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' ; ; . , ‘ as . : - . : 7 : * ’ + . : : “ a . 7 a . : . . ’ ‘ . F i > ° . ier . a - 7 Pang 2s 7 ; ; ‘ . =. : . Ma . : z % a * : . . - / ~ ‘ ° - A ra . Py A a . " \ . - Py i oo . i - ‘ - , , ’ 1 ; A : ‘ . J 7 Ms ie i ‘ a . ' = +4 » , . F 7 . ‘ ® . c Pa s . 4 - t 4 ’ 4 . , . ; . . e 4 . ® : 4 ‘ 1 ‘ ? “ = . ' bs « - 7 = . + . . t oe . : * a Te Ae = Pr 7 . . : as : , < vik 4" - . : ee st t 2 a es . ' ’ ‘ id ' . wo ‘ ae : ‘ . r * ‘ = . HARVARD UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY. oe \ var. Fie acy eee a TRANSACTIONS ALBANY INSTITUTE. VOL. IX. MAT IXANY - J. MUNSELL, 82 STATE STREET 1879, Witla ee ROL0ON 08 EU : TCEAU EAOTHEL Gene ’ a 4 CONTENTS. Officers of the Albany Institute, 1879, - . Sor ote Classes in the several Departments, for 1879, - - The Mechanical. Action of Radiation, by LeRoy C. Cooley, Ph.D., - : - - : : ES a The Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy, by Verplanck Colvin, Men and Things in Albany two Centuries ago, and the Origin of the Dutch and English Churches, by Joel Munsell, - - - - - ay) Sore - - The Solar Theory of Myths, by Prof. John De Witt Warner, - - - . - - - - - Prince Bismarck and his Policy, by Arthur Bott, - Drinking-Water and some of its Impurities, by F. G. Ballart and F. M. Comstock, - = 3 : Alcohol — is it a Food ? by Willis G. Tucker, M.D., - The First Visit of an American Ship to Japan, and its Results, by Geo. R. Howell, - - : e : On Light in some of its Relations to Disease, by George T. Stevens, M.D.,_ - - - : e E 2 The Hydraulic Beds and Associated Limestones at the Falls of the Ohio, by James Hall, - - - 29 57 74 114 127 147 169 iv Contents. Remarks on the Dudley Observatory Observations on the Transit of Mercury, May 6, 1878, by Lewis Boss, Annelida Chetopoda of the Virginian Coast, by H. E. Webster, - - - - The Scientific Life and Work of H. V. Regnault, by Alexander Duane, 4 = United States Species of Lycoperdon, by Charles H. Peck, A.M., - - - - Manual of the Albany Institute, Index, Erratum, - - - - 181 202 270 | 285 OFFICERS OF THE ALBANY INSTITUTE, FOR 1879. President, JAMES HALL, LL.D. Treasurer, JOEL MUNSELL. Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, DANIEL J. PRATT, Pu.D. LEONARD KIP. First Department — Physical- Science and the Arts. President, and ex-officio one of the Vice Presidents of the Institute, ORLANDO MEADS. Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, VERPLANCK COLVIN. JACOB S. MOSHER, M.D. Librarian, . DANIEL J. PRATT, Px.D. Second Department — Natural History. President, and ex-officio one of the Vice Presidents of the Institute, J. A. LINTNER. Vice President, GEORGE T. STEVENS, M.D. Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, CHARLES H. PECK. PETER HOGAN. Third Department — History and General Literature. President, and ex-officio one of the Vice Presidents of the Institute, ISAAC EDWARDS, LL.D. Vice President, HENRY A. HOMES, LL.D. Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, ARTHUR BOTT. ALFRED B. STREET. Curators of the Collections in Natural History and_the Arts. - MAURICE E. VIELE, GEORGE R. HOWELL, PHILANDER DEMING, JOHN W. McNAMARA, CHARLES M. JENKINS, MERRILL E. GATES, ERNEST J. MILLER, JOHN V. L. PRUYN, JOSEPH S§&. Sr. JOHN. Publishing Committee, J. A. LINTNER, GILBERT M. TUCKER, JAMES O. FANNING. vi Classes. CLASSES IN THE SEVERAL DEPARTMENTS FOR 1879, WITH THE DATES AT WHICH REPORTS ARE DUE. First DepartMENT— Physical Science and the Arts. First Class— Physics and Astronomy, April 29, 1879: Irving Magee, D.D., Lewis Boss, Thurlow Weed Barnes, Reuben H. Bingham, Martin L. Deyo, Joseph Gavit, Ernest J. Miller, Henry R. Pierson, LL.D., John F. Seman ,Philip Ten Eyck, J. Hampden Wood. Second Class—Physiology and Chemistry, May 27, 1879: Jacob 8S. Mosher, M.D., Samuel B. Ward, M.D., Charles E. Jones, M.D., Johu B. Stonehouse, Jr., M.D., Willis G. Tucker, M.D., Charles F. Wheeler, D.D.S. Third Class — Arts, Oct. 28, 1879: Orlando Meads, Robert H. Pruyn, LL.D., fsaac Battin, Willard Bellows, Philander Deming, Wm. G. Dey Ermand, Walter Dickson, George Doelker, Hiram Ferguson, Dexter Hunter, George R. Meneely, Lansing Merchant, Samuel L. Munson, Erastus D. Palmer, Nathan B. Perry, Joel R. Ransom, Benjamin R. Spelman, Charles Van Benthuysen, William T. Valentine, Maurice E. Viele. SreconD DEPARTMENT— Natural History. First Class — Geology, April 15, 1879: Charles D. Wal- cott, Verplanck Colvin, Arthur Bott, Peter Hogan, James T. Gardner, Richard Prescott, Joseph H. Ramsey. Second Class— Botany, June 10, 1879: Charles H. Peck, Alfred F. Chatfield, Horace M. Paine, M.D., Henry H. Martin, Henry S. McCall, De Azro A. Nichols, George | R. Howell, Erastus Corning. Third Class— Zoology, Nov. 11, 1879: J. A. Lintner, George T. Stevens, M.D., Wm. W. Hill, John V. Lansing, M.D., Edward R. Hun, M.D., William Hailes, Jr., M.D., Erastus Corning, Jr., Ira B. Sampson. Classes. vii Turrp DepaRtTMENT — History and General Literature. First Class—Modern History, May 18, 1879: Merrill E. Gates, William Barnes, Jonathan Tenney, Edward W. Rankin, Rev. Frederick M. Newman, Sartell Prentice. ~ Second Class— Ancient History and Archeology, June 24,1879: Henry A. Homes, LL.D., Joel Munsell, David A. Thompson; J. Livingston Reese, D.D., Daniel J. Pratt. Third Class—General Literature, Nov. 25, 1879: Leonard Kip, Paul F. Cooper, John McC. Holmes, D.D., Alfred B. Street, William A. Young, Hiram E. Sickels, Chauncey P. Williams, Charles E. Smith. Fourth Class— Political and Social Science, Oct. 14, 1879: Isaac Edwards, LL.D., Duncan Campbell, Charles S. Hoyt, M.D., Gilbert M. Tucker, Lemon Thomson, John ~ W. McNamara, James O. Fanning. Fifth Class— Philology, Ethnology and Anthropology, Dec. 9, 1879: Rt. Rev. Wm. C. Doane, D.D., Anson J. Upson, D.D., Walton W. Battershall, D.D., Charles M. Jenkins, William L. Learned, LL.D. RECAPITULATION, In the order of dates at which reports are due. DEPARTMENT. CLASS. DATE. Second, First, April 15, 1879. First, : First, April 29. Third, First, May 13. First, Second, May 27. Second, Second, June 10. Third, Second, June 24, Third, Fourth, October 14, First, Third, October 28. Second, Third, November 11. Third, Third, November 25. Third, Fifth, December 9. TRANSACTIONS. THE MECHANICAL ACTION OF RADIATION. By LeRoy C. Coouey, Ph.D. [ Read before the Albany Institute, February 1, 1876. ] The motion of light bodies under the influence of radiant heat and light seems to have been noticed, independently, by several observers, at long intervals during the last half century, but only within the half decade just past can it be said to have gained a place among the phenomena of acknowledged interest in science, In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Magazine for 1828 is a record of what seems to have been the earliest experi- ments on this subject. They were made by Mr. Mark Watt, and I quote from his interesting paper the following description of the first instance of a light body indicating, by its motion, the impression it received from the sun’s rays. ‘Twelve or fifteen magnetized sewing needles were stuck into a thin circular slice of cork an inch in di- ameter, at a distance of one-sixth of an inch from each other. The heads of the needles were so fixed into the piece of cork that they stood perpendicularly and all the points, being south poles, stood uppermost. The cork was then placed on the center of a surface of water 13 feet in diameter. The needles, in this situation, being prevented from evincing any polar attraction by their per- Trans. iz. | 1 2 The Mechanical Action of Radiation. pendicular position, were attracted by a moderate degree of light, heat or electricity, but were repelled by the more powerful impulses imparted by the concentration of any of these bodies.” After the lapse of twenty years the phenomenon seems to have been rediscovered by Mr. Mitchel. A description of his experiment may be found in the first chapter of Dick’s Practical Astronomer (see also Scientific American, vol. XXxIII, 9) and reads very much as follows: A plate of very thin copper, an inch square, was fixed upon the end of a fine wire ten inches long. A very deli- cate magnet was fastened to the middle of the wire and the whole, balanced on a pivot, was enclosed in a glass ease. The rays of the sun, collected by a concave mirror of two feet diameter were thrown to afocus on the copper plate. The plate began to move under the influence of the condensed sunbeam and in about two seconds it had traversed as many inches and struck agaiust the side of the box. This experiment was made with a view to prove that “‘ Light, though exceedingly minute, has a certain degree of force momentum.” Many years later, it was in 1868, the energy of radiation seems to have revealed itself anew to the eminent Prof. Joule. ‘ By means of a cylindrical glass vessel, divided in a vertical direction by a blackened pasteboard diaphragm, which extended to within one inch of the cover and of the bottom of the vessel, and in the upper of which spaces was delicately suspended a magnetized sewing needle furnished with a glass index, he was able to detect the heat from a pint of water heated to 30° C., placed ina pan at nine feet distance; also that of a moonbeam admitted through an opening ina shutter as it passed across his apparatus.” This description is extracted from a lecture by the Earl of Rosse on the heat of the moon, given at the Royal Institu- tion in May, 1873. The Mechanical Action of Radiation. 3 In April, 1873, iguorant of all these earlier observations, I read, in this room, a paper on “ Convection applied to the Detection of Heat,” showing that a delicately suspended needle would move in obedience to slight changes of tem- perature in any body brought into its vicinity, and describ- ing a Thermoscope, quite sensitive, acting on this principle (Journal Frank. Inst., vol. uxv1, 343). Further experiment soon afterward resulted in the construction of an instru- ment so sensitive that the needle would swing in response to the heat radiated from the face of a person sitting at a distance of thirty feet (Jour. Mrank. Inst., vol. uxvit, 408). The form of instrument finally adopted, and used also in experiments to be described in the sequel, may be briefly described as follows. In a chamber whose walls are, to a considerable degree, impervious to heat, a glass thread, very long and very light, is suspended horizontally by means of two parallel silk fibres eighteen inches in length. One eud of this slender needle carries a small vertical disk of paper. The small end of a conical metallic reflector passes through the wall of the chamber and its opening is covered with a piece of thin partially charred paper. The radia- tions from any distant source of heat are concentrated upon this scorched paper by the reflector. The needle- disk is on a level with the lower part of this paper and moves toward or from it under the influence of every change of temperature it experiences, approaching if it be warmed and receding if it be very gently cooled, but ap- proaching when the redaction of temperature is conside- rable. In the meantime Dr. William Crookes, “ while weighing heavy pieces of glass apparatus in a chemical balance en- closed in an iron case from which air cculd be exhausted,” noticed that ‘‘when the substance weighed was of a tem- perature higher than that of the surrounding air and the weights, there appeared to be a variation of the force of 4 The Mechanical Action of Radiation. gravitation.” Tis first paper was sent to the Royal Society in May, 1873. ‘“ Experiments were thereupon instituted with a view to make the action more sensible and to eli- minate sources of error.” By ingeniously devised apparatus Dr. Crookes was able to subject light bodies to tne action of radiant heat and light in a vacuum perfect, doubtless, beyend precedent. While the exhaustion proceeded he found the motion of his slender balance beam to be toward the source of heat, until, a very high degree having been attained, the motion turned the other way, the light body receded from the source of radiation as if driven by a delicate repulsion. (See Quarterly Journal of Science, 1875.) His second paper communicated to the Royal Society the interesting disco- very of the mechanical effect of radiation in a vacuum, and Repulsion by Radiation is a phrase describing a new- found fact in physical science for which we are indebted to this capital research of Dr. Crookes. These experiments of the English scientist, pronounced, by the President of the Mathematical and Physical Section of the British Association, to be among the most interest- ing in the whole range of physical science, have attracted much attention to the phenomena. Prof. Dewar in Scot- land and Herr Neesen in Germany have made valuable additions to the experimental data. Prof. Dewar employed a novel means of obtaining the necessary vacuum. When the pump refused to reduce the tension of the rarefied gas, the residue was removed and the vacuum perfected by the absorbent power of charcoal. The vacuum thus obtained, like that of Mr. Crookes, for- bade the passage of the induction spark, and so sensitive was his instrument that “an ordinary lucifer-match held at a distance of four feet produced instant action, which