most faithful
members of the board of regents of the university, and at’
the time of his death its chancellor. Our transactions

12 Annual Address.

bear witness to his early and valuable observations on the
rotation of crops, on the variations of the magnetic needle,
on the annular eclipse of 1806, on the comparative climates
of different parts of the United States, on the establish-
ment of a meridian line in the Albany academy park, and
on other subjects of scientific importance. Meteorology
was always a subject to him of great interest, and he com-
menced a course of observations upon it as early as 1795,
and it was mainly through his exertions and influence in
the board of regents, that a regular system of observations
was authorized to be made at the several academies in this
state, and thus prepared the way for the system which has
been since developed and extended over the whole United
States, and is now producing such interesting and valuable
results. |

He was a man of remarkable purity and simplicity of
life, deeply religious, fixed in his principles, and firm and
consistent in his conduct. I have been told by one who
was long and intimately associated with him, that such
was the traditional confidence of the Indian tribes in his
fairness and good faith, that in all treaties or arrangements
between them and the state, they always preferred to make
the negotiation through him. I well remember being
taken when a boy, to one of the meetings of the old
society in its rooms in the upper part of the present Capi-
tol. Near the entrance of the room was the library, small
in the number of its volumes, but valuable as containing
full sets of the transactions and reports of some of the
great foreign scientific societies, and other works then not
often to be found in the country; there was also a small
collection of minerals and of other objects of scientific
interest. At the head of a long table, in the other
part of the room, sat the president, DeWitt, not then as
we have since seen him presiding at our meetings of a
later day, bowed with the weight of nearly four-score ©

Annual Address. 13

years, but with his noble form yet erect — his dome-like
head just whitening with advancing years — and with that
calm, benignant and yet intellectual look that still lives in
Inman’s admirable portrait — where the shadows of com-
ing age have just touched the lines of thought and of “old
” and mellowed them into the serene and gen-
tle aspect of wisdom. Beside him sat the young secretary,
Dr. Theodric Romeyn Beck, already giving promise of that

experience,

career of usefulness which has made his name everywhere
known and honored in the annalsof science. There too was
Dr. James Low, gay and vivacious in manner, eminent as a
physician, and one who had enjoyed the rare advantage,
at that day, of having perfected his medical education in
Europe. I remember his exhibiting the crystals of some
salt, as the result of some recent chemical experiments in
which he had been engaged, and which called forth inquiries —
and remarks from Dr. Beck, Dr. Jonathan Eights, Charles
R. Webster and others. There was also exhibited the
model of a bridge which the inventor had presented for
the examination and opinion of the society. The examina-
tion of plans and inventions thus submitted was one of
the most valuable services rendered by the society; the
scientific and mechanical knowledge of such men as
DeWitt and his associates often enabling them to point
out to an inventor a defect-in his invention, or perhaps to
show him that, in what was most valuable, he had been
already anticipated. It may also be proper that I should
mention, as illustrating the comparative habits of that day
and of our own, that when the formal business of the
evening was over, the members gathered socially around ~
-the large stove and refreshed themselves with crackers,
cheese and ale, whilé we seek the same solace in buttered
biscuits, tea and coffee. _

Without detaining you with further details, I have
sought to give you some impressions of the great work

14 Annual Address.

which our parent society performed in its day, and of some
of the men through whom it was done. But during this
time, a body of younger men had been coming forward
prepared to take up and prosecute, with zeal and energy,
the cause of natural science. Through their exertions
the Albany Lyceum of Natural History was formed and
incorporated April 23, 1823, for the purpose, as expressed in
the act of incorporation, “of encouraging the study and
disseminating a knowledge of natural history and other
useful sciences.” Among those who took a leading part
in its formation, were Stephen Van Rennselaer who gave
- to the measure the whole weight of his honored name and
influence, and also Dr. T. Romeyn Beck always among
the foremost in all such enterprises; his brother, Dr.
Lewis C. Beck, distinguished as a botanist and for his
researches in other branches of natural history; Simeon
DeWitt Bloodgood, then an editor of one of our city
papers, a man of rare culture and of general literary and
scientific tastes; Richard Varick DeWitt who had in-
herited his father’s love of science, especially in its appli-
cations to mechanism and the useful arts; Matthew Henry
Webster, a man of considerable ‘scientific and scholarly
attainments; Dr. James Hights, well versed in conchology,
mineralogy and other departments of natural history; and
Joseph Henry, then entering tipon those studies and ex-
periments in chemistry and its kindred sciences which
were soon to lift him into scientific distinction.

There is another great name which may not be passed
over on such an occasion as this, without a more direct
notice than I have yet given toit. Itis that of DeWitt
Clinton, to whom in a greater degree than to any other
single man, the state of New York owes its present power,
wealth and commercial preeminence. I need not detain ©
you with a recital of his public services, for they are known
to all of us, and are ineffaceably recorded in that great

Annual Address. 15

system of public works, which his far-sighted statesman-
ship inaugurated and carried to a successful completion.
But I should not omit to speak of him as a member of
each of our original societies, and as one who through his
whole life was distinguished also for his scientific and
scholarly tastes and acquirements. He was especially in-
terested in the subject of natural history, and his contri-
butions to it were numerous and important. He always
lived much among his books, and his library was one of
the largest and most valuable then belonging to any pri-
vate person in the state. His immense collection of
pamphlets now forms one of the most interesting additions
to our own library; and he had also given much attention
to the collection of rare coins and medals. I think we all
must be struck with the intellectual tastes and habits that
so generally marked the public men of a former day, and
they certainly do not seem to have been any less capable
or successful than those of our own time in the manage-
ment of public affairs. Whether in the great change that
has occurred in this respect, we have found any compen- |
sating advantages, may well be doubted.

Soon after the formation of the Lyceum it became
apparent that the objects, both of it and of the old society,
would be better promoted by some arrangement that
would enable them to unite their collections and to work in
concert, rather than separately. Accordingly, articles of
association were formed in 1824, which, while leaving the
corporate organization of each unimpaired, united them
under a common bond as the Albany Institute. The Hon.
Stephen Van Rensselaer, then president of the Lyceum,
was elected as the first president of the Institute. This
union of the societies worked so beneficially that, on the
27th February, 1829, it was made permanent by an act of
incorporation of an institution for the promotion of science
and literature, to be called the Albany Institute. This char-

16 Annual Address.

ter, while preserving the two original departments, author-
ized the creation of a third for history and general
literature. This last department was afterwards organized
and has already made valuable contributions to that branch
of knowledge, and is, I trust in the future, to be of grow-
ing interest and importance. The history of the Institute
has been not less marked than was that of the parent
society, by men distinguished for their labors in the inter-
ests of science, of education, and of all that could promote
public welfare. And here, at its head and as its first
president, we meet the elder Stephen Van Rensselaer,
familiarly known as the old Patroon—the head of another
old manorial family—one who if not the equal of Chan-
cellor Livingston in genius and intellectual endowments,
was not inferior to him in social position and influence,
in personal virtues, and in his deep and conscientious
feeling of the obligations of public duty, which his
high position and great wealth imposed. Those who
remember him presiding over the Institute, will not forget
his tall and graceful figure, his simple but carefully
appointed dress, his powdered head and the air of high
distinction that so eminently marked him, and still less
will they forget the moral and religious traits of his cha-
racter, and the usefulness and benevolence of his life.
He was one of the earliest and most persevering advocates
of the canal system of the state, and as early as 1810 he,
with Gouverneur Morris and DeWitt Clinton as state
commissioners, made a journey on horseback attended by
surveyors, from the Hudson to Lake Erie, for the purpose
of exploring a suitable route for a canal. He was con-
tinued as a member of all subsequent commissions on the
subject until 1816, when the act was finally passed author-
izing the construction of the Erie canal, and he was
appointed one of the commissioners charged with its
construction. The laborious duties of this important

Annual Address. . ee

public trust, he continued to fulfil up to the time of his
death in 1837, and on the removal, from the board, of his
friend Mr. Clinton in 1824, he became its president. To
no man have the interests of agriculture and of scientific
education in this state been more indebted. Having been
chosen in 1820, as the president of the state board of
agriculture, he soon afterwards, with the view of bene-
fitting the agricultural interests of the counties of Albany
and Rensselaer, by obtaining and diffusing accurate in-
formation in regard to the peculiarities of the soil and the
mineral productions, caused a careful geological and
agricultural survey of these counties to be made and pub-
lished, and gratuitously distributed at his own expense.
This was soon after followed by a scientific survey made
under his direction and at his expense, by Professor Eaton
and his assistants, of the whole line of the state along the
Erie canal, and this again was supplemented by another
made by Professor Hitchcock, of the line across Massa-
chusetts. Again in 1824, Professor Haton, under his
patronage, undertook a scientific and educational progress,
accompanied by a body of assistants and pupils, through the
whole line of western counties along the line of the canal,
for the purpose of making scientific examinations and of
delivering gratuitous public lectures on natural history
with illustrations and experiments, with the view of
awakening local and popular interest in science and its
practical applications. To these examples of well-directed
private enterprise and munificence, and to the manifest
public benefits resulting from them, may, I think, be
attributed the great work soon afterwards undertaken by
this state of a complete geological survey, and of the pub-
lication of the Natural History of the state—a work which
has been followed by other states—and which has not
only opened up to us our own great mineral wealth, but
has added to the scientific reputation of the country in the
[ Trans. vit.] | 3

18 Annual Address. ae

eyes of the civilized world. Thé crowning work in this
succession of efforts to advance knowledge, was the esta-
blishment of the Rensselaer Institute. Im view of the
great difficulty and expense, at that time, of obtaining
proper scientific education in reference to agriculture,
civil engineering and the arts, and especially with the
view of training up competent teachers in those depart-
ments, he founded and endowed, at Troy, this school,
which has in the past well fulfilled, and is, I believe, still
fulfilling the purposes of its foundation.

It is, perhaps, one of the chief advantages of such soci-
eties as our own, that it brings men from widely different
‘spheres of thought and occupation, into communication
and cooperation with each other in reference to matters
affecting the advancement of science. No person, proba-
bly, was more constantly consulted by Mr. Van Rensselaer,
and had more influence in shaping his plans, than Dr. T.
Romeyn Beck, himself one of the most efficient and de-
voted members the Institute ever had. His services to
this society and to the general interests of learning in this
state can hardly be overrated. Our collections, our cata-
logues and our transactions bear witness to his untiring
labors. I think it may be truthfully said, that for forty
years most of the leading measures affecting the interests
of science, or letters, or education in this state, either
originated with him, or were shaped under his direction,
or had in some way the benefit of his counsels. His truth,
sincerity and directness of character, his admirable busi-
ness habits, his influential social relations, his varied
learning, his well known devotion to science, his world-
wide reputation as a writer in his own special department
of medical jurisprudence, his experience as a teacher, and
his acquaintance as the secretary of the board of Regents
with the practical workings of the educational system of
this state, and his freedom from even a suspicion of any

Annual Address. 19

selfish or unworthy object, enabled him at all times to
command the respect and confidence of the authorities of
the state, and made him their trusted’ adviser in all cases
where the interests of learning were involved. To the
geological survey of the state, he gave his earnest and
efficient support. The elaborate and admirable instruc-
tions for its conduct were largely his work, or prepared
under his direction. The mineralogical department was
specially committed to his charge, and completed under
his direction; and the general superintendence of the
publication of the Natural History of the state was also
committed:to him. As the secretary of the board of
Regents, from 1841 till the time of his death, the common
school and academical system of the state had the benefit
of his experience and vigilant oversight. TheState Library,
now one of the best in the country, the pride of the state
and one of the attractions of our city, was from the first,
the object of his greatest interest, and may be said to have
been the special work of his own care and labor. As the
principal of the Albany Academy for three and thirty
years, many of us knew him in more intimate and endear-
ing relations—not only in his direct and formal teachings,
but in the not less valuable lessons of his industry, his
manliness, his scorn of meanness and his quick sympathy
with all that was generous, high-spirited and honorable in
character or conduct. -I think he was the most system-
atically industrious man I ever knew; and he was, also,
a living example of a man devoted to science and letters
for their own sake. As the successive ranks of his pupils
passed out from his teachings, to take their own places in
life, few there were who did not regard him with affec-
tionate reverence, and who did not look back upon any
manifestations of his approval and commendation as
among the happiest remembrances of their school days.
If to have wrought diligently and successfully through life

20 Annual Address.

for the advancement of knowledge, if to have given mind
and heart to the establishment of institutions for the in-
struction and permanent benefit of his fellow men, if to
have left something of the impress of his own fine qualities of
mind and character upon the thousands of boys who came
under his influence, give a man a claim to be held in love
and honored remembrance, few have a higher or better
claim to such remembrance than has Theodric Romeyn
Beck. .

Long as I have detained you with the consideration of
the services of some of the leading men connected with
the earlier days of the Institute, there is one more, who,
although still happily living, has been so long separated —
from us, that we may speak of him without indelicacy, as of
one who is absent and whose fame has already become
historic. Need I say that I refer to the distinguished
secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. "When a boy in
the Albany Academy in 1828 and 1824, it was my pleasure
and privilege, when released from recitations, to resort to
the chemical laboratory and lecture room, the same room
in which the meetings of the Institute are now held.
There might then be found, from day to day through the
winter, earnestly engaged in experiments upon steam and
upon a small steam engine and in chemical and other
scientific investigations, two young men—both active
members of the Lyceum—then very different in their ex-
ternal circumstances and prospects in life, but of kindred
tastes and sympathies; the one was Richard Varick De-
Witt, known to all of us not less for his pure and amiable
character, than for his scientific tastes and acquirements,
and his interest in every good and useful work —the other
was Joseph Henry, as yet unknown to fame, but already
giving promise of those rare qualities of mind and charac-
ter, which have since raised him to the very first rank
among the experimental philosophers of his time.

Annual Address. 21

Chemistry was at that time exciting great interest, and
Dr. Beck’s courses of chemical lectures, conducted. every
winter in the lecture room of the academy, was attended
not only by the students, but by all that was most intelli-
gent and fashionable in the city. Henry, who had been
formerly a pupil in the Academy, was then Dr. Beck’s
chemical assistant, and already an admirable experiment-
alist; and he availed himself to the utmost of the advan-
tages thus afforded of prosecuting his investigations in
chemistry, electricity, and galvanism. Sir Humphrey
Davy’s succession of brilliant discoveries through the aid
of the galvanic battery, had awakened the deepest enthu-
siasm in this country. In 1826, Henry was appointed to
the professorship of mathematics and natural philosophy
in the Academy, and we find him soon afterwards engaged
in his experiments in electro-magnetism, and our journals
contain a paper read by him before us in 1827, op some
modifications in electro-magnetic apparatus. From that
time until his acceptance of the chair of mathematics
and natural philosophy in Princeton College in 1832, we
find him prosecuting that remarkable course of original
investigations and discoveries in electro-magnetism, which
at the time excited our own deepest interest here and
throughout this country, and gave him at once a European
reputation. The discoveries of Oersted, Arago and Davy,
and especially those of Ampére, had made the subject one
of great and novel interest to men of science; but at the
time of Professor Henry’s investigations, not only were
the means of developing magnetism in soft iron to any
_ great degree very imperfectly understood, but the electro-
magnet as it then existed, was inapplicable to the trans-
mission of the power to a point at any great distance from
the operator. By his discoveries it was shown for the first
time, how a magnetic power far greater than any that had
before been supposed possible, could be obtained. Ata

22 Annual Address.

public lecture in the Academy which was largely attended
by our citizens, he exhibited his new apparatus and showed
how a magnetic power capable of raising a weight of several
thousand pounds could be instantaneously developed and
as instantaneously terminated, at the-pleasure of the ope-
rator. He was also the first to show, how the great power
thus developed, could be transmitted and applied at a very
distant point. The scientific facts thus established by him
were: Ist. That in order to obtain the projectile force requi-
site to transmit.the power through a long circuit so as to
produce available mechanical results at a great distance,
‘a galvanic battery of a great number of plates, known as
an intensity battery, should be employed. 2d. That the
magnet connected with it, should be wound with a single
long wire with many turns: and, 3d. That by these means,
a bar of soft iron might be magnetized at a very distant
point; and he also distinctly pointed out and illustrated
the application of these facts to the transmission of signals.
These discoveries made the magnetic telegraph at once
practicable. Many of us will remember the intense inte-
rest with which in the years 1830, 31, and 32, we regarded
the long coils of wire more than a mile in length, running
circuit upon circuit, around the walls of one of the rooms
in the Academy, which had been placed there by him to
illustrate the fact that a galvanic current could be thus
instantaneously projected through its whole length so as
to excite a magnet placed at the further extremity of the
line, and thus move a steel bar so as to strike a bell. Ina
scientific point of view, this was a complete demonstration
and fulfillment of all that was required for the magnetic
telegraph. The science of that wonderful discovery was
complete, but it still needed a suitable and convenient in-
strument for its practical application, and this was soon
supplied by the mechanical and inventive genius of Morse,
who had been long engaged in the work, but had hitherto

Annual Address. 23

been constantly baffled by his inability to transmit the
power to a sufficient distance. On Henry’s discoveries
being communicated to him, the difficulty was removed
and he was enabled to perfect his great invention. All
honor to the inventor of what is probably the best mecha-
nical instrument that has yet been devised. His claims to
the gratitude of his countrymen are by no means to be
underrated, but let us not forget the still higher claims of
him, who made and pointed out the application of the sci-
entific discoveries upon which the practicability and success
of that invention depended. To him we owe it, that the
fiction of the poet has become the reality of our own day,
and that Shakespeare’s fairy task of putting a girdle about
the earth in forty minutes, may be accomplished in a
higher sense than he dreamt of, for the girdle thus given
to us is one instinct with a mysterious life, and thrilling
with an unceasing current of human interests and affec-
tions. I have dwelt somewhat at length on this subject,
because the claims of the discoverer in science are less
obvious and less likely to attract popular notice, than
those of the inventor through whose instrumentality that
science is applied, and because it seemed to me to be emi-
nently fitting, that on such an occasion as this, in the very
city and place where the principle and the practicability of
the magnetic telegraph were first demonstrated, the right-
ful claims of one born among us, and still one of our most
honored associates, should be asserted and maintained.
Of his other great labors and services during the last forty
years, I have now no time to speak; but they have been
such as have added constantly to his early reputation, and
have called forth the approving judgment of the best
minds of the civilized world. Fortunate has it been for
the interests of science, for the honor of the country, and
for the permanent usefulness of that great national insti-
tution for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among

24 Annual Address.

men, that the great task of giving itform and character,
and of putting it into action, should have been committed
to one so admirably qualified to stamp it with the impress
of his own moral and intellectual greatness.

Time would fail me to tell of all the distinguished men
who have contributed by their labors and influence to the
objects of the Institute ; of Ferguson, a favorite pupil of the
elder DeWitt, a scholar and a poet as well asa man of
science, long in important public service on the boundary
commission, on the coast survey, and in the National
Observatory; of Daniel D. Barnard, eminent for his intel-
lectual gifts, his dignity of character, his literary culture,
and his career of high public service as a legislator and a
diplomatist; of Dr. Howard Townsend, one of our most
faithful and valuable contributors, taken from us all too
soon for our wishes, but not until he had won his place in *
our regard as a scholar, a man of science, and an accom-
plished Christian gentleman.

Others there are who still remain to us, ea for-
ward our proper work, whose names I may not speak here,
and long may we have the privilege of leaving them un-
spoken. Our published transactions, however, will, I think,
show, that the contributions and discussions of the last
twenty years have been not less valuable than those of any
previous time. In the department of geology and pale-
ontology one stands among us, whom we need not name,
but whose fame is known to all the scientific world ; who
for years had labored untiringly for the objects of the
Institute, and who has constantly given interest to our
meetings and enriched our journals with the earliest re-
ports of those researches which have made him one of the
highest living authorities in the department of science to
which he is specially devoted. :

And now looking back upon the history of our society
through the four-score years since its first organization,

Annual Address. 25

and upon the line of eminent men who have been associated
with it, and the influence they have had in the advance-
ment of science, literature, education and the useful arts,
T think we have reason to be proud of the work that has
thus been done in the past. Not the leaét of all the public
services thus rendered has been, that here at the seat of
‘government might at all times be found associated to-
gether, what might be termed a consultative body of able,
learned and disinterested men, to whom the state could
always resort for information and advice in all matters
pertaining to the interests of knowledge and education.

It will be seen, from the review we have made, that from
the beginning, the work of our societies has always had
reference to the prevalent wants of the time. It seems to
me that the time has come, when the Institute, without
relaxing its efforts in the lines of work in which it has been
hitherto engaged, is called upon by all the circumstances
of our day and place to meet the new demands of its posi-
tion. The great progress we have made in population and
material wealth has brought with it a consciousness of new
needs. We begin to feel that in addition to the supply of
our material wants, we need tastes and employments that
will add dignity and refinement to wealth and leisure.
We are moreover a nation of travelers, who if not highly
cultivated, are at least keen and observant, and we cannot
but see how inferior we are to most of the nations of
Europe in the means of high intellectual and esthetic cul-
ture. Recent events, too, have given our own city a more
assured and commanding importance. The building of
our new Capitol marks the commencement of a new era
in our municipal history, one that invests us with the dig-
nity and the responsibilities of the permanently established
capital of a state of four millions of people. It imposes
upon us the duty of endeavoring to gather here all those

institutions and influences which belong to such a centre,
[ Trans. vit.] 4

26 Annual Address.

and which will make it attractive as the seat not merely
of political power, but of learning, of culture, and of social
refinement. In such a work as this it is within the pro-
vince of the Institute to perform an important part, and
our present corporate powers are such as are fully adequate
- to the purpose.

The term arts, as used in the charter of the original so-
ciety, was understood in the old sense of the term as em-
bracing both the fine arts and the useful arts; and the old
by-laws, in classifying the objects of the society, specifically
designated as one of them: “ The fine arts, comprehend-
ing painting in all its branches, sculpture, pees: en-
graving, music, and architecture.”

It was, I think, a wise foresight in the charter of the
Institute that provided, in addition to the two original de-
partments, for the creation of a department of history and
general literature. This last department was organized
many years ago, and has already been productive of valua-
ble results, in the interest it has excited and in the valua-
ble contributions it has called forth. One of our members,
whose press is known throughout the country for a nicety
of literary selection, and a beauty of typography not un-
worthy of the Elzevirs, or the Stephenses, has shown us
by his antiquarian researches and publications how rich a
vein of historic interest may be found in the local annals
of our city and its neighborhood. As time goes on, these
memorials of the past become of deeper interest in them-
selves, and of priceless value as materials for the future his-
torian, and I think we should give every possible aid and
encouragement to their preservation.

The project which has been for some time past under your
consideration, of procuring a new edifice, or at all events
suitable rooms for a place of meeting and for our library
and collections, is one that should commend itself not only
to our members, but to all the citizens of Albany. For al-

Annual Address. 27

most halfa century we have been, and we still are indebted
to the trustees of the Albany Academy for the use of the
rooms in which we meet, and in which our very valuable
library and collections are now deposited. These rooms
are, however, in the daily use of the Academy, and itis not
possible to have access to the books or collections without
interference with the primary purpose to which the rooms
are devoted. Besides all this, a stop has almost necessa-
rily been put to the increase of our collections by the want
of a proper place in which to deposit and arrange them.
If we had such a place, not only would our present collec-
tions become more available and useful, but would rapidly
increase and soon branch out in new departments of great
interest and value. All the great collections of the world
have been the work of time, and have had their origin in
small beginnings. Once begun, they were in a condition
to avail themselves of every opportunity that presented
itself, and thus have grown with a constantly accelerated
rapidity. The British Museum had its origin only a little
more than a century ago in the acquisition, partly by be-
quest and partly by purchase, of the comparatively small
private collection of Sir Hans Sloane; and now, by gifts,
by bequests, by purchases, by loans or deposits, and by small
contributions pouring in from every part of the earth, it
has become in its library, its manuscripts, its collections in
natural history, in antiquities and in art, one of the largest
and most complete of any in the world.

The Kensington Museum, which had its origin less
than twenty years ago in the enlightened judgment and
cultivated taste of Prince Albert, who was anxious to give
permanence to the benefits resulting to the manufacturing
interests of England from the Great Exhibition of 1851,
affords an admirable example of such an institution as is
needed for our country, of the mode in which it may be
formed, and of the benefits which result from it in eultivat-

28 Annual Address.

- ing the taste and giving an impulse to the industries of a
people. It is at once a museum and a school of art in all
its applications, and it has already served as a model for
similar institutions in several of the other great capitals of
Europe. I shall not detain you with any account of the
systematic instructions given to pupils of both sexes in
every department of art bearing upon manufactures, but
refer briefly to the nature of its collections. They com-
prise specimens in every department of ancient, medizeval
and modern workmanship and art, all arranged, classified
and labeled so as to give at a glance and without reference
to a catalogue, all needful information, and to illustrate the
changing tastes and the relative knowledge and skill of
each successive age. Here we may find in one depart-
ment, architectural models, drawings and engravings; in
another, an art library; in another, articles of domestic
and personal use and ornament of past and present
times — such as curiously wrought furniture, armor,
weapons, stained glass, tapestry, plate, dress and jew-
elry —in another terra cotta or electrotype copies of the
finest altars, tombs, fountains, bronzes, and other rare
works of medizval art in stone or metal from the old
English and continental cities, cathedrals and churches;
in another, the unequalled collection of the potteries,
porcelains and glass of every age and country, exhibiting
the whole progress of art in that line, from the beautiful
old Egyptian, Greek, Etruscan and Roman vases, from
which modern pottery has drawn its most graceful and
classic forms —through the majolicas and faiences . of
medieval Italy and France — Palissy’s curious ware, the
exquisite enamels of Limoges, the delicate old glass of
Venice, the oriental porcelains of China and J apan, down
to the productions of the modern factories of Sevres,
of Dresden, and of England ; among which those of Eng-
land and especially those of Copeland and of Min-

Annual Address. 29

ton are of unsurpassed beauty and excellence, combining
as they all do, all that is most graceful in classic art and
decoration, with the perfection of modern material and
workmanship. This perfection of British manufacture in
this line is of recent date, and is attributable directly to the
influence of just such exhibitions and institutions as I have
referred to, and I have gone into this detail in order to
bring more clearly before you the immediate bearing of
the fine arts upon useful arts, and to show that while they
elevate and refine the taste, and afford us some of the
highest pleasures of which our nature is susceptible, they
do really in no less degree contribute to the material and
industrial interests of a people.

To bring these remarks to some practical result, it seems
to me, that all the circumstances of our condition, as well
as the growing tastes and tendencies of our people, stimu-
lated as they are by inéreasing travel in foreign lands, call
for increased means of intellectual recreation and of
eesthetic culture. There is hardly a city in Europe of the
size of our own, that has not a public museum of art and
antiquities for the recreation and instruction of its citizens.
In music and in dramatic art, we have made within the
last few years much progress, and the result is, that all that
is best in those departments from every part of the world,
find here appreciation and amplereward. Such too would,
I doubt not, be the result'in respect to the arts of design,
if we had the means of educating the popular taste.

I am not so visionary as to suppose that we can at pre-
sent in this country, and much less in an interior city like
this, attempt with any probability of success, the organiza-
tion of any institution upon any such scale as those I have
been describing. But there is great virtue in making a
beginning, and in doing even in a small way that which is
within our power. If we can procure proper rooms, why
should we not, after arranging our present library and col-

30 Annual Address.

lections so as to open them to ourselves and to the publie,
commence the formation of historical and art collections.
It would be within our proper work as an historical society
to form a museum of antiquities in which should be ga-
thered everything we could obtain ofspecial historic interest
or importance, or which would illustrate the productions,
usages and modes of life in any age or country, and par-
ticularly those of our own early settlers, and of the Indian
races now so rapidly fading away. The fact that all these
things are now comparatively familiar to us, may make us
undervalue the importance of their collection and preserva-
tion, but every year they will acquire higher interest and
value, and it will become more difficult to secure them.

The formation of a gallery of art, would, I know, be a
work of time and of far greater difficulty ; but something
of value in this way is not beyond our reach. We might
with great advantage give our att@htion to: obtaining por-
traits and busts of eminent persons, and especially of such
as have had some connection with the Institute. The cele-
brated Bodleian gallery of portraits in Oxford has grown
in this manner, picture by picture, till it has become one
of the largest and most interesting in the world. ‘To the
student, the artist, the man of letters, or the traveler from
distant lands, there is no more interesting and suggestive
walk, than that along these stately galleries from whose
walls look down the long line of England’s monarchs, states-
men, warriors, poets, philosophers, and scholars, for the last
three hundred years.

The New York Historical Society has in this way hepa
collected a very valuable portrait gallery, interesting both in
the subjects of the portraits, and as specimens of the works
ofthe artists who painted them ; and to this has more recently
been added by gift from an individual collector, what was
once known as the Bryan gallery of old pictures, con-
taining many of great excellence. There are now in this

" Annual Address. 31

city a number of pictures, many of them of no ordinary
excellence and chiefly the works of American artists, be-
longing to the old Albany Gallery of the Fine Arts, which
many years ago on the suspension of the annual exhibi-
tions of the gallery, were placed in deposit with the Young
Men’s Association for the want of some more suitable place
for their care and preservation. These would form a valua-
‘ble addition to any collection.

Another thing which it is perhaps within our means to
accomplish, and whichis not thought unworthy of the atten-
tion of some of the best art schools and galleries in Europe,
is the gradual formation of a collection of good casts, draw-
ings, engravings, autotypes and photographs of the best
works of art in foreign galleries. Without some such means
of illustration, it is almost impossible to give any valuable
elementary instruction in such matters ; but with these, it
' would not be difficult to give any young person of intelli-
gence and aptitude of tastes, such initiation into the gene-
ral principles of art and into the distinctive styles and
peculiarities of the different schools, as would lay the
foundation for a discriminating appreciation and enjoy-
ment of the works of the best masters. In other countries
this is considered as almost one of the necessary forms of
culture of a well educated person. Often have I observed
in foreign galleries, family groups of intelligent looking
young persons, attended by their tutor or governess, going
from picture to picture and listening with eager interest —
as their instructor pointed out the beauties or peculiarities
of the work, and I have thought what a privilege it would
be to our own children, could they have such means of art
culture. This we cannot have at ance, but there is great
power in time and in well-directed, continuous effort. If
we are content to accept that which is within our means,
the power and the opportunity for greater and better things
will be certain in due time to come to us. In this as in

32 Annual Address. *

the other concerns of life, the fortunate accidents, as they
are called, come in the main to those who by all their pre-
vious tastes and habits are best prepared to receive them.
In our ignorance or vanity we may talk of procuring at
once for our country, some great European collection, but
it were easier far for us to obtain their crown jewels.
There is but one path by which all valuable results are
attained, and that is the path of patient, well-directed
labor. We may find great encouragement to our efforts
in the rapid growth of such collections as those of the
British and Kensington museums, of which I have spoken,
and in the fact that the British National Gallery, which
dates back only to the purchase in 1824 of the compara-
tively small collection of a private gentleman, now contains
about eight hundred admirable pictures, more than two-
thirds of which have been gifts or bequests. Such is the
invariable tendency of all such collections to grow by vol-
untary contributions.

The record of the services of the Institute in the past,
ought I think to entitle us to the confidence and assistance
of our fellow citizens in any new efforts we may make, and
especially in procuring such accommodations as may be re-
quired for our present and for future collections. These
procured, let us proceed to increase our museum, by adding
to it all those now scattered materials of any and every
suitable kind which may with a little effort be obtained
either by way of gift or of loan, within our own city or
neighborhood. Let us endeavor to enlist such an interest
in it as a city work, that every citizen who visits foreign
lands or has other opportunities, will feel it a matter of
pride and duty to bring home some contribution, however
small, to ourmuseum; that they who may have the means
and the will to do something to render our city more
attractive and to make themselves remembered as its bene-
factors, shall aid us by gifts or bequests, either of specific

' Annual Address. 33

articles or of money, and that those who may have collec-
tions or single works of art, rare books, coins, antiquities,
specimens of fine potteries, porcelains, and the like; which
they may not wish to part with permanently and yet may be
willing to place where they may be temporarily available
to the benefit of the public, shall deposit them with us for
that purpose. Some of the most interesting departments
of the Kensington Museum are supplied in this way, espe-
cially that of the modern porcelains, many of the most
beautiful specimens of which are thus furnished by the
manufacturers and withdrawn and changed from time to
time.

In all these ways, a collection may grow up with a ra-
pidity that will astonish us and soon become a source of
pleasure to ourselves and an object of interest to all who
may visit our city.

No people of equal general intelligence and who are so
well at ease in respect to the supply of their material wants,
have so few resources, outside of business and politics, for
their leisure hours, as we have. None need more than we
do, the refining and quieting pleasures which the fine arts
afford. We have all felt the blessed power that the works
of the poet and the novelist have to soothe the wearied
spirit, to"charm away the cares and vexations of life and
to carry us into their own serener region: not less power#
to the same end, have the works of the great masters of
the chisel and the pencil, whose creations once seen and
understood, dwell ever afterwards in the chambers of
memory, go with us in our journeyings, glance in upon us
like well loved faces in the intervals of labor, wait on us in
our leisure or retirement in forms of unchanging beauty, .
lift our thoughts and conversation out of the pettinesses
and conventionalities of our local life and interests, and
bring us into a wider sympathy and companionship with

[ Trans, vit.] 9)

34 Annual Address.

cultivated minds wherever we may go. To bring home
to ourselves and to our children such sources of enjoyment
and improvement, is surely not unworthy of our earnest
efforts.

Report of the Second Class in the Second Department
(Botany). By Cuarues H. Precr, A.M.

[Read before the Albany Institute, Jan. 17th, 1871.]

Mr. President, and Gentlemen of the Albany Institute :

In behalf of the committee of the second class in the
second department, I would respectfully submit the fol-
lowing report :

We are not aware that any unusually great or wonderful
botanical discovery has been made during the year just
ended, nor that any new idea has been advanced which
threatens to revolutionize hitherto accepted notions, still
there are indications of much activity among botanists and
of a gradually increasing interest in this attractive depart-
ment of natural history. The limited time at our disposal
permits us merely to glance at some of the botanical
publications of the year, to allude to one or two interesting
‘practical questions of the day, and to give a simple state-
ment of the additions to our own immediate flora.

Early in the year a new botanical text book appeared
under the title of Botanist.and Florist. Itis from the pen
of Prof. A. Wood, long and favorably known to the bota-
nists of this country. Its leading characteristic is its happy
combination of conciseness and completeness. Repetitions
in specific descriptions are carefully avoided, full generic
and family characters are given, and excellent synoptical
tables of orders, genera and species are freely introduced.
The geographical limits of the volume ‘include all the
United States east of the Mississippi river. In addition to
the native or indigenous plants, a large number of garden

86 . Report on Botany.

and ornamental species are described. Sedges and grasses
are entirely omitted. The work is a eo addition to
our botanical literature.

The American Entomologist, a monthly periodical published
in St. Louis, has been changed in title to The American
Entomologist and Botanist, a department in botany having
been added under the editorship of Dr. George Vasey.
The articles on botanical subjects have been instructive,
interesting and practical, and well illustrated by numerous
engravings. The suspension of this valuable periodical for
the term of one year will be regretted by both entomolo-
gists and botanists.

At the beginning of the year the pablicntion of The
Monthly Bulletin was commenced by the Botanical Club of
New York City. It is a little paper of four octavo pages,
with W. H. Leggett as editor. The primary object of its
publication seems to have been to make a revised cata-
logue of the plants found growing within thirty miles of
New York City, but many interesting observations are re-
corded in it, making the paper very readable.

Possibly it may not be strictly within the province of
your committee to make any note of publications on the
other continent, yet they can scarcely forbear mentioning
two or three interesting works by English authors.

The tenth volume of Sowerby’s English Botany has been
finished. The eleventh volume, which is to contain de-
scriptions and figures of the grasses, will complete this
magnificent work. In it will be a life-size figure of every
species of flowering plant found in England. As an evi-
dence of the general interest taken in botanical studies in
that country, overflowing as it is with works on this sub-
ject, we would mention the fact that the celebrated bota-
nist, Dr. Hooker, has within the year past given to the
world another text book entitled, The Student’s Flora of the —
British Lslands.

Report on Botany. 37

A. Hand-book of British Fungi is in course of preparation,
the first part of which is now ready for distribution to sub-
scribers. The author is M. C. Cooke, who is already
favorably known to the public through his popular works
on Microscopic Fungi, British Fungi, etc. It is his purpose
in the present work to give descriptions of all known
species of British fungi, and to illustrate all the principal
genera. The appearance of the second part of the work
will be anxiously awaited by niycologists. But we take
special pleasure in calling attention to an article recently
published in the Journal of Botany, under the title of Clavis
Agaricinorum. The author is W. G. Smith, a gentleman
who has given much attention to the study of agarics.
In this article, while following pretty nearly the system-
atic arrangement of the genus Agaricus as laid down by
_ Fries and Berkeley, he thinks their passage from the sec-
tions depending on the color of the spores, to subgenera,
is too abrupt. He therefore makes another division inter-
mediate between these and depending on the character of
the pileus and the stem. In each of the five primary sec-
tions, which depend on the color of the spores, he makes
three secondary divisions or subsections characterized as
follows: ist. Hymenophorum distinct from the fleshy
stem; 2d. Hymenophorum confluent and homogeneous with
the fleshy stem ; 8d. Hymenophorum confluent with, but
heterogeneous from the cartilaginous stem. The first sub-
section contains theoretically three subgenera ; the second,
four; and the third, three. But in no section are all the
subgenera here indicated actually known to exist. And
just here is the remarkable feature of Mr. Smith’s article.
It really indicates the characters of subgenera of which no
members have yet been found. In the section of white-
spored agarics, the third subgenus is vacant, no white-
spored species being at present known that does not find
a place in some one of the other subgenera of this section.

38 Report on Botany.

But the characters of that subgenus are clearly indicated,
derived, it is true, from analogous subgenera in other sec-
tions, and perhaps liable in some minor points to be
slightly modified, yet essentially so well known that were
I in some mysterious way informed that to-morrow I
should find an agaric with white spores which should be-
‘long to a new subgenus, I should predict its characters to
be as follows: ‘‘ Hymenophorum distinct from the fleshy
stem, lamelle free, annulus none. Habitat on rotten
wood.” Jn like manner were I called upon to give the cha-
racters of a new subgenus of the section with flesh-colored
spores without seeing any specimen, following the analo-
gies indicated in Mr. Smith’s article, I should confidently
say: ‘“‘ Hymenophorum confluent and homogeneous with
the fleshy stem, lamelle attached to the stem, annulus
present ;” these being the essential characters of the subge-
- nera known to exist in other sections and analogous to the
only unrepresented subgenus in the section under consi-
deration. Of the fifty subgenera indicated in Mr. Smith’s
“Tabular view of the subgenera of Agaricus,” thirty-four
are known really to exist, and the author thinks that if the
agarics of all the world were known, most, if not all, the
remaining sixteen supposed or theoretical subgenera would
be found to have an actual existence. Admitting this sup-
position to be a correct one, and the probabilities are cer-
tainly in its favor, and what an incentive have we to the
study of nature, what an argument in favor of a Creative
Intelligence whose works, in the midst of endless variety,
exhibit the utmost order and the strictest system, and al-
most reveal to us the very thoughts of the All-wise Power
that created them. Such capabilities for classification cer-
tainly command our admiration. |

It may not be inappropriate, in view of the field meefings
held by the Institute during the past summer, to notice
an interesting feature of some similar meetings recently

Report on Botany. 39

held in England. At a gathering of the Perthshire Natu-
ral History Society, it is said that after the literary pro-
ceedings were ended the society adjourned to the hotel
and took dinner. This consisted of different species of
edible fungi prepared in various ways. The dishes most
relished are stated to have been Boletus edulis, Coprinus

comatus and Agaricus campestris. This immediate and eco-

nomical application of the results of scientific investigations
certainly gives them an appreciable and very practical
value. At a meeting of another natural history society,
some fungi were on exhibition, among which was a re-
-mnarkably large specimen of Polyporus frondosus, weighing
fourteen and a half pounds, a fact having not only scientific
interest but also a practical one, for this species too is edible.

In September Prof. Huxley delivered a very interesting
address before the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, from which address we learn thiit the theory
of the fungoid origin of many contagious and infectious
diseases is gradually assuming definite form and attracting
the attention of earnest and able minds. From actual ex-
periment it has been found that healthy flies, shut up with
diseased ones, become affected in like manner from the
attacks of the disease producing fungus. A similar origin
to fatal diseases of other insects is well established. From
this the learned professor frankly admits that he knows
no reason why disease in higher animals may not be pro-
duced by similar minute agencies. It will at once be seen
that in this direction lies a vast field for the investigation
of botanists and medical men; here is the vestibule of a
great labyrinth of mysteries whose intricate windings will
require much patient labor of many acute intellects to un-
ravel, but it is very evident that the successful accomplish-
ment of the task will be fraught with results of the highest
importance to the human race.

40 Report on Botany.

The increasing interest in botanical maters in this country
is evident to the minds of your committee, from the fact
that it is becoming quite common for our various scientific
and agricultural periodicals to contain, under the head of
‘¢ Answers to Correspondents,’ or some similar caption,
lists of names of plants of which specimens had been sent
for name and other information. A distinguished mycolo-
gist, having offered for sale sets of specimens of fungi, in
a few weeks disposes of four series, showing a ready dis-
position on the part of botanists to avail themselves of
aids in the study of this difficult but most interesting branch
of botany.

The additions that have been made to the floras of dif-
ferent countries by the discovery or introduction of species
would scarcely be interesting to most members of the In-

stitute, even if we had the necessary data for giving the
numbers in @etail; but the additions to our own state
flora during the past year ought at least to cause a thrill of
joy in the bosom of every loyal son of the Empire State.
The Empire State! appropriate name! appropriate when
we consider her position, her population, her commercial
advantages, her wealth, her strength; how much more ap-
propriate when we consider her fostering care of science,
her generous aid in the development of her geological and
botanical resources. Her manifest desire for the general
diffusion of knowledge among her people shows her ap-
preciation of the trite maxim, ‘ knowledge is power and
power is the basis of empire.”

The number of species added to the flora of the state
during the past year is three hundred and seventy-five, of
which there are thirteen flowering plants, two, mosses,
twenty-six lichens and three hundred and thirty-four fungi.
Of these, ninety are new or hitherto undescribed species.
Among the fungi there are two new genera. Fourteen
edible species of fungi have been added to those previously

Report on Botany. 41

found, making over sixty species good for food now known
to occur in the state. One of the added species, Agaricus
abortivus, was not before known to be edible, but has been
found to be by actual experiment.

It will be observed that but two species of mosses have
been added to those formerly known. This is notso much
due to any lack of activity in this direction as it is to the
carefulness with which the mosses have been previously

sought. Whenwe consider thatthree hundred and twenty-
_ three distinct species had already been reported, nearly all
of which are represented in the State Herbarium by good
specimens, and that the whole number of species and va-
rieties reported by Sullivant and Lesquereux in their second
edition of Musci Boreali Americani, for the whole United
States is only five hundred and thirty-six, we can readily
imagine that the single state of New York which is already
known to possess more than half the species yet found in
the whole United States, should not have many more
species to be detected within her limits. If we add to
those mosses already reported, the two recently discovered
and also Polytrichum strictum, which has before been con-
sidered a variety of P. juniperinum, but which is now
deemed a good species by English botanists, and we think
justly so, we have for the total number of mosses of New
York now known three hundred and twenty-six.

Two or three years ago some of our agricultural papers
contained notices of a new strawberry, Fragaria Gillmani,
which was brought from far-off Mexico, cultivated and
found to be prolific, yielding fruit of pleasant flavor and
producing it throughout the season. Plants were offered
for sale at a comparatively high price by some of our west-
ern dealers, who gave them the name of the everbearing
Mexican strawberry. It is now known that we have an
““everbearing strawberry” among our own native plants.

The little Fragaria vesca, our common wood strawberry
[ Trans. vit.] Gis

>

42 Report on Botany.

that loves retired places in copses or groves, along the
borders of woods or on mountain sides, has been found,
under cultivation, to take on a large thrifty form and to
produce an abundance of excellent fruit, the berries ripen-
ing throughout the season. One of your committee the
past summer has seen a fine patch of this strawberry, pro-
ducing both red and white berries. Aside from the pecu-
liar color of the white-fruited variety, the fact that the
berries readily separate from the calyx in picking, it seems
to us, should make this variety a very desirable addition -
to the stock of any horticulturist. It gives us pleasure
thus to direct attention to the promising character of a
plant long considered to be almost worthless.

There is a tree now growing in a nursery in the suburbs
of this city, probably the only one of the kind in this coun-
try. It belongs to the genus Juglans and shows, even to
the unpracticed eye, its relationship to our common butter-
nut, Juglans cinerea. The tree was raised from seed pro-
cured in Japan by an esteemed member of this Institute,
the Hon. R. H. Pruyn, late United States minister to that
country. From him we learn that these trees are common
there, and that the nuts are eaten and highly relished by
the Japanese. The seed from which our Albany tree was
produced was planted six years ago, and the past summer,
i. e., When six years old, the tree bore fruit for the first
time, producing a single large cluster of nuts, twelve in
number. The tree has a very thrifty look, and gives evi-
dence of being sufficiently hardy for our climate. The
trunk is straight, its bark is yet quite smooth, the branches
diverge at a wide angle, and the leaves are two feet or more
in length with numerous pairs of leaflets. The nuts are
nearly or quite equal in diameter to those of our common
butternut, but they are shorter and more obtuse at the
apex. The wide spreading top, the magnificent foliage
and the large clusters of nuts must give to these trees when

¢

Report on Botany. 43

fully grown, a rich, luxuriant and almost tropical aspect.
It is to be hoped that our fortunate nurseryman may soon
have the means of increasing the size of his butternut or-
chard, so that he may not be compelled to acknowledge
the possession of but a single tree of such an apparently
interesting and valuable kind.

It is evident that botanists have much reason to take
courage from the number and character of the publications
issued for their aid, from the fact that vast fields of inves-
tigation are still open and awaiting occupation, from the
wide-spread interest their department of science is gradu-
ally attracting and from the rich practical results that may
be expected to flow from a more thorough understanding
of the minute organisms of the vegetable kingdom, and a
more common utilization of plants and vegetable products
now too often considered valueless.

Present State of the Inquiry into the Origin and Primal
Condition of Man. By Wm. H. Hats, Ph. D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, May 26, 1871.]

The past few years have witnessed a great increase in
our knowledge of the prehistoric condition of mankind,
and have excited a deep and growing interest in the pro-
secution of still farther researches in this direction. We
are indeed but just learning the true method of investiga-
tion in these studies, and are beginning practically to
apply it. Geology at length free from all shackles, and
able to proceed confidently in its own scientific method,
knowing that there can be no real conflict between the
truths of nature and those of revelation, does not hesitate
to regard man from the same stand point from which she
considers the rest of the universe, and to pronounce upon
him her verdict according to observed facts, and not ac-
cording to preconceived bias. Natural history, too, while
justly assigning man the proud preeminence in the animal
kingdom, still holds him liable to the same philosophical
method of classification which she applies to his inferiors.
Philology, in turn, since its emancipation from the puer-
ilities of ancient and medieval word-quibbling by the
discovery and development of the comparative method,
has proceeded from strength to strength, laying open at
each step in its progress new and constantly expanding
fields of thought and history, and discerning with greater
power and clearness the fossil remains of human history
and progress which so long lay latent in human speech.
And, latest born of all the sisterhood of anthropological
science, must be named comparative mythology, which is

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 45

even now, though very little studied as yet, the source of
much information touching the condition of man in pre-
historic times, and the kinship of nations now widely
severed; while ethnology, and archeology, by the revela-
tions already made, show how much we have yet to hope
for in their more thorough prosecution. Nay, even studies
not apparently cognate must be considered, such as cos-
mogony, which by declaring the evolution of the universe
to have progressed through almost infinite duration, may
indicate by the analogy which pervades all nature that the
creation of species proceeded on the same plan of growth
and evolution; and psychology, no longer mere metaphy-
sical transcendentalism, but the study of mind as it is
known to us in intimate and all-pervading connection with
corporeal structure and function. The unity of all sciences,
long since announced, is more profoundly evident with
every new advance. Could the study of physics but
advance to a knowledge of the ultimate nature and form
of atoms, and chemistry to that of molecules, it is proba-
ble that such knowledge would furnish a deep insight into
the nature and constitution of the universe, and correla-
tively into that of the microcosm which we have now to
discuss, namely, man. For this discussion the discoveries
in all departments of science furnish us, as it were, with a
telescope, through which we may discern the distant periods
of man’s existence at a range, where, history furnishing
no traditions, we might once have despaired to look.

Although many questions about primeval man must still
be considered open, and some of them perhaps must always
remain so, yet there are others in which investigation has
now proceeded to the extent of conviction, more or less
positive with reference to them.

First of all, we are met by the question of man’s anti-
quity. As regards this, evidence has been steadily accu-
mulating to show that man had existed on the earth for a

46. Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

period of many thousands of years before the earliest re-
corded history. This evidence, though long doubted, has
at length sufficed to convict all candid inquirers, and as it
exists in many distinct lines, and has been attained by
investigators working independently in many different
departments of study; by comparison of the formation
and growth of language, by a careful study of ancient
monuments, by a comparison of the various races of men
in their ethnological characteristics, and finally by the
discovery of fossil remairis of man, and of his tools and
weapons in geological formations, so imbedded and over-
laid by later deposits as to prove them to be of remote
antiquity. All this evidence, in so many different depart-
ments, has at length been accepted as irrefragable. The
Duke of Argyll, in his Essay on Primeval Man, remarks that
those who have most thoroughly studied this subject are
most fully convinced of man’s great antiquity and most
inclined to extend its duration. No one now estimates
the existence of man upon earth at less than ten thousand
years, while many writers state it at fifty or sixty thousand,
and Moore in his Pre-glacial Man even suggests an anti-
quity running back 400,000 years, holding that man ex-
isted in the preglacial period, which period seems by
Croll’s tables of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit in
different geological ages to have been thus remote from us.
in time. This, however, is by no means a view of man’s
antiquity which is generally held.

With regard now to the unity of man or the diversity
of species of mankind, no decision can yet be considered
certain and entitled to universal acceptance. Agassiz in-
sists that the different races of men are in fact distinct
species, and cannot have originated from a common
ancestor. On the other hand, Lyell, though adopt-
ing substantially the Darwinian theory of genesis by
variation and natural selection, says: “I see no valid

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 47

objection to the theory that all the leading varieties
of the human family sprang originally from a single
pair;” and in this opinion Huxley coincides. Lyell says
further, what is in fact generally if not universally admitted,
that man is an old-world type; so, however, many original
pairs there may have been, none started in America. De
Quatrefages also, the French anthropologist, in 1868, pub-
lished a work intended to prove the unity of mankind, or
at least to show, as he says, that ‘ everything is as if the
whole of mankind had commenced with one original and
single pair.”” Le Normant, who quotes and endorses this
opinion in his Ancient History of the Kast, and also the
Duke of Argyll, find it incompatible with the view so long
cherished that man has existed on the earth only six thou-
sand years. Le Normant accepts the chronology of Ma-
netho which dates the first Egyptian dynasty under Manes
at 5000 B. C.; and, the earliest account and figures of
the races of men in Egypt show the same essential charac-
teristics of the negro and the lighter-colored races which
now exist; so that if mankind did indeed spring from the
same original pair, the differentiation into various races
had begun ages previously to their early appearance in
Egypt. Moore, in Preglacial Man, already referred to,
quotes Greswell to show that certain astronomical conjunc-
tions existed in the year 4004 B. C., April 25, at midnight,
which occur only in a period of 516,000 years, and thence
argues that Adam may have come into existence then;
but, if so, that earlier races of men already existed called
in Hebrew not Adam but the other name for man, /sh,
the creation of whom is described in the first chapter of
Genesis as that of Adam in the second. In support of
this theory, he lays stress on the fact that Cain went into
the land of Nod and built a city, and that he was branded
in the forehead lest any one should slay him; all appa-
rently pointing to already existing men outside of Adam’s

48 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

family. As Noah’s flood has long since ceased to be re-
garded as universal, so this hypothesis would carry back
the limitation of Jewish history a little farther, and assert
that Moses never meant to give the early history of all
mankind, but only of that family in which his nation were
especially interested. Changes now progressing may
throw light on the question of unity of man. Mivart says
(p. 102): “‘ There is a very generally admitted opinion that —
a new type has been developed in the United States, and
this in about a couple of centuries only, and in a vast
multitude of individuals of diverse ancestry.”

Although this question is not yet settled, but as we have
seen, the most opposite opinions prevail, yet at present the
unity or diversity of man excites less interest and attention
than the inquiry into man’s origin. Whether as one pair
or as several, how did the first of human kind come into
being? ‘This has indeed always been a fruitful theme of
speculation and of theory, but just at present, it has been
brought before the world with new and more absorbing
interest on account of great progress of scientific investiga-
tion, and the earnestness with which Darwin and others
have advocated the theory of descent from lower species of
animals. We must expect to find difficulty in compre-_
hending the beginning of existence of any species, but we
have to choose either the theory that man was formed from
matter unorganized and inanimate, or that he did indeed
descend from some inferior animal by generation. Analogy
renders it highly probable, if not indeed certain, that what-
ever method was adopted in the creation of inferior animals
served also for man, and if they originated by development,
then so did he also. It is evident that if the development
theory be adopted, that will carry us back only a certain
distance, for there was a time when life began to be, and
before which there was no organic existence in the world.
The intense heat of the globe was of course forages incom-

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 49

patible with any form of life whatever. To begin then at
the beginning we must inquire into the possibility of sponta-
neous generation. Diditever occur? Does it occur still?
The general maxim is omne vivum a vivo, and so far as in-
vestigation has yet conducted us this is the universal rule
of nature. But spontaneous generation, if it exist at all, is
only in the case of the lowest and minutest forms of life,
mere monads and protoplasms, the spontaneous generation
o£ which may forever elude our observation, as it cer-
tainly has thus far done. We can render no verdict on
spontaneous generation but that of not proved; but this
is by no means identical with “ disproved.” We can say
only that for aught we know life may in its simplest forms
thus originate, or it may not; but that the only method
whereby we know life to originate is from a living being.
Mivart inclines to believe in spontaneous generation, as it
would seem from his quoting without dissent the view of
Bastian that matter exists in two conditions, the crystal-
line (or statical) and the colloidal (or dynamical) and that —
from matter in the latter condition, organic life may be
developed (Mivart, p. 283; also 247). There are scientists
who believe the work of creation to be now complete, how-
ever, for the reason that no new species of plant or animal
has ever been shown to arise in the course of scientific re-
search. Wallace has pointed out (see Nature, March 3,
1870, p. 457), that the last 60,000 years having been excep-
tionally unchanging as regards eccentricity of the earth’s
orbit, evolution of species may have been exceptionally
rare. But here again, it is plain, that mere ignorance is
not disproof. When observation fails, we must fall back
on analogy, and, until proof can be obtained, endeavor as
far as possible to supply the lack of certainty by reasona-
ble probability. Among higher animals, life originates
only from two parents of different sexes ; while among some
[ Trans. vit.] is

50 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

lower forms there exists parthenogenesis, or reproduction
by the agency of buta single parent, the mother; and also
fissiparous and gemniparous reproduction. Is it not pos-
sible then that among the lowest forms of all animate
nature, the organized protoplasm may develop from matter
hitherto inert? Is it not probable that such may have
been the course of nature since life first began? The his-
tory of the universe is a record of development from the
very first. Are we to hold that this development proceeded
by virtue of an inherent power implanted in matter at its
creation and still immanent, or that the fiat of omnipo-
tence has either continually to be exercised or occasionally
to be put forth at intervals interfering in the established
order of events by creations either continually proceeding,
or else occurring at well marked periods only? Gray, the
eminent botanist, in his treatise on WVatural Selection not
Inconsistent with Natural Theology, remarks :. ‘ We may ima-
gine that events and operations, in general, go on in virtue
simply of forces communicated at the first, and without
any subsequent interference, or we may hold that now and
then, and only now and then, there is a direct interposition
of the Deity; or, lastly, we may suppose that all the changes
are carried on by the immediate, orderly and constant,
however infinitely diversified action of the intelligent, ef-
ficientcause.”’ The drift ofscientific opinion, bothin Europe
and America, is setting strongly in favor of creation by
some form of evolution of species, and against any theory
of creation by direct divine interference, except as the latter
is constantly and steadily exercised in the regular harmo-
nious movement of the universe and all things init. Such
is now the unanimous opinion of the professors at Yale,
including Dana, as one of the faculty there assures me, and
this is the more remarkable forthe fact, that Professor Dana
long maintained a very different theory. This does not re-
quire, however, an acceptance of Darwin’s theory ofvariation —

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 51

and natural selection ; which theory is, that such animals
as by some innate peculiarity of structure or physiology
are better adapted for the struggle for life in the place
where they exist, survive at the expense of others less fa-
vored, and ultimately found new species and genera by
their offspring retaining and still further developing such
peculiarities. For example, a butterfly, having an unusu-
ally prolonged proboscis has in some localities a better.
chance of life than others who can not drain the honey from
a deep corolla, and it will transmit this peculiarity of struc-
ture to its offspring, among whom in turn, those whose
probosces are longest might alone survive, and thus in time
a species of butterflies with long probosces, and other re-
lated peculiarities of structure and function will be deve-
loped. (See Mivart, p. 22, for a prediction that new species
of hawk moths with enormously long probosces will be
found in Madagascar). But this principle of natural selec-
tion does not suffice fully to account for all the phenomena
of creation and differentiation of species. Neither yet does
Lamarck’s theory of progression by cultivation, and trans-
mission of acquired habit to offspring as an innate pecu-
hiarity, though both these influences are constantly at work,
and it is certain that animals are modified to some extent
by inheritance of habits and also of structure and physi-
ology from their progenitors. Something beyond and
above both these causes must be adduced to solve the
difficult problem of genesis of species in all its multifarious
forms and relations, and just what that principle is we do
not yet know. We may, to be sure, say with Geoffroy
Hilaire and Wallace that it is the direct action of the Deity,
but this is no real answer, since we believe all things to
result from his action, and are seeking to discover by what
mode of action he proceeds. New forms of animal life of
all degrees of complexity, appear from time to time with com-
parative suddenness, being evolved according to laws in part

52 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

depending on surrounding conditions, in part internal.
(Mivart, p.157). Itis announced that Prof. Dana will pub-
lish a pamphlet in June giving his view of the question.
We await his utterance with much interest.

In considering the origin of species, two lines of argu-
ment advanced by the supporters of the theory of natural
selection, should be carefully studied. First it is claimed
that species run at all points one into another by imper-
ceptible gradations, and that recent discoveries show the
same fact in the paleontology of plants and animals. Na-
tura non facit saltum is a maxim insisted on by Darwin.
Mivart, however, has very ably shown that many of the
forms which-were once supposed to unite different species
‘and genera do not do so in reality, giving several instances
(p. 122, 3), the aye-aye, once supposed to unite the order of
rodents with that of primates, also bats, cetaceans, pteroda-
cetyls and amphibians, all of which he asserts are now
considered to belong as absolutely to their respective
classes and orders, as if no resemblance seemed to ally
them to any others. The second argument to observe is
that drawn from embryology. The embryo of all higher
animals and especially of man passes through the succes-
sive states of lower animals at different stages of its growth.
This transformation, long since noticed as regards bodily
structure, hasrecently been studied by Maudsley and shown
to pertain with equal exactness to the brain, and spinal and
nervous system. This is indeed weighty evidence in sup-
port of some theory of evolution, but it is equally applica-
ble on any other theory than that the one of successive
minute variations and the survival of the fittest as held by
Darwin. Huxley asserts that the ovum from which all
animals grow cannot be distinguished in any particular
from the lowest form of life variously called monad, proto-
plasm, &c., and this must be considered to point very
forcibly to the evolution of species by some form or other.

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 53

Darwinism, however, properly so-called, has been so fully
and beautifully refuted by Mivart in his genesis of species,
that it is not likely ever to be again proposed asa complete
solution of the problem of origin of species. He brings
against it at least seven indictments which form the subject
of as many chapters, and on each one of which he convicts
it of inadequacy. He thus proves it: 1. Inadequate to
explain incipient stages of useful structures. 2. That
it does not harmonize with the coexistence of closely
similar structures of diverse origin. 3. That there are
grounds for thinking that specific differences may be de-
veloped suddenly instead of gradually. 4. That the opinion
that species have definite though very different limits to
their variability is still tenable, though at the creation of
new species it is allowed that these limits are passed over,
as a spheroid with a certain number of facets will stand on
any one of them till it is turned upon another and will
then retain the latter position. 5. That certain transitional
fossil forms are absent. 6. That some facts of geographi-
cal distribution supplement other difficulties. 7. That
homologies of structure and function imply an internal evo-
lutionary power not identical with natural selection. Yet
while fully refuting Darwinism, he, at the same time, in
every chapter, the more fully exhibits the necessity of some
form of evolution of species by descent, perhaps not all
from the same,. but from a few original ones.

Mivart, p. 258, says: ‘‘ We have seen that though the laws
of nature are constant, yet some of the conditions which de-
termine specific change [or change into species] may be
exceptionally absent at the present epoch of the world’s
history; also that it is not only possible, but highly pro-
bable that an internal power or tendency is an important,
if not the main agent in evoking the manifestation of new
species on the scene of realized existence, and that in any
case from the facts of homology, [determining symmetry

54 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

°

of form, etc., in each individual, ] innate internal powers to
the full as mysterious must anyhow be accepted, whether
they act in specific origination [origin or species] or not.
Besides all this, we have seen that it is probable that the
action of this innate power is stimulated, evoked and de-
termined by external conditions, and also that the same
external conditions in the shape of “natural selection,”
play an important part in the evolutionary process; and,
finally, it has been affirmed that the view here advocated,
while it is supported by the facts on which Darwinism
rests, is not open to the objections and difficulties which op-
pose themselves to itas the sole agent in genesis of species.

The most severe opposition to the theory of evolution of
species as applied to man is the psychical. The mind of
man is considered so utterly and radically unlike that of
any other animal as to forbid the possibility of his descent
fromanimals. Maudsley, however, has carefully investigated
the physiology and pathology of mind, and in his work on
that subject, he shows the similarity between the entire
nervous system of man and animals both in structure and
in use; rising from the nerves the spine is considered as
the seat of reflex action and of coordinated motions such
as are performed unconsciously and as the result of
habit. A step higher is placed the sensory-motor system
in the lower part of the skull; and in the ganglia contain-
ing the organs of special senses, including what are called
the five senses, which also may to an extent be exercised
unconsciously and without volition, both in man and ani-
mal. Rising to the supreme nervous centre, the hemi-
spherical lobes of the brain, he illustrates at great length their
mode of action among all vertebrates; and on the other
hand, their pathological action and retrograde metamor-
phosis in insanity, and does not hesitate to maintain that
the only difference between the mind of man and that of —
brutes is one of degree and not of kind. In attempting

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 55

to reform the study of psychology, however, Maudsley has
overleaped his mark and his theory tends too much to ma-
terialize the mind. Thought, as he explains it, consistsin -
some mode of action and reaction in the cortical cells of
the hemispheres of the brain, and instead of being instan-
taneous in action, requiresappreciabletime. This, indeed, is
shown also in what astronomers have long known as the
personal equation of individuals, namely, the time re-
quired for a sensation received on the retina to be com-
municated to the brain, and thence the volition to the hand
which registers it. The theory of evolution of species has
indeed a further opposition to encounter, as have many other
sciences, from supposed contradiction with revelation.
Thus the spirit of man goeth upward and the spirit of the
beast goeth down to the ground (Ecc. ili, 21). But this
passage, if it does not refer to the erect position and up-
ward gaze of man, must be understood as referring to his
aspirations or future destiny as distinguished from the
beasts that perish, and not at all to his origin. Again, we
are told that man is created in the image of God. But
surely this does not refer to man’s body. Hallam, the
historian, says: ‘*‘ Though man was created in God’s image,
yet he was made also in the image of an ape.” So also we
are met by the statement from Genesis that God moulded
Adam out of earth and infused the breath of life. We
‘ought never to forget, however, that the Bible abounds in
anthropomorphisms, and language used after the manner
of men, and never intended to teach scientific truth.

Nor should we omit, in considering the question of man’s
origin, reverently to advert to him who was more than
man, while yet he was the flower and crown of our hu-
manity. Had he not his choice of all modes of advent into
this world? Yet when he took on him to deliver man,
he humbled himself to be born of a woman. He became
incarnate by descent from a race of beings as far beneath

56 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

his infinite glory and dignity, as any living thing can be
beneath us. The Creator of the universe would not vio-
late the laws of that universe. I am treading, I know, on
the verge of a great mystery; and I venture not rashly to
inquire further into the manner of the immaculate concep-
tion and birth of our Saviour, but I say only this that if it
were not derogatory to his glory to descend by birth from
an inferior species, neither should it be soto us, if indeed
we are thus descended. In fine, is it not quite as noble a
descent to have sprung from lower animal life, as from
matter wholly inorganic and previously dead? Orrather,
may not man’s inherent dignity consist in having so far
risen above and beyond the lowly conditions of his origin ?

Let us inquire next what was man’s condition in the
beginning. This also is one of the inquiries which now
agitate the world, and unfortunately one on which we know
comparatively little. On the one hand, the school to
which Sir John Lubbock belongs, and of which he is the
chief exponent, are laboring assiduously to demonstrate
that man’s original state was one of savage barbarism, such
as he now finds in the lowest forms of savage life, scarcely
elevated in intellect above the brutes, and far below them
in morals. On the other hand, the Duke of Argyll, very
justly recognized several distinct matters of inquiry under
this general question of man’s primal condition. He ad-
mits that man must have been at first very deficient in
knowledge, and probably also-to some extent undeveloped
in intellect; but claims for his moral nature at least an up-
right and virtuous disposition, though his soul like his
mind must have been undeveloped, yet also, like the mind
containing the capacity of indefinite development and
growth: thus agreeing with the Mosaic account of man’s
original purity and virtue. In opposition to Lubbock’s
view, that man has risen from heathen and savage vice,
such as the lowest tribes of men now exhibit, by reform,

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 57

and successive transformations of character, keeping pace
with expanding knowledge and civilization, we assert that
history furnishes no instances of a nation or people purify-
ing itself, and abandoning vice, merely as a consequence
of increased mental acquirement, or in any other way by
virtue of its own inherent power of reformation, without
being also influenced by extraneous religious teaching or
direct divine revelation. We cannot lose sight, even in
the study of man’s natural history, as he now exists, of the
great and pervading fact of man’s sinfulness. We must,
therefore, hold with the Duke of Argyll, that the savage
nations now existing consist of men fallen and degraded
from their pristine excellence, and are not to be regarded
as typical of primitive man. These degraded savages are
found in many cases in locations utterly uncongenial and
unfitted to sustain life, except in a feeble and wretched
condition. They have been thrust forth by war and other
calamities from their former homes, and must fain conform
to their new and unpropitious surroundings as best they
may; locations that cannot on any theory of creation be
considered adequate to have produced man originally.
Indeed no American tribes can be considered autochthon-
ous, as we have already seen that man is an old-world
type; and it would doubtless puzzle even Lubbock to de-
fine any marked difference between the ethical and psy-
chical condition of the American tribes, such as Eskimo
and Terra del Fuegans, on the one hand, and the South
sea islanders and Bushmen on the other, of such a nature
that he can claim these as types of primeval man, and reject
those as also typical, though indeed the first are at a far
greater remove from their original abode than the other.
These scattered tribes might easily lose in their migrations,
all memory of their early abode, and of such arts and culture
as they may then have acquired, but on no tenable theory
of creation can autochthonous tribes have sprung up in
[ Trans. vit.] 8

58 Origin and Primal Condition of Man.

such inhospitable climes and amid such unpropitious sur-
roundings.

Primeval man had not indeed the mechanic arts. He
could have had no knowledge of what is technically called
science. His knowledge of himself and of nature is the
growth of long observation and reflection. The earliest
vestiges of man in the so-called paleolithic age show that
his first tools and weapons were the simplest and rudest
possible, and that only by long and painful experience have
improvements been gradually discovered. The steps in

this course of progress may already be traced to some ex-
tent, and with increasing discovery, the development of
the human mind, may be more fully traced; but of his
moral nature, of the condition and history of his heart and
conscience in unrecorded time, stone implements and
fossil remains do not, and can doubtless never testify.