was observed by means of a telescope.” (Nature, x11, 217.) Of his results more is to be said as we proceed. Herr The Mechanical Action of Radiation. - § Neesen’s apparatus consisted of a rectangular case of sheet iron with an aperture in one side closed by a glass plate near to which hung a small and delicately suspended mirror. The radiations were received by the glass plate, through which they passed to fall upon the mirror beyond, and the mirror was compelled to turn in obedience to their influ- ence. (Nature, x11, 10.) By the experiments of these several observers it is well established that very light and mobile bodies are affected quite differently by radiant heat or light according as they are suspended in air or in vacuo. Altraction in air and repulsion in vacuo are the terms employed by Mr. Crookes to describe these effects. These terms are convenient, but unobjectionable ouly when we use them to indicate the direction of the motion and not to describe the nature of the forces acting to produce it. Of the nature of these forces views are not yet in accord. Mr. Crookes considers the air-current theory as altogether incompetent to account either for the attraction or the re- pulsion, but awaits the accumulation of all the facts before attempting to explain any of them. Prof. Dewar regards the heating of the movable disk as the cause of the motion. He is reported as saying that ‘“* While the action takes place in air of ordinary density itis probably due to air currents”’ but, from the report, he seems not to have based this opinion upon any direct experimental proof. Nor does he allow the repulsion in vacuo to be due toany new force of repulsion: he attempts to refer it to the molecular energy of the minute residuum of gas still left in the most perfect attainable vacuum. ‘* What takes place,” he says, ‘is this, the particles are flying in all directions with ve- locity depending upon the temperature. When they im- pinge against the heated disk their velocity is increased. They go off with a greater velocity than those which go off from the colder side and hence there is a recoil of the : ; 6 The Mechanical Action of Radiation. disk.” And this recoil he thinks competent to put the disk in motion even ip his excellent vacuum ‘‘ where we know that the exhaustion has reduced the density to , > Bs a . : by) aaoqott of its original. Prof. Osborne Reynolds claims that whenever a surface imparts heat to a gas, there must be a reaction of the gas against the surface. A surface free to move would be propelled by this reaction. Moreover in a vacuum this motion would encounter Jess'resistance and hence would be more conspicuous, as if it were due to a stronger force. Repulsion in vacuo, according to this view, is the effect of this gaseous reaction. (ature, vol. xu, 405.) If others have engaged in the investigation of this inter- esting subject, their work has, down to the present time, escaped my attention. In July, 1875, I read a paper before the Poughkeepsie Society of Natural Science giving a synopsis of several series of experiments some of which were made before the pub- lication of Mr. Crookes’ remarkable discovery, but many of them afterward, with a view to determine the nature of the force as faras the so called attraction in air is concerned (Jour. Frank Inst., vol. Lxx, 184). The points then made are these: Ist. The motion of the needle having proved to be, under a great variety of conditions, exactly what air- currents are competent to produce, we may justly infer that it isdue to convection. 2d. If this motion shall cease to occur when the air is removed (and Mr. Crookes has proved that it does), the evidence in favor of convection is complete. Whatever may be the nature of the repulsion in vacuo, convection will, doubtless, in the end, be admitted to be the cause of the motion in air. The two motions are, I am persuaded, altogether distinct phenomena manifesta- tions of two antagonistic forces, the repulsive being the more delicate and able to produce its effect only when the The Mechanical Action of Radiation. 7 overwhelming power of convection currents is overcome by perfecting the vacuum. But there is another phase of this curious action which seems to have escaped the notice of former observers. It may be described as repulsion in air. The application of a very gentle heat will, under certain conditions, drive the disk away from the warmed surface, even in air of ordinary density. At intervals, from the time of my earliest experiments, this puzzling motion would thrust itselr before me until I was convinced that it was not an experimental accident but that it was a legitimate effect of some rare combination of conditions. What these conditions are I set myself to discover. It was an effect which I could not, at first, produce at will. Sometimes it would appear in the early morning but refuse to be reproduced as the day advanced. Sometimes it would occur in the evening when no trace of it had been seen daring theday. A day of alternate showers and sun- shine seemed to be most favorable to its production. Remembering that the walls of the chamber were to a considerable degree impervious to heat so that the tempera- ture within suffered no rapid changes as did that without, these facts suggested the direction in which to seek for the cause of the action. By inserting a thermometer into the chamber and placing another outside, the difference of temperature between the interior of the instrument and the air outside could be measured and its relation to the motion of the needle could be studied. A multitude of observa- tions followed. In every case when the repulsion occurred the temperature of the interior of the chamber was found to be higher than that ofthe externalair. With a ditterence of a single degree (F.) the needle would be repelled by the gentle heat of the hand held at a distance of twelve inches, while by a somewhat stronger heat the motion would be 8 The Mechanical Action of Radiation. reversed. With a larger difference of temperature the re- pulsion would respond to a greater heat, becoming attrac- tion again, however, if a certain limit of intensity was passed. Such observations finally revealed the necessary conditions. Repulsion in air occurs when: Ist. The tem- perature of the interior of the instrument has been for some time alittle higher than that of the external air; and 2d. the degree of heat applied is appropriate to this difference of temperature. The next step was to carefully determine the place of the zero of the needle scale. Call to mind the arrange- ment. The slender needle is suspended horizontally by two parallel silk fibres. The torsion of these fibres is a delicate force tending to hold the needle in a certain posi- tion. The place of the disk thus held at rest is the zero of the scale. Now the swinging of the needle toward the zero can indicate no positive action of any force other than the torsion of the fibres. Its swinging away from zero, however, can be due to nothing less than some positive force which overcomes the torsion. Having determined the place of the zero, repeated observation showed that the repulsion was real, since the needle moved beyond its zero in opposition to the torsion of its fibres. In explanation of this curious effect I offer the following suggestions. It is well known that a cooled surface will cause a downward air-current in contact with it, and again that heat being applied will reverse the direction of this current. But this reversal cannot be affected instan- taneously. The effect of a genile heat will be Ist, to slowly neutralize the cold and thus gradually diminish the down- ward current and 2d, afterward to produce, as gradually, a current upward. Now while the cold current is being neutralized, the torsion of the fibres will carry the disk to its zero and when the upward current is established the disk will be again wafted toward the warmed surface. The Mechanical Action of Radiation. 9 But if this transition from a downward to an upward cur- rent is very slow there must be an appreciable time when there is equilibrium, when the air is in contact with a sur- face warmer than itself and yet for a brief period is free from convection currents. Again it is well known that the air is perfectly elastic and further that an elastic body will transmit the energy of blows which do uot put its mass in motion. Then let us conceive a mass of air, lying between the disk and the surface which receives the heat, subjected on the surface side toa temperature higher than its own and yet free from convection currents. Under these conditions the elastic medium must transmit the heat energy to the disk in a manner not altogether unlike the transmission of the force of a blow by a series of elastic balls. As I conceive the molecular motion it is this. The molecules of air are in motion with a velocity depending upon temperature. When they impinge against the warmed surface they are thrown off with an increased velocity. This velocity is transmitted until the molecules in contact with the disk receive it and they strike the disk with greater energy than do those against the opposite side. This excess of energy drives the disk along. If this explanation be correct then while the attraction in air is the manifestation of the well known convec- tion currents, this repulsion in air is the manifestation of a molecular transmission of energy by the air in straight lines outward from a heated surface. Now if such a molecular action do exist then a light body near a heated surface must, in every case, be subject to the influence of these antagonistic forces, being solicited toward the heat by con- vection, and repelled from it by the energy transmitted. Because convection is the more powerful, the motion is toward the source of radiation except when by careful choice of conditions the delicate repulsion can be made visible. Trans. ix.] 2 10 The Mechanical Action of Radiation. Whether this repulsion in air is at all related to the re- pulsion in vacuo, I am not prepared to consider clear. The effect of exhaustion, on the relative strength of these two forces, is, however, an interesting point in this con nection. In a good vacuum the power of convection must be vastly reduced and as the vacuum approaches perfec- tion, this power must approach annihilation. On the other hand nothing short of an absolute vacuum can forbid the molecular transmission of energy. It seems highly probable that at a certain high degree of exhaustion this molecular energy would be the more powerful of thé two, and hence that repulsion would be the normal instead of the exceptional indication of the instrument. THE WINTER FAUNA OF MOUNT MARCY. By VERPLANCK COLVIN. [Read before the Albany Institute at the Annual Meeting, Jan. 4, 1876.] The fauna of an elevated mountain district is usually more or less peculiar and different from that of the sur- rounding lowlands, anc the rule seems to hold that with increase of altitude and decrease of temperature a hardier and more boreal vegetation will be found, accompanied with animals common to colder and more northern regions. ‘It is not so generally understood that the fauna peculiar to a given mountain section in summer often changes consi- derably at the approach of winter, many of the forest or mountain habitants departing to more hospitable regions. Not alone the migratory birds who flutter with fashionable elegance from the Adirondacks to Florida at the first rude blast of winter — having only as their home the free air, which is everywhere — but the less favored forest-dwellers, beasts of prey and beasts that are preyed upon, two great natural divisions of animated nature not used in technical classification, which, having no wings to bear them away, are fain to stay and take their chance to de- vour or to be devoured. ' Those who have a knowledge of the wilderness are aware that however wild a region may be, and however abundant the game, it is rare that any but the most skil- ful and stealthy hunter catches even a momentary glimpse of the creatures of the woods. In fact thorough foresters readily detect the novice in woodcraft by his invariably expecting, upon entering the wilderuess, to behold abun- dance of game — beasts and birds—=in sylvan simplicity, unwarily parading themselves upon his view. The mere 12 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. civilian, after exhausting marches through silent solitudes, generally returns half in doubt whether he has really visited the region of his fancies and day dreams — whether living thing really dwells in that region through which he has been conducted. Nevertheless the only fault lies in his dreams, as the region of his fancy has no existence. Had he the skill of the still hunter, the crushed leaf, the twigs browsed by deer, the scratched tree bark, the broken branch, the trampled grass, the muddied water of stream, and footprints only visible and interpretable to the eye of skill, would have revealed a wonderful variety of life: tell- ing the secrets of their modes of living, their food, their homes, pursuits, and their pursuers. It is easily seen that the accurate study of the habits of wild animals, undis- turbed in their native haunts, is a study in which the man of science, unless skilled as a hunter, is at a discount. The true book of wild life is the open volume of tracks and trails spread over the whole wilderness and far more difficult than Greek to savans. This volume has written upon its broad pages the daily journal of savage society, telling of their deeds uninfluenced by human presence, — the outgrowth of natural instincts. The nocturnal habits also of most of our wild animals, which, like the owl, sleep by day, and prowl by night, render it still more difficult to secure observations of their ways of life. The summer woods give to us no such plainly written pages of this history as the winter’s snow affords, for now - though the night be dark, let there but be soft snow, and the footprints stand as records, plain as day. It is tosome readings of these records in the snow, had this winter upon the slopes and summit of Mount Marcy, that I desire to call your attention. | Mount Marcy, or Ta-ha-wus (interpreted, “ Icleave the clouds’’), as it is said to have been called by the Indians, is unquestionably the highest of our mountains — over 5,400 feet in altitude above the sea, Itrises sharply upward, a Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 13 solid mass of rock, while huge ridges, each one a mountain, trending in different directions from its summit, support the central mass like giant buttresses. The summit is often lost amid, or soars above the clouds, and its slopes — below the bare, desolate, alpine crest of rock —are densely covered with a stunted evergreen forest, rooted amid the crevices, the trees increasing in size and vigor as the altitude decreases. The deep valleys, descending between the mountain crests one and two thousand feet, thickly forest-covered on their slopes; the irregular plateau-like valleys north and south, and the little mossy nooks of level land upon its sides, are the haunts of its wild inhabit- ants, the fauna of the coldest, the most alpine, and most desert portion of our territory. Huge mountains tower upon every side, like captains encircling their chief. Whiteface far away, MacIntyre less distant, Mt. Clinton and Mt. Wright, Mt. Haystack and Mt. Skylight, Mt. Colden and the Gothics, and farin the east Mt, Dix, the Giant, and Macomb, and numberless others — the landmarks of the Adirondacks — show themselves. This is a wild place for any living thing; let us see what creatures make their home here. ‘It is evident that he who isso fortunate as to first read the footprint writing on the snows of the siopes of Marcy, holds the key to a history of its fauna, and at the same time is permitted to be the first to ascertain the effects of the rigorous mountain climate upon the habits of the different species, as far as his observations go. The study of trails enables him to ascertain’ the approximate altitudes at which certain of our wild animals exist, and, in turn, bya eareful classification of animals, he is enabled to show that — within zones of different altitudes’ are found associated animals which belong to similar zones of cold, in higher latitudes. The flora of the Adirondack peaks has been studied; of the fauna of these mountain summits this is thought to be the first publication. 14 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. It may be mentioned that my presence among the mountains in the early portion of this winter, was occa- sioned by the work of the Adirondack survey, under the authority of the State, for which work appropriations had been made by the last Legislature, and that the constant duties of the survey permitted only the taking of natural his- tory notes of such matters as came unsought before me. This paper, therefore, is only intended as a brief contribu- tion to the winter history of our mountain fauna — pre- ferable, perhaps, to a mere list of the species observed, which was all that I originally intended to present. Winter may almost be said to have a perpetual lease of Mt. Marcy. It is true that about the beginning of July, he finds his banks of snow badly broken by the sun’s inroads — beyond his power to remedy —and so takes himself away to his cooler resort, gliding away to the south pole, which now demands his entire energies; but scarce two months will have elapsed before he will be back again. If snow be the criterion, Mount Marcy has barely two true months of summer. The summit is often whitened with it as late as the beginning of July, and the first of September rarely passes without a premonitory, though temporary, covering of the crest with snow. It is safe to assume that the climatic winter of the summit commences at the latter portion of September or about the first of October, and ends in June. Besides mentioning the different species, the presence of which have been determined, [ shall call your attention briefly to the principal absentees— animals which once were or are now found in this locality in summer, but which were obviously absent during our stay, though with few exceptions, still met with in the warmer lowlands. Studying the fauna in this manner, we find among the most important of.the animals which have left a record of their presence by footprints in the snow — the panther, Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 15 the Felis concolor of naturalists. This animal, the painter of the guides, the largest and most powerful of our Felide, is entirely carnivorous — an Ishmaclite among beasts. Im- mensely muscular, it is yet more remarkable for agility and swiftness of movement, and finds no difficulty in pro- | viding itself with game food. In the notch between Mt. Marey and Mt. Skylight one of the guides came upon large foot prints in partially thawed snow, and following them up the slopes of Mt. Marcy, through the dense, low tim- ber, now ascending steeps, now traveling along snowy ridges, found in several places clear and unmistakable impressions, large, massive footprints of this mountain lion. To myself the trail of this animal was far from unex- pected. For years I had, summer after summer, remarked _ indications of their presence along the Opalescent river valley, and on the neighboring mountains, and less mark- edly, in the Panther gorge, once its undisturbed resort and home, for the chat de montagne, is here, asin Canada and the west, found true to its name, rendering it, veritably, the cat of the mountain. It is with regret that I must re- cord that in the present instance his trail appeared to indi- cate that he was in the ignoble pursuit of rabbits! This could not be owing to necessity either, for deer in plenty were to be had in the valleys to the southward, and from indications observed during the summer, were not only frequently destroyed by panthers, but devoured with more haste than delicacy — flesh, hair, entrails and skin being _ greedily eaten together. It may be here remarked that in accordance with the opinion of some of the guides, the panther, like others of our wild animals, is quite local in its habitation, the guides telling of one having a large and well marked footprint, which for four or five years has resided upon asmall mountain homestead of about twenty- five square miles, always returning after his occasional progresses to his more distant dominions. These long di- rect journeys are also a strongly marked peculiarity of the 16 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. panther. In the love of locality the panther shows a simi- larity to the common cat — Felis domestica — and leads us to surmise whether the strange affection which the latter creature exhibits for home rather than an individual, is not the great, unextinguished wild trait of its character. Indications of the panther were also met with near Lake Tear-of-the-Clouds, and other guides reported tracks seen near the Boreas. Where the exact habitation of this par- ticular panther was we were unable to determine. Our advent must have annoyed him, for his trail was seen no more. Whether in the dark recesses among the rocks it found a home, or in some sunny glade with southern ex- posure, all sheltered from chilly northern gales with dense evergreens, we do not know. Next in importance to the panther in the list of species the trails of which were observed, is the gray or Canada lynx, the peeshoo or loup-cervier of the Indians — Lyncus borealis of De Kay, Felis canadensis of Richardson. Its large, bold footprints were observed on the southern slopes of Mount Marcy, and in the vicinity of little Lake Tear. Like the panther, it was also rabbit hunting, its footprints being visible superimposed upon those of its game, in the little paths which they had beaten inthe snow. This large and apparently powerful animal, by some woodmen erron- eously called cat-a-mount, owes its imposing appearance to its heavy, dense covering of fur; and when deprived of its skin is so much reduced in size as to seem almost like another animal, the body looking much smaller, though the limbs and paws maintain the aspect of great strength. It is also entirely carnivorous, yet it is said by some to be good eating, its flesh resembling that of the rabbit. The flesh of any animal so purely carni- vorous, cannot, however, be considered fit food for man. Its usual residence is in the dense lowland swamps, and its presence at the altitude of over four thousand three hundred feet in the gorges of the mountains indicates that it is not Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 17 the swamps, but their inhabitants — the rabbit — that he desires. The trapping by a guide of two of these creatures near Elk lake, where the trail leaves it for Mount Marcy, seems to refute in some degree the opinion advanced by De Kay that it has no repugnance to water. The shallow and narrow outlet of the lake is nearly spanned at one point by a fallen tree which was selected by a pair of lynx as a bridge. A trap being set midway upon the log, one of the creatures was captured, after which occurrence, unwarned by the fate of its companion, which could easily have been avoided if it had stepped through the shallow water, the other lynx, following the same-path, planted its foot also in the trap. This is an animal which we might expect in a high, cold region, for to its general distribution through- out British America even to the shore of the Arctic sea, it owes its well earned title of Canadian. It is not re- corded as having been met with in the State more than about one degree to the south of Mount Marcy. One morning, this winter, as we ascended the steep slopes of Mount Skylight through the deep, freshly fallen snow, a dog belonging to one of the guides broke away fiercely upon a fresh trail, and filling the woods with his eager cry, combined into irregular echoing melody by the surrounding mountains, coursed his game to and fro, under the ledges and along the mountain sides to the steeper slopesof Marcy. An inspection of the trail showed the footprints of a black cat —the Mustela canadensis the animal often improperly known as the fisher — impro- perly because he is not a fisher, as it seldom eats other fish than those which it is able to steal from an angler. The footprints of this animal were frequently met with at different times and in different places upon Mount Marcy, the trail indicating animals different in size and age, so that it is probable that a number of these creatures make this vicinity their home. A carnivorous animal, agile and powerful withal, it was like its companion carnivora, Trans, ix.] 3 18 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. hither come in search of rabbits, with (judging from the trail) an occasional diversion after mice, or other small game. Its inhabiting these mountain heights directly re- futes the assertion that it does not frequent the same ele- vated regions as the martin. In one place we observed where a black-cat at play had climbed to the summit of a huge rock, and doubling his forward paws beneath him, slid downward, ploughing up the snow. When pursued by the dog they invariably took to their heels, and in long, easy leaps sped out upon the icy rocks fronting the pre- cipitous sides of the mountain, and passed safely across the glary surface of the avalanch-swept slides. Constantly ranging, it seems to have no fixed habitation, and gene- rally selects the night for its travel and its depredations. The fourth of these mountain dwellers is the sable, of rich, rare fur and regal name; the Mustella martes of natural- ists. This beautiful and rare animal, judging from the frequent tracks, is quite abundant in the forests on the side of Mount Marcy. It here occupies a region of country which owing to its elevation and coldness greatly resembles the semi-arctic portions of British America, and it is in- teresting to remark that no traces of it were found above the timber line on the open, barren sub-alpine portion of the mountain, in this respect maintaining the habits of their race, which — according to Hearne and Pennant, are never found in the barren lands near Behring’s straits, either in America or Asia, though abundant in the scrubby forests margining the open. Thus this interesting little animal may be said to become a measure in climatology, and serves to give us as clear a conception of the relation of our mountain summits to the boreal regions of the