But it may be asked, if the theory of evolution is true,
will not new races of. men again arise by genesis from
apes? To this query there need be no hesitation in re-
sponding in the negative. It appears that the production
of man was so grand an achievement as to have tasked the
resources of nature to their utmost, so much so, that as we
have seen the opinion that all men have had a common
origin is widely prevalent, while those who doubt the unity
of mankind are satisfied to claim only a very small number
of progenitors for the different races. At the present time,
however, naturalists announce that the anthopoid apes are
in process of extinction, as they do not find a condition
favorable to the continuance of their species. Having ac-
complished the end of their existence as the final link of
the long chain by which man was evolved from the ani-
mal creation to be their lord and king, it would seem that
these inferior archencephala have no further function to
perform in the scheme of nature, and are destined ere long
to fade and perish forever from the earth ; while man, the

Origin and Primal Condition of Man. 59

consummate and supreme resultant of all the ages, shall
maintain his dominion henceforth till time shall be no more.

At this point, indeed, where the light of physical science
proves insufficient, we may properly seek the aid of ethics
and theology. Man, though an animal in structure, is im-
measurably elevated above all animals, by his moral nature—
by his soul. To ascend higher than this would involve no
longer any such advance as that already made when pass-
ing from animals to man, but only a difference in degree.
Man, whatever his origin, has a future both for the race
and for the individual which is known to us only by reve-
lation, and which can only be rightly apprehended and
directed in accordance with a higher philosophy than mere
physical science.

Remarks on Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals, and
a New Method with the Blowpipe. By Leroy C.
CooLEy, Ph. D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, April 19, 1870.]

Silver and gold have been known from the earliest pe-
riod of which history gives us any account. Much is
known concerning the ancient uses of these precious metals,
but very little is known of the methods by which they
were extracted from their ores. The ancient assay seems,
however, to have been conducted on principles not very
different from those applied at the present time. Advance
in this art has, perhaps, consisted less in the application of
newly discovered principles than in the improvement of
those already known.

Ancient methods, correct in principle it may be, but
crude and wasteful in their execution, have given place to
others more elegant and more exact.

Among the various methods of extracting precious metals,
the assay by solution or the wet assay, as it is generally called,
is doubtless the most accurate, and will be chosen whenever
analyses are to be made for purely scientific purposes. For
commercial or metallurgical purposes, however, the assay by
Jive or the dry assay is sufficiently exact, and, being in almost
universal use, it shall be the only one to which attention
need be given on the present occasion.

The assay by fire may be conducted either by means of
the furnace or the blowpipe. The blowpipe furnishes an
easy means of detecting the presence of the precious metals,
but, for. reasons shortly to appear, its use has been for the
most part limited to this purpose, and the furnace has been —

Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals. 61

resorted to whenever the value of the ore was to be deter-
mined.

A brief sketch of the furnace assay will not be out of
place. A few grammes of the ore, finely powdered and
mixed with many times its weight of pure lead, is placed
in a refractory earthen cup already in a furnace and glow-
ing with a bright red heat. Quickly the lead melts and
the ore may be seen floating upon its surface. A current
of hot air sweeping over the surface of the bath, speedily
oxydizes the ore and a portion of the melted lead. The
litharge thus formed decomposes the ore; forms a fusible
slag with its baser materials, but refuses to touch the pre-
cious metal, which, being soluble in melted lead, enters at
once into the glowing bath of that substance in the centre
of the cup. At the end of this process most of the lead as
litharge together with nearly all the baser constituents of
the ore, constitute a fluid slag while the rest of the lead
with every particle of precious metal will remain behind
in the form of ared hot melted button upon which the
lighter slag is floating. The fluid is then poured into
another dish and allowed to cool. A few strokes of a
hammer afterwards clean away the slag, and a few more
shape the button into proper form for future use.

By the process of scorification, just described, the precious
metal in the ore is obtained as an alloy with lead from
which it is-afterwards to be separated by cupellation. The
principle in this last process is simple enough. It is this:
Oxygen at a high temperature has a strong attraction for
lead, and almost none at all for silver or gold. The ele-
gance of the process itself rivals the simplicity of its prin-
ciple. A little porous cup of bone-ash —the cupel—is
placed in a furnace and heated to redness. The button of
alloy, being then introduced, quickly melts, while a current
of air passing over its dull red surface furnishes oxygen
for the chemical action which at once begins. The oxygen

62 Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals.

combines with the lead, and multitudes of little scales of
litharge form upon the surface of the glowing metal. Dart-
ing from its centre outward, they fall upon the cupel at the
circumference of the button where they disappear alto-
gether, being quickly absorbed by the porous bone ash.
In this way the lead is gradually carried into the substance
of the cupel while every particle of precious metal is left
behind. At length the little button suddenly displays a
surface over which play all the beautiful colors of the rain-
bow. This splendid appearance continues until, the su-
preme moment having arrived when the last trace of baser
material has been driven away, the little button of precious
metal, with dazzling brightness, remains unmoved in the
intense heat of the furnace. It is then taken from the fire
and carefully cooled, after which it only remains for the
assayer to consult his balance to learn the value of the ore.

The blow-pipe is a favorite instrument when the mere
presence of precious metal is tobe determined. The small
amount of necessary apparatus to accompany it and the
simplicity of the operations required, highly commend it
and have prompted many attempts to extend its application
to the quantitative estimation of these metals. Methods
have been devised by Plattner and others, which, in the
hands of skillful operators do, doubtless, give satisfactory
results, but they have never become popular with assayists.
The objection to these methods does not spring from want
of confidence in the chemical actions involved; these are
satisfactory: nor from the amount of labor required, for
this is less than the furnace demands. The objection to

_ the use of the blow-pipe for determining the value of

ores, springs from the necessity of using such small quanti-
ties of ore that the silver button obtained from it is too
minute to be satisfactorily valued. Rarely can this button
be obtained large enough to be weighed. Its valueis gener- ©
ally sought by measuring its diameter and comparing it

Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals. 63

with that of another button whose value is known, on the
principle that spheres are to each other as the cubes of their
diameters. Delicate and ingeniousscales have been devised
for this purpose. But even if we allow that these minute
diameters are, in any case, measured with sufficient accu-
racy, there still remains the fact that the little buttons can
never be exact spheres, and it may well be doubted whether
they can be truly considered as similar solids at all.

If then the blow-pipe is ever to rival the furnace in the
assaying of ores, the first thing to be secured is the ability
to operate with it upon larger quantities of material.
For this purpose a larger flame must be obtained and this
necessity requires that the lips of the assayer be relieved
from the fatigue of furnishing the air blast. An automatic
source of air is indispensable. An apparatus for this pur-
pose must be such as to furnish a steady current, under a
pressure which may be varied and controlled by the operator.

A simple and inexpensive apparatus fulfilling these con-
ditions has been in use in my laboratory for nearly three
years. Its essential partsare an air-tight tankfrom which air
is to be driven, and a regulator by which the current is
made uniform and its force determined.

The tank may be made of metal or of wood and may be
of any size or shape desirable. A wine-cask or beer-barrel
answers the purpose admirably. The water, by which
pressure is to be obtained, must enter the side of the tank
near the top ; and to avoid the unpleasant rattle of falling
water the pipe which supplies it extends across the inte-
rior almost to the opposite side. A glass tube extending
along the height of the tank outside, both ends opening
into the interior, continually announces the height of the
water and informs the operator of the amount of air at his
disposal. Besides these tubes, the tank is supplied with
another, leading from the top, by which the air-blast is
delivered, while at the bottom there is a large faucet by

64 Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals.

which the tank can be quickly emptied. The arrangement
of this tank, except in one noticeable feature, does not es-
sentially differ from others already well known.

The regulator by which the pressure is steadied and
controlled is peculiar and efficient. It consists of a small
sized vessel with three openings in the top, each supplied
with a tube which reaches nearly to the bottom of the ves-
sel. One of these tubes receives water from the hydrant,
another delivers it into the tank, while the third carries a
valve which regulates the pressure. The water entering
the vessel through the first tube until it covers their lower
ends will, of course, be driven up the other two with equal
force. Let the top of the valve tube be covered closely and
the pressure needed to lift the cover will be the pressure ex-
erted to push the water into the tank, and will also repre-
sent the force of the issuing air-jet. The cover or valve is
simply a small tin cup, with its bottom lined with rubber,
inverted over the smooth open end of the tube. It is fas-
tened to an arm hinged upon some permanent part of the
apparatus by which a free vertical motion is secured and
any other prevented. Upon the flat top of this valve
weights of any denomination may be placed, and the force
of the blast correspondingly increased, limited only by the
power of the stream from the hydrant. Any variation of
these weights will be quickly followed by a corresponding
variation in the pressure, which afterwards remains con-
stant. The valve tube should be considerably larger than
the supply pipe, that the relief may the more easily adjust
itself to the supply. Its upper end passes through the bot-
tom of a vessel by which the water may be caught and ear-
ried off by a tube into the waste. With this arrangement
it is found that however variable the pressure of the water
from the hydrant, the steadiness of the air current, after
the first few moments, is not affected by it, and that how-
ever powerful the stream may be, the force of the blast

Assaying Ores of the Precious Metals. 65

will be delicate or strong according to the weight of the
valve.

With a Bunsen’s blow-pipe, provided as it is with an air-
jet in addition to the ordinary gas jet and collar of the
common Bunsen’s burner, and with this automatic blast,
gentle or strong at will but always steady, the assayer-has
such complete control over the proportions of air and gas
in his flame that he is able to regulate the heating, the
oxydizing and the reducing power of it at his pleasure.
With a flame so reliable in these respects and at the same
time so large as this one may be made, the assayer is able
to scorify and cupel a quantity of ore quite as large as
would be taken for a furnace assay. The heat of the flame
is sufficiently intense to keep the scorifyer and cupel in a
glow, needing no assistance from other sources, but if these
_ vessels are placed over the flame of a laboratory lamp its
heat will facilitate the operation by allowing the energies
of the blow-pipe to be directed more exclusively to the
chemical actions which it is required to produce.

The accuracy of the assay made by this method has been
found by comparison with assays of the same ores, both by
the furnace and By solution to be satisfactory. In any la-
boratory where water and gas are abundant this method
will be found easy, elegant and exact.

[ Trans. vii.] 9

Description of a Printing Chronograph. By Pror. G.
W. Hovex, Director of the Dudley Observatory.

[Read before the Albany Institute, May 2, 1871.]

About the year 1848, the idea of recording astronomical
observations, by the use of galvanic electricity, was put in
successful operation by different individuals. Since that
time chronographs of various forms have been constructed
for recording in a legible manner on a moving sheet of
paper the time of any phenomenon observed. The great
superiority, in point of accuracy and saving of labor over
the old eye and ear method, formerly used, led to the
almost general adoption of the new plan.

During the past ten years the idea of constructing a
chronograph, which should print with type the time of the
observation, has been entertained by a number of persons.
About five years since Prof. Hilgard, of the Coast Survey,
read a description of an apparatus designed for this pur-
pose, and about the same time Prof. OC. A. Young, of Dart-
mouth College, published a proposed plan for one, in
Silliman’s Journal of Science. But, so far as we are in-
formed, the mechanical construction of such an apparatus
has not heretofore been attempted by any one.

The construction of a machine which shall carry a type
wheel capable of giving impressions, with uniform velocity
for a number of hours together, without sensible variation
in its motion, is a problem which is not easy of solution.

Some five or six years ago, in a paper read before the
Albany Institute, I gave an account of the method I pro-
posed to adopt, and in the construction of the machine,
now to be described, the plan then proposed has been gene-
rally followed. My plan, which is radically different from

Description of a Printing Chronograph. 67

any other proposed, is based on the principle of using
separate systems of mechanism for the fast-moving type.
wheel, and those recording the integer minutes and seconds,
regulating each with electro-magnets controlled by the
standard clock.

For a clear understanding of the mechanism, elaborate
drawings would be necessary. We shall, therefore, merely
give a general account of its construction and peculiarities :

1st. A system of clock-work carrying a type-wheel with
fifty numbers on its rim, revolving once every second ; one,
two, or parts of two numbers being always printed, so that
hundredths of seconds may be indicated. This train is
primarily regulated to move uniformly by the Frauenhaufer
friction balls, and secondarily by an electro-magnet acting
on the fast-moving type-wheel, controlled by the stand-
ard clock. This train is entirely independent, and can
be stopped at pleasure, without interfering with the other
type wheels.

2d. A system of clock-work, consisting of two or more
shafts, carrying the type-wheels indicating the minutes and
seconds. The motion of this train is also governed by an
electro-magnet, controlled by the standard clock, operat-
ing an escapement, in a manner analogous to the action
of an ordinary clock; every motion of the escapement
advancing the type one number. |

There are three type-wheels, indicating minutes, seconds
and hundredths of seconds. The integer seconds are ad-
vanced at every oscillation of the standard pendulum ; and
the minute, at the end of each complete revolution of the
seconds wheel.

The type wheels are constructed of brass disks, around
the circumference of which is soldered a strip of electrotype
copper holding sixty numbers.

Presuming now we have this system of type-wheels in
operation, it is necessary to print without disturbing their

68 Description of a Printing Chronograph.

motion; especially is this true for the fast-moving wheel.
After a long series of experiments, during which the fast-
moving wheel was detached and stopped in various ways,
we finally made the impression from the spring of the
hammer only; not allowing the blow to fall directly on
the type, but arresting it about half an inch before it
reached the top of the type. By this device, which is re-
garded of the greatest importance, the motion of the type
is not disturbed an appreciable amount. Any number of
impressions following each other in rapid succession does
not disturb the fast-moving wheel the one-hundredth part
of a second. By this plan, none of the type-wheels are
stopped, or locked in the act of printing, and records.of
observations may follow each other as fast as the hammer
can be made to deliver the blow.

If the record is made while the type-wheel indicating
integer seconds is in the act of escaping, two numbers, or
one number and part of another, is printed, so there is
never any ambiguity about the record; this condition, of
course, only occurs when the fast-moving wheel indicates
0.95 to 0.00 sec. If two numbers are printed when, for
example, the hundredths read 98, the smaller of the in-
teger seconds is the correct one. The time required for
the action of the escapement is about 0.06 sec.

The blow for printing may be struck directly, by means
of a strong electro-magnet; but the cost and trouble of
keeping up a large battery for this purpose led us to do all
the work mechanically, only using electricity as the go-
verning power. Accordingly, a heavy running gear was
built for raising the hammer, capable in its present form
of delivering 2,000 blows without winding ; and it can be
readily modified to give five times that number, if desirable.
This gearing is entirely detached from the hammer when
elevated, but is unlocked just before the hammer reaches
the type, immediately raising it again. The time con-

Description of a Printing Chronograph. 69

sumed for this operation is about three-tenths of a second,
allowing, therefore, observations to follow each other at a
minimum interval of one-half second. When the hammer
is elevated it is locked, by an electro-magnet, the operating
of this magnet allowing it to fall and print. The armature
time of the hammer is about 0.07 sec. ; being but little in
excess of our ordinary chronographic recording pen.

The types are inked by means of small rollers, covered
with cloth, resting against their rim, and revolving with
the wheel by friction. These rollers require inking every
two or three days. If desirable, the inking rollers may be
dispensed with, and impression paper used instead. After
numerous experiments made with both methods, we have
preferred the ink.

The paper fillet two inches in width, is wound on a small
spool, holding about 40 feet, and drawn between two rollers,
the same*’as a Morse Register. Every time the hammer
falls, the fillet is advanced about one-quarter of an inch, by
the action of an escapement driven by a weight. One
spool of paper will hold about 1,200 observations, includ-
ing the spacing for different objects. This same escape-
ment is also operated by an electro-magnet, under the con-
trol of the observer ; who by pressing a key is able to make
spaces of any width between the prints. |

The train carrying the minutes and integer seconds, will
run eight hours; the gear for elevating the hammer will
deliver 2,000 blows; and the train for moving the paper
fillet will go 1,200 times witheut winding. The fast mov-
ing train runs one hour and thirty-six minutes; but since
this train can be stopped at pleasure without changing the
zero of the type, its comparatively brief running is not a
serious inconvenience.

To recapitulate, we claim the following principal points :
ist. Separate movements for the integer seconds, and
the hundredths of seconds; 2d. The method of regulat-

70 Description of a Printing Chronograph.

ing the hundredths of seconds wheel by an _ electro-
magnet in connection with the standard clock; 8d.
The method of printing double or single numbers
without stopping the type wheels; 4th. The method of
striking the blow, indirectly using the spring of the ham-
mer; dth. The method of elevating and locking the ham-
mer. The minor details for paying off the paper fillet,
inking the type, etc., may be accomplished in various ways.

The battery power required is about the same as for an
ordinary chronograph. Three Grove elements, or six Hill’s
elements, work the two electro-magnets well. A separate
battery of about the same size, is used for the hammer and
fillet magnets.

In point of accuracy, this machine leaves nothing to be
desired, and is much beyond what we thought possible.
From a vast number of experiments, made by recording
automatically the beats of the standard clock, both at the
middle and end of the oscillation, the mean error for a
single print is found to be about 0.013 sec., equal in this
respect to the recording chronograph. The maximum
difference in the records of the beats, seldom exceeds 0.03
sec., and, we believe, this is as much due to the irregularity
in the clock connection as in the running of the machine,
since the same thing is found in ordinary chronograph re-
cords, where the measures are made from second tosecond.

During the building of the machine, which was accom-
plished by my assistant, Mr. Foreman, and myself, the
past winter, as we could find the time, a great many ex-
periments were tried, in the method of regulation, printing,
etc. The fast moving train was used to propel the integer
seconds, and minute type wheels, dispensing with the aux-
iliary movement; but the disturbance of its motion was
considerable, especially at the end of every minute, when
it had double duty to perform. We think, however, by.
taking the power from the shaft turning once in a minute

Description of a Printing Chronograph. 71

and giving uniform motion to the type, it might be suc-
cessful; but nothing would be saved in the amount of ma-
chinery and the liability of losing integer seconds from
accidental disturbance, would be a serious imperfection in
the method. As now constructed, there is hardly a possi-
bility of error in the integer seconds, without a serious
disarrangement of the mechanism. If the fast running
train is stopped entirely, it only requires about six seconds,
to bring it again in coincidence with the clock pendulum.

The saving of time and labor by the use of a printing
chronograph is very considerable. At the lowest estimate,
it does work equivalent to the labor of one person where
three are employed at the same time. In our zone work
in former years, when the zone extended two hours in
right ascension, it usually required the labor of two per-
sons a whole day to convert the chronographic records into
numbers and copy them on the blank forms. With the
observations printed, this labor is wholly dispensed with ;
since the “mean” is at once deduced from the printed
record.

The machine is readily adjusted to indicate the same
numbers as the clock’s face, the type being so set as
to print zero-hundredths when the pendulum is at its
lowest point, where the magnetic circuitiscompleted. In
the construction of the apparatus, provision was made for
attaching engraved rings to the type-wheel shaft, showing
at a glance the time. But these are found not essential.
as they would but little facilitate the setting of the type,
which is accomplished as follows: The minute type-wheel
which is free to move in either direction, is revolved to
correspond to the correct minute, an impression may then
be taken, and the machine started when the clock indi-
cates the same; the seconds being readily counted from the
beats of the magnet regulating the fast moving train. The

12 Description of a Printing Chronograph.

whole time for this adjustment need never exceed two
minutes, |

In the observation of zone stars, the type may be set to
give the integer seconds of mean right ascension, so that
the final reduction will always be a small quantity.

The constant use of this mechanism on every day and
observing night, for more than five months, during which
time more than ten thousand records have been made, en-
ables us to speak with confidence of its success, both as
regards correctness in printing and in saving of labor.

Other things being equal, it is found that for three ob-
servers, twice as many observations can be reduced in the
same time, as when a recording chronograph is employed.

Report of the Third Class in the Third Department ( Gene-
ral Laterature). By Lronarp Kip, Esq.

[Read before the Albany Institute, March 21, 1871.]

In speaking of literature and art,a noted French author
has stigmatized the year just past as altogether purposeless
and barren. The remark was unquestionably offered in a
narrow-minded spirit of national bigotry and intolerance ;
the inference being broadly suggested that in all matters of
education and polish, France was the only light of the
world, and that her preoccupation with the stern realities
of war having turned her, for a while, from the softer, gentler
paths of letters, the cultivation of the universe of intellect
was therefore necessarily retarded. Yet none the less does
it happen, that there is a basis of truth in Jule Janin’s
shallow assertion; for while carnage has so grievously stayed
the onward progress of his own country, chance or some
deeper power, whichas yet we cannotrealize, has apparently
benumbed the brain of other lands; so that, asa whole, the
year 1870 has added little in comparison with former years,
to the world’s real wealth of literature.

To be sure, the customary profusion of new volumes has
been steadily maintained, falling week after week from the
press in millions, and apparently choking every avenue of
learning or belle lettres. But, in weighing the results of
literature at their true value, much that is foisted upon the
world as profitable must be cast aside, either with special
condemnation, or, in more charitable mood, as merely un-
worthy of notice. The familiar saying that ‘“‘a book’s a

[ Trans, vit.] 10

74 Report on General Literature.

book although there’s nothing in it,” although begotten
in sarcasm, has been so liberally quoted, that to many per-
ceptions, it has lost some of its original pungency, and now
presents itself with all the axiomatic wisdom of a proverb;
until the larger portion of readers are ready to believe, that
almost every publication which does not happen to be
immoral has its value, and that there is no writing which
is not, in some respects, fitted to be placed within a library.
But the more critical mind learns to revolt at such leniency
of judgment—almost despairs as it sees how much of
what is published is merely useless repetition of that which
has gone before, and how much, besides, can tend merely
to foster crude and undeveloped tastes and theories—striveg
to separate the few grains of wheat from the great mass of
chaff and would rigorously treat the chaff with the fiery
destruction it deserves — and, as it looks upon the millions
of treatises that fill our public libraries, almost regrets that
the process of separation and destruction could not have
been carried further, recognizing, in all its fullness the
fact that a book is a book only as it properly cultivates or
instructs. Solomon sighed over the endless making of
‘books, and yet, in his time, there had been no prophetic
forewarning of the Alexandrian library. That storehouse
wasin turn built up; and, in turn, undergoing the certain
fate of all earthly things, perished. Now we affect to regret
the fact, as though it were a loss that could not be calculated ;
and yet it is possible that we have not sustained a very
great misfortune, after all. Possibly the great library may
have contained a few treasures, such as the missing books
of Livy, and a choice collection of now unknown classics ;
but doubtless, the greater portion of the parchment and
papyrus manuscripts were of such a character, as could
scarcely interest or instruct us — treatises upon the Arian
controversy, most likely, and other similarly heavy pole-

mical works of exceeding uselessness, and which would

Report on General Literature. 75

scarcely now be called for, in these later days of literary
activity, wherein the doubtless more precious manuscripts
of the Vatican, and Imperial Libraries and of the British
Museum are allowed to remain undisturbed, in their coat-
ing of gathered dust.

The critical mind, therefore, observing how little of com-
parative value can be gleaned from all the harvests of the
past, and how, in later days, one book constantly surpersedes
another, frequently containing within a few pages, a careful
digest of many that have gone before, becomes very toler-
ant of the winnowing out of past centuries, and learns to
admit the fact, that the collected literary wealth of the
world can be condensed into smaller compass than is gene-
rally believed. And it will, therefore, also readily admit
that, until the labors of centuries have been required to —
furnish us with the treasures we now enjoy, it cannot be
anticipated that any one year should renew, or even, in
any marked manner, influence or improve our literature.
But for all that there is much which we have a right to de-
mand from any single year; while throughout its whole
calender course it may not produce an immortal work, it
ought to exhibit much that might maintain a recognized’
position and influence during its immediate generation.
There is a broad and happy position in letters between
fame and utter worthlessness. There is the literature
which instructs, comprising in its limits philosophy, science,
and history; and, in this domain, each year should produce
some notable instance, wherein, by novel theory and ex-
periment, or tasteful compilation, a satisfactory advance
can be effected, And there is the literature which enter-
tains, comprising poetry and romance; and here also, there
should be something shown to betoken increase of taste
and cultivation. But, in each department, as regards either
the accession of laborers or the result of their labors, the
past year compares sadly with many that have gone before.

76 Report on General Literature.

To enter more particularly into the subject, we find, that
during the year, we have suffered largely in the loss of
men of genius. In England, there have fallen from the
ranks Dean Alford, whose labors, though in a modest field
and of a critical nature and addressed to the understanding
of only a few, were yet of value to the world; and Charles
Dickens, whose writings were for the million, and who
needs not now any especial artistic examination, it being
sufficient to remember that, though his genius may of late
years have been upon the wane, enough excellence remained
to continue him in his honored position, at the head of all
living novelists. From French literature we notice the
loss of Prevost Paradlo, one of the soundest critics and
thinkers of the day; and Alexander Dumas, whose pecu-
liar genius none can question, however much some may
be disposed to object to the style or tendency of his writing.
Other nations have also sustained their losses in literature,
of course more to their injury than our own, since we are
generally so comparatively unfamiliar with the treasures of
most other languages; yet eventually our loss also, as the
process of translation and retranslation tends to make of
the culture of all people, one universal property in brother-
hood, and, to replace these losses, few men of especial
mark have made their appearance. Certainly, no great
genius has anywhere developed himself, making us aware
of his existence by one flash of brillaney ; while, if, in the
meantime, of those whom we already possess, there may
be some who, during the year, have been steadily climb-
ing into a more startling and enduring fame, their progress
has been so gradual, that, as yet, we do not recognize it;
and their increase of reputation has certainly not proved
sufficient to recompense us for those of whom from time
to time we have been so suddenly deprived.

If this balance of loss were only the accidental misfortune —
of one year, which could be recompensed to us during the

Report on General Literature. TT

next, we might not regard the matter with especial dis-
taste; but, on the contrary, it seems to be merely the cul-
mination of along course of literary degeneration or torpor.
Looking back for a few years in our own land, we can note
the simultaneous presence among us, of Prescott, Everett,
Cooper, Irving, Hawthorne and Poe, constellations of genius
shining side by side in the same plane, and with a lustre
which, at the time, we scarcely comprehended. These men
have all passed away and among our now living authors,
Longfellow, Holmes, Whittier, Lowell, Bryant and Street,
and others who rank as the most celebrated, had, in that
former day, so abundantly gained their laurels, as not to
be expected since to do more than maintain that early
fame. It needs only the most superficial glance, therefore,
to satisfy us, that the course of the last few years has done
little for the proper and continued development of our
literature. And in England, looking back in like manner
we recall Wilson and Sidney Smith, Brougham and
Macaulay, Dickens, Thackeray and the Brontes; and as
in America so now in England, such men as Carlyle,
Thirlwall, Grote, Bulwer and Charles Kingsley, who in the
company of those departed worthies gained their fame,
have since been almost altogether silent. With one or
two rare exceptions, mediocrity has been the rule, and
in place of lofty genius, we find merely the insufficiency of
magazinists.

Therefore it happens that the real work of the year in
the field of literary creation or culture has been of com-
paratively trivial value, and except that there has been
more activity in the scope of poetry, the whole record has
been one of discouragement. During the previous year,
Froude completed his great work, and since then, no his-
toric enterprise of kindred value has been commenced.
In the line of philosophy there has been little of startling
promise. In travel and exploration, we have the ordinary

78. Report on General Literature.

record of adventure throughout well known regions, but
little of material value in the way of discovery; though we
look forward with some expectation to the possibilities of
new Arctic journals, and with a flickering hope to the
slight chance of a future volume from Dr. Livingstone.
And in belle-lettres, Reade, Lever, Braddon, the Trollopes,
and others of the sensational school have been turning out
their productions in steady stream, as from a machinery
worked mill; neither better or worse than anything they
have heretofore done, and vainly striving to compete with
productions of a few years before, which now for want of
better material are still reread, and in default of proper
competition in the present era are beginning to be ranked
as classics. |

The effect of all this stagnation is seen in the book trade
itself, and we notice an increased disposition in publishers
to supply the cravings of the mind by the translation and
republication of foreign authors ; making us acquainted to
our gratification, with a few intellects of great power, but
otherwise gleaning for us from fields which, in a more
abundant harvest of our own, we would not have looked
at, and even now survey with little real relish or approbation.

But, inasmuch as there can hardly be abundant rubbish
without some grain of value being here and there found
lurking beneath its surface, so, in the great mass of cotem-
poraneous literature, even in a comparatively barren year
works of real merit will now and the nmake their appear-
ance ; and of a few of these we can make brief chronicle,
classing them, as far as possible, under their separate
departments.

In exploration and discovery, as we have already re-
marked, there has not been much produced that has the
value of novelty, or that at all passes out of the beaten
track. The press has teemed with ephemeral works of mere
personal adventure, which bring nothing especially worthy

Report on General Literature. 79

of the consideration of science or taste, and a large majority
of which have what little merit they possess clouded by
awkward details of individual pleasures and sufferings, or
by false and illogical criticisms in art. A volume, however,
to be distinguished from these, for pleasant style, agreeable
record of adventure and some novelty, was published a
little before the commencement of the year, and hardly
becoming well known until a few weeks afterwards, may
be looked upon as one of the works to be now considered.
I refer to Pumpelly’s Journey across the Continents of
_ America and Asia, containing a well written journal of
adventures that do not often fall to the lot of many men,
detailed in pleasant manner and carrying us into lands,
that, though not before unexplored, are yet so little known,
as not to be beyond reexploration. Ina scientific point of
view, moreover, the work is valuable, inasmuch as the au-
thor held a kind ofsemi official position under the Japanese
and Chinese governments for the examination and elabora-
tion of the working of their mines, and hence he is now
enabled to treat with authority upon a matter to which few
foreigners have ever been permitted to give more than astolen
and fugitive attention. |

Somewhat dissimilar to this volume, is the Recovery of
Jerusalem, a capacious and not altogether lively record of
exploration beneath the surface of the holy city and
its environs, the work being a detail of industry carried
on in one region and for one especial purpose. Illustrated
with maps and engravings, it exhibits satisfactory progress,
having identified some localities which were before obscure,
and having approximated without actual certainty, towards
the identification of others. The work is, perhaps, valuable,
not so much for explaining to us what has been done, as for
its indications of future progress, to be carried on with more
or less satisfactory result, in proportion as the public interest
is awakened and the means for further labor furnished.

80 Report on General Literature.

In poetry, we have of course been offered the annual
contributions from Tennyson, Lowell, Swinburne and a few
others; each volume being received with the customary
amount of fair or unfair criticisms, pronounced superior
or inferior to other works of the same author, as the humor
of the critic for the moment inclined, and as is usually
the case in poetry, the reputation of the authors themselves
being referred, in the end, to the verdict of the next genera-
tion, in order to determine, by the test of time, their proper
claims for immortality. Far exceeding the interest which
any of these contributions have called forth, however, is
that excited by the third and last portion of Morris’s Harthly |
Paradise, itself a thick closely printed volume, and there-
fore, in connection with the parts which have gone before,
forming a somewhat startling mass of poetry ; but warmly
welcomed by the verdict of many critics, who, having de-
voured those previous installments, have now eagerly given
their attention to this conclusion, and have thus bestowed
upon the whole work the unquestioned stamp of approval.
The volumes are mostly a metrical elaboration of classical
medieval legend, have been compared in scope and de-
sign to Chaucer, and are generally pronounced worthy to
rank with the foremost productions of the present age.

While treating upon the poetry of the year, mention
should not fail to be made of the last literary venture of
Bayard Taylor—a beautifully printed translation of Faust.
The critics have universally welcomed this production with
favor, though their present praise can hardly settle the
question of its merit as compared with other attempts of
the same kind. It must be reserved for time alone to re-
solve this problem. The translation has, doubtless, been
made with no expectation of superseding other and former
editions, but simply in deference to the almost universal
instinct, which commands poets, at some portion of their —
lives, to abandon originality and give themselves to the ©

Report on General Literature. 81

experiment of elaborating the beauties of the famous epics
of great poets of past ages, and, in obedience to which im-
pulse, Pope, Cowper and Bryant have given translations of
Homer, and Longfellow of Dante. This present rendering
of Faust, having been satisfactorily welcomed by the press,
will therefore doubtless do all for its author that he ever
anticipated, and also, as a magnificent specimen of book
making, will amply sustain the previous reputation of the
publishers ; and thus, after its day of praise it will take
its permanent place upon the shelves, and give way to other
translations which century after century will probably ap-
pear, some better and some worse, but none, of course,
able to usurp the whole field to itself.

In romance, one of the leading features of the year was
of course the Hdwin Drood of Dickens, always interest-
- ing as a fragment, fraught now in its incompleteness, with
a greater mystery than its -author ever intended, and seem-
ing to exhibit in its last sentences a sort of premonition of
his impending fate. After this, as perhaps the most ex-
citing event of the year comes D’Jsraeli’s Lothair, a strange
and hardly to be comprehended romance, full of some-
what absurd characters and situations, and impossible
developments of plot. Welcomed with interest as the
resurrection of a long obscured genius, and moreover, as
the work of an author who since his previous efforts, has
attained the greatest official distinction a citizen can gain,
the book has excited unusual attention, and has gone
through a most varied course of criticism, being at first
covered with universal praise, and afterwards, in many di-
rections, treated with ridicule. Indeed, so much of what is
high-strained and absurd is mingled with its real sparkle
of genius, that it could scarcely be expected critics would
not differ. The true conclusion, perhaps, lies in the fact
that the work, though occasionally brilliant, can hardly be
deemed one of great genius; but that the public in their

[ Trans. vit.] 11

82 . Report on General Literature.

warm anticipations of it, have made too much allowance
for the past reputation of the author, and too little for the
generation’s alteration of taste, and hence have willfully
deceived themselves. The book is probably not inferior
to any former one from the same pen, but, excepting in
- highly sensational circles, the desire for eccentric compli-
cations of plot and for morbid characteristics of dramatis
persone, has, ina great measure, passed away, and sim-
plicity of style and of delineation are more sought for; and
consequently, while we now c ndemn, we must not forget
that thirty years ago we would have as greatly applauded.

Our own land has also been awakened into some enthu-
siasm by the Califorma Sketches of Bret Harte; a little
work of great merit for its accurate delineations of frontier
and mining life; but in respect of which, it is to be feared
that the author, as in the preceding case of D’Israeli, may
ultimately suffer from the too precipitate praise of his
friends, subsiding by necessary reaction into indifference.
With unreasoning speed, the public, being pleased with
the genius herein displayed, have not paused to consider
that no one can ride into more than temporary fame upon
a series of short and fugitive articles; and that, however
excellent such sketches may be, they can only profitably
serve as an introduction to greater efforts. The true posi-
tion of Bret Harte in English literature can only be ascer-
tained when he has attempted some more ambitious task ;
and should he not choose to do so, it may reasonably be
feared that the fickle public will avenge itself, by neglect
of the author, for their own haste in giving him a prema-
ture immortality.

The field of art affords for us at least two striking little
works, Art Thoughts, by Jarvis, and Tuine’s Netherlands ;
both of them volumes replete with taste and culture,
though somewhat dissimilar in their scope. The former,
the work of an American author, deals more generally

Report on General Literature. 83

in discursive essays upon the principles of art, mingling
with it suggestions relating not merely to painting but also
to architecture, sculpture and landscape cultivation, and
referring to certain especial productions merely in illustra-
tion of the broad treatment of esthetic doctrine. The
latter, the work of a foreign author, deals, after the manner
of his former treatises upon Italy, more particularly with
the individual treasures of galleries, singling out here
and there, especial objects of art for examination or illus-
tration. Each work has been written with culture and
apparent fairness, has been amply criticised by those
maintaining diverse theories, and been pleasantly praised
in return by those holding similar ones, and with all its
approbation and blame, will live for years to come as a
valuable contribution to its peculiar domain.

The ample field of belle-lettres has given us various other
pleasant volumes, not generally of more than ephemeral
fame, and therefore scarcely to be here particularized,—
but which, as they will serve delightfully to wile away
leisure hours, are entitled to some rapid mention. Among
these may be recalled Society and Solitude, by Emerson ;
Among my Books, by Lowell: and Howell’s Suburban
Sketches. And with this casual survey, we pass to the do-
main of more weighty material, in which there now recur
to us three or four works of great value, each deserving
of especial mention.

First, we have the third part of Max Miiller’s Chips from
a German Workshop, partly biographical and partly philo-
logical, a valuable contribution to the literature of the day,
needing now no other reference than its title; and, with
the preceding volumes, the cause of a great awakening
in the study of language and race. Then comes the scho-
larly Juventus Mundi of Gladstone, a work which is so
recondite that it can scarcely be read except in the way
of deep study, and therefore can never become inyested

84 Report on General Literature.

with popularity ; but which, in its comprehensive history
of the limits and progress of past races, will always remain
a valuable source of reference, and by its production has
greatly added to the reputation of its author for deep and
accurate cultivation. And lastly, we have Darwin’s Descent
of Man, with St. George Mivart’s answer to it, in the
Genesis of Species. These last two treatises being pro-
fessedly of a scientific character, as such should find no
mention in this paper, but be left more properly to the re-
port of the scientific committee; but, inasmuch as they
are partially of a controversial character, and bid fair to
give rise to still more extended debate, they compose, in
some respects, a part of the general literature of the day,
and thereby may justly claim a fugitive mention.

And now, at length, in conclusion, we come to what
usually forms the larger portion of general literature,
the domain of history. There is never, in any year, a lack
of histories. The reputation to be acquired by a really
able historian is a great temptation to seek that branch of
literature ; and, when facts are already furnished to hand,
the task of shaping them may seem an easy one. Yet
there are few histories ever written which are of much
value; and the fact that Hume and Gibbon still hold their
places, shows how large and skillful a combination of
qualities is necessary for the attainment of success. That
only is a valuable history which either sets forth well
known facts in a pleasant and more agreeable style than
any which have gone before, or which searches diligently
into forgotten and hidden documents and thus brings fresh
truths to light, or which instructs the world by developing
new theories from facts already known.

Judged upon this platform, the past year has brought to
us three noticeable historical works. There is first the
History of Paraguay by Minister Washburn, a voluminous
and somewhat heavy work, too comprehensive in detai

Report on General Literature. - 85

and which could easily be compressed, with advantage, into
half its present bulk. In its published shape, it will pro-
bably be read by but few, and before many months, be
consigned to the upper shelves of libraries, there to rest
with Congressional Reports and Documents. But,inasmuch
as it treats upon a phase of history, which for a while will
‘probably enjoy no other such suitable commentator, and is
written partially from direct and personal observation,
and further, inasmuch as the struggle in Paraguay, though
now seeming comparatively of little importance to us, may
become more so, as our interests with that country are
hereafter better developed, the work cannot be held value-
less to the archives of our land. Secondly, we would refer
to a new and extended edition of Parkman’s Conspiracy
of Pontiac. Those who have made themselves acquainted
with the pleasant style of this painstaking author, will
admit that we are not giving the work too high a place, in
speaking of it as one of the prominent productions of the
year; and there can certainly be no dispute as to the
importance to our native land, in thus making timely
compilation of facts, which, for want of the necessary ar-
rangement, are already becoming somewhat traditional,
rather than historical, and, in time, would altogether fade
away from memory, were it not for the indefatigable ex-
ertions of a few such writers as the one of whom we are
now speaking. Lastly to be noticed comes a little foreign
work, Paris in 1851, by Tenot, published before 1870,
indeed, but only, in that year, given to us by suitable
translation. It is, in some respects, a singular volume.
The author, distinguished in the higher and more influen-
tial circles of the French press, has here given a complete
and exhaustive account of the great coup d’etat of Louis
Napoleon, exposing, both from official documents and
from the testimony of eye-witnesses, every step in the pro-
gress and culmination of that remarkable conspiracy,

86 Report on General Literature.

and laying bare, in all its deformity, the now unquestioned
iniquity of the scheme. To Americans, an additional in-
terest is given to the work, in watching the ingenuity with
which the author pleads and proves his case and yet evades
responsibility or arrest — giving, in all their nakedness,
the damning facts, and yet never assisting the conclusions
of the reader by any comment or hypothesis of his own —
and ina few places somewhat mystifying us as to the
nature of the subtle distinction which has often prompted
the suppression of facts and the subtitution therefor of
lines of innocent asterisks, while, in other portions, facts of
seemingly more dangerous character are boldly set forth.

In reviewing the published histories of the year, we can
hardly fail to be impressed with one circumstance— the
increasing disposition in historical writers to deal with
principles rather than with mere naked arrays of fact,
to look to the philosophy of history, rather than to any
bare skeleton of dry events. The time has been when the
whole history of a nation was considered amply told, as
long as a record was made of its battles and sieges ; but
now, the world wants something more than this, and calls
for a better insight into motives, conclusions and material
progress. It is beginning to be understood, at last, that
half of the dry details of events, which hitherto we learned
as one would learn a mathematical table, are only the mere
ceaseless pulse-beats in a nation’s life; and that the true
science of history consists in a cautious consideration of
the development of certain inner impulses of the national
mind, depending, often, upon problems of race and language
and leading to results of which siege and battle, instead of
being the controlling powers, are merely the outward
manifestations. In the matter ofthe late Franco-Prussian
war, this new method of history was abundantly expressed.
Correspondents of journals, it is true, furnished, as was
their duty and purpose, elaborate accounts of the actions

Report on General Literature. 87

they witnessed; but other writers, apart from the scene
of strife, discussed motives more than incidents, and to
the better satisfaction of their readers, spoke more about
the inner impulses and causes, which, acting upon the
popular mind of two great people, led to the conflict, rather
than about the conflict itself. It is to be expected, of
course, that when the whole contest shall have passed away
without danger of renewal, there will be some writers who,
after the manner of Alison, will gather up every fragment
of incident into abundant volumes; but the world will
accept these results rather as a necessary fund for reference,
than as material for patient reading. It will be felt that
he writes the truest history of the war, who, in a spirit of
philosophy, deals with the inner impulses that led to it,
rather than with the outward and visible matters of ag-
gravation; with the grand result, rather than with the
material steps that have led to that result; with the softly
guiding words of statesmen, rather than with the rush of
mailed soldiery; with the ethnological -and philological
guidings of the past, rather than with their mere necessary
and unavoidable sequences of the present.

The true writing of history must, indeed, for the future,
more and more be based upon this condition; for the
world begins to move too rapidly to allow longer this calm
survey and study of transitory events; many of which,
though attended by the utmost noise and turmoil, lead to
no real permanent or influential result. The old method
was all well enough in the days when an event like the
suppression of monasteries occupied a lifetime, or the im-
migration of a race required centuries. But in the later
times, when the one deed is determined in an hour, and
causes merely a passing item in a daily journal, and when,
with the aid of the united shipping of the world the
other event is accomplished in a year, a different study
of the earth’s history is demanded. Let us look, for instance,

88 Report on General Literature.

at the promineut events of merely the past ten years. In
warfare, there have been our own rebellion; the revolution
in Cuba; the overturn of an empire in Mexico; war
between Chili and Peru; a contest between Brazil and
the Argentine republic; the Abyssinian war; the re-
bellion of Crete; the wars of the Italian consolidation ;
the Spanish rebellion; the Schleswig-Holstein war; the
war of Prussia with Austria; the terrible Franco-Prussian
contest; and rebellions in China and Japan: in all,
fourteen wars and rebellions, many of them destructive to
an extent hardly known in former periods. In political
progress, there can be enumerated the abolition of slavery
in America; a reform bill in England; dynasties cast
out in France and Spain; a consolidation of Italy into one
state ; the consolidation and growth of the German power ;
the overturn of the temporal power of the Papacy; loss
of territory to Denmark, France and Austria; a loss of
influence of the papal see in France, Italy, Austria and
Spain ; and the extinction of serfdom in Russia. In ma-
terial advance we can mention, as merely the most salient
features, three lines of Atlantic telegraph; the completion
of submarine telegraphs to India and the West Indies;
new lines of ocean steamers on the Pacific; the Pacific rail
way; the completion of the Mount Cenis tunnel; and the
opening of the Suez canal, In discovery and invention, a
vast amount of improvement in all the arts and sciences,
and more particularly to be mentioned, the application of
spectrum analysis. These are vast events for only ten
years ; and there is no reason to suppose that future years
will show any less ratio of agitation or improvement. _
What, then, should be the manner of the history of the
future? There are mennow among us, who, having made
history a study, can give a fair synopsis of all important
events from the time of Christ. Hven an ordinary aca-
demic education, at present, brings to the scholar a tolera-—

Report on General Literature. 89

ble knowledge of the histories of England and France, with
a suitable running commentary of connection with the
days of Greece and Rome. But what human brain could
ever hope to master the history of nearly two thousand
years, if created with the profusion of incident that has
marked the past decade? It is therefore, almost an in-
stinct of what will soon become necessary, which impels
the popular mind more and more to demand principles
rather than mere dry detail of facts; to ask that questions
relating to material force should be put aside as much as
possible, and that in place of them, by comparison of lan-
guage and races, and by examination of the method and
results of past statesmanship, an acquaintance may be
formed with that inner soul of nationalities, which influ-
ences their destinies and enables them, in some degree, to
become far-seeing and provident as to their future.

There are those who fondly look forward to some coming
era in which wars shall cease, and all the world bein -
brotherhood and unity. The wish is probably father to
the thought, and the whole idea chimerical. But if it
ever should happen that the world abjures the sword, it
may be partially because, from the philosophic “labors of
the historian cultivating his field of thought upon this
newer and more enlarged principle, ideas of more practical
value than ever known before, will be evolved, throwing
into obscurity, as mere accessories, the now much sought
for honors of war, and thus taking away half the excite-
ment to military glory; teaching that statecraft is the
true career, and the labors of the statesman to be applauded
above those of the conqueror; and, by a proper compa-
rison of nations with each other, giving increased currency
to a systematic study of those customs and aspirations
which will most surely lead to national permanence and
prosperity.

[ Trans. vit.] 12

Nitro- Glycerine, as used in the Construction of the Hoosac
Tunnel. By Proressor Grorce M. Mowsray, of
North Adams, Mass.

[Read before the Albany Institute, Oct. 17, 1871.]

At the sixteenth anniversary of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, held at Southampton,
England, in the summer of 1846, much interest was ex-
cited by the exhibition and description, of Professor Schén-
bein’s gun cotton, which was then proposed as a substitute
for gunpowder. No information, however, was given at
that meeting, as to its real nature, or mode of preparation,
which were then kept perfectly secret ; nor were the mem-
bers allowed to examine it closely, lest they should get
some clue to the secret. Sir John Herschel remarked
of it: “It might in the next generation arm mankind
with the‘very wildest powers, by which they could tear up
rocks, and almost call down lightning.”

In the month of April, 1847, being six months after a
patent was granted, in conformity with the practice in
patent cases in England, the specification of the process
appeared: describing the invention as consisting in the
manufacture of explosive compounds applicable to mining
purposes and to projectiles, and as substitutes for gun-
powder, by treating and combining matters of vegetable
origin with nitric and sulphuric acids, preferring cotton.
This cotton is to be immersed in a mixture of one part
nitric acid, specific gravity 1.450 to 1.500, with three parts
sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.850, allowed to cool after
mixing to 50° or 60° F. After removing the cotton, press-

Nitro- Glycerine. 91

ing, and washing in a stream of water until the washings
do not indicate any acid reaction with litmus paper, the
cotton is then dippedin a weak solution of carbonate potash
and dried. It may again be dipped in a solution of nitrate
potash and again dried.

The patentee’s claim was: ‘‘ What I claim is the manu-
facture of explosive compounds from matters of vegetable
origin, by means of nitric acid, or nitric and sulphuric
acid.”

Such was the introduction of gun cotton, the parent
of nitro-glycerine, to the scientific and mercantile world.
Possessing the appearance of simple carded cotton, only
that it felt between the fingers, a little harsh or less silky
than cotton, a violent controversy arose, as to the form in
which the nitric acid was combined with the fibre. One
party insisted that the nitric acid, was mechanically con-
fined by capillary attraction in the interstices of the fibre,
alleging that the mind could not conceive an organic fibre
maintaining its form during a change of its elements, whilst
others, pointing to their analyses, energetically announced
(regarding cotton wool as lignine O12 Hio Oro, and gun
cotton C12 Ha Ns Oz2): “It is lignine in which three
atoms of water are replaced by three atoms of nitric acid.”
Walter Crum.

In 1847, Sobrero, then a chemical student under Pelouze,
entered into the investigation of these nitro compounds,
and pregared nitro-mannite, nitro-dextrin, nitro-glycerine,
and nitro-sugar; Svanberg prepared an analogous com-
pound from gum arabic.

Gun cotton alone of all these Aesvleersastarts seemed to
have entered into the commercial arena, for blasting pur-
poses and projectiles, until 1854 when, during the war be-
tween France and England against Russia, Prof. Jacobi
suggested its use, and endeavored to apply it to charge
the torpedoes laid down at Cronstadt.

92 Nitro- Glycerine.

In 1864, four Swedes, the Nobel brothers, and especially
Alfred Nobel, a mining engineer, suggested its application
for blasting in the railway cuttings and tunnels then in
progress and radiating from Copenhagen, and here its im-
mense power was satisfactorily proved. Hurrying to the
United States, he procured a patent, which was disposed
of to the U. 8. Blasting Oil Co., as glonoin oil, leaving it
to be inferred that it was the invention of Nobel, but this
assumption being discovered, the patent was surrendered,
and a reissued patent for its application to blasting pur-
poses, also a reissued patent for a peculiar method of
manufacture, were obtained. These two patents were sub-
sequently surrendered, and six reissues intended to cover
every point involving its use were granted to Nobel’s
assignees.

In every one of these patents, the discovery was claimed
and insisted upon, that it could only be exploded under
confinement, or pressure; and for this mode of exploding,
viz.: when subjected to confinement, the patents were
granted. In 1868, I succeeded in exploding it in an open
saucer, also in ten open tubes each immersed in water, but
open to the air, which were instantaneously exploded by
the concussion of the water, caused by the explosion of
fifteen grains of fulminate mercury in another tube con-
taining a teaspoonful of nitro-glycerine. -Asall these tubes
were surrounded by water, and the nitro-glycerine pro-
tected from heat by a layer of water, as well as by the glass
of the test tubes, this experiment enabled the public to use
nitro-glycerine without tribute to the company holding the
six reissued patents. Sobrero’s method of manufacturing
nitro-glycerine is the basis of all the modes of making.
And now I will state the circumstances which led me to
investigate the properties of this explosive.

It has been my custom, when disappointments, vexations
or failures to achieve success in some particular pursuit,

Nitro- Glycerine. 93

render distasteful my usual work, to turn to some chemical
investigation, with a resolution not to leave the subject
until the unknown point is made clear, the cause of some
peculiarity or striking effect is found out, and whilst the
mind becomes intent in this pursuit, the worldly trouble
diminishes to a speck, and from an apparently overwhelm-
ing disaster we come to regard our difficulties, first calmly,
then philosophically, and finally with amusement. When
the oil excitement of 1865 collapsed, and the excessive
values that had been demanded for land sunk to zero, I
drifted into that frame of mind I have referred to, and
determined to investigate the properties of nitro-glycerine.

In 1864, a box containing some bottles of this explo-
sive had been brought from Hamburgh by a German
who had been a guest at the Wyoming Hotel, and who,
disappointed in his first expectations of success in this
country, had run out of. funds, and left this baggage as
security for pay. It was under the counter of the hotel,
and was often pulled out to rest the foot upon, whilst the
- clerk or his friends would give an extra polish to their
boots. One Sunday morning, as this practice was re-
peated, it was noticed that red fumes were issuing from
the crevices of the box. This alarmed the parties present,
and the clerk taking it in his hand, threw it out of the
hotel upon the sidewalk. A terrible explosion followed ;
the hotel windows were smashed, the pavement torn up,
and the houses opposite had their windows shattered to
atoms. An investigation followed, and it was found that
this was glonoin oil — blasting oil.

Shortly afterwards came the news from Panama, that
the steamship European, W. I. mail packet, having a cargo
worth $250,000, had been blown to pieces, and forty-seven
lives lost. Then followed the explosionin Wells & Fargo’s
express office, in San Francisco. A case, marked glonoin
oil, was found to be giving off vapors. A medical man, Dr.

94 ' Nitro- Glycerine.

Hill was passing on horseback; one of the express agents
called to him; he dismounted, and the agent asked him to
just step in, and inform them, if he could, what this case
marked glonoin oil was, and advise them what to do with it.
Addressing a bystander, and requesting him to walk his
horse up and down the block as he was restive and would
not stand, he entered the building. Hardly had the man
in charge of the horse crossed California street proceeding
from Wells & Fargo’s office in Montgomery street, when a
terrible explosion occurred, shattering the granite building
and blowing to fragments eight persons.

Being in that mood which I have described, I deter-
mined for my recreation, and to recuperate from the vicissi-
tudes of the oil business, to investigate the properties of
this explosive, which I had, by that time, found was
nitro-glycerine.

Regarding the laws of nature as fixed and unchangeable,
and further regarding what in common parlance is termed
“an accident,” as simply a disregard of the laws of force
or natural laws, in fact, their violation, I applied myself -
to a close examination of the phenomena attending the
preparation of nitro-glycerine, with the very reasonable
expectation of discovering the cause or causes which
suddenly liberate, after months of inactivity, the gases into
which nitro-glycerine is converted, and, as it would seem
to the cursory observer, without apparent cause. First,
I set about discovering the causes which led to these
unexpected explosions, and thereafter to discover the sim-
plest mode possible of rendering this explosive, when so
desired, absolutely incapable of exploding under ordinary
conditions of transportation, handling, etc., and yet, rapidly
and economically returning it, when required for use, into
the condition of being readily exploded without danger,
or possibility of failure. In this attempt, I have been, asI
trust to convince you, completely successful.

Nitro- Glycerine. 95

And first, I will briefly describe the mode of preparation.
Having prepared a mixture of nitric acid, specific gravity
1.500, three parts, with sulphuric acid, specific gravity 1.840,
six parts, we gradually introduce glycerine one part, whose
specific gravity is 1.250, taking care that the temperature does
not exceed at anytime 60°. <A great deal of heat is evolved,
which is very apt to get the upper hand, and then the pro-
duct will contain oxalic acid, at the expense of the nitro-
glycerine which is sought. Moreover, it is difficult to
entirely deprive the nitro-glycerine when made, of the ni-
trous fumes (deutoxide of nitrogen) dissolved in it, by
washing. Availing myself of the well-known fact that
this gas, after being mixed with air, is less soluble than
in the nascent state, I contrived to agitate the mixture of
glycerine with the acids, by introducing a stream of cold
air pending the whole operation. I found this the least
dangerous mode of stirring, and by passing the air through
pipes surrounded with ice, succeeded in commanding the
temperature; that is, the heat developed by the chemical
reaction was absorbed by the ice-cold air. These fumes,
which in all the imported nitro-glycerine, and indeed in all
the nitro-glycerine I have ever seen made by any other
process, contaminate the product, and involve subsequent:
spontaneous decomposition, are, by the use of the stream
of ice-cold air, partly reconverted into nitric acid, and being
rendered less soluble by admixture with the air, the fumes
not reconverted are driven out of the acid mixture. Sub-
sequent washing with a still more powerful current of
air, so as to render the mixture of precipitated nitro-
glycerine and water a frothy emulsion, effectually removes
the last trace of these fumes, and thus the source of
subsequent spontaneous decomposition, terminating in
spontaneous explosion, is impossible. Mixed with the
water, however, there will be particles of organic matter,
and the nitro-glycerine will retain these, forming a

96 Nitro- Glycerine.

scum, which, floating on the nitro-glycerine, is seen as a
precipitate beneath the supernatant water. The nitro-
glycerine is therefore now placed in six gallon stone jars, and
these are immersed in a large tank of water, maintained ~
at a uniform temperature of 60° to 70° for several days;
the scum as it forms, and the sedimentary particles of
vegetable matter lying on the surface of the explosive,
but beneath the supernatant water, are removed, and the
explosive is now poured into parafiine-lined metallic vessels,
and crystallized by exposing to a temperature of 32° F.
This last process of crystallization separates a reddish un-
crystallizable liquid, dangerously explosive, every fifty-six
pounds of nitro-glycerine giving about three-quarters of an
ounce of thisimpurity, which is carefully drained off. If the
acids used be of full strength, and free from chlorine, etc.,if .
the glycerine used be free from impurity, the resulting pro-
ductis a nearly colorless, and very difficult to explode, nitro-
glycerine, which on analysis will be found to contain three
atoms of Nz O4, and hence I have distinguished it by the
term tri-nitro-glycerine. Such nitro-glycerine, I have ex-
posed for three years in an open shed, to sun, frost, snow,
without atrace of change. It is really difficult to explode.
A charge of powder will not explode it unless very closely
confined, and not always under those conditions. Car-
tridges have been filled with it, and hurled from a height
of sixty feet upon broken rocks, again and again, until the
cartridges are broken up, without exploding. I have
referred to our finally storing our nitro-glycerine in the con-
gealed state. Now all the books, especially German, de-
scribe nitro-glycerine when in the crystallized or congealed
state, as liable to explosion, by the slightest jar, or even
the scratch of a pin. In the winter of 1868-9, Wm. P.
Granger, Esq., then engineerin charge of the Hoosac tun-
nel, was desirous of blasting out the accumulated mass of ©
ice which had utterly closed up the race leading from the

Nitro-Glycerine. 97

Deerfield dam to the turbine wheels which drove the com-
pressors at the east end, and requested me to prepare for
him some twenty cartridges of nitro-glycerine for that pur-
pose. Dreading congealed nitro-glycerine, I warmed the
liquid to 90° before charging the cartridges, which were of
tin, wrapped them in several folds of warmed paper, and
packing them in sawdust warmed also to 90°, bound the case
containing them to the back of his cutter, and bade him
and his load God speed. He had a journey of nine miles
to travel, thermometer 9° F., over the deep snow-drifts on
the divide of the Hoosac mountain, seventeen hundred
feet to ascend, and the same number of feet to descend,
ere he reached his destination, Gliding over the slippery
snow, jarring along the bare wind-swept-portions of the
. road, now and then jolting against the nigger head boulders ©
partially hidden by the snow-fall, with thirty pounds of
nitro-glycerine to back him, in about an hour’s time from
starting, he reached the hill-looking down on the valley
of the divide. A house by the side of the road was snowed
in to the windows of the second story, serving as a datum
line to estimate the depth of snow over which his course
lay. Deviating to the left so as to encircle this basin, and
encouraging his mare Snowdrop, he had compassed the
quadrant of a circle, and was trending towards the snow-
surrounded house, when afew plunges of the mare, a strug-
gle to regain upper ground, over went the cutter, the case
of cartridges became free, and as the lid of the box had
not been nailed to avoid jarring, the contents were dis-
tributed rapidly over the snow. ‘To quiet the mare, re-ar-
range the harness, set the cutter right side up, and replace
the robes, was the first task; now then for the freight.
“‘ How about those cartridges, I wonder if the contents are
congealing?” They were collected, placed inthe box, and,
before covering up with the buffalo robe, examined.

Each cartridge, on removing its cork, was found to resem-
[ Trans. vii.] 13

98 Nitro- Glycerine.

ble a paraffine candle, solid and crystallized. Musing, ©
“Tf I leave these cartridges here, till summer thaws them,
some one’s curiosity will bring about an explosion; if the
hands at the east end, waiting my arrivak with this nitro-
glycerine, find out that I durst not bring it through, good
- bye to the use of nitro-glycerine in the Hoosac tunnel.
Here goes, steady Snowdrop, the premium on our accident
policy has risen since we started.”

Mr. Granger arrived at the east end, after an anxious
sleigh ride, and proceeded forthwith to insert a cartridge
of the frozen nitro-glycerine into the hole prepared to
receive it, made with a crowbar in the solid ice, affixing
the usual fulminating exploder and tape fuse to fire it,
and all parties removing to a safe distance to witness the
result. A sharp rifle crack, some smoke, but no explosion ~
of the solidified nitro-glycerine. Another fulminating cap,
and, in addition, some gunpowder and gun cotton were
placed to fill up the cartridge and the tape fuse fired.
Again the nitro-glycerine had not exploded, but the copper
cap had been driven into the solid nitro-glycerine which
in its turn had been driven through the cartridge, and
was seen embedded in the anchor ice below, or at the bot-
tom ofthe race. Surprised and confounded at these unex-
pected results, the next cartridge was immersed in warm
water until the nitro-glycerine became a fluid, an exploding
cap with tape fuse inserted and the fuse fired. The explo-
sion was terrific, and the solid candle or cylinder, judging
from the cavity scooped in the bottom of the race, had
evidently been fired also.

I have been a little prolix in describing this matter, but
it has been so valuable a lesson in its results to me, that
I trust you will excuse it. For by the lesson inculcated
by the above events, I have been able to transport from
time to time over the roughest roads some one hundred
and sixty thousand pounds of tri-nitro-glycerine. Thus I

Nitro- Glycerine. 99

have laid before you, as I set out to do, two points: 1st. That
the spontaneous decomposition of nitro-glycerine is a result
of imperfect manufacture, leaving it partially impregnated
with nitrous fumes, or as I shall presently explain, some
impurity in the ingredients used.

The second point is: That chemically pure tri-nitro-
glycerine may be transported, handled, or exposed to the
very roughest usage, when in a perfectly (not partially)
congealed state. The next lesson learnt with nitro-glyce -
rine, and which cost me $3,000 for the experiment, culmi-
nated on the 12th day of March, 1871. Ten days previously,
my superintendent of the works, accompanied by the
superintendent of blasting operations, came to me anxious
and troubled, saying: ‘ We find on testing the last week’s
manufacture (some two thousand pounds), that it will not
explode: here is a sample.” Seeing their grave faces, I
replied: “Iam heartily glad to hear this news: I have
been searching these five years past for a process to manu-
facture a nitro-glycerine, absolutely incapable of explosion,
and if you have blundered on it, accidentally, you have
made a point.” Taking the sample they had brought with
them (it was a raw, cold, sleety day, in the latter part of
February), I found a lemon-tinted granular (like crystal-
lized honey), semi-solid matter. I dissolved it in sulphuric
acid conc., added nitric acid until separation ensued, and
poured the contents into abundance of water. Presently
the nitro-glycerine separated, and on collecting some on
blotting paper it exploded very readily. I next took
another specimen, dissolved it in wood naptha, threw the
solution into water, and the nitro-glycerine, which sepa-
rated, was very readily exploded.

An examination of the materials used was then insti-
tuted, and the glycerine we had used was found to contain
some 4 per cent of a fatty !! acid. Now herewe were with
two thousand pounds of nitro-glyceri.e absolutely non-ex-

100 Nitro- Glycerine.

plosive, and with properties, besides, of which we had little
or no knowledge. Obviously we must proceed with extra-
ordinary caution. By very gradually warming a mass of
sixty pounds, we found it was nitro-glycerine in combina-
tion with 20 per cent of water, and that this combined water
could be separated, and then it was at least merchantable.
But did it possess positively the blasting force of our usual
make ?. Inthe experiments we undertook to ascertain this
point, we discovered thatit was readily and easily exploded,
and it became a question whether it would not be advisable
to destroy it all, rather than introduce it for use, or sell it
to our customers. We finally ascertained, that by mixing
it with three times its volume ofour usual tri-nitro-glycerine,
this sensitiveness to a blow or shock, was removed.

We then set about gradually warming it, to separate
the water, in a room heated by steam. On Saturday eve-
ning of March 11th, 1871, the watchman who has charge
of the works and magazines at night (the works had been
suspended during the week, owing to my absence at Wash-
ington), thought he would make up the fire under the steam-
boiler some 800 feet distant from the magazine and go to
bed. Hedidso. It was warm, close weather, and on Sun-
day morning at 64 o’clock, the neighborhood for two miles
around was startled by a terrible explosion. Highteen
hundred pounds of this non-explosive (?) nitro-glycerine
had gone off, and twelve tins filled with congealed nitro-
glycerine, in an adjoining shed, amounting to 672 ibs., had
been blown, part of it to some distance, but most of it buried
in the mass of earth, splinters of joists, debris of stones, etc.,
caused by the explosion. Although the containing tins,
as you will perceive by this photograph, are corrugated,
contorted, and perforated, not a particle of the tri-nitro-
glycerine had exploded, nor was any one injured. Thus
were we relieved of dangerous company and $3,000, a
moderate price for the benefit conferred. For, thereafter,

Nitro- Glycerine. 101

we knew that the lesson learnt by Granger in his sleigh-
ride was confirmed, and our teamsters, magazine guards,
and customers, could rest assured that if they would keep
their nitro-glycerine in store, well iced, explosion would be
impossible.

Paraphrasing the language of Professor Tyndall, in his
‘preface to Hours of Exercise in the Alps: * For rashness,
ignorance, or carelessness, nitro-glycerine leaves no margin ;
and to rashness, ignorance, or carelessness, three-fourths of
_the catastrophes which shock us, are to be traced.”

Properties. — Chemically pure tri-nitro-glycerine be-
comes solid at 45° F. Nobel states 55° F., but that is an
error. Shaffner, in a patent for nitro-glycerine-charged
shells, provides for the nitro-glycerine expanding in congeal-
ing;; ifso, it possesses different properties from what we make,
for tri-nitro-glycerine shrinks about one-twelfth its bulk in
passing from the fluid state at 70° to the congealed state
it assumes when exposed to ice and salt. The solid state,
moreover, we regard as the safest, for the reasons given,
and the printed statements in German works, Count Rud-
_ berg’s assertion, for instance, to the contrary, are erroneous.
The temperature at which the acids and glycerine combine
(as may be inferred from the action of these acids on an
organic matter, glycerine), varies the product, so that if a
certain temperature be exceeded, complex products are pro-
duced, which change the resulting product of nitro-glycerine
very seriously, and, what is desirable to notice, influence and
tend to subsequent spontaneous decomposition.

As regards the efforts of inventors to render nitro-gly-
cerine safe by mixing it with inert matters, I think they
have not looked to the purity of the nitro-glycerine they
have attempted to make, and finding what they have made
liable and ready to decompose, instead of tracing it to its
true cause, careless preparation, have tinkered to cure a
disease that greater care would have prevented, and so

102 Nitro- Glycerine.

find it necessary to mix their yellow, acid, fuming and de-
composing products, with sand, rotten stone, sawdust, gun-
powder, plaster paris, red lead, ete., and for each mixture
exercising their inventive powers in fanciful names, as giant
powder, dynamite, dualin, lithofracteur, selenitic powder,
metalline, etc., whose value may be inferred from the in-
ventors and salesmen’s assertions, that these compounds
are stronger than pure nitro-glycerine, as if a part could
be greater than the whole.

There is an element of force in blasting, which has not
been sufficiently investigated. Powder burns from particle
to particle; fluid nitro-glycerine in its pure state, when it
receives the shock on its surface instantaneously transmits
it throughout its whole mass; and indeed the shock of an
explosion of nitro-glycerine, separated by a layer of ten
feet of water, will fire another charge of nitro-glycerine, so
that the two explosions cannot be distinguished by the ear.
The explosion of the whole mass of nitro-glycerine, is
therefore, in each atom, simultaneous. Another element
of force has been overlooked, the force of the initial ex-
plosion, which starts these nitro-compounds into gaseous
matter. Professor Abel, of the Woolwich Arsenal, twenty-
four years after the invention of gun cotton, discovered
and illustrated this fact, a fact which I had to provide for
when warned that two out of every five attempts to explode
nitro-glycerine on the Baltimore and Ohio R. R., were
failures. To ensure certainty of. explosion of a charge of
any of these nitro-compounds, so that they may develop
their utmost force, or, in other words, be converted into gase-
ous form in the least possible atom of time, a very violent and
sudden initial force must be started on them; thus a cable
of gun cotton turned round a post of 8 in. diameter, and
fired by a match, will not destroy the post, but if a copper
cap containing 85 grains of fulminate mercury be enclosed
in the core of such a gun cotton cable, and fired by elec-

Nitro- Glycerine. 103

tricity, the 8 in. post will be blown to splinters, with a
force, says Prof. Abel, almost, if not quite equal, to that ex-
erted by an explosion of nitro-glycerine. The senses are
unable to measure these velocities of explosion, and yet,
the effective force of a blasting material is, ceteris paribus, in
direct proportion to the rapidity of conversion of the solid or fluid
into a given quantity of gaseous matter.

The exploders which I introduced for blasting at the
Hoosac tunnel consist essentially of a priming compound
capable of being fired by the electric spark, surmounted by
a cap containing fifteen grains of fulminate mercury. The
two points (terminals) of the conducting and return
wires, are so arranged as to have the priming compound
secured between them. On the spark passing, the priming
explodes, firing the fulminate, whose powerful explosion
again fires the nitro-glycerine. On this fuse priming much
depends, for if out of twenty cartridges, two or three should
fail to explode, there is impatience among the miners at
delay, and indeed, as has sometimes happened, a charged
cartridge may be found amongst the shattered rock.

Failure to secure a safe priming has led some manufac-
turers to make this priming according to a patent of Jacob
Dowse, by mixing fulminate of mercury still moist with
precipitated copper, thus forming a fulminate of copper,
which is so sensitive to electricity that in a room where
machinery is running, or a boiler throwing out steam, the
electricity set free is sufficient to discharge them. LEspe-
cially during a thunder stormis this spontaneous explosion
likely to occur.

To hit the intermediate point, of always firing by means
of a spark of electricity, and never to fire by the free, ra-
diant or induced electricity of the atmosphere, was a long,
tedious and indeed many months’ occupation. It was
finally attained by using sulphide copper, phosphide cop-
per with 35 per cent of chlorate potash, and was the discovery

104 Nitro- Glycerine,

of Professor Abel above quoted., Only a distinct spark
will fire this composition, and induced atmospheric electri-
city is incapable of causing a premature explosion in the
fuses charged with it.

Eleven lives have been sacrificed by the use of the cot-
ton-covered wire and sensitive fulminate copper compound,
and the consumers ofthese articles are becoming alive to the
necessity of using an insulation to their conducting and
exploding wires capable of retaining the intense electri-
city which, leaping between two points, is shown as aspark.

Toconyey an idea of the explosive force of nitro-glycerine,
I willjust state the average quantity per cubic yard used at
Erie harbor for the Philadelphia and Erie R. R, Co.,
who found it much cheaper to remove the rock so as to
form a channel for ships to lay at their wharves, than to
form cribs and dump in filling, to reach out to the depth
of water required, viz: fourteen feet. The engineer in charge
reports one ounce and six-tenths of an ounce for each cubic
yard of rock blasted out, in such condition as to dredge
like gravel. But there are qualities of nitro-glycerine very
different from this, for at Coenties reef the government
officers have been using sixty ounces per cubic yard, or
nearly forty times the above quantity used at Erie harbor.

The fact is, nitro-glycerine emulsion, that is, an impure
or imperfectly converted nitro-glycerine, which contains 10
per cent of water surrounding each atom of nitro-glycerine
and interfering with its instantaneous blasting force, is
little if any better than gunpowder, and only a transparent
homogeneous compound will be found to give the best at-
tainable results. Few conceive the amazing difference of
explosives, nominally the same, really differing but little,
but when the facts are remembered, that colorless trans-
parent tri-nitro-glycerine is increased. in volume 13,400
times, water 1,750 times and powder 2,000 times in con-
version into vapor; that nitro-glycerine is converted with —

Nitro- Glycerine. | 105

a rapidity almost equal to that at which light travels ; that
a powder train you can beat by walking, and water con-
verted into steam requires five and one-half times the heat
that it requires to raise it to 212°, we can form an approxi-
mative idea of explosions. Surround or case every atom of
nitro-glycerine with a film of water, and the interference
of this water with its explosive force will be obvious.
Unfortunately, humanity, after making nitro-glycerine,
is a little afraid of it, and therefore desires to get pay for
it as soon as possible after it is made; to tamper with it by
a refining or purifying process, so as to give the consumer
its best effects, is more than a mercantile mind can venture
upon, whatever the chemist’s curiosity or conscientious-
ness may risk; and as the purchaser never ventures nearer
to this or any of these explosives than the law allows, it will
be a long time before this the most powerful, and the safest
explosive, besides immeasurably the most economical
explosive known, attains its proper position in general esti-
mation; and until the press distinguishes between the
rashness, ignorance or carelessness of those entrusted with
it, and the material itself, which the audience Iam address-
ing knows full well will always obey the laws of nature, how-
ever man in his ignorance may violate them; I say, until
this discrimination between man’s ignorance and nature’s
fixed laws is recognized, nitro-glycerine must be content
to stand at the head of sensational paragraphs between the
prefix “another,” and the affix “accident,” a deeply
aggrieved and insulted power that requires simply intelli-
gent direction to secure the results of its enormous force,
in lightening and lessening the labors of the human race.

[ Trans. vii.] 14

The. Palatine Emigration to England, in 1709. By
Henry A. Homus, A. M.

[Read before the Institute, Oct. 4, 1870.]

The early settlement in several counties in this state of Ger-
mans, whom we distinguish historically as Palatines, and the
simultaneousness of their arrival here by thousands, in 1710,
as almost the pioneers of German emigration, are circum-
stances which lead me to believe that the history of their
emigration in England, will be a subject of some interest
to the Institute. The history of these Palatines as previ-
ously given in American local histories has been confined
to their residence in this country. In adding the history
of their coming to and of their residence in England, there
is much which is but partially explained in the narrative I
am able to give, and probably the mystery which hangs over
the event will never be entirely lifted.

In the months of May and June, 1709, an unprecedented
event occurred in London; the people of the city and of
England were astonished to learn that there were encamped
under tents in the suburbs ofthe city, five thousand men,
women and children from the Palatinate of the Rhine, and
otherGermanprovinces. InJuly and August theirnumber
was increased to ten thousand, and in October, to thirteen
thousand.

The men composing these bands of emigrants, were about
two-thirds of them husbandmen, and the remainder, of city
trades, with a proportion of school masters and clergymen.
They were chiefly Lutherans and Calvinists, with some
Catholics ; and probably some Dunkards and Mennonists.

The Palatine Emigration. 107

In the representations authoritatively made in their be-
half, it was stated that they had emigrated to England on
account of persecution in their own land, and especially
owing to oppression from the French, whereby 2,000 of
their villages had been burned to the ground, and they had
been driven into the fields, deprived of all shelter.

The period of the emigration was in the later years of
Queen Anne’s and Louis Fourteenth’s reigns. The region
from which the emigrants came, extended from Landau,
Spire and Mannheim on the Rhine to near Cologne, though
there were many from Swabiaor Wurtemberg. The larger
part of the district was politically distinguished as the Pala-
tinate of the Lower Rhine, or absolutely, the Palatinate, no
other one having that distinction. Itsprince, atthe present
time, 1690 to 1716, was the elector, John William of the
house of Newburg, who had become a Roman Catholic,
though a large portion of his subjects were Lutherans or
Calvinists.

England, in alliance with Holland and Germany, was en-
gaged in war with France, on the question of the succession
of the Arch-duke Charles to the throne of Spain, and also
in consequence of the support given by France to the pre-
tender. The world has rarely seen such devastation and
massacre as had been executed by the French in the Pala-
tinate, in 1689, and in 1692. Although during the past
ten years there had been no such marked instances of
cruelty by the French towards their enemies, yet their
armies were frequently traversing thé territory of the Pala-
tinate, and for a long period, the people had seen more of
war than of peace. The spirit which had led to the revo-
cation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, twenty-four years
previous, and which had been the occasion of the emigra-
tion of seven hundred thousand Frenchmen to Germany,
Holland and England, was experienced in a measure by
these Germans. Their prince, a Catholic, on religious

108 The Palatine Emigration.

grounds did treat them with intolerance unquestionably, .
but it was not more harsh or severe than millions have
submitted to without expatriating themselves.

Although it must be admitted that they emigrated to
better their condition and to secure religious and political
freedom, yet there is no record which I have met with of
any especial persecution at this time. The allegations of
persecution in the memorials in their behalf circulated in
England, referred to occurrences twenty and more years
previous. It is therefore a surprising event that thirteen
thousand should ¢ome in a single summer to one country
where next to none had previously emigrated, and should
neglect neighboring countries, similar in faith and language
that were ready to receive them. This emigration of 1709
does not appear to have been succeeded for many following
years by any emigration of Germans equal to it in extent.

In searching for the causes of this simultaneous move-
ment, if we cannot assign unbearable persecution as the
immediate occasion of the emigration, neither can we refer
it to the famine which prevailed this year in France and
some parts of Germany: for the plan for emigration must
have been commenced and carried out chiefly before there
could have been any experience of scarcity.

Having perused all the contemporaneous documents to
which we could have access, we regard the flattering
suggestions made to the Palatines in their own country, by
the agents of land companies, who wished to secure
settlers for lands in the British colonies in America, and
thus give value to their lands, as the immediate occasion of
the movement. These agents could not fail to avail them-
selves of pictures of a brilliant contrast between freedom
and prosperity in the plantations, and the poverty, desola-
tion and oppression of their native land.

The emigrants seemed to have a purpose or hope on
their arrival in England, to proceed either to the Carolinas

Phe Palatine Emigration. 109

or Pennsylvania as their future home. In regard to Penn-
sylvania they had been for a long time well disposed, by
the visits of William Penn himself to Germany, to the
Princess Elizabeth of Bohemia, to Anna Maria Schurman,
to the Labadists and other pietists in 1677. There were
also many Quakers in Germany and Holland. In suc-
ceeding years Penn had caused emigration circulars to be
distributed in Germany. Pastorius, the founder of Ger-
mantown in 1683, had published such a circular, copies of
which still exist. Of course he invokes the character of |
Penn as a motive to settle there. One writer declares that
he had seen such a circular which had been printed at
Frankfort in this very year 1709.

A. stimulus had been applied to give the greatest acti-
vity to the operations of these agents, by the success of
two bands of Palatines amounting to fifty-three persons
who had reached England in 1708. When their pastor,
Rey. J. De Kockerthal, a Lutheran minister, applied di-
rectly to the queen for relief, although she had previously
written to the diplomatic agents abroad that she could by
no means consent to spend the public money and encourage
the elector Palatine’s subjects to leave their country with-
out his consent, yet on their proven poverty, they were
subsisted fora shilling a day at the public expense, and
were finally sent to New York with the new governor,
Lord Lovelace. These were the Palatines who first settled
at Newburgh, although some of them afterwards removed
' west of Albany.

Reference has been made by some to a proclamation of
the queen in their behalf favoring emigration this same
year, of the existence of which I can obtain no evidence,
and think that the act by which they were made denizens
of the kingdom must have been confounded with it.

Another cause alleged as the occasion of this emigration,
was the enactment by parliament of a law for a general

110 The Palatine Emigration.

naturalization of Protestant foreigners, immigrating to and
residing in the kingdom, provided they would take the
oaths and commune in the church of England. The mea-
sure had for thirty years been largely discussed in news-
papers and pamphlets; the larger proportion of Protestant
emigrants from Catholic states that had settled in Holland
and Germany rather than in England, had shown the
government the importance of adopting some measure
to turn the tide in favor of England. The act was passed
in March of thissame year." And Mortimer and Anderson
say: ‘* In consequence of the naturalization act, there came
over in May, 7,000 of the poor Palatines and Swabians, who
had been utterly ruined and driven from their habitations
by the French.” Although the passage of the law is thus
alleged to have been the cause of this year’s emigration, it
apparently was too nearly simultaneous with it, to have
operated to any great extent asthe motive. However,
Holland only two months after, engaged in measures for
naturalizing French and other refugees, so as to retain
them in her territory, leading one to think that the emi-
gration to England was understood in Holland to be in
consequence of the new naturalization law. On the 24th
of June, the states-general made a general proclamation
for the naturalization of Protestant refugees, who should
register their names in a manner prescribed.

Steele, in the Zatler, two months after the English law
was passed, says: ‘ Our late act of naturalization hath had
so great effect in foreign parts, that some princes have
prohibited the French refugees in their dominions to sell or
transfer their estates to any other of their subjects: and
at the same time have granted them greater immunities
than they hitherto enjoyed.” ?

? Hewatt’s North Carolina. ® Tatler, No. 18, May, 1709.

The Palatine Emigration. 111

Luttrell in his Diary observes “1709, April 28. Fo-
reign letters advise, that the Elector Palatine, upon many
Protestant families leaving his dominions, and gone for
England to be transported to Pennsylvania, has published
an order making it death and confiscation of goods, for —
any of his subjects to quit their native countries.”

Although the direct proofs may be wanting, there is a
fair presumption that the parties, who urged and were
successful in securing the passage of this law, were inti-
mately connected with companies and individuals who
were proprietors of land in America, and that they had
stimulated a movement by their agents, which, very readily
was embraced by an oppressed people, who flattered them-
selves that the British government had engaged to provide
for them. The lords-proprietors of Carolina seem to
have been remarkably ready on the arrival of the first
thousands in June, 1709, to publish in the Gazette an offer
to give every one of those Palatines a thousand acres of
land, on a pepper-corn rent, though they demanded that
the government should pay £8 for every adult’s transporta-
tion, and £4 for every child.’

Bishop Burnet observes: ‘‘ Some of our merchants, who
were concerned in the plantations, and knew the advantage
of bringing over great numbers to people those desert
countries, encouraged them with the promise of lands and
settlementsthere. This being printed and spread through
those parts, they came to Holland in great bodies; the Ana-
baptists there were particularly helpful to them, both in
subsisting those in Holland and in transporting them to
England.” ?

Mortimer, in his History of England, adds: ‘‘ It was never
known who encouraged them to this emigration. Certain
it is, there was no settled or concerted plan for their

* State of the Palatines, p. 12. 2 Burnet’s Own Time.

112 The Palatine Emigration.

establishment anywhere....... Upon the whole it was an ill-
conducted, though it might be a well meant affair.”

Of the actual history of their coming to England in this

extraordinary manner, we derive more information from
a report made to the house of commons in 1711 than
from any one source. This committee was appointed to
“enquire upon what invitation or encouragement the
Palatines came over and what moneys were expended in
bringing them into Great Britain, and for maintaining
them here, and by whom paid.” We blend the information
derived, from the report, with the statements of historians
and other documents into as complete a narrative as possi-
ble.

The committee appointed to make this report consisted
of sixty-nine members of the house. The ministry and
the house were alike Tory, and the object of stirring up
the matter more than a year after the departure of most of
the Palatines, was in view of the fact that the coming of
the Palatines having so much displeased the people, they
hoped to exaggerate existing prejudices against the late
whig ministry. A petition had been presented from the
parish of St. Olave’s in Southwark, Surrey, London, and
from other parishes, complaining of the return of many
Palatines to that parish who were paupers, and increasing
the poor rates and from the existence of contagious diseases
among them they were liable to spread a pestilence. This
petition both Tindal and Smollett allege was got up as a
pretext, by the Tories, that it might be a basis for an
attack on the Whigs.

The queen’s government was in consequence requested
by the house to have sent to that body all orders and
papers relating to the bringing over and subsisting the
said Palatines. Accordingly on five different days in
January, 1711, the Officers of the departments having in
charge such papers, appeared at the bar of the house, and

The Palatine Emigration. 113

delivered them; and on the 24th of February the com-
mittee made the report in question.'. On the 14th day of
April, 1711, the commons proceeded to take into consi-
deration the report from the committee on the petition of
the parish of St. Olaves.

The substance of the report was that it appeared from

testimony and documents, and from examination of many

of the Palatines, that the motives which induced them to
leave their native country were books and papers dispersed
among them, with the queen’s picture before the books
and the title page in letters of gold, to encourage them to
come to England in order to be sent to Carolina or other
her majesty’s plantations, to be settled there.

In 1709, great numbers of them came down the Rhine
to Rotterdam ; upon their first arrival there they were sub-
sisted by the charity of Rotterdam, but afterwards at the
queen’s expense, and transports and other ships were pro-
vided at her majesty’s charge to bring them to England ;
and all sorts of necessaries. As by June, 1709, the number
had reached over ten thousand, Mr. Secretary Boyle sent
orders to hinder any more being sent, till those already
come should have been provided for and dispersed, with
due care for their future maintenance, so that the success
of the whole matter might happen thereby to be disap-
pointed. And accordingly advertisements were published
in the Dutch Gazettes that no more of them should be trans-
ported for England.

Still, after this, Mr. Dayrolle, her majesty’s secretary at
the Hague, sent near three thousand ; and others were em-
barked and provided with necessaries by the people of
Rotterdam, the magistrates of that town not suffering them
to come into it; by which means they were reduced to
great misery.

? Journals of House of Commons, 1711.
[ Trans. vii.] 15

114 The Palatine Emigration.

They still continued to come to the middle of October,
although the orders to Mr. Dayrolle to hinder their coming
were often repeated. And the states-general of Holland
was applied to, to send similar instructions to hinder the
coming of any more of the elector Palatine’s subjects in
this manner, who was highly offended at their desertion
of his territory.

Upon this, Mr. Dayrolle wrote that these people were
encouraged to come by somebody in England, that since
the prohibition, a gentleman from England with his ser-
vant, whose name he had in vain endeavored to learn, had
gone among the Palatines at the Brill near Rotterdam, and -
distributed money and printed-tickets among them to en-
courage them to come over. But the committee found
that Mr. Henry Torne, a Quaker at Rotterdam (who in all
this matter acted under Mr. Dayrolle), forced a great many
to embark for England, after they had provided themselves
a passage to go back to their own country. The preced-
ing paragraphs are chiefly a condensation from the report.

Having come to England, they must be provided for.
Fourteen hundred were accommodated in the warehouses
of Sir Charles Cox for some months gratis, some were
lodged in private houses, others were allowed to lodge
in barns, till midsummer, when the barns would be needed
for the crops. The queen ordered, therefore, a thousand
tents from the Tower of London for their use, but for a
long time no place could be found to pitch them. They
were finally encamped at Blackheath near Greenwich south
of the Thames, and at Camberwell, and temporary provi-
sion was made for their daily sustenance.

Besides feeding and sheltering them the English showed
great interest in their religious character and welfare, some,
lest if they should stay in England they might increase the
dissenting interest, and others, for the sake of additions.
to the established church. Many of the Catholics, being —

The Palatine Emigration. 115

of Protestant descent, found no difficulty in changing their
religion, while the Lutherans readily communed either in
the English or German churches. They married rapidly
so as to secure the additional sum allowed to married cou-
ples, and because the Carolina proprietors had indicated
an intention only to take families.

In view of the necessity of taking definite action for dis-
posing of this multitude, and for their temporary relief in
reaching permanent homes, the justices of the peace for
the county of Middlesex and other citizens on June 7th,
petitioned the queen for authority to take a collection in
their behalf in all churches and otherwise in the county.
The queen not only acceded to their request but issued a
Brief addressed to all the counties of the kingdom, includ-
ing Wales and Scotland, in which recital was made of the
oppressions these emigrants had suffered from their national
enemy the French, as far back as 1689, and collections were
ordered to be taken up in all the churches, and the curates
and wardens were to go from house to house to solicit
charity, to be disposed of by acommission. Over twenty-
two thousand pounds were paid into the chamber of the
city of London as the result of these collections. Besides
this and other sums expended, the whole charge occa-
sioned to the queen’s government on account of these
Palatines, till they were finally settled in the new homes
secured for them, amounted to more than one hundred
and thirty-five thousand pounds.

While the charitable disposition of the benevolent led
them to contribute so liberally for their needs, the encou-
ragement given to these foreigners was displeasing to mul-
titudes. Their more zéalous patrons were conscious of it,
and an appeal in very touching language in the name of
the leaders of the Palatines was addressed to the tradesmen
of England, beseeching them not to regard their coming
with jealousy as the possible means of evil to themselves.

116 The Palatine Hmigration.

The common religious and personal jealousies were
heightened from the fact that bread was being sold at
double the ordinary price. Their stay would have to be
prolonged, as the time of the sailing of the fleet for the
plantations was at a great distance. Then as at least a
thousand of the new comers were Catholics, the fears of
the people were operated upon by political partisans, lest
their stay should strengthen the party of Romanism.

The Tories continued to make a handle of the passage
of the naturalization law, and the unwise encouragement
given to these Palatines to come over, long after they had
all been disposed of. Dean Swift in the Hzaminer had the
assurance to write of the affair in this wise: “ Some
persons whom the voice of the nation authorizes me to
call her enemies, taking advantage of the general natural-
ization act, had invited over a great number of foreigners
of all religions, under the name of Palatines, who under-
stood no trade or handicraft, yet rather chose to beg than
labor; who besides infesting our streets, bred contagious
diseases by which we lost in natives thrice the number of
population gained in foreigners ;”” ' while the Tories angrily
reviled and wrote against the new naturalization law;
others, like Bishop Hare, undertook to defend it. All
who were ill affected to the ministry endeavored to
heighten the resentment of the people.”

In 1711 (May 29), there was a change of ministry, and
the Tories under Harley came into power. On their acces-
sion, the design was immediately formed to load the late
whig administration with all the opprobrium possible, and
one subject chosen was the Palatine emigration. Knowing
how unpopular it had been with the people, the Tories
endeavored to throw the blame of bringing them to Eng-
land upon the Whigs. The new ministry influenced

1 Heaminer, 41, 45. 2 Burnet’s Own Time.

The Palatine Emigration. oe

the house of commons so far as to obtain resolutions
of severe denunciation to be introduced at the end of the
committee’s report on the Palatines (from which we have
already quoted). The language of the second and third
resolutions was:

“ Resolved, That the inviting and bringing over into this
kingdom the poor Palatines, of all religions, at the public
expense, was an extravagant and unreasonable charge to
the kingdom and a scandalous misapplication of the public
money, tending to the increase and oppression of the poor
of the kingdom, and of stisaetam pone momen to the
constitution in church and state.”

“* Resolved, That whoever advised the bringing over the
poor Palatines into this kingdom, was an enemy to the
queen and to this kingdom.” Week after week, a day was
set for the adoption of these resolutions, but they were
never passed, and all further inquiry was dropped.’

It was pretended that in the whole affair of Palatine
importation there was a design of the Whigs against the
established church, and to increase the numbers and
strength of the dissenters. And when a letter was read
which had been written by the Earl of Sunderland in the
queen’s name to the council of trade, ordering the council
to consider the best mode of disposing of the emigrants, it
was moved to lay the load of the whole matter on the earl,
with very strong votes; although at last that measure also
was abandoned.

Simultaneously with the introduction of this partisan
measure of investigating the origin of the Palatine emigra-
tion, the new house of commons introduced a bill on the
same day for the repeal of the new naturalization law, as
if they regarded it as a measure equally reprehensible,
having been of Whig origin. They pretended that it had

? Anderson’s England ; Tindal’s England.

118 The Palatine Emigration.

given encouragement to the Palatines to come over, though
few of them had made use of that act in order to secure
naturalization, while on notice of its intended repeal two
thousand refugee French had rushed to secure the benefits
of the act as existing. The bill for repeal passed the com-
mons, and was sent up to the lords, where ‘“‘ Lord Guernsey
and some others entertained them with tragical declara-
tions on the subject, yet upon the first reading of the bill
it was rejected to the great joy of all foreign Protestants.” *
The law remained still in force till the next year, Feb.,
1712, when it was finally repealed, and signed by the
queen.

Before narrating the disposition which was finally made
of the Palatines, I cannot refrain from giving some extracts
from a diary written at the time, and only recently printed,
which illustrate the prominence the subject had in the
minds of contemporaries, and contain some additional in-
formation. The extracts are from the Diary of Narcissus
Lutirell, kept for thirty-seven years from 1678 to 1714.’

“1709, May 12. We hear from Cologne, that three great vessels
more were arrived there with protestants from the Palatinate for
England, and thence to Pennsylvania; so that above 1000 families
have already quitted that country.

May 14. A great many poor German and French protestants have
taken the oaths this week at the Queen’s Bench Court, in order to
their naturalization by the late act.

May 28. Sunday last about 300 protestants from the Palatinate
received the Sacrament at the Prussian church in Savoy, in order
to their naturalization: 1,300 more are also arrived, and a sermon
will be preached before them once a week in Aldgate church.

June 14. Sunday Mr. DuQuesne, a French protestant presented
a letter to her majesty from the king of Prussia about the reformed
churches in France, and a petition in the name of above a million of

? Tindal’s History of England ; Burnet’s Own Time.
*A Brief Historical Relation of State Affairs from Sept., 1678 to sc
1714. Oxford, 1857, 6 vols.

The Palatine Emigration. 119

those poor people who groan under a most severe persecution; she
assured him she had already given her ministers abroad instructions
concerning the same, and will do for them what lies in her power.

June 16. A brief was ordered by the queen in council for a col-
lection in London and Middlesex to relieve the poor Palatines, and
that the commissioners of trade and plantations are to take care of
them till the West India fleet goes, when they are to embark for
Nevis and St. Christophers, to repeople those islands, destroyed by
the French. .

June 21. Tents are putting up at Blackheath for the poor Pala-
tines till they can be transported to the West Indies.

July 6. Yesterday the nobility and gentry, commissioners for pro-
viding for the support of the poor Palatines lately arrived here, met
the first time in the convocation house at St. Paul’s, where were
present the lord mayor and several of the aldermen.

July 12. Monsieur Ruperti is translating the liturgy of the church
of England into High Dutch, which books are to be given among
the poor Palatines, 2000 more of whom last Sunday arrived here
from Rotterdam.

July 16. The lords proprietors of Carolina have made proposals
to a committee of Council to take all the Palatines here from 15 to
45 years old and send them to their plantation: but her majestie to
be at the charge of transporting them, which will be above £10 a
head.

July 23. 300 more Palatines are arrived, so that the whole num-
ber here is about 8000.

Aug. 1. Several of the poor Palatines who came lately over, and
were Papists, have renounced that religion, and more of them, ’ tis
expected will do the like.

Aug. 9. The commissioners for providing for the poor Palatines,
upon inspecting the subscriptions of the nobility and gentry, find
that about £15,000 is already given for their support. Abundance
of them are gone hence in wagons for Chester to embark for Ireland,
and the rest designed for that kingdom will speedily follow.

Sept. 15. The Popish Palatines who came hither are ordered to go
home, having passports for the same.

Sept. 29. Yesterday 18 Palatines listed themselves in the lord
Haye’s regiment.

Oct. 6. The commissioners for settling the poor Palatines have re-
- solved to send forthwith 600 of them to Carolina, and 1,500 to New
York: and ’tis said, the merchants of Bediford and Barnstable, con-

120 The Palatine Enugration.

cerned in the Newfoundland fishery, intend to employ 500 more in

their service. .
Dec. 29. Col. Hunter (new gov. of N. Y.) designs next week to

embark for his government of New York: and most of the Palatines
remaining here goe with him to people that colony.

1710, May 25. Mr. Ayrolles, the Brit. Sec. at the Hague is gone
for Rotterdam to distribute her majesties charity to 800 poor Pala-
tines returning home, being 5 florins to each person.

July 27. The first ticket of the state lottery, drawn yesterday, en-
titled the fortunate holder to £50 per annum, and fell upon Mr.
Walter Cocks of Camberwell, who so generously supported the
Palatines last year, and has this year the best crop of corn for
quantity in all the county of Surrey.”

These extracts are abundantly confirmatory of the con-
clusion that this sudden irruption of thirteen thousand
people, for whom no previous provision had been made,
occasioned great embarrassment as to what disposition
should be made of them. The Palatines had been flattered
with the expectation they should be sent to one colony in
a body, without expense to themselves.

But there were really no parties ready to fulfill, such a
flattering promise, and the wisdom and humanity of the
authorities were alike called into exercise to devise the
best plans for disposing of such a large and helpless
mass of strangers. The commission appointed by the
queen, of which the archbishop of Canterbury and the lord
high chancellor were members,' had only been ordered
to distribute the charities and settle the emigrants in the
kingdom: But when the distribution of alms commenced,
there was so much murmuring among the people,” that
the commissioners, thirty-five days after their appointment,
issued an order looking to the transportation of the whole
of them either to Ireland or the plantations. The commis-

*One member besides, was Henry William Ludolph, nephew of Job Lu-
dolph, the celebrated Ethiopian historian, who died January, 1710, aged 54.
* Calamy’s Life and Times.

i

The Palatine Emigration. 121

Sioners of trade had been particularly recommended by
- Lord Sunderland to find a home for them in England, as
the queen thought it would be more advantageous to the
kingdom than to send them to the West Indies.! It was
found however, by the attorney general that the laws re-
garding the settlement of poor families in the parishes did
not permit of settling them in England, though proposi-
tions were made to place them in the New Forest of
Hampshire, and to parcel out land to them in shares or
lots.

In the meantime some hundreds were employed by her
majesty’s" gardener in work upon the canal at Windsor.
Some were accepted by individuals from the commis-
sioners at five pounds each person, but not giving satisfac-
tion, they were returned back to their quarters. A hamlet
on the west side of London to this day bears the name of
the Palatine houses, where four houses were built upon
land of the parish of Newington at its expense in 1709, for
the reception of distressed families of these emigrants.”
A merchant of Barbados made a contract to receive five
hundred families, but we cannot learn that any actually
went there. Six hundred were put on board ships for the
island of Scilly, but after a useless expense of fifteen hun-
dred pounds, on account of a change of plans, they were
again discharged on shore.* One hundred and fifty of the
ablest young men enlisted to serve in Lord Galloway’s
regiment in Portugal.

The following statement shows the disposition which
was in fact made of the great mass of the emigrants, as far
as information has been obtained.

The plan proposed of sending a portion to Ireland
had none of the objections which existed to settling them

* House of Commons Journals. * Brayley’s Middlesex.
® House of Commons Journals.
[ Trans. vit.] 16

122 The Palatine Emigration.

in Great Britain. Mr. J. Marshall, deputy master of the
rolls of Tipperary-offered to take a thousand and to build
houses for them. And upon the request of the lord lieu-
tenant of Ireland addressed to her majesty, three thousand
persons in August, 1709, and eight hundred persons in
February, 1710, were sent from London by way of Ches-
ter or Liverpool to Ireland. The parliament of Ireland
petitioned the queen for a grant for their temporary sup-
port... The house of commons after their settlement took
their still distressed condition into consideration, and
agreed that the sending of these Palatines to Ireland was
a strengthening of the Protestant interest, and would
greatly contribute to the security of the kingdom, and
therefore that the queen be addressed to allew £5,000
annually for three years towards their support and settle-
ment, ‘“‘ which should be made good to her in the next
aids granted by parliament.” Their passage and temporary
support cost £24,000. In 1715 a special enactment of
parliament naturalized these settlers, then numbering 213
families.

They were settled chiefly at Rathkeale, near Limerick
in the county of Munster, where under the name of Pala-
tines they continue to impress a peculiar character on both
the social and economical traits of the whole district im-
mediately around the town, extending from Castle Mattress
eastward to Adare. The town and district now have about
12,000 inhabitants. At the commencement of this century
it was said of them (by Farrar), that they still preserved
their own language, “‘sleep between two beds, have left
off sour kraut and feed on potatoes, huge flitches of bacon
hang from the rafters, and massive chests hold the house-
hold linen: their superstitions savor of the banks of the
Rhine; in their dealings they are upright and honorable.”

1 Journal of House of Lords of Lreland. 2 Tindal’s England.

The Palatine Emigration. , 123

Kohl, the German traveler, in 1840, regretted that he
could not personally visit this colony, but says they have
not lost the German character for good honor and honora-
ble dealing. They are much wealthier and better off than
any of their neighbors. And Mr. Kohl argues that their
prosperity notwithstanding they are subject to the same
laws and influences as the native Irish, would seem to de-
cide that it is not merely to the tyranny and bad govern-
ment of the English, that the misery of those around them
is to be attributed.

At least 75 families of those who settled in Ireland
returned to London and were sent elsewhere. And
for several years numbers of them emigrated to Penn-
sylvania.’

The next party of emigrants of whom we have definite
information were a company of 700 persons who settled on
the Cape Fearand Neuseriversin North Carolina. Christo-
pher De Graffenried and Lewis Michell were attempting,
about this time, to mend their fortunes by purchasing
lands in some of the British colonies. Michell had been
several years in America and had obtained some knowledge
of the country. In April, 1709, the lords proprietors of
Carolina had agreed with those gentlemen that ten thou-
sand acres of land should be laid off for them in one body
between the Neuse and Cape Fearrivers. Mr. De Graffen-
ried made the purchase and was created baron. Michell
had originally been employed by the canton of Bern in
Switzerland to search for land in Pennsylvania, Virginia or
- Carolina, to which they might send acolony. Bern had de-
sisted from the project.?, This company having secured the
lands, wished to make them productive by settling them
with tenants; andthe poor Palatines presented themselves
as an object of speculation.

* Rupp’s Berks County. 2 Williamson’s North Carolina.

124 The Palatine Emigration.

Graffenried and Michell covenanted with these, commis-
sioners that they would transport to North Carolina, 650.
of the Palatines or about one hundred families ...... They
were to be supplied for twelve months with provisions,
The commissioners allowed £5 per head for transporting ;
and the people had received 20 shillings each from the chari-
table collections and lodged their money in the, hands of
Graffenried and Michell. The Palatines arrived in Decem-
ber, 1709, at the confluence of the river Neuse and Trent
where they erected temporary shelters. The place was
called New Bern, which was the name of the city where
Graffenried was born. Goy. Tryon by orders from Eng-
land allowed 100 acres to each man, woman and child.
Graffenried returned to Europe without giving them a title
to their settlements....... The Palatines in the meantime,
being industrious and living in a country where land was,
plenty and cheap, increased in number and acquired. pro-
perty. |

These facts confirm the suspicion we haye expressed.
that the emigrants had been induced to come to England,
by speculators on their future labor, in the expectation
that England would pay the expense of. their transporta-
tion to their lands in the colonies.

A third portion of the emigrants, making one-tenth, of
the whole, is the class whose passage was paid to return.
back to the place from whence they came, as appears from
Luttrel?s Diary. This portion returned mainly because.
they were Catholics, and did not. meet with favor. Such.
as did not change their religion were sent back at the ex-
pense of the government, of whom there were at least one.
thousand persons,

The fourth and last division of these emigrants concern-
ing whom we can report, is the three thousand two hun-
dred who came to New York. On the 30th of November,
1709, the duty was devolved on Col, Hunter, the newly -

Phe Palatine Emigration. 125

appointed governor of the. province, Lord Lovelace having
died, to make a report to the board of trade of a plan for
the disposal of them. Of'the measures he suggested, only
one was adopted, that of the transporting a portion of
them to New York, to engage in raising naval stores, tar,
rosin and turpentine. Lord Sunderland writes expressly,
January 7, 1710, that it was approved by the queen, and
by a special act. of parliament they were made denizens of
the kingdom. forthe occasion. They signed a contract or
covenant with the government before embarking promising
that in consideration ofa loan of the queen for their trans-
portation and maintenance for:a while, they would labor
on such landias should be allotted to them in the produc-
tion of naval stores, till'such time as they should have dis-
charged the loan, that they would not quit the province
without leave from the governor, would not: manufacture
woolen goods, and at the end, each person was to receive
forty. acres. of land, free of all taxes for- seven: years.
The passengers in-the convoy, which consisted of ten ships,
were under the direction of Mr. Du Pré as commissary,
and remained so after their arrival in New-York: In
March, they set sail with Gov. Hunter; the ships were an
excessively long time in reaching New York, were crowded
and destitute of provisions, and four hundred and seventy
of them died on the passage. The ships came in at inter-
vals. from the 14th of June to the 24th of July. The
emigrants for awhile encamped on the common, and after-
wards at Nut island, now Governor’s. <A special act of
legislation created a temporary government over them on
the island. Smith records that “many of these people
settled themselves in New. York, where they built a
Lutheran church.” It appears that in 1713, there were
from one hundred and fifty to two hundred of them in
New York, one of whom was John Peter Zenger, then
13 years old, whose trial for libel as publisher of a news-

126 The Palatine Emigration. —

paper, with the principles of liberty for the press then
established, has immortalized his name. Gov. Hunter
claimed the right and exercised it to have some of the
children apprenticed to families, though against the will of
their friends. From one hundred and fifty to two hun-
dred were thus apprenticed.

Three months had not elapsed before land was procured
for their residence on the Hudson river, one hundred
miles from the city. A tract of six thousand acres was
purchased for them for £266 sterling out of the 120,000
acres constituting Robert Livingston’s patent, being
the land now embraced in Germantown in Columbia
county, then Dutchess county. Another tract of eight
hundred acres was purchased for them in what is now the
township of Saugerties in Ulster county, then Albany, on
the west bank of the Hudson river. In each of these
towns to this day are retained the names of Hast Camp
and West Camp, by which the original settlements were
called, now represented by two small villages. The names
of Hunterstown, Queensbury, Haysbtiry, and Armsberg,
then introduced for the names of the East Camp settle-
ments and of Elizabethtown, Georgetown and New Village
for West Camp have not been perpetuated. Their breth-

ren at Newburgh who had arrived the year previous
- goon came and ministered to them, and Joshua Kocker-
thal, Newburgh’s first clergyman became a missionary to
the people of the two camps, and it was at West Camp he
died in 1719, as the stone over his grave in Saugerties
still shows.’

Gov. Hunter’s duties in the care of them for two years
were arduous. They were placed in charge of a commis-
sion of five persons. They had given the contract for
supplying them with provisions to Mr. Livingston, who

1 Historical Magazine, N. Y., Jan., 1871.

The Palatine Emigration. 127 -

also received a salary as chief inspector. The particular
employment in which they were to engage, the production
of turpentine, etc., could not yield at the best for two
years, they began to feel that they were treated as slaves
or servants, their provisions were salted or of the worst
kind, the soil was unpropitious, the tar making prospects
bad, and mutinies or insurrections occurred among them
against the orders to which it was attempted to subject
them. The military, sixty soldiers, weré brought down
from Albany to compel obedience, and the arms which
had been brought back by the 800 who enlisted in 1711
in the expedition against Canada under Cols. Nicholson,
Whiting, and Schuyler were forcibly taken away from
them, to render them incapable of resistance.

The largest number ever reported as settling at these
places on the river was 2,209, which the government in
England thought was more than could have been there.
In June, 1711, there were in all 1,874 persons. At the end
of the year 1711, there were perhaps 1,100 at East Camp,
and 600 at West Camp.

In their depressed condition, a portion of them deter-
mined to transport themselves elsewhere, where they could
be free husbandmen, as the larger part of them had been
formerly, and not to remain to be treated, as they regarded
it, worse than tenants, unable to choose the kind of labor
they should engage in. Weiser says also that in 1712-13,
all were declared to be free to go and settle wherever
they pleased. By intercourse with the Indians of the
Mohawk tribe in England, their leading men had learned ~
that there was land on Schoharie river where they should
be welcome to settle, and both parties believed that the
provincial government had no claims to interfere with
them if they should move there. Their deputies in the
latter part of 1711 went and selected the land, which was
very promising in its character, of great fertility and was

128 The Palatine Emigration.

not covered with forests like the hills around. In the
autumn of 1712, and the spring of 1718, about seven hun-
dred and fifty persons left Hast and West camps by the
way of Albany and Schenectady for their new home. A
large number of them remained in these two towns over
the winter on account of anticipated hardships. The six
settlements which they founded on the banks of the river
extended from what is now Middleburgh on the south,
northward through Schoharie Court House to the point
where Cobleskill creek empties into Schoharie river.’
During their stay in Albany and Schenectady, and after
they reached Schoharie, the Dutch residents were profuse
in their charities to them. The consistory of the Dutch
church in New York city sent up a large store of provi-
sions which they had collected, and enjoined upon the
other consistories to distribute them.’

After undergoing great privations during several years,
the sheriff of the county in behalf of gentlemen in New
York and Albany endeavored to dispossess them of the
land, they having become its purchasers. Notices were
posted up warning them off, and making them subject to
imprisonment if they remained. They were forbidden to
plow or sow. Some think that they were extremely ig-
norant of their own rights and the rights of others, and
acted in an impatient, headstrong and foolish spirit.* For
in consequence of these harrassing attempts, at least one-
half of them set out a third time to settle elsewhere. The
whole number settling in Schoharie during these first years
was probably never as high as 700, and the whole number
that remained in 1723, not more than 300 persons.

The most marked and largest body that separated from
them went to Pennsylvania settling without leave on

1 Kobel was the name of one of their list-men.
? Munsell’s Annals of Albany, V,7.
° Brown’s Sketch of Schoharie, 1828.

The Palatine Emigration. 129

wild, unpatented lands in what is now the township of
Tulpehocken, Berks county, ninety miles from Philadel-
phia, and by the route the poor people traveled, having
made canoes and floated down the Susquehanna, 300 miles
from Schoharie. These Schoharie Palatines had heard of
the friendly proceedings of the Pennsylvania government
to Palatines who had previously settled direct from Ger-
many onthe Pequariver. Mortimer records that, “ being
badly received in New York many of them removed to
Pennsylvania, where they were kindly entertained by the
Quakers, which afterwards proved the means of drawing
thither many thousands of German and Swiss Protestants,
whereby Pennsylvania is since become by far the most
popular and flourishing colony of its standing in British
America.”* Douglass gives distinctly as the reason why
they left New York that the government of the province
would not give them more than ten acres each. They
must have carried the seeds of discontent with them, for a
report was made to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1727,
that the Palatines who had come by the way of New York
(unlike the Palatines who had been imported directly into
the province) had seated themselves on lands of the pro-
prietaries and others, and refused to yield obedience to the
laws.” The first portion came in 1723, and the second with
Conrad Weiser in 1729.

Conrad Weiser’s father in 1718, was the agent in Hng-
land from Schoharie in 1718, to petition the queen and
the board of trade for redress: where on the arrival of
Gov. Hunter he was thrown into prison. This son became
eminent in Pennsylvania as an interpreter for the govern-
ment, and for Zinzendorf.2 He died in 1760, at Wom-

? History of England, 1764. 3 Penna. Col. Rec., 11.
* Hist. Soc. of Penna. Coll., 1851.

Trans. vit. 17

130 The Palatine Emigration.

melsdorf, Penna.,' which he had first settled, a place near
his countrymen.

The second portion of those who separated from the
Schoharie settlers went to the banks of the Mohawk,
mostly about the years 1722 and 1723. The memory of
their settlement is preserved in Montgomery county by
the names of the township of Palatine, and Palatine Bridge
and Palatine Church in the same town. Stonaraby was its
earliest name, patented in 1723. In Herkimer county the
township of German Flatts designates the place where
another portion of the same band settled.

The history of the Palatines after their final settlement
in this country as far as known at the time, may be found
in Simms’s History of Schoharie, Benton’s History of Herkimer
County, and Ruttenber’s History of Newburgh. The materials
for this American portion of their history found in’ the
Documentary and the Colonial Histories:of the State of
New York will furnish abundant sources of information
regarding these identical Palatines, for future local his-
torians; and justify the forethought of the legislature in
procuring their collection and publication.

It has not been my object to give any details of their
history in this country, but to historically arrange such
facts as could be learned, hitherto uncollected, which might
serve to explain the circumstances of their emigration to
England and of their residence there, and to define the
regions where they finally found a home.

It will have been observed that in my enumeration of
the numbers in the different parties as distributed, that
the place of settlement of several thousands of the’ alleged
thirteen thousand persons arriving in England is still un-
accounted for. Possibly as this is the largest count of
their number I met with, it might be reduced by a thou-

* Rupp’s Lancaster.

The Palatine Emigration. 131

sand. I think it is probable that a considerable number
remained in England, until they found employment in
various towns. ‘This may be inferred from an entry in
Thoresby’s diary of Sunday, June, 1712: ‘On my return
(from Kensington and Hyde Park), I saw a number of the
Palatines, the most poor, ragged creatures that I ever saw,
and great objects of charity, if real exiles for religion.”

Report of Third Class, Second Department (Zodlogy).
By Gero. T. Stevens, M.D.

[Read before the Institute, March 7, 1871.]

We find, in summing up the progress of investigations
in zodlogy during the past year, that notwithstanding the
really great accumulation of facts that has been made, and
the many earnest discussions upon subjects pertaining to
this branch of science, there have yet been no startling ad-
vances to record either in zoological or biological science,
and whatever views we may hold regarding the now much
debated question of evolution of living things, it is certain
that zodlogical and biological science have never been ob-
jects of special creation, but are the result of long and
slow processes of evolution. ‘The science of zodlogy has
passed through certain degrees of progression and of de-
velopment which have not in all cases, at first, seemed in
the line toward perfection. These apparently retrograde
steps are not necessarily what they seem, and may some-
times prove essential grades in thetrue advancement of
science. Thus, from the early and crude attempts to
arrange and classify animals to the far more complete sys-
tem of Linnezus was indeed a great advance, but when
Cuvier gave to the world his new classification based upon
internal organization, it seemed to require only the patient
labor and the great genius of such thinkers as Agassiz and
his co-workers to complete what has so long and so proudly
been called the natural system, so as to make it really ex-
press the actual relations found in nature.

Yet notwithstanding the almost universal acceptance of
this beautiful system, Lamarc with equal enthusiasm and

Report on Zodlogy. | 138

perhaps with equal genius, returned to the linear system of
arrangement, and while to-day we may reject much of his
system and regard some of his doctrines as pregnant with
errors, we can not deny that some of the most advanced
doctrines of the present time received their impress and
their impetus from the teachings of this naturalist.

And now when there come threats from many different
and independent sources of the overthrow of the doctrine
of the four great fundamental types of animal life, the great
branches upon which hang the whole of our system of clas-
sification, and when there are decided intimations from
distinguished naturalists that the natural system is to
be regarded as a genealogical record rather than as a
typical expression of ideas, the threatened revolution may
after all be found to be only another grand step toward
a perfect system.

Among the new text books upon the subject of zodlogy,
that of Prof. Geo. Rolliston, Zhe Forms of Animal Life,
doubtless takes the first rank, and is one of the most im-
portant works of its kind that has been issued. It is
an outline of classification, based upon anatomical investi-
gations, and illustrated by descriptions of specimens,
and by figures. “The distinctive character of the book
consists in its attempting so to combine the concrete
facts of zodtomy with the outlines of systematic classifi-
cation, as to enable the student to put them for himselfinto
their natural relations of foundation and superstructure.” *

A manual of zodlogy, of less pretentions than this, but a
valuable work for students in schools and colleges, is Dr.
A. H. Nicholson’s book. Both these books are English
works.

In our own country, the state of Massachusetts has re-
published a most valuable contribution to zoology, en-

1 Preface,

134 Report on Zoology.

titled, The Invertebrata of Massachusetts, written by the
late Dr. A. A. Gould and now edited by J. A.Binney. The
volume contains chiefly descriptions of the species of mol-
lusca found on the coast of that state. It contains over 400
wood cuts from drawings by Prof. E. 8. Morse and litho-
graphic plates on which are 136 additional figures. The
former edition of the work contained, in addition to the mol-
lusca, descriptions of the crustacea, annelida and radiata, but
owing to the imperfection in Dr. Gould’s manuscript at the
time of his death, these are not included in the present
edition.

A Guide to the Study of Insects by A. 8. Packard, Jr.,
M. D., was issued in the latter part of 1869. It is an octavo
volume of 700 pages, with figures illustrating over 1,200 ob-
jects. It cannot fail of proving a valuable aid in entomo-
logical studies.

At the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, held at Troy, a number of valuable,
and interesting paperson zodlogy were read. Among these,
one by Dr. A.S. Packard, Jr., on the“ embryology of Limu-
lus polyphemus, ’’ which has some points of special interest to
zodlogists, as throwing light upon the probable nature and
organism of the extinct forms of crustacea known as
Trilobites. The embryo of the Limulus presents many
trilobitic features in its earlier stages, in some of which it
so nearly resembles certain genera of these fossil forms that
a figure of it might easily be mistaken for that of a Trilobite.

He describes minutely the different stages in the de-
velopment of the embryo and shows the segmentation,
the appearance of the tubercles representing the first pair
of limbs, the stage in which the edge of the body is marked
out, and the stage in which the segments of the cephalothorax
are indicated, and the legs are of the full length, and then
the appearance of the nine segments of the abdomen, at —
which time the shelbkof the egg bursts and the young animal

Report on Zodlogy. 135

is prepared to pass through a process of moulting. He
says that just before hatching, the cephalothorax spreads
out and the whole animal becomes broad and flat, the ab-
domen being a little more than half as wide as the cephalo-
thorax, the two eyes, placed well back, and the ocelli on
the edge of the cephalothorax, make their appearance.

It is at this stage more especially that he recognizes the
strong structural resemblance to the Trilobites, and also
draws some inferences respecting the relations of the Lim-.
ulus and the extinct animals, concluding that they should
be ranked as genera of the same order, and that the habits,
history and organization of the one may throw much light
_ upon those of the other. He remarks that the position of
the eyes show that trilobites had long and slender optic
nerves indicating general similarity in the nervous system

In connection with Dr. Packhard’s remarks regarding
the resemblance of these ancient organisms to existing eyes,
it is interesting to recall the eloquent words of the eminent
geologist, Dr. Buckland, who was first to call attention to
this point, many years ago, and who showed that not only
were the organs of vision in the tribolites and limuli simi-
lar, but that the condition of the sea and atmosphere
was not unlike that at the present time.

“ Thus,” says Dr. Buckland, “ we find among the earliest
organic remains, an optical instrument of the most curious
construction, adapted to produce vision of a peculiar kind,
in the then existing representatives of one great class in the
articulated division of the animal kingdom. We do not
find this instrument passing onwards, as it were, passing
through a series of experimental changes from more simple
into more complex forms; it was created at the very first, in
the fullness of perfect adaptation to the uses and condition
of the class of creatures to which this kind of eye has ever
been, and is still, appropriate.”’

136 Report on Zoology.

The muscular system must have been highly organized
as in Limulus, as, like the latter they probably lived by bur-
rowing in the mud andsand, using the shovel-like expanse
of the cephalic shield in digging in the shallow paleo-
zoic waters after worms and stationary soft bodied inver-
tebrates.

The generative organs were probably very similar to
those of the limulus, and the eggs were probably laid in

sthe sand or mud, and impregnated by the sperm cells
floating in the water.

Prof. Gill, of Washington, presented to the Association
a communication on “the relations of the orders of the
Mammalia.” We have but space to notice the five proposi-
tions laid down by him as the guiding principles in his
studies : | ,

1st. Morphology is the only safe guide to the natural classi-
fication of organized beings; physiological adaptation the
most unsafe.

2d. The affinities of such organisms are only determinable
by the sum of their agreements in morphological charac-
teristics, and not by the modification of any single organ.

8d. The animals and plants of the present epoch were
the derivatives, with modification of antecedent forms to
an unlimited extent.

4th. An arrangement of organized beings ina single series
is therefore impossible, and the system of sequences adopted
by genealogists may be applied to the sequence of the
groups of natural objects.

5th. In the appreciations of the value of groups, the
founder of modern taxonomy (Linneus) must be followed,
subject to such deviations as our increased knowledge of
structure necessitates..

At the same meeting, a paper by Prof. E. S. Morse
attracted much attention.

®

Report on Zodlogy. 137

Prof. Morse maintains that the group of animals called
brachiopods are not mollusks, as heretofore supposed, but
that they more properly belong to the sub-kingdom arti-
culata ; that their affinities are with the crustaceans and
annelids, and most closely allied to the tubiculous worms
(worms forming shelly tubes for the protection of their
bodies). By the study of the embryology of the terebra-
tulina and living forms of decina and lingula, he has amassed
an amount of evidence in favor of his statement that has
not only convinced himself but many other naturalists that
the brachiopods are improperly placed among the mollusks,
and their affinities are as above stated. The shells ofthe de-
cina and lingula are similar, he says, to that of the crusta-
cea both in their tubular structure and their chemical
composition. In lingula, while the carbonate of lime is
only six per cent, the phosphate of lime amounts to forty-
two per cent; the shells of crustacea are also composed
mainly phosphate of lime.

The horny sete which fringe the mantle of brachiopods
are secreted by follicles, and are surrounded by muscular
fibres, so as to be freely moved by the animal, and are
remarkably worm-like, differing but little from those of
worms when they are enclosed in muscular sheaths, while
in other articulate animals they are simply tubular pro-
longations of the epidermal layer.

The pedicle of lingula, Prof. Morse says, is hollow, and
composed of three distinct layers, and is distinctly and reg-
ularly ringed or annulated, presenting a remarkably worm-
like appearance. It has layers of circular and longitudinal
fibres, and is contractile, or capable of being coiled or un-
-wound at full length. The formation of a sand tube as a
protection to the peduncle is also referred to as a strong an-
nelid character. This tube is formed by a secretion from
the pedicle which cements the particles of sand, and if this

Trans. vii.] 18 :

138 Report on Zoology.

tube is destroyed or broken it is rapidly reconstructed. The
covtents of the stomach is found in all the lobules of the
liver, indicating that the food circulates in the hepatic
prolongation asitdoesintheannelids. Passing overseveral
other corresponding characteristics, Prof. Morse has made
the important discovery that the blood of the lingula is red,
a physiological feature of annelids but not of mollusks.

The author of the paper believes the brachiopods to be
true articulates, having certain affinities with crustacea
but properly belonging to the worms.

At the meeting of 1869, Prof. Morse pointed out some
strong points of similarity between the brachiopods and the
polyzoa, proving them to be closely related, and he now
shows the polyzoa to possess many annelid characters.

The removal of a large group of animals from one sub-
kingdom, or branch, to another and quite different one, upon
structural evidences is a matter which may well attract the
attention of naturalists, and we may expect to see Prof.
Morse’s observations and statements strongly contested.
This is not, however, the first group of animals that has been
removed from the mollusca. Itis not many years since
the class cirrepedee, which had long been regarded as true
mollusks were found to be articulates, and placed among
the lower orders of crustaceze.

But perhaps by far the most important issue which has
been raised during the last year in zodlogical inquiries
respects the relations of that class of animals, very low in
the scale of existence, called ascidians.

To transpose the barnacles or brachiopods from one great
branch of the animal kingdom to another is indeed a sub-
ject upon which naturalists look with great interest.
The ranking of the zodphitic polyzoa with mollusks was
a surprise to zodlogists and the attempt to show that their
relations are really with the annulata at once suggests the
question whether after all there are not essential structural

a

Report on Zodlogy. 139

relations among the three sub-kingdoms of invertebrates
which have not usually been acknowledged; but that one
should attempt to prove structure kinship between some
of thevery lowest of the invertebrates and the vertebrates is
in the highest degree revolutionary, for under all systems
it has ever been conceded that there is a great gulf be-
tween the vertebrata and invertebrata.

Four years ago, Kowalewsky raised the issue of the ho-
mology of certain parts of the larva of ascidians with the
chorda dorsalis ofthe embryo of the vertebrata. His obsery-
ations and facts have been abundantly confirmed dur-
ing the last year by Prof. Kupfer, whose researches have
fully established the accuracy of his predecessor in these
investigations,

All these valuable papers, whatever may be the truth of
the observations of the authors, indicate the absolute ne-
cessity of investigations of greater accuracy than those to
which naturalists have yet attained, before some of the
most essential questions in classification can be fully settled;
and the recent advances in the systematic study of living
forms suggest, if they do not promise, important assistance
in solving some of the vexed questions in biology.

At a meeting of the British Association held at Liver-
pool, during September last, the paper which excited the
greatest interest among naturalists was the address of the
president, Prof. T. H. Huxley, the subject of which was
‘‘ Spontaneous generation.” After a somewhat elaborate
review of the varied fortunes of the doctrine from the
experiments of Needham about 1750 to the supposed com-
plete refutation of his doctrine by Spallanzani, to the
repetition of the experiments under new conditions by
Schulze and Schwan in 1836-37, to what the professor
regarded as the final and conclusive experiments of Schroe-
der and afterward of Pasteur, he sums up the chain of
evidence by expressing the firm conviction that no such

140 Report on Zoology.

thing as spontaneous generation has ever been observed
by man. ‘ Looking back,” says Prof. Huxley, ‘ through
the prodigious vista of the past, I find no record of the
commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of any
means of forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions
of its appearance.”

In his inaugural address, however, Prof. Huxley made
- no reference to a series of very ingenious experiments, the
results of which had been published some three months
previous by Dr. H. Chareton Bastian, and in which Dr.
Bastian seemed to have proved that living bacteria and
monads, with some curious looking fungoids, had been
developed in his fluids under circumstances which abso-
lutely precluded the presence of any germs within the
flasks,

Dr. Bastian, therefore, wrote a caustic reply to Prof.
Huxley’s address, which was answered by a cutting letter
from Prof. Huxley. Prof. Beale, Prof. Worthington, G.
Smith and others have taken active part in the controversy
which has become what would appear at this distance
decidedly more of a personal quarrel than a scientific dis-
cussion and thus the matter rests, awaiting still new ex-
periments and new discussions.

Mr. Darwin’s new book, Descent of Man, is the latest
sensation in Biological literature. .A work so filled with
curious and instructive facts, the harvest of many years of
patient and well directed toil, can not fail to make its
impression as a work of profound learning whether its
conclusions are accepted or not. Every page is pregnant
with most interesting facts which are brought to bear upon
the subject in hand so ingeniously and well, that even the
objector is almost forced to accept his deductions.

Whether the theory of natural selection and of the ©
descent of man shall finally be accepted by the scientific -
world as acknowledged scientific doctrines or not, it is cer-

fteport on Zoology. 141

tain that the doctrine has recently made rapid advances
and is now very generally accepted, especially by the
younger and rising naturalists.

We are glad to be able to report a degree of activity in
subjects pertaining to zodlogy in our own midst.

The New York State Museum is making a most inter-
esting and instructive addition to its zodlogical department
in a collection of skeletons, intended to embrace all the
mammals of the state as far as procurable, and also full
representation in the birds, fishes and reptiles. The first
installment of these, twenty-three skeletons, was received
last fall. They are admirably mounted, and will prove
valuable objects for the study of comparative anatomy.

Having thus hastily reviewed a few of the more import-
ant advances in zoological science in this country and
abroad, I desire to call the attention of the Institute
to some things which are not being done in our own
community and especially, in regard to the instruction of
the young in this wonderful science.

During the last few years, science has been making
gigantic strides toward perfection. In every branch of
study of natural laws and phenomena, active and enthusi-
astic minds are engaged, and new facts and new principles
are yearly brought to light, until the science of to-day is
vastly different from the science of a quarter of a century
ago. The effect of this revolution is felt in every grade of
civilized life; and physical and intellectual enjoyments
are multiplied just in proportion to the increased develop-
ment of scientific knowledge. If this is true, and it seems
self-evident, it becomes a question of the greatest practical
interest whether scientific teachings in primary schools
and academies do not deserve far more attention than
they receive. It is a remarkable fact that notwithstand-
ing the marvelous increase of scientific knowledge and the
consequent increased importance of scientific instruction

142 Report on Zoology.

for the young, the curriculum of studies in most of our
schools and academies to-day is almost a precise copy of
that of many years ago. In nearly all the practical busi-
ness of life the latest discoveries and conclusions of science
are eagerly sought for, but our school commissioners seem
oblivious to the fact that nature has any claim upon the
attention of the student.

It is to be regretted that in the schools of Albany so
little attention is paid to natural history. With the one or
two exceptions, where some attempts are made to teach the
simplest rudiments of a knowledge of living forms, natu-
ral history is not taught in our schools. Pupils who are
to go into the active business of life as merchants, mecha-
nics or agriculturists are compelled to spend very large
portions of their school days in attempts to acquire the
rudiments of languages, no words of which they are
expected ever tospeak or hear, and thus.months and years
are spent in learning words independent of facts, while the
external world, teeming with its forms and phenomena, is
but a sealed volume to the student. ‘I think,” says a
learned English official, “ that it is more important for a
man to know where his liver is situated and what its func-
tions are, than to know it is jecur in Latin, and %rap in
Greek.” :

That natural history ean and ought to be taught in our
schools, there can be no doubt; the trouble seems to be
first to teach school boards that Latin and Greek are no
better and indeed by ‘no means so well calculated to
develop the mind of the young as a knowledge of natural
objects ; and, second, there are so few professional teachers
who have given the necessary study to the subject of living
forms. When school commissioners insist that there shall
be less of books and more of nature taught, teachers will
qualify themselves for the work required of them.

Report on Zoology. 143

The disadvantages of this neglect of a most important
_ ¢lass of studies, are not simply to the individual but to
science and the world at large ; for in proportion as a know-
ledge and a love for nature is not inculcated in schools,
in that proportion is the world deprived of intelligent and
enthusiastic observers. On the other hand the advantages
which would necessarily result from sending the young
from school with some real and tangible subjects for
thoughts and observations are inestimable, and would
materially tend to the attainment of (in the language of
Bacon), ‘the knowledge of causes and secret motions of
things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire
to the effecting of all things possible.”

Report on the recent Progress of Chemistry. By Lz Roy
C. Cootey, Ph. D.

[Read before the Institute, March 21, 1871, as a Report in part of the First
Class in the First Department—Physiology and Chemistry. ]

The chemistry of the past aimed to do little more than to
give mere descriptions ofindividual substances; the chemis-
try of the present does this and at the same time seeks to
classify facts, and to develop the principles and laws ac-
cording to which, in nature, the composition and properties
of bodies have been determined.

Chemists of the modern school are all practical chemists,
being all engaged in the experimental examination of the
composition of matter, and in the careful study of facts
thus revealed. All chemists, however, are not laboring
with exactly the same object in view. While one class is
using every new fact of discovery, in conjunction with those
already known, to establish or modify theories, and if pos-
sible to develop the truths that underlie all chemical ac-
tions, another class is endeavoring to turn the same facts to |
useful purposes in the industries and the arts of life. The
object of this report is to illustrate the character and results
of the activity prevailing among chemists of the present day
in these two directions. ) }

The theories which have come to be regarded as the foun-
dation of chemical science, are just at the present time being
subjected to the most rigorous examination.

Many years aga, Dalton, who could see no other way to
account for the numerical relations in chemistry, proposed
the atomic theory. This theory, modified from time to
time as new facts were developed, came to be very generally
regarded as the foundation of the science, so that Dr.
Williamson, in a late address before the Chemical Society

Report on the Progress of Chemistry. 145

of London, felt warranted in making the very strong dec-
laration that “the existence of atoms is the life of chem-
istry.” And yet the truth of the atomic theory is not
unquestioned. Sir Benjamin Brodie seems to quite re-
jectit, while he points out what he regards as a better basis
of the science. Dr. Odlingand Dr. Frankland also agree
with Sir Benjamin that the facts of chemistry, while they
may be explained by it, do neither prove nor require the
atomic theory. Dr. Roscoe, in his address before the che-
mical section of the British Association (meeting of 1870),
after reviewing the opinions of the gentlemen just named,
gave expression to what, doubtless, may be considered as
the sentiment at present of the majority of chemists. While
he seems to hold himself in readiness to give up the atomic
theory, whenever anything better may be offered in its
place, he yet declares that its assumptions explain the facts
of chemistry, as the undulatory theory gives a clear view
of the phenomena of light.

Next to the atomic theory, the doctrine of quantivalence,
or, as it is also called, atomicities, is the most important in
modern chemistry. The introduction of this theory is of
recent date, and it has wrought a thorough revolution of the
science, overturning the older views of chemical compo-
sition, and even banishing the familiar Lavoisierian nomen-
clature.

As far back as the year, 1851, the germ of this theory ap-
peared in the attempt of Dr. Williamson to group bodies
into classes founded upon their resemblance in composition
to some other body regarded as a type. The oxygen
acids, bases and salts, in his view, belonged to a single
group whose typical compound is water. In 1858, Ger-
hardt added hydrogen and ammonia to the list, and suc-
ceeded in classifying a great number of known compounds
under these three types. Hydrochloric acid was afterward

Trans. vii.] 19

146 Report on the Progress of Chemistry.

taken instead of hydrogen as a type. Now in these typi-
cal compounds hydrogen is a common element, and it was
noticed that, in them, the number of atoms were respec-
tively one, two, and three; and, moreover, it was seen, that
the one, two and three atoms of hydrogen were respectively
combined with a single atom ofanother element. It seemed
clear, therefore, as Dr. Odling noticed, that the combining
powers of different elements were not alike. An atom of
chlorine could take only a single atom of hydrogen, while
an atom of oxygen could take two, and an atom of nitro-
gen could take three. |

The chemical attraction exerted by an atom of hydrogen
thus came to be the unit of measure, in terms of which the -
combining powers of all the other elements could'be des-
cribed. Chlorine, one of whose atoms can hold only a sin-
gle atom of hydrogen in combination, is described as being
uni-equivalent, or briefly, univalent. Many other substances,
like chlorine, able to hold one atom of hydrogen to one
of their own, are brought into a single class known as the
uinvalent group. All other substances, which, like oxygen,
have power to hold two atoms of hydrogen to one of their
own, constitute a second class known as the bivalent
group. Inasimilar way there is the trivalent group in which
the combining power of an atom is equivalent to that in
three atoms of hydrogen and others in which the equiva-
lence of atoms is higher still.

This principle of classification has led to the theory of
compound radicals upon which the composition of organic
substances can be explained and the otherwise overwhelm-
ing mass of disconnected facts reduced to a manageable
system. Take, for example, the typical body marsh gas ;
its composition is one atom of carbon with four atoms of
hydrogen, and since an atom of carbon is equivalent to four
of hydrogen the attractions of both elements in this com-
pound are fully satisfied. But now let an atom of hydrogen

Report on the Progress of Chemistry. 147

be taken out of the CHy, thus leaving the compound
CH?, and the chemical energy of the carbon is no longer
satisfied; there is a deficiency just equal to an atom of hy-
drogen. This deficiency may be supplied by restoring the
atom of hydrogen or by offering, instead, an atom of any
other substance which is equivalent to it. But for every
different atom received, a different compound is formed,
and thus the radical CH;, becomes a root, out of.
which may spring a long series of compounds. Hy-
droxyl (HO) is another of these radicals. In it the com-
bining power of oxygen is not satisfied. Give it another
atom of hydrogen, and it becomes water (H,O), or in
place of this atom of hydrogen substitute a molecule of the
radical ethyl (C,H;) and the water is changed to alcohol
(C,H;HO), hydroxyl being the common root of both.

From a few such roots or radicals, nearly all organic sub-
stances, however complex, may be supposed to spring.

The adoption of this elegant theory of quantivalence into
the science of chemistry has given anew impetus tothe study
of organic bodies. It is found possible to classify them ac-
‘cording to the radical which may be thought to predominate
in their composition, and the vast multitude of these com-
plex substances is being gradually sorted and grouped ac-
cordingly. Series are thus formed, each based upon a
radical and built up from it by numerical ratios. This
work has a two-fold value: it enables the chemist to study
more successfully the characters of substances already
known to exist, and, at the same time, it suggests the direc-
tions in which new ones are to be discovered. For as in
Bode’s law of planetary distances, one ratio had at first no
known planet to correspond to it, soin these chemical series,
there are numerical values with no known corresponding
compounds; and as the vacancy in Bode’s series led to the
discovery of the asteroids, so these vacancies in chemical
series are constantly leading to the discovery of new com-

148 Report on the Progress of Chemistry.

pounds. So rapidly do these discoveries follow each other
that to simply name those which have been brought to light
during the past year alone would be an unwelcome task
at this time.

But fruitful as this theory of atomicities has proved to
be, and intimately as it has been allowed to weave itself
into the very foundations of the science of chemistry, it is
stili far from being exempt from the most rigorous examin-
ation and of the severest criticism. A remarkable paper
was read before the American Association at its Troy meet-
ing in August last (1870) in which Mr. F. W. Clark sub-
jected the theory to what‘’seems to be a calm and searching
review. After naming compounds by way of illustrating
the failure of the theory in important cases, the author de-
clares that ‘‘such compounds seem to be absolutely inex-
plicable by any of the ordinary forms of the theory of .
atomicities,” and the arguments employed are sufficiently
vigorous to make us await anxiously the reply of the ad-
vocates of the theory to the charge made in the concluding
words of the sentence, just partly quoted, when, of these
inexplicable compounds it is added, “in fact it seems as
if theoretical chemists had run away from and ignored them.”
The author finally expresses his opinion that “for the
present we must look upon the doctrine of atomicities as
a convenient but faulty system of mnemonics which, pro-
perly used, enables us to grasp and handle large masses
of facts, but which when misunderstood and regarded as a
law, only leads us into confusion.” An attack of this kind
will doubtless be seized by chemists as affording them an —
opportunity to strengthen the foundations of their science
by extending or modifying the applications of the doctrine of
atomicities. To give up the theory itself seems to be out
of the question. The roots of the tree may be hidden; the
trunk itselfmay be covered with fungi, but from its branches

Report on the Progress of Chemistry. — 149

too noble a fruitage is being gathered to permit the thought
that the tree is either trunkless or rootless.

The atomic theory and the theory of quantivalence seem
to be generally regarded as the foundation of modern chem-
istry, as truly as the undulatory theory is the foundation
of the science of optics, or as the theory of molecular
motion lies at the bottom of the science of heat, or, per-
haps we may add, as the theory of gravitation is at the
foundation of astronomy.

Passing now from these foundation principles to others
scarcely less important, we notice in the first place some
investigations made in the interesting department of spec-
trum analysis. This branch of chemical science is under-
going a rigorous examination. Erroneous inductions are
being corrected and the conditions under which this kind
of analysis can be applied with certainty are rapidly being
defined. The fundamental principle, announced by Bun-
sen and Kirchoff in their first memoir, that the same ele-
ment always gives the same set of bright lines must now
be modified by adding the words, when burned under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure. For it has been found
(see Quarterly Journal of Science, Jan., 1871) that the high
temperature or the high pressure spectrum of an element
may differ essentially from that of the same element when
the temperature or pressure is low. The spectrum of so-
dium, for example, when the metal is burned at the tem-
perature of a Bunsen flame, consists of a double yellow
line only, but when burned in the more intense heat of the
electric arch, the same metal yields a spectrum of no less
than five lines, each like the first yellow one, double. The
extra lines appear one after another as the temperature
gradually rises. The sodium spectrum is by no means the
only example of this curious effect of high temperatures,
And then as to pressure, it is found, in the case of nitrogen,
for example, that at a pressure much below that of the

150 Report on the Progress of Cuemistry.

atmosphere, the spectrum consists of many shaded bands,
but that at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere the
spectrum is entirely different, consisting of clearly cut
bright lines. This discovery we owe to Pliicker, and, to
quote Dr. Watts, “Among all the additions made to our
knowledge of spectrum analysis within ten years none is
so startling as the discovery that a substance may give two
totally diterant spectra which have no line or band in
common.’

Another principle early announced by Bunsen and Kirch-
off, was that the spectrum of a metal would be the same
whatever compound might be used, Thus, for example
sodium gave the same double yellow line whether burned
as the element or in combination as a chloride, an iodide
a sulphate or a carbonate. But this is now known to be
true only in certain cases ; indeed it seems to be so only when
the temperature of the flame is high enough to decompose
the compound. From compounds which are not broken
up at the high temperature employed, spectra very dif-
ferent from those of its elements are obtained. A charac-
teristic difference seems to be this: the spectrum of a metal
usually consists of sharply defined lines, while that of its
compounds contains broad bands instead. And just here
should be noticed the very suggestive fact that the. high
pressure spectrum of nitrogen differs from its low pressure
spectrum just as the spectrum of an element usually differs
from that of its compound; and Dr. Watts remarks that,
‘Tt remains for future experiments to confirm or modify
the indications thus given of the compound nature of
nitrogen.”” To the Quarterly Journal of Science and the
Journal of the Franklin Institute, attention is especially di-
rected for full accounts of recent investigations in this
department.

With these examples to illustrate the alin of chemists
in examining and rebuilding the very ground-work of their

_ Report on the Progress of Chemistry. 151

science, we pass to notice others which show an equal ac-
tivity in the more brilliant work of actual discovery. We
find the most remarkable advances in the field of organic
chemistry, where the chemists of the whole world seem to
have found an abundant fruitage ready to harvest.

Reference has already been made to the rapid discovery
of new organic substances, but the exceeding activity in this
direction will be better appreciated if we add, by way of illus-
tration, that no less than thirteen of these new substances
were formulated and briefly described by Mr. Perkins alone
at the meeting of the London Chemical Society, held Dec.
15th, 1870. So frequent are such discoveries that, ceasing
to excite general interest, they are, for the most part, re-
corded and laid aside until the facts of their composition are
needed to confirm or refute some new view, of the laws of
chemical combination. Sometimes, however, they do rise
above this dead level and become subjects of the liveliest in-
terest on account of their practical valuein thearts. Of this
character are the recent discoveries of artificial coloring
matters.

We need only mention here the enormous development
of aniline, or coal-tar colors, a wonderful illustration of the
value of recent chemical research. Mr. Perkins, quoting
the report made by Dr. Hofmann, on the coal-tar colors
shown at the Paris Exposition, says that ‘‘in 1862 the value
of these manufactures had risen from nothing to 10,000,000
francs or more than £400,000 sterling. At the present day
this sum is trebled, which would make it about one and a
quarter million pounds sterling, although the products are
much cheaper than they were before.” Mr. Perkins adds:
* And now when you hear of those results, do not forget
that they are the truly practical fruits of theoretical chem-
istry not studied for the purpose of producing commercial
products but simply for its own sake.”

152 Feport on the Progress of Chemistry.

The American Chemist, vol. I (new series) contains an ela-
borate description of the character and manufacture of these
coloring matters.

About thirty-nine years ago investigations on the coloring
matter of madder root were begun: they have been conti-
nued up to the present with most interesting and important

results. It was found that from the madder root could be-

obtained the two coloring compounds, purpurine and aliza-
rine, to the latter of which the value of the root is chiefly due.
The composition of this alazarine being carefully studied, it
was found to contain a constituent called anthracine. But
anthracine was also found to bea constituent of coal-tar and
of mineral pitch, and it became at once a question of the
highest interest, whether alizarine might not be constructed
by subjecting anthracine to chemical processes. The effort
has been crowned with complete success, and artificial ali-
zarine, yielding the same colors on cotton goods and
declared by competent chemists to be chemically identical
with the natural alizarine of the madder root, has been added
to the list of valuable coloring materials. According to
Dr. Schunck, this is the only essential dye produced of
madder, and we are told by Mr. Perkins, that the difficul-
ties in the way of manufacturing it are rapidly disappearing,
so that the discovery of artificial alazarine can scarcely fail
to be equal in importance to that of aniline, the production
of which has since expanded into a distinct branch of in-
dustry.

A still later triumph in this same direction is the discovery
by M. M. Emmerling and Engler of a process by which
indigo has been synthetically made in the laboratory.

Looking in another direction, we find notice of an inves-
tigation by Prof. Henry Wurtz, of New York, of the
chemical transformations of silica. Only a preliminary
announcement of the experimental researches in this new
field has been given, but even this is enough to awaken

he ea eg ee ne ee a a ial ae

Report on the Progress of Chemistry. 153

the liveliest interest; for, to quote from the American Che-
mist, (vol. 1, p. 206), “Prof. Wurtz believes that his
studies have unmistakably, tended toward the conclusion,
which will be startling to many, that silicic acid as such,
that is, in isolated forms, appertains in origin at least altogether
to the vegetable kingdom.”

Probably no other acid has been so generally regarded
as purely mineral in its character as silicic acid ; to be told
now that it is probably of organic origin is indeed startling,
and the future results of pending investigations will be
awaited with an interest partaking somewhat of the nature
ofanxiety. Says Prof. Joy, in the Journal of Applied Chem-
istry quoted by the American Chemist; ** The importance of
researches of this character in agriculture, geology and
mineralogy cannot be exaggerated, and it is impossible to
anticipate what must be their effect upon the hitherto ac-
cepted theories in these branches of science.” And again:
‘If we really have a solvent for silicon and carbon we may
look to the artificial crystallization of quartz and the dia-
mond as of possible consummation within no distant period.
But the manufacture of these gems is of insignificant im-
portance as compared with the possible bearing of the dis-
covery upon the growth of crops and the enriching of our
soil.

We have thus far, in these notes, indicated a few of the
lines of research now engaging the attention of chemists,
having selected these particular ones, as perhaps best
adapted to show, first, how great the activity now prevailing
in chemical science; and, second, the great importance of
such theoretical investigations when viewed with regard to
the interest of commerce and the arts. But the labor of
chemists can by no means be measured by these particular in-
vestigations. If, for the time, they do seem to be the more
prominent labors, it is only because of the prospect of imme- »

Tr 4} 20

154 Report on the Progress of Chemistry.

diate and useful application of their results. A multitude
of other researches secondary to these only because the ap-
plications of their results are not so apparent is being made
in all the important laboratories of this and other countries.
In our own scientific journals may be found from month to
month, announcements of important and continuous con-
tributions from the School of Mines of Columbia College;
the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale and the Lawrence
Scientific School of Harvard and the laboratories of other
institutions of our own country, while in similar foreign
journals are found abundant contributions of like kind from
the laboratories of Europe. And this leads us to notice, in
conclusion, that the literature of chemical science is very
abundant, consisting of cyclopeedias wherein are stored the
results of all past labors, and of serials wherein are an-
nounced the results of the present. Gmelin’s Hand Book of

Chemistry and Watts’s Dictionary may be commended to those -

who desire to familiarize themselves with what has been
done in the past and even up to a late day; the latter work
has been declared to be the greatest chemical work which
England has yet produced. We are glad to find that the
publishers announce a supplement, now in preparation,
which is to bring this great work down to the year 1869.
But we cannot forbear to caution against depending upon
even these excellent books for a knowledge of a science so
progressive as chemistry.. Books, however full or carefully
written, when once laid upon the library shelf are soon left
behind by the progress of science. Whoever will keep pace
with the advance of chemistry must look to the current
serials for information. Among the publications of this
kind in our country may be especially mentioned the

American Chemist and the Journal of Applied Chemistry, both
published in New York, and both especially devoted to the

interests of American science. Among the serials not
purely chemical, the Journal of the Franklin Institute stands

ee, ee

Report on the Progress of Chemistry. 155

prominent for the freshness and reliability of its chemical
news. The American Journal of Science and Art, also contains
much that is indispensable to the chemist. The Chemical
News, the Quarterly Journal of Science and Nature are London
publications of greatest value, while the Comptes Rendu and
Poggendorf’s Annalen may be commended as good expo-
nents of the scientific progress on the continent of Europe.

re

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. By Turron
Seni. a

[Read before the Albany Institute, June 6th, 1871.]

The isthmus of Tehuantepec is that part of the republic
of Mexico lying between the peninsula of Yucatan, on the
east, and the broader part of Mexico, on the west, and com-
prises the two states of Oxacaca and Vera Cruz. The gulf
of Tehuantepec bounds it on the north, and the Pacific
ocean on thesouth. It has always attracted more attention
than any other portion of Mexico, because, during the first
years of its discovery, the number and large size of the
rivers, emptying into the sea near Vera Cruz, on the road
from the sea to the city of Mexico —a part of the country
which was first known and explored by the Spanish dis-
coveries — seemed to indicate that a passage from sea to
sea — the long sought for route to the Indies — might be
found there; and now with better knowledge of the
Isthmus it is equally interesting to us, because we hope to
unite the two oceans by a canal. In the days of Colum-
bus, the whole coast from Vera Cruz to Sisal was explored,
and every bay and river was entered, and followed, as far as
the ships could go.

All hope of a natural channel having been exhausted, an
expedition was formed under Cortez, partly to determine
the feasibility of artificially constucting a canal, and, partly,
to search for the mines from which the ancient Aztecs ob-
tained their abundant supply of gold. The mines, although
once certainly known, were not found; but the Spanish
soldiers, headed by the great adventurer, ascended the river
Coatzucoleas more than sixty miles, then deserting their
ships, crossed through the mountains to the Pacific, where

!

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 157

.

they built two small vessels, and pursued their fruitless search
toward the isthmus of Darien. However disappointed
Cortez may have been at not finding the promised gold on
the isthmus of Tehuantepec, he still had faith, for other
reasons, in that part of his conquered provinces, for, on
being allowed to choose a portion for himself, and his
heirs, he took the central part of the isthmus, and there,
Spaniards, claiming descent from him, exist to this day.

In later days, several expeditions have been sent from
France, and the United States, to survey this part of the
country, so that, while the greater portion of Mexico is
almost unknown, this has hardly a stream, large enough
for a canoe, nora hill over an hundred feet high, which
has not been accurately measured, and mapped.

The object of this essay is to lay before the society a
description of the isthmus and its peculiarities, in the hope
that, as the rival advantages of the route for a canal, there,
and at Darien, and Nicaragua, are uow before the public,
such a description may prove interesting.

The general direction of the coast at the mouth of the
river Coatzucolcas, which empties into the sea in latitude
18° 30’, and longitude 94° 32’, is east and west. The
shortest distance across the isthmus, on a north and south
line, or nearly north and south, is one hundred and forty-
five miles. |

There are three topographical divisions, which may be
called Atlantic Plains, Pacific Plains and Table Lands.

The Atlantic Plains are low and flat, forty or fifty miles

wide, extending from the sea, to the head of the navigable
rivers at the base of the Table Lands. They are almost
level, having only rise enough toward the mountains to
give a current of four or five miles an hour. The soil is
-a rich alluvial deposit, covered with tropical vegetation.
The banks of the rivers are of uniform height, about ten
feet above the river, in dry weather, and apparently per-
manent. ,

158 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

The Pacific Plains lie between that ocean on the south,
and the Table Lands on the north. They have a gentle
inclination toward the sea. The rivers which drain them
are eight in number, and of small size. Seven of them
discharge in two large lakes, or lagoons, and thence,
through a narrow channel, called Boca del Barro, to the
sea, while the eighth discharges into the gulf of Tehuan-
tepec. None of them are larger than the Rondout
creek. They are interesting because their sources are
higher than the summits of the passes through the moun-
tains, and they can be used as feeders for the canal.

Between the two plains are the Table Lands. They are
a part of the Cordillera range, about twenty-five miles in
width, and elevated, at the lowest point, seven hundred and
thirty-five feet. They are watered by an hundred small
rivers, flowing toward either sea.

The general appearance of these table lands is like the
best farming lands of Maryland and Virginia. There is no
tropical vegetation, nor tropical animal life.

There are two passes through these hills, named Tarifa,
and Chivella, both of which offer a good location for a road.

The climate of the isthmus varies as much as its topo-
grapliy. On the sea, particularly the Atlantic coast, the
climate is hot and sultry: rain falls from July until October.
The low ground, partially overflowed in the wet season,
emits a dangerous miasma, and breeds, in every crevasse,
a thousand kinds of insect life: every thing which bites
and stings has here its home, and fullest perfection. Mus-
ketoes are more abundant and tormenting than in the ©
marshes of New Jersey. Poisonous spiders, bugs, fleas,
ants and sandfliers abound. Alligators swarm in the rivers
and bask on their slimy banks. Monkeys and parrots in-
numerable chatter in the woods.

Every stick and stone is freighted with animal life.
Vines and flowers interlaced render the woods impassable

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 159

for pedestrians. Voyagers in canoes cannot leave them to
ramble in the woods.

Occasionally the traveler sees the solitary hut of a ma-
hogany wood hunter with its little patch of maize and rice.
Sometimes he sees the hut fire, and, perhaps, remnants of
a meal of a voyager who has preceded him. These are the
only evidences of human life seen during one week’s jour-
ney from the sea to the mountains.

The current of the rivers is so swift, that canoes propelled
by two or three men, planting their poles upon the bottom,
when the water is not too deep, and against the bank when
it is, the men walking from stem to stern, can only make
from three to four miles an hour: fifteen miles, up stream,
is a good day’s journey.

Huts made of a frame of poles, thatched with ocha leaves,
have been built on the river banks, about fifteen miles
apart. We could not induce the crew to pass one of these
huts. The steersman is captain: he stands in the stern
with a long oar. His excuse, for stopping, is, that there
is a very strong current, just around the next bend, which
his wearied crew cannot stem. The heat of the sun burns
the skin. Exposed metal becomes too hot to handle. The
less clothing, the more comfort. The nights are cold,
about 50°, and, consequently, the dews are heavy. A
man who sleeps without shelter, can wring the moisture
from his clothes in the morning. The air is, at all times,
so damp, that a sail or blanket, continually exposed, will be
continually wet: the heat of the sun will not dry it, tho-
roughly. The country is swampy. ‘Mist and fog overhang
the river banks.

The climate of the central portion of the isthmus is more
like the temperate zone.

The soil is more barren, and, except in the intervales, or
such portions of the valleys as are overflowed annually,
contains a large proportion of slate rock.

160 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

The beds of the rivers are rocky, and their currents swift.

This central portion reminds a traveler of the lovely
lands of Maryland and Virginia.

The air is dry and pure. The wind blows, all the time,
from the north to the south.

Along the river banks there is an abundant supply of.
timber—scrub oak, cotton wood, and saibo—while away
from the rivers the plains are covered with grass.

There are no musketoes, fleas, nor spiders; but few
parrots, no monkeys, norsnakes. The air is exhilarating,
like a mountainous country. There is no miasma like that’
of the Plains. There is fever and ague about the large
lagoons. The most common rockisslate. Quartz pebbles
are found in the brooks, showing that quartz is to be found
higher up the mountains, ameng the older rocks. Small
and swift streams of pure water are plentiful. The people
of this district areemployed as herdsmen. The country is
filled with cattle: they are fattened here, and driven to the
large cities to be slaughtered for their beef and hides.

Generally, there are no roads, for the country is passable
anywhere, and there are no fences. Hundreds of tracks,
made by cattle from various ranchos to the water, erdss and
recross continually. The only way to reach any destination
is to go ahead regardless of these trails, for they only con-
fuse the traveler. A road has been made by some Ame-
rican capitalists, nearer the summit, where the hills are
more precipitous. In the first days of the California fever,
this road was used to transport the emigrants. It is still —
called the American road. When made it was wide
enough for stage coaches, and was used by them for a short
time; but it has been gradually overgrown, until the track
is barely wide enough for a single mule. ;

In the range of Cordilleras, which traverse the whole of —
Mexico, as a back bone, there are two points, both on the
isthmus of Tehuantepec, where they are depressed to a

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 161

height of seven hundred and forty-five and seven hundred
and thirty feet.

These are called the passes of Tarifa and Chevilla. They
_are about twenty-five miles apart, and from each of them
the slope is easy and gradual to the sea. Through one of
these the canal, or railroad, must be built, if ever built at
all.

Between the table lands and the Pacific, are the Pacific
Plains.

In the plains near the sea, are two large lagoons, or
lakes, containing, together, one thousand square miles.
These lakes have an interest related especially to the canal.
Their depth varies from one to twenty feet. The average
depth over half of their area is, probably, fifteen feet.
Seven rivers discharge into them. Both lakes discharge
into the sea, through an outlet about one mile wide. The
water of these lakes is fresh.

If a canal be made, these lakes will be used as the
Bitter lakes are now used for the Suez canal.

By a little dredging they will shorten the canal, about
thirty miles, and form a large, safe, and commodious harbor.

The sand bar, which separates them from the sea, is in
some places, only five miles wide, and may be easily
crossed by a small additional length of canal, if the speed
of the current at that natural outlet called Boca del Barro,
of five miles an hour, should be thought an impediment to
the entrance, and exit of ships.

The entire country from the mountains to the Pacific is
’ of alluvial soil, except those portions nearest the sea, which
are of sand. There is no rock anywhere on the surface.

The climate is hotter and drier than on the Atlantic slope,
and not so favorable toward any kind of vegetable growth,
or miasma. The greatest pests are the sand flies, called
rotadores, half as large as musketoes, but twice as trou-

Trans. vii.] 21

162 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

blesome. In summer they can be caught by the handful,
like gnats, but disappear with the first winds of winter.
They do not bite at night, when the musketoes take
their turn. "

The inhabitants of the isthmus are Indians, and a cross
between Indians and Spaniards, called Mexicans. There
are several tribes of Indians, called Aztecs, Huaves, Zoques,
and Zopotecos.

These last are most numerous, especially on the nar-
rowest parts of theisthmus. The Aztecs are farther north,
toward Vera Cruz.

The language of the Indians may have been originally a
pure tongue. Nothing now remains but a few idioms,
with much bad Spanish.

The meaning of a phrase depends as much upon the ges- .

ture and emphasis, as upon the words. The guttural sounds
are much used, and are disagreeable to a foreigner. The
men are short, thickset and strong, a dark copper color,
with long, straight, black hair, high cheek bones, white
teeth, dark eyes, and low foreheads. The expression of

their countenances is gentle and melancholy: they have.

great strength and endurance, are stoical and persevering,
but without energy or ambition.

The women are small: in youth, or age, generally slender,
In middle life they grow fat: they are all, and especially
the young girls, of beautiful figure: in manners, shy, and
gentle. In color they are generally lighter than the men.
They have a soft, tender skin, small and pretty feet and
hands, of which they are very careful. They give much at-
tention to their hair, which grows long and thick, often
reaching below their knees, like a garment, sometimes the
only garment they have. “Usually, every woman wears a
blanket hanging from a girdle at the waist.

Near the large towns they have also a kind of little sacque,
without sleeves, which is worn as full dress. In some work

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 163

the blanket incommodes them, and they use it only as a
cushion. A traveler sometimes surprises a group sitting
in this manner and dressing each other’s long hair. In the
‘damp and cool mornings the men come out of their huts
covered in blankets to the chin, and shivering with cold.
while the women wear nothing above their waists, and ap-
pear to be comfortable, while moving about to build the
fire and prepare breakfast.

The Indian’s cultivation ofthe ground is limited. A small
piece of ground, once cleared and planted with maize, is
handed down from one generation to another, and receives
no more attention or labor, except to pluck the ripe maize.

They subsist on dried beef, and a kind of hoe cake, made
from maize, mixed with water, which they grind between
two stones, and bake on a stone in the embers. This is
palatable when taken hot. The dried beef is prepared by
cutting the flesh in strips, about an inch square, and as long
as the animal will yield. It is dried in the sun and sold
forsix-pencea yard. The yard weighs two pounds. Itcan
be eaten raw when no fire is handy, but is generally wound
round a stick and held over the fire until it is brown. It
undergoes a partial decay while being dried in the sun, and
never quite loses that flavor. Fresh beef decays so quickly,
in the lump, that, although in a large settlement many cat- ©
tle may be slaughtered in a week, it is scarcely ever seen
at a meal.

Sugar cane grows in great abundance and is made into
a coarse brown sugar called panella.

The chief article of diet isthe Mexican bean called Friol.
These beans are boiled, and eaten at all times and seasons,
in quantities to make a foreigner shudder. The beans are
half an inch long, round, black, and with a shining surface.
They are cheap and abundant.

The marriages of the natives are by mutual consent, appa-
rently without ceremony: they marry young. Women are

164 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

often mothers at the ages of twelve and thirteen : the families
of children seem large. The children appear to have
very little care; they wear no clothes in childhood. Long-
evity is rare. I saw none who appeared to be fifty years
old, and few as old as forty. The women seem to live
longer than the men. They appear, at all ages, to be honest
and faithful, and to have no fear of theft from each other.
The owner of a hut will leave it for days, fastened with a
wisp of bark and containing his whole store of maize, beef,
and also his tempting flask of corn whiskey called agua
diente, which he is sure to find on his return.

The Mexican robbers live in the neighborhood of the
cities and are aided by their more civilized neighbors. I
came, alone, through the most lonely part of Mexico, over
three hundred miles, entirely unarmed, among Indians who
perhaps had not seen a white man before, and was received
with uniform kindness, and hospitality.

Excepting one woman who was cross-eyed and a few
marked with small pox, I saw no cases of deformity.
Other travelers on the isthmus have remarked that they
had observed few cases of physical deformity.

The huts are usually upon the river bank, although that
is not the most healthy location.

They are very simple. Four stakes are driven into the
ground a few inches. A wall of twigs is woven between
them. These are plastered with mud which hardens in the
sun. The whole is covered with a roof of grass or large
leaves called Ocha Blanca. Two men will build a house
in two or three days which will perhaps shelter them and
their children for generations. Usually one end of the sin-
gle room is occupied by a lattice of laths to be used as a
bed. It is as long as a man, and as wide asthe size of the
family calls for. Upon this bed all the occupants of the
house lie—man, wife, children and guests. After one night
spent outside upon the ground in the heavy dew, the most

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 165

modest traveler usually resigns himself tohis fate and takes
the place upon the bed reserved for him. Each sleeper has
his or her own blanket, and all lie under one musketo net.

The occupation of the men is either cutting mahogany
and rafting it down the river to the sea, driving mule-trains,
carrying indigo or herding cattle.

Mahogany grows all through the swampy portions of the
isthmus. The trees generally stand singly, but the con-
ditions which favor the growth of one induce many, so
that when a hunter finds one he is generally sure of others
not far off. |

The trees are hard to find ; they are not plenty anywhere,
and near the river banks and roads have long since been
cut away.

A special class of men, called mahogany hunters, make it
their business to search for these trees, and are paid a small
sum by the leader of a gang of axe-men or choppers for
each tree they may bring news of.

When a hunter finds a tree, he puts his private mark upon
the bark, which is respected by all his competitors.

When the leader receives notice of a tree or number of
trees, he sends to the seaport for government permission to
fell it, and pays a tax of fifty cents on each tree. Asall the
trees must be felled-and drawn to the river bank in the dry
season, a few days time will sometimes hinder or allow a
tree being cut on the same season when found.

Light canoes are often seen during the last days of
the dry season hurrying to or trom the seaport with or for
the government permission, as rapidly as the men can
drive them, hardly stopping for sleep or food.

All the logs must go in rafts to market. A record of the
tax paid by each cutter is kept by the government officer
in his hut at the mouth of the river: he is able to detect
fraud, if any tree felled has not been paid for.

The choppers draw the logs over rude corduroy roads,

166 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

hastily constructed to keep the logs from burying in the mud,
to the bank of the nearest creek, and float them down at
the next high water to a river large enough to build a raft,
thence to the sea.

The most expensive part of the work is hauling the logs
from their site to the creek. Twelve yoke of cattle are
sometimes hitched to a single log, weighing one ton. The
oxen are all yoked by a stick bound with thongs across the
fronts of their horns. © To the centre of this stick the rope
is fastened which is attached to the load or to the next yoke,
as the case may be. Horses and mules are hitched to the
load by the tail, alone. This appears cruel, but they draw
heavy loads, in this way, without apparent suffering.

The limiting distance at which it pavs to cut a tree, is
from one to two hundred yards, depending on the condi-
tion of the intervening ground. The mahogany exported
is not of the first quality, being too free from knots, owing
to its quick growth. The logs are worth, at the coast, reais
and $25 each, for a log of fifteen feet.

Asa mule driver, the Mexican is seen in his greatest
glory. One man rides a horse and cares for three or four
mules. One mule carries the provisions of the party, in-
cluding the flat stone for grinding the corn. The oldest
mule in the drove carries no load, and goes ahead as a leader.

The remainder of the train carry from one to two hun-—

dred pounds apiece including the pack saddle which weighs
about seventy-five pounds. ‘Thus, for every four mules,
carrying two hundred pounds each, eight hundred pounds,
in all, there are carried three hundred pounds of pack
saddles, two hundred pounds of provisions, and two extra
mules, being nearly fifty percent, ofnon-paying load. Hach
mule carries a bell, which serves to find it when strayed
or lost in the woods, or high grass. _The usual day’s jour-
ney is fifteen miles, but often, over muddy roads, not
more than five. At night, the mules are fed a little corn

7 a
ma,

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 167

‘and turned loose to eat grass until sunrise. The time
of starting is always at daybreak, and the day’s journey is
frequently over by one or two o’clock in the afternoon.
Mules, especially good riding ones, are more valuable
than horses, bringing from $50 to $60, each. The load is
usually indigo: the route from Pacific Plains to Minatilan
or Vera Cruz. The muleteering season is from October to
March,

The indigo is often transferred from mules to canoes, at
the rivers, and floated down with the current to the sea.

These canoes are made from the trunk of a mahogany
tree, from thirty to fifty feet feet long, and have a burden of
from one totwotons. A layer of twigs is put in the bottom
of the boat, to keep the indigo dry, and on this layer of twigs
the cargo is filled in level to the brim. Planks are then
laid down for a gangway, and the whole is covered with
large leaves. Drifting with the current, all hands loaf un-
der a little palanquin of leaves in the stern, taking turns at
the steering oar, or at the paddles, to help the craft through
any dangerous rapids. Returning, two or three men pro-
pel the boat by planting their poles upon the bottom and
walking the whole length of the plank from bow to stern.
The other, called the padron, steers, standing up in the
stern. In this way, they will make from fifteen to twenty
miles per day against a current of four or five miles. The
polemen are hired, for the round trip, at fifty cents per day.
The expensive part of the outfit is the canoe, which costs
from $40 to $50.

The central portion of the isthmus, containing a belt
thirty miles wide, is the finest kind of grazing land. Here
are established the ranchos of the richest men in Mexico,
some of them owning sixty and seventy thousand head
of cattle, and from ten to an hundred square leagues of
ground, or about two hundred and fifty to twenty-five hun-
dred square miles. One of these grandees has his agents in

168 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

huts, about ten miles apart, allover his land. Oncea year
he makes a tour of inspection, brands the calves, cuts the
bulls, and notes the increase and condition of the whole.
When he is at one of the little settlements, he acts as um-
pire for all disputes, and presides at marriage ceremonies.
At this season his agents are paid, and during the time of
his stay there is a succession of feasting and dancing.

The dance of the Mexicans is called the fandango, and
is performed by the women, alone. They dance without
sandals; the measured beating of their bare feet upon the
planks can be heard at a distance of half a mile.

The cattle are small, with large, wide-spreading horns.
After the branding season, they are turned loose, to care
for themselves until collected and driven into the inclosure
the following year.

Near the sea coast, the lands which are pasture in summer,
are overflowed by the rivers, in the wet season. ‘[hen the
cattle retreat into the mountains, and make a poor winter,
from the leaves, and little grass growing there. In the
spring they are driven down by the herdsmen to the plains
again, and may often be seen, by thousands, obstructing all
the roads and passes, and filling the air with their deafen-
ing roar.

A Mexican road, after one of these droves has passed
over it, looks like the muddy bed of a canal. The mud is
knee deep, covered with dung, and filled with little bugs
called ticks which have dropped from the cattle.

These fasten on horse and rider and live as parasites,
increasing very rapidly in numbers. To free himself from
these ticks, the traveler must search his person dili-
gently, and exterminate them daily. I remember that I
usually killed five or six each day, and on one day, sixteen.
They creep into the shoes, go down the neck and enter
every opening, rent, and seam of the clothing, where they
can hide.

The Isthmus of Tehuan tepec. 169

There are several large towns on the isthmus proper: the
most prominent being in the order as follows:

Tehuantepec, Passo del San Juan, Minatitlan, Chivella,
Suchil.

These last are the most noted, although smallest, being
on the line of the proposed road from sea to sea.

Minatitlan is the port on the Atlantic. Tehuantepec is
near the port on the Pacific. This last is one of the oldest
towns in Mexico: it was built by the Aztecs with walls of
flat bricks, and copper fastenings, which are now standing.
All the houses have heavily grated windows, and heavy
arched doorways. It was once the largest and most flourish-
ing town of southern Mexico, but war, famine, and the
thousand troubles and restrictions of a continually revolu-
tionized government, combined with the gradual decay of
the race, have almost reduced it toa ruin. Many of the
houses are uninhabited. ‘Where once was plenty, the
spider now weaves his web.” ‘The houses are painted
_ white, as in all Mexican towns, and may be seen at a dis-
tance of twenty miles, glistening in the sun.

The Tehuantepec Rail Road Company of New York has
permission to build a road over the line described, and a
grant of land along the line of the road with a promise of
Mexican bonds to a certain amount for each mile of road
actually contracted. In return, this company has agreed to
construct forty-five miles of road, annually, to carry govern-
ment freight free, and to cede to Mexico, at the expiration
of seventy years, the whole road, rolling stock, etc., and
for the fulfillment of this agreement has given bonds for
one hundred thousand dollars.

In regard to this compact, it may be said that the only
unclaimed lands along the line of the road are on the At-
lantic and Pacific Plains, which have no value except for
the little mahogany onthem. They agreed to commence

Trans. vii.] 22

170 The Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

work in 1870, but only formally broke ground in January,
without doing more. The company is now trying to raise
the money to commence the work. The course as pro-
posed is as follows:

From Minatitlan, at the mouth of Coazucolcos, on the
Atlantic, to Suchil, at the commencement of the moun-
tains, a distance of sixty miles, keeping the road about
three feet above the general level of the country overflowed
in the wet season. The river Taltepec is crossed here at a
jevel of one hundred and ninety-five feet above tide water.
From Suchil the course is through the highlands about fifty
miles, with a maximum grade of sixty feet to the mile. The
whole length of this proposed road is one hundred and sixty-
two miles. Its cost, with moving stock, is estimated at nine
millions of dollars. It will have great advantage over the
Panama rail road because the country is more healthy, and
the distance is shortened fifteen hundred miles between
New York and San Francisco. For sailing vessels the
saving of time is still greater, because they would not be
compelled to cross the belt of calms always found near the
equator. .

When we consider the great difficulties of constructing
the Panama rail road, its cost of $8,000,000, and one thou-
sand human lives, we are surprised that this isthmus of
Tehuantepec was not chosen in preference to Darien. The
difference, in time, for steamers, is eight days, and, for sail-.
ing vessels, much more.

The course of the proposed ship canal is near that of the
railroad. The chief difficulty in its construction will be the
necessity of bringing all water for lockage and evaporation
from a distance of about thirty miles.

The greatest elevation will be about six hundred and
forty-five feet, which is nearly twice that of the Erie canal.
Its length will be about one hundred and forty-five miles.
The proposed cost is $30,000,000.

The Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 171

The question is not whether it can be built, but, if it will
pay. The writer submits this problem to more competent
minds.

Recapitulation.—Latitude of the isthmus from 16° 30’ to
14° 30’; greatest elevation of proposed grade of canal 645 ft.;
length of canal 145 miles; cost $30,000,000; length of rail
road 162 miles; greatest grade, per mile, 60 feet.

Greatest elevation of rail road, is at Tarifa, 92 miles from
the Atlantic, 50 miles from the Pacific, 745 feet; number of
locks in canal, 120; proposed cost of rail road, $9,000,000.

On Certain New. Phenomena in Chemistry.
By VrERPLANCK COLVIN.

[Read before the Institute, Jan. 2, 1872. ]

The subject of this paper is so broad and varied, the
phenomena so interwoven and connected with different
branches of material science, that the title is but a slight
index to its character, and the paper itself can be only a
brief statement of facts, with such deductions as may seem
to follow. It might have been entitled “ An Account of
Mercury and its Amalgams”. As that, however, is not
exactly the scope of the paper, nor the final object of it, but
only the means or vehicle of communicating some ideas —
which I hope will prove to be new—it may be allowed to ~
stand here as a suggestion as to the character of the matter
which is to follow.

With the discovery, by Humphry Davy, of the metals of
the alkalies and earths, a new era opened in Chemistry.
The sombre. clouds which non-experimenting theorists
had cast around the science were suddenly and violently
dissipated in the blaze of simple truth, and one of those
epochs occurred which must from time to time recur, as
man acquires mastery over matter. As the theories of
Stahl and his phlogiston, had been pressed down and
swept away by the discoveries of the previous century, so
the accumulated errors of the intervening age were over-
thrown by Davy’s investigations, and the new metals were
evolved by electrolysis in the form of amalgams or com-
pounds with mercury. A few of the metals of the earths,
however, could not be thus procured, and their existence .
was only rendered probable by the analogous action of

‘New Phenomena in Chemistry. 173

their salts or oxides when under similar treatment. These
discoveries not only gave to Chemistry a list of new metals,
but with every one actually evolved, a new amalgam.
Thus, to the list of amalgams known to the ancients, were
added numerous new compounds, while the general cha-
racter of the elements so associated was of the most dis-
similar kind. One property only seems peculiar to the
majority of them, softness or malleability, and ductility.
To this class of easily amalgamated elements belong such
old metals as gold, silver, copper, tin and lead; and such
new metals as potassium, sodium, and calcium.

The other class of metals is peculiar in combining but
slightly or not at all with pure mercury; and these metals,
like those in the preceding class, seem to have but one
general characteristic, the reverse of that of the first class,
hardness, and at times, even brittleness.

Iron, probably, alone of all the metals known to the
ancients, belongs to this second class; while of the new
metals which seem to belong to it, chromium, columbium,
titanium, manganese, zirconium, and perhaps rhodium are
examples. Singularly enough platinum and aluminum,
malleable and ductile metals, appear to be attached to this
class by reason of the difficulty experienced in directly
combining them with pure mercury. It is therefore
plain that the proper classification of metals as regards
their affinity for mercury, is their separation into these
two divisions; the jirst consisting of metals that readily
combine with pure mercury; the second consisting of metals
which refuse to combine with pure mercury, at a moderate
temperature.

One of the consequences of the discoveries of Hum-
phry Davy, was the application of the amalgams of potas-
sium and sodium to purposes of exploration in Chemistry.
Berzelius and Pontin obtained their ammonium amalgam
by the direct electrolysis of aqua-ammonia in contact with

174 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

mercury. But afterwardsit was observed that this amalgam
could be made by the action of potassium or sodium
amalgam upon chloride of ammonium. It has been stated
that the amalgams thus procured are not exactly similar,
the amalgam prepared by the method of Berzelius having
a composition according to H. Davy of one part of ammo-
nium to 753 of mercury, and crystallizing in cubes when
cooled to zero centigrade; while that prepared with the
aid of potassium and sodium amalgam contains according
to Gay Lussac and Thénard, one part of ammonium to
1800 parts of mercury.

The discovery by Graham of the metallic nature of
hydrogen gas, as evinced by its occlusion in, or alloys with
palladium and platinum, enables us to avoid the difficulty of
believing in the existence of a metal or “element com-
pounded of gases””— which is an hibernicism — by suppos-
ing ammonia to be an alkaline, nitrogen salt of the metal
hydrogenium. Then, allowing that the light, cellular or
frothy state of the so called ammonium amalgam is owing to
the existence throughout the mass of molecules of released
nitrogen, clinging to, and recombining with the rapidly re-
oxidizing hydrogenium, we account for the ammonical gas
afterward given off. We might then suppose that hydro-
genium is the metal of the volatile alkali, ammonia, having
little resemblance to magnesium, which Graham believed
to most resemble it. This, however, is only an hypothesis,
and is indeed a digression.

The potassium and sodium amalgams enable us to form,

besides this hypothetical amalgam, compounds of mercury
with those metals which I have arranged in a second class,
as refusing to combine with pure mercury at a moderate or
low temperature. The process is simply placing potassium
amalgam, or its substitute, excited with some corrosive gas,
solution of a salt, aqua-ammonia, water or acid (as the
case may require) in contact with the metals to be amal-

New Phenomena in Chemistry. 175

gamated. <A triple amalgam of mercury, potassium or
sodium and “ammonium” (hydrogenium ?) is sometimes
useful; and I have found zinc amalgam, excited with
chlorhydric acid, a powerful agent in producing these results,

And now, before proceeding to describe those pheno-
mena of the discovery of which I can find no record, it is
advisable to examine into the nature of mercury and its
amalgams, and the present state of our knowledge of its
compounds.

Remembering that the fluid mercury with which we are
familiar is but the molten substance of a solid, ductile
and malleable metal; we arrive at the conclusion that
amalgams are simply the alloys of mercury, as metals dis-
solved in melted lead would be alloys of lead. Now the
‘alloys of mercury are peculiarly easy to examine; for even
when in the fluid state they do not burn one’s fingers, and
-by analyzing amalgams we are able to discover the condi-
tion of the metals contained in them. Having prepared
an amalgam of gold and dissolved it in an excess of mer-
cury, I treated the fluid amalgam with nitric acid. When
the quicksilver had entirely dissolved, there remained a
small spheroid of gold, dark upon the surface, and when
broken apart under the hammer, exhibiting a radiating
crystallization like that of globulariron pyrites. This, and
_ other experiments (which I have not time to describe),
appear to prove that a metal when amalgamated is really
dissolved; and it is possible that if the reduction of the
amalgam had been less rapid, a well formed crystal of
gold might have been obtained. The metals of the second
class seem also to be actually dissolved in the mercury.

Our knowledge of the compounds of mercury, as de-
rived from the latest standard works on Chemistry is,
singularly imperfect. St. Clair Deville, the famed chemist
of the late French empire, the discoverer of the economic
process of aluminum manufacture, asserts that metallic

‘176 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

aluminum is not susceptible of amalgamation. Prof. W.
A. Miller, in his Inorganic Chemistry (8d edition, p. 425)
also says of aluminum: ‘It does not combine with mer-
eury.” Yetin Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry, published
in London three years previous to this record in Miller,
we find that, ‘‘ According to Caillettet (Comp. rend., 44, p.
1250) aluminum (also iron and platinum) may be superfi-
cially amalgamated by contact with ammonium or sodium
amalgam and water; also when immersed in acidulated
water, in contact with metallic mercury, forming the nega-
tive pole of a voltaic battery.” This, published in London
1865, appears to ante-date the discovery by Prof. Henry
Wurtz of New York, of the method of amalgamating
aluminum with the aid of sodium amalgam (Zrans. Am.
Inst. 1867, p. 766), by some two years; but both discoveries
are obviously genuine. Again, both Miller and Watts
seem not to be aware of any method of combining mer-”
cury directly with metallic platinum, in the form of foil or
wire, and describe an indirect method of obtaining it,
by the electrolysis of chloride of platinum. Yet potassium
or sodium amalgam will readily effect the combination. _
A few years since, while experimenting with the amalgams
of the alkaline metals, I observed that a common iron nail
which happened to fall into the amalgam, became coated
with mercury. For atimeI believed myself the discoverer
of iron-amalgam, but on examination I have found men-
tion of it more than thirty years upon record. Aiken
(London Phil. Mag. xt, p. 416), shows that it may be
accomplished with the aid of zinc amalgam and a solution
of chloride ofiron. Watts says (1. ec. vol. 111, p. 887), “ Mer-
cury and iron do not unite readily. A viscid amalgam is
however obtained by immersing sodium amalgam, con-
taining one percent of sodium, in a clear, saturated solution
of ferrous sulphate. Joule (Chem. Gaz., 1859, p. 339;
Chem. Soc. J., XVI, p. 878), has obtained amalgam of iron

New Phenomena in Chemistry. 177

by electrolysis of a solution of ferrous sulphate, the nega-
tive pole being formed of mercury.” None of these authors
appear to be aware of any method of directly amalgamating
iron, yet H. Davy distinctly states, that either potassium
or sodium amalgam will effect the union of mercury with
iron and platinum.

Mercury has been employed from time immemorial,
in separating the precious metals from their earthy asso-
ciates. Originally the pure metal was employed, as indeed, ~
it still is to a considerable extent, held in little rifts or
gutters in the trough or sluice where they washed the
auriferous sands or pounded ore. This was also the
method of amalgamation at the stamp-mills, and it is
notorious that much gold passed over the mercury in this
process, and escaped. Recently I observed in the gold
mining regions of the Rocky mountains, at Central city and
Nevada, Colorado, that for the rifts and gutters filled
with mercury, they had substituted sheets of copper, super-
ficially amalgamated, over which the ore reduced to a thin
mud, or muddy water, was washed, its gold parting and
adhering to the surface of the amalgamated copper, and
doing so more readily than it would to the surface of pure
mercury.

Here we have another instance of that combination-action,
which we have already noticed in the potassium and sodium
amalgams, as evinced by their power to unite mercury
with the metals of the second class. It appears that those
metals of the first class which are softest, lightest and most
easily oxidized (as potassium, sodium, zine etc.), have-the
power to enable the harder, heavier and least oxidizable
metals of the same class (as copper, silver and gold), to
combine more readily with mercury than they would
unassisted ; and, further, to enable mercury to combine
with the metals of the second class, which though generally

Trans. vii.) 23 ’

178 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

harder and more brittle than any of the preceding are
often readily oxidized. This combination action separates
the alloys of mercury from all other alloys, so far as we
now understand them; for, as I have already shown,
instead of the mercury always losing power as a metal .
solvent in proportion as it becomes alloyed —it shows a
preference,— and when combined with portions of the
readily oxidizable metals, becomes more active and indeed
' galmost ferocious in its appetite for the metals and alloys
that are of a highly electro-negative character; while if
alloyed with sufficient gold or silver in the first instance, it
appears satisfied, phlegmatic and indifferent to further
metallic food. Experiments which I have made demon-
strate that cyanide of potassium does not answer as well as
the amalgams of the alkaline metals, in effecting the union
of mercury with electro-negative metals, as some have
asserted. Its solution is indeed not more effective than
aqua-ammonia in producing such results, and what efficacy
either of these solutions possess, may be attributed to their
cleansing the surface of the metal to be amalgamated.

It now becomes evident that the separation of metals
into the two classes is incorrect, as we have here, as in
every other general classification in science, no absolute
division, but merely extremes and means; the true mean .
being difficult to determine. The reactions of these amal-
gams of the electro-positive metals with those metals
which are relatively electro-negativé, are very instructive.
They tend to prove that all the amalgams subsequently
formed are the results of electrical action, to induce which
we have only to place a particle of iron in contact with
potassium amalgam and with water. In an instant we
have a voltaic battery in active operation; the amalga-
mated potassium forming the “zincode,” while the iron is
the electro-negative element of the battery. Of the metals

>
=_— a

'v

*

New Phenomena in Chemistry. 179

present the mercury is the electro-mean, and with the
oxidation of the potassium, it passes over to, and effects a
combination with the iron.

Thus we arrive at a more correct classification, and at a
law of preference of metals and alloys for mercury:

Ist Law. Metals that are easily alloyed with mercury
give place to, and assist the less amalgamatable metals in
combining with mercury, when in the presence of an
acid or corrosive liquid or atmosphere, which attacks the
metal already amalgamated, and which does not attack,
or does not so violently attack the metal to be amalga-
mated.

2d Law. The more intense the action of the acid or
corrosive liquid or gas upon the metal in the original
amalgam, the more rapid the formation of the secondary
amalgam.

3d Law. The amalgams of electro-positive metals,
assist those metals which are relatively electro-negative in
combining with mercury.

These laws are the results of certain experiments which,
as examples, I will now proceed to describe and illustrate.
Placing before us mercury Ist, in the pure state; 2d
amalgamated with copper; 3dzincamalgam; 4th aluminum
amalgam; 5th sodium amalgam; 6th potassium amalgam
and 7th “ammonium amalgam” (hydrogenium?) we may
suppose that we have the extremes and some of the means
of mercurial power; mercury in the pure passive, and in
the compound induced active state. To prove that it has a
passive and an active condition, it is only necessary to
exhibit gold leaf before the pure mercury, and each of the
several compounds mentioned.

First. It will be seen that with mercury alone it does
not readily amalgamate, and there is ‘no attraction of the
gold leaf toward the metal.

180 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

Second. Held above the amalgamated copper there is
no attraction, but the moment the gold is allowed to touch
the surface, it is eagerly seized and devoured.

Third. Held above zine amalgam excited with chlor-
hydric acid, the gold leaf begins to waver and tremble
slightly as though influenced by the amalgam. Touched
to the amalgam it is seized and vanishes instantly.

Fourth. Above the sodium amalgam, excited with water
or aqua-ammonia, we have the same symptoms, but even
more excitement and eagerness on the part of the gold
leaf to pass to the amalgam as it is approached; and the
gold is scarcely touched ere it is gone, licked up by the
hungry amalgam.

[This action is only seen when ‘ie short distances inter-
vene between the gold leaf and amalgam, an eighth or
sixteenth of aninch. To perform the experiment success-
fully, the water should just cover the amalgam, and the
edge of the gold leaf should be allowed to dip a little into
the water. ]

Fifth. With potassium amalgam the action is greater.

Sizth. With the hypothetical hydrogenium or ammonium
amalgam, I have found less action than the supposedly
high electro-positive character of the metal (?) would indi-
cate. This might be accounted for by the porous condi-
tion of the amalgam, owing to the gas contained (nitrogen ?)
and consequently much diffused state of the “metal.” I
notice this last experiment and reaction, merely because it
may be valuable in determining whether such gaseous
metals exist.

The result here seems to be that we have now for the
first time, a metallic compound capable of attracting the
precious metal gold, when but a short distance intervenes.
We can amuse ourselves with the idea that upon this
principle a compass may be constructed (a tube charged

with the amalgam), which will be to the prospector and

-
ee Se eee

New Phenomena in Chemisiry. 181

gold hunter as the magnetic dip needle is to the searcher
afteriron ore. Still, there is something inexplicable about
it, for this apparent attraction of gold can hardly be mag-
netic, and it seems to me we must look for explanation
to cohesive, molecular power.

I have shown that the combination of mercury and iron
was long since effected; I have now to claim as a dis-
covery the direct amalgamation of steel, even when of the

toughest and hardest character. The blade of the best
pen knife is readily amalgamated, and suffers from the
contact, while a plate of fine sheet steel, used in the
manufacture of superior instruments, ‘is easily coated with
mercury and made to resemble a sheet of silver. By mag-
netizing soft steel, reducing a sufficient amount of it to
filings, and dissolving the filings in mercury, I have. pro-
cured a magnetic amalgam, in the presence of which an
astatic needle is decidedly bewildered. The horseshoe
magnet which has this evening been exhibited brightly
coated with and upholding an inverted arch of fluid,
dripping mercury, lifts quicksilver, it is true, but quicksilver
loaded with an amalgam of magnetized steel; an attraction
much stronger than that evinced for iron amalgam.

A glass tube properly charged with the magnetic amal-
gam exhibits the polarity of the compass needle, and has
its extremities attracted and repelled by the poles of the
magnet in the same manner that the poles of the
compass needle are attracted and repelled. This property

of the magnetic amalgam is interesting, as it proves that
however minutely divided, the atoms of steel still retain
their magnetism, and are still influenced by the directive
currents of the earth. I have not yet been able to make
a very powerful needle of this kind; but, though my obser-
vations are very imperfect, am able to say that it seems to
point a little more truly to the magnetic north, and from
its greater inertia to be less subject to irregular changes

182 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

of variation than the ordinary compass needle. The
inertia is to be attributed to the assumption by the
magnetized steel of a certain portion of the weight or
specific gravity of the mercury. When this amalgam is
exposed to the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, it is
gradually decomposed, carbon being liberated, and the
permanent magnetism vanishing, while iron amalgam re-
mains. This will also finally decompose, pure mercury
and ferrous oxide resulting.

Another discovery that I may claim, is the direct amal-
gamation of cast-iron, even of the most brittle and highly
carburetted character. This was first effected by means of
a compound amalgam of potassium, sodium and “ammo-
nium” with water; but I have since found that a simple
amalgam of potassium or sodium is generally sufficient to
effect the result. The surface of cast-iron may be amal-
gamated by placing an electro-positive or active amalgam
upon it with water or an acid; a true amalgam may be
similarly formed with filings.

In the course of the experiments which led to this dis-
covery, it was my fortune to observe phenomena of an
extraordinary character. The usual brilliant surface of
mercury is produced when cast-iron is treated with the
electro-positive amalgam, and the iron is rapidly “ cut ” or
dissolved. The impurities of the iron, with considerable
carbon are released and form a black mud around the
button of amalgam. If at this moment, before all the
positive metal has been oxidized, the amalgam be removed,
washed and allowed to stand, particles of amorphous
carbon will be seen to emerge and float upon its mirror-like
‘gurface. Whence comes this carbon; why was it not given
up before? Hasit been amalgamated; and if so, has it not
a metallic character? It has been suggested to me that
particles of undissolved iron, containing carbon, have
been carried bodily into the amalgam, and afterwards dis-

#

New Phenomena in Chemistry. 183

solved, releasing theircarbon. However, thisis but a con-
jecture ; the reaction certainly deserves study.

The mere intimation that carbon, the great protean
thing in nature, may after all have a metallic origin, is
very interesting. Those who believe in the ammonium of
Berzelius or the hydrogenium of Graham, need not fear
to examine the claims of carbon to a metallic parentage, nor
does the existence of such a metal seem so improbable
when we remember the electric conductibility of two of the
allotropic forms of carbon, gas-coke and plumbago; the
first already replacing, in the voltaic batteries of the pre-
sent day, the electro-negative elements, platinum, copper
etc., while the latter replaces similar electro-negative ele-
ments when brushed, in the form of plumbago powder,
upon the surface of the mould or plaster-cast which the
electro-plater desires to coat with copper or other metal.

If metallic carbonium exists, it may be assumed to be an
electro-negative metal. It is true that some forms of
carbon are highly inflammable, but are they more so than
Graham’s hydrogenium? Graphite at ordinary tempera-
tures is far from combustible, and when it burns, or when
the diamond burns in oxygen gas, wrought iron will burn
also. No one doubts that iron is a metal, yet one of its
purest forms is pyrophoric, taking fire and burning on
contact with the atmosphere. To associate graphite with
sulphur and phosphorus is to place it, a good conductor of
electricity, side by side with the very enemies of traveling
magnetism. For how many ages was molybdenite undis-
tinguished from graphite, and who is there now that can
instantly distinguish the one from the other? It is
true that molybdenite is a sulphide of molybdenum and
graphite a pure allotropic form of carbon, but may there
not be one more form of carbon? There is no sub-
stance in nature more readily recognized as a metal by the
unlearned than graphite; to this day it is impossible to

*

184 New Phenomena in Chemistry.

take from it the improper title of black-lead. The experi-
ments of Sir Benjamin Brodie with graphite, his discovery
of graphic acid and its combination with ammonia
(graphate of ammonia?) afford another analogy; for molyb-
denum has its molybdie acid, and what chemist is there
that is not familiar with molybdate of ammonia. I have
found that contact of native graphite with an electro-posi-
tive amalgam and water or acid, produces the same reac-
tion and effervescence, as when a negative metal occupied
the place, but an amalgam did not seem to form.

It would appear that the division of elements into metals
and non-metals, is as arbitrary as any other absolute divi-
sion or classification in science; for though the extremes
may readily be distinguished,—as gold from fluorine, —
the means often approach each other in appearance and in
properties.

Besides forming amalgarns of steel and cast-iron, I have
succeeded in combining mercury directly with crystalline
octahedral iron ore (magneiite), and with other ores and
some furnace products. The loadstone exhibited, coated
with mercury, is from the Adirondack mountains. Red
fossiliferous hematite ore from Georgia is also readily
amalgamated. Bog-iron has so far resisted mercury, save
one specimen from the state of Florida, which appeared to
receive it slightly. The slag, etc., of the Colorado gold-
smelting furnaces may also, by means of the compound
amalgam, be coated with mercury. Magnesium may be
amalgamated with the aid of zinc-amalgam and chlor-
hydric acid; much heat is evolved, sufficient indeed to burn
the hand if laid uponit. Bi-sulphide of carbon, treated
with the compound amalgam, is decomposed; sulphides
of the alkaline metals result, while another portion of
sulphur combines with the mercury, forming true ver-
milion. Carbon separates in form resembling graphite.

ie ie? §

New Phenomena in Chemistry. > Se

The practical applications of these discoveries are numer-
ous. As mercury dissolves iron and its ores, and finally
separates the metal from its impurities of silicon, sulphur
and phosphorus, it may prove possible to prepare an iron,
nearly as pure as that reduced by hydrogen, for medicinal
purposes, by distilling the mercury from the amalgam. In
accordance with the laws announced, it is evident that
plates of amalgamated zinc or iron are superior to plates
of copper in effecting the amalgamation of gold, especially
if they be treated with proper acid solutions while the
stamped ore is being run out over them. Potassium and
sodium amalgams are undoubtedly more effective, but can
hardly compete with amalgamated zinc-plates in cheapness.

A great philosopher has said that the results of all experi-
ments should be recorded, nothing being worthless that
adds to man’s knowledge of the properties of matter. It
is my hope that the experiments described, and sugges-
tions here thrown out, may not be altogether valueless.

Trans, vii.) 24

Report of the Second Class, in the Second Department
(Botany). By Cuarues H. Pecx, A.M.

[Read before the Institute, Feb. 6, 1872.]

Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Albany Institute :

In behalf of the Second Class of the Second Department,
I have the honor to submit the following report :

In taking a retrospective view of the year now passed,
we find very few important additions to the botanical litera-
ture of our country. The most notable is the volume on
botany issued in connection with the Report of the United
States Geological Exploration of the- Fortieth Parallel.
This volume contains descriptions of all the species col-
lected by the expedition, save such as are described in our
botanical manuals. Among these are many hitherto unde-
scribed. It isillustrated by forty uncolored but beautifully
executed plates, the whole being a rich contribution to our
knowledge of the plants of our western territories. No
new manual of botany has been published and no exhaustive
treatise on any special botanical topic has come to our
knowledge. The year, big with the issues of political
events, does not abound in the issue of botanical works.
That modest little monthly, the Botanical Bulletin, still
lives. Long may it survive and thrive. We desire to
direct attention to the large number of illustrated catalogues
now issued annually by our leading nurserymen, seedsmen,
and florists. They frequently give the botanical names of
plants, and much information respecting their habits, treat-
ment and culture. They unquestionably indicate great
activity in floricultural and horticultural pursuits, and give

Report on Botany. 187

a decidedly practical turn to the minds of plant lovers, and
although they are issued as a mere matter of business, they
can not fail to have some influence in arousing, cultivating
and refining a taste for floriculture and for the practical
application of botanical principles, and they almost neces-
sarily awaken a more common desire for an increase of
botanical knowledge. Indeed, the numerous inquiries con-
cerning the habits, properties, geographical distribution,
proper treatment and scientific names of plants that so often
meet our eyes in glancing over the columns of our justly
- popular agricultural journals, are an indication that the
public mind is already desirous of information upon many
subjects that properly belong to the science of Botany.
Who shall answer all these inquiries? Where are the
patient investigators and the accurate observers who shall
work out for us the many yet unsolved problems in vege-
table physiology and vegetable economy? Who shall
, discover, select and make known to us all those products of
the vegetable world that are most available in the arts or
for the purposes of food, medicine, shelter, and protection ?
There is no lack of men who are ready and willing to imperil
health and life if need be, in order to discover and describe
a few new species of plants, men who cheerfully leave
home and friends and traverse distant unexplored regions,
penetrate miasmatic marshes, ascend steep and rugged
mountains, brave the dangers of the ocean and dare the
heat of the tropics for the sake of adding new species to
the list of known plants. There are others who are willing
to devote their time to the accumulation and collation of
a vast array of facts and statistics concerning the numbers
and the distribution of species in different parts of the world.
Allthis is well enough, indeed it is really necessary to a
full understanding of the science. We have nothing tosay
against the one class of laborers nor the other? We bid
them both God-speed in their good work. But we, at the

188 Report on Botany.

same time, could wish and do desire that the number of
investigators, who seek to benefit mankind by the direct
practical application of scientific discoveries to useful pur-
poses, might be largely increased. Knowledge for its own
sake is good, ennobling, elevating and well worth all it costs,
but knowledge utilized and applied to the enhancement of
the comforts and enjoyments of the masses, commends itself
to the favor and appreciation of many who otherwise would
forego its acquisition.

Of all the additions made, during the past year, to the
botanical literature of EHurope, we purpose to speak of
but one. It is entitled The Handbook of British Fungi.
‘Though not all that could be wished, it is by far the most
satisfactory manual on fungi yet published in the English
language. It gives family, generic and specific descriptions
ofall British fungi now known, together with references and
synonyms. It combines in one work the results of the
observations of all the leading mycologists of Europe,
frequently giving supplementary descriptions by Fries,
Berkeley, Smith and Currey. It is profusely illustrated by
woodcuts which elucidate the characters of all the principal
genera. Itgives the dimensions of the spores in very
many species. But the most marked feature of the work
and the one on account of which we especially desire to
notice it, is its recognition of that singular phase of fungoid —
development commonly called dualism or dimorphism,
Heretofore this character has merely been suspected or sug-
gested or affirmed in some special treatise or essay. In this |
workit is embodied in definite form, the two or more kinds of
development being described under the single name of the
species of which they are but the different phases. It is
true this diminishes the number of species formerly so
called, but it at the same time adds interest to those that
remain. This character furnishes another link in the chain
of similarity between animals and plants. As we find

Report on Botany. 189

dimorphism among the lower orders of animals, might we
not have reasonably expected to find it also among the
lower orders of plants ? And as it is alike interesting
and important to know the specific unity of a caterpillar
and a butterfly, or of a tadpole and a frog, so it is also
desirable to know the true relationship of rust and mildew,
of Uredo and Puccinia, of Lecythea and Aregma, of Cytis-
pora and Valsa, and of Cladosporium and Spheria. A
wide field for botanical investigation is here opened. The
tracing of the connection of unlike forms and the associating
together as one species, fungi hitherto considered as belong-
ing not merely to distinct species, but even to different
genera and orders have but just been begun. Long con-
tinued and often repeated observations, most rigid analysis
and careful experiment can alone carry on and complete
this work and give usa full and correct knowledge of these
obscure plants in all their phases of development.

In glancing over the more recent botanical records we
can not fail to observe that much of the attention of bota-
nists seems now to be devoted to the investigation of the
modes of the fertilization of flowers. What plants are
capable of self-fertilization ; what plants require cross fertili-
zation ; whatare the natural arrangements for securing this;
how far is it dependent upon the intervention of insects ;
how far upon air currents or winds, and how is it affected
by cultivation, are some of the important questions sought
to beanswered. We say important, for acorrect knowledge
of this subject has a direct bearing upon the interests of
the fruit grower, the gardener and the husbandman. A
vine dresser once remarked in my hearing that he kept
bees not so much for their honey as because his vines
thereby bore more grapes. The bees carrying the pollen
from flower to flower gave its fertilizing influence to the
ovaries and the consequence was full clusters. A fruit
grower, after a series of cloudy rainy days happening at a

*

190 Report on Botany.

time when his fruit trees were in full. blossom, gloomily
but prophetically said that fruit would be a failure that
season, for the rain had drowned out the flowers. It is at
least questionable, whether he would not have been more
nearly correct if he had said that the rain has prevented
the bees from carrying the pollen from flower to flower
and therefore through lack of proper fertilization fruit will
be scarce. A cabbage planter purchased and planted seed
of a variety known as Bristol cabbage. The seed sprung
up but the crop was Bristol cabbage in part only, much of
it being some variety of a less market value. The planter’
claimed damages of the vender of the seed and instituted
an action in the courts to recover the amount lost by reason
of the failure of the seed to produge the expected variety.

The defendant of course claimed that the seed was raised .
from Bristol cabbage, and therefore was sold as such seed,
but that no warranty was given that it would produce
Bristol cabbage, since no man was able to tell how far the
purity of the seed might have been tainted by the cross-
fertilization of the flowers by pollen from other varieties
grown in the vicinity. These examples will suffice to
indicate the importance of the investigations botanists are
making in this direction.

We would now beg your indulgence while we speak of
the progress of our own work, in which we may be supposed
to have a special interest, and of which we have a more
positive and personal knowledge.

The whole number of species that, through discovery,
have been added to the flora of this State by ourselves and
‘ correspondents, the past year, is two hundred and fifty-
five. Of these about one hundred are new or hitherto
undescribed species, there being one new flowering plant,
three new mosses and more than ninety new fungi. The
new flowering plant is so peculiar and so rare that it de--
serves more than a passing remark. It belongs to the genus

Report on Botany. 191

Arceuthobium and is parasitic on. the living branches of
the common black spruce, Abies nigra. Because of its
small size we have nanied it Arceuthobium pusillum. No
species of this genus has before been found in this country
east of the Mississippi river, and but few species are known
in the Rocky mountain region and British America. Our
plant is scarcely one inch high, seldom branched, of an
olive-green or chestnut-brown color, the leaves scale-like,
opposite and united at the base, forming a cup-like sheath
from which, on opposite sides of the stem, the flower buds
‘emerge. Itgrowsin great abundance on the younger intet-
nodes of the branches but never on the’ terminal one, the
young shoot oftheseason. Itis herbaceous in appearance,
looking much like some dwarf Salicornia, but in reality it
seems to be a miniature shrub, requiring three years for its
completedevelopment. Its discovery in Sandlake was made
on Sept. 14,1871. Atthat time the fertile plants (the inflo-
rescence is dicwcious) on the fourth internode of the
branches, counting the young shoot of the present season as
the first, were laden with mature fruit. Those on the third
internode were smaller, but had well developed flower buds,
while those of the second internode were mere hemispheri-

* cal buds just emerging from the bark. The locality was

visited a month later, and to my surprise almost no fruit-
ing plants could be found, but in their stead were small
masses of broken stems, fruit and seeds adhering to each

_ other and to the branches by reason of the viscid coating

that envelops each seed. This at once suggested to my
mind the idea that some small animal or bird had been at
work among these plants and perhaps had sought the seeds
for food. From what we have seen, then, we infer that
the history of this plant is as follows. The fruit being
mature in September, some bird or other small animal

seeks it for food. The seeds being covered with a very

viscid coat adhere more or less to the beak of the bird or

192 Report on Botany.

the mouth of the animal, and being a source of annoyance
to it they are rubbed off from time to time on the branch.
Those that adhere through the Winter to the young and
tender shoot of the past season germinate and form, during ©
the first summer, the little hemispherical buds above men-
tioned. During their second season these increase in
stature and form their flower buds. Probably early inthe
following season, the third in the life of the plant, the flowers
expand and by the middle of September the fruit is ma-
ture. In but two instances were branched specimens
found. ‘These were without fruit and on the fifth or sixth
internode, showing that occasionally the plant continues
longer than three seasons or else that sometimes the seeds
germinate on internodes of more than one ,year’s growth.
A most remarkable feature in this plant is that the male
and female plants do not grow intermingled on the same
branch but appear thus far to always inhabit separate
branches, a mystery to which we can only say why is this
so? I have been informed that this plant was detected in
the Adirondack mountains a few weeks previous to its dis-
covery in Sandlake, thus affording the remarkable coinci-
dence of the discovery of a plant in one season by two
different individuals in widely separated localities. A”
similar occurrence might be mentioned in the discovery of
two species of fungi hitherto unknown ; both having been
found the past season in three widely separated localities by
three different persons. At first thought such occurrences
might suggest the idea of a new creation or as Darwinism
would say, of a new development, but when we consider
that these are all small and rather obscure plants, there is
nothing improbable in supposing them to have long existed
and been overlooked. Possibly something in the season
may have been.very favorable to their development and they
were unusually plenty at this time, which fact might
account for the coincident discoveries.

Report on Botany. 198

Some attention has been given for some time past, by one
of your committee, to the investigation of the cause and
nature of the so-called black knot, that terrible pest of the
plum trees and cherry trees of our country. Various and
conflicting opinions have been entertained respecting its
character, but all agree in pronouncing it a very injurious
and even fatal visitant to the trees it affects, and all who
have proposed any remedy, so far as we are aware, have
recommended the most thorough use of the knife.

It is a noticeable tact that most of the authors who have
written upon this subject wrote as entomologists, not as
- botanists, and any errors they may have fallen into should
therefore be looked upon withleniency. One author even
apologizes to the botanists for “ stealing their thunder,” as
he expresses it, pleading as his excuse that he had at first
_ mistaken the black knot for an insect gall. We think the

botanists scarcely deserve any apology since they have so
persistently neglected to investigate a matter of so much
importance.

What is black knot? To this question Dr. Fitch, entomo-
logist of the New York State Agricultural Society, answers:
‘it is a large irregular black wart-like excrescence which
- grows upon the limbsof plum and cherry trees causing
the death of all the branch above it and extending down
the limb farther and farther every year till the whole branch
is destroyed, other limbs atthe same time becoming affected
in the same manner, and also the limbs of other trees in
the vicinity. If it is neglected, it ina few years kills the
tree,”

The late lamented B. D. Walsh, entomologist of the State
of Illinois, thus defines it: “It is a black, puffy, irregular
swelling on the twigs and smaller limbs of plum and cherry
trees, and in one instance that came under my observation,
of peach trees, making its first appearance in the latitude

Trans. vii. | 25

194 Report on Botany.

of New York early in June and attaining its full growth
by the end of July. Usually a tree that is attacked in this
manner is affected worse and worse every year until it is
finally killed, and where one tree of a group is affected, the
malady usually spreads to them all in process of time.”
According to our own observations the death of the
branch above the excrescence is not always produced by
the first attack. In such cases the malady extends upwards
as well as downwards. The time of the first appearance
of the excrescence is in late autumn, although the external
development of the fungus is not manifest until the fol-
lowing May. We have never found it on peach trees.
Let us now see what is written concerning the origin of
black knot. Schweinitz, the botanist who wrote the ori-
ginal description of Spheria morbosa, the fungus that develops
itself on the excrescence, seems to have been in some doubt
concerning the origin of the tumor. In his description he
uses these words: ‘*‘ Hee massa num sit effectus ictuum
Cynipis nescimus, videmus tamen hic illic exesum foramen,
forte e profundo progresse.”’ At a later day, in writing
upon this same subject in his Synopsis of North American
Fungi, he says: ‘“Paucis annis post, fere omnes destructi
sunt, combinato furore hujus fungi et Cynipis.”” And again
he says: “Ht in his omnibus Cynipis fungusque incepiunt
sevire.’ Thus he constantly associates the insect which
he calls Cynips with the fungus, without definitely assign-
ing the honor or dishonor of the mischief to either. We
find the following in Harris’s Treatise on Injurious Insects.
“The plum, still more than the cherry tree, is subject to
a disease of the small limbs, that shows itself in the form of

large irregular warts of a black color. Professor Peck |

referred this disease, as well as that of the cherry tree, to
the agency of insects. Dr. Burnet rejected the idea of the
insect origin of this disease, which he considered as a kind
of fungus. * * * But whether caused by vitiated sap

Report on Botany. 195

as Dr. Burnet supposed, or by the irritating punctures of
insects, which is the prevailing opinion, they form an appro-
priate bed for the growth of numerous little parasitical
plants or fungi.”

Dr. Fitch claims to have made a careful investigation
of this subject and as his observations are quite accurate
we again quote from his address: “‘ There has been much
speculation as to the cause and true nature of these
excrescences. * * Most persons suppose them to be
of insect origin. The larve of the curculio are almost
always found in them, and these larve consume nearly all
* the spongy matter of the warts, but do not touch the little

fungus growing on their surface, which remains, forming
-akind of shell, after the whole inside is devoured. Butas
these excrescences are sometimes found wholly free from
eurculio larve and all other worms, it is obvious they are
not the cause of their growth. * * Suffice it to say that
now having carefully examined these excrescences from
their commencement onward through their subsequent
growth, I am prepared to say, with the fullest confidence,
that the microscope shows nothing whatever about them,
externally or internally, indicating that an insect has any-
thing to do with causing them.” Then after giving his
views as to what constitutes a fungus, he says: “* Wearrive
at the conclusion that these excrescences are not of insect
origin, and are not a vegetable fungus, but are properly a
disease of these trees, in many respects analagous to the
cancer in the human body.”’

Mr. Walsh, whose definition of black knot we have
already quoted, agrees with Dr. Fitch in concluding that
the excrescences are not of insect origin. He also claims
to have carefully watched the black knot through all its
stages from its earliest commencement to its complete
maturity. He affirms that he bred from the galls five dis-
tinct species of insects beside the curculio, but that not one

196 Report on Botany.

of these could be considered a true gall maker. He there-.
fore very justly concludes that the excrescences are not of
insect origin, but of tungoid origin ; and this conclusion,
we may add, is entirely in accordance with our own view
of this subject. Our reasons for adopting this view are
briefly these.

ist. The excrescence itself is similar in structure to other
excrescences which are known to be of fungoid origin and
at the same time it is quite dissimilar to most insect galls
produced in twigs and young branches.

2d. The time of its development is opposed to the proba-
bility of its insect origin. We are well aware that our
knowledge of insect galls is extremely limited, and that
here we are treading on dangerous ground and may here-
after be obliged in our turn to apologize to the entomolo-
gists, but so far as our observations extend, insect galls are
developed in.the warmer seasons of the year, 7. e. in spring
summer and possibly early autumn. Those that continue
to be the domicil of the young insect during the winter
are, so far as we have observed, fully grown in autumn,
and do not increase in size the following spring, a character
which does not hold good in the case of black knot.

3d. The fungus is always present with the excrescence,
and its mycelium may be detected even in the earliest
manifestation of the tumor, and this fungus is never found
apart from the black knot. To our minds this alone is a
sufficient argument for our belief in the fungoid origin of
the excrescence. Whoever heard of any undoubted insect
gall being always accompanied and inhabited by a fungus?
On the other hand the larvee of insects are not always present _
in the excrescence, and of those insects that have been bred
from it, none, we are told, have been true gall makers. It
is true, members of the Cynips family are gall makers, and
the learned Schweinitz constantly associated a Cynips with.
his descriptions of this fungus, but then. he did not affirm

Report on Botany. 197

that the Cynips produced the excrescence, and later investi-
gators have failed to confirm his apparent suspicions.
Hence we do not think his mere association of the two
can have much weight either way.

Like others from whose writings we have quoted, we
also claim to have examined the black knot carefully in
its various stages of development, not entomologically itis
true, but botanically, from which it is not unreasonable to
suppose that we may have observed some details in its
development which escaped their notice. We desire,
therefore, to express the results of our own observations
and we desire this the more because in one or two points
we can not quite agree with the inferences and conclusions of
former investigators.

If the smaller branches of a cherry tree that is suffering
from an attack of black knot be carefully examined in
November, some of them will be found to be slightly
swollen for a little distance immediately below the excres-
cences. The cuticle of the bark will be cracked open
here and there, revealing the soft tissues of the inner bark.

If a minute portion of this inner bark be examined by
the aid of the microscope, slender jointed filaments or
threads may be seen, that have insinuated themselves among
the bark cells. These threads are the primary vegetating
condition of the fungus and are known to botanists as
mycelium. During the winter the enlargement of the
branch remains nearly or quite stationary, but with the
advent of spring and the renewal of vegetable activity,
the tumors increase in size, the chinks in the bark become
_ wider and more numerous, and by the end of May small
dark green stains are visible in the crevices of the bark.
These greenish patches gradually increase in size until in
some instances they completely cover the whole surface of
the excrescence with a soft velvet-like coat. Such speci-
mens were once sent to me from the west where they had

198 feport on Botany.

been pronounced by a scientific journal to be a new species
of black knot. A microscopic examination of this greenish
coating reveals the fact that it is composed of innumerable
upright jointed flexuous threads or flocci which bear upon
their summit oval or oblong spore-like bodies, at first
simple but soon becoming one or more septate. This is
the first external development of the fungus and in the
systematic classification adopted by botanists it belongs to
the genus Cladosporium. This genus, however, we appre-
hend is destined to be overthrown, its species being only
an early form of development of species of Spheeria. Indeed
those celebrated European mycologists, Tulasne and Cooke,
already deem the very common Cladosporium herbarum to
be only a condition of Spheria herbarum. And here we
have another quite clear case of a similar dimorphism, for
I never yet have seen a young black knot excrescence
of the cherry tree in spring on which I-could not detect
the Cladosporium. In a few weeks this Cladosporium
growth is succeeded by numerous minute black globular
bodies scarcely as large as the head of a'small pin. These
usually cover the whole surface of the excrescence and are
often so closely crowded together that they partially lose
their globose form. ‘This stage of the fungus development
has evidently been mistaken by some for its complete
development. In the work of Harris, on Jnjurious Insects,
~ we find the following statement in reference to this fungus ;
‘‘ they come to their growth, discharge their volatile seed,
and die in the course of a single summer.” And in the
Practical Entomologist for March, 1866, we find this state-
ment: ‘“‘ Towards the middle of August, the new black-
knot, having perfected its seed, gradually dries up and ‘3
becomes internally of a reddish-brown color. In other.
words, like so many other annual plants, it dies shortly
after it has perfected its seed.” Again, in the March
number for 1867, Mr. Walsh says: ‘*‘ I showed that black

Report on Botany. | 199

knot is nothing but an assemblage of minute funguses,
which perfect their seed, or “ spores”? as botanists term it,
the latter end of July; and that consequently, as this
fungus is an annual plant, by cutting off and destroying
the black knot early in July its further propagation may
be effectually stopped.”

Now according to all of our observations the seed of the
fungus is not perfected in July and August, nor indeed
until some months later. Externally, it is true, the fungus
appears to have attained its full-development, but if one of
these little black globes — perithecia they are called by bo-
tanists — be taken from the tree at this time and crushed on
the slide of the microscope and its contents examined, little
oblong pale membranous sacks will be seen. They are
not all equally developed and are evidently rudimentary.
If we again examine the contents of some of the perithecia
collected at a later period, say in November, we shall find
that our rudimentary sacks have increased considerably in
size. They are now cylindrical and contain a greenish
grumous endochrome from which the spores are destined to
beformed. The earliest period in which we have found the
spores developed isthe middleof January. In specimens
collected January 13th, spores were found ina few of the sacks
but most of them were yet filled with their greenish contents.
We have found spores in specimens collected as late as June,
therefore the time in which the fungus perfects its seed
may be said to be from January toJune. Thus it will be
seen that the plant is not an annual, as some have affirmed,
but one that requires from fourteen to twenty months
from the time of its first manifestation as an incipient
excrescence to the time of the maturity of its seed; and
from eight to fourteen months from the time of its first exter-

nal appearance as a plant to the perfection of itsseed. Ifwe
accept the knife as the sovereign remedy for this pest of
our fruit trees, these facts have an important bearing in

200 Report on Botany.

determining the proper time for cutting off the excrescences.
Some report that they have tried this remedy without
success. Want of success may be ascribed to three causes.
Ist. The remedy may not be employed at the proper time.
If the black knots be trimmed off in summer or even in
spring it is evident that the trouble will not be effectually
cured, for the whole or part of a crop of spores will already
have been disseminated to produce new excrescences the
following autumn and spring. It is true if the cutting
process be carefully repeated at sufficiently short intervals,
it would in the end accomplish the desired result if done at
any time, provided the tree could endure the frequent
repetition of the operation. Butin our opinion November
is the best time for cutting off and destroying the knots.
At this time the coming crop of spores is not mature, the
leaves do not hinder the ready detection of the swellings,
and the young excrescences, the foundation of a second
succeeding crop, are also then visible to a close observer, so
that thorough work may be done at one operation.

2d. The operation may notbe properly performed. Phy-
sicians, in the excision of a cancer from the human body,
insist upon the necessity of an entire removal of every parti-
cle and fibre of the extraneous growth. So in this case we
must insist on the complete removal of all the affected
part of the branch. It has already been stated that in
November new swellings appear just below the old excres-
cences. Should the old excrescence be cut off just before
the appearance of this new swelling it is quite possible that
a part of the affected branch may be left behind, since the
new affection sometimes extends down the branch several
inches, Should any such part be left behind it would
develop into a new excrescence. It would be interesting
to know whether these apparent extensions of the excres-
cences are the product of a new sowing of the spores or
are produced by am advance of the mycelium of the old

_ Report on Botany. 201

tumor just above. It certainly looks, from the frequency
of this occurrence, very much as if the mycelium, having
fulfilled its mission to the old excrescence in waiting for
and aiding in the full development of the perithecia, then
leaves these to produce their spores without further aid,
and, with an industry worthy of a better cause, pushes its
way down the branch through the soft tissues of the bark
and exterior sap wood to lay the foundation of a new
colony. |

3d. The cutting may be done at the proper time and done
thoroughly, and yet the trees may continue to be attacked by
this wretched malady. An indolent neighbor may neglect
to prune his trees and thereby raise successive crops of
spores to be wafted by the winds to the trees of his more
careful and diligent townsmen. Or there may be wild
cherry and plum trees in the neighboring copses or groves
which are perpetuating the fungus and sending out each
spring a shower of spores to fall upon the cultivated fruit
trees of the vicinity. Hence, if we would overcome this
enemy, there must be a combined and unanimous effort
against him, and skirmishers must besent out to dislodge him
from the surrounding hills, woods and waste places. Isee
no reason why united and well directed efforts in this
direction may not rid us of this miserable pest.

Having thus dwelt at some length on this subject, we will
briefly notice one or two inferences which we find in the
articles of the Practical Entomologist from which we have
quoted. We would not even notice these did we not
believe them erroneous and fraught with mischief. It
is stated that ‘“‘about the last of July orthe first week in
August, there grows from each fungus on the surface of the
black knot a little cylindrical filament about one eighth
of an inch long, which no doubt bears the seed or spores,
as they are technically termed, of the fungus, and that these

Trans. vit. | 9 26 .

202 Report on Botany.

filaments very shortly afterwards fall off and disappear, ©
leaving behind them the hemispherical plates, which alone
had been hitherto noticed by botanists. * * Idiscovered
that the filaments not only cover the entire surface of the -
black knot itself, except where a few of them had fallen
off, but that they were thinly studded over the twig for an
inch or two above and below the swollen black part.”

We do not pretend to say what these little cylindrical
filaments were, not having seen them, but it is very evident
from the fact that they extended on the twig an inch or
two above and below the swollen black part, that they
had nothing whatever to do with the bearing of the spores
of this fungus, for its spores, we have seen, are produced
in little sacks within the so-called hemispherical plates
which do not extend beyond the swollen part, and besides,
the spores are not mature until long after the assigned
time of these filaments. Once only have we observed any
thing that seems to correspond somewhat with the descrip-
tion of them. In the latter part of August we collected
specimens of black knot on the wild bird cherry, Prunus
pennsylvanica, some of the perithecia of which had a little
cylindrical rostrum or beak growing from the apex. But
all these perithecia when cut open were found to be black
inside and entirely barren, while those without the filament
or beak even on the same excrescence were white inside
as in the normal condition, and contained rudimentary
sacks. We have also frequently seen perithecia without
the beak that were black inside. These were in every
instance sterile.

We quote once more, this time in reference to the second
inference.

‘But from the evidence which will be adduced below, it
appears to follow as a necessary consequence, that the
black knot on the cherry is caused by a distinct species
of fungus from that on the plum.” Then the evidence is

Report on Botany. 203

adduced which consists in plum trees sometimes being
attacked while cherry trees in their vicinity escape, or the
reverse. Then these words follow: ‘“ The practical infer-
ence to be drawn from the above theory is, that plum growers
need not be alarmed when their neighbors’ cherry trees
are swarming with black knot, and cherry growers need
not be alarmed when their neighbors’ plum trees are in-
fested in the same manner; for the disease can only spread
from plum tree to plum tree and from cherry tree to cherry
tree. * * * It would further seem to follow that
black knot growing upon the wild choke cherry can
not spread upon our cultivated cherry, and still less upon
our cultivated plum trees; but black knot undoubtedly can
and does spread from the wild plum tree on to the tame
plum tree, and probably from the wild red cherry on to
our tame cherry trees.”

We are not disposed to dispute the correctness of the
observations from which this inference was drawn, but we
do believe the inference to be incorrect and calculated to
lull fruit growers into a feeling of false security. We have
carefully examined good fruiting specimens of the black-
knot fungus taken from the choke cherry tree, Prunus Vir-
giniana, the cultivated cherry tree, Prunus Cerasus, and the
cultivated plum tree, Prunus domestica, and we are prepared
to state that thereis no essential difference between the black
knots of these trees. The spores in all are essentially alike
and mature at thesame time. Thereisa slight difference in
the general external appearance of the black knots of the
different trees, but this is all, and no good botanist would
venture to consider such a difference to be alone of any
specific value. We have time and again observed plum
trees and cherry trees along the same fence and in the
same enclosure alike infested by black knot. We have
seen plum trees badly infested in localities where the wild
plum tree does not.occur at all. We therefore conclude

204 Report on Botany.

that the black knots of both plum and cherry trees are
produced by the same species of fungus, viz.: Spheria
morbosa, Schw., and that it can and does spread from cherry
to plum trees-and from plum to cherry trees, and therefore
that there is nosafety for some cherry trees in the vicinity
of affected plum trees nor for some plum trees in the vicinity
of affected cherry trees. We admit that there are certain
species both of cherry and of plum trees that do not seem
to be liable to the attacks of this fungus, which perhaps is
the origin of the theory of distinct species of black knot.
Having thus briefly noticed the prominent features in the
discussion of this question and added our own observations
and conclusions, we dismiss the subject, hoping that ere
long we shall be prepared to combat this foe to our fruit
in a judicious and successful manner.

From Newton to Kirchoff. By Lrroy C. Cooney, Ph.D.

[Read before the Albany Institute, April 16, 1872,]

Two centuries past this very year, Sir Isaac Newton un-
‘bound a beam of sunlight and spread its wealth of colors
upon a screen. There was red and orange and yellow;
there were green, blue, indigo and violet unsurpassed in
purity and beauty by those of the most brilliant rainbow
or of the rarest flowers. As science then stood, the great
philosopher was content to receive the honor due to one
who had made a wonderful discovery in optics, but the
light thrown back upon it by the science of to-day shows
his discovery to have been one of the most important steps
ever taken in the progress of astronomy. The Copernican
theory, two hundred years before, had opened the way for
wonderful applications of mathematics by which a know-
ledge of sizes, distances and motions of celestial bodies
was evolved; the discovery of the solar spectrum made
possible the splendid revelations of modern chemistry con-
cerning the composition and structure of these distant bodies.

Compressed within the small space covered by a solar
‘spectrum is the beautiful language in which the chemistry
of the heavens is written; but, wrapt in colors richer than
are ever elsewhere beheld, Sir Isaac did not see it, and for |
more than a century afterward no eye detected its delicate
characters.

In the year 1815, a German optician, by the name of
Fraunhofer, conceived the happy thought of repeating
‘Newton’s experiment, changing only the form of the sun-
beam. , Instead of a circular opening to admit the beam

206 From Newton to Kirchoff.

into his darkened chamber, Fraunhofer made a narrow
slit, and, receiving upon his prism the slice of sunlight thus
obtained, he beheld a new and startling revelation. The
brilliant spectrum, now somewhat subdued, gave up a
secret. Its colors were notcontinuous; thickly distributed
throughout its entire length were a multitude of bars of
darkness. Six hundred of these delicate tracings the
enthusiastic discoverer patiently counted, and finding that
each one held a definite place among the colors where it
could be found at all times when properly sought, he gave
names to several of those most plainly seen and proceeded
to map the spectrum with such conscientious care that in
the more searching examinations by means of far more
perfect instruments in.later times, it has not been found
necessary to change the position of a single line which he
laid down. Since his time, as methods of research have
been refined, a multitude of dark lines, unseen by Fraun-
hofer have been discovered. As clearly cut and as well
defined as if the delicate brush of a most skillful artist had
been drawn across the spectrum, they span the colors in
parallel bars at intervals so minute that the dispersion of
several prisms followed up by the magnifying power of a
telescope is needed to enable the eye to see the distance
between them. Thirteen years before the discovery of
these dark lines by Fraunhofer, the celebrated Dr. Wol-
laston had announced the existence of two, but the pheno-
menon, so delicate and, as left by him, so apparently use-
less, was in danger of being altogether forgotten. But to
Wollaston and not to Fraunhofer, the dark lines of the
spectrum first appeared, and to scientists of a later day
belongs the credit of swelling the number known from
Fraunhofer’s six hundred up to several thousands. In the
face of all this, the dark lines of the spectrum are univer-
sally known as Fraunhofer’s lines, scientists by common
consent bestowing this honor upon that careful observer,

From Newton to Kirchoff. 207

well merited by the patient industry with which he pur-
sued his investigations.

These dark lines of spectrum are the alphabet in which
the chemistry of the sunis written. Too delicate for the
unaided eye to behold and reposing among the rich colors
of the light, this elegant system remained after its dis-
covery, more than halfa century, without a key to its trans-
lation.

While the illustrious men already named were treading
the path of discovery in optics, others whose names will
soon appear were making curious and important researches
in chemistry. A kind of chemical analysis was being de-
veloped from observations made on the nature of colored
flames. The solar spectrum and colored flame, like dis-
tant mountain springs which feed two independent streams,
were the beginnings of two series of discoveries which
were found to converge as they lengthened until optics and
chemistry mingled to produce the grander science of celes-
tial physics.

It was before the discovery of the dark lines of the spec-
trum, even as far back as the year 1750, that Thomas -
Melville noticed that peculiar colors could be imparted to
flame by adding certain substances to the combustible
material. The attention of Sir John Herschel was long
afterward drawn to this subject, for in 1822 we find him
saying “‘the colors thus communicated by different bases
to flame afford in many cases a ready and neat way of
detecting minute quantities ofthem.”’ Twelve years later,
Mr. Fox Talbot called especial attention to the magnificent
crimson color of the flame of burning strontium, and at the
same time, in terms more emphatic than had been used by
Herschel, declared his conviction that the smallest portion
of this substance could be detected by the colorof the light
of its flame with even more certainty than by any other
means.

208 From Newton to Kirchoff.

Melville and Talbot stood at opposite ends of three
quarters of a century; how exceeding slow had been the
progress of discovery! But at this point in its history the
science of photochemical analysis was suddenly electrified
into life,and thenceforth the rapidity of its progress has
amazed the world.

The beauty of Mr. Talbot’s crimson flame was quickly
eclipsed by the more brilliant effects of the electric arch.
In 1855, Sir Charles Wheatstone announced the capital
discovery that the light from white hot metallic poles of a
powerful electric battery when passed through a prism gives
a spectrum strangely different from that of solar light.
Whereas the brilliant colors of the latter are interrupted by
delicate lines of almost total darkness, the more subdued
lines of the former are crossed at intervals by colored lines
of almost dazzling beauty and brightness. Moreover, it
was seen that the number, color and’ position of these
brilliant bars were peculiar to each metal employed, so that,
as Sir Charles remarked, ‘* We have here a method of
detecting the presence of metallic bodies more easily applica-
ble even than a chemical examination.” This idea, de-
veloped by the labors of many patient and devoted chemists,
seconded by the skill of the ablest opticians, has resulted in
the elegant modern system of analysis by the spectroscope,
an instrument the delicacy and accuracy of whose announce-
ments are unsurpassed.

We have no room in this brief article to even name the
many scientists whose labors have contributed to this happy
result, much less can we indulge in any discussion of the
principles of the new and elegant science of spectrum
analysis. The briefest statement of a few of its most funda-
mental facts must suffice. Such are the following:

A. The light from the incandescent vapors of an element,
when passed through a prism, gives a spectrum consisting
of bright lines:

From Newton to Kirchoff. 209

B. Hach element invariably gives the same set when
burned under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure.

C. The lines from no two elements are ever alike in po-
sition, and seldom in number or color.

Upon these principlesare based the spectrum tests, valued
so highly by chemical analysts. The discovery of new
elements, cesium and rubidium, by M. Bunsen; thallium,
by Mr. Crooks, and indium by Drs. Reich and Richter,
substances of which nature seems to have been so chary in
her distribution that all other tests had failed to detect
them, attests the value and the delicacy of this method of
analysis. Of the exceeding delicacy of the test, its appli-
cation to the metal sodium furnishes an illustration. The
spectrum of this substance consists of two very bright
yellow lines, separated by a distance visible only when
magnified by a goodinstrument. But notice: in the invisi-
ble dust that floats at all times in the air, there is enough
of a compound of this metal constantly in contact with a
gas flame to write in a spectroscope the story of its exist-
ence by a flash of light.

Let us not, however, linger over the delicacy and value
of spectrum analysis as a method of chemical research.
Its application to the study of the composition of terrestrial
matter was but an incident, albeit an important one, in the
process of its development.

During all the time when the beautiful spectra of arti-
ficial light were attracting so much attention, the study
of the Fraunhofer lines was being pursued with undi-
minished zeal. Indeed, as acquaintance with the former
became more intimate, interest in the latter was intensified.
There was seen to be analogy enough between the two
sets of phenomena to excite a vague suspicion that some
chain of relationship linked them to a common parentage.
Fraunhofer had, himself, noticed that a prominent dark

Trans. vii. | 27

210 From Newton to Kirchoff.

solar line held a position in the spectrum identical with
that of the yellow lines of sodium, and much later, Ang-
strom had, by a longand careful examination of the subject,
enabled himself to say: “Iam convinced that the explana-
tion of the dark lines of the solar spectrum embraces that
of the luminous lines of the electric spectrum.” Little,
however, did Fraunhofer or Angstrém suspect what was so
soon to be proved, that the noticed coincidence in position
of the solar and sodium lines was the key to the mystery
which perplexed them. Not only was the book of solar
and stellar chemistry unclasped, but the key to the trans-
lation of the characters in which it was written was already
in the hands of those who yet continued to search for it
with so much patience and solicitude.

Such was the condition of the subject as late as the year
1859. It was in that year that Bunsen and Kirchoff made
their most memorable discoveries. By: skillfully combing
the results of previous discoveries with their own masterly
experiments, they were able to interpret Fraunhofer’s capi-
tal observation of the coincidence of solar and metallic
spectra, and to announce the principle which reduces both
sets of phenomena to a single and perfect system. It had
been already found that each terrestrial element always gives
lines having the same position. Kirchoff verified the fact
that the positions of these terrestrial lines, and certain
solar lines were exactly coincident. Ifit could be after-
ward shown that bright lines could be changed into dark
ones, it would then appear that the solar lines and the coin-
cident bright lines are due to the same cause. To Bunsen
and Kirchoff belongs the supreme honor of discovering
the method by which the beautiful colors of terrestrial
lines may be changed to darkness under the immediate eye
of the observer. Let Kirchoff himself tell us the story of
this splendid achievement: “In order to test by direct
experiment the truth of the frequently asserted fact of the

from Newton to Kirchoff. 211

coincidence of the sodium lines with the line D of Fraun-
hofer, I obtained a tolerably bright solar spectrum and
brought a flame colored by sodium vapor in front of the
slit. I then saw the dark lines D change into bright ones.
The flame of the Bunsen’s lamp threw the sodium bright
lines upon the solar spectrum.” In this experiment the
exact coincidence of lines was established. But he pro-
ceeds: “In order to find out the extentto which the inten-
sity of the solar spectrum might be increased without
impairing the distinctness of the sodium lines, I allowed
the full sunlight to shine through the sodium flame upon
the slit, and to my astonishment I saw that the dark lines
D appeared with an extraordinary degree of clearness.’
The bright sodium line in this experiment had increased
the darkness of the solar line, in other words, the bright
line had become a dark one. Here was the key to the
mystery that had so long perplexed all observers. Kirchoff
had actually made a Fraunhofer line, and ina way which
left no doubt of its relation to a bright terrestrial line
whose origin was known. His sodium flame had given
him bright yellow lines, but the more powerful sunbeam
shining through it had changed them into darkness. Kirchoff
saw that the sodium flame giving him yellow light had at
the same time absorbed the same kind of yellow rays from
the sunlight, and had thus cut a slit of color out of the
otherwise brilliant spectrum. No wonder that the saga-
cious mind which so quickly saw this explanation of the
phenomenon that had astonished him, should have in-
stantly caught the suggestion that the dark lines D of the
solar spectrum were themselves originally due to a similar
action, —the absorbing action of the glowing vapors in
the sun’s atmosphere, through which the intenser light of
the orb itself was shining. What confirmation more was
needed to warrant the startling conclusion, that sodium is

212 From Newton to Kirchoff.

a constituent of the sun! Upon the foundation thus laid by
Kirchoff, the science of celestial chemistry has been built.
Newton, Fraunhofer, Melville, Wheatstone, Kirchoff—
these names mark the five remarkable stages in a journey
of two hundred years duration, through which science has
been brought to the summit of so high a range, that look-
ing out upon the heavens she can declare the composition
of the sun and stars.

Synopsis of New York Uncinule. By CHARLES
H. Prox.

[Communicated to the Institute, February 20th, 1872.]

Genus UncInuLA Lev.

‘Mycelium floccose ; perithecia globose; appendages
rigid simple, bifid or dichotomous, uncinate, at length bent
upwards.” — Berk. Outl.

The species of this genus inhabitthe living leaves of trees
and shrubs, and make their appearance late in summer or
in autumn. The mycelium, as in other Erysiphei, forms a
thin white webby film or coating which in some species
occupies the lower surface of the leaf, in others, both surfaces.
It may be quite dense and persistent or very thin and eva-
nescent, according to the species. The conceptacles in the
different species are from .003 to .007 of aninch in diameter.
The appendages in all our species are simple and generally
about equal in length to the diameter of their respective
conceptacles. Their hooked or coiled tips afford a very
convenient character by which to distinguish the species
of this genus from all other Erysiphei.

The number of species inhabiting this state is unex-
pectedly large, seven being now known. Only three species
are credited to Great Britain, a country whose mycological
flora has been well investigated, and of these three, U.
adunca alone has been found in our State.

Our species may be arranged in two groups or sections,
one group being characterized by its species having more ,
numerous appendages than those of the other. The species
of this group generally have a more dense mycelium and
larger conceptacles than those of the other. These species

214 New York Uncinule. “ak

are readily distinguished from each other by the number
of spores in each sporangium ; those of the second group,
by their appendages.

Tabular Arrangement of the Species.
§1. Appendages numerous, (thirty or more) a.

a. Sporangia with eight spores, . . circinata.
a. Sporangia with six spores, . . Torreyi.
a. Sporangia with four spores, . . aduneca.
a. Sporangia with two spores, . . macrospora.
§ 2. Appendages few, (less than thirty) b.
b. Appendages white, flexuous
toward the tips, . flexuosa.
b. Appendages white, not flexuous, Clinionia.
b. Appendages colored, Fis Ampelopsidis.

1. Uncinula circinata C.& P. (Jour. Bot.-p. 12, 1872).

Mycelium effused, evanescent or subpersistent; concep-
tacles large .007 inch in diameter, subglobose; appendages
numerous, simple, slender, as long as the diameter of the
conceptacle, circinate at the apex; sporangia8—16, oblong
or narrowly ovate; spores 8, broadly elliptical, .0007
inch long. Figs. 7-9.

Lower surface of maple leaves. Watkins and°Green-
bush. September and October.

This plant sometimes occupies the whole of the lower
surface of the leaf. It seems to delay the usual autumnal
change in the color of the leaves attacked by it, for some
of those partly occupied by the fungus were found to be
green in the affected spots when the unoccupied adjacent
parts had assumed their usual autumnal hues.

2. Uncinula adunca Lev. (Handbook of Brit. Fung., p. 646).

Mycelium variable, usually dense and persistent, effused
or growing in spots; conceptacles .005 inch in diameter;
appendages numerous, about as long as the diameter of
the conceptacle; sporangia8 — 12, subelliptical ; spores4 —
elliptical, .0007 — .0008 inch long. Figs. 1-38.

New York Uncinule. 215

Both surfaces of leaves of willows and poplars. Common.
September and October.

3. Uncinula macrospora, n. sp.

Mycelium effused, persistent ; conceptacles 005 inch
in diameter, subglobose; appendages numerous, about
equal in length to the diameter of the conceptacle,
sporangia 8-12; spores 2, large, elliptical, -0012-—.0015
inch long. Figs. 4-6.

Both surfaces of elm leaves. Buffalo. October. G. W.
Clinton.

This species is remarkable for the large size of its spores.
U. Bivone Lev. and U. polycheta, B. & C. have two spores
in asporangium, butthe former may be separated from
the present species by its fewer sporangia and less numer-

ous appendages, and the latter, by its larger conceptacles
and much more numerous oblong sporangia.

4. Uncinula Torreyi Gerard, n. sp.

Mycelium very thin, evanescent; conceptacles scattered
minute, .003-.0035 inch in diameter; appendages
numerous, slender, scarcely as long as the diameter of the
conceptacle; sporangia ovate, 6-8; spores 6.

Lower surface of leaves of Celtis occidentalis. Pough-
keepsie. September. W. &. Gerard.

5. Uncinula flexuosa, n. sp.

Mycelium thin, web-like, evanescent; conceptacles min-
ute, .0035 inch in diameter; appendages 15 — 25, about as
long as the diameter of the conceptacle, the apical half
wavy-flexuous and sometimes slightly thickened ; sporangia
8-10, ovate or elliptical; spores 8, elliptical; .0007-
.0008 inch long. Figs. 10-12.

Lower surface of horse-chestnut leaves. Buffalo. Sep-
tember. G. W. Clinton.

The flexuous appendages are characteristic of this species.
_ They sometimes appear as if twisted like the blade ofa
screw-auger.

216 _ New York Uncinule.

6. Uncinula Clintonii, n. sp.

Mycelium thin, web-like, evanescent or subpersistent ;
conceptacles scattered, minute, .003-—.0085 inch in di-
ameter; appendages 10-20, a little longer than the
diameter of the conceptacle, straight, generally a little
thickened toward the tips; sporangia 4-6; spores 4-6,
elliptical, .0007 —.0008 inch long. . Figs. 18-15.

Both surfaces of leaves of basswood. Buffalo. G. W.
Clinton. Watkins. September and October.

7. Uncinula Ampelopsidis 7. sp.

Mycelium thin, web-like, evanescent; conceptacles.003,
.0085 inch in diameter; appendages 10-20, once or
twice as long as the diameter of the conceptacle, colored,
obscurely septate toward the base, the tips paler and more
orlesscoiled; sporangia 4—6; spores 4— 6, usually 4, ellipti-
cal, .0007 —.0008 inch long. Figs. 16-18.

Both surfaces of leaves of the woodbine. Common
August to October.

The colored appendages easily separate this species from
all the preceding.

Norz. — The specimens of U. Torreyi were received too
late to be conveniently figured. Two other species, U.
Americana on leaves of grape vines and JU. luculenta on
leaves of poplars, are credited to our flora by E. C. Howe
M. D. I regret that, from the lack of specimens, I have »
not been able to include these in the present synopsis.

lau
¥: van

‘a

New York Uncinule. ye 2

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

UNCINULA ADUNCA Lev.

Fig. 1. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with one entire append-
age and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
2. A cluster of sporangia, x 240.
3. A sporangium with its spores, x 400.

UNCINULA MACROSPORA Pk.

Fig. 4. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with one entire appendage
and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
5. A cluster of sporangia, x 240.
6. A sporangium with its spores, x 400.

UNCINULA CIRCINATA C. & P.
Fig. 7. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with two entire append-
ages and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
8. A cluster of sporangia, x 240. »
9. A sporangium with its spores, x 400.

UNCINULA FLEXUOSA Pk.

Fig. 10. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with one entire append-
age and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
11. A cluster of sporangia, x 240.
12. ‘A sporangium with its spores, x 400.

UNCINULA CLINTONII Pk.

Fig. 13. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with one entire append-
"age and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
14. A cluster of sporangia, part of them with spores, x 240.
15. A sporangium with its spores, x 400.

UNCINULA AMPELOPSIDIS Pk.

Fig. 16. Part of the circumference of a conceptacle with one entire append-
age and the basal part of several others attached, x 240.
17. A cluster of sporangia, part of them with spores, x 240.
18. A sporangium with its spores, x 400.
Trans. vit.] 28

Report on the Water Supply of the City of Albany.

[Submitted to the Albany Institute May 21, 1872, and adopted without
dissent, after extended discussion, June 18, 1872.]

The committee of the Albany Institute, to whom was
referred the question in regard to a feasible plan for supply-
ing the city with water, have considered the subject in
what appears to them its most important aspect; and
present the following report:

Referring in the first place to the recent and present
scarcity of water, which has been charged to the deficiency
of the rain-fall of 1870 and 1871, the committee find on
comparison of records, that the amount of water falling
during these years does not vary materially from the
average of previous years. There are, however, two
causes why the supply utilized from the rain-fall has been
less than in some years heretofore; and we are to consider
also a constantly increasing demand for water by an in-
creasing population.

The supply utilized from an equal amount of rain-fall
will be less if the rains be in frequent showers followed by
clear weather, thus producing a greater proportional evap-
oration, than if the rains and cloudy weather are of
longer continuance. But the chief cause of diminished
supply we take to be in the fact that a much larger pro-
portion of the area or water-shed supplying Rensselaer
Lake has been cleared of its forests and undergrowth,
thus laying open the sandy soil to direct action of the sun’s
rays, and causing a greater amount of evaporation from
the surface. Accompanying this condition also, and the
cultivation of the soil, all surplus water is conducted as
rapidly as possible into the larger outlets, and numerous

Report on the Water Supply of Albany. 219

small swampy areas, which were once constant tributaries,
are now drained and dried up.

So long as clearing of the land and cultivation goes on,
so long must the supply of water, which can be utilized,
diminish. .

Were it in the power of the water commissioners to con-
trol this area feeding the Rensselaer lake, the surface
might be planted with rapidly growing trees, like the
silver-leaved poplar, or the native water-poplar (Populus
monilifera), and in some parts by the silver-maple (Acer
dasycarpum), all of which are trees of rapid growth, and if
properly managed might be a source of profit at the end
of twenty years. Beneath the shade of these trees, after
afew years, much small undergrowth would spring up
and thus cover the surface and prevent evaporation. This
suggestion, however, is merely to provide for saving from
evaporation the water which falls upon the area of this
water-shed.

The Rensselaer lake, in its present condition, is very
objectionable as a reservoir for water for domestic and
culinary purposes. A portion of it is simply a pond made
by damming across a ravine near its head. It differs in
nowise from an ordinary mill-pond, and the water is
flowed back over a gently sloping bed; so that there is a
large area along its margin where the water is less than
one foot deep, and over this area in summer time the
water heated to a tropical degree, stimulates an abundant
animal and vegetable growth. The lake proper has its
sides sloped and properly paved, but owing to its being |
improperly excavated, it presents an extensive sand bank,
which is uncovered, except when the water is at the
highest point. By the variations of level this is alternately
overflowed or laid bare; whilethe heat of the sun produces
a rapid decomposition of the organic growth which, when
again overflowed, is swept into the lake. During freshets,

220 Report on the Water Supply of Albany.

towards the middle or end of the season, the lake water
overflows its shores, covering a land vegetation, which is
thus destroyed and gradually decomposed, and added to
the amount of organic matter previously in the water.

It is a well established principle in chemistry, that the
higher the temperature the greater the quantity of organic
matter which will be dissolved ; and when in spring and
summer we find the water along the meandering shores of
the lake at a temperatnre equal to, or above blood heat, it
is no wonder that the water should become surcharged
with organic matter. It seems very clear that no supply
of water, however adequate in quantity, will ever prove
satisfactory in quality, while distributed from open reser-
voirs, especially when so large a surface is exposed, and
with such an extent of shallow water as we have in this
lake. Certainly, no time should be lost before deepening
and walling, if need be, the present sloping shores of
Rensselaer lake.

The length of this sloping shore line, counting the ac-
cessory areas or lagoons which communicate with the lake
and along which the water is everywhere shallow, (as
measured from the map) is about two miles.

The present impure condition of the water causes great
loss, for, in order not to use, for drinking or bathing, a
fluid so offensive to the senses, much water on this account
is often allowed to run to waste.

It has been suggested that if the present supply were
carefully economized and properly distributed, there would
be sufficient water for the inhabitants of the city. It seems
probable from all-the facts known, that the present supply
- with a moderate addition, would suffice for the present, or
perhaps for some years to come. We believe that the
water supplied to Albany is delivered in a more filthy
condition, and is more unequally distributed than in
any other city in the United States. It is no uncommon

Report on the Water Supply of Albany. 221

thing to see water running to waste from numerous lo-
ealities, for much of the winter season, simply to prevent
freezing ; while in other places in the higher parts of the
city, the inhabitants are often unable to obtain enough for
ordinary domestic use, or even a drop for days together.

So far as our observation has extended —and the same
has already been publicly stated — there is always, or at
least for a great part of the time, a large amount of water
allowed to run to waste (so far as domestic use is concerned)
along the Patroon’s creek. It seems to be a rational sug-
gestion that this excess of water for the supply of the lower
reservoir should be pumped up to supply the present
Bleecker reservoir, or another reservoir on the high ground,
instead of being allowed to flow into the river. The eleva-
tion required to be overcome is less than half as great as
that from the. river level, and the quality of water is far
superior.

Another suggestion as to sources of water might be
made in this connection. The clay, which is the prevail-
ing and almost universal superstratum of Albany, is over-
laid on the west by the loam and yellow sand. The water
falling on the surface penetrates to the clay and oozes out
at the junction of the two strata, or from the upper beds
of the clay, everywhere along the margin of the river val-
ley. All wells excavated in the clay thus become simple
reservoirs, and are filled with water percolating from above
which is held by the impervious nature of the clay.

This clay, which is variable in thickness, rests upon a
stratum of water-worn gravel, below which is a bed of
glacial clay and boulders. This gravel is pervious, and
water in greater or less quantity, depending on the thick-
ness of the gravel bed and the contour of the rock below,
is always flowing through this porous materiaf towards
the river. This fact can be observed wherever excavations
are made along the base of the hill extending down to the

222. Repori on the Water Supply of Albany.

slate or to the glacial clay. In all such excavations, water
will be found moving towards the river. Many of the
best wells of the city, as formerly existing, had their
source in this gravel, and some of them are still in use, as
we are informed.

The evidence of the presence of water in the gravel, and
its movement towards the river, may be observed a short
distance to the north of the city, on the slope of the hill
west of the McAdam road. Here there are (or formerly
were) numerous small springs where the water accumu-
lated in considerable quantities and escaped in small
Streams, uniting in a main one at.the roadside. Hvidence
of the same condition is also observed on the east side of
the road and along the southern slope of the hill near the
margin of the Patroon’screek. Were it desirable to do so,
avery large quantity of water could be utilized in this
neighborhood by excavating a large and deep well, and
pumping the water from it into areservoir for distribution.
We believe the water beneath the surface would be found
in much greater quantity than would appear from the springs
at the surface. The experiment of sinking the well wom
be a comparatively inexpensive one.

There is no doubt that numerous productive wells can
be obtained along the base of the hill where there is any
considerable depth of the gravel.

The subject of artesian wells has been suggested. The
conditions for artesian wells are.those which present strata
of impervious rock lying above a pervious one, with the
outcrop of the pervious rock at a higher level than the
place sought to be supplied with water. Now such con-
ditions do not exist in the neighborhood of Albany: the
slate rock here is folded and contorted, and though its
thickness when undisturbed has been estimated at about
one thousand feet, it extends in its present condition to a
depth at least twice as great in this vicinity, as has been

-

Report on the Water Supply of Albany. 228

proved by Mr. Van Benthuysen in the boring of the well
at Cohoes.

We might here allude to the possibility of obtaining
something like an artesian well by penetrating through
the clay to the gravel below at a point some distance from
the river. The water would rise as high as its source in
the outcrop of the gravel, but from the known inequality
of the thickness of the gravel, no definite results could be
predicted.” The experiment of boring through the clay
to the gravel has not, to our knowledge, been tried, except
near the margin of the valley or of the lateral ravines.
Such an experiment, we believe, would be undertaken were
the matter of supplying water left to individual enterprise.
Were such a well or boring to strike the gravel at some
point in its thicker accumulations, a large supply of water
could be obtained by pumping.

The practicability of obtaining an increased supply of
water from the Hungerkill and Normanskill has been so
fully treated in the report of the engineers that we need
not here enter into the discussion — merely alluding to the
fact that all sources of this kind, when the water-shed is
subject to continued clearing and cultivation, are liable to
constant diminution of supply, with an increasing amount of
impurity in the form of organic matter.

The sources of supply, which have been suggested upon
the east side of the river, do not, we believe, offer in any
manner a superiority over what may be obtained from
the streams on the west side.

The arguments long since made in favor of obtaining a
supply from Thompson’s lake upon the Helderberg, do not,
in our opinion, merit serious consideration. The area of
drainage or water-shed of this or any other of the smaller
lakes is too small to secure the supply needed, and it should
be borne in mind that there as well as elsewhere the source

224 Report on the Water Supply of Albany.

of supply is from the rainfall and not from any hidden
fountains beneath the rocks of the Helderberg.

Finally, we may refer to the Hudson river as a perma-
nent source of supply. It has been proposed to take the
water from the river above the city, and raise it by a
pumping engine to the height of the Bleecker reservoir
and thence distribute it to the city. This course is per-
fectly feasible by a large outlay and constant expenditure
of money; a second engine being necessarily required to
be in readiness against accident to the working one. The
quantity of water is abundantat all seasons, but the quality
we regard as entirely unfit for ordinary domestic purposes.

The entire drainage of the city of Troy with its manu-
factories, and the waste material from the factories on the
Poestenkill and Wynantskill, the sewage and factory —
refuse of all kinds from Cohoes, Waterford and Lansing-
burgh, are poured into the river within eight miles above
Albany. etii

We have, thus, at the present time, emptied into the
Hudson river directly, the excretions of nearly 100,000
human beings, besides the poisons and impurities from
the manufactories.

Besides all this, we have the water of the Mohawk,
which carries the sewage and factory refuse of all kinds
from Rome, Utica, Little Falls, Schenectady, and all the
smaller towns along the valley, with a population of
another hundred thousand people, to which must be added
that of the villages and numerous factories on the Oriskany
and Sauquoit creeks. There are probably twenty manu-
factories of various kinds on each of those streams, and
several on Hast Canada creek and other streams which
empty into the Mohawk. This stream, loaded with all
that is soluble of these impurities, and at a pretty high
temperature during the summer, is emptied into the Hud-
son river at a point about eight miles above the city of

6 Report on the Water Supply of Albany. 225

Albany. If we were to mention the smaller accessions
of impure water we might name the Erie canal and the
outlet of Saratoga lake.

This drainage area which we estimate as containing
100,000 people, will probably contain three times that
number twenty-five years hence, while the summer supply
-of water will be less than at present.

During the frosts of winter and at the time of great
freshets, the amount of organic matter and other deleterious
substances derived from these sources would be so diluted
that it might not prove disastrous to human life, but during
the summer season and at low stages of the river, the pro-
portion would be so great that we sincerely believe that
the use of this water would prove extremely dangerous, if
not entirely destructive to the health ofthe city. In the case
of an epidemic like cholera, we believe that the germs or
other means of transmitting the disease, would be trans-
ported in the water so derived and aid largely in spreading
the epidemic.

Were Albanians to be so far beguiled as supinely to
submit to the accomplishment of this scheme, we feel that
the results would be disastrous to the health of the city,
and were this unhappy idea to be carried out, we may well
be charged hereafter with deriving our water from the
Cloaca Trojana.

The proposition to obviate the evils here referred to by
excavating a large deep well in one of the sand islands .
recently formed in the river above the city, from which the -
water will be pumped, is open to the same objections as
taking the water directly from the river. It is said that
the water thus obtained will be filtered, but it should be .
remembered that the most dangerous of its impurities are
in solution and cannot be filtered out of the water, and it
will require but a short calculation to show that the rate
at which water must be supplied to the pump will allow

Trans. vii.] ‘29

226 . Report on the Water Supply of Albany.

”
of very little filtering; that in fact water so obtained ex-
cept in the coarser particles of matter will retain all the
qualities of the same fluid in the open river.

We cannot but regard any scheme of this kind or any
plan which may be devised for obtaining water from the
Hudson near the city, as open to grave objections, and if
carried out it will be at the cost of health and life among
the inhabitants. ,

In conclusion, we must beg leave to express our opinion
that although a temporary supply of water may be obtained
from the sources indicated, and that we may, by a little
care, be saved from the obnoxious if not really noxious
qualities of the water as at present furnished, we do not
see in any of these sources the means of a permanent sup-
ply in the future. All the water-sheds upon the lower
plateau are becoming cultivated and more closely peopled.
The regular supply is diminishing, while the quality is
rapidly deteriorating from various causes. In this state
of things we must sooner or later resort to the higher
water-sheds fora supply of pure water. Although Albany
may perhaps be able, by great care and better manage-
ment than heretofore, to maintain a tolerable supply for
twenty years, we are convinced that the city must finally
resort to the Hudson river, or some of its tributaries, at a
point above the towns and villages whose rapidly increas-
ing populations and manufactories are poisoning the waters
for forty miles to the northward.

The committee have now pointed out the various ~
sources from which a supply of water forthe future wants of
the city may be obtained, but whatever plan may hereafter
be adopted, we think it is urgent to proceed at once to
guard against the failure of water with which we are
threatened during the next few months. At this season,
when we usually have a large supply on hand to carry us
through the drought of the summer months, Rensselaer

Report on the Water Supply of Albany. 227

lake is now nearly empty, and the supplying streams are
running dry. There is great reason to fear that if the
rain-fall of the next few months is not unusually abundant,
we shall be exposed to serious deficiency of water at a
season when it would be most detrimental to health, and
when the danger of fires is greatest. And while this
danger is so pressing, a large quantity of surplus water
from Tivoli lake, and which could be available at small
expense, for present and future use, is allowed to run
into the river.

For immediate and temporary relief, we believe that
the deepening of the shallow parts of Rensselaer lake,
thus increasing its capacity without materially enlarging
its area, would be one important step both in increasing the
supply and. improving the quality of the water. No time
should be lost in carrying out this suggestion, in order to
secure its completion before the commencement of the
autumn rains.

The water of Patroon’s creek should all be utilized ac-
cording to the original intention and plan of improving
and increasing the water supply of Albany at the time
this water was purchased by the city, and steps should be
at once taken to secure this object, by which all the sur-
plus water of Tivoli lake shall be transferred to the higher
reservoir.

We would also earnestly recommend that the experi-
ment be made of sinking a large and deep well near the
northern limits of the city, in the gravel on the west side
of the McAdam road, or in some similar situation.

Respectfully submitted,
JAMES HALL.

G. W. Hoven.
Tuomas Hon.
Lz Roy C. Coonzy.

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.
[Read before the Albany Institute, January 1872.]

FIRST RESEARCH.

PHYSICAL OPERATIONS.

1. THE cosmical universe consists of a continuous succes-
sion of operations, performed by forces conspiring together
in space and time. The complete description of an operation
requires the enumeration of five things or elements : 1° The
Time occupied in the performance of the operation; 2° The
Space taken up bythe operation; 3° The Force, or the forces
which conspire in the operation; 4° The Phenomena, the re-
sults or resultants of the operations; and 5° The Ratio, or the
relations of simultaneous and successive operations, referred
each to a homogeneous arbitrarily chosen unity, and re-
corded by the observer as the coefficient or intellectual
measure of the operation on hand. Time and Space, then,
in a logical thesis, constitute the container or containing
member of the Cosmos; the field and stage in and upon
which the forces of the universe, the contained member of
the dichotomy, deploy themselves in eternal unrest. En-
wrapt among these changes, stands the humble observer,
man, whose highest terrestrial duty is to unravel the web of .
concealed modes and habits which underlie the outward
appearance of things.

“Man is the measure of the universe.”

The statical division of the universe into the container and
the contained having served its momentary purpose, a more
- fertile arrangement is found in the dynamical classification

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 229

propounded by the scholastic philosopher Scotus ERIGENA,
as follows : Everything is either 1° Cause and not Effect, or
2° Cause and Effect, or 3° Effect and not Cause, or 4° Neither
Cause nor Effect. Then, 1° Gop is cause and not effect; 2°
Force, and forces or noumena are both cause and effect;
8° Phenomena, or the final resultants of forces are effects
and not causes; and 4° Space and Time, in, and through
which these final results are measured and compared, are
neither cause nor effect. Space stands for the fabled well of
truth. Spatial relations are absolute truths : uncreated and
defying annihilation, no power or force, intellectual or phy-
sical, can alter the relation of the diagonal to the side of
the square. Not being an effect, space cannot be affected;
and not being a cause, it disturbs not the actions of forces
which encounter each other within its bosom. On the con-
trary, from the properties of the contents of space, we de-
rive only contingent truths, which can only be verified by
means of the sensations they produce in us, and by their
subsequent measures in space and time. The substance gold
impresses us (but seldom) by means of its solidity, weight
and bright yellow color; properties which are measurable
by the assayer and the chemist. And these measures are
contingent truths dependent upon the particular constitu-
tion given to this metal at its creation, which constitution
could be changed by a new creative or alterative act. Thus
material substances are causes, that is, forces, and their
effects are termed by us their properties. The study of the
effects of force, as manifested in the various trajectories
and changes occurring in the natural world, is our hopeful
task.

Space and Time are infinite and eternal; but we cannot
predicate these attributes for their contents. The argument
for the necessary existence of being fatally breaks down, and
we know such existence merely as an empirical fact, and
not a priori. Assuming, then, a beginning in time and an

230 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

origin in space, we may say, In the beginning, Gop cast
germs of force into space. Of unequal densities or intensions,
and planted at unequal distances from each other, each force
expanded uniformly in all directions in space. Certain limits,
more or less approaching to spherical in outline, would be
reached between each two nearest emanating centres of
force, where the encountering forces would be of equal in-
tensity. At these limits or boundaries, both transmission
and reflection of force take place. The transmitted portions
of the emanations from all the centres merge into an ethe-
rial force of uniformly infinite elasticity and zero of density,
which serves as the conductor of the colorific vibrations from
each centre throughout infinite space, and gives the phe-
nomenon of scintillation when crossing a boundary of reflec-
tion between any two emanating centres.

To recur to our own solar system, the portion of the
emanated force reflected from the boundaries of encounter
with the neighboring emanators, by its reaction produces
condensation towards our centre the sun. This pressure,
constantly tending towards the centre and meeting reaction
from the central emanation, increases the consistence of the
substance thus formed by the encountering forces, and a
succession of spherical or spheroidal shells are the result.
As the distances of the emanating centres are unequal, the
pressures are unequal on different sides of our centre, and
will become so uneven or so much greater on some particu-
lar side as to start a movement of rotation, which produces
an extensive fragmentation and general bouleversement of -
the spherical shells; cutting them into multitudinous pieces
of infinitely various sizes from that of the planet jupiter
down to the smallest asteroid and meteorite. The axis of
rotation would first accept a rocking motion, but finally
balances in a fixed direction, the equatorial tangent point-
ing out the opposing directions now termed the east and
west according to the rising and setting of the sun, etc.

a,

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 231

The centrifugal force generated by the rotation tends to
reduce the external pressure directed towards the axis,
while the pressures from the north and south would be
nearly equal and remain constant. These pressures would
therefore crowd the substances of the spherical shell towards
the equator of the mass, and thus tend to the formation ot
rings entire or broken. In any such detached fragment of a
ring in circulation, the linear velocity of the exterior sur-
face is greater than that of the interior surface, and thus
arises an interference resulting in the formation of a centre
of rotation of the fragment in the direction of its orbital
movement, and we behold the genesis of a planet.

2. In the beginning, Gop cast germs of force into space.
Unequal in quantity, and planted at unequal distances apart,
each germ proceeded onwards in its destiny by emanation
in all directions through vacancy. At certain distances from
the centre, as OZ’, OZ”, etc. (fig. 1), the emanation from
O is encountered and equilibrated by the emanations
from O’, O”, etc., and reaction supervenes. The distances
from O to Z’, Z”, etc. are not intended to be represented as
equal; and consequently, as the intensities of the several
emanators are also unequal, the amounts¢of the several
reactions or compressions from O’, O”, ete. towards O will
be unequal, severally producing unequal oscillations on
different sides towards the centre O; which oscillations,
being encountered by the continuous emanation from O,
give rise to the formation of a spheroidal shell of substance
05. Emanating or moving force is transformed into sub-
stance or equilibrated (latent) force in this way : The ema-
nators O, O’, O”, etc. are immanent generators of force. In
the shell O5, the reaction Z’O and the emanation OZ meet
in the centre of the shell, and annul each other. In the next
instant, the opposing emanations from the centre of the shell
keep up the equilibrium; while its thickness is increased by
the fresh arrival of oscillation from O’Z’ and emanation

232 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

from O. The shell 05 now, in its turn, acts to form the shell
O4 as did OZ to form O05; and so on a series of spheroidal
shells O03, O02, O1, ete. is successively formed, extending
down to the very surface of the primitive generator O, each

shell acquiring a density different from that ofall the others.

The system of shells being now in dynamical equilibrium
together, we have to consider that the resultant pressure of
some two or more outside emanators O”, O””, etc. will pass
through the system O in direction aside from that through
OO’; when consequently the system O will be compelled
to rotate on its centre, and thus introduce disturbance and
dislocation in the shells, which thus become broken into
fragments large or small, but all partaking of the revolving
motion. Substances of different shells, of different densities,
will be commingled in irregular order, as we find the differ-
ent elements associated or scattered in the planetary masses.

At the commencement of the process, the body O con-
sisted of pure Force. Placed in vacuo, it leaped to the spherical
boundary Z at one dash. It is the same force which manifests
itself as heat, etc.; but as yet the phenomenon of tempera-
ture has not appeared, neither at O nor at Z. Heatarises solely
from the sphérical oscillation of the atomic subdivisions
evolved from the continuous force by some external agency.
The first oscillations in our system are commenced at the
boundary Z, by the encounter of the pressures Z’, Z’, ete. ;
which oscillations are propagated towards the centre QO, giv-
ing rise to the condensations of the several shells. Every im-
pulse that condenses a substance evolves that atom of force
which was engaged in maintaining the bulk of the substance:
the compressed atom rebounds or oscillates spherically, and
communicates its disturbance to the surrounding medium,
and this change constitutestemperature. Withouta supply of
calorific oscillations from without, the condensed substance
would never regain its lost bulk.

Gradually, then, the condensation. proceeded from the

Researches in the Theory and Caleulus of Operations. 233

circumference towards the centre of the nebulous mass;
throwing off heat outwards to dissipate itself in zero in
vacant space, and inwardly to accumulate in increasing
intensity at the centre of the system. Condensation finally
produces incandescence of the central bodies, and this in-
caridescence initiates and maintains chemical combination
or combustion of the surrounding and arriving elementary
substances. At an epoch immensely removed in the past,
condensation towards the centre of the earth produced the
incandescence of its surface, the heating activity of which
converted the metallic elements silex, calx, argillum, ferrum,
etc. into the neutral compounds sand, lime, clay, ore, etc.
by oxidation or chemical combination (combustion), and

_ thus we live upon the ashes of a former world; well that

at a distance of forty miles beneath us we meet a spherical
stratum with a persistent incandescent temperature. The
like process is evidently going on at the surface of the sun’s
body, the incandescent state of which was produced by
condensation, and now continues to convert all arriving
substances into flame (Mayer), and will continue so to do
until the surface of the incandescent body is thickly covered
with ashes like the coatings of the planetary bodies.

3. When two solid bodies A and B (fig. 2’) are pressed
together, the resultant of the forces c A’ and ¢’B’ is equal
to their difference, and null when the forces are equal; while,
on the other hand, the resultant of the forces cA and ¢’B
is equal to their sum, and holds the two bodies together for
an instant even after the dismissal of the pressure; but then
the resuscitating forces of A and B instantaneously renew
the primitive state of equilibrium.

If, however, one (or both) of the bodies be liquid (fig. 2’),
a portion A’B’ of the opposing forces cA’ and ¢’B’ is de-
stroyed; while the contrary forces cA and ¢’B, which were
equilibrated respectively by cA’ and c’B’ (now partially
destroyed) act freely, the former to pull B towards A, the
latter to pull A towards B : consequently a process of uniting

Trans. vii.] 30

234 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

of the two elements commences as in chemical combination,
and continues under the influence of the cause that initiated
the operation. |

As an application of our forceful theory to the interpreta-
tion of one of the most familiar cosmical phenomena, let ,
(fig. 2) OA represent the solid globe of the earth, and B, C
spheres of emanated force, D being put for the limiting
sphere. EH is a small sphere of matter placed within the
limiting sphere OD. The spheres CA and E being free to
act upon each other, the encounter of the emanating forces
during a first instant of time annihilates a portion of each
which acted in the opposing directions OE and EO, liberat-
ing respectively an equal portion to act during the second
instant in the mutually opposing directions OC’ and EC.
As the action and reaction hold between the spherical shells
as well as through the diameters (see 6), the liberated force
in OC’ draws E towards O and the force EC draws O to-
wards EK; but as the mass of Ois very much greater than
that of EH, the latter is moved bodily towards the former.
In the succeeding moment of time, the process is reiterated ;
and so for every succeeding moment, the velocities being
continually added, whereby the body E describes a distance
increasing as the square of the time of the fall. Thus with-
out resorting to the hypothesis of attraction (in which the
force “looks one way, and rows the other’’), the so-called
law of gravitation is demonstrated from the principle of
emanation alone (fig. 3).

The principles in question are directly available for the
interpretation of the daily occurrence of the ebb and flow
of the waters of the ocean. Let A represent the Harth and D
the Moon. Suppose the arc R to indicate the boundary of the
Earth’s emanation, and 8S the boundary of the Moon’s emana-
tion, in all relative positions of these bodies, and in all direc-
tions from their centres except that particular one which con-
nects their centres for the time. When the Moon approaches
the terrestrial meridian ofany place, the terrestrial emanation

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 235

is reduced from R to R’, and the lunar emanation from S to
S’. The Moon arriving at the zenith, the meridianal belt of
the Earth’s surface in view receives an additional pressure
from the lunar emanation, proportionate to the difference
between R,R’ and 8,98’, or to their sum when the Sun is on
the same line and side of the Earth. This added pressure
depresses the fluid portions of the Earth at A, and liberates
sufficient force at the opposite point A’ to produce a corre-
_ sponding elevation of the waters at that point. As the Moon
passes off the meridian, the pressure departs westward, re-
action of the lately depressed portion of water supervenes
and is reinforced by the subsidence of the waters of the
opposite side of the globe, precisely in the manner of other
forms of oscillation. The centrifugal force of the globe con-
tributes of itself to increase the elevation, and of course to
decrease the depression of the waters; and thus the daily
retardation of the moon’s orbital motion behind the earth’s
rotative motion keeps up a perpetually circulating wave
from east to west around our planet, the magnitude of the
effect being constantly modified by the action of the Sun.

4. By the use of geometrical multipliers, the principle of
areas, and the so-called laws of KEPLER, may be constructed.

Mathematical symbols express relations of operations per-
| formed by forces in space and time. Addition isan operation,
and multiplication is but an abbreviated method of perform-
ing a series of additions.

Let 1, denote the unit of mass, the multiplicand or body
- operated upon, represented say by the sphere (fig. 4); and
let 1, 1,1, respectively denote the units of time, of space
(rectilinear distance), and of velocity (rate of motion). As
the magnitudes of these units are arbitrary, they may be
chosen all equal to the line 0 1 (fig. 29). The unit of ve-
locity 1, being the multiplier, the operation 1,x1, is ex-
plained by the application of a force (say an impulsion) to
the multiplicand 1, placed at the point 0, which will carry
it from 0 to the point 1 in the unit of time 1, giving the result

236 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

or product 1,x1,; from which result, relieving the burthen

XI,

by division ate there remains 1, as the relative measure

tu
of a unit of operation; and finally eliminating the element
of space, 1 =1 gives the rational or numerical unit.

U

Thus a first multiplication of 1, by 1, gives 1,=01, the
first power of a geometrical unit; a second multiplication
carries 1, from the 1 to the point 2, giving 17=0 2;

a third multiplication gives 1?= 0 3; and
a fourth i gives 17=0 4, etc.’
Dismissing now 1,, and taking for multiplicand the unit
line 01 (fig. 30) regarded as a rigid physical line equal to the
unit of mass, and for multiplier the perpendicular unit line
01’, the operation 1,x1,=01x01’ shall express the transfer
of the former line parallel to itself, from the position 01 to
that of 1/1’, by uniform movement; thus covering the area
011/1” equalling the square constructed in 01=1,; that is,
by this method of interpretation, 17=011'1’’. If then 04 (fig.
31) be multiplicand, successive multiplications by 1,=01
(perpendicularly) will produce the respective areas 4, 8, 12,
16, as products of geometrical factors.

Pursuing this method of interpretation, let the radius of
the circle (fig. 32) OA=r1, be multiplicand, and the mul-
tiplier O1=1,: the product becomes 1,xr1,—r1?=areaO
A12 by movement of OA parallel to itself into the position
12. This shows at the same time that the area of the triangle
OA2=4r1}, and conterminously that the area of the sector
OA? equals half the product of the radius by the are At,
or areaQ At=47r761?, 6 standing for theare At. If now the
radius be fixed at the centre O, it must necessarily describe
the sector OAd under the application of the multiplier 1,,
instead of the including parallelogram. By a continuance
of this rotatory movement, the radius will describe the entire
area of the circle rr?1?, in a certain time 11, equal to the
sum of the partial times enumerated in describing the partial

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 237

areas. The areas and times represent each other; and as any
area has its equivalent square, the times of description are
measured by such squares constituting the equivalent of the
area of the circle, and therefore expressible in squares of
the radius. In uniform motion, the greater the distance, the
longer the time of transit. Therefore in two circles of radii-
r,r’, and times 1, 7’, the ratios of the squares of the radii

to the squares of the times are to each other inversely as the

2 wl2 3 2
radii, giving the proportion ao ::7’:r; whence a at
the squares of the times proportional to the cubes of the
distances. Substitution of an inscribed ellipse for the circle
leaves unchanged the relation between the radius and the

| time of description (DeLAMsBRE). This leads to the following

t/2 9

EXAMPLE.

Miles.
35393000 — Distance of Mercury from the Sun=r.
7.5489174 —log r;
22.6467522 —8 . log r= log 2°.
5.1251954 —log ¢”.

-27.7719476 —log 1°, t?.

91430000 = Distance of Earth from the Sun=7’.
7.9610887 — log 7’;
23.8832661 =8 . log r’=log r*.
3.8886614 = log @.

27.7719275 =log r”. &. (Lock yEr).

Days.

365.2563 — Revolution of Earth around the Sun=/?
2.5625977 — log 7@;
5.1251954—2 . log t= log 7”.

87.9692 = Revolution of Mercury around the Sun=—¢.
1.9443307 = log ¢;
3.8886614 = 2. log t= log #.

22.6467522 8.8886614
23.8832661 5.1251954
~ : te
2.7634861 —log 3.7634660 —log <r,
a5

0.0580078 = ratio of cubes} 0.0580051 — ratio of squares
of distances. of times.

a

238 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

A direct deduction of the measure of centrifugal force
can be shown by beginning with fig. 36, in which AB re-
presents the path of uniform movement, AlL=12=23=
3 4, etc. successively in equal times. At the fixed origin O
is an orifice permitting the passage of an inextensible chord
having an attachment at its farther extremity with the unit
mobile 1, OA is the common altitude of the successive tri-
angles all erected upon equal bases : the areas of the triangles
are therefore equal, and are described in equal times under

‘the even traction of the chord as delivered with just suffi-

cient friction to preserve its rectitude.

Begin the operation anew, by fixing the inextensible
chord at O (fig. 384). The unit step of movement cannot now
lengthen the distance of the mobile from the origin O, but
is compelled to take the diagonal A CO of the parallelogram
ABCD. The direction of the movement must consequently
be continually changed, while continuing uniform in time.
The bases of the successively described triangles remain
equal, and the radius of the described circle is their common
altitude : consequently here also equal areas are described
in equal times. The force at the centre which controls this
movement is a constant force, a force of the second degree,
whose measure is expressed by x71, the distance it would

~ earry the unit mobile 1, in the time 71, (equally expressed by

x71,, the square of the time, when 1, =1,). For movement
in the circumferences of the circles OA and OA’ (fig. 33),
these distances will be v71, and z’1,. Now in uniform travel,
the greater the distance the longer time, and ares of cir-

cles are as their radii; then in the circles OA and OA’, —

of radii r and 7’, there arises the proportions

Force expended in are as : Force expended in arc a’s’::
Time in as: Time in @’s’;

or, substituting the measures,
w1,:2"1,:: rl,:1r'1,,. which gives the equation

12
a =— , expressing the centrifugal force (NEwTon).

ee

ed ir” »

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 239

The centrifugal force is geometrically deduced as follows:
(Fig. 32) the angle AtA’, being in a semicircle, is a right
angle, and gives the proportion AA’ =d: At:: A/: Ab;

2
whence Ap =) . A2 istthe measure of the original

tangential velocity impressed upon the body at the point
A. The whole force represented by the diameter d, when —
measured by the effect Ad which it produces in the time
measured by A2, is really measured by the radius OA,
from which centre O it proceeds, and acts as a constant
force (a force of the second degree) towards that centre,
upon the body at A (see section 3); where it enters into
composition with the tangential force in A2, and the re-
sult is the deflection of the course of the mobile into the

diagonal (or sal Ai, with a velocity the square of which

is expressed by = = oe and which balances the force in

O (Hutton).

The conversion of circular into elliptic motion may be
traced by comparing figs. 34 and 35. In the first fig. 34, the
radius OA is an inextensible chord or line of balanced force.
The tangential velocity applied at A is compelled to follow
the diagonal AC by the unyielding force from the centre;
for a similar reason, the course of the mobile is changed
from CB’ to CO’, and so on around the circle. But in fig.
35, the radius OA isa constant force of the second degree,
and generates a velocity AD which compounds with that
of the tangential force AB, resulting in the diagonal AC
the same as in the circle of 384. As the diagonal AC is greater
than the side AB of the parallelogram ABCD, the tan-
gential velocity CB’=AC is greater than AB, but, when
‘ compounded with the constantly generated central velocity
CD=AD, gives the new diagonal CC’< AC. For, O’ is the
centre of the circle circumscribed to the ellipse of which
AA’ is the major axis and O the nearer focus. The diagonal
AC is obtained by compounding the original velocity AB
with the fixed tensional force O’A from the centre, and is

240 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

assumed the same as that produced by the velocity generated
(beginning at zero) by the constant force OA of the second
degree, during the same time. The effect of this force is there-
fore CD’ greater than AD that in the circle, and conse-
quently inclines the terminal extremity of the resultant
diagonal towards the diameter AA’. But while continually
bending its further extremity towards the diameter, in virtue
ofthe attraction in the focus O, which varies with the
length and inclination of the radius, the diagonal departs.
further and further from that focus, till finally arriving at
the diameter at the point A’, where the intensional effect
of O, from increase of distance, is diminished to A’D, the
tangential tendency being A’). From this point, then, the
diagonals continue to increase, and the right hand half of
the elliptic polygon repeats the left hand half in reverse
order. By actual geometrical admeasurement, it can be
shown that the areas of these several triangles are all equal,
and prove KEPLER’s principle of the description of equal
areas in equal times. When, in the unit of time, the primi-
tive impulsed or rotative velocity in A is less than the effect
of the force in O, the resulting orbit 1s elliptical;

if equal to the effect “O, “ es ‘¢ parabolical:
if greater than “ ‘O, hyperbolical (Lapnacz, Biot).
To return to the globe represented in section in fig. 33,
the volume of emanated force at the distance r from the cen-
tre is proportional to r° the cube of the radius; at this dis-
tance, the intension of the force filling a spherical shell of

unit thickness is measured by 7 the inverse cube of the ra-

dius. The emanated force filling a plane central section of
unit thickness is proportional to r’; at this distance, a ring
of this plane of unit thickness is measured by 3 the inverse-
square of the radius, and this is the force that holds the
planets in their orbits. The primitive tangential or rotative °
velocity depends upon the angular velocity, which, if counted

by equal distances in equal times, is proportional to the in-

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 241

: i but if counted by equal angles in
equal times, is proportional to the direct radius squared, r?
(LARDNER, YOUNG).

To the radius 7, the volume of the sphere filled by ema-
nation from a centre of force (the Sun), is measured by
4xr*, proportional to the cube of the radius, Of this ema-
nated force, there is distributed on the surface of the sphere
an amount measured by 47, proportional to the square of
the radius; while any great circle of the sphere holds an
amount measured by 2zar, proportional to the simple radius.
In the radiation, expansion or equable diffusion of a force
in space, the extension is to the intension as the radius r to

verse radius squared

its reciprocal 7’/= = (HerscHEL). So that the comparison of

two spheres of radii 7’ and r, OA’ and OA (fig. 33), with
reference to intension, gives the proportions

_ gar? : 4er?: Qer:: 4nr*: 4nr*: 2xr’;
whence the equations
== —= —, the cubed radii referring to the (mean) dis-
tances of the planets,
the squared radii to the times of revolution, and
the simple radii to the relation of inverse dis-
tances (KEPLER).

In a sphere of radius r (that of a planet in its orbit), the
whole amount of force emanated by the Sun is equal to
4nr°, the volume of the sphere. Of this amount, that which
applies to the planet is equal to ~r°, the area of the diame-
tral circle of the sphere intersecting the place of the planet;
and the circumference of the great circle drawn through the
planet constitutes its mean orbit, is equal to 2xr, and applies
to the revolution of the planet. In Kepier’s second law, the
times of revolution are counted in squares (resultant of a
foree of the second degree); and when equal distances are
measured by equal times of description, the third law is ob-
tained : the squares of the times proportional to the cubes of

the (mean) distances.
Trans. vii] 31

242 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

Dig@ression 1. Modern experimental philosophy has hi-
therto been, and unfortunately still is, conducted on statical
principles alone. Under this method every thing, every phe-
* nomenon, is weighed and measured, and classified; the dead
results being strung on a thread of antecedents and conse-
quents, like night invariably followed by day, with habi for
interpreter of the connexion. A true method of theorising
has scarcely dawned upon us. Anything like an available
notion of cause is positively repudiated, The shrine of the
protean god, Forcs, attracts devotees few and far between,
and is glanced at askance by those who profess to be wise in
their day. The fundamental conceptions of space and time
are stifled in darkness that cannot be felt; are, in fact, be-
lieved to be created by each customer at his own convenience
for his own use, and to perish as soon as attention to their
content ceases. Space is the relation of the simultaneity,
Time is the relation of the succession of phenomena, and
Cause is the possibility of sensation (possibly)! Lucid defi-
nitions, perhaps. Science has become a kind of thimble-
rigging; it asks not a god to annihilate both space and time,
but evolves from the depths of its own consciousness, or the
levels of its shallowness, the innate ideas or talismanic words -
which shall transport the subject or the object from place to
place without traversing the distance between. The futile
attempts to banish metaphysical inquiries from the tapis have
merely changed the venue, and the so-called laws of nature
are as much metaphysical entities as the categories of Kant,
the ideal patterns of Piao, or the pure being of Hzuaen. We
have dethroned King Stork; but how long shall we remain
uneasily perched upon King Log? No wonder if some lose
foothold and plunge into the cold and shoreless ocean of
scepticism. It will not do to stop here; the inquisitive mind
_ seeks to become better satisfied, and calls for a change of
method, which is here attempted by the adoption of dyna-
mical principles in reasoning.

It would appear that the notion of matter, unless trans-

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 248

formed into that of force, is a stale, flat, and unprofitable
conception, ending in non-entity. Abstract from matter its
qualities, and nothing is left but the conception of an incon-
ceivable subject of inhesion. True, this view has been aban-
doned to give place to the pincushion idea, in which the
pins stand for the imprisoned forces; forces that play the
game of hide and seek within, or stand and deliver with
outsiders. No: there are not two kings on one throne, Mat-
ter and Force; bi t one sole autocrat of all the realms of the
cosmos, Force, one, but not indivisible. Force, then, must
hatch the egg of the universe. Force is the nut we must
crack and digest, if ever aliving system of science and know-
ledge shall inhabit our minds.

Perhaps the easiest way to arrive at the dynamical con-
ception of matter will be to recur to the ancient fable of the
perpetual lamp which burns forever without feeding. Mat-
ter or substance is a perpetual or ceaseless ENERGY, in the
original aristotelic signification of the word, constantly act-
ing and reacting throughout the domains of the physical
world. The notion of an entirely passive substance, meaning
of course a substance which could not manifest its existence
to any other external substance or being, or resist an en-
counter therewith, corresponds to nothing else than a blanc
void. Nor is the notion redeemed by clothing matter with
a relative passivity, like clay in the hands of the potter, to
be moulded into such shape as shall suit, the views of the
artist; for even plasticity is manifested by reaction.

It may be said that the amount of force (matter) in the
universe is constant. Equilibrated forces are constantly de-
stroyed and constantly replaced in maintaining, and restor-
ing equilibrium when interrupted. Substances of different
density, that is, forces of different intensity, come to inter-
ference, and force is liberated. The liberated forces circulate
_ through trajectories peculiar each to its genus and the spe-
cifying conditions it encounters, and finally all return to
their source and keep the cosmical measure full. Everything

244 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

resolves into force, and force re-resolves, but dies at last.
Force can produce motion if you let it, and force can stop
motion. Can any other thing do this?

Activity tends to motion in space; and as space is passive
in all directions, a sphere of material substance (force) will
emanate or radiate force in all directions about its central
point. Such emanation or radiation is experimentally known
to be true with respect to the several forces, gravity, heat,
light, ete.; all of which have a material origin, and are there-
fore secondary, or generated forces. In the case of liquid and
of gaseous substances, the fundamental principle is that the
particles press equally in all directions; and this suggests
the application of the same principle to the case of solids.

In experimental physics, density and elasticity are in the
relation of mutually inverse energy: the greater the inten-
sion, the less the extension, and vice versa ; the greater the
intensity of the atom, the smaller its volume, and the less
space is consequently occupied by the atoms and their mass
when congregated into body: 1° The atoms press against
each other so strongly that it is difficult to separate them ;
which agrees with the state of solidity. 2? When the densi-
tive and elastic energies are equal, the atomic intension and
extension are balanced, and are easily separated. The tran-
sition to this the liquid from the solid state is effected by
the application of the force of heat, which transforms inten-
sion into extension by promoting molecular vibration (Tyn-
DALL). In the same substance, the radius of the fluid atoms
is larger than when in the solid state (notable exception of
water). 3° By the prolonged.application of heat to a fluid
mass, the atomic radiiare further extended, the elastic comes
to surpass the densic energy, and the aerial or gaseous form
arrives, in which the mass possesses great repulsive power,
and is proportionably compressible. 4° The fourth or ethe-
rial state of matter or force, comprising what have been

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 245

termed the imponderables, heat, light, gravity, etc., requires
a wider induction for its exposition.

At all temperatures whatever, all bodtes continually ra-
diate heat (Poisson); that is, all bodies interchange their
caloric, or matter or motion of heat; the hotter body sends
to the cooler one a larger amount of heat than it receives
from the latter in return, until equilibrium of temperature
is reached, when the mutual exchanges continue in equal
quantity. It is thus experimentally established that all ma-
terial bodies incontinently transmit force from one locality
in space to another, by aid of the intervening medium what-
ever it may be. From liquid bodies of every description,
from the waters of the ocean and the lakes and the rivers,
evaporation is constantly going on: the superficial particles
combine with the caloritic force, and heat departs by con-
vection (Fourier). The incipient vapor, winged with its
acquired momentum, ascends to a higher region, a rarer |
medium, by the cold of which it is condensed, and returned
in the form of rain to the surface from which it started.
The radius of the force of gravity extends from sun to planet,
from planet to satellite, throughout the solar system; and
unless we are prepared to accept the stultifying assertion
that power can act where it does not exist, we must admit
that the gravitating force that causes bodies to fall towards
the centre of sun or planet, emanates in each case from such
centre, decreasing in intension and increasing in extension
according to the relation between spherical surfaces, the
inverse square of the distance from the centre, and proceed-
ing onward until meeting an equilibrating force from a
neighboring emanator, such as must exist, for instance, be-
tween the earth and moon, in the manner of a neutral bound-
ary, where, if a stone were placed on one side, it would fall
to the earth; but if on the other side, would fall to the moon.

Assume, then, that all matter, in itself pure force (dyna-
mis, ARISTOTLE; energy, JOULE), emanates force according
to the newtonian law; and that this immanent energy has

246 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

been placed by the Creator in this status of eternal gene-
ration, production, destruction and reproduction (or action,
production and restitution) in which man finds it in this our
present world, and extends the same law in contemplation
to the remotest bounds of the telescopic universe.

5. Place a homogeneous sphere (fig. 4), of unit diameter
and unit mass, upon a smooth plane horizontal table. It re-
mains at rest, exactly as if it were completely inert; and yet
it is the embodiment of nothing less than an infinite force,
that would require infinite power to annihilate it; but the
equal components of this infinite force are mutually ba-
lanced in pairs by opposition of direction, and the resultant
is mathematical equilibrium + — = 0 (OkEN). On the ho-
rizontal line passing through the centre of the sphere, the
sum of the energies of the atoms on the right hand radius
tend to move the body in that direction, but are equally
opposed by the energies of the atoms of the left hand radius
exerted in the direction opposite to the former; and so of
every other pair of opposing radii in the sphere. The op-
-posing radii cannot.be parted at the centre, because the
central atom holds to those on all sides with the highest in-
tension; so there is no call for the hooks of DEMocritTUs.
The repulsive force of a solid body is infinite at the point
of contact, and null at a sensible distance therefrom.

The ball being in repose, let a unit of impulsive force be
applied at A, directed through the centre ofgravity O. Dur-
ing the short interval or instant of time consumed in the
impulsive contact, the atomic forces which were pulling from
O in the direction OA and equilibrated by the equal atomic
forces which were pulling from O in the opposite direction

O A’, is destroyed by the impulsion, leaving the latteramount — |

OA’ unequilibrated, and therefore ready to take effect in
moving the ball in the left hand direction at the beginning
of the next instant of time, and thus the motion is begun.
Spherical equilibrium is instantly restored from the centre
to both extremities of the diameter, by the emanative con-

,
a
.
:
:

‘

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 247

stitution of the matter; but the liberated force OA’, a unit
of velocity thus generated, would carry the ball against non-
resistance on to infinity, at the rate of a unit of distance in
a unit of time; the mass of the ball being unity, and count-
ing also as unity the sum of the atomic forces of each radius,
one destroyed and one liberated, and this indeed is the same
as regarding the entire sphere as one mammoth atom. But
cases will arise, for which it is necessary to explain the pro-
pagation or transmission through a line of atoms. The mole-
cular compression and reacting expansion begun at A, travels
along the diametral line of atomic forces, just like as in the
familiar experiment often exhibited of a file of suspended
balls: an extreme ball being raised and then dropped, the

*impulse is successively commiunicated, each ball remains
quiescent, except the one at the other extreme of the file,
which alone moves in answer to the communicated impulse;
but in the example of the solid sphere, the atom A’ cannot
move without dragging the others after it. Q. E. D.

The impulsive force of the blow and the reacting force of
the ball are in inverse relation together, and the mass of the
mobile enters the operation as a factor (FREYCINET), a force
of the first degree. Starting from rest, the following are a
few results:

Velocity of striker. Mass of body struck. Distance moved.

Sees eT C NTC Te Onan

1
2
1
"
Fs
2
2
2

. 7
Sie:

Such would be the result of a single impulsion applied
toa movable body. In the case of a continued repetition of

248 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

impulsion, each impulse would add its effect to the sum
of those already existing, and there results a uniformly ac-
celerated motion, such as is produced by gravity.

N.B. Throughout all these inquiries, it is understood that
the whole sphere is in action, the result of which is as if the
entire force were concentrated at the centre (LAPLACE).

6. From the molecular to the planetary spheres in mag-
nitude, each sphere is a mass of concentric ensphered shells
of emanating force, each atom of the shells pressing in the
direction both of the normal and of the circumference. In
equilibrium (fig. 5), the diametral and circumferential pres-
sures of every pair of complementary hemispheres ABA’
and A’B’A, BA’B’ and B’AB, etc. are equal and opposite.
The entire sphere, of which ABA’B’ is a diametral plane
section, is built up in like manner as each of its atoms; and
all is in equilibrium, not only within the sphere itself, but
with the medium by which it is surrounded, the atoms of
which are represented by dotted circles in contrast to the
darker lining of the sphere.

In a mathematical inquiry into the effects of the mole-
cular forces, it has been shown by a celebrated analist that
the equation that convenes to the successive spherical shells
from the centre to the circumference, has to be moditied at
the surface to meet the different effect of the force of the
medium surrounding the sphere, in order that equilibrium
may subsist between the sphere and that medium (Porsson).
Each atom on any shell must be in equilibrium not only
with iis tmmediate right- and lefthand neighbors situate
both on the diameter and on the circumference, but also
through communication with its opposite atom equidistant
from the centre. The circumferential atoms of the surface
of the sphere should also be in equilibrium with the im-
mediately surrounding atoms of the medium; but as the
medium has less density than the solid sphere, such equili-
brium cannot directly subsist. The difference of tension is
propagated across the diameter (from A to A’), and is there

>

eee ny te et ee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 249

equilibrated by the reaction of the medium; so that the
medial particles impinging upon the sphere throughout
equilibrate each other, and the excess of the spherical over
the medial force, or that which is not destroyed by the lat-
ter, constitutes the proper emanating force of the spherical
mass, which goes to contribute the ethereal medium of in-
finite space.

In order to rectify our conception of the atomic theory,
recall to mind HerscHEL’s graphic delineation of an exam-
ple of the genesis of waves, by the action of the winds upon a
field ofgrain. The amplitude ofthe grain-waves depends upon
the force of the impinging wind and the elastic resistance and
rebound of the stalks of the grain, and not upon any pre-
existing central points. The genesis of atmospheric waves
by the vibratory action of an elastic spring, also offers a
case in point, and indeed a proof in point; for it is only ne-
cessary to substitute the conception of an oscillation of ten-
sion for that of vibratory movement, to secure distinct mental
vision of the operation. So when treating of any medium
whatever, solid, fluid or gaseous, the atoms are not to be
regarded as having a priori definite magnitude and fixed
centres (the mathematical points of Boscovicu): on the con-
trary, these relations are developed by perturbations inflicted
upon the mass by interfering forces, which, proportionate
to the depth of their penetration and the tension of the in-
terfered medium, determine the magnitude of the atoms
thus called into existence, their centres being in each origin-
ated by reaction.

JT. When a body is struck in a movable direction, motion
is the result if the blow be sufficiently powerful. But if struck
in a direction in which it cannot be moved, as in the case
of hammering a piece of iron upon an anvil, the impulsed
superficial atoms react proportionately in opposition to the
force of the blow, being reinforced by the resistance of the
underlying strata of atoms: an atomic vibratory action com-

Trans. vii.) 32

250 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

mences; and if the blows are repeated, the particles of the
hammered substance are condensed, and sensible heat is
evolved therefrom into the contiguous medium. An expla-
nation of the modus operandi of the calorific force in convert-
ing density into elasticity may be apprehended by attending
to the increasing oscillatory movement that would be pro-
duced in a freely suspended ball by the application of a uni-
form succession of light taps or slight mechanical impulses.
Each renewed impulse adds its effect to that of the preceding
one, and of course the amplitude of the oscillation of the
ball must increase. So the successive impulses of the Sun,
or of any heated*substance, impinging upon the substance
of an extraneous body, arouses reaction in the superficial
atoms of the latter, which is manifested by their rebound
from the compression inflicted on the interior atoms, and
consequent enlargement of the radius of elasticity. Thus
heat is ‘a mode of motion (TynpaLt). A strong application
of friction, much severer than that required for the produc-
tion of electrical effect, was early practised by the aboriginal
savages for the procurement of heat; a parallel instance of
the conversion of massive motion into molecular movement,
of rectilinear into vibratory movement, and distinguishable
from the method of educing electrical effects by reason of
the stronger compression which mechanically disturbs the
material particles.

The comparative magnitudes of the calorific vibrations
peculiar to the three consistent states of ponderable matter
may be delineated thus: in the aerial state A (fig. 6), the
Waves meet at their circumferences, and repulsion predo-
minates; in the liquid state L, the circumferences meet at the
centres, and attraction and repulsion are balanced, the waves
being smaller and the body proportionally reduced in mag-
nitude; in the solid state 8, the centres merge into their
own circumferences, attraction predominates, aa the body
reduces to its minimum size.

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 251

A prolonged application of calorific force is requisite to
originate vibratory molecular movement in the solid body
8; and, in so doing, the introduced force actually combines
with and enlarges the dimensions of the substance, and thus
disappears from thermometrical admeasurement (latent heat
of Buacx). Having reached the liquid state in L, a further
‘supply of calorific force will be consumed in further en-
larging the amplitude of the molecular vibrations, and as
before, becomes latent in maintaining the further enlarged
substance in the aerial state A.

All bodies continually interchange calorific vibrations,
producing a mutual change of bulk, the warmer body de-
creasing, the cooler increasing till the temperature is equal-
ised between them. The calorific force is repulsive in the
form of spherical emanation; the atomic radii increase in
the body which receives a greater accession of calorific im-
pulses than it returns, and decrease in the one which imparts
a greater amount than it receives. When equilibrium of
temperature is reached, the interchange remains equal
(Poisson, Fourier).

8. Heat increases the bulk of matter, which is an increase
in the three dimensions of space, by the conversion of in-
tension into extension, or increasing elasticity at the expense
of density. Now 1° a force of the first degree, a uniform
velocity, generates a force of the degree zero, a phenomenon
which increases uniformly in time, and therefore may be
measured by a straight line, a magnitude of one dimension.
2° A force of the second degree generates force of the first
degree (velocity) uniformly, which generates a phenomenon
increasing as the square of the time, and so is measurably
a square, a magnitude of two dimensions. 3° A force of the
third degree generates force of the second degree increasing
uniformly, which generates force of the first degree (velo-
city) increasing as the square of the time, which last gene-
rates a phenomenon increasing as the cube of the time, and

252 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

therefore measurable as a cube or magnitude of three di-
mensions. 4° The ultimate values of the velocities generated
by the forces of the third and second degrees in the time 2,
are respectively 3z? and 2z (differential coeflicients of z* and
x*)=8 and 2 when x=1; and as they are now constant forces,
their combined effect in the subsequent unit of time will be
equal to their product, 3z?x2x=6z°%, or equal 3.1°x2.1=6.15
in the unit of time immediately succeeding the expiration
of the first unit of time occupied in the genesis. The pro-
duct of the specific heat by the atomic weight of the chemical
elements is equal to the number 6 (REGNAULT), exceptions
probably owing to perturbation. |

When two constant forces combine their actions, their
effect is equal to their product. Gravity is a constant force,
and the ultimate value of the velocity generated by a fall-
ing body in the timex is 22, differential coefficient of
the integral z?; that is, the differential coefficient is the
ultimate value of the force which has generated the in-
tegral result while acquiring that ultimate value; and _
similarly 82? is the ultimate value of the force which
has generated the integral x* with increasing acceleration.
When the atomic weight is 1, the equation 3z?x2x=62° is

identical 30S =3z?; but when the atomic weight is m,

or mz for the future time x (differential coefficient peculiar
62 _ 62%
mx mM
or 3Xm=6 when x=1. The number 8 arises out of the ge-
netic process, and expresses the number of linear unit factors
requisite to generate or construct a geometrical cube, and
m is the reacting force overcome in the operation. The
thermometrical measure of 1 degree in rise of temperature,
of course denotes the uniform genesis of a unit of volume
in a unit of time, beginning with that time at zero.

The following general principles will be demonstrated in
the Third Part:

to the element), we must have 32°xmx=62%, 37°=

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 258

1° Beginning at zero, when a generating force is constant,
its generated effect increases uniformly with the time oc-
cupied, a unit of increment is added in each successive unit
of time, becoming z for the time z. If the sum of these in-
crements is itself a generating force, its (ultimate) value
will be 2~, when measured by the effect it will generate as
a constant force in the equal subsequent time ~.

2° When the generating force increases uniformly, its
effect is accelerated, and increases as x’ thesquare of thetime,
the ultimate value becoming 3z? when measured by its effect
in the subsequent equal time z.

3° When a generated force increases as the square of the
time, and is itself a generator, its effect increases as the cube
of the time, ete.

4° Hach generated force is one degree lower in intension
than its generator; so that a force of the first degree will
be reached, whose effect in the time z isa force of the
degree zero, expressed in a power of x one degree higher
than that of its generator.

Writing out the successive terms of the genesis, begin-

- ning with a constant force of the third degree, for two succes-

sive intervals of time x (past) and h (future), we get the
following tablet:

“ee fg oe (5 ee
Ms “—_

Se EES ee ee See
‘er catty

1.2 1.2.3 bye
1p”: 1p”, hp", 3 hop’, 33 hsep°.

pl’: Qu", aS ohp, ESL aig.

ap': 80g/, Sthg!.
ig RD Sk
The lower diagonal line is the third power of (x+-h).

| The force of heat, when employed to produce motion
_. through the conversion of water into steam, may be inter-

254 Researches in the Theoryand Calculus of Operatons.

preted as a force of the third degree. The second line of
the tablet applies to this case. Keeping the furnace con-
stantly and uniformly fed with fuel, it will send to the boiler
a uniform supply of heat, expressed by z in the time z, the
temperature beginning at 0° centigrade. Every successive
increment of heat is destroyed in its turn by increasing the
extent of vibration of the atoms of water from the state a
(fig. 7), until finally reaching the state 0 at the expiration
of the time z; but all the destroyed forces are successively
restored by the immanent force of the water, so that there
is finally an accumulated amount equal to 2z at the end of
the time x, during which time the temperature has risen
from 0° to x°, and steam is formed. The fire remaining con-
stant, the water now receives a constant accession of x° of
heat in the time 2, so that it is now uniformly increasing
force (a force of the second degree), and therefore generates
the amount 2.32? of steam force in the time x; which amount
of expansion is expended in overcoming the resistance of
loaded machinery, is then condensed to liquidity and re-
turned to the water in the boiler, whence an equal amount
of steam is advanced in every succeeding time z, and the
result is expressed by 2.3x* expended in the time z in over-
coming the friction of the burthen.

Making x=A=1, it is seen that x generates the cube 2° or
13 in the first interval x or 1; that 2z, the ultimate value of

x, generates 2.3x? (twice the ultimate value of x’) or 2.3.1? :

in the second interval x or 1; and that 2.32? generates 2.3.2°
or 6.13 in the third interval x or 1, or 3z° or 3.15 while ac-
quiring its ultimate value in the second interval z or 1.
Difference in strength or intensity of the equilibrating
calorific forces distinguish the different material elements
in respect to their individual density, etc.: the greater the
intensity of two equal opposing forces, the tighter they hug
together, and consequently the smaller the amplitude of
excursion. The three different states of matter, solid, fluid,

nf

é
i
»

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 255

‘and gaseous, are functions of the amplitudes of the waves
of caloric; while the temperature, or intensity of heat, in-
creases with the velocity of vibration.

Diceression 2, At the commencement, one single wave
of expansion from the central force at ‘O (fig 45) reached
the bounding limit (nodal spherical surface) AA’A,A?.
| Infinitely latent was the central temperature before expan-
sion; after expansion, zero absolute throughout the ex-
panded sphere. The last throe of the advancing wave filled
the spherical BA with the semi-wave measured by the are
Bs,A of tenuous substance. Immediate reflection from the
nodal spherical surface reduced the tenuous substance to
pure ether measured by the returning semi-wave As,B,
repelling the substance of the shell by condensing it into
the next shell BB,’ and establishing the complete etherial
wave Bs,As,B. These two steps occupied two instants
of time, the first in going from B to A measured through
the arc s,, the second in returning from A to B measured
through the are s,. During this second instant of time,
another emanating wave advanced from B’ through s, to
B, and will proceed from B through s, to A in the third
instant; in which last instant also a second return semi-
wave goes from A through gs, to B, and a semi-wave will
go through s, to B’; forwarding a further condensation
from AB and BB’ towards the centre, and completing the
etherial conducting medium to the extent AB’ of two
complete waves. In this way the process continues to ap-
' proach the centre of the system.

All is conducted by expansion, opposed by compressive
reaction. The spherical figures 44 being supposed fixed in
place, and the action of the forces to be from centre to cir-
cumference, if a compressive force equal in magnitude and
direction to ss’ be suddenly applied to c¢, the two forces
Q's’ and Or will destroy each other; and O’s and Or’ pull

256 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

together both through the diameter sr’ and the surface of
the sphere c, the result will be that s’ will be brought to O
and r to O’, and ¢ will take the position of 6. A further
sufficient compression would give the position a. We see
here the status of the atomic forces corresponding to the
four states of matter, etherial, aerial, fluid and solid, and
may readily trace their cosmogonical origination. For, apply
such compression at A to the atomic spheres AB and B
B’, the radii which meet at B are annihilated, and the
opposing radii terminating at A and B’ approximated by
circumferential action through AA’, etc., and condensation
results. Beyond the atmosphere of the sun and planets,
towards the boundary between the solar and surrounding
systems, the etherial medium, constantly generated as above
delineated, acts as a (metallic) conductor between the
systems; the atomic molecules coalesce as it were in a sin-
gle stratum, the oscillatory movement being from the
central bodies of the system to its limit. Just above the
atmosphere, the oscillation of tenuous substance may be
as in d’,d; becoming in the gaseous atmosphere as in ¢,
in the aqueous medium as in 8, and as a, a’ in solids. The
amplitudes, in all the four states, are represented as rs and
Cy

Heat is evolved by condensation or compression as else-
where explained, and consequently increases as the centre
is approached in the above process, while at the same time
it is constantly passing outwards and converting into ether
as above shown. Compression or condensation as above
originated, acting under various and varying degrees of
temperature upon the forming strata of the globe, deter-
minately fixed the different mineral elements, gaseous,
liquid and solid, according to their respective temperatures:
at 1500°, iron reaches it freezing point, lead at 334°, water
at 32°, mercury at—40°, etc. ’. So finally every elementary
substance resolves itself into nothing more than a peculiar

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 257

density and particular form of combination of emanatory
forces, the latter determined by geological or cosmical
position and interfering forces while in the nascent state of
equilibration.

All bodies or substances, at whatever temperature, con-
tinually radiate (emanate) caloric or matter’ of heat
(FourIzR); so that matter or substance and heat are related
as cause and effect. We may then define substantial matter
as a constant force of the second degree, which constantly
emanates or generates force of the first degree, and accept
fig. 46 to assist in explaining the different kinds of the last
named force thus generated. It is abundantly proved, both
physically and mathematically, that all material bodies
constantly radiate aud absorb heat (Prevost): this is the
usual condition of mutual exchanges, undisturbed by the
introduction of new forces. But we have seen that certain
interferences, such as the application of severe friction upon
the surface of the body O1, evolves the heat with greater
rapidity ; while a much slighter friction evolves the electric
force (figs.8 & 12).

1° At and within the circle 1 (fig. 46), the atomic forces
are as represented in fig. 44 a’, with centers merged; the
opposing hemispheres of the body O 1 holding each other
in equilibrium, rendering the repulsion infinite at the sur-
face (the radii proportioned to the distance of the center,
1:0= o), and becoming finite at an infinitesimal distance
outside. .

2° The spherical shells 1 3, 3 3’, 3’ 3”, ete. represent the
departing calorific waves, which are exchanged by giving
and receiving with any exterior emanating substance in the
vicinity. The generated calorific atomical forces are as
represented in fig. 44 } (radius to the distance between the
centers as 1:11); and in fig. 46, by the small circles 3’ 3’,
3”, etc. inscribed between the spherical shells 18,33’,3’3”,

Trans. vii.] Oe

258 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

etc.; each hemispherical shell equilibrated by its opposing
hemispherical shell.

3° The spherical shells a 2, 2 2’, 2’ 2’, etc. represent the
departing electric half-waves, which are as in fig. 44 a
(radius to distance of center as 1: 4=2); the dichotomized
atomical forces remaining attached balf within and half
without the material sphere O1 (also fig. 9, A,, B,). Equi-
librium here exists also between opposing pair of hemi-
spherical shells marked a 2, 2 2’, 2’ 2”, etc. which thus
exhibits the status of the two opposing electricities positive
and negative.

4° A cogent verification of the truth of the principle of
emanation is exhibited by the familiar experiment of placing
in contact two drops of homogeneous fluid, water or quick-
silver for instance (fig. 47, A): the two inside radii meet at
6 the point of contact with equal intensity, and consequently
push to annihilate each other, leaving the mutuallly opposing
outside radii Oa andO /a’to pull the drops together and coa-
lesce into the single sphere B.

5° Spherical condensation may be explained on fig. 48:
outside pressure upon the shell a 6 annihilates the half-shell
ae of force and liberates the other half eb, which then tends
to move towards the centre O; and in so doing, annihilates
be’, which liberates e’c and furthers the condensation, etc.

9. The figures (fig. 8) are plane sections of so many solid
parallelopipes. GG’, KK’ is a solid bank or block say of gra-
- nite, on which stands the parallelopipe A of pure iron ready
for operation, B and C being states of the same bar after
operation. The enclosed fine circlets are intended to repre-
sent the magnitude of the atomic forces that may be deve-
loped in the bar by a suitable blow inflicted upon the upper *
extremity. Forces press in all directions. In every successive
instant of time, the immanently generated and generating
forces reach both superficial extremities of the bar, where

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 259

they are simultaneously destroyed by mutual and equal
antagonism, to be continually renewed while the universe
remains in existence. All the time a constant emanation of
ethereal force, arising out of the difference of action between
the substance of the iron and that of the medium surround-
ing it, proceeds outward into space. A blow directed per-
pendicularly upon the upper force destroys.at once the upper
and lower tier of atomic forces of the bar, reducing its length
to the dimension represented by B. In the immediately fol-
lowing instant, these two tiers are regenerated and appear
outside of the extremities of the now compressed substance;
and if the blow is not repeated, the substance will directly
retake, by the reaction of the expelled forces, its former
dimension in A. But if this return is prevented by a repeti-
tion of the blow, a second tier of atomic forces will be libe-
rated and unite with the first tier; so that the amount of
liberated atomic force will increase with the continuance
of the operation, until a certain limit is reached.

Force liberated by this method of operation, or by strong
friction, has the spheroidal form of vibration, alternately
swelling and condensing, and constitutes the matter of heat
termed caloric. By its repeated impulsions, it enlarges the
radii of the atomic forces of most material substances, causing
their increase in three dimensions. In metallic substances
the atomic range is great, and heat is transmitted with ra-
pidity; but in compounds or complex substances, wood,
stone, etc., the transfer takes place by conduction, each par-
ticle handing over to its next neighbor. Like as in electri-
city, there are more and less perfect and imperfect conductors
of heat, distinguished as diathermanous and athermanous sub-
stances. In liquids, the particles being freely movable
among each other, their own movement takes the place of
the movement of the forces in solids : the heat being applied
at the bottom of the vessel containing the fluid, the first
stratum of particles swell and ascend by virtue of their re-

260 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

duced gravity, to be followed by a second stratum, ete. (this
is convection).

The transition from the calorific to the luminific? form of
vibration will be achieved by supposing the intensity of
the collision to be so great as crush the spherical atomic
force into a flat circular plate, as in B, where the oscillations
will be perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

When aray from the Sun, or other luminous body, strikes
the surface of a terrestrial substance A (fig. 10), it excites
spherical vibration in the atomic forces of the substance;
and as a continued stream of these calorific atoms arrives
from the source, the concussed forces of the substance en-
large, and the substance increases in bulk, while at the same
time the accumulating atomic force reacts and increases the
thermometrical temperature of the surrounding medium.
As the concussion is very forcible, the successively striking
atoms are flattened against the surface of the substance,
and take the form of plane vibration in all directions
around the centre of the ray, exhibiting the phenomenon
of light. At the circumference of these plane circular oscil-
lations, the forces of the strrounding medium have yet
sufficient energy to effect certain chemical results, which
appear in the progress of vegetation, and subserve also the
photographer’s art. In this order, then, are arranged the
calorific, the luminific and the actinic dimensions of the
solar spectrum. A circular prism ought to show a cireular
spectrum around the centre of the impinging ray.

A glance at the accompanying figure will show that lines
drawn from all points of the Sun or other luminous body
A (fig. 11), to the several points of the surface of the atomic
spherical force of which aca’ is the diameter, encounter
radiating lines from this sphere and ‘ts centre in all possible *
directions, giving rise to multitudinous interferences of the
small tangent planes whose vibratory motions constitute
the phenomenon of light, and which interferences are neces-

~

.

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Orerations. 261

sary and sufficient to explain the existence and transforma-
tions of the fraunhofer lines in various spectra.

10. On the firm and solid base BB’ (fig. 9) is placed the
(metallic) cylinder A, in which a and z show the boundary
of the surface forces when the cylinder is at rest, and 6 the
same for a neighboring body A’. We first suppose A’ to be
used to inflict a series of impulsions upon A, like blows
of a hammer upon a solid cylinder of iron. The strata aa’,
a’a!’, a’'’a'’’, ete. are given as measures of successive instants
of time 1, 2,3, etc., and the approach and recession of the
hammer each occupy one of these instants. The first im-
pulsion destroys the force aa’ in the instant 1, the transmit-
ted effect of which destroys zz’ by the resistance of the solid
base B. The dimension of the cylinder is thus reduced dur-
ing the first instant from az to a’/z’, and consequently the
intension (or intensity of the forces) is increased. As the
forces are immanent as well as emanent, the same amount
being generated (re-created) in each successive instant, the
increments recreated during the instant 2, during the
first recession of the hammer, will now appear as a’a and
2’z on the outside of the reduced cylinder, and in a state
of spherical oscillation occasioned by elastic rebound from
the compressed interior forces, which state of compression
is maintained by the increased intension of the opposing
forces aa!’ and 2’z’’. This spherical oscillation of force pro-
duces, in the surrounding inanimate and animate bodies,
the phenomena and sensation of heat, by emanation, radia-
tion, or conduction. The same occurrences, in the reverse
direction, take place in the same times in the body A’; and
the impulsions being reiterated during the succeeding third,
fourth, etc. instants of time, evolve a succession of waves
of heat (caloric), at the expense of the condensation of the
cylinder and of the impulsing body.

When a body is at rest in space, it must be in equilibrium
with its own forces and with those of the surrounding media.

262 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

The surface of the denser body (or medium) will therefore
have an overplus of force beyond that requisite to keep the
forces of the lighter medium at bay; which overplus may
pass through the latter media, and join with the general
emanating force of the whole substantial contents of the
earth (or Sun or planets, etc.), in forming what has been
termed the ether. This emanated force manifests itself as
heat, only when in spherical oscillation. Although a body may
be at (relative) rest in space, it is seldom at equilibrium in
time; for by the theory of exchanges (PREvost), the hotter
body is constantly drained to supply the cooler one, until
the exchange reaches par, and the perpetual change of tem-
perature of the media in which we live show that this is
very rarely the case, and very transitory when it does
happen. |

An elastic body rebounds when it strikes a harder one.
If A be the hotter body, A’ will be the colder one if its
emanating forces are denser than those of A. Consequently
the latter will rebound, or oscillate spherically, when they
strike those of A’; and thus a pulsating pressure is returned
upon A, provoking a reaction similar in kind to the friction
before referred to, and similarly evolving a supply of ca-
lorific force, to enlarge the dimensions of A’ at the expense
of reducing those of A, until a balance of thermometric
temperature is attained and the exchange is equalized.

Dynamic vision should see the constantly emanating
forces continuously arriving at the limits A aad B, and
expiring successively in the effort which maintains equili-
brium each with its fellow and with the encountering me-
dium, by mutual annihilation. What is termed vis viva is
nothing else than this generating and generated force.

11. Every physical phenomenon or occurrence whatever
is a change of place in space, either of some body in its en-
tirety, or of some portions thereof; so that the term motion
stands as the swmmum genus including all the changes, the

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 268

entire history, of the universe : every change is motion.
Three kinds of movement in a solid body have passed in
review, respectively distinguished both by the conditions
infixed upon the body acted upon, and the manner in which
the action is applied to it. 1° When free, and strongly im
pulsed, the body moves in toto; 2° When fixed on one side,
renewed impulsions produce condensation of the substance,
attended with calorific vibration; and 3° When the body is
fixed in place, but with opposite surfaces free, gentle friction
applied to one surface develops electric force on the other.
We have now to allude to the case in which the body acted
upon is slender in form and fixed in particular points. It
may be a thin membrane stretched like the head of a drum,
which gives out sonorous vibrations when beaten; or it may
be a stretched string like that of a violin, which yields mu-
sical tones varying with the distance between the fixed
points which determine its tension; or it may be a cylin-
drical column of air, as in the tube of a flute. When one
aperture of the tube is suitably breathed upon, the funda-.
mental tone is produced : the accumulated emanating central
_ force is destroyed by the breathing impulsion, liberating
the opposing emanation at the other extremity of the tube;
and at this instant, the whole column of air constitutes one
full wave with nodes at the extremities and the venter at
_the centre as in A (fig.12). When the operator increases the
breathing force rightly, the octave of the fundamental tone
is heard; the stronger compression develops a new node at
the centre, with a venter midway on each side of it as in B.
In the instrumental flute, other different tones are obtained
by piercing the sides of the tube, giving rise to as many
different nodes and venters. In stringed instruments, such
nodes are made by stops and frets, etc.

A metallic rod is forcibly struck at its extremity a in the
direction ab (fig. 18); the accumulated emanation oa is de-
stroyed, ob is liberated, and the rod moves bodily; a and 6

264 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

are the nodes and o the venter of the entire wave ab of force;
that is, of the same pair of opposing forces which, if the rod
had not been struck, would have destroyed each other in
the momentary maintenance of the substance constituting
the rod. If, however, the end 6 of. the rod be placed against
an immovably fixed solid body, and then struck forcibly at
a, portions of the metal at both ends will be compressed
towards the middle, forming thus new nodes and minor
waves of force out of the primitive single wave. Now ac-
cording to this view, each full wave of tension or force is
identical with the hitherto so-called atom : instead of being
insecable, the atom is now dichotomised or split into halves,
a positive and a negative moiety mutually complementary
to equilibrium, and constituting the opposite phases of a
full wave.

A series of suspended balls A to F are first in contact
and at rest. A is detached and let fall by its own weight
against B: B,C,D,E, remain quiet, but F moves as far
from E as A was removed from B; after which, A and F
return to their first position, and equilibrium is restored to
the system. Here the impingement of A produces the suc-
cessive destruction of the forces of the righthand radii,
simultaneously accompanied by the liberation of the forces
of the lefthand radii, of the balls to the end of the series.
Each ball fulfils the function of an atom; is actually an
immanent spherical wave of force, its nodes at the surfaces
its venter at the centre. The emanating force is null at the
venter, and increases to its maximum value at the nodes,
which are the points of transmission of the force from atom
to atom. Were A forcibly struck against B, the whole rank
of balls would move in space. Were F firmly held against
the row, and A rubbed sufficiently hard against B, heat
would be evolved by the compression, the liberated force
of heat consisting of entire spherical waves of force. Were
all but A fixed in place, and A gently rubbed against B

Researches in the Theory and Caleulus of Operations. 265

with great rapidity of alternation, a single oscillation or
half-wave (semiatom) of force would be evolved at each
end A and F of the system, the positive phase at one and
the negative at the other extremity; constituting the split
force of a single atom, separated by the intervening atoms
now reverting to equilibrium under the changed status:
the liberated semiatomic force at F is equilibrated by the
semiatomic force of H, etc., and so of the extremity A. As
there is no exact limit of intensity between theapplied forces
requisite respectively to generate calorific or electric force,
it is readily seen why these two forces are always found
together, though in varied proportions, under like operations
whether mechanical or chemical.

A comparison of the preceding examples of the rod and
row of balls offers a glimpse at the conditions which occa- _
sion the difference between conductors and non-conductors
of electricity. Conductors are generally simple substances, ,
while electrics are usually compounds, or else formed of
conductors by compression. The simple element may be
_ counted as one atom for its whole length, or one dynamical
wave with a node at each extremity and venter at the cen-
tre; while glass (silicate of sodium), resin, etc. are compounds
by virtue of chemical affinity, and therefore consist of sepa-
rate atoms or dynamical waves, as in glass one phase of the
wave consists of silicic acid, the other phase of sodium.
Crystalline and compressed forms will be explained in a
similar way.

12. In the complete electrical machine, the most perfect
form is perhaps that of Natrnz, an attempted theoretical
outline of which is given in the margin, both electricities
are collected from one operation. It may be composed of a
plate or of a solid or hollow cylinder of glass C C’ (fig. 14),
and two conductors P and N, all three insulated, and the
eushion or rubber A attached to N.

Prior to the operation, each molecule of the glass, of

Trans. vii.] 34

266 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations

whatever magnitude or minitude, consists of an equilibrium
between the forces silicic acid and sodium. The entire hol-
low cylinder is therefore in equilibrium with itself, and it
is also in equilibrium with the forces of the medium (the
atmosphere) in which it is immersed, both without and
within the cylinder. When the cushion is brought into con-
tact with the cylinder, the equilibrium of the points of
contact of the cushion and cylinder is disturbed, and this
disturbance is propagated in both directions: 1° through
the glass, through the medium forming the diameter at
that point, and through the portion of the cylinder adjoin-
ing P, where it takes position on the positive conductor P;
and° 2 through the cushion, taking position on the negative
conductor N. Equilibrium is now re-established in the sys-
tem; butif the cylinder be put in continuous rotation, a
succession of new instantaneous diameters will be formed,
each from a different point of the surface of the cylinder,
and producing so many disturbances or transmissions of
force, which accumulate upon the respective conductors P
and N.

If the cylinder is a thin sheet, its thickness may be re-
garded as constituting one atom formed by the combination
of a half-wave of silicic force with a half-wave of sodial
force, the nodes being at the two surfaces. Under the in-
fluence of the emanation of the glass which sustains the
equilibrium of the medium within the barrel, the diameter
will act as one atom or dynamical wave, with nodes at the
extremities and venter at the centre. The equilibrium at
the point of contact of the cushion (the rubber) and the
cylinder (the electric or the rubbed) is disturbed; the silicic
force of the atom is destroyed, liberating the sodial force,
which in its turn destroys the contiguous opposing force
of the semidiameter which pressed toward N, liberating
the other half that pressed toward P. At its encounter
with the interior surface of the cylinder, this last liberated

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 267

force destroys the silicic force of the glass atom, and libe-
rates its sodial force, to take its place upon the positive
conductor P. On the other side, the cushion may be regarded
as constituting one atom in thickness, in which the corre-
lative of the sodial force is destroyed by the silicic force of
the glass, thereby liberating the correlative of the silicic
force, to take its position on the negative conductor N.
Each conductor comports itself as a single atom, with nodes
at the extremities and venter at the centre; and if conducting
wires s and 8’ be respectively attached, each acts as a single
wave, carrying the positive and negative torces through to
the reservoir R at one dash.

When at rest, not only does equilibrium exist through the
diameter from every point of the cylinder, but also through-
out the circumference at every point of the shell; but the .
effect of rotation upon these circumferential atoms does not
interfere with the diametral effect. If a circular glass plate
EE’ (fig. 15) be adopted instead of a cylinder, a more sym-
metrical form may be given to the machine. The cushion
‘CC’ might also be attached to a circular plate; and then,
attention paid to the proper insulations, revolving motion
may be given either to the electric or the cushion, by means
of astrap around the rim of the circular plate, and governed
by a multiplying wheel. According to this fancy, one dy-
namical opposing wave on each side of the contact between
the cushion and the electric crosses to the other side of the
plate to which it belongs, and takes thence its route through
the nodes formed by the points projecting from P and N
respectively, and onwards through the wires p and n to the
analysing plate or vessel R.

18. When matter is elevated to the gaseous state, and
the application of heat is persisted in, the atomic radii con-
tinue to increase, the mass increases in bulk, the resistance
to compression becomes a force sufficient to set machinery
in motion, and work is performed (©arnot, Jouue).

268 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

The phenomena of motion and heat have been produced
by the application of a single forcible impulsion or the con-
tinued repetition of feebler ones, one or the other phenome-
non according as the body acted upon is in a movable or
fixed condition. A gentle and renewed pressure in the form
of friction, applied to a body fixed and isolated, evolves a
correlative phenomenon in the form of electric force. The
frictional impulse is too weak to start vibratory motion of
_ the material particles immediately, as do the more forcible —
impulses resorted to for the production of heat by the first
intention; but when the electrical machine is putin motion,
the rubber passes swiftly across the superficial atoms of the
electric, so that each individual atom is alternately pressed
and relieved. Every such atom was previously equilibrated
by its fellow atom on the opposite side of the electric, each
pulling equally from the centre; but is at this instant de-
ranged and equilibrated by the frictionizing atom, leaving
its corresponding atom at large upon the opposite surface.
It is a semiatomic force, the right half of an atom on the
righthand surface of the electric, that is destroyed by the
rubber, and the disturbed tension is propagated to the.
lefthand side of the electric, liberating there the left half
of an atom, a semiatomic force of opposite direction. Similar
occurrences take place in the rubber, with corresponding
reversed directions of semiatomic forces. The destroyed |
force, amounting together to one atom, is immediately re-
placed by the immanent powers of the two members of the
machine, the atomic rebound from both sides ensues simul-
taneously, and equilibrium is restored in the system. This
occurs during the time of relief of the first atom considered,
and all is now ready for the second step of the rubber. In
this way, if the rubber as well as electric is isolated, alter-
nate disturbance and equilibrium will recur, and no accu-
mulation be obtained of the liberated semiatomic forces.
These are the positive’ and negative electricities : they act

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 269

towards each other like two half-waves in opposite phase;

and when they are suffered to meet, they rush together and
neutralize each other in annihilation.*

At first, the superficial atom a of the electric E (fig. 14

*Examples are, the production of sparks by the collision of flint and steel ;
the ignition of tinder by means of the compression syringe ; the electric spark
arising from the violent velocity with which the positive and negative elec-
tricities rush together, etc. etc.

In all these impulsions, collisions or frictions, the intensity will necessarily
increase or vary from less to more : the faintest encounter liberating a half.
atom of electricity, or rather parting the whole atom between the excitor
and excitee ; the medium impulsion setting free the entire spherical atom of
heat, forming an infinite atom of caloric in temperature zero at the bound-
ary; and finally the most intense, yielding the circular plane wave of light.

A spark also attends the sudden fracture of a crystalline substance ; an
atom is divided, and the plane vibration is formed by the rush of side forces
at the instant of the rupture.

When a hard substance is fractured by a blow, a sphere of force is torn
through its centre in a plane surface, which gives an instantaneous lateral
vibration answering to the definition of the luminiferous wave.

Whatever the magnitude or number of the separate calorific atoms evolved
by one impulsion on B, they will, like so many drops of water, merge into
one body or sheet of calorific force, followed by a similar additional sheet
from the next impulse, and so on indefinitely. The essential character of
force is equable diffusion, radiation or emanation in space. One liberated ca-
loric, therefore, expands and dilates into a hemisphere ; its extension increas-
ing and intension (intensity) reducing according to relation of the surface to
the radius of the sphere. The rapidity of this movement of radiation has been
calculated ; and cannot be explained in any better way than by supposing it
to consist in the actual progressive motion of the calorific force itself, irre-
spective of the intervening gaseous medium.

A single heated molecule of matter surrounds itself successively with
spherical shells of calorific force, which start on their mission into infinite
space; or, when meeting opposition from other radiating bodies, a mutual
and warming encounter occurs, ending with friendly reciprocation of ba-
lanced exchanges.

The luminific force (light) necessarily follows the same relations of space
in its outgoing. But as the plane waves must oscillate perpendicularly to
the different radii of the sphere, we see that in parting from a luminifying
centre, the wave-amplitudes on any spherical surface must interfere, and an-
nul or otherwise modify certain extents of luminous effect (detected in the
lines of FRAUNHOFER? and their variations in the spectral analysis). These
phenomena have been studied in the plane triangular prism: it might be
advantageous to try a circular prism, formed after the thought suggested by
NEWTON’s investigation of the colors yielded by reflection and refraction by
thin plates.

270 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

bis) is in equilibrium with its opposite atom a’, and they
are also each in equilibrium with the contiguous atoms of
the surrounding medium. When the cushion or rubber R
is passed to and fro on the surface of the electric, as the
surface of the former is not a smooth buta finely granulated
surface, but still somewhat coarser than the surface of the
electric (or in some cases there may be a degree of chemical
affinity sufficient to beget a moderate action even between
two solid substances), the atom or point a of the electric is
alternately pressed and relieved by the little projections on
the face of the rubber (or equilibrated by the action of che-
mical affinity): it suffers a series of renewed compressions,
each followed by a reactive dilatation; each compression of
a liberates a’, which consequently dilates, but immediately
returns its reaction to balance the dilatation of a. Thus the
two renewed atomic forces a and a’, which did mutually
equilibrate by their right and lefthand halves, and are there-
fore equivalent to a single atomic force, in equilibrium with
itself, are now alternately transported from the right to the
left surface of the electric, alternately unequilibrated and
again restored to equilibrium, so long as the electric and
rubber are both isolated; but if R the latter be put in com-
munication with the earth G by means of a conducting wire
s, the cushion and earth together contribute one member
of the machine. When the atomic force a leaves the cushion
and enters the electric, its place on the surface of R next
to E is supplied from the infinite reservoir of force G through
the conductor s, and the liberated force a’ is now balanced
in its position on the left surface of EK by the contempora-
neous arrival of the new equal force a on the right surface.
A second and every succeeding renewal of the frictional or
exciting pressure sends across an additional force qa’, all
being held to the lefthand surface by the continued arrivals
from G; and thus a quantity of electric force will accumu-
late upon the surface of the electric, and may be transferred

Researches in the Lheory and Calculus of Operations. 271

to an isolated conductor C or elsewhere. In speaking of the
atomic forces a and a’, it must be remembered that it is
not the material atoms themselves that travel or are decom-
posed and recomposed, but the mutually opposing forces
whose equilibrium constitutes the atoms.

14. The analogy of this exposition with the interpreta-
tion of the wave theory ought to be patent. Since pushing

before is equivalent to pulling behind, it seems that each of

the two kinds of electric force has two faces, a front and
aft; the front is repulsive, the aft attractive; and from the
manner of their genesis, the negative half is one or an odd
number of phases behind the positive half of the full wave.
Electricity is, as it were, a single force split in two % a split
force).

Figure 15 is intended to exhibit a fuller view of the opera-
tion. B is the cushion (electriser) or active member, A the
electric (electron) or reactive member of the machine. The
shaded and unshaded portions of the atomic circles repre-
sent respectively the liberated and the destroyed semiatomic
forces. It is assumed that the substantial force of B has
greater rapidity of emanation than the force of A, to an
amount that determines the extent of the atomical radii
when the encounter takes place. All the time it is the equi-

_librated atomic forces, and not the atoms themselves, that

move in the transfer or enter into new combinations : atomic
vibration appertains to calorific propagation, atomic com-
position tg chemical propagation.

In A, B, (fig. 15), the line of atoms are in eit gies
During the instant of time occupied in the first turn of the

wheel or movement of the electriser, the equilibrium is

disturbed by the predominating action of B, the atomic
forces advancing one phase upon A and taking the position
shown in A, B,, leaving a semiatom vacant at 0 and an
equal semiatom projecting at a. If both members of the
machine are insulated, reaction of the atoms during the

272 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

second instant will restore the equilibrium to its former
condition in A, B,, and successive repetitions of the act of
friction would merely prolong such alternations. But if the
positive member be put in communication with the earth,
which is an infinite reservoir of force, the half vacant atom
6 is filled up from the latter source during the second in-
stant, and all the atomic forces shoved one phase (half an
atom) ahead; so that the reaction of a is ineffectual to return
to the condition A,, but remains as in Ag, to accumulate
with the positive semiatomic forces that successively arrive
during the continuance of the frictional process. It must
be remembered that the material (equilibrated) force (mat-
ter) is both immanent and transitive, permanently present
and constantly expending. The equilibrium of A and B, each
with itself, which was perturbed by the collision during the
first instant, is self-restored during the second instant; but
this does not interfere with the liberated forces a and },
which now act independently of their generators.

Three classes of phenomena have been considered as
evolved from a solid body by impulsions of more or less in-
tensity and duration of repetition : 1°In a movable condition,
a single strong impulsion, or a prolonged application of ©
feeble ones, originate motion of the body in mass. In a fixed
condition, a strong impulsion, or a prolongation of the action
of severe friction, since an advance of the mass cannot occur,
the action of the force liberated by the blow or pressure is
reversed by the fixed extremity of the body, and returned
in the form of molecular vibration, constituting the pheno-
menon called heat. 3°In a similar fixed condition of the
body, a slight but prolonged frictional action evolves the
divided pair of mutually complementary forces termed
positive and negative electricities. The translatory move-
ment in the first, the vibratory pulsation in the second, and
the electric tension in the third class, are generated forces
of the first degree, having each but one terminal action,

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 273

the first carrying the body uniformly through space, the
second transmitting equal vibrations to surrounding sub-
stances, and the third finishing its career by splitting all
obstructions and rushing together in mutual annihilation
or equilibration. Translatory motion is finally destroyed
either by encountering immovable obstacles, or by the re-
sistance of the medium through which the body pursues
its way. The vibratory or calorific movements are reduced
to quiescence when their momentum has become uniformly
imparted to all the atoms enclosed within the extent of
transmission. The generated forces are annihilated; but the
generating forces, the material substances themselves are
immanent, their effects alone perishing (phenomena are
transitory).

15. Having shown how force can be developed from
solids, we may now introduce the condition of liquidity, in
which combination or union of different substances, and
_ decomposition or disunion of compound substances, are
_ operations that take the place of the liberation and equili-
bration of forces : composition of substances, the generating
forces themselves, instead of their generated forces only,
though necessarily involving the latter also.

The smaller the difference, the easier the restoration to
harmony. When two vibrating cords, or the swinging pen-
dulums of two equal going clocks, are brought sufficiently
near together to feel each other’s beats through the inter-
_ vening medium, provided their differences of oscillation
are small, they will gradually merge into unison; the meet-
ing impulses successively tending to equality, because the
weaker gains what the stronger loses. When two chemical
substances are mixed in the liquid or gaseous state, they
combine into a neutral by first intention, provided their
atomical energies are in some commensurable relation to
one another, just like the combination of chords in the dia-
pason. If, however, two chemical energies are only near

Trans. vvi.q 35

A

274 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

numerical proportion, their combination may be effected
by the application of the electric spark, or of the force of
heat which enlarges the atomic radii by setting the atoms
in vibratory motion : the encountering vibrations tend to
equalize each other; and finally as in the example of the
two musical strings, unison takes place in combination.
When oxygen and hydrogen are mixed in combining pro-
portions, the stimulus of the electric spark is needed to upset
the equilibrium of the atoms of the two elements; which,
being supplied, combination follows with rapidity and vio-
lence, and the resultant appears in the form of steam, which
deposits in dew or liquid water. Here, as in many chemical
operations, the result is given in the form of stable equili-
brium, brought about by one single effort, and stays made.

16. When a strip of zinc is partially immersed in diluted
sulphuric acid contained in a glass jar, the atoms of acidu-
lated water have their equilibrium disturbed on the side in
contact with the superficial atoms of the zinc, which of
course disturbs the equilibrium of the opposite side of the
atoms of liquid. Assuming that the ratio of atomic energy
between the acid and zinc is nearer unity than itis between
the acid and water, then equilibrium between the acid and
zinc arises by combination, and the water is set free; a coat
of oxide soon forms upon the zine, and further action ceases.
If now a strip of copper be similarly immersed on the op-
posite side of the jar, a new disturbance takes place, extend-
ing through the aqueous atoms between the copper and
zinc, which, however, proceeds but slowly and not far. But
if the surfaces of the metals be cleaned, and the free ends of
the copper and zinc be connected by a conducting wire,
action and reaction is recommenced and will continue for
a considerable time. The energy of the zinc, transmitted
through the fluid to the copper slip, is conducted through
the copper and conducting wire around to the zine slip,
where the same round of action is repeated, the activity of

at ws? ee eC

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 275

the zinc being thus continually reinforced. When it is re-
collected that action and reaction necessarily prevails
throughout the circuit, each atom first striking left and then
right, thus arranging a difference of one phase, it is seen
that transmission of force takes place both ways; the first
positive, the second negative and one phase in arrear. By che-
mical affinity, the zinc detaches and combines with the
oxygen of the atom of water in its immediate contact,
leaving its hydrogen to appropriate in its turn the oxygen
of the next atom, and so on to the other extreme of the line.
This may be, since the aqueous atom.is a compound; but
the explanation by transmission of force without decompo-
sition suits better with the transmission through the simple
element of the conducting wire.

1° The glass vessels 1, 2, 3, (fig. 16) contain each a quan-
tity of sulphacidulated water, any horizontal line of atoms
of which is held in equilibrium by the resistance of the
glass at each end of the line. A strip of zine / introduced
in 1 disturbs the equilibrium of the adjacent atoms. Expe-
riment shows that the acid leaves the hydrogen of the water
and unites with the zinc; a result explanable by saying that
the pulsative tensions are nearer unison between the acid
and zine than between the acid and water, the hydro-
gen of which is consequently dropped and its place
supplied by the zinc, with which the acid combines,

forming sulphoxide of zinc. The disturbance is first pro-

pagated from the zinc to both sides A and A’ of the vessel,
but equilibrium on the line is soon restored on the new
basis by the mutual and equal reactions of the glass, the
zine becoming fast coated by oxide against further con-
tact with the fluid. 2° A second strip of zinc /’ introduced
as in 2, disturbs anew the equilibrium, a like action is re-
commenced, there is now action and reaction between /’
and /; more fluid is decomposed, and more sulphoxide of
zine is formed, with the liberation of a proportionate quan-

276 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

tity of hydrogen; but, as before, equilibrium is soon restored
by mutual and equal reactions in opposing directions, ac-
companied by coating of the zinc. 3° The zinc strips being
taken out and cleaned, immerse them anew as in 3, and
connect their upper extremities by a copper wire s. The
successive impulses of / and /’ against the fluid are now pro-
pagated across the water by atomic vibration (or de- and
recomposition) as formerly : those between / and /’ are mu-
tually interchanged; those between each strip and the side
of the vessel are returned to the strip by vibration (alone).
As the vibrations tend to all directions and follow that which
offers the least resistance, they respectively travel to the
upper extremities of the strips /’ and /, through the con-
ducting wire s, thence down / and /’ to the place of action
in the fluid, where they serve to reinforce the action in further
decomposing the liquid instead of combining its acid, so
that oxygen and hydrogen are now both liberated. A similar
reinforcement would accrue without the intervention of
the conducting wire, provided the upper ends of the strips
_were inclined together in contact; but while left open, the
atmospheric air is a non-conductor too powerful to be
broken through by the feeble battery here put in requisi-
~ tion. |

In practice, it has been found prefegable to use two strips
of different metals, as zinc and copper, plunged as above
in the same vessel of acidulated water. The zine is the
generator of force, the copper the conductor, which, being
carried to a second vessel of like fluid and soldered toa
second strip of zinc, hands in its reinforcement to the same:
the increased action thus initiated supplies additional force
to be carried by a second copper conductor to a third vessel,
and so on to any number of vessels deemed convenient. By
this method of successive additions, a very great force may
be accumulated, sufficient, when two platinum wires are
respectively attached to the first strip of zinc and the last

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. .277

strip of copper, to overcome the tension of the strongest
non-conducting substance interposed between the approxi-
mated further extremities of the wires (Davy).

17. The two methods of evolving electric force by fric-
tional and by chemical action may be compared as to their
differences thus : The two atoms O and O’ (fig. 17) being
in equilibrium by reason of the equal emanating counter-
acting pressures Oa and O/a, the frictional pressure of O
against O’ during the first instant destroys the emanation
of O’ in the direction O’O during that time, leaving unequi-

. librated during that same time the oppositely emanating

force of O’ in the direction O’A’. At the expiration of this
instant, the rubber and the rubbed, the cushion and the
electric, remain separate as in 1; being both solid they do
not and cannot combine into one body, butare ready to repeat
action. On the other hand, when substances possessing
chemical affinity are one or both in a liquid state and
placed in proper communication, the atoms O and O’
mutually annihilate and liberate force as in the preceding
case; but the atoms can now remain united in substance as
in 2, forming a neutral salt or other analogous compound.

In all cases of the annihilation or liberation of force from
matter (equilibrated force), the atoms or molecules of the
substance acted upon are thrown into vibration, or oscilla-
tion either tensional and linear or spherical, or both. The
tensional vibration can be linearly directed and separated
into two electric forces positive and negative, constituting
in fact a split force, the halved portions of the single com-

bined force of the atoms which maintains their equilibrium.
‘The spherical vibrations constitute the calorific force, which

radiates in all directions, communicates its impulses freely
to the surrounding media, and all continue in mutual inter-
change of declining vibrations until reaching equilibrium
or the absolute zero of temperature. From the form of the
actions, it is seen that any operation or manipulation which

278 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

yields one of these kinds of vibration will incontinently
produce also the other, and thus electricity and heat are
concomitant or transitional phenomena.

The catalytic phenomenon which occurs when a mixture
of oxygen and hydrogen is ignited by the introduction of a
leaf of platinum, may be explained from the fact that pla-
tinum is a rapid conductor of force, and precipitates the
energy of the oxygen upon the hydrogen with greater swift-
ness than it can pass between the gaseous particles them-
selves. The phenomena of osmose will have a kindred in-
terpretation.

18. The difference of behaviour between perfect and
imperfect conductors or electrics in the velocity of transmis-
sion of electric force may perhaps be explained. Recurring
to our exemplary sphere submitted to impact, as the sphere
is the sum of its atoms, the latter may be conceived as all
merged together into the one great atom constituting the
entire sphere with common centre at O. In this view, the
compression caused by an impulsion will proceed at once

all the way from surface to centre of the sphere, without:

stopping in alternations at atomic centres, and the whole
impulse is responded to by a single and equal projection in
the opposite half of the sphere.
Conductors may be converted into electrics by means of
strong pressure, which increases the density of the substance
by developing atoms and crowding them upon one another.
In the perfect conductor, such atoms do not exist, and the
entering force is transmitted directly from a point to a dis-
tant one, without arousing alternate positive and negative
actions on the line of direction; indeed the whole line con-
ducting as one wave reaching its termination at, the farther
point in question, being followed up in its course. by the
continuous renewal of the force generated by the transmit-
ting substance itself, as has already been described. But
when pressure is applied to such a substance, its first effect

aS SS

3-3. a=

ss. ee ee OT ae ee ee ee er ee ee eee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 279

is to arouse reaction by the formation of a series of small
condensed portions of the substance, which determine the
length of the radii of oscillation, or of the atoms thus called
into separate existence: by the continuance and increase
of this pressure, these newly formed atoms are crowded
closer together in line, and a boundary of greater density
is formed between every two adjacent ones, which remained
fixed after the pressure is withdrawn; and now determinate
atoms exist (polarization of atoms, the boundaries act as a
dielectric). In undertaking transmission in this state of the
line, each atom has to reverse its action from right to left,
to hand its burthen to the next neighbor across the border:

this done, the atom is instantly filled by the constantly
emanated force of the substance of the compressed body,
but in a time not greatly less than is required to fill the
whole length of the incompressed body, and the atom is
then ready to receive a fresh charge; and as this discharge
filling, and recharging of atoms must take place successively
along the whole line, we see that the poor cunductor’s re-
putation is indemnified.

Fixed atoms are formed by compression in this way. The
centre O (fig. 18) of the figure AA’ or BB’ will be the centre
of the longitudinal compression, and is the centre of the
longitudinal emanation, which, however, does not interfere
with the transversal emanation from the axis in every atomic
division throughout the cylinder. The end A’ being fixed,
by applying compression at the end A, the atoms begin to
develop at both ends of the cylinder, ed meets cd at the end
of the first instant; dc meets bc at the end of the second
instant, and the compressed atom ed in BB? is filled by
axial emanation during the same instant; in its turn, meets
ab at the end of the third instant, while dc is filled by ema-
nation, and so on till the centre O is reached ‘from both
ends B and B’ of the cylinder, the boundaries being at a,
6, c, ete.

280 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

19. A comparison of electrical with chemical analysis
leads to the conclusion that the so-termed atom of the latter
analysis is the semiatom of the former, both really dealing
with semiatomic forces. In the chemical example (fig. 19),
the oxygen (the negative element) of the first atom of the
water combines with the first atom of the positive element
zine Al. Then, 1° through the liquid, the liberated hydrogen
of the first atom combines with the oxygen of the second;
the hydrogen of which, in its turn, combines with the oxygen
of the third atom, and so on till arriving at the last atom on
the line AA’, the liberated hydrogen (a positive element)
of which cannot combine with the positive element copper
A'l’; but as copper is a conductor, this liberated hydrogen
semiatomic force combines with a semiatomic force of the -
copper and passes on, attracting oxygen at the positive
electrode when the battery is of sufficient power. 2° At the
origin, as all of the combinations are formed between posi-
tive and negative semiatoms, the negative semiatom of
oxygen combines with the adjacent positive semiatom of
zine, liberating an equal opposing semiatomic force of zine,
which in its turn acts upon the next atom in the manner
already abundantly explained, and transmission of alter-
nated semiatomic force proceeds onward to the negative
electrode, where it attracts hydrogen. |

20. Three pieces, the exciter, the receiver, and the con-
ductor, are requisite for the diremption of atomic force, and
collection of the same: when all.the three pieces are solid,
we have the electric machine, and diremption of atomic
force without decomposition of substance; when one is
liquid, as in the galvanic battery or voltaic pile, both phe-
nomena are obtained. .

In each cell of the battery A (fig. 20), the dark and light
strips respectively represent the zinc and copper elements.
The positive force proceeds from the zinc of 1 to the copper, —
from the copper of 1 to the zinc of 2, from the zinc of 2 to

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 281

the copper of the same, and from the copper of 2 to the zine
of 3, etc., to the last cell 6 of the trough, whence one wave
of positive force through s reaches the reservoir R. In like
manner but opposing direction, the negative force of the
zine of 1, reinforced by the successive additions of all the
negative forces from 6 to 1 inclusive, traverses through S’
at one dash to the same reservoir or analysing vessel R,
where the oxygen or negative element of the water will
appear at the positive pole, and the positive element hy-
drogen at the negative pole.

21. A chemical atom is the smallest portion of a fluid
or solid substance which can exist in a free state, and always
consists of two balanced semiatoms, resembling a spherical
wave formed by the union of two equal opposing (comple-
mentary) phases; the chemical volume being the represent-
ative of the atom in the aerial state alone. Hydrogen is
adopted as chemical unit, and plays in chemism the part
of the mobile in mechanism, the chemical mover being the
negative element with respect to hydrogen. Atomicity, then
is the analogue of velocity; but whose effect is diremption
followed by union, instead of diremption followed by motion
as in mechanism. The balanced semiatoms (fig. 21) of hy-
drogen are represented in 1. The atomicity of chlorine
being 1, the same as that of hydrogen, the semiatom of the
chlorine in the higher phase unites with the semiatom of
hydrogen in opposite phase, represented in 2. The atomi-
city of oxygen is 2:a semiatom of oxygen grasps two
semiatoms of hydrogen, asin 8. Similarly the triple atomi-
city of nitrogen neutralises three semiatoms of hydrogen
by its one semiatom, as in 4; and the quadruple atomicity
of carbon is saturated by four semiatoms of hydrogen against
one semiatom of the carbon, in 5. While the chemical unit

hydrogen corresponds to the mechanical unit of mass, these

several operations respectively agree with the distances

1, 2,3, 4 and 5 described by the mass 1 under the separate
’ Trans. vii.J 36

bal
J

*

282 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations

impulsions or velocities inflicted with such intensities: the
mass 1, under the velocity 3, describes in the unit of time
three times the distance due to the velocity 1 in the same
time, etc.

Item 3 of figure 21 stands as representative of the water
type: By substituting a negative or positive semiatom for
one of the hydrogene semiatoms, an acid or base is obtained;
or replacing one hydrogene semiatom by a negative and
the other by a positive semiatom, the result is a salt. Simi-
larly item 4 represents the ammonia type : The substituting
of one negative semiatom gives an amide; of one positive
semiatom, gives an amine; of one positive and one negative
semiatom for two semiatoms of hydrogen, yields an alka-
lamide. The hypothetical radical ammonium (and perhaps
other hypotheticals), may be explained as a semiatom, which
cannot exist by itself, but only in combination. Item 2 ap-
plies to the chlorine compounds, and item 5 to the carbon
compounds.

It must be understood that these pictured waves are not
intended to represent actual vibrations, but merely the num-
ber and relative position, or the atomicity of the combining
semiatomic forces as in fig. 21; while in fig. 22, the com-
plete dichotomised atoms are similarly imaged, the upper
lefthand section of each pair regarded as the advancing
phase. A volumnar admeasurement is delineated in the ac-
companying figure, and explained in the marginal notations.
Each elementary parallelogram, as ab, a/b’, a/b’, a’’b” or
bc, b/c’, ete. stands for the measure of a half-volume or semi-
atomic gaseous volume, when the entire volume is called
unity. Whence ac, a’c’ contains one atomic volume, and ae,
a''c'’ contains two atomic volumes; and to this measure of
two gaseous volumes by the chemical combination of ac,
a'c! respectively with a’c’, a’’e!’, or a’c’, de ora’c’,d’e’ or a’e’,
d’e’’ are reduced (molecular volume : FRANKLAND, BARKER,
&c.). |

s

Se a Se eee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 283

22. The superficial molecules or indeterminate atoms of
a material sphere at rest must each have not only diametric

a es

a'b’,df =—7 atoms;

a'b!, d'f’ =—3 atoms;

a’b! df" =—4 atoms.

ab, ab""=be, b"e""
= latom.

b'c', fe =-+2 atoms;
Ue’, fie? =—+3 atoms;

TAN PP a 4
b’c St e’—+4 atoms.

ac.a'd ==a'e',a'c
=1 atom.

ac, a'c!'=2 atoms by condensation.

toms, but also circular equi-
small circle passing through it.

Ss
an
=)
"DD
OQ sy
jor
Se
>
mM
= 2
‘aq
xs Rm
|
FS
Sa
3 0
= a
Ries)
= .3
os ha’
-Q
3 ig

284 Lesearches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

If the sphere commence a rotation about a fixed axis, a
pressure arises throughout the entire circumference of each
parallel, and acts in the direction opposed to the rotation.
Regarding the sphere as composed of a series of strata or
shells each of small or molecular thickness, the ‘exterior
arc of any portion of a molecular parallel is greater than
its interior arc, the centrifugal force is greater on the former
than on the latter arc, and therefore each portion of the
molecular shell is impressed with a tendency to rotate upon
its axis in a direction the same as that of the rotation of
the sphere, which tendency is properly a circulation of ten-
sion or pressure around the centre of each forming atom
(figure 5). Otherwise showing, when rotation commences
about a fixed axis of a sphere, the nascent atoms on each
parallel circle will be suddenly precipitated against each
. other, inducing a pulsation from atom to atom throughout
each circle, from each atom around again to the same: con-
sequently this new state of circulating tension is perpetuated
of itself, if uninterfered with. Since the normal to the point
of contact of two contiguous atoms ona circle does not pass
through their centres, the concussion inflicted by the in-
cipient rotation of the sphere gives rise to the rotation of
each atomic force around its#own centre (properly a rota-
tion of tension or pressure around the centre of each atom).*

When the globe of the earth first commenced rotation
eastward around its axis, all its atoms received the shock
which determined their revolutive and rotative pressures
in westward direction; that is, looking south, from the left-
hand, upwards over to the righthand, a dextral revolution

*Note in speaking of a fixed axis, an inaccuracy of language is committed,
analogous to the rhetorical figure termed hysteron proteron, or putting the
last first. The fied avis has no other existence than as a consequence de-
termined by the rotation. So in the case of the so-named atoms: there are
no primitive atoms of fixed magnitude and centres; but they owe their ex-
istence, magnitude, and permanence or variability, purely to the operation
of external forces upon the substance in which they are developed under the
principle of action and reaction.

ae ee eee ee ee eee eee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 285,

and similar rotation. Wind a thread in this manner spirally
around a cylinder: it offers to the looker on, at one end a
righthand, at the other end a lefthand twist, the course at
the latter end being from the righthand upwards over to
the left. Suppose the cylinder divided perpendicular to its
length, then united by turning end for end, and the terminal
turns of the spiral fashioned into a circle, we have the dis-
tinguishing types of a right- and a lefthanded crystal.

Recurring to the example of the leyden phial, partially
coated inside and outside with tinfoil. The inside is charged
with positive electricity, which inductively develops negative
electricity in the outer coating. The glass is neither a simple
element nor an alloy of the metals silicon and sodium (in
manner as brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, and is a con-
ductor of electricity), but is compound, a silicate of sodium,
and therefore a non-conductor, for the reason that every
aroused atomic force in it, of whatever relative magnitude,
answers bya negative semiatomic force of silicic acid against
a positive semiatomic force of sodium; so that the same
kind of electric force cannot pass through the glass, but the
opposite kind is developed, and called inductive.

Stepping to the atlantic or submarine cable telegraph,
the wires correspond to the interior coating of the leyden
jar; the nonconducting guttapercha covering replaces the
glass of the jar; while the mixed aqueous matters of the
ocean take place of the exterior member of the electro-che-
mic system, and indeed contributes inductively to enhance
the strength of the original charge of the wire.

23. Another stride, it is hoped, will approach the for-
mation of a theory of the origin of terrestrial magnetism
(the Earth is a magnet, Hansen, Gauss, DELARIVE, AIRY,
&e.). Of all the cosmotical metallic elements, iron is cer-
tainly the most plentiful: it abounds among the contents
of the superficial crust of the earth, combined or mixed
with other elements or substances; is also found in nearly

286 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

all kinds of vegetable and animal growth, and constitutes
a large portion of the substance of fallen meteorites. In a
series of the elements arranged with respect to magnetic
capacity, iron stands as the paramagnetic head of the de-
scending scale which passes through zero, and finally ter-
minates in the element bismuth as its diamagnetic antipode.
When pure and in the state termed soft iron, it is not mag-
netic, but may be temporarily rendered so by induction or
influence, in a manner similar to the production of electri-
city by influence in an electric conductor. But when har-
dened by hammering or compression, or when converted
into steel (carburet of iron), it can be rendered permanently
magnetic by several different processes elsewhere described.

24. The Earth is a magnet. 1° It is assumed that the
central portion of the earth contains the force of a core of
soft iron. The chemical action, initiated and sustained by
the Sun’s influence, between the heterogoneous elements
of the fluid portions of the surface and the contiguous solid
portions of the earth’s crust, acts inductively through the
drier and harder portions of the shell, upon the axial iron
core, similarly as the waters of the ocean act inductively
through the guttapercha covering of the submarine tele-
graph wire: the iron core, coincident with the earth’s axis
of rotation, is continuously charged with electric force.
2° Experiment has sufficiently shown that when a portion
of a metallic ring is heated, an electric current is started in
it. Now the terrestrial meridians may be regarded as com-
prising so many contiguous atmospheric rings which are
daily successively heated by the Sun’s rays, each meridian
unequally from the poles to the equator. An electric current
is thus generated, which draws upon the central electrified
core through the poles, calling forth two opposing currents,
a northern or negative and a southern or positive, which
meet and pass each other at the magnetic equator, and give
direction to the magnetic needle. The successive and alter-

— a eee Pe} 6

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 287

nate presentation and withdrawal of the meridians to and
from the rays of the Sun explains the daily variations of *
the needle, and at the same time may serve to recal the
image of the solenoid magnet formed by the spiral wire
surrounding its core of soft iron. Starting from a point in

the northern hemisphere and pursuing a southerly air line,

the traveller will not remain on his first meridian, but will
course a loxodromic curve, winding in dextral direction
and making western longitude. Similarly the annual ap-
proach and recession of the earth in its orbit with respect
to the sun has been regarded as explaining the needle’s
annual variation. The preponderance of land to water in
the northern hemisphere when compared with the south-
ern, indicates a corresponding possession of a larger pro-
portion of the ferruginous element, at least sufficient to
account for the seeming superiority or priority of develop-
ment of the northern polar electricity over the southern.
The cause of magnetic storms is referable to disturbances

-in the photosphere of the Sun, which alter its actinic and

calorific effects upon the superficies of the earth. The well

_ known luminous effect of an electric discharge through a

partial vacuum suggests the plausibility of the usual ex-
planation that the aroused demonstrations are owing to the
formation of a partially vacuous stratum in the higher
regions of the atmosphere, arising from a sudden fall of
temperature, itself probably the consequence of the Sind
disturbances mentioned.

25. The normally developed atoms, such as would be
produced by equal pressure applied on all sides, are doubt-
less of spherical form, the three mutually perpendicular
central axes of which would be the proper measures of the
emanating forces in those directions. But each denizen,
each body, each atom of this our ancient mother Earth is.

‘simultaneously and incontinently invaded by three mutually

cross terrestrial or rather’ cosmical forces, each unequal in

288 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

their opposing directions: a north and south, determined
* by the Sun and the poles of the earth; an east and west,
determined by the rising and setting of the Sun; and an
ascending and descending pair of forces, due to the action
of the emanation from the centre of the earth (force of gra-
vity), a8 opposed by the centrifugal force generated by ro-
tation. When material substances have been liquified by
warmth or heat and subsequently left to cool in quiet, the
gentle but pertinaceous forces alluded to make themselves
felt by the yielding atoms, which may thus be deformed,
each clement according to its-peculiar density, into sphe-
roidal or ellipsoidal shape. The lines of maximum and
minimum density of an atom, which will become the erys-
tallagrophic axes of the accretion, may be forced into incli-
nation to one or all three of any set of perpendicular axes,
and thus give rise to the various shapes of erystals formed
by nature orartificial chemical conduct; the planes of cleavage
of which would seem to occur where the atomic forces just
meet with touch and mutual equilibrium, or rather form
nodal planes across which the atomic forces are transmitted —
from layer to layer. A certain number of atoms, peculiar
in different substances, unite in linear groups to form the
laminee of the crystal. The direction of greatest atomic den-
sity, whether produced by crystallization or by artificial
pressure, appears to determine the distinction ,between
paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances.

26. As the rising of the Sun first touches a meridian
(here regarded as an atmospheric ring) upon its eastern
horizontal trace, the heating effects of the rays travel in a
_ helicoidal path around the centre of the ring, towards the
equator from the poles. The magnetised needle consists of
a small cylinder or bar generally of steel, the particles or
molecules of which have been brought into a state of heli-
coidal tension around the axis of the bar; so that when
freely suspended by its centre of gravity, the rotative ten-

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 289

sion of its molecules coincides in direction with that of the
particles of the terrestrial meridian, and this rotative ten-,
dency brings and retains the needle in line.

Emanation proceeds in all directions from the centre of
a body. When this body is. cylindrical or parallelopidal, the
tension of the force increases toward each extremity, accu-
mulating from the centre on towards and becoming greatest
at the ends of the piece (DeLarive); while the diverging
rays shorten as they approach, and reach a minimum at
the centre. Those diverging rays which reach the extreme
ends encounter the resisting action of the contiguous me-
dium : a reflection of force ensues in both senses, that is,
backwards into the cylinder, and outward into the medium.
In addition, there is yet emanative action perpendicular to
the axis of the cylinder throughout. As the medium has
the inferior density, the spherical and cylindrical emana-
tions overcome the medial at the surface, and prevail beyond.
From one extremity of the cylinder to the other, the cylin-
drical and rotative tensions of the atoms are respectively
equal; while the spherical tensions decrease from both ex-
tremities to a minimum at the centre. A certain distance
from each extremity is found, where the emanative and
rotative forces all three compound to form a pair of new
centres or foci of force, a positive and a negative pole of
mutually reverse action, the many resulting effects of which
are well known. The entire magnet may be regarded as
made up of a fusion of elementary solenoids (AMPERB),
and a helicoidal rotation of force in the atomic particles is
common to both.

A simple way of transforming the atomic forces from
circular to spiral tension consists in applying the friction
of a ready made magnetic a few times, in the same direc-
tion, along the length of the bar to be operated on. Were
there no circular transmission of force in the pipe, this
rubbing in one direction would merely quicken the tension

Trans. vit.] 37

\

290 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

of the atoms in the straight line of the movement; but as
such revolving transmission of force exists, during the in-
terval of time occupied by the scraper in passing from one
circle of atoms to the next, the revolutive force in the circle
reached has advanced one atomic step in its round, and
thus is the spiral direction given.

It may well be that spherical and cylindrical emanating
forces, originally imprinted on all the elementary substances
and arranged as above sketched, shall seldom give rise to
sensible magnetic effects, and that these may be improved
or altered by introducing strong pressure, etc., to change
the direction of the greatest density of the atoms of the
substance descending from perfect paramagnetism in row,
or through the centre of indifference, down to perfect dia-
magnetism in bismuth (TynDAtt). |

In the contrast between soft iron and steel respecting
magnetic behaviour, the former acts as.a free conductor of
magnetic force, its anode being formed by the constantly
emanating magnetic force of the earth, and the cathode by
the point of connexion with the instrument in presence, the
entire piece composing one complete wave of tension with
venter at the center, which retires as soon as the connexion
is severed. It is the analogue of the conducting wire of the
galvanic electricity, with this agreement and difference:
The perfect electric conductor, whatever be its length, con-
stitutes one single whole wave of tensional force, not con-
ceived as divided into molecular or atomical wavelets, and
its dynamical movement is linear; while in the soft iron,
the magnetical movement is circulo-spiral or helicoidal.
Different in constitution from this is the case of steel and
other substances possessing magnetic power or capacity.
Such substances are either compound or compressed. A
compound atom is a case of equilibrium between a positive
and a negative hemisphere of force. By the process of con-
verting iron into steel, the carbon unites with the iron and

a hee 5 le mle ee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 291

forms a mass of fixed atomic compounds; and when the
mass is further prepared, and the magnetical movement
initiated by the methods of touch, etc., the action persists
by virtue of the principle of the immanent genesis of force
(coercitive force, Porsson).

27. In a magnetic needle (fig. 23), the electrical currents
circulate dextrorsely from the north pole; and an electric
eurrent following in a linear direction tends to bring a
neighboring current into parallelism. The current moving
in the wire from A to A’, if the needle be freely suspended
over the wire (above the plane of the paper), parallel to the
wire, north pole towards A and south pole towards A’, it
will take the perpendicular (equatorial) position NS, because
in this position its circular current approaches to parallel-
ism with the current in the wire (CirsTEp). |

The analogy between the magnet and a solenoid is too
palpable to need remark. The circulo-spiral or helicoidal
rotation is in force in the solenoid, but there is no transla-
tory movement; while in the real magnet, the opposing
spherical emanations render the linear tendency astatic.
In the solenoid (fig. 20), there is helicoidal, but no linear
movement proper; in the magnet M, there is the same spiro-
heliacal or helicoidakmovement, and also linear movements
(of force) from the centre C in the opposite directions Ca
and Ca’, which destroy each other. We see then why the
solenoid and magnet place themselves perpendicularly to
the current in the electric wire.

At A (fig. 25) is an advancing train of electrical atoms,
colliding with the stationary train A’ at the point O: the
open half of the spheres represents the force destroyed by
the collision, the shaded halves representing the liberated
portions which effectuate the successive destructions from
centre to centre through the line. From the centre of col-
lision O, the propagation is positive from O to A’, nega-

tive from O to A, evidencing the direct and reverse course

Cc

292 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

of the currents of elective force. At each extremity A and
A’ a resisting medium is encountered, and reaction takes
place towards the centre O, constituting the return dis-
charge. If instead of actual contact of the bodies holding
the interfering forces, a dielectric be placed between them
at O, the effect is electrization by influence (FaRaDay).

If now the series A’ be turned into the reverse position
(fig. 26), and then connected with A by the dielectric C
(which may even be a moderately thin stratum of common
air), while the current in A is from right to left, that in A’
is from left to right as it ought to be. If the current in A is
infinite in A and finite in A’, the atomic forces in the latter -
will be held in their present position by the continuous
pressure of A; but if the pressing current in A be stopped,
or-the dielectric withdrawn, reaction occurs from A’ to C,
restoring the former state of equilibrium (phenomena of
induction, Henry).

28. Let AA, (fig. 27) represent an axial section of a cytia
der, made of non-conducting material (glass, wood, or card-
paper), around which is coiled a copper wire wound with
silk or insulated with resin, etc., and ready to be charged
with electricity from the galvanic jar P. CC, is a core of
soft iron, placed and retained in the centre of the cylinder.
As in all cases and in all situations, emanation of force is
constantly going on from the centre of any body whatever,
reaching the surface and there encountering a resisting
medium; so in the case of the present core of iron rods CQ,,
the largest amount of spherically emanating force will ap-
pear at the extremities a/a, and b’b,, where, while the
cylindrical coil AA, remains uncharged, a portion of each
is destroyed by the forces of the resisting medium, consist-
ing say of the atmosphere surrounding the core and the
cylinder; and although there is a constant transmission of
remaining force from the core tothe wire, this is equili-
brated by the reacting emanation from the wire. But when

@
Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Orerations. 298

the wires ss’ are connected through the battery P, the
coil around AA, is charged, the current passing from left
to right. The pressure of the force from the core against the
extremity a’’ of the coil, being now unresisted by the force
from the wire (which just moves away from it), makes its
way into the same current, leaving unbalanced the force at
the other extremity a’ of the path from the core. As the
like happens at the opposite extremity b’b” of the core and
coil, regard being had to the opposing qualities of the
complementary electricities, we see that the force of the
coil is constantly reinforced from the coil, for genesis of
force is immanent.

Let now a second similar but larger cylinderBB,, coated
with the proper insulated wire, be placed around the cylin-
der AA,, and its two extremities connected by conducting
wire tt’ with the galvanometer R. The cylinder AA, being
first disconnected with the battery P, will be in quiet equi-
librium with itself, with the core CC,, with the cylinder
BB,, and with the surrounding mediuw ; and the cylinder
BB, will also be in equilibrium with itself and its conduct-
ing wire ¢t,, with the. cylinder AA, and its enclosed core
CC,, and with the surrounding medium. When the wires
ss’ are plunged into the battery P, the positive current
passes from left to right through a’ A b’’, crosses the die-
lectrical medium 6’ b’’’, thence from right to left through
6’ Ba’”’, and so around through the conducting wire /’Z,
disturbing the galvanometer in its passage, but finally re-
maining stationary in the cylinder BB, so long as the cy-
linder AA, is connected with the battery P. The cylinders
being insulated, BB, cannot discharge itself; and so long
as the current circulates in AA,, BB, is held in a state of
tension directed upon its extremity a’” by the pressure of
the current AA;; but as soon as this current is stopped by
dismissing the wires ss’ from the battery, the compressed
forces of BB, react from left to right through a” Ab”,

294 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

forming an instantaneous current which again disturbs the
galvanometer, and equilibrium then directly follows in the
system. The operation of alternately connecting and dis-
missing the wires of A.A, with the battery may be repeat-
ed ad libitum, may be repeated indefinitely, always with the
same result (RUHMKORFF).

The coiled wires are insulated to prevent cross transmis-
sion of force, The induced coil of B is greatly increased in
length and reduced in diameter beyond the length and
diameter of the coil of A, thereby enhancing the quality
of the former coil at the expense of the quantity of the
latter, in order to encourage a quick reaction when the
battery connection is broken; which connection should be
quickly resumed, ere the slower return discharge through
b’ Aa” can take place; an eyil, however, which may be
partially remedied by the use of a condensator.

We have here an analogue, albeit under an exalted degree
of energy, of the simplest form of electrical excitement
(fig. 28). When the excitor EH is pressed against the excitee
E’, a current of force travels across the latter from O, and
appears in tension on the surface ata: when E is withdrawn,
reaction returns the interfering force to O, and equilibrium
is restored. Precisely similar is the communication between
the extremities 0’ and a’’”’ of the wire wound cylinder
BB,, the wire wound cylinder AA, being the excitor dis-
charging force upon the extremity b’”” of the former cylin-
der. The continued successive applications of the frictional
pressures and withdrawals in the operation of the electrical
machine are here effected by means of the interruptor and
commutator (oucAULT).

In addition to the above attempted explanation of the
reverse current of BB,, it remains to be observed that the
whole course of the current of the wire of AA, may act
inductively and through the dielectric medium between the ~
cylinders, upon the stationary forces in the wire of BB,;

—_

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 295

and as the spiral direction of the current from a’ is dextror-
sal, the moving forces take hold of the resting force of the
wire of the outer cylinder, as though these forces were the
interlacing cogs of two wheels: consequently the spiral path
is determined dextrorsal from the extremity 6’, making
the reverse current as before (DrLarive).

29. A magnet (fig. 37) presents the following peculiari-
ties: 1° There is spherical emanation from the centre O,
the extension of which increases with the length of the
radius; 2° cylindrical emanation from the axis AA’, uni-
form in all its length; 3° transmission of rotative force in
dextral direction from A, uniform throughout the surface
and body of the cylinder (or parallelopipe). These compo-
nent forces form two opposite resultant forces in 7 and 7,
the positive and negative poles of the magnet. The mag-
netic action is greatest at a anda’, and decreases to the
value zero at ¢ the central circle of the cylinder. The plane
of this central circle is therefore a position totally exempt
from the action of the poles, which, however, extends all
the way to that centre asits limit; butin the solid magnet,
the atomic forces at this limit (which limit only exists in
virtue of the action of the poles, and changes place with
their change of distance) resist separation like those of any

’ other solid.

For this solid magnet, substitute one of a semifluid con-
sistence, immersed in a fluid of lesser density, as water.
All may be conceived to pass with the atomic forces as be-
fore, differing only by the difference in density. This dif-
ference of density will more particularly affect the central
plane of atoms atc; for the magnetic centres 7 and 7’ have
no action on that plane, but do affect all on each side within
that limit. As fluid and even semifluid atoms are easily
separated, it fairly follows that in this central plane, their
weakest position in the premises, they will yield in parti-
tion to the effect of any external force which may interfere

296 esearches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

with the posture of either or both of the polar ends A or A’
of the supposed magnetical portion of substance. The con-
nexion of the two moieties of the body being now reversed,
the new individuals are respective positive and negative in
quality, and free to roam the environning medium at the
sport of encountering forces which may arrive.

30. It should appear that the action of the solar emana-
tion upon the revolving strata of the planets while in a
liquid or vaporous condition, would develope infinitely
varied forms, complexities, and degrees of combination or
composition between and among the atomical and molecu-
lar forces constituting such strata while yet capable of in-
terfusion, and which forms, etc. would remain hereditary
to the different substances after reaching the solid or lowest
state of condensation peculiar to the surrounding tempera-
ture. The first effect of the solar force is modified by en-
counter with the planetary spherical emanation: with this
resultant, while in the process of formation, is combined
the rotative force of the planet around its axis, giving a cir-
cular tendency of force to each atom, which is converted
“into ahelicoidal tendency from atom to atom by the revolu-
tive motion of the planet about the Sun. These three dif-
ferent kinds of force, spherical, circular and helicoidal, may
be all combined in the same atom, or the first and second’
without the third, or the first without the second and third;
but the last may sometimes be artificially introduced, or
revived when appearing to be latent (the magnet). To the
primitive combination of these forces at some epoch in the
condensation of the cosmical spherical shells, must we look
for the origination of the determinate geometrical forms
constantly assumed by different mineral substances in the
act of crystallization, as evidenced by the inclination of
their crystallographical or optical axes, their angles and
planes of cleavage, or quality of hemihedrality. A right-
handed and a lefthanded crystal of quartz may be so faced

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 297

together that the direction of rotation shall of the same
direction throughout, as in the solenoid; in which position,
the extremities of the crystal are specially related as the
north and south poles of a magnet. We are thus led to the
supposition that the atomic elements of this mineral sub-
stance quartz, while in the fluid state, were so composed by
the three cosmical forces above named as to take on this
helicoidal form of action, arranging themselves in a mag-
netical shape, and subsequently dropping adhesion between
the poles. External pressure or other forceful action upon
the atomical forces of a nascent fluid may originate therein
a system of one, two, three, etc. axes, around which the
intensity of the forces may differ, and thus give rise to a
spheroidal or polyhedral shape of atom, instead of simply
spherical or cubical. Planes of cleavage evidently consist
as the boundary between molecular systems of atomical
forces, and are superficial nodes corresponding to the linear
nodes of linear forces.

We have seen (section 5) that a single impulsion applied
to the unit mobile 1, generates a velocity (a force of the
first degree d’ =1,) which carries the mobile the distance
n1, in the time n1,, provided no resistance be encoun-
tered ; but if the operation has place in a resisting medium,
a renewed and persevering application of the force which
gave the first impulse is required to continually overcome
this resistance. Here the phenomenal result (fig. 38) con-
sists simply in the arrival and departure of the burthen at
the successive stations 1, 2, 8, 4, etc., and is the first kind

of change offered for investigation in the study of the me-

chanical and physical sciences. The primitive force which

starts the movement, being capable of a continued renewal

of its application, is therefore a force of the second degree

go”, constant if the renewals are of the same intensity, -

variable if otherwise. A mechanical change consists in a

displacement in space, while a physical change consists in
Trans. vit] 38

298 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

a change of quality without removal of the body or sub-
stance, asin the formation of chemical equilibrium by com-
bination of different elements, the undisturbed result ot
which terminates in crystallization on the spot, in the case
where the combining elements find their mutual intensi-
ties satisfied; but if one of the combiners possesses or is
supplied with an overplus of force, this overplus is trans-
mitted unreduced to the next contiguous particle, which
now holds the same quantity of overplus of force as was
held by the first atom, and consequently a new combina-
tion takes place outside of the first atom, which may now
settle down into equilibrium: thus the process of combi-
nation and subsequent equilibration may go on in a linear,
superficial or radiating series according to the constitution
of the surrounding medium, until arrested by encounter ot
some heterogeneous opposing force. The branching of some
forms of crystal, the propagation of fermentation by means
of yeast, the growth of the joints of the tapeworm, the
communication of disease by inoculation, etc. etc., are
pregnant examples in which physical and mechanical |
changes are combined, change of place with change of
quality. A force of the second degree is also requisite to
the origination of any of these phenomenal results, and we
now have at our successive stages in fig. 38, an elementary
erystal, or a drop of acid, or a joint of worm, or a pustule
of variola, etc.

The operations hitherto considered have been conducted
by means of linear forces, that is, by forces of the first de-
gree, themselves each the product of a single act of a con-.
stant force of the second degree, while their phenomenal
results are uniform in time, are of the degree zero of force,
and are susceptible of linear or spacial measures. But as
we now approach the boundary between physical and vital
forces, beyond which border variable forces of the second
degree come into play, it becomes incumbent to inquire

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 299

into their origination. To this end, it is again necessary to
anticipate on Part ILI of these researches.

Referring to fig. 3, let A represent a plane section of the
globe of the Sun, D the same thing for the Earth, and the
circumference stand for the vastly remote boundary of
equilibrium between ours and a neighboring solar system.
I assume the Sun to be a force of a very high degree of in-
tension ; variable originally, but subsequently constant for
very long secular periods down to the present. Radiating
and diffusing uniformly in time, equably in all directions
of space, and filling the sphere to its boundary with force,
the volume of this force is proportional to the cube of the |
radius 7°, while the extension and intension at any surface
is proportional to the reciprocals of the squares of the
radii r? and r—-*. During several secular periods prior to the
present, the action of the Sun upon the EKarth was more
intense, and has decreased down to the constant energy it
now puts forth as a force of the second degree @”. In its
capacity as such force, the Harth reacts against the Sun,
forming a border of equilibrium between the two at 8’,
which averts further approach ; while the force destroyed
by the encounter liberates as much in the opposite direc-
tions DE’ and OA’, which prevents further departure, and
the planet keeps its orbit (See section 3). As the Sun is the
greatest force, an overplus of its emanation reaches the
superticial strata of the Earth, where action and reaction
ensues, one of the results of which is the production of
light and heat as forces of the first degree ¢’.

+ Dieression 3. The primeval germ of the planetary uni-
verse was posited in a state of incandescence, and rushed
to fill the void (Nature abhors a vacuum) by one single
spherically advancing wave, reaching and meeting the boun-
dary of reaction at a single leap; not by emanation now,
but by actual expansion of substance (nebula of HERSCHEL
and LAPLAcE), a completed spherical wave with venter at

300 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations..

the center and node at the extreme spherical limit, where
regressive action commences. Similarly to the formation.
of terrestrial waves of substantial force by compression,
etc., but on an immense spherical scale, the cosmical waves
of condensation proceed towards the center. A first stra-
tum of tenuous substance is produced by the encounter of
the radiating pressure with the centrally directed reactive
pressure; which stratum, now possessing greater density
than the contiguous portion on the central sides makes its
way in central direction, collecting a new stratum of further
increasing density, and so on successively ; condensing into
separate spherical shells of increasing density as they near
the central body, some of which arrive at and maintain a
position of equilibrium as centripetal and centrifugal ema-
nating forces, at approaching distances which may be spe-
cified as of Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Terra,
Venus, Mercury, towards the Sun. A long-gathering un-
even outside pressure from other cosmical systems starts a
rotation, the increasing momentum of which dislocates the
spherical shells, precipitating a portion of the opposite
hemispheres into commingling confusion, while an equa-
torial band or ring breaks up and rolls into a planetary
ball, in obedience to the difference of angular velocity be-
tween the outside and inside of such gathering portion of
asemifluid ring. In this way, planets, satellites, asteroids,
meteoroliths, comets, etc. may have had their genesis. The
sixty distinct mineral elements, ranging in increasing den-
sity from hydrogen to platinum, must owe their special
constitutions to difference of pressure and temperature
while in their nascent state, their congeners (selenium con-
generic with sulphur, etc.) arising from modification or
perturbation introduced by interfering atomical forces of
contiguous elements.

The incandescent temperature of the primitive cosmical

germ sunk to absolute zero throughout the whole extent

-

ee

4
q

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 301

of the completely expanded wave. By subsequent conden-
sation and contraction, this (so-called) latent heat gradually
reappeared, occupying the planetary body in its progress,
and finally reaching its acme in the central Sun. The act
of condensation is always accompanied by the production
and radiation of heat; and since this process has persisted
ever since the commencement of the contraction of the
cosmical substance, it follows that the reigning tempera-
ture of external space is now far above absolute zero. The
condensing body becomes heated, as well as its surround-
ings. We may therefore suppose that the heat of the plane-
tary bodies continued to accumulate until they arrived at
something like their present distances from the Sun, when
the process of cooling would begin. This cooling process
would proceed rapidly at first, reaching in time a suflicient-
ly reduced temperature allowing the predominating ele-
ment oxygen to combine with the commingling argilla-
ceous, siliceous, calcareous, ferruginous, carbonaceous, and
alkalinaceous elements; in which compounded and com-
mingled condition they floated upon the surface of the
planet (the Earth, for instance) in a state of boiling fusion,
gradually losing temperature, portions at length solidifying
into granite rocks lying in perspiring ease under the de-
scending vaporous bath of combining oxygen and hydro-
gen. Long had the body of our planet been coated with a
molten fiery mass of heterogeneous materials; long there-
after this was transformed into a seething cauldron of tur-
bulent fluidity; till with ever-onward flowing time aquieter

-age arrived, the granitoid peaks loomed into dawning visi-

bility through the thinning vapory atmosphere, the stilly
waters dropped their heavier precipitates, the reiterated
dashing showers due to incessant oceanic evaporation wash-
ed down the contents of the ever-drying hills, and layers
of earthy materials made their beds at the bottom of the
sea: their beds of rock, sufficiently soft and quiet for a time

302 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

to allow the calm process of crystallization to occur (the
lower crystallines); soon, however, to be covered by fresh
deposits of more heterogeneous composition, the heavy
and increasing pressure of which, conjoined with the action
of the central heat, converted the underlying formation into
the so-called metamorphic strata; while fresh arrivals, find-
ing less intensity of heat, usher in successively the siliceous
and argillaceous strata constituting the laurentian, cam-
brian, and silurian series, in some members of which the
earliest traces of.organic existence are found, increasing in
numbers in ascending direction. Then entered the Coal
era, when the subsiding thick carbonaceous vapor, uniting
with the ever-present oxygen, stimulated the growth of im-
mense fields or swamps of acrogenous vegetation, first
spreading and partially floating out over large areas of
oceanic waters, subsequently subsiding by their own in-
creasing weight, afterwards buried under accumulating
masses of siliceous, calcareous, etc. deposits, under the
pressure of which, conjoined with the permeating central
heat, this mass of vegetable matter was converted into
beds of coal, much of which we now exhume and feed to
the iron horse, etc. As restless time strode on its ceaseless
course, the neptunian forces (rains and rivers) pursued their
warfare against the proud high hills, and left their plun-
dered treasures in the bosom of the deep ocean buried,
while slowly that deep bottom grew shallow and shallower,
until the land and sea changed places. Gradually approach-
ed the more modern eras, successively of fishes, then of
reptiles, then of exogenous plants, then of birds, then of
mammals; while lastly the fervor of superficial heat receded
from the polar towards the equatorial regions, followed in
its retreat by immense glacier streams arising from the ex-
pansion of water into ice by crystallization. The glacial
period must necessarily succumb in its turn to Sol’s perse-
vering beneficent reaction, the tropical regions emerged

\

.
.

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 303

into etherial mildness, where finally arose man the unique
admirator and ultimately the successful metrologist of the
ever-glorious universe.

31. Witha genial temperature ranging between 40° and
130°, when the waters ceased simmering, and the lighter
metalloid elements oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine,
carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, etc. sub-
sided into a transitory repose upon the surface occupied by
the heavier metallic bases; with such retrospective condi-
tions a new production could arise, consisting of compound
substances capable to act the part of simple elements in the
opening drama of the sublunary world. Under a former
higher temperature, water in vapor (oxide of hydrogen)
had been abundantly formed by the combustion of the
positive element hydrogen in the negative element oxygen,
and now covers all but the granitic hills and the upheaved ~
mountain chains and scattered volcanic peaks. Under the
affinity of the same all-devouring element oxygen, the then
plentiful carbonic element (plumbago, graphite) soon blazed
forth into carbonic acid (oxide of carbon), suffusing the air
with the smoky pabulum thereafter transformed into vege-
table substance, or otherwise combining directly with cal-
cium into limestone, the prospective base of molluscous
shells and animal bones (carbonate of lime); silicium took
the form of sandstone (oxide of silicon); aluminium turned
to clay (silicate of alumina); iron passed into magnetic
oxide, etc. etc. These, and an indefinite number besides of
mineral compounds of more or less complexity, make up
the mineralogist’s catalogue of specimens and the jeweller’s
invoice of gemsand precious stones. Excluding these last
mentioned fixtures, to the former scanty list of less stable

- compounds must we leok for the origination of the deter-

minate forms and specific qualifications which adhere to
and govern in the growth and development of the multi-
farious living denizens who people and cumber and con-
taminate the air, water, and soil of the terraqueous globe.

304 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

The absorbent and solvent oceanic waters became loaded
with gaseous and earthy matters, the former imbibed from
the atmosphere, the latter washed from the dry land by the
rains. In the shallows and depths of this turbid ocean fluid,
lying quietly under the brooding influence of the solar rays
gently evolving the modifying forces of heat and light and
electro-magnetism, chemical affinities came into play
between sundry components, forming a new compound in
the shape of a small globule in action, which radiates force
into the surrounding weaker but reactive medium. The in-
tensity of the radiated force decreases with the increase of
distance from the centre of the globule, and at a certain
distance becomes just equal to the encountered resisting
force of the medium; at which spherical limit, the opposing
forces weave by compression a membrane forming a cell
enclosing the globule. Hence arises reflection towards the
centre: nuclei are formed, and a nucleus with nucleolus at
the centre; the tension within the cell continues to increase,
until the cell bursts and the germ of a new cell is expelled,
possessing the identical properties of its parent because it
was impressed with the resultant of every single step in
its growth. With an intensity of force it may be infinite-
simally less than that of its parent, the new cell proceeds in
like manner to propagate a race of new cells, either in line
or in congeries. [Life is born! Casar has crossed the Ru-
bicon; Grant has passed the Rapidan, and a wide field of
anxious contention opens before us. ]

32. Besides the quiet influences of the Sun and other
forces enumerated, other forces may intervene during the
growth of our elementary globule: one of the first at hand
is that of motion produced by the gentle movement or
oscillation of the watery medium, which would tend to
partially divert spherical growth into a polar form of deve-
lopment and subsequent growth, by way of reaction, on
opposing sides of the globule, in the shape of fins, etc.,

Ss ee ee eee

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 305

wherewithal to balance the restive outside forces; and thus
we have an incipient fish, incorporating in its growth the
successive resultants of the internal and external forces as

- before; or in the case of a stronger commotion of the me-

dium, the buffeting of waves may drive the nascent cell
against the neighboring rock, starting reacting polar de-
velopments in the form of limbs instead of fins, and there
grows an amphibian or creature capable of taking to the
land (Lamarck, Sr. i ele WHEWELL : Conditions of
existence).

Always is this reservation to re PE that the re-
sultants of the internal and external forces concerned in
every step of the growth and development of each specific
individual creature is necessarily embodied in the germ
which gives birth to its offspring. Each resultant is an equi-
librium between a correlative internal and external force,
condensed in the germ (similarly as the correlative forces oxy-
gen and hydrogen are condensed in water), and ready to be
called into action as it is met by the coming appropriate
external exciting or co-operative force. This doesnot exclude

“the possibility of even considerable variation of species by

change of external conditions during period of after growth,
much less that of their improvement by cultivation or na-
tural selection (Darwin).

The primal cell of vitality, originated as above and grow-
ing under the influence of warmth and fluidity alone, lies
on the border between the vegetable and animal divisions
of organized existence, and could equally develope into an
alga or a polype; tending to the production either of sea

plants or sea animals, according to the nature of further

forces which may come into play during the period of

growth. A less hurried mode of origination may be resorted

to for the production of terrestrial vegetation. A dash of

oceanic spray falls in drops upon the dry and mealy surface

of a limestone rock. Any one of these spherical drops is
Trans. vit.] 39

306 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

unequally acted upon in two opposite points; the upper,
by the Sun, the lower by the resisting substance of the
rock. Consequently here is at.once spherical converted into
polar extension, with mutually unequal results : grasping
roots at the lower extremity or positive pole, and vibrating
leaves at the upper extremity or negative pole. Each drop
is metamorphosed, and our naked rock is clothed with a
bed of moss. Life is born; the nascent changes of the atomic
forces are coordinated in mutual pairs of equilibrium, and
can only transmit their powers in the order they have been
acquired; that is, heredity is predicated in the atoms as
well as in the entire individual (MurpHy).

A portion of ocean wave, dashed upon an adjoining
bare rock, in retiring, leaves some drops which are directly
acted upon by unequal forces on different sides. The rock
offers its unyielding resistance beneath, while the rays of
the Sun stimulate the spherical drop from on high, and
thus develops a polar action, or rather reaction in both di-
rections perpendicular to the horizon. A little moss arises,
and in time a repetition of similar productions covers the
surface around. Each tiny growth lives out its little life,”
then shrivels and dies, and the winds carry its relicts and -
spreads them over a broad distance, where it constantly re-
ceives fresh additions from continual reproductions at the
original source, decomposes and mingles with other elements
peculiar to the new locality, the compost of which, acted
upon by the Sun and rain, and other forces, becomes fit
for new forms of development and growth, and the earth
is gradually clothed with plants and trees.

A larger shower of waves, falling upon less barren soil,
would initiate a more powerful growth. A richer reaction
beneath would accommodate a greater development above
and prolonged to a greater extent; a plant, a shrub, or even
a tree, stretches up its stalky, twiggy, or stemmy altitude.
The action of the surrounding atmospheric medium deter-

ee ee ee UL
| - :

~ Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 307

“mines the secretion and the solidification of the coat of its

stem or bark of its trunk. The endosmic affinity of the sub-
stance of the growing stem for water allures this fluid from
the ground to the upper extremity, where the cellular forces
are fairly encountered by the spectral forces of the Sun as
the season advances to its proper height; the hitherto sphe-
rical, spheroidal, orcylindrical forms ofatomical vibration are
transformed into lateral or plane vibrations in obedience’to
the transverse vibrations of the calorific or actinic rays; the
advancing growths of the twigs terminate in buds, which,
under the new influence, disintegrate into thin lamine,
and finally burst forth into leaves. Arrived at this present
limit of individual growth, an exchange of passports takes
place between outside and inside; the water offers itself
for evaporation in the leaves; the endosmic affinity of the
thin partition transmits largely the oxygenous element to
unite with the oxygen of the carbonic acid of the outside
air, and returns the latter to form the hydro-carbon re-
placing the eliminated oxygen of the water, and which
serves to develop the flower and fruit as well as to contribute
to the further growth and maintenance of the existence of
the plant.

With the climax of the season, the accumulated finer
solar influences call forth the terminal buds, which expand
in spherically enclosing shells in the order of sepals, petals,
stamens, and central pistil. At the superior terminus of each
stamen appears the limiting cellular metamorphose in the

’ globular shaped anther.

33. As in the macrocosm or greater world, we saw the
primeval germ expand inan unresisting void till encountered
by foreign similarly expanding germs, whence the nebulous
substantial force returned towards the centre, casting off
nuclei in the form of planets, and dropping much debris by
the way in shapeless aeroliths, cometary matter, etc., but
all the time gathering and condensing forces in the various

308 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

nuclei, while convoying the larger freight to reinforce the
central nucleus; during which process of evolution and
-subsequent involution, the different mineral elements of
each plant had their genesis and fixation of quality, such
as now to admit the determination of new or secondary
creations of germs out of the results of the primitive one:
so in the example of the specimen microcosm or little world
of vegetal matter and form whose secondary creation and
subsequent development we are endeavoring to trace, the
process started by the expansion of force, but encountered
other than void conditions. The primal germ-force, origin-
ated by the union of certain elements existing in a turbid
water, must push its way against a resisting or reactive
medium, incorporating sundry elements therefrom as it
goes and meets with feebler reactions at successive steps,
until finally the acting and reacting forces come to an
equality, a limit is reached, and a new turn of action must
take place. One phase of the system is formed, and, just as —
in the macrocosmal example, a return towards the origin
becomes necessary.

The unique direction of the reacting force of the soil
against the deposited germ of the plant compels the forces
of the latter to take the direction of the normal to the sur-
face, while the equable horizontal pressure of the surround-
ing atmosphere determines the cylindric form of the ascend-
ing stem; the nodes and spiral arrangement of the buds of
which respectively betray the wave-form of the impulses
from below and the rotative influence of the sun’s chang-—

‘ing direction. Reaching a higher and rarer medium, the
spherical form of expansion becomes easier, and branches
radiate accordingly, while still obeying the cylindrically
imprinted forces. At the limiting region, therefore, there is
discontinuity of substance, each separate twig carrying on
‘its leaves, and terminating in a flower-bud, which now re-
sumes a miniature of all the resultant forces gathered dur-

_ Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 809

ing the entire process of growth. At the limit of the macro-
cosmical expansion, each nebulous portion is condensed
and reversed in its course; but all being continuous, all
proceeded in connection towards the common origin. But
in the vegetal expansion, the operating forces in each an-
ther are condensed in its nuclei the pollen grains, whose
expanding force soon splits open the-enclosing membrane,
and some of the pollen finds its way to the central stigma
generally by means of external agency.

Each pollen-grain, then, is a condensed miniature germ
of a future vegetal individual or microcosm. Its chance of
' realizing such future state of existence depends on its find-
ing a congenial medium suitable to the powers of its own
feeble forces, in which at first to deploy its activity. Such
a medium it will find in the ovary of the pistil, provided
it can reach the stigma. In this attained medium the pollen-
force takes up its abode in virtue of the affinity engendered
between it and the ovarian substances, as positive and nega-
tive forces by the centrally tending antherial emanations.
The remaining process consists in condensing and coating
the granules formed by the action of the pollen in the ovary
(analogous.to the condensing and coating of the planets),
and concluding by enlarging and finally bursting the cap-
sule, when the seeds or nuts fall to the ground (as the suc-
cessive spherical strata descended upon the sun); where,
when favorable temperatures and other conditions conspire,
a new cycle of action commences with the genesis of an
offspring resembling its parent in virtue of the resultant
forces so combined as necessarily to dictate heredity.

Like our exemplary billiard ball waiting in repose for a
moving impulse from without; so the enclosed seed, nut or
. egg, may remain at rest for an indefinite period, under the
equilibrating effect of its own forces; but eftsoons a per-
sistent external application of warmth excites internal dis-
turbance by unbalancing the forces, a throbbing and swel-

310 Researches in the. Theory and Calculus of Operations.

ling reaction commences and increases till the prison walls
are bursted, and the awakened germ peeps forth; nursed
by the pabulum stored within its containing shell, the fee-
ble germ takes on its embryo form, and the infant candi-
date for life rapidly increases in size and vigor, until suffi-
cient strength enables it to cope with the coarser contents
of outside food and weather, when a new vital orbit is en-
tered upon, with trajectory foreshadowed en silhouette.

Figures 39 and 40 show the difference of arrangement of
the balancing forces in the chemical atom, with their arrange-
ment in.the vital atom or germ. In the vital atom, the
point near the base represents the focal centre of the forces,
occupying the border between the root and stem, from
which radiate the separate components, ready to be ope-
rated upon and react successively in ascending order, as
external forces arise around and above.

34. We have crossed the Rubicon : it is imminent to face
about, and see if our landing has been made good. The
origin of the threescore terrestrial elementary substances
has been attributed to the condensation of as many different
spherical strata of nebulous matter during their approach
towards the centres of the sun and planets; while their
regular or irregular mixture and distribution is due to
fracture and comminution caused by accessary violent revo-
lutive motion of the system. Since the immense force
which operated to produce these condensations cannot be
subdued by any lesser one (such as may be at our com-
mand), the elements remain indecomposable and unsus-
ceptible of transmutation, and the contents of the inorganie
province of Nature may be regarded as enumerated.

A candid examination and consideration of the compara-
tively modern or asymptotic condition of the system, rang-
ing from the hissing steamy epoch down through the de-
clining temperatures which permitted combinations of ele-
ments to initiate and determine the completion of new

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 311

forms by operating through a series of varying conditions,
ought to admit that this exposition explains itself; and that

a specific form once thus established should possess the pro-

perty of heredity, in a comparative sense, as securely in-
herent as that which exists in a particle of the metal gold.
Even as in the formation of the terrestrial elements, the
quantity of each necessarily became definite—there is so
much gold and no more in the world; so in the gradual
subsidence of the elementary matters susceptible of varied
combinations, the proportional quantity of each that could
go to make up a particular combination must necessarily
have approximated to definiteness, and therefore would be
mainly used up in a first production while the conditions
were favorable: the deposit was exhausted, and the con-
ditions passed away never more to be met with, so that
like denizens cannot originate in after periods. A first race
took up all the appropriate material peculiar to its place
and time: in a succeeding time, the conditions have chang-
ed, other material of another deposit enters into the forma-
tion of a new race differing in form and capacity; and simi-
lar reasoning applies to other places and succeeding times,
Conditions of existence change, gradually introducing a
state of things incompatible with the continuance of an
extant race, the extinction of which liberates the complex
elements that embodied their life, to mingle and unite with
other elements in other combinations for the inchoation of
yet other races.

35. It may be proper here to inquire into the physical
origin of the function or phenomenon of periodicity, which
is found to prevail throughout the universe. As Nature
abhors a vacuum, there always existed a necessity for more
worlds than one, indeed for an infinity of worlds. In its
progress towards infinite expansion, any one would find its

- limit in the encountering expansions of neighboring world-

forces. From this limit, a return towards the central origin

312 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 7

follows from reaction: an advancing wave returns upon
itself, resuscitates the central power, and minor internal
oscillations ensue, gradually subsiding into an orderly sys-
tem of wheels within wheels or orbs within orbs, to what
extent is left for observers to find; but all must be periodi-
cal, because we cannot transcend the charmed circle mark-
ed out by destiny or escape from the cosmical enceinte, and
yet perpetual ever-renewing action must pursue its course
across the eons. The suns of the universe are the central
nodes of spheriform waves, the shores or borders of which
are the limiting nodal surfaces. Within each great system,
each planet, etc. isa nodal centre, and emanates its own
nodal surface, movable and shifting as its own position, but
all according to the balance of forces. Every thing is both
means and end (Kant).

Now to make application to an example of a vital sphere:
the ventral seed of a plant springs up from the soil with
the opening season, puts forth its growing strength, reaches
its nodal boundary at the harvesting or fruiting time, and
then retires before the encroaching cold towards its paren-
tal home of earth, or else hybernates in its place, to repeat
the like round again and again with the periodical return
of congenial spring. )

But here the parallelism diverges, and opens into a wider
view. While the great cosmos looked to its Creator alone
for its origin, our little secondarily created cosmos (the |
tree) strews the surrounding country with the germ-seeds
of many new worlds of its own kind; germ-seeds or fruits,
the economy of whose production forms still an arc in the
circle of periodicity. The mounting activity of the growing
plant for a time overpowers the influence of the diverging
forces; but at length the latter acquire the mastery, and
buds are diverted from uprightness and developed branch-
wise. Reaching the nodal impassable boundary, the forces
of the terminal buds are ruled by the surrounding horizon-

|
|

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 318

tal pressure towards the central style, in the order of in-
creasing refinement, calyx and corolla, or sepals, petals,
and stamens carrying in their anthers the highest physical
resultant of the organization peculiar to the species. From
this elevation, descent or withering death becomes inevita-
ble. The intimated central direction allures the freed pollen
from the anther towards the stigma, to seekgts nourishing
home in the heart of the ovarium, there to slumber await-
ing the call to its resurrection, and there to strengthen
itself for entrance upon a new period of activity. And here
is our first conclusion educed from this characteristic form
of transition. The ovary is a central growth : in all cases, a
central growth stands as complementary to its surrounding
or circumferential growths, as negative to positive, as femi-
nine to masculine; and so offers a conception of the neces-
sary origination of the function of sexuality, of the neces-
sary cooperation of male with female im the inchoation of
a new life.

In the economy of Nature, the duty of the vegetable is
performed by collecting the simple elements, hydrogen,
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, from the earth, water and air, .
and combine them into nutrient compounds by the aid of

the sun’s quickening influences, as essential requisites for

the sustenance of animal life; by the partakers of which
they are utilized, and subsequently restored to their origin
among the terrestrial elements (Dumas, MoLEscHort).

36. In the vegetable process, the root performs the duty
of the galvanic battery. The earth supplies the rootlets with

_ water containing mineral substances in solution: transfer

of this fluid takes place through the tubes and pores of the

stem, and makes its way to the higher extremities, where

the action of the «rial medium, combined with that of the

solar and other forces, provokes the reaction which results

in the production of buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit and

seeds. Just as in the analogy of the electric machine, the
Trans. vit. | 40

314 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

earth feeds the root (the cushion or excitor), the stem stands
as the conductor, the bark as isolator; and when the ma-
chine is timely charged, in place of sparks, it casts off
flowers and seeds. During all this process, fluid substance
is constantly arriving at the upper terminus of the plant,
a continuous action goes on between it and the exterior
medium, resulting in the separation of an element of the
vegetable and its combination with an element of the me-
dium, and a reactive combination of another element of
the medium with one of the plant: oxygen leaves the
plant and mingles with the nitrogen of the atmosphere,
_ while the change is returned in carbonic acid exhaled from
the ceaseless combustive processes of animal life, the fuel
of which consists of the fruit and esculent portions of the
vegetable crop (Balance of nature, Circle of life).

The operation of transmission by decomposition fur-
nishes a conceptioneof the mode of transition from the fthor-
ganic to the organic portion of the tenants of the natural
world. In the male germ and female egg of a plant, or of
an animal, the energy of combination is high, and about
_ equal, with a slight difference in time (one phase) in favor
of the masculine or positive element. The egg or negative
element is the pabulum on which the germ feeds during
the initial stage of growth. The two component energies
combine in chemical fashion into a resultant of increasing
strength; a part of the mass, from which the superfluous
energy has been expended in effecting the combination, is de-
posited as caput mortuum ; the strengthened resultant energy
demands and appropriates more food in manner similar to
the first step of action; a gradual increase of mass, or growth,
ensues in time, which persists until reaching a maximum,
when growth ceases, and the superfluous energy is turned
to the planting of new germs, etc. for posterity. As the
race of life is nothing else than the prolonged action of a
propagated force developing itself in a resist ing medium,

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 315

the food which it encounters and devours, it follows that,
like a projectile from the mouth of the cannon, which is
gradually overcome in its ascending course by the resist-
ance of the air and the attraction of gravity, and finally
falls to the level from which it rose; so the vital germ, be
it of animal or vegetable origin, when projected into its
proper congenial reactive medium, pursues a rising trajec-
tory until the active force of the leading component is worn
down to an equality with the reactive component force
furnished by the resisting medium, food, water, air, etc.; a
level course then ensues for a time, until reaction prevails
over action, the energy of combination is reduced, the tra-
jectory bends downwards, the positive and negative phases
approach to coincidence in time, and finally meet in equi-
librium (a caput mortuum). Like a chemical operation
resulting in the deposit of a neutral (quiescent) precipitate,
so the prolonged chemico-vital operation finally closes its
bodily career by depositing its quota of shells, bones, etc.

Before communion, the germ A and egg A’ (fig. 50) are
in equilibrium with their surrounding media. Arriving in
contact, the intervening medium is displaced, the atoms a
and a’ encounter and a new state of equilibrium is formed
by combination or interfusion of substance (which is force),
thus constituting a resultant or tertium quid ; which resultant
substance unites with either A or A’, as determining the
progeny to be male or female. In the former determina-
tion, A enlarges or grows and A’ correspondingly dimi-
nishes, as indicated by the figures B and B’; and of course
in the latter determination, it is A’ that enlarges while A
diminishes. In the second condition B and B’, the same
kind of composition takes place, with successive repetitions
until the entire original mass of A and A’ are united in one
individual body (the embryo), which continues its growth
till reaching a bulk C = A + A’, when the increasing dis-
tention bursts the enclosing shell, and a new medium is
entered upon.

316 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

When the atoms a and a’ encounter, there is of course a
reverse reaction of each force through the respective dia-
meters of the spheres to o and 0’, where, meeting no new
medial force, these atoms are left to equilibrate themselves,
and thus detach in the form of secretions, excretions, or
other exuvie.

In the completed animal system, the machine must feed
itself, and therefore must be provided with powers and
means to accomplish that object. The simplest form of
organism requires at least two organs; one to collect, and
another to digest the food which is to sustain the vital pro-
cess. The vegetative trajectory consists of a single general
circuit, from the earth to the atmosphere and return, the
ports of entry and departure, the anode and cathode of the
traversing forces. But in all except the very lower forms of
animal life, and where the boundaries of animal and vege-
tal are indistinguishable, not less than two general circuits
are required. The first is composed of the digestive organs,
the stomach and bowels (analogue of the galvanic jar),
which forward the ecncocted substantial force in the liquid.
form of chyle, through the lacteal tubes (conductors), to the
receiver, the left division of heart (analogue of the leyden
jar), which pulsatively discharges and distributes the same,
mixed with the blood returned from the lungs, to all parts,
of course including the digestive organs whence it started,
for the renovation of the expenditure of the system : this is
the first general circuit. At the spheriform bounds of this
distribution, the nutrient sanguiferous fluid parts with such
of its elements as suit with the affinities of each particular
organ, and the remainder is taken up by the veins and lym-
phatic vessels and carried to the right division of the
double heart of the mammalian, whence it is pulsatively
- propelled to the lungs, there to meet the atmospheric éle-
ments, and exchange its rejected carbon for the superfluous
oxygen eliminated by its vegetal neighbor: thus qualified,

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 317

the ventilated blood is restored to the left division of the
heart, for renewed distribution in the course previously
detailed; and this constitutes a second general cireuit.
Minor subsidiary circuits are deferred for consideration in
another place, with one important exception. The internal
carotid arteries supply the brain with the sanguiferous
fiuid, the refuse portions of which is returned whence it
came by the internal jugular veins. Like the galvanic ap-
paratus, the cerebrum eliminates nervous force from the
fluids it receives; in which operation, the grey and the

white portions of the substance take the task respectively

of the zinc and copper of the galvanic jar. When brought
into energetic action by sensational disturbance transmitted
from the thalamus and associated centres of the sensations
received from without, the resultant force evolved by cere-
bral decomposition is collected on the cerebellum as re-
ceiver (or prime conductor), whence its direction in the
efferent nerves is determined by the message coming on
the afferent nerves to the central sensorium, so as to ini-
tiate muscular reaction upon the circumferential points —
where the disturbance commenced. But in a state of com-
parative calm, the action may be merely sufficient to keep
up the play of attention to the passing sensuous impres-
sions. A muscle grasps and relaxes, the heart and arteries
contract to expel and expand to receive, the digestive organs
turn and return in peristaltic movement, etc.; all these are
alternations of exertion and repose, of labor and rest, waves
in which the oscillations are ceaseless in life but short in

periods of time. The organs of sensation and thought also

have their periods of alternate labor and repose, dictated
normally by the presence and withdrawal of the light of
day. The successive vibratory periods of sensorial thought
in dreams sometimes approach the state of continuity ;
while in wakeful moments, thought, when under the com-
mand of volition, may be prolonged to a much larger than

318 LKesearches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations,

the average phase. This circuit forms the telegraph of the
animal cosmos, communicating signals and calls of duty to
the disturbed stations (CABANISs).

3o7. When a volume of water is placed between the two
poles of an electrical machine or galvanic battery, the
atoms of water on the intervening line are successively de-
composed into hydrogen and oxygen in the order of direc-
tion from the positive to the negative pole, but are succes-
sively instantaneously recomposed into the original com-
pound hydric oxide. Suppose the water replaced by an
isomeric fluid, the decomposed atoms could be recom-
pounded in different multiple proportions, while transmit-
ting the electric current as before. Thus would be formed
a line of atoms possessing a new quality; and as the amount
of transmitted force is neither increased nor diminished,
the process, once started by any means electrical or chemi-
cal, would persist to the terminal border of the medium
operated in. The process itself prevails abundantly in
chemical and vital physics, In its simplest or linear form, it
is instanced in the formation of branching crystals; the
propagation of vegetal or animal cells into a threadlike
fibre or capillary tube, or even into a thin membrane, all
of which arise from the adaptation of cells to a new form
under the influence of pressure and expansion, etc. But
when the atomical decompositions are not held to a polar
direction, the incipient propagation extends into general
space throughout the invaded medium, as in the accretion
of regular crystals, the progress of fermentation, the spread
of cryptogamic growths, etc. etc. In the operation, the ele-
mentary atomic forces are recompounded in different pro-
portion, then settle in a newly arranged equilibrium, and
quiet reigns as before.

38. In the arrangement of the galvanic circle, the jars
all contain the same kinds of fluid and metallic elements,
and each vessel adds its own effect to the common stock of

Researches mn the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 319

eliminated force, the product of the operation being of the
same quality throughout the circle of cells. But if the
series of jars were supplied each with a different fluid com-
pound, the results of the operation would differ from jar to
jar; and as different compounds possess different shades of
intensity (or quantity and quality) of force, the finally
eliminated force would necessarily hold a corresponding
modification derived from each separate constituent of the
medium through which it passed. Hach vessel of the cir-
cuit is an initiator of chemical action, and consequently
increases by so much the amount of eliminated force. Sub-
stitute a continuous medium of variable substance for the
disconnected media enclosed in the jars, and apply the
galvanic torch: we prefigure a process of de- and re-com-
position in which there is a concomitant growth of force
and substance, arising out of the transformation of a varying
compound, and therefore possessing different qualities in
different portions of its extension. The force acquires its
unity of quantity and variety of quality, and the variable
reactive media have been incorporated into an organized
being.
In the elimination:of force from a compound fluid mole-
cule, for example, by the decomposition of water in the
galvanic jar (fig. 41), each atom of water is regarded as a
case of equilibrium between a semiatomic hydrogen and a
-semiatomic oxygen force. In the first (infinitesimal) semi-
unit of time of the operation, the advancing semiatomic
force of the atom 6 of zinc attacks and destroys the semi-
atomic oxygen force of the atom of water a, liberating at
the same time both the semiatomic hydrogen force of
the same atom and the complementary semiatomic force
of the atom of zinc; the former.of which takes its depar-
ture as positive force on the perfect (copper) conductor e,
while the latter plods its slower path as negative force on
the imperfect (zinc) conductor z. In the second semiunit

320 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

of time, the destroyed and eliminated semiatomic forces
are replaced by the immanent genetic powers inherent to
the substantial water and zine: oxide of zinc is formed and
deposited on one side, and hydrogen is liberated on the
other, while the amount of water and zinc are each reduced
by an atom. Each succeeding infinitesimal unit of time
witnesses a repetition of the like operations, until the mate-
rial is exhausted or the system clogged by the accumulat-
ing debris. 3

The union of two semiatomic forces into an atom is thus
effected. The semiatomics, when entering into action
(fig. 42), each take on the spherical form (a, a’), and pull
outwards from the centre: those forces directed towards
each other meet and destroy themselves at the junction of
the diameters, while their mutual oppositely directed
equals pull the outer hemispheres into coalescence.

When several elements are offered at once for decompo-
sition, as in the case of the food introduced into the stomach
for digestion, consisting mainly of the four elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (C H O N), yet further mingled
with the salivary and gastric secretions, there arrives a
double recomposition, separating the proteide compounds
from the useless portions: of the ingesta; both of which
substances are carricd onwards (recollect the demonstra-
tion of the production of motion) by the abundant supply
of force eliminated from such rich materials, the former »
towards the ultimate points of their utilization, the latter
to the point of expulsion from the system. Other substances,
chalk, salt, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, in small proportions,
must yet have access to the digestive organs, and submit,
along with the essential constituent protein, to the chylo-
poietic operations of the intestinal canal. Strained through
the lieberkuhn follicles and mesenteric glands, this com-
post takes the form of chyle (milk), passes on in the lac-
teal tubes, and reaches the cavities of the heart, mingles

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 321

with and finally becomes converted into blood by an ex-
treme complex mixtion and mixt concoction. Arrived at
the surface or limit of its advancing course, the sangui-
ferous fluid enters the capillary vessels or the glandular
pouches, whereabouts it achieves its most essential trans-
formation and the turning point of its course. The forces
of the incoming liquid substance decompose the solid sub-
stance found i loco, replace it in outline and in essence
with freshly elaborated matter, and eliminate a negative
portion in the form of excreta, with force suflicient to con-
tinue operations. For instance, if the cutaneous surface be
the limit reached by a particular channel, the finished com-
pounds rejected are the cuticular membrane, the old one
dropping off in scales; the hairs (or scales or feathers
horns, teeth, etc.), which are shed or worn off; and thé
sudoriferous exhalations. In all parts of the system, such
final rebuilding de- and re-compositions go on incessantly,
with expulsion more or less directly of matters effete for
the present purposé; and this is the process of, life
(Huxey, &c.).

39. The broad distinction in chemical process between
crystallization and vivification lies in the difference of re-
sultants due to the combination of atomic forces of equal
degrees, compared to those arising from atomic forces of
unequal degrees of energy; the former resultants being
statical, the latter dynamical. Where the atomic energies
are equal, the resulting compound isa neutral, in stable
equilibrium, in the form of crystalline deposit for instance.
But when the energies are unequal, a part only of the
higher atomic forces unite with the lower in equilibrium,
the balance remaining disposable for further action.

A force of the n™ degree generates force of the (n—1)™
degree, which generates force of the (n—2)" degree, and
so on down to the force of the (n—n)" = 0" degree, which
is the phenomenal result due to the exhaustion of the force

Trans. viv. | | 41

322 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

of the (n—n+1)* or first degree by an equal opposing
force, terminating in equilibrium or annihilation. A single
impulsion is a force of the first degree. A periodical suc-
cession of equal impulses is given by a force of the second
degree, and such is the rank of force employed to produce
either frictional or voltaic electricity. The heat arising from
a uniform rate of combustion isa force of the second de-
gree, requiring to be uniformly supplied with fuel by a
force of the third degree, and causing the production of a
uniform phenomenal effect by its reduction to the rank of
first degree (the generation of steam, which terminates in
uniform motion); butif the heat accumulates from confine-
ment, or from augmented combustion, it becomes itself a
force of the third degree, and its effect increases in higher
terms than linear or simple ratio (law of MartoTrTe).

In the production of motion, if a series of balls be each
struck by one impulsion, the resulting motions are all uni-
form; but when an equal series of impulsions are applied
to one same ball, the resulting motion is accelerated, as
the velocity has accumulated. Suppose a series of atwood
machines arranged at the edge of a shelf placed at a given
height above the earth’s level, along which are laid as
many balls ready to be turned off. On reaching the till of
the machine, each ball will thence move uniformly during
the rest of its descent. But without such machine, a single
ball would receive from the gravitating force as many suc-
cessive equal impulsions as were given to the whole series
in the former case, and the movement is accelerated, the
accumulated velocity in the latter being equal to the sum
of the velocities in the former case. A uniform movement
may therefore be always regarded as the result of a single
application of a force of the second degree.

In the conversion of water into steam, a number of suc-
cessive impulses of heat are consumed in transforming the
atomic forces from the liquid to the gaseous form (fig. 44),

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 323

in raising the temperature from 32° to 212°F., at which
latter point the formation of steam efficiently begins. After
this instant of time in the process, each successive incre-
ment of heat instantaneously generates its equivalent of
steam, and the temperature of the water rises no higher
‘than 212° (fig. 7). When the steam is applied to move its
incumbent load, it must, in a first instant of time, over-
come a resistance which is measured by a radius propor-
tional to the weight of the load, and directed towards the
mover: this accomplished, the opposing radius starts the
load; and all that is subsequently wanted, is merely a suf-
ficient continuous application of moving force to overcome
the friction of the machinery and track. The fire which
generated the steam isa force of the third degree; the
steam which generates the movement of the load, is a force
of the second degree; the movement itself is of the first
degree.

An organical body is a being composed of different
members (generally matched in pairs), differing in func-
tion, but all contributing to a concordant operation, and
therefore coordinated under one controlling dominant force.
Each of these members (or pair of members) constitutes a
separate system, entangled with the other systems, all
subordinated to the head governing system. Each subordi-
nate system possesses its own peculiar constituents of solid
and fluid substance (like as the plant), its reservoirs of
force, and also a common element (nervous substance) hold-
ing communication with the associated subordinate sys-
tems and with the supreme directorship.

40. In reviewing the successive steps of transition from
the production of simple motion, to the present complicated
predicament of our affairs, we recall the first form of ope-
ration as consisting in the application of a single force toa
body placed in a movable condition, which has served as
the unique type of all the more complex operations subse-

324 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

quently discussed : a dextrally directed force inherent in a
patient is destroyed by a single impulsion inflicted by an
agent, which wnequilibrates (not liberates) an equal sinistral
force which holds and moves the patient. 2° When the
patient (or body) is immovable, forcible and repeated ims
pulses liberate successive forces (in form of spherical atoms
of free force), which take their departure, leaving the
patient or mass behind (emanation or radiation of calorific
force, heat). 3° When the immovable patient of operation is
submitted to a succession of feeble impulses (as in the elec-
tric or galvanic apparatus, by friction or chemical affinity),
a quantity of split or semiatomical complementary hemi-
spherical forces are unequilibrated in mutual opposition,
which consequently do not tend to move the mass out of
which they were elicited, but may be peeled from adhesion
in the form of a scale, giving instantaneous vibration as
the electric spark.

4° In the vital machine, a higher polidstes of operation
has place. The living animal forms a separated world of
machinery, a microcosmical system of tubes and glands
(streams and mills), divided into compartments by sheeted
membranous walls and connected by nervous cords acting
as signal wires(Pauzy). The stomach is the basal or funda-
mental gland of the system, having the mouth and e@so-
phagus for its port and canal of entry, the intestines and
anus for canal and port of egress. The hands (antennz) con-
voy articles of food to the mouth, where it is masticated and
salivated, and then sent to the stomach to be there mixed
with the gastric secretion and converted into chyme. In
this part of the course, the forceselicited by the contact of
the food with the lining membranes of the tube of passage
is reactively expended in forwarding the compost; while
in the stomach itself, the forces there elicited are further’
engaged in combining the introduced matters directly into
chyme without double decomposition, so that so far there

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 325

is called forth.no unequilibrated force. In the duodenum,
the entering chyme is met by the hepatic, pancreatic, and
splenetic secretions, and double decomposition now ensues
in the mixture, originating two new compounds, one of
which is of the second degree of equilibrated force, and
therefore susceptible of further decomposition; while*the
other is of the first degree only, and consequently is a caput
mortuum with respect to use in the present system. The
unequilibrated force elicited by this double decomposition
stands, in relation to the semifluid substance in its grasp,
exactly as the unequilibrated force of the solid body to its
mass in the production of motion by impact. Consequently
the immediate result here should be similar: the fluid com-
post is movable, and its advance in the tube is necessitated
by the traction of the force. The decomposing process con-
tinues during the passage of the substance along the bowels,
with similar disposition of the forces thus elicited ; while
the forces elicited by the stimulus of the pabulum touching
the coats of the tube are reactively expended in forcing the
nutritive element into the mouths of the lacteals, whence
it is conducted to the heart, there mixed with the sangui-
ferous fluid, and thence distributed everywhere for the
renovation of the tissues of the whole system : to the lungs,
for the conversion of the venous or impure blood into arte-
rial or pure blood; to the surface, to individualize and pro-
tect the system against externalities; to the organs of sense,
nose, palate, eye and ear, to detect the presence of erial
and liquid matters, and of vibrations in the air and subtle
ether; to the kidneys, for the depuration of the blood by
the separation and dismissal of the effete matter, resulting
from successive de- and re-compositions; to the genitals,
to make preparation for posterity; to the liver and pancreas

*and spleen, for the combined purpose of instituting decom-

position in the intestinal canal ; to the limbs, for the exer-
cise of leverage in moving the body; to the spinal and

326 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

cranial brains and the sensational centres, for the elimina-
tion of the coordinating forces of the system, the cogni-
zance of sensation and the evolution of thought; and lastly
to the fundamental digestive organs themselves, thus com-
pleting a ceaseless round of circulating movement so long
as the stomach retains its normal vitality and is conscien-
tiously fed from without. ,

The present may serve as an outline exemplification of
the circuit of operations of one of these subordinate systems
or organical members of an animal body (fig. 48). B is the
digester containing food of the second degree of composi-
tion. The digester, charged with force brought by the con-
ductor s’ from the reservoir A, furnishes a new component
which converts the mass into compost of the third degree
of composition. In this condition it is propelled through the
tube r to the organ C on the surface or limit of the circuit.
The substance of the organ is decomposed by the newly
arrived compound, and the organ is recomposed anew. The
force liberated by the act of decomposition is partly ex-
pended in expelling the matter rejected as exuvie in form-
ing the new compound, and the remainder is transmitted
through the conductor s to the reservoir A, to reinforce
and keep up the supply sent from A to B. Here B isa
stomach, ra duct, Ca gland, san afferent nerve, A a gan-
glion, and s’ an efferent nerve. |

Commencing at the duodenal extremity of the digestive
canal, the chyme entering from the stomach suffers double
decomposition into chyle and fecal matter. The force liber-
ated by each successive impulse between the chymous and
bilious semifluids suffices to forward the movement of the
two resultants of the decomposition, and is quickened by
the pressure of the advancing material from the stomach;
while, as in other cases abundantly quoted, each successive *
decomposition is immediately followed by the restitution of
the immanent equilibrating forces (conservation of vis viva).

Lesearches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 327

Throughout the entire living body, the process of life is
carried on by this continuous operation of double decom-
position. The blood is decomposed, one moiety goes to
furnish the molecules of muscle, of gland, of nerve, of brain;
the other moiety to yield the fixtures membrane (or tissue)
and bone. Again muscle, nerve and brain are decomposed,
one moiety to furnish motion, sensation and reflection; the
other moiety serves to forward the expulsion of the useless
resultant, to make room for the reception of fresh fuel
(BicHat, and successors).

The chemical difference between forces of different de-
grees consists generally in their comparative facility of de-
composition, arising from greater complexity of combination
of elements in the higher degrees; the higher the degree
of complexity, the greater the facility of decomposition and
recomposition possessed by a substance, and the higher
the degree in which it stands in relation to a substance of |
less complexity. Thus blood = C* H® N® O¥ and albumen
=C™ H'” N* 0” S$? are both highly complex substances
of great facility of decomposition, and susceptible to furnish
a great number of inferior simpler compounds of less faci-
lity; in both which qualities, the latter compound surpasses
the former one. .

41. “ The Harth is a magnet;” a condition resulting from
the composition of radiating with rotating forces. Every
molecule within, upon and around our planet is permeated
with this compound force in its antagonizing condition of
positive and negative electro-magnetism. Beginning with
the metallic elements, the atoms of iron are endowed with
the strongest rotative relative to their radiative force; and
from this point a series of simple and compound elements
may be arranged, descending in degrees of magnetic
energy down to zero, in which the centrifugal force of the
atom just balances its radiative or attractive force: thence
the series is continued by the over-balancing of the radia-

328 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

tive or linear force against the rotative, which reaches its
maximum effect in the metal bismuth (TynDALL, BecquEREL).

In the ages subsequent to the chemical combustion of
the elements whose ashes or residua constitute the present
crust of the earth, and while the subsidence of its superfi-
cial temperature became such as to allow the deposit of
successive layers of semifluid substances of various degrees
of consistence upon the bottoms of seas, lakes and rivers,
the kind of matter recently named. bathybius could have its
inchoation. Just as each material element could only reach
its solid state at the fitting temperature, so this bathybian
substance must wait its turn in the cooling process; and as
there were many different kinds of the former substances,
so there would doubtless occur many different layers of
bathybius possessing different capabilities of change. In-
fluenced by the varying terrestrial warmth, and acted upon
by the heat of the sun in shallow marine, lacustrine and
fluviatile borders, it is conceivable that the susceptible kind
of compound substance in question could be quickened into
oscillating activity, of a species peculiar to each particular
stratum and the condition of time and place afforded. An
indefinite variety of races could thus be contemporaneously
engendered, and subsequently and successively followed by
yet other indefinite numbers, evolved from deeper layers
under an improving climate. In this manner we may sup-
pose that vital substance or protoplasm (BEALE) was first
formed. Cell-development is the first step in the ensuing
series of operations. As the electro-magnetic force is in-
herent to every atom as well as to the entire mass, a line or
congeries of a few such cells will take a positive and nega-
tive or polar termination, imaged in the form of a liquid
solenoid or magnet, which, like the solenoid or magnet,
will have its neutral centre; and as the particles of a liquid
or semifiuid are readily separable, we have the formation
of a positive and a negative polar pair, of the head of a male >

Researches in the Theory and Caleulus of Operations. 329

and of a female individual germ, which must be left to hatch
in the genial oceanic womb of early-teeming Nature; as do
yet, in the warmth of the sun, the eggs of the ostrich and of
countless broods of the lower organisms.

The hypothesis of the origin of sex fromthe division of
a plastic magnet, and of the necessity of the principle of
sexuality for the efficient perpetuation of a unique race of
beings, finds its highest speaking illustration in the com-
parison of creatures whose body partakes of a cylindrical
shape. The feet constituted the place of section of the pri-
mitive egg (See Piato in Symposion), and in order to bring
forth the full power of our living magnet, the positive and
negative poles must be turned half-round and brought into
proximity like the poles of the horseshoe magnet; in which
situation, new magnets are formed by means of the double
touch (Roget, &c.). ‘ , |

The normal form of development is spherical, but this is
incontinently diverted into polar forms by the interference
of various external forces. All vital existences, of whatever
shape, arise from the combination of polar with spherical
action. In the vegetal division of life, the polar develop- .
ment prevails in the universally cylindrical form of trees
and plants; while in the animal creation, the polar projec-
tions, though multifarious in direction and adaptation, are
subordinate to the basal spherical form of growth. The
simplest and most general form of vitality appears among
the protozoa, the sarcode or mucilaginous jelly-like sub-
stance of which is susceptible indifferently to take on
various vital functions without any special organs, diges-
tive or locomotive (Von Barr). In the amcebeans, forami-
nifers and sponges, the surrounding fluid medium itself
serves as a stomach to the animal, from which it directly
draws its nutriment. In the next step of higher develop-
ment, a membranous sac or ectoderm is formed by the ac-
tion and reaction between the vital protoplasm and the in-

Trans. vit] 42

330 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. —

“cumbent medium (the hydrozoa), in which the entire ani-
mal is little more than stomach, with yet very defective
organs of locomotion. The next class in development brings
the radiates and annulates; in the former of which, the
actinozoa and corals, both radial and .cylindrical develop-
ment take place in a variety of forms; while in the annu-
lates, the crustacea and insects, the cylindrical action pre-
dominates. Like the formation of physical atoms in a line
by chemical combination, so vital longitudinal develop-
ment forms itself into segments in its course, attached it
may be as in the worm, insect or parasite, or even finally
detached as in the aphides, the ant, the bee, etc. In another
class, the mollusca, the relation between the radiating force
and that of the resisting medium is such as to produce a
high degree of desmoid action, resulting in the formation
of a hard shell or coating to protect a body of very soft con-
sistence; through which covering no polar protrusion can
occur, and of course no locomotive organs can appear until
some modification happens between the dorsal and ventral |
valves, as will be seen by comparing the lamellibranchiates
with the gasteropodes.

Leaving aside the protozoades and celenterates, all the
remaining and higher classes of animals are endowed with
digestive, locomotive, and perceptive organs and powers.
The protoplasmic substance out of which all primordial life
originated, was formed by admixture and deposit of ele-
ments at the bottoms of ocean waters. These waters and
their contents are permeated with atmospheric air and
other gaseous substances, with the solar radiations of heat
and light, and with the circulating electro-magnetic cur-
rents constantly evolved from the revolving and rotating
earth by the sun’s action. The vital protoplasm was there-
fore the combined resultant of the chemic, calorific, lumi-
nific, and elective forces of the cosmos, and thus compe-
tent to enter into conspiration with encountering homoge-

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 331

neous outside forces in the production of organs of equili-
bration and movement. The first encounter of spherical
development with the external fluid medium gives rise to
the formation of membrane, skin, cutis, ectoderm, serving
~as the limit of the individual in space. This membrane is a
consolidated force, acting without and within; in the outer
direction, producing shells, scales, cuticle, hairs, feathers,
etc. in response to changes of external temperature ; while
the interiorly directed action forms directly a living mem-
brane or endoderm, which multiplies itself in various adap-
tations tothe traversing electro-chemical forces encountered.

To create a living body, the three states of matter, liquid,
gaseous, and solid, must come in requisition. A portion of
solid suspended in fluid must be supplied as food, to be
deposited in that particular form which constitutes the
living body in question; and this deposition arises from
encounter of the liquid with the gaseous molecules in the
course of circulation. In the very lowest forms of life, this
meeting of liquid and gaseous elements happens directly
through the surface skin ; while in the highér forms there
is a mouth and stomach for the introduction and digestion
of the fluid and solid elements, and gills or lungs for the
transmission of their gaseous complements. The chyliferous
vessels originate from the cylindric pressure of the little
capillary streams of the fluid as they spurt through the
intestinal membranous pores, and meet the reaction of the
surrounding substance in their course. As circumferential
gatherings necessarily tend to a centre, the lacteals reach |
the reservoir termed a heart, which, as iticannot hold more
than its full, is compelled by the stimulus of distension to
contract by pulsation, and thus send its contents in circum-
ferential directions, supplying everywhere the material for
decomposition, renovation and expulsion; and thus is the
circulatory system established (DRAPER).

332 Researches in the Theory and Caleulus of Operations.

The terrestrial magnetic forces are in constant circula-
tion through the magnetic meridians traversing the super-
ficies of the earth, waters and atmosphere, and the bodies —
organized or inorganized therein existing. This electro-
magnetic movement is in all cases circuitous: circuitous
about the globe of the earth; circuitous around the artifi-
cial magnet, and circuitous within the living body which
we are presently inquiring into. Cotemporaneously in
advance and surrounding the nutrient circuit just indicated
(the mucous layer), the coursing magnetic forces concen-
trate in the endoderm (serous layer) a nucleus with its
nucleolus (germinal vesicle with its spot), at a point deter-
mining the head or coronal extremity of the incipient em-
bryo, the positive pole, correlating with the pedal or rather
the pelvic extremity as negative pole of the system. The
coronal pole developes into the brain, the conservator and
director of the life of the present individual; the pelvic
pole eventuates in the genital organs, the initiator of the
life of the future individual. The two poles communicate
through formation of the spinal chord; while the function
of the cerebrum consists in evolving nervous force from
the nutrient fluids brought to it by the sanguineous circu-
lation. From the brain as a polar central generator of force,
when acted upon by sensational or other disturbances from
without, currents of liberated force (nervous force) would
be incontinently sent forth in circumferential directions.
These capillary currents would coat themselves by resisting
the action of the medium they traverse, as in the case of
the tubes of the sanguiferous circulation; and as an ad-
vance always necessitates a return, so as the advancing
arteries antecede the returning veins in the sanguiferous
system, do the efferent nerves necessitate the actuality of
the complementary afferent nerves of the sentient system
(Hauu, Brit).

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 333

The main features of the internal economy of the animal
system being assured by the establishment of the nutrient
and sentient schemes, it only remains shortly to say that
with respectively responding internal forces of the indi-
vidual body, external homogeneous forces will unite in
forming their appropriate nodal membranous boundary.
The external aural vibrations encounter the similar force
existent as a component within the sensitive body con-
sidered, and: the result finally appears in the shaping of
nascent tissues into the complicated but harmonious organs
of hearing (anglice the ear), with its drum (tympanum) and
mallet, its piano-like scale as keyboard with cortian fibres
as keys and nerves as vibrating musical strings (HuxuEzy).
Similarly the force imprinted by light is one of the com-
ponent forces of the living body; with which, the conspi-
ration of the external luminiferous forces necessarily tend
to the formation of a status of equilibrated or harmonious
action; whence the conversion of nascent tissue into the
organ of seeing (anglice the eye), with its pupil and lens, its
rods and cones, etc. The application of similar reasoning to
show the creation of the organ of smelling is too easy to
detain us.

Spontaneous generation was possible once, and but once,
in the creation of the progenitor of a particular race or
species of creatures. The cooperation or conspiration of
internal and external forces first settled into the construc-
tion or genesis of a particular form of individual activity,
the highest physical achievement of which activity culmi-
nated in the concentration of all its component forces in
the form of a quasi-molecular or atomic germ, egg or seed
(Prevost, Draper, Agassiz). In the primitive womb of
Nature, masculinity and femininity were formed by mag-
netic subdivision of positive and negative polarity as here-
tofore stated; and in all after genesis, where sexuality ex-

334 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

ists, it results from a magneto-polar division of the pollen
grains of the male organ in vegetal life, of the ova in the
ovarium of the female in animal life.

The phenomenon of parthenogenesis in the bee, the
aphis, etc. is explained, in the second case, by the conside-
ration that the development of the parent individual aphis
takes place in form of a linear succession of joints evolving
from each other separately, the entire train of the develop-
ment closing when the temperature or other circumstances
of external reaction become of strength such as to bring it
to concentration in the production of germs. The analogy
with the tapeworm, etc. is patent; the difference being that
here the joints remain attached, while yet the germs only
appear at the distal extremity of the chain. In the case of
the bee, ant, etc., the development is not linear, but in any
or all directions, and sexuality is procured by peculiar die-
tary process instinctive to the species.

42. The total amount of free and combined oxygen at
present existing and necessary for the continuance of ve-
getal and animal life on the entire superficies of the globe
of the earth has been approximatively calculated. Were
this amount suddenly withdrawn from its combinations and
mixtures, and, together with all the other elements which
go to make up the complementary portion of the mass of
living beings, removed and placed in eonditions of tempe-
~ rature similar to those in which the various forms of incu-
bation do actually occur at the present time, it is obvious
that while existing life is annihilated, there is here provided
fair conditions for its resurrection. [The eggs of the ostrich
are hatched by the Sun, and chickens by other warmth
than that communicated by the parent bird.] In a medium
constituted as above imagined, and located in a genial clime
(the Punjaub or the Garden of Eden), the rays of the Sun
would awaken the latent affinities of particles of the medium :

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 335

which thereupon take up a new arrangement, soon to be
changed by the accumulating effects and varying action of
the Sun in its movement, and by the different reactions of
successively encountered forces of surrounding media.
Every combination and change is identified with movement
in space, an advance from a lower to a higher region, in
the course of which new forms of force are encountered.
“Nursed by warm sunbeams in primeval caves,

“Organic life began beneath the waves.”
ERAsMus Darwin.

Within the pristine element, water, the external forces
to be encountered by the growing atoms are, the still water
itself and air mingled therewith, the former changing in
density according to depth, and changing in temperature
in different regions; the permeating rays of light according
to the season; the resistance opposed to floating motions
by the rocks and shores; the currents and occasional waves,
and the molecular vibrations of the fluids, etc. The possible
developments in water therefore will be, the growth of scales,
shell, or other dermoid tegument, as protection against the
surrounding medium; the formation of gills, by the trans-
fusion of the vital air; the development of eyes, by the
action of the luminous force; the projection of limbs,
broght out by reaction against concussions on rocks, etc.,
or of tins from the pushing of waves; the formation of ears,
initiated by molecular vibration occurring in the surround-
ing fluid. —

Raised from the aqueous to the aerial element and placed
upon terra firma, the changed conditions necessitate a mo-
dified dermoid action to meet the surrounding atmospheric
medium; an enlarged capacity of lung, to entertain a greater
allowance of oxygen; a moré delicate and elaborate de-
velopment of eye, called forth by the greater degree of lu-
ninosity, and of ear, corresponding to the livlier aerial

336 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

vibrations; an improved assortment and arrangement of
limbs, evolved by extended resistances to encounter in
travel; a development of organs of smell and taste, by the
impingement of odoriferous and flavorous substances; of
an organ of voice, provoked by forcible impulsions of at-
mospheric pressure; an organ which becomes refined into
one of articulated speech in the human race, to whom is
yet offered the cooperation of the etherial element in the
creation of the rational soul.

_ Inall cases of action and reaction, the commencing active
force, or agent, may, and in many cases must, be regarded
as positive, and the reactive passive force, or patient, as
negative. In the genesis of a simple cell in a fertile (turbid)
fluid by emanation from a central atom or molecule, the
central force is positive, and the spherical membranous
tissue resulting from reaction of the medium is negative.
Of two encountering forces thus generated, one will be
positive as precedent in time or force; the other, as succe-
dent in time or force, negative. In vegetal fecundation, the
circumferential stamens and anthers constitute the positive
(male) element of the flower, the corresponding negative
(female) element being the central carpels and ovules; while
within the ovary, the pollen is positive or male, the carpels
negative or female. A comparison of these two examples
of contrasted central and circumferential genesis suggest
the hint that in the anthers the pollen grains or cells arise
in pairs mutually positive and negative (male and female),
and subsequently determine the sex of the seeds by impreg-
nation of the ovules, like generating likeness in quality.
While in the females of the animal kingdom, on the con-
trary, the ova in the stroma of the ova arise as positive and
negative (male and female) tells, and remain respectively
of the same sex after impregnation by the male (positive)
sperm in the atoms. The generator, of either sex, is positive

Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations. 337

with respect to its generatant, but holds its individual sex-
uality with respect to other generators. The notion of the
relativeness of postivity and negativity harmonizes with the
graduated scale of chemical elements, beginning with the
most negative element oxygen, and ending with the most
positive element ceesciem. The principle of sexuality thus
introduces itself as a necessary consequence of the principle
of action and reaction, itself again necessary for the produc-
tion of any result or event whatever. Masculinity and femi-
ninity are special forms educed respectively from the gene-
ral forms positivity and negativity, these being here related
as cause and effect. A unitary force generates a dichoto-
mised result, a positive and negative resultant: each re-
sultant, a unitary force in its turn, generates a dichotomised
or positive and negative resultant, and this so long as the
conditions endure.

43. In order to pass from the catastrophistical supposi-
tion above indulged in, to the more probably natural
theory of uniformity, it is necessary to appeal to the gene-
ral admission that in the earlier stages of the formation of
the earth’s crust, while the effective powers of the sun
were greater than at a later period, the surface conditions
were gradually changing in consequence of the decreasing
temperature; which allowed a closer subsidence of the
atmospherical and gaseous strata upon the bosom of the
earth, there to play their part among the other forces of
the heterogeneous medium. While the circumambient me-
dia had been hot and thick with carbonical and aqueous
elements, cryptogamic vegetation and monstrous reptilian
growths enjoyed their flourishing era; and only after the
approach of a clearer and comparatively drier erial medium,
such as to permit the influences of currents of wind and in-
terrupted showers of rain, of moderate alternating changes
of heat and cold, of sonorous vibrations of the air, of daily

Trans. vii. ] 43

838 Researches in the Theory and Calculus of Operations.

alternations of light and darkness, etc. to come into play as
reactive and combining forces with those previously em-
barked and busy in the teeming womb of Nature, could
the more elevated forms of life arise. These species which
would have been arrested in their development but for the
assistance of such new redeeming forces, could now be
advanced higher in the scale of being, and thus a superior
race evolved from an inferior one (DARWIN).

JOHN PATERSON.

INDEX.

Abel, Professor, 102, 103, 104.

Abies Nigra, 191.

Abyssinian War, 88.

Academy, Albany (see Albany Aca-
demy).

Academy of the Fine Arts, in N. Y.
city, 5.

Accidents, generally traceable to
rashness, ignorance or careless-
ness, 101.

Acer dasycarpum, 219.

Adam, 47.

Adare, 122.

Address, Annual, by Orlando Meads,
1-34.

Adirondac Mountains, 184, 192.

Agarics, classification of, 37.

Agaricus, abortivus, 41.

Agaricus, campestris, 39.

Agaricus, genus, 37, 38.

Agassiz, Louis, 46, 132, 333.

Agua diente (whiskey), 164.

Aiken, ——, 176.

Airy, ——, 285.

Alazarine, from madder root, 152.

Albanians, 225.

Albany, 109, 126, 127, 128, 142, 220,
221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227.
Albany Academy, 19, 20, 21, 22, 27.
Albany Gallery of the Fine Arts, 31.

Albany Institute, 1, 15, 26, 32, 218.
proposed building for, 26, 32.
field meetings of, 38.
origin and early importance of, 1.
publications of, 26.

Albany Lyceum of Natural History,
14, 15, 20.

Albany, Munsell’s Annals of, 128.

Albany, report on the water supply
of the city of, 218-227.

Albany Young Men’s Association, 31.

Albert, Prince, (see Prince Albert).

Aldgate, 118.

Alford, Dean, death of, 76.

Alison, A., 87.

Alloys, of mercury, 175.

Aluminum, 173.

Amalgamation, direct, of steel and
cast iron, 181, 182.

Amalgams, 172, 175, 178.

America, 88, 111, 1238.

America, British, 129, 191.

American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, 134, 136,
148.

American capitalists, 160.

sa as Chemist, The, 152, 153,

American Entomologist, etc., 36.

age nas Institute, Transactions of,
176.

American Journal of Science and
Art, 155.

American local histories, 106.

American road, in Tehuantepec, the,
160.

Among My Books, Lowell’s, 83.

Ampere, M_, 289.

Amphibians, 82.

Anabaptists, 111.

Ancient History of the East, Le Nor-
mant’s, 47.

Anderson, Mortimer and, 110.

Anderson’s England, 117.

Aniline colors, increased production
of, 151.

Annalen, Poggendorf’s, 155.

Annals of Albany, Munsell’s, 128.

Anne, Queen, 107.

Anthracine, from alazarine, 152.

Anthropology, progress of, 44.

Apes, anthopoid, in process of ex-
tinction, 58 ; question of the gene-
sis of men from, 58.

Arago, M., 21.

Arcenthobium pusillum, 191.

Archeology, progress of, 45.

Archencephala, 58.

Aregma, 189.

Argentine Republic, 88.

Argyll, Duke of, 46, 47, 56, 57.

Arian controversy, 74.

Aristotle, 245.

Armsberg, 126.

340

Art, alleged barrenness of, during
issued in, | Bleecker reservoir, 221, 224.

1870, 73; books on,

Index.

glycerine, compared, 102.

1870, 82 ; ’ proposed gallery of,in | Bloodgood, Simeon De Witt, 14.

Albany, 30.

Art Thoughts, Jarvis’s, 82.

Artesian Wells, 222.

Ascidians, classification of, 138.

Assaying, methods of, 60, 65.

Atlantic Coast, 158, 170, 171.

Atlantic Ocean, 169.

Atlantic plains, of Tehuantepec, 157,
169.

Atlantic
161.

Atlantic Telegraph, 88.

Atoms, 264, 281,

Atomic theory, 249; truth of, ques-
tioned, 145.

Atomicities, doctrine of, 145, 148.

Augstrém, 210.

Aye-aye, the, 52.

Ayrolles, Secretary, 120.

Aztecs, the ancient, 152, 162, 169.

Bacon, Lord, 148.

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 102.

Barbadoes, 121.

Bard, Samuel, 8.

Barker, Prof. G. W., 282.

Barnard, Daniel D., 24.

Barnstable, 119. ,

Bastian, Dr. H. Chareton, 49, .140.

Bats, 52.

Beale, Professor, 140, 328.

Beck, Dr. Lewis C., 14.

Beck, Dr. Theodoric Romeyn, 18, 14,
18, 20, 21.

Becquerel, ——, 328.

Bediford, 119.

Bell, ——., 382.

Belles Lettres, volumes of, issued in
1870, 83.

Benton’s History of Herkimer Co.,
18

Berkeley, M. J.,37, 188.

Berkeley’s Outlines, etc., 213.

Berks County, 129 ; Rupp’ 8, 123.

Bern, canton of, 123.

Bern, New, 124.

Berzelius, J. J., 178, 174, 188.

Bichat, F. H., 327.

Binney, J. A., 134.

Biot, M., 240.

Black, J., 251.

Black heath, 114, 119.

Black-knot, investigation concern-
ing, 193 ; regarded as of fungoid
origin, 196.

Blasting, by gunpowder and nitro-

slope, of Tehuantepec,

Blowpipe, new method of assaying
by the, described by L. C. Cooley,
60-65.

Boca del Barro, 158.

Bode’s series, 147.

Bodleian Portrait Gallery, 30.

Bohemia, 109.

Boletus, edulis, 39.

Book trade, stagnation of, 78.

Books, as such, estimate, of, 73.

Boscovich, ——, 249.

Botanical Bulletin, 186.

Botanical Club of N. Y. City, 36.

Botanist and Florist, Wood’s, 35.

Botany, growing interest in, 40 ; new
publications on, 35, 438, 186; re-
ports on, by Charles H. Peck, 35-
43, 186-204; synopsis of New
York Uncinulae, by C. H. Peck,
213-217.

Boyle, Mr. Secretary, 113.

Brachiopods, not mollusks, 187.

Braddon, ——, 78.

Brayley’s Middlesea, 121.

Brazil, 88.

Brief historical relation of state
affairs, 118:

Brill, The, near Rotterdam, 114.

Bristol cabbage, 189.

British America, 129, 191.

British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, 39, 90, 139,
145.

British colonies, in America, 108.

British Fungi, 37.

British government, 111; see also
England and Great Britain.
British Museum, 27, 32, 75; origin

and growth of, 27.

British National Gallery, 89.

Brodie, Sir Benjamin, 145, 184.

Brontes, the, 77.

Brougham, Henry, 77.

Brown’s Sketch of ‘Schoharie. 128.

Bryan gallery of old pictures, 30.

Bryant, William C., 77.

Buckland, Dr., 135.

Bulletin, ‘Monthly, (of Botany), 36.

Bulwer, Edward Lytton, 77.

Bunsen, M., 149, 150; 209, 210, 211.

‘| Bunsen’s blow-pipe, ete., 65.

Burgoyne, General , 10.

Burnet, Bishop, 111.

Burnet, Dr., 194, 195.

Burnet’s Own Time, 111, 116, 118.
Bushmen, 57,

Index.

Cabanis, 318.
Cesar, 304.
Caesinum, discovery of, by spectrum
analysis, 209.
Cailettet, M., 176.
Cain, 47.
Calamy’s Life and Times, 120.
California fever, 160.
California Street (San Francisco), 94.
California Sketches, Bret Harte’s, 82.
Caloric, see Heat.
Calvinists, 106, 107.
Camberwell, 114, 120.
Canada, 127.
Canal, proposed ship, at Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, 156, 157, 161, 170,
171.
Canterbury, Archbishop of, 120.
Cape Fear river, 1238.
Capitol, N. Y. State, 25.
Carlyle, Thomas, 77.
Carnot, M., 267.
Carolina, 113, 119.
Carolina, lords proprietors of, 111,
115, 119, 128.
Carolina, North, 123, 124.
Carolinas, the, 108.
Cast iron, direct amalgamation of,
182.
Castle Mattress, 122.
Catholics, 106, 107, 110, 114, 116, 124;
see Papists.
Cetaceans, 52.
Celtis occidentalis, 215.
Central City, 177.
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 80.
Charles, Archduke, 307.
Chemical Gazette, 176.
Chemical News, The, 155.
Chemical Society of London, 144.
Chemical Society Jowrnal, 176.
Chemistry, paper on certain new
phenomena in, by V, Colvin,
172-185.
report on recent progress of, by
L, C, Cooley, 144, 155.
science of celestial, 212. _
Chester, 119, 122.
Chili, 88.
China, 88.
Chips from a German work shop,
illustrated.
Chivella, tour of, 169.
Chivella pass, 158, 161.
Chromium, 173.

Chronograph printing, description
of, by G. W. Hough, 66, 72.
Church, Aldgate, 118 ; Dutch, in New

York City, 128.

341

Church of England, 110, 119.

Church, Prussian, in Savoy, 118.

Churches, English and German, 115.

Cladosporium, 189, 198; herbarum,
198.

Clavis Agaricinorum, 87.

Clark, F. W., 148.

Clarkson, Matthew, 8.

Clinton, De Witt, notice of, 14, 16;
George, 8 ; Hon. George W.., 215,
216; Gen. James, 11.

Cloaca, Trojana, 221.

Coal-tar, colors from, 151.

Coast survey, U. S., 66.

Coatzucolcas, river, 156, 157, 170.

Cobleskill creek, 128.

Cocks, Walter, 120.

Coenties reef, 140.

Cohoes, 2238, 224.

Columbium, 173.

Cologne, 107, 118.

Colonial History of New York, 180.

Colonies, British,in America, 108.

Colorado, 177, 184.

Columbia College, School of Mines
in, 154.

Columbia County, 126.

Columbus, Christopher, 156.

Colvin, Verplanck, paper on certain
new phenomena in Chemistry,
by, 172-185.

Comptes Rendu, 155.

Combination-action, 177, 178.

Conspiracy of Pontiac, Parkman’s,
85

Cooke, M. C., 37, 198.

Cooley, Leroy C., paper, entitled
“from Newton to Kirchoff” by,
205-212 ; member of committee
reporting on water supply of city
of Albany, 227; remarks on assay-
ing ores ofthe precious metals,
and a new method with the
blowpipe, by, 60-65 ; report on
the recent progress of Chemistry,
by, 144-155.

Cooper, J. Fennimore, death of, 77.

Copenhagen, 92.

Copernican theory, 205.

Coprinus, comatus, 39.

Cordilleras mountains, 158, 160.

Cornwallis, General, 10.

Cortez, Fernando, 156, 157.

Cosmos, the, 228.

Court of Queen’s Bench, 118.

Cowper, William, 81.

Cox, Sir Charles, 114.

Crete, 88.

Croll’s Tables, 46.

342

Creation, question as to completeness
of, 49

Cronograph, printing, description of,
66 ; saving of labor by, 71.

Cronstadt, 91.

Crooks, Mr., 209.

Crum, Walter, 91.

Crystallization, 302 ; as distinguished
from vivification, 321 ; origin of
determinate geometrical forms
of, 296.

Cuba, 88.

Cupellation, 61.

Curculio, in black-knot, 195.

Currey, , 188.

Cuvier, Baron, 182.

Cynips, 194, 196, 197.

Cytispora, 189.

Dalton, John, 144.

Dana, Prof. James D., 50, 52.

Dante, 81.

Darien, Isthmus of, 156, 157, 170.

Darwin, Charles, 48, 50, 52, 84, 140,
305, 338.

Darwin, Erasmus, 335.

Darwinism, 46, 53, 54, 192; refuta-
tion of, by Mivart, 53.

Davy, Sir Humphrey, 21, 172, 178,
174, 177

Dayrolle, Mr., Secretary, 118, 114.

Death of eminent literati, during
1870, 76. :

Deerfield river, dam on, 97.

De be peas Christopher, 125,

Delambre, M., 237.

Delave, M., 285, 289, 295.

Democritus, 246.

Denmark, 88.

De Quatrefages, 47.

iin of Man, Darwin’s, 84,

Development theory, 48, 50.

Deville, St. Clair, 175.

De Witt, Dr. Benjamin, 9 ; Richard
Varick, 14, 20; Simeon, 3, 8, 10,
11, 12; 13, 24.

D’Israeli, Charles, 81, 82,

Diary, Luttrell’s, 112, 118, 124;
Thoresby’s, 131.

Dickens, Charles, 81; death of, 76,
77

Dictionary (of Chemistry), Watts’s,

154, 176,

Dimophism, asa fungoid develop-
ment, 188.

eee. | books of, issued in 1870,

Index.

Diseases, fungoid origin of many con-
tagious, 39.

Documentary History of New York,
130

Douglass, the historian, 129.

Dowse, Jacob, 1038.

Draper, Professor, 331, 333.

Dualism, asa fungoid development,
1 :

Duane, James, 8.

Duke of Argyll, 46, 47, 56, 57.

Dumas, M., 318; Alexander, death
of, 76.

Dunkards, the, 106.

Du Pre, Mr., 125.

Du Quesne, Mr., 118.

Dutch, High, language, 119.

Dutchess county, 126.

Dynamical classification of the Uni-
verse, 228.

Earth, the, as a magnet, 286, 290,
327; as related to tides, 234.

Earthly Paradise, Morris’s, 80.

East Camp settlement, 126, 127, 128.

East Canada creek, 224.

Eaton, Professor Amos, 17.

Eden, Garden of, 334.

Edict of Nantes,.107

Education, scientific, popular lack of,
141.

Edwin Drood, Dickens’s, 81.

Kights, Dr. James, 14; Dr. Jonathan,
138.

Elector Palatine, the, 111, 114.

Electrical machine, Nairne’s, 265.

Electricity, 268 ; use of, in exploding
nitro-glycerine, 103.

Electro-magnet, use of, in a printing
chronograph, 68.

Elizabeth, Princess, of Bohemia, 109.

Elizabethtown, 126.

Elzevirs, the, 26.

Embyology, 52.

Emerson, Ralph W., 83.

Emigration, Palatine, to England, in
1709, paper on, by H. A. Homes,
106-1381.

Emmerling, M. M., 152,

England, 88, 89, 90, 91, 106, 107, 108,
109, 110, 111, 112, 118, 114, 115,
116, 118, 121, 124, 129, 130, 131,
154; Anderson’s, 117 ; church of,
119 ; Mortimer’s History of, 111,
119 ; Tindal’s, 117, 118, 122.

Engler, 152.

English, the, 114, 123.

Entomologist, American, 36.

Entomologist, The Practical, 198, 201.

Index.

Erie canal, 170, 225.

Erie harbor, 104.

Erysiphei, 213.

Eskimo Tribe, 57.

Essay on Primeval Man, 46.

Ethnology, progress of, 45.

Everett, Edward, death of, 77.

Evolution of species, 50, 54.

Europe, 154, 155, 188.

Examiner, The, 116.

Exhibition, Great, of 1851, 27.

Experiments, results of, should be
recorded, 185 ; with amalgams of
mercury, etc., 176, 179, 182.

oc used at Hoosac tunnel,

03

Exploration, books of, issued in 1870,
78.

Farrar, ——, statement by, 122.

Faust, 80, 81

Ferguson, James, 11, 24.

Fertilization of flowers, 189.

Field meetings of Albany Institute,

Perthshire Natural History So-

ciety, etc., 38, 39.

Fitch, Dr. Asa, 198, 195.

Flora, of N. Y. state, recent additions
to, 40, 190.

Florida, 184.

Flowering plants, new species of, 40,
190

Force, 228, 231, 232, 234, 238, 240,
248, 245, 258, 261, 278, 296 ; calo-
rific, 245, 250, 253, 269 ; electric,
263, 277 ; generating, principles
relating to, 253.

Forces, atomic, 257, 260, 289, 296;
magnetic, 332; molecular, 248,
296; first_and second degree,
298 ; semi-atomic, 320.

Foreman, Thomas L., 70.

Forms of animal life, Rolliston’s, 1338.

Foucault, M., 294.

Fourier, 251, 257.

Fragraria Gillmani, 41; vesca, 41.

France, 88, 89, 91, 107, 108, 157; Re
formed Churches in, 118.

Frankfort, 109.

Frankland, Dr., 145, 282.

pen Institute, Journal of, 150,

Frauenhaufer friction balls, 67.

Fraunhofer, M., 205, 206, 209, 210,
211, 212.

Fraunhofer’s lines, 206, 209.

French, the, 107, 110, 115, 118, 119.

French empire, the, 175.

French Refugees, 110.

343

Freycinet, 247.

Fries, Elias, 37, 188.

Frijol (Mexican bean), 163.

Fulton, Robert, 6, 7, 8.

Fungi, edible, 39, 40; handbook of
British, 188 : new genera of, 40,
190.

Galloway, Lord, regiment of, 121.

Galvanism, 274, 280

Galvanometer, 293.

Garden of Eden, 334.

Gauss, Karl F., 285.

Gay-Lussac, M., 174.

Gazette, The, 111.

Gazettes, the Dutch, 113.

General Literature, report on, by L.
Kip, 73, 89.

Generation, spontaneous, 333.

Genesis, book of, 47.

Genesis, of planets, etc., 300.

Genesis of Species, Mivart’s, 84.

Geology, progress of,

Georgetown, 126.

Gerard, W. R., 215.

Gerhardt, Charles F., 145.

German emigration, 106.

German Flatts, 130.

German protestants, 129.

German provinces, 106.

Germans, the, 106, 107, 108, 118.

Germantown, 109, 126.

German Traveler, (Kohl), 123.

Germany, 88, 107, 108, 109, 110, 129.

Gibbon, Edward, 84.

Gill, Professor, 136.

Gladstone, Wm. E., 838.

Glonoin oil, gun-cotton patented as,
92 - explosion of, 93.

Gmelin’s Hand Book of Chemistry,
154.

Goldsmith, Oliver, 9.

Gould, Dr. A. A., 134.

Governor’s Island, 125.

Graffenreid, Christopher de, 123, 124.

Graham, , 174, 183.

Granger, William P., 96, 98, 101.

Grant, Gen., 304.

Graphate of ammonia, 184.

Graphite, 183.

Gray, Asa, 50.

Great Britain, 112, 122, 218; (see Hng-
land, British Government, etc.)

Greece, 89,

Greek language, 142.

Greenbush, 214.

Greenwich, 114.

Greswell, ——, 47.

Grote, George, 77.

344

Grove’s elements (battery), 70.

Guernsey, Lord, 118.

Guide to the Study of Insects, Pack-
ard’s, 134.

Gun-cotton, composition of, 91; in-
terest excited by discovery of,
90; patent of, described, 90, 91,
92.

Hague, The, 1138, 120.

Hale, William H., paper on present
state of the inquiry into the
origin and primal condition of
Man, by, 44, 59.

Hall, ——, 382. ~~

Hall, James, 24, 227; report on
water supply of city of Albany,
by, and others, 218, 227.

Hallam, Henry, 55.

Hamburgh, 93.

Hamilton, Alexander, 4.

Hampshire, New, forest of, 121.

Handbook of British Fungi, 37, 188,
214.

Handbook of Chemistry, Gmelin’s,
154

Hansen, 285.

Hare, Bishop, 116.

Harley, Minister, 116.

Harte, Bret, 82.

Harris’ Treatise on Injurious Insects,
194, 198.

Harvard College, 154. (

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, death of, 77.

Haye’s regiment, 119.

Haysbury, 126.

Heat, 245,251, 259, 271.

Hegel, G. W. F., 242.

Helderberg, the, 223, 224.

Hematite ore, readily amalgamated,
184.

Henry, Joseph, 14, 20, 21,23; notice

of, 20.

Herbarium, N. Y. State, 41.

Herkimer County, Benton’s History
of, 180.

Sane Sir John, 90, 207, 241, 249,
2

Hewatt’s North Carolina, 110.

Hilaire, Geoffroy, 51.

Hilgard, Professor, 66.

Hill, Dr., 94.

Hill’s elements (battery), 70.

Historical Magazine, 126.

Historical Relation of State Affairs,
etc., 118.

Historical Society, N. Y., (see Wew
York Historical Society).

Index.

Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
Collections of, 129.

History, contributions to, in 1870, 84;
natural, progress of, 44 ; Morti-
mer’s, of England, 111, 129; of
Paraguay, Washburn’s, 84; of
the future, 88.

Hitchcock, Prof. Edward, 17.

Hoffman, Josiah Ogden, 8.

Hofmann, Dr., 151.

Holland, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 77.

Homer, 81.

Homes, Henry A., paper on the Pala-
tine emigration to England in
1609, by, 106, 181.

Hooker, Dr., 36.

Hoosac ‘mountain, 97.

Hoosac tunnel, 96, 98,103 ; paper on
nitro-glycerine, as used in con-
struction, by G.M. Mowbray,
90, 105.

Hough, George W., description of a
printing chronograph, by, 66,
72; member of committee re-
porting on water supply of
city of Albany, 227.

Hours of Exercise in the Alps, Tyn-
dall’s, 101:

House of Commons’ Journals, 118,
181 ; (see Jowrnals).

Howe, E. C., M.D., 216.

Howell’s Suburban Sketches, 83.

Huaves, (Indians), 162.

Hudson river, 126, 224, 226; as a
source of water supply for
Albany, 224, 226.

Hume, James, 84.

Hun, Thomas, M.D., 227; member
of committee reporting on water
supply of city of Albany, 227.

Hungerkill, the, 223.

Hunter, Col. and Gov., 120, 124, 125,
126, 129.

Hunterstown, 126.

Hutton, Charles, 239.

Huxley, Thomas H., 39, 47, 52, 139,
140, 321, 338.

Hyde Park, 131.

Hydrogenium, 174, 175, 179, 180,
183.

Hymenophorum, 37, 38.
Illinois, 193.
Incarnation, relation of the Savior’s,

to question of man’s origin,

52.
India, 88.

Index.

Indians, 127, 163, 163.

Indies, the, 156.

Indigo, synthetically made in labora-
tory, 152. ;

Indium, discovery of, by spectrum
analysis, 209.

Inman, Henry, artist, 13.

Invertebrata of Massachusetts, Gould
and Binney’s, 134.

Ireland, 119, 120, 121, 122, 128 ; Jowr-
nal of House of Lords of, 122;
lord lieutenant of, 122; parlia-
ment of, 122.

Irish, the, 123.

Irving, Washington, death of, 77.

Italy, 88.

Jacobi, Prof. M. H., 91.

Janin, Jule, 73.

Japan, 88.

Jarvis’s Art Thoughts, 82.

Jay, John, 4, 8.

Jerusalem, Recovery of, 79.

John, William, 107.

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 9.

Jones, David R, Floyd, 8.

Joule, M., 176, 245, 267.

Journal, of Applied Chemistry, 153,
154; of Botany, 37; House of
Lords’, of Ireland, 122; House of
Commons’, 113; Franklin Instv-
tute, 150.

Journey across the Continents, etc.,
Pumpelly’s, 79.

Joy, Professor, 153.

Juglans cinerea, description of, 42;

Jupiter, the planet, 300.

Juventus Mundi, Gladstone’s, 838.

Kant, Immanuel, 242, 312.

Kensington, 131.

Kensington Museum, 27, 32, 33;
notice of, 27.

Kent, Chancellor James, 8.

Kepler, Johann, 235, 240, 241;
construction of the so-called
laws of, 235, 241.

Kingsley, Charles, 77.

Kip, Leonard, report on general
literature, by, 73, 89.

Kirchoff, ——, 149, 150, 205, 210, 211,
212 ; from Newton to, paper enti-
tled, by L. C. Cooley, 205, 212.

Kobel, (Mr.), 128.

Kockerthal, Joshua, 126.

Kockerthal, Rev. J De., 109.

Kohl, German traveler, 123.

Kowalewsky, ——, 139.

Kupfer, Prof., 139.

Trans. vit. ] 44

845

Labadists, the, 109.

Lamarck, M., 132, 305. *

Lamarck’s Theory, 51.

Lancaster, Rupp’s, 130.

Landau, 107.

Lansingburgh, 224.

Laplace, M., 240, 248, 299.

Lardner, Dr. D., 241.

Latin language, 142.

Lavoiserian nomenclature, 145.

Lawrence Scientific School; Cam-
bridge, 154.

Laws of preference of metals and
alloys for mercury, 179.

Lecythea, 189.

Leggett, W. H., 36

Le Normant, M., 47.

Lesquereux, Leo, 41.

Leveille, M., 214, 215, 216.

Lever, Charles J., 78.

L’ Hommedieu, Ezra, 3.

Library, Alexandrian, 74; N. Y.
State, 19.

Lichens, new species of, 40.

Life, parental origin of, 49. (See also
J. Paterson’s paper).

Limerick, 122.

Limulus Polyphemus, 134,
136.

Linnzeus, Carl Von, 132, 136.

Literature, alleged barrenness of,
during 1870, 73; botanical, 35,
43,186; general, report on, by
L. Kip, 78-89; of chemical
science, 154.

Little Falls, 224.

Liverpool, 122, 139.

Livingston, Chancellor Robert R.,
notice of, 3, 4, 6,'7,8,10; Edward,
8; Robert, patent of, 126,

Livingstone, Dr. David, 78.

Livy, 74.

Lockyer, J.Norman, 237. :

London, 106, 112, 115,119, 121, 122,
128, 155,176 ; Chemical Society
of, 144, 151; Tower of, 114;
Philosophical Magazine, 176.

Longfellow, Henry W., 77, 81.

Lord Galloway’s Regiment, 121.

Lord Lovelace, 109.

Lothair, D’ Israeli’s, 81.

Louis XIV, 107.

Lovelace, Lord, 109, 125.

Low, Dr. James, 13.

Lowell, James Russell, 77, 80, 83.

Lubbock. Sir John, 56, 57.

Ludolph, Henry William, 120.

Lush, Stephen, 8.

Lutheran Church edifice, 125.

135,

346 Index.

Lutherans, the, 106, 107, 109,115.
Luttrell, Narcissus, Diary of, 111,
118, 124.

Mexicans, the, 162, 166; dance of,
168

Mexico, city of, 156 ; country of, 88,

Lyceum of Natural History, Albany ;
(See Albany Lyceum of Natural
History).

Lyell, Charles, 46, 47.

Macaulay, Thomas B., 77.

McAdam road, 222, 227.

Magnesium, 174; readily amalga-
mated, 184.

Magnet, peculiarities of, 295.

Magnetic needle, 291. |

Magnetite, 184.

Mahogany, trade in, in Tehuantepec,
165.

Man, antiquity of, 45; Hssay on Pri-
menial, 46 ; future “of, known only
by revelation, 59 ; Moore’s Pre-
glacial, 46, AT ; paper on present
state of the inquiry into the
origin and primal condition of,
by W. H. Hale, 44-59; primal
condition of, 56 ; primeval, ques-
tions concerning, 45.

Manes, 47.

Manetho, 47.

Manganese, 173.

Mankind, progress of knowledge as
to pre-historic condition of, 44;
origin of, 48; unity or diversity
of species of, 46.

Mannheim, 107.

Mariotte, M., law of, 322.

Marshall, J., 122.

Marsh gas, 146.

Mars, the planet, 300.

Maryland, 158, 160.

ETS GAGS 133 ; Invertebrata of,
1

Matter, two conditions of, 49.

Mattress, Castle, 122.

Maudsley, 52, 54, 55.

Mayer, ——, 233.

Meads, Orlando, Annual Address by,
1-34,

Melville, Thomas, 207, 208, 212.

Mennonists, the 106.

Mercury, and its amalgams, 172;
compounds of little known, 175.

Mercury, the planet, 300.

Metals, precious, remarks on assay-
ing ores of, etc., by L. C. Cooley,
60-65.

Mexican bonds, 169;
bean, 163;
164.

towns, 169;
road, 168 ; robbers,

156, 157, 160, 164, 167, 169.
Microscopic Fungi, 37.
Middlesex, 115, 119.
Middlesex, Brayley’s, 121.
Middleburgh, 128.
Miller, Prof. W. A., 176.
Minatitlan, town of, 167, 169, 170.
Mississippi river, 191.
Mitchell, Lewis, 128, 124.
Mitchill, Dr. Samuel L., 3, 8.
Mivart, Charles, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53.
Mivart, St. George, 84.
Mohawk river, 130, 224; tribe, 127.
Moleschott, ——, 313.
Molybdate of ammonia, 184; molyb-
denite, 183.
Molybdenum, 183.
Montgomery county, 1380.
ge aa? street, (San Francisco),
+

Monthly Bulletin (of Botany), 86.

Moon, relation of, to tides, 234.

Moore’s Pre-glacial Yan, 46, 47.

Morphology, as astandard of classi-
fication, 136.

Morris, Gouverneur, 16.

Morris’s Harthly Paradise, 80.

Morse, Prof. E. 8., 134, 136, 187, 188 ;
Prof. Samuel F. B. »ee~

Morse Register, 69.

Mortimer, ——, 129.-

Mortimer and Anderson, 110.

Mortimer’s History of Hngland, 111.

Moses, 48.

Mosses, new species of, 40, 41, 190;
whole number of, in N. Y. State,

Motion, 268, 268, conversion of cir-
cular into elliptical, 239.

Mount Cenis tunnel, 88.

Mowbray, George M., paper on

nitro-glycerine, by, 90-105.

Miller, Max, 83.

Munsell, J oel, 26.

Munsell’s Annals of Albany, 128.
Munster, county of, 122.

Murphy, ——, 306.

Musci Boreali Americant, 41.
Museum, British, (see British Mu-

seum); Kensington, (see Ken-
sington Museum).

Mythology, comparative, 44.

Nairne, ——, 265.
Nantes, Edict of, 107.

Index.

Napoleon I, 5.

Napoleon, Louis, 85.

National Observatory, 24.

Natural History, of the State of New
York, 17, 19; should receive
more attention in our schools,
142. *

Natural Selection, etc., Gray’s, 50.

Nature (periodical), 49, 155.

Needham, ——, 139.

Neptune, the planet, 139, 300.

Netherlands, Taine’s, 82.

Neuse river, 123, 124,

Nevada, 177.

Nevis, 119.

New Bern, 124.

Newburgh, house of, 107, 109, 126 ;
Ruttenber’s History of, 130.

New Forest, of Hampshire, 121.

New Foundland fishery, 120.

Newington, 121.

New Jersey, 158.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 205, 212, 238.

Newton (from), to Kirchoff, paper
entitled, by L. C. Cooley, 205-
212.

New Village, 126.

New York, 109, 119, 124, 125, 128,
129, 152, 170, 194; Colonial and
Documentary Histories of, 130 ;
Historical Society, 30.

New York, State, recent additions to
flora of, 40, 190; Museum of
Natural History, zoological ad-
ditions to, 141 ; Herbarium, 41 ;
Uncinulae, synopsis of, by C.
H. Peck, 213, 217; Agricultu-
ral Society, 193.

Nicaragua, 157.

Nicholson, Colonel, 127; Dr. A. H.,
Manual of Zoilogy, by, 133.
Nitro-dextrin, prepared by Sobrero,

91

Nitro-glycerine, as used in the con-
struction of the Hoosac tunnel,
paper on, by George M. Mow-
bray, 90-105 ; experiments with,

. 94; force of, 104; prepared by
Sobrero, 91 ; preparation of, 95;
pure-tri, non-explosive when
congealed, 99; explosion of, at
Hoosac tunnel, 100.

Nitro-Mannite, prepared by Sobrero,
91

Nitro-sugar, prepared by Sobrero,
91.

Noah, 48.

Nobel, Alfred, and brothers, 92.

Nobel, M., 101.

‘

347

Normanskill, the, 223.
North Carolina, 123,124; Hewatt’s,
110

Nut (Governor's) island, 125.

Observatory, National, (see National
Observatory).

Ocha Bianca (grass or leaves),
164.

Oersted, Hans C., 21, 291.

Ogden, David, 8.

Oken, Lorenz, 546.

Olding, Dr., 145, 146.

Ores, metallic, new method of assay-
ing, by the blow-pipe, described
by L. C. Cooley, 60-65.

Oriskany creek, 224.

Oxacaca, 156.

Oxford, 118.

Pacific coast, 171; ocean, 88, 156,
161,169 ; plains of Tehuantepec,
157, 158, 161, 167, 169 ; railway,

88.

Packard, Dr. A. S., Jr., Guide to
the Study of Insects, by 184,
135.

Palatinate of the Rhine, 106, 107,
iB!

8.

Palatine, bridge, 180; church, 130;
emigration to England, in 1609,
paper on, by H. A. Homes, 106-
131; houses, London, 121; the
elector, 111,114 ; township, 130;
settlements in New York State,
126.

Palatines, the, 106, 108, 109, 110,
112,113, 1145-145, 116, 117, 118,
119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 129, 1380,
181; history of, 180; Popish,
119 ; Schoharie, 129.

Paley, Dr., 324.

Palladium, 174.

Panama, 93; railroad, 170.

Panella (sugar), 163.

Papacy, the, 88.

Papists, 119, (see Catholics).

Paradlo, Prevost, death of, 76.

Paraguay, Washburn’s History of,

4

84.
Paris, in 1851, Tenot’s, 85.
Paris Exposition, 151.
Parish, St. Olave’s, 112,
Parkman, Francis, 85.
Parthenogenesis, 50; explained, 334.
Passo del San Juan, town of, 169.

Pasteur, , 139.
Pastorius, ——, founder of German
town, 109

348

Patents, of gun-cotton, 90, 92.

Paterson, John, researches in the
theory and calculus of opera-
tions, by, 228-338.

Patroon’s creek, 221, 222, 227.

Peck, Charles H., report on botany,
by, 35-48, 186-204.

Pelouze, M., 91.

Penn, William, 109.

Pennsylvania, 109, 111,118, 128, 128,

129, 130; colonial records, 129 ; |:

government, 129 ; Hist. Soc. col-
lections, 179 ; legislature, 129.

Pennsylvania Historical. Society,
collections of, 129.

Pequa river, 129.

Perithecia, 199. :

Perkins, Mr., 151, 152.

Perthshire Natural History Society,

f+ Ge

Peru, 88.

Phenomena, in Chemistry, paper on
certain new, by V. Colvin, 172-
185.

Philadelphia, 129.

Philadelphia and Erie Railroad, 104.

Philology, Miiller’s contributions to,
83 ; progress of, 44,

Philosophy, modern experimental,
conducted on statical principles
alone, 242.

Phlogiston, 172.

- Platinum, 173,174.

Plato, 242, 329.

Plattner, , 62.

Pliicker, , 150.

Poe, Edgar A., death of, 77.

Poestenkill creek, 224.

Poetry, books of, issued in 1870, 17,
80

Poggendorf’s Annalen, 155.

Poisson, M., 248, 251, 291.

Polyporus frondosus, 39.

Polytrichiwm juniperinum, 41 ; stric-
tum, 41

Pontin, M., 173.

Pope, Alexander, 81.

Populus monilifera, 219.

Portugal, 124.

Pougkeepsie, 215.

Practical Entomologist, the, 198, 201.

Prescott, William H., death of, 77.

Prevost, M., 257, 262, 333.

Prince Albert, 27.

Princess Elizabeth, of Bohemia, 109.

Princeton college, 21.

Protestantism, 122.

Protestants, 110, 111, 115, 118 ; Ger-
man and Swiss, 129.

Index.

Prunus cerasus, 203 ; domestica, 208 ;
sag aaa 202 ; Virginiana,
3.
Prussia, 88 ; king of, 118.

Pruyn, Hon. Robert H., 42.
Psychology, opposed to evolution of
species, 54; pregress of, 45.

Pterodacetyls, 52.

Puccinia, 189.

Pumpelly’s Journey across the Contt-
nent, etc., 79.

Punjaub, the, 334.

Purpurine, from madder root, 152.

Quakers, the, 109, 114, 129.

Quantivalence, doctrine of, 145, 147.

Quarterly Journal of Science, the,
149, 150, 155.

Queen Anne, 107.

Queensbury, 126.

Queen’s Bench, Court of the, 118.

Railroad, proposed, at Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, 170, 171.

Rain-fall, amount of, at Albany, 218.

Randal, John Jr., 11.

Rapidan, the river, 304.

Rathkeale, 122.

Reade, Charles, 78.

Recovery of Jerusalem, 79.

Regents of the University, 11, 18,19.

Regnault, M., 252.

Reich, Dr., 209

Rensselaer Institute, 18.

Rensselaer lake, 218, 219, 226, 227;
condition of, as asource of water
supply for Albany, 219.

Report, of the U. 8. Geological Ex-
ploration of the Fortieth Paral-
lel, 186; on General Literature,
by Leonard Kip, 73-89; on
Zoology, by Geo. T. Stevens,
M.D., 182-148; on recent Pro-
gress of Chemistry, by Leroy C.
Cooley, Ph. D.. 144-155; on
Botany, by C. H. Peck, 35-48,
186-204; on the water supply
of Albany, by James Hall, LL.D.,
and others, 218-227.

Resolutions, relative to the Palatines,
117.

Revelation, future of man known
only by, 59; opposed to evolu-
tion of species, 55.

Rhine, the, 107, 118, 122; Palati-
nate of the, 106, 118.

Rhodium, 178,

Richter, Dr., 209.

Roeky mountains, 177, 191.

4

Index.

Rodents, 52.

Roget, M., 329.

Rolliston, Prof. George, 133.

Romance, books of, issued in 1870,
8

Rome, 89, 224.

Rondout creek, 158.

Roscoe, Dr., 145.

Rotterdam, 113, 114, 119, 120.

Rubicon, the river, 304, 310.

Rubidium, discovery of, by spectrum
analysis, 209.

Rudberg, Count, 101.

Rubmkorff, Count, 294.

Ruperti, M., 119.

Rupp’s Berks county, 122; Lancas-
ter, 180.

Russia, 88, 91.

cg Naa History of Newburgh,

St. Christopher’s island, 119.

St. Clare’s parish, 112, 113.

St. Hiliare, 305.

St. Paul’s convocation, house at, 119.

Salicornia, 191.

Sandlake, 191, 192.

San Francisco, 93, 170.

Saratoga lake, 225;

Saturn, the planet, 300.

Saugerties, township of, 126.

Sauquoit creek, 524.

Savoy, 118.

Schenectady, 128, 224.

Schleswig-Holstein war, 88.

Schoharie, 128, 129; Brown’s Sketch
of, 128 ; court house, 128 ; Pala-
tines, 129; river, 127, 128; set-
tlers, 1380; Simms’ History of,

Schénbern, Professor, 90.

nee Mines, Columbia College,

Schroeder, ——, 139.

Schulze, ——, 139.

Schunck, Dr., 152.

Schurman, Anna Maria, 109.

Schuyler, Colonel, 127.

Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 11.

Schwan, ——, 139.

Sa ape L. oy 194, 196, 204.

chweinitz’s nopsis of N. A.

Fungi, 194. sy f

Science, contributions to, in 1870,

Sciences, unity of the, 45.

Scilly, island of, 121.

Scortfication, 61.

Scotland, 115.

349

Sexes, duality of, not required for
producing low forms of animal
life, 50, 384.

Sexuality, necessary origination of,

13.

Shaffner, , 101.

Shakespeare, William. 23.

Sheffield Scientific School, 154.

Silica, chemical transformation of,
noticed, 152.

Silicic acid, possibly of organic
origin, 153

Silliman’s Journal, 66.

Simms’ History of Schoharie, 130.

Sisal, 156.

Skeel, Theron, paper on the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, Mexico, by,
156-171.

Sloane, Sir Hans, 27.

Smith, 188 ; G., 140; Sidney, 77; W.
G., 37,38; William, 125.

Smithsonian Institution, 20.

Smollett, Tobias G., 112.

Snow-drop (mare), 97,98.

Sobrero, M., 91, 92. .

Society and Solitude, Emerson’s, 83.

Society for the promotion of agricul
ture, manufactures, and the arts,
3, 15.

Sodium, detection of, in minute
quantity, by the spectroscope,
209

Solomon, King, 74.

Southampton, 90.

Southwark, 112.

Sowersby’s English Botany, 36.

Spain, 88, 107.

Spallanzani, L., 139.

Spaniards, 162.

Spanish discoveries, 156; language,
162 ; soldiers, 156.

Species, origin of, 52, 53.

Spectroscope, analysis by the, 208.

Spectrum, relation of the solar, to
the electric, 210.

Spectrum analysis, 149, 208.

Spheria, 189, 198; herbarum, 198 ;
morbosa, 104, 204.

Spire, 107.

Spontaneous generation, 49 ; discus- .
sion concerning, 139.

Stahl, G. E,, 172.

State Library, N. Y., 19.

Statical classification of the Universe,
228.

Steamship, European, 93.

Steel, direct amalgamation

181.

of,

~

350

Steele, Sir Richard, 110.

Stephenses, the, 26.

Stevens, George T.,
gy, by, 182-148 ; John, 8.

Stonaraby, 130.

Strawberries, new varieties of, 41.

Street, Alfred B., 77.

Student’s Flora of the British Is-
lands, 36.

Suburban Sketches, Howell’s, 83.

Suchil, town of, 169, 170.

Suez canal, 88, 161.

Sullivant, ——, 41.

Sun, the, 300.

Sunderland, Earl of, 117;
125.

Surrey, 112; county of, 120.

Susquehanna river, 129.

Svanberg, M., 91.

Swabia, 107; Swabians, the, 110.

Swift, Dean, 116.

Swinburne, ——, 80.

Swiss protestants, 129.

Switzerland, 123.

Symposion, the, of Plato, 329.

Synopsis, of New York Uncinule, by
C. H. Peck, 213-217; of North
American Fungi, Schweinitz’s,
149.

Lord, 121,

Table Lands, of Tehuautepec, 157
157.

Taine, M., 83.

Talbot, Mr. Fox, 207, 208.

Taltepec river, 170.

Tarifa pass, 158, 161, 171.

Tatler, The, 110.

Taylor, Bayard, 80.

Tehuautepec, gulf of, 156, 158;
isthmus of, 156, 157, 160, 170,
171; paper on the isthmus of,
by T. Skeel, 156-171; railroad
company, 169 ; town of, 169.

Telegraph, Atlantic, 285.

Tennyson, Alfred, 80.

Tenot, M., 85.

Terra, the planet, 300.

Terra del Fuegans, 57.

Thackeray, William, 77.

Thallium, discovery of, by spectrum
analysis, 209.

Thames, the, 114.

Thénard, M., 174.

Thirwall, Dr., 77.

Thompson’s lake, 223.

Thoresby’s Diary, 181.

Tides, explanation of, 234.

Tindal, Matthew, 112.

Tindal’s Hngland, 117, 122.

report on zo6lo-.

Index.

Tipperary, 122.

Titanium, 173.

Tivoli lake, 227.

Tories, 112, 116.

Tower of London, 114.

Townsend, Dr., Howard, 24.

Treatise on Injwrious Insects, Har-
ris’s, 194, 198.

Trent, the river, 124.

Trilobites, 184.

Trollopes, the, 78.

Troy, 224.
Tryon, Governor, 124.
Tulasne, ——, 198.

Tulpehocken, township of, 129.

Tunnel, Mt. Cenis, 88.

Tyndall, Prof. John, 244, 250, 290, 828.

Tyndall’s Hours of Exercise in the
Alps, 101.

Ulster county, 126.

Uncinula adunca, 218, 214, 217;
Americana, 216: ampelopsidis,
214, 216, O17 bivone, 215 ; cir-
cinata, 314, 217; Clintonii, 214,
216, 217; fleauosa, 214, 215, 217 ;
luculenta, 216; polycheta, 215 ;
macrospora, 214, 215, 217; Tor-
reyt, 214, 215, 216.

Uncinule, N. Y., synopsis of, by c:
i; Peck, 213-217.

United States, 92, 157, 220; Geologi-
cal Exploration of the 40th Paral.
lel, 176.

Uranus, the planet, 300.

Uredo, 189.

Utica, 224.

7
Valsa, 189.
Van Benthuysen, Charles, 223.'
Van Cortlandt, Philip, 8.
Van Rensselaer, Jeremiah, 8; Ste-
phen, 14, 15, 16, 18 ; notice of, 15.
Varick, Richard, 8. -
Vasey, Dr. George, 36.
Vatican, the, 75.
Venus, the planet, 300.
Vera Cruz, 156, 162, 167.
Virginia, 123, 158, 160.

Vis viva, 262, 326.
Von Baer, , 829.
-| Wales, 115.

Wallace, ——, 49, 51.

Walsh, D. B., 193, 195, 198.

War, Abyssinian, 88; Franco-Prus-
sian, 86, 88 ; Italian ; Schleswig-
Holstein, 88.

Washburn, Hon. C. C., 84.

Index.

Washington city, 100, 136; President,
Lt,

O31

Water ‘supply of the city of Albany,
report on, by J. Hall and others,
218-227.

Waterford, 224.

Watkins, township, 214, 216.

Watts, John, 8; Dr., 176.

Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry,
154, 176.

Webster, Charles R.,13; Matthew
Henry, 14.

Weiser, Conrad, 127, 129.

Wells, artesian, 222.

Wells & Fargo’s express, 93, 94.

West India fleet, 119.

West Indies, the, 88, 119, 121.

Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 208, 212.

Whevwell, Wn, 805.

Whigs, 112, 116, ive

Whiting, Colonel, 127.

Whittier, John G., 77.

Williamson, Dr., 144.

Williamson’s Worth Carolina, 123.

Wilson, Alexander, 77

Windsor, canal at, 121.

851

Wollaston, Dr., 206.

Wommelsdorf, Pa., 129.

Wood, Professor A., 35.

Woolwich Arsenal, 102.

Worthington, Professor, 140.

Wurtemberg, 107.

Wurtz, Professor Henry, 152, 153,
176.

Wyoming Hotel, 93.

Wynantskill, the, 224.

Yale College, 154.
Young, ——, 241; Professor C. A.,
6

6.
Yucatan, 156.

Zenger, John Peter, 125.
Zinzendorf, 129.

Zirconium, 173.

Zoological science, progress of, 132.

- Zodlogy, report on, by G. T. Stevens,

182-143 ; new works on, 133,
140.
Zopotecos, (Indians), 162.
Zoques, (Indians), 162.

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