con- tinent, as does the better known arctic flora. Alas for the poor rabbit, as though not sufficiently persecuted, he finds in the sable an insatiable foe. Hither and thither through the dwarf forest he pursues them ; or, creeping stealthily, leaps upon one and opens its life blood upon the-snow. oT Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 19 Once this winter I came upon a spot where a sable had killed a rabbit, evidently by seizing it by the throat and opening its veins. From the scene of slaughter a deep gouge-like depression in the snow, with footprints, showed where the sable had drawn away its quarry. Tracks of the ermine, Putorius noveboracensis were re- cognized in one place but it does not appear to be common ; nor were the tracks of other weasel distinctly recognized. And now we come to the rabbit, as it is popularly called, more properly known as the white orvarying hare — Lepus americanus. Poor creature, it seems but created to be de- stroyed, yet isso abundant as to bear the inroads of its foes without apparent diminution. Timid and harmless, it seems to have the widest or most extensive range of any of the animals of North America, being found throughout nearly the whole of the British possessions from the Atlan- tic to the Pacific. Asa true, varying hare, that is, annu- ally changing its color, it seems to be confined to the districts of cold winters, and has everywhere the character of an inhabitant of boreal regions. The wonderful provi- sion of nature, by which it is as well secured from obser- vation in winter as in summer, is its most noticeable characteristic; and it is the more to be remarked, as with the exception of the ermine and weasel, it seems to be the only varying animal inhabiting the State. In 1872, in September, I captured a living specimen on the summit of Whiteface mountain at an altitude of 4,900 feet. It was then of an even fawn-brown color and showed no sign of change. Early in November, in 1873, we met with many already turned entirely white, the snow having gained a depth of from a foot to eighteen inches. One or two glimpses of them this winter served to show that they were more like scudding snow than any animated thing. Their range upon Mount Marcy does not appear to extend above five thousand feet, while upon the Rocky mountains of our great west, I met with them at an altitude of 12,000 20 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. feet above the sea, associated with the ptarmigan and coney. Here, as among the snowy peaks of Colorado, I observed that while in the cold upper regions of ice and snow the hare had changed in color to its white winter coat, in the lowlands to which the snow had not yet reached they were still brown or mottled white and brown, indicating that they do not move from their locali- ties with the coming of winter, and that climate controls the changing of their color. It may be possible that the polar hare, Lepus glacialis of Leach, has a home upon our high peaks, but this is as yet undetermined. The common red squirrel, Sciurus hudsonicus, we found at an altitude of about 4,000 feet, increasing in abundance with decrease of altitude. The trails indicated that it was pursued and preyed upon by the sable. This sqairrel here feeds on the seeds of the black spruce. While engaged in trigonometrical work on the marsh, at the head of Lake Tear, from which during a thaw the snow had entirely disappeared, the guide’s dog, which had been digging furiously for some time in the deep peat moss, suddenly drove from its burrow a good sized animal of the rat kind, resembling in size and color the star-nosed mole. Its rapid disappearance in some other hiding place prevented more than a brief glimpse of it. There was, however, a suggestion of resemblance to one of the geo- mys or sand rats. In color it was dark blue or gray-black, andits length in the neighborhood of six inches. The soil in which it burrowed was (below the moss and peat) a coarse sand and fine gravel. The food of the animal is probably vegetable, the roots reached by its burrows. Tracks of deer-mice were observed on the slopes of the mountain at all elevations not exceeding about four thou- sand feet; and, occasionally the minute trail of a small shrew, supposed to be the Sorex fosteri, or Forster’s shrew. I noticed in many places where, as described by Richard- son, it would leave the surface of the snow by descending ad Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 21 some one of the little vertical tunnels left around some bough or branch or small sapling. This wonderful little animal inhabits even the desolate regions within the arctic circle, as far north as latitude 67 degrees. Richardson re- marks that “‘ The power of generating heat must be very great in this diminutive creature to preserve its slender limbs from freezing when the temperature sinks to 40 or 50 degrees below zero.” If it is capable of enduring such a temperature, I am indeed surprised, as in 1872, early on a cold icy morning, on the summit of Mount Seward, the ground being covered with snow, I caught, alive, an active little specimen, which, to my surprise actually expired in my hands, apparently from cold. Nevertheless it seems if not handled to be able to survive the most severe Adiron- dack winters. Of birds, but three varieties have left their footprints on the snows of Mount Marcy, the raven, the partridge (ruffled grouse) and snow birds. I never before met with a raven in the vicinity of Mount Marcy, but on my first ascent this winter as we mounted the ledges at the head of the great slide, a number of these huge birds arose, and uttering their peculiar hoarse croak, departed on slow, heavy-flap- ping pinions, regardless of revolver shots that followed them. The raven, therefore, is a winter habitant of Mount Marcy, leaving his footprints on the snowy ledges at 5,000 feet above the sea. Early in last November, in one of our almost daily as- cents of Mount Marcy, an eagle was noticed floating and circling with outstretched wings at about the height of the summit of the peak. It was apparently of the baldheaded variety. A large hawk—species unknown — was observed on another occasion, and:one evening while we were de- scending from our labors, being still above the timber line, a great owl sailed past, gazing upon us with huge eyes that appeared expressive of extreme wonder. During the second or third day of survey work upon the 22 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. summit of the mountain, late in the afternoon, a shout of surprise from one of the guides caused me to look quickly to the northward, where, judge my astonishment, not over twenty or thirty rods from us a flock of six wild geese flying with wonderful velocity, came towards us, passed over and were gone. The faint, distant honk of the leader seeming to imply that they were bound for warmer lati- tudes. The wild goose is not an inhabitant of the Adiron- dacks, and these were evidently coming from more northern waters. This afforded, perhaps, the first opportunity of determining the height at which wild geese travel during their migrations. They seemed neither to ascend nor to descend, but kept a level course, and what is most re- markable, that course was as near the true astronomical meridian asit seems possible that a bird can fly! I would estimate the altitude of the flock in their flight at about 5,500 feet above the ocean level. It was the last place where I should have expected to haveseen wild geese. A single discharge of a fowling-piece, had one been at hand, might have brought them all to the ground. The Canada jay, Garrulus canadensis, was observed in the vicinity of little Lake Tear early in the winter, but with the increase of cold and snow seemed to leave the inhos- pitable heights, and descend to the depths of the Panther gorge. This might have been owing to the attractions of our camp, around which they fluttered in search of scraps. A large, dark plumaged wood-pecker was noticed ope- rating upon the spruce-trees at different points in the Panther gorge and on the slopes of the mountains, at an altitude of from 3,000 to 3,500 feet above tide. The species was not determined, but from its appearance it was supposed to be the Picus villosus or hairy wood-pecker. Large flocks of the white snow bird, Plectrophanes nivalis, were observed upon the snows, around the summit of Mount Marcy on different days; and once or twice two or three of a more plainly marked snow bird, judged to be a Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 23 the Lapland (P. lapponicus) were noticed. A small bird, not recognized, was seen feeding upon the cones of the spruce. In entomology but few observations were made. In- sects are the creatures of the summer. Bleak snows and freezing temperatures prohibit their appearance. During the latter portion of last October, the snows on Mount Marcy half disappeared from the open mountain in conse- quence ofa thaw. This snow had been six inches deep in the valleys, a thousand feet below the summit. At this time I noticed fluttering above the chilly rocks of the open summit, above the timber line, a few solitary insects. A small moth which I caught proved entirely unknown to our accomplished State entomologist, and was forwarded by him to Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., for examination. Dr. Packard recognizes it as the (Cheimatobia), Operhoptera boreata found in different portions of the country, and ac- cording to the doctor, ‘‘ abuudantly in Alaska.” [also found a beetle during this thaw crawling upon the very summit of the peak. In the spruce forest of the Panther gorge, at the foot of the mountain, many of the trees were observed to have been attacked by insects, probably the small beetles de- scribed by the State botanist in a recent paper before this Institute (Hylurgus rufipennis and Apate rufipennis Kirby). These trees were the resort of wood-peckers, who seemed _to have a most active interest in the beetles or insects, piercing the bark everywhere, in search of them, and co- vering the snow at the foot of the trees with the fragments of bark. Turning from the consideration of the animals which we have found in this cold upland region in winter, to those which, though their presence in such a locality might have been expected, are absent, we find the principal absentees to be :— 24 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. First. The moose, caraboo, deer, and the small orcommon gray rabbit. The marmot and the chipmunk or ground- squirrel are not to be expected, being winter sleepers, and seldom appearing during severe winters. Second. The bear, porcupine, raccoon, wild cat or bay- lynx, wolf, fox, and the skunk —and, among birds the ptarmigan, blue-jay and cedar-bird. Early hunters and explorers assert that about half a century ago the moose was abundant and the caraboo or reindeer sometimes found on the upland barrens. They are not now found anywhere in this vicinity either in sum- mer or winter. The absence of the deer is more remarka- ble, but this may be readily accounted for by the cold, barren and sterile character of the country, and attractions of the more inviting lowlands, abounding in rich, juicy browse. Early in the winter the bear might have been expected, but not a single trail was seen, though within half a dozen miles in the lowlands their paw-writiugs in the snow were exceedingly abundant, and indeed hardly a week passed without the trapping and killing of one or more by guides, so that bear’s meat, boiled, fried or roast — in default of anything better — became in our camp a constant dish. To the skull of one of these bears, shot by a guide in the Round mountain notch, I would call your attention, for a peculiarity in its dentition, as it lacks the exact number of teeth to which, according to classification it is properly entitled. This bear was killed at a spot ele- vated about 2,000 feet above tide. The porcupine (urson) can have no other excuse for its absence than the over abundance of the black-cat—its mortal enemy— who may possibly have exterminated it in this section. The absence of the wolf may be accounted for by his general scarcity; that of the fox by his being far too cunning to be found in any such cold country, and the raccoon also as a lover of the warmer lowlands could hardly be ex- pected. The absence of the small gray rabbit or hare is a Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. 25 little surprising; perhaps it may yet be met with. The ptarmigan or white partridge is sought for in vain, and probably does not exist within the State. It would, undoubtedly, if introduced, find a livelihood upon the open or barren portion of Mount Marcy in summer, and secure sufficient support among the small dwarf timber in winter. The blue jay which I noticed frequently this season at altitudes of from 1,000 to 2,500 feet did not show itself upon Mount Marcy, nor was a specimen of cedar bird noticed anywhere, even in the valleys or lowlands. But what a strange and wonderful winter habitation have these mountain dwellers. The peak’s appearance at a distance is now that of a vast snow cone or dome uprear- ing itself against the dark blue vault of heaven. Black ledges here and there show themselves in deep, sharp con- trast with the spotless mantling around, and dark ever- green forests slope upward from the gloomy depths of the gorges; breaking, as the ledges are reached, into long, upward trending curves or belts of timber that struggle up the cliffs, diminishing and dwarfing till the timber line is reached. From the icy summit we behold a very different view. We stand upon the highest land in New York, the centre of an icy citadel! Frozen clouds drift slowly and wearily below. Away to the south and west in billows and billows of dazzling silver, they extend to where the horizon joins with them in mingled brilliancy. The sun sinks slowly westward. Behind us on each mountain side the deepening shadows of other mountains climb. The gorges begin to fill with unutterable gloom; and now the sinking sun shakes from itself for one moment the haze and mist, and covers our mountain with a burst of glory that makes it seem transfigured. All the frost wreathed forest on the sun-side slopes, bursts into sparkling light, each tree a weird Christmas tree, adorned Trans. ix. | 4 26 Winter Fauna of Mount Marcy. with wonderful and fantastic frost work as though the frozen clouds had midst their limbs become entangled and, settling, enwrapped them all in silver fleece. The sun descends amidst the clouds; each white mountain peak beams with faintest crimson—then all is gray and . chill and night. PINON \G EAMONN TITIAN Ih Ti BR a Si sI=I - Jonkers Sty eet. . - a LRA WA Yoh YAR) NAAN ROU A SI ve GCN a PLAN OF ALBANY, 1699. 6. Stadhuis, or City Hall. 7. Blockhouses. 9. Great gun to clear a gulley. 10. Stockades. 11. City gates 6 in all 1. The fort. 2. Dutch church. 3. Lutheran church. 4. Its burial place. 5. Dutch church do. MEN AND THINGS IN ALBANY TWO CENTURIES AGO, AND THE ORIGIN OF THE DUTCH AND ENGLISH CHURCHES. By Jozi MUNSELL. [Read before the Albany Institute, April 18, 1876.] This diagram of the ancient city of Albany I used when speaking of the city a few weeks since, as it existed a hundred years ago; but the map belongs to a much earlier date. A hundred years ago, in the time of the revolution, the stockades had been extended to Hamilton street on the south, and the north gate stood a little above Orange street. [now propose to take youon atour about thestreets within the purlieus of these quaint old walls, for the pur- _ pose of pointing out, by the aid of the map, some inte- resting localities as they existed two hundred years ago, and to revive a memory of men and things long since departed, ’ and whose places are now so differently occupied. "Phe original of this profile was made by the Rev. John Miller, chaplain of the English grenadiers in New York, who was the only Episcopal clergyman in the colony trom 1693 to 1695, when he made drawings of the few military defenses then existing within the borders of this state. As we know from the present configuration of this portion of Albany, the map could not have differed much from the actual form of the city within its wooden walls. Pearl and Beaver streets are the only thoroughfares which the common council has left unchanged in name of all that this plan exhibits. It will be seen that the streets have now very nearly the same direction as then, and that the present curvatures were conformed to the courses which the stock- ades gave them. ‘0L9T ‘ANV@'IV AO NV'Td 7 Of ak EU oo ~ — 40814 1eBsoIu0d0¢ Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 31 The oldest map of the city that has come down to us, which is supposed to be about thirty years older than this, extends its boundaries no farther west than the upper or west line of Pearl street, and extended north and south from Steuben to Hudson street. It exhibits these streets now known as Broadway, State, and Maiden Lane. The figures 1-6, refer to the gates. Brug, indicates where the Rutten kil was crossed by a bridge. I hardly need to mention perhaps that those stockades were composed of pine logs thirteen feet in length, and about one foot in diameter, somewhat tapered at the end set in the ground, and were dowelled together near the top, leaving ten feet above the surface. The lines which they formed were changed from time to time, to afford more space for the increasing population, and undecayed portions of them are sometimes met with in digging for the found- ations of ew buildings. When excavations were made a few years ago for the basement of the building on the south-west corner of North Pear] and Canal streets, the workmen uncovered a row of stumps of a stockade, which ran cornerwise across - the lot, and a crowd of persous unacquainted with these ancient defenses was gathered there inquisitive regarding the origin of the phenomenon. At the period represented by this diagram the north gate was at the upper end of Handlaer street, forming the barrier at the junction of what isnow Broadway, and Steu- ben street, and the south gate was at Hudson street. There were no cross streets at these extremities, but what they termed the rounds passage was kept open for the patrol in times of threatened attack by the Indians or French. What is now South Pearl street was only a narrow ir- regular lane leading to the Lutheran church and its burial ground adjoining on the south, bounded by the open Rutten kil, and all below, beyond the stockades, was called the plain. A gate swung across this lane at State street, and 32 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. the house ;that stood on the lower corner is represented to have been elaborately finished compared with most of the houses of the time, being wainscotted and ornamented with tiles and carvings. Itis found that this lot, nine rods on Jonker street, was patented in 1667 to Cornelis Steen- wyck, and that Capt. John Schuyler occupied 55 feet of it in 1680. In that year what is now Norton street was laid out, ——— FUUUAET| = SHH TAA eS ———————————— ——$—$— —— = [= SSS = ir SEPT TOA ————=$— [i The Staats House, corner of State and South Pearl streets. and was to have been continued to Broadway. The opening of this street extended the State street lots across the Rutten kil southward which before bounded on that stream. Before Pearl street was opened to its present width, the corner house, removed for that purpose, was long known as Lewis’s tavern. In one of these twin houses Madame Schuyler, the American Lady of Mrs. Grant, resided, dur- ing the time her house at the Flats was being rebuilt, and Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 33 in one of them Gen. Philip Schuyler of the revolution is said to have been born. The committee of safety held its sessions here also. The street was for many years known as Washintgon street. The house now remaining on that corner is regarded as the oldest edifice in the city. There formerly ran across the front of these two houses, under the eaves, in iron letters, the words Anno Domini; and below, over the first story, the figures, alsoin iron, 1667. When the upper house was taken away, the word AWW was left on the house still standing, and remains there now conspicu- ously ; ; and I well remember when the figures were there also; but the owner, who was proud of them for a time, Eaesived the notion that the great age of his house tended to depreciate its value, and removed them. As I am now speaking of matters pertaining to the pre- sent century, I may, with propriety, mention that Gov. John Tayler lived on the corner of Green street, and that after his death his house was removed anda portion of the lot taken to widen that street, about 1832. Gov. Tayler died in 1829, aged nearly 87. He bad filled a large space in the political history of the state, and was the first ’ president of the State Bank, where his portrait may now be seen. Green street was early spoken of as the Vodden markt, that is, the Rag market, and later as Cheapside. It was finally named Greene street, in compliment to Gen. Greene of the revolution, and, raising a point in orthography it should on that account be written with a finale. Some of you will remember when it was a narrow street, merely wide enough to allow the passage of a single vehicle; and the city then being thronged with stage coaches — for at that period travelers were taken to every point of the com- pass by stage, and there being then three famous taverns, before they came to be called hotels, and Bement’s recess there also —it was often so blocked that passage could be made but one way, and that was usually to the south. Trans. ix. | 4) 34 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. There was the old Stone tavern, kept by James Colvin, and on the corner of Beaver was Dunn’s coffee house, while on the upper corner of Green and Beaver was the City tavern, kept by Peter Germond, and previously by Hugh Denniston, known in colonial times as the King’s Arms. The ancient sign of this house bore the effigy of King George, and one of the early outbursts of patriotism in tbe revolution spent its fury in wresting that obnoxious em- blem of royalty from its hangings, and it was burnt in State street. | The mansion of Gov. Tayler, on the lower corner of State and Greene streets, is still dimly remembered, a broad two story house with a hipped roof, the front door divided in the centre into an upper and a lower door, like most of the old doors, the stoop provided with a bench on each side of the door, where he often sat in pensive con- templation after the manner of early times. On the opposite corner of Green street, is still standing the store of the renowned William James, the merchant prince of the time, but less imposing in appearance now than when surrounded by one and a halfstory gable enders, and when five-story edifices were unknown. Mr. James died in 1832. His conspicuous position among the mer- chants of Albany, and his almost unparalleled prosperity in those days of lesser things, can hardly be appreciated by the younger portion of merchants. Another magnate was James Caldwell, whose residence was the present store of Smith & Covert, and his place of business was the Gable hall adjoining it. In my recollection portions of nearly all the houses from Pearl street to Broadway on the south side of State street, were occupied by families, and not a few gable enders were among them. Mr. John Van Zandt, the ancient cashier of the Bank of Albany, who was then nearly ninety years old, told me it was tradi- tional that in those days of primitive simplicity and honesty, the houses on that side had an area or grass plat Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 35 ae in front, upon which it was no unusual practice to leave clothes out all night to bleach. Going back again a hundred years before the times mentioned as having tried men’s souls, we find ourselves in the neighborhood of the Dutch church. The portion of Handelaer street below State was not yet known as Court street, nor the upper portion as Market street. Be- tween State and Beaver was what was called the Great bridge, over the Rutten kil. The Rutten kil had its origin in copious springs on the upper side of Lark street, and as if out of the pond that once stood there, I perceive has arisen the spire of an imposing church edifice. Timbers of great length were sometimes ordered by the common council to span this creek in making repairs to the bridge. It was undoubtedly then a formidable stream, which had been populous with beaver and stocked with fish; now merely a sewer, with an exuberance of rodents! Adjoining the creek on the south side was the residence of Pieter Schuyler, the first mayor of Albany,son of Phi- lip Pietersen Van Schuyler (1650), who often wrote his name simply Philip Pieter- sen, that is, Philip the son of Pieter, to distinguish himself from some other Philip, per- haps, such being one of the mysteries of the ancient Dutch nomenclature, chiefly useful in our time to puzzle the student in antiquarian fet; lore. If one has the perse- a m= +verance to overcome the dif- = ficulties thus thrown in his Portrait of Pieter Schuyler. way, it is suggested whether he might not be regarded as entitled to the degree of 36 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. LL.D.— Learned in Low Dutch! This Pieter Schuyler, the mayor of 1686, is memorable for having accompanied the Mohawks to England, in the time of Queen Anne and the Spectator, on which occasion his portrait was painted, as is supposed by Sir Godfrey Kneller, and is still preserved at the Flats among the family relics, by Mr. John Schuyler. The accompanying engraving is copied from it. State street below Broadway was called Abram Staats’s alley, because the doctor, the progenitor of the Staatses of Beverwyck (1642), occupied the front of the Exchange lot, and behind him on the east was the brewery of Vol- kert Janse Douw, the first of that name here also (1638). The residence of Volkert Janse was on the upper corner of State street opposite, which lot has belonged to the family uearly 250 years. Probably there is not another instance like it in the city, if we except that of Van Rensselaer. This alley was afterwards extended in width, and called Little State street, and finally widened to its present ex- tent, and the term Little dropped. When I see the lower part of the street several feet under water, and the owners of stores wading about in rubber boots prodigiously elon- gated upwards, or paddling about in boats to learn if their goods have been lifted above high water mark, ] am re- minded of the tradition told me by Cornelius Truax, half a century ago, that when the Yankees came over and began to build below Dean street, the Dutchmen told them that if they had seen the river break up they would not build there. Here we recognize on the map the late Exchange street, formerly known as Mark lane, now obliterated to give verge aud scope to the ambitious designs of the govern- ment architect of the new custom house. A street or alley ran down between this street and Maiden lane, which was long since closed up; and next comes Maiden lane itself, spoken of in the records as Rom street — the origin of the name can only be conjectured. Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 37 On the lower corner of Maiden lane and Broadway, Harmen Harmense Van Gansevoort, so he wrote his name (1660), the progenitor of that name here, purchased the lot in 1667 of Paulus Martense Van Benthuysen, the first of the Van Benthuysens here, and located a brewery,. which gave to the lower part of the street the name of Brouwer’s straat. Here,in a house standing within the | " : ; | | . | | | | Vf | i il! [Fane if — NorTH MARKET STREET, 1805. 2 Gansevoort. 4 Hun. 8 Market. 10 James Kane. 11 Church. memory of the sexagenarian, was born the famous Gen. Gansevoort, of the revolution, whose son, just passed away, erected a noble edifice to mark the habitation of his ancestor, the hero of Fort Stanwix, the present Stanwix Hall hotel. Other notable citizens of the olden time might be men- tioned here, if time and your patience would permit. The space between the city wall at Steuben street was 38 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. also called the rounds passage, twenty feet wide. In time of peace the common council had much difficulty to keep the owners of adjoining lots from infringing upon it. These defenses were a great tax upon the people, and severe orders in council were often issued compelling per- sons to haul their quota of logs to repair the stockades opposite their premises, and occasionally it is found that a woman, somewhat tardy in performing the same service, is sternly commanded to “ ride’’ her stockades. Outside of the stockades north on the line with Pearl street, was erected in 1710, by the father of Col. Jacob Lansing of the revolution, the house still standing there, : i i | Mi = and known as the Pemberton house, on the corner of Columbia street. This house was so constructed that no two adjoining rooms were on the same level, but on step- ping out of one room into another it was necessary to ascend or descend two or three steps to the next. The ceilings were not lath-and-plastered, but the beams and sleepers were polished and waxed, and the jambs of the fire places were faced with porcelain, ornamented with Men and Thingsin Albany Two Centuries Ago. 39 scripture scenes. The same peculiarity may be seen in the construction of the floors of the Staats house, now the cor- ner of State and South Pear! streets. For a long time the north gate was at Steuben street, defended by a block-house, on which cannon were mounted. There were matters of some interest beyond it, but we can merely stop to mention the great fire of 1797, which rendered one hundred and fifty families houseless, from Steuben street northward —the second great fire of the city. In returning to State street, we pass the residence of Dr. Samuel Stringer, of the revolution, still remaining in NortTH MARKET STREET, WEST SIDE, 1825. 17 Barent Bleeker. 18 John H. Wendell. 19 Dr. Stringer. 22 Sanders Lansing. 23 Chancellor Lansing. the block on the west side of Broadway below Steuben, but somewhat disguised by modern changes. This was the first house in which white marble was used for sills and caps for windows. Adjoining his office on the south, dwelt Gen. John H. Wendell, of the revolution. These two veterans adhered to the costume of the olden time till their decease, the latter being the last of the cocked hats, in 1832. This part of Handelaer street, that is, Merchant’s or Trader’s street, came to be called Market street about 40 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 1790, when a market-house was built in the centre of it below Maiden lane. Noticing trifles as we proceed, I will mention that this market was removed to a vacant lot behind the old Lutheran church, now forming the corner of Howard and William streets, where it was long famous as Cassidy’s and Friedenreich’s market, but more signifi- cantly termed the Fly market, and still stands there, in the guise of an oyster shop and a sample room — an insti- tution unknown to the ouders under that name. We have now returned to one of the most notable locali- ties of this notable city —the Dutch church. But before entering its venerable porch, allow me to speak of its pre- decessor, the first church of the colonists, built, we are told, in the pine grove, somewhere in the neighborhood of the present steam boat landing, in 1644. Being the first church edifice erected in this region, it serves to mark the progress of church architecture to mention that it was provided with pews for the magistrates and deacons, and nine benches for the congregation, at an expense of about $38. Here Megapolensis was engaged in his ministrations when, in 1648, the grim Peter Stuyvesant came up from Manhattan, and took possession of Fort Orange and all that eligible ground, and four years later forced the inhabit- ants that had settled around it to remove, aud give scope to the guns placed there to defend it. He also seized a strip of the patroon’s manor, one mile wide and fourteen miles long, in the name of their high mightinesses, the states general of Holland. This gives Albany its singular appearance on the map, which so many have remarked without being able to account for. It gave the govern- ment a military road through the patroon’s manor into the vast country beyond. | The people being forced away from Fort Orange, began more actively to build on the higher ground at the corners of State street and Broadway, and the new cluster of habi- tations was called Beverwyck. The patroon had already Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 41 planted his colony farther north, and his tenants stretched along the territory extending from Stuyvesant’s city line northward, known as the Colonie, the nucleus of Rens- selaerswyck. Speaking of the city line gives occasion to mention that when Gov. Stuyvesant took possession of the territory which afterwards comprised the city of Albany, he planted a cannon at Fort Orange and firing a ball north it struck the ground at Quackenbush street, and the ball sent sonth spent its force at Gansevoort street; and the territory within that space, about onc mile in distance, was made the bounds of the future city, and the lines run at right angles with the shore of the river at this point, gave a northwesterly direction to the tract so taken for public use; and the English governor, Dongan, in 1685, exacted this concession from the patroon before granting him a patent for the manor. These different villages or settlements led to misunder. standing, the whole region being often designated as Fort Orange, whereas the fort was the government seat, located on the exact ground now occupied by the Susquehanna rail road office. Beverwyck was a distinct hamlet or village, -and so called until the English took possession of the country in 1664, when its name was changed to Albany. But the Dutch recovered their territory in 1673, when for about a year it was known as Willemstadt. After the church was removed from Fort Orange, the foot of State street was chosen for its location, where it was built and occupied in 1656. It was a small wooden structure, which remained in use about sixty years. The circumstances leading to its successor in 1715 are some- what curious and iuteresting. The occupancy of the country by the English, according to the usual course of things, attracted the immigration of another nationality, officers of the government and adventurers of all pursuits, who in course of time proceeded to organize a church dif- ferent from the established one of the Dutch Reformed, Trans. ix. | 6 42 Menand Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. whose services were conducted in a language unintelligible to the new comers, and they determined to build a house of worship. Taking no counsel of the Dutch, they fixed upon a site at the head of State street, under the guns of the fort, opposite Chapel street, and applied to Gov. Hunter for the ground. He gave permission to take sixty by ninety feet, and supplied all the stone and lime for the building. The common council regarded this proceeding as an un- warrantable infringement of their rights, claiming that the charter conferred the title to the ground upon them, and offering the English an eligible site for their church else- where, forbade its location in the street. The governor and rector being inexorable to all remonstrances, and the crisis being imminent, they sent an express to New York in a canoe for the advice of two eminent counsel. Mean- while the workmen disregarding the injunction of the council, two masons were imprisoned for contempt; but they were admitted to bail or liberated by the governor and the work went on to completion. It was a stone edi- fice forty-two by fifty-eight feet, without a tower, and was opened for service in 1716. The Dutch Reformed, finding themselves unable to shape the business to their liking, set ab-ut a much wiser enter- prise. ‘They began the erection of a new church of stone, on an enlarged scale, and pursued the work with a zeal and alacrity which has ever since been a subject of admira- tion to their posterity. The foundations were laid around the old church, and «he walls carried up and enclosed before the old one was taken down, and carried out through the doors and windows, so that the customary services were interrupted only three Sundays, and they occupied it before the English had completed theirs. It stood in use until 1805, a period of 90 years, and it is recorded in a Dutch Bible now in the possession of Dr. Thomas Hun, that a child baptized in the church on the first Sunday it was so used, was Elizabeth Vinhagen, and that the church bell Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 43 was tolled for the last time at her burial, she having died in her 92d year. The Dutch Church of 1715-1806. The street was now occupied by this church at its foot, by a market house below Pearl street, and by the Episco- pal church at its upper extremity; while the battlements. of the fort stood upon a lofty eminence overlooking the city, and stretching nearly across the entire width of the present street on the west line of Lodge street, the road to Schenectady winding around its angles. We are now prepared to enter the church and inspect its interior. The porch was on the south side, and the an- cient stepping stone was retained in its original position half a century after the church was removed, serving to point out the precise spot of the entrance to the vestibule, _ the wear of the footsteps of several generations in passing 44 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. to their devotions having given it a peculiar conformation. Tenants of the opposite buildings watched it for many years with pious care when the pavement was being repaired ; but when they had passed away, some one lacking know- ledge insisted that it was wrongly placed and induced the paver to remove it to the centre of the street, after which it was thrown out. altogether and lost to the antiquary. The church stood so nearly across the street, that only a cart-way remained on either side. In length it extended east and west. Ou entering the audience room, the pulpit was observed on the north side, octagonal in form, barely large enough for one to speak in, having a bracket in front on which was placed an hour-glass to measure the length of the pastor’s dis- course. Itserved the two edifices a hundred and fifty years, and is still preserved. The seats were —————— slips after the manner of modern churches, but instead of sitting in families, each sitter had an appropriate seat and cushion, which seat was occupied during life, and afterward transferred to the nearest of kin, on payment by the latter of a fee for the transfer. The seats accommodated 611 women, who occupied the entire body pews of the church, and there was an elevated bench extending around the wall, which afforded seats for seventy-nine men. This was the entire capacity of the church until galleries were added at a later day. It is traditional that when there was danger of invasion, the men sat with their guns by their sides, wearing their hats and muffs, and smoking their pipes during the sermon. The walls were perforated near the top, with loop holes for the use of musketry. To this vigilance the inhabitants owed their immunity from invasion. for the city was never beleaguered by any foe. Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 45 I have a plan of the interior of the church, the ground floor taken from a pen drawing of the slips, which had been promised to me for several years by Mr. Samuel Pruyn, and which he left with me, providentially, as we are accustomed to say of the smallest events, only two days before he died, or we would now have no clue to the form of theiuterior. It is seen from this that the bell was rung in the middle aisle, and that the stoves were placed on a level with the galleries, supported on posts, and that the smoke pipes went out through the wall. The last of the sextons in this church was Cornelis Van Schaick. Having finished ringing the bell he tied the bell rope around the post, placed in the aisle for the purpose, and went up into the galleries to inspect his fires. He clambered over the front of the galleries, and, having filled the stove with wood, closed the door with such unconscious force as to produce a tremendous bang. The fronts of the galleries were studded with nails, upon which the occupants of the seats hung their hats, as is seen in one of Hogarth’s pjctures, so that the manner and custom was not peculiar to this locality ; but it presented ’ a novelty to the stranger which was rendered the more picturesque and attractive by the variety of their style, color and condition. The roof was ceiled upon the rafters with boards, from the walls to the cupola, and a chandelier supplied with candles was suspended in the centre. The windows were in the-style of what is now termed French, that is in two frames opening laterally on hinges ; and were composed of smaller compartments or sashes, containing twelve panes each, representing the name and family arms of the person at whose expense it was placed there — the glass stained by a process said to be lost. The panes were about five inches square, and so little care was taken of these family escutcheons when the church was removed in 1806, that but four of them are known to have come down to our time entire. I havea portion of one of these sashes 46 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. bearing the name Herbertsen, 1657, the pane showing the crest having been given away before it came into my hands. ll | AER PIETERSEN SC COM MISSARIS | Te "WOE. i) | I fg a uti {i Church Window, 1656. The accompanying engraving of the window of Philip Schuyler, shows the style of all of them, except that it omits the division marks into 12 panes. Of the very few relics of the old church that were pre- served, was a pole with the bag attached to it, that had been used for many years in taking the collections. Those Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 47 collections were gathered ostensibly for the poor, for the only poor house was owned and maintained by the church. I can’t refrain from giving an instance of the expense of burying a church pauper. On the 15th of February, 1700, Ryseck, widow of Gerrit Swart, the last survivor of the church poor at that date, died and was buried on the 17th, the expenses of which are copied from the deacon’s book. It is entered in Dutch, but I think you will be content with English: Three dry boards for the coffin, 7 guilders 10 stuivers; 2 lb. nails, 1g. 10s.; making the coffin, 249.; cartage, 10s.; a half vat and an anker of good beer’ 279.; one gallon of rum, 21g.; 6 gall. Madeira for women and men, 84g.; sugar and spices, 5g.; 150 sugar cakes, 15g.; tobaccoand pipes, 4g. 10s.; digging the grave, 30g.; use of the pall, 129g.; inviting to the funeral, 129. ; Mary Lookermans was paid 69. for assistance at the burial, and Marritje Lieverse for nursing 39g. Total 289g., or $115.60. The expenses of maintaining this person four years had been 2,229 guilders 10 stuyvers. It was an important duty of the deacons to collect and disburse this poor fund, the accumulations of which at one ' time amounted to nearly fifteen thousand guilders. As early as 1647, three years after it was organized, the church was rich enough to loan money to the patroon, and the earliest record that remains in its archives is an item of a loan to a woman upon a pawn of silver ware. It was the province of the young deacons, as they were called, that is, of the two last elected to the office, to take up the col- lections. The custom was for the domine to halt in the midst of his sermon, when the deacons presented them- selves before the pulpit, facing the audience, with each his staff having the bag and bell attached, which they brought to a perpendicular position against their shoulders 1 An anker was 10 gallons, and a half vat about 11 gallons. Good beer was strong beer, ale. A guilder was nearly 40cts. and a stuyver was nearly 2cts. 48 = Menand Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. in military style, whereupon the pastor pronounced a bless- ing upon the collection about to be taken. These poles enabled them to pass the bag attached to it before every person in the slip, and if from any cause one was drowsy or otherwise inattentive, the tinkle of the bell gave notice of the required duty; then the bag was passed expertly over the heads in that slip and drawn leisurely back before the eyes of the occupants of the next one. The audience being thus thoroughly gleaned, and the domine having re- covered his breath, he resumed the broken thread of his discourse. The practice of taking collections during the sermon was discontinued in 1795, in the time of Domine Bassett. In those days of staid devotion, the capacity of church goers for theology must have been much greater than at present, for it is matter of record that discourses were sometimes dispensed in an almost uninterrupted cur- rent for the space of two hours. Now some of us tire after forty minutes discourse ; as if corroborating the theory of Buffon promulgated in the last century, that men and animals would deteriorate in this country ! In the first century of the colony, and some time later even, the currency of the country was principally wampum or sewan, the manufacture of the Indians from shells in the form of beads. The form of the receptacle of these collections concealed the amount of the gift, so that the munificent were not incited by ostentation, nor the needy to deposit their scanty pittance with difidence. The col- lection so taken, however, was not unfrequently plenti- fully mixed with a variety of coin unrecognized by the statute, consisting of any substance that fell into the bag with a chinking sound. The deacons, to rid themselves of this class of contributors, procured open plates; and al- though some of the sturdy mynheers resented the in- novation by turning their backs and refusing their contributions, the open plates finally carried the day, and the gleanings eleemosynary ceased to be mingled with Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 49 base coin. A sad fatality awaited the last relic of the old collection implements. An officer of the church, having only a practical appreciation for relics, cut the rod in two, and acquired a portion of it for a walking stick! Bodies were allowed to be buried under the church in consideration of the payment of a sum for the privilege. There was at first a grave-yard in the street, adjoining the church on the west, and when the lot on which the Middle Dutch church now stands was appropriated for a cemetery, the bodies under the church were not all re- moved, it may be inferred, for in digging a trench on the north side of State street last year, it perforated the old foundation still remaining there, and human bones were thrown out. The dead were borne on the shoulders of men from the church to the cemetery on Beaver street. Although a trite sunject to many of you, I will venture to mention that in process of time this ground on Beaver street was completely buried over, when a foot of sand was added to the surface, and a new tier of coffins placed upon the first, each coffin required to be square, and to be placed against the previous one. The ancient denizens ' of the city still repose there in three layers, and I wish every one of their descendants could be thoroughly im- bued with a filial sentiment of the impropriety, to say the least, of ever parting with that ground ; but that the church edifice now standing upon it might be preserved as a monument to the venerated dead beneath. The bones of Anneke Janse being supposed to rest there, and so great a multitude claiming descent from her, and large expecta- tions from her estate being so general, what adverse influ- ence might arise from a mercenary alienation of those bones, should give us pause ! Leaving this theme, we pass on to the place of the resi- dence of the famous Anneke Jans or in the pronunciation of the vernacular, Onneke Yonse, which was the corner of State and James streets, the present site of the Mechanics Trans. ix.] rf 50 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. and Farmers’ Bank. As is now well known, through the industry of Dr. O’Callaghan, she came to Albany in 1630, with her husband Roeloff Jansen van Maesterlandt — that is, Ralph the son of John from Maesterland—for many of these settlers had no surnames, but were known as being the sons of their fathers, or took the name of the trade they followed, or the place of their nativity in Holland. Roeloff Jansen died in New York in 1687, and his widow married Dom. Bogardus. He was lost at sea in 1647, and she re- turned to Albany, where she died in 1663. The New York bouwery, owned by her first husband, was on the west side of Broadway, extending along the river from Chambers to Canal street, with a strip running up to give an entrance from Broadway. Although this farm was sold to the government by her heirs, and payment made to them therefor, and afterwards formed a portion of what was known as the King’s farm, and subsequently donated by the government to Trinity church, a large number of per- sons are still entertaining a hope of deriving an inheritance from a partition of the premises. In the last century, when the Indian tribes came to the city to receive presents or pensions from the government, they were gathered in front of the block on the north side of State street, between James and Broadway, and seated along the curbstone, where a division was made among them per capita, men, women and children receiving alike. That square was entirely burnt over in 1793 — the largest conflagration known to have occurred down to that time — after which, about 1801, the Tontine, a grand hotel for the time, was built near the centre of the block, fronting on State street, a part of which remains in the stores of the late Abram Koonz and Durkee & Jenkins, topped out with two additional stories. There were no five story houses in the beginning of this century, perhaps none of four stories, unless we count some elevated gables. The narrow space known as Middle alley was opened to Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 51 its present width by curtailing the lots on the west side, and it was called James street. Frans Janse Pruyn, the first of the name here, is supposed to have located on the corner of Maiden lane as early as 1665, and his descendants occupied the premises until 1865, two hundred years, when it passed to other hands, the last occupants of the premises of that name having deceased without posterity. The first occupant of the Hope Bank corner was Evert Janse Wendell (1663-1704) the ancestor of a numerous posterity ; and on the cornerabove, Gerrit Wynantse located, the progenitor of the Vanderpoels. The old Lydius house, NORTH PEARL FROM STATE STREET. Elm Tree Corner. 3 Vanderheyden House. 6 Lydius House. which stood here till 1833, was taken down by Mr. George Dexter, who now owns the premises, and who thinks it was built by Dom. Schaets, and that all the material, bricks and timber, were brought from Holland. But as Dom. 52 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. Schaets was here from 1652 to 1683 as a preacher, when he was succeeded:by Dom. Dellius, and died in 1694; and that in 1664 the lot was patented to Jan Thomasse, after which it was transferred successively to Cornelius Steen- wyck, and Jochim Staats and Jacob Tysse Vanderheyden, all in the time of Domine Schaets, it is inferred that it must have been Domine Dellius or his successor, Domine Lydius (1700-1709), instead of Schaets, who had the house that stood there; which latter is the more plausible from the fact that his grandson, Balthasar Lydius, occupied the house and died there in 1815. The records are often quite fatal to the most fondly cherished traditions. Yet this was one of those quaint Dutch edifices so common half a cen- tury ago, when Pearl street, as well as the other streets of Albany, abounded in gable enders, surmounted by iron horses in the attitude of doing a mile in 2:40, and also by other devices, mindful in all seasons of the true course of the wind; and by various other ornamental conceits in mit i! A %. ned Viaridesiipales House. iron, designed to strike the beholder with awe and admi- ration. The Vanderheyden house especially, which occu- Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. - 53 pied the site of the Perry block, had a weird fame, and its fantastic iron finicals were so attractive to Washington Irving that he procured them when it was demolished to decorate Sunny-side. Passing to the elm tree corner, we have the site of the residence in the middle of the last century of Philip Living- ston, one of the signers (with whom the elm tree is sup- posed to be coeval); afterwards of the famous publishing house of Websters & Skinners, and now of Tweddle Hall. Adjoining it on the west is the mansion still standing erected by the younger brother of the Patroon, Philip 8. Van Rensselaer, seventeen years mayor of the city —now occupied by Erastus Corning. On the opposite side of State street, adjoining the property of the late Erastus Corning on the west, was the residence of Robert Yates, one of the !/a3)/ _ first justices of the Supreme Court of — 7 the state, and in 1790 chief justice. Ff 7 He was one of the members of the === convention that framed the constitu- Yates House. tion of the state, and also of the United States, and is characterized as a man of great intellectual powers. The site of this house is now occupied by the residence of Plilip Wendell. This serves very nearly to complete the circuit of the city, as far as we have time to observe and comment upon it, seldom containing within its wooden walls 3,000 in- habitants, nearly a third of whom were soldiers and blacks. It is fonnd that the population in 1689 was 2,016. In 1697 the census ordered by Gov. Fletcher enumerated but 1449, showing a diminution of 567, of which 16 had been taken prisoners, 84 killed by the enemy, 39 deceased, and 419 had removed to places of greater safety. On the con- clusion of the war between England and France the popu- lation rapidly increased for nearly half a century. 54 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. The Indians who came to dispose of their furs were lodged in Indian houses outside of the stockades, not being allowed to remain over night within the gates, so watchful were the authorities against surprise at all times. The Stadhuis, or City Hall, on the corner of Broadway and Hudson streets, served for the courts, the meetings of the common council, and for the confinement of criminals. In the time of the revolution disaffected persons and all sorts of desperate characters were confined herein unusual = numbers. At one time seve- - ral who had been condemned ~ to execution were incarcer- = ated in a lower room, where “the door of the apartment : =_ swung in a place cut out The City Hall, 1806. lower than the level of the floor. When the sheriff came to take them out he found the door barricaded. He procured a heavy piece of timber and endeavored to batter down the door. During the attempt the voices of the prisoners were heard threatening death to those who should persevere in the effort to molest them, stating that they had laid a train of powder to blow up themselves and their assailants. While a crowd gathered and were looking on to see the end of this sin- gular affair, some one suggested the idea of getting at them through the ceiling. The prisoners renewed their threats of vengeance, certain, speedy and awful while this was being effécted. The assailants persevered, nevertheless, and having brought the fire engine, the room was suddenly inundated and the train rendered harmless. How to de- scend was still a difficulty, as but one could do so ata time, and the disproportion of physical strength that apparently awaited the first intruder, for some time prevented the He li. mo om os { My TR |! i ait Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. 55 attempt. At last a merchant, by the name of McDole, exclaimed, “ give me an Irishman’s gun,and I will go first.”’ He was provided with a formidable cudgel, and with this he descended, and the moment he struck the floor he leveled the prisoner near him, and continued to lay about him valiantly until the room was filled with a strong party, who came to his assistance. After a hard struggle the culprits were secured, and the door, which had been barri- eaded by brick taken from the fire-place, was opened. They were taken, seven in number, and marched up State street, dressed in white, and executed near Elk street upon the gallows. The last person who was marched through the streets in this way, clothed in white, preceded by a cart bearing his coffin, was Hamilton, who shot Maj. Birdsall, in 1818. Strang who shot Whipple in 1827, and was the last murderer executed in public, was taken from the jail, corner of Eagle and Howard streets, a short distance to the gallows erected in the ravine, where High street now crosses Hudson street, and there executed in the presence of 30,000 spectators, who filled that natural amphitheatre ‘in which no house then existed. It was this ancient Stadhuis that the first convention of the provinces was held in 1764. The legislature held its sessions in it at a later day, until 1806, after which it was converted into a museum, where a few will remember the marvels of the phantasmagoria, the array of wax figures, the Witch of Endor, and other at- tractions that for so many years excited the wonder and admiration of the juvenile citizen and the unsophisticated rustic, under the management of Harry Meech. When removed from this place, that depot of relics, natural and artificial, had a long sojourn on the ancient Johnny Robison corner (from 1830 to 1855), in what is still known as the Museum building ; and it may be interesting to know that when the institution was broken up, its celebrities were 56 Men and Things in Albany Two Centuries Ago. carted away, and Sir William Wallace, Charlotte Temple, Gen. Jackson, the Goddess of Liberty, the Witch of Endor, the Sleeping Beauty, the big turtle and the organ, were dumped promiscuously into a canal boat, whence they found their way to the Mississippi, and were set up anew in a floating museum, and for aught that is known to the contrary, are still voyaging up and down the father of waters, and thrilling thousands of admiring people with a pang of sweet emotion, as of old in Albany. [For a more particular and more extended account of some of the locali- ties and ancient streets, the reader is referred to the Collections on the History of Albany, vol. 11, pp. 9-81; and to the Annals of Albany, passim ; also to Prof. Pearson’s First Settlers of Albany. | THE SOLAR THEORY OF MYTHS.' By Pror. Joun DeWitt WARNER. [Read before the Institute, Dec. 7, 1875. ] Tn the old Roman capital were guarded the rolls which Tarquin the proud, awe-struck at least once in his life, had bought from the sibyl. The most venerable council in the state was the conclave of augurs that pored over the weird symbols, and from their confusion tortured dubious prophecy. At Delphi, the Hellenic soothsayers caught from the frenzied Pythia the words which decided the fate of empires, while in the midst of the Lybian desert the Egyptian priests gave to inquirers the portentous utterances of their ram-headed divinity. To learn of the future from the divine powers was the most serious business of the old world. 1 The following volumes are mentioned as being among the most import- ant as well as most accessible publications upon the theme treated in the present essay. Banier, Antoine.— La Mythologie et les Fables, Hxpliquées par 0 His- toire. Paris, 1738, 3 vols., 4to. Court Ge Gébelin— Le Monde Primitif Analysé et Comparé avec le Monde Moderne. Paris, 1773-82, 9 vols., 4to, Baring-Gould, J. — Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. Philadelphia, 1865, 12mo. Brinton, D. G. — Myths of the New World. New York, 1869, 12mo. Fiske, John.— Myths and Myth Makers. Boston, 1874, 12mo. Cox, Rev. G. W.— Mythology of the Aryan Nations. London, 1870, 2 vols. , 8vo. De Gubernatis, Angelo.— Zodlogical Mythology. London, 1872, 2 vols 8vo, Also Lettwre sopra la Mitologia Vedica. Firenze, 1874, 12mo. Miller, Max. — Chipsfroma German Workshop. Vols. 1 and 11. London, 1867, 1869, 8vo. Lange, J. P,— Theological and Homiletical Commentary on the Old and New Testament. New York, 1866-75, 17 vols., 8vo. Tylor, Edward B. — Primitive Culture. London, 1874, 2 vols., 8vo. Gladstone, Wm. E.— Juventus Mundi, or Gods and Men of the Heroic Age. London, 1870, 8vo. Trans. ix. ] 8 58 The Solar Theory of Myths. But there slowly came a change. Though the Roman admiral, who cast the sacred fowls into the sea, lost the engagement from the horror and fear with which this pro- ceeding filled his soldiers, his successor did not the more venerate the holy birds, but took good care that they should be hungry enough to eat with a truly inspired avidity. The Pythia, for the best of reasons, pronounced Philip of Macedon invincible, and Alexander gave Jupiter Ammon the choice of flattering his pretensions, or losing hisown divinity. Men became more practical, and, ceasing in a degree the attempt to spy out the future, sought to control it. They neglected Apoll6, and, making their own prophecies by reasoning from what had been done, ful- filled them by their own energy and skill. When Hero- dotus and Thucydides stated facts as their standard, and then tried to reconcile the supernatural with them; when Livy told the time honored traditions of regal Rome, with a critical ‘“* Nescio an ” as a preface, Olympus was already doomed, and the gods of the bright ether already on their way to all-receiving Dis. Men still shouted ‘‘ Great is Diana of Ephesus,” but the silversmiths were the only ones who heartily sounded the cry. The responses of Delphi were still prized, but mainly on account of the prices paid for them. The Roman youths and maidens still sang the carmen to Apoll6 and Dian at the secular games, but their best known chant was written by the most brilliant of Rome’s skeptics. For two thousand years did history steadily encroach upon mythology, till the gods and heroes of the old religions slept in oblivion, or still less fortunate, came down from their celestial thrones to fill the literary stage as the characters of the old-world pantomime. On the other hand, the records of what had been were sought for with an ever increasing avidity. As time unfolded a historic future, men unraveled a historic past; till, back through the labyrinth of the ages, they followed the slender thread of tradition and stood at the portals of the Mosaical — The Solar Theory of Myths. 59 paradise, awed by the flaming sword of the angel that guarded the gate. Here, as they thought, was Ultima Thule, and retracing their steps, they filled the long way over which they had traveled with the monuments of the fancied mortals who had made the past illustrious, till the historic page was filled with the record of princes who had never lived, and the historic world crowded with the mausolea of heroes who had never died. But, though overshadowed by the new learning, and crowded out by the new religion, the deities of the old world had filled too great a place to be easily forgotten. The grandest conceptions of architecture were crystalized in the walls of their temples; the grace and majesty, which the modern world admires but cannot - rival, were embodied in their marble forms; the noble simplicity of the epic, the terrible grandeur of tragedy aud the light imagery of comedy were grouped about their divine proportions. They were still mighty, though fallen. The historian and the philosopher seized upon the ruins of the old-world pantheon, and each iu his way used its materials for the building of his own edifice. And hence arose two methods in the interpretation of myths which we may term the alleyorical and the historical. Of those who held to the former, or allegorical, Aristotle very naturally concluded that the strange creations were but the attempts of the world before him to express their philosophical speculations; Plutarch, that they were metaphysical state- ments in disguise; Thucydides inclined to the idea that they might be explanations of the course of nature ; Cicero that a great part of them were but natural powers personi- fied ; Sallust that they were mysteries —in which opinion most people probably concurred; while Sir Francis Bacon had, of course, an original solution: proved, conclusively to himself at least, that they were moral maxims dressed up in allegory, and then showed what ingenuity could ac- complish by finding the moral in some thirty of the most 60 The Solar Theory of Myths. famous.’ But by far their most remarkable treatment was made by Court de Gébelin, in the latter part of the last century. His scheme was no less than to bring together into one whole the languages, religions and philosophy of the world. Sanscrit was not yet known, yet this man already maintained theories, into which the discoveries of Sir William Jones led the later investigators; philology was scarcely in existence, yet we find in his pages the same principles applied, and, in many cases, the same results attained, that, when offered by Miller, are hailed as won- derful discoveries ; and his writings read like a production of our centennial year, instead of what they really are, a work one bundred years old. He recognized a unity in systems apparently so diverse, and concluded that they were but figurative statements of the principles of agriculture, in which the central figures were the sun as he passed over the signs of the zodiac and the farmer, for whom he marked out the periods of seed time and harvest. So much for the allegorical treatment of myths. The historical plan was first adopted by Euémeros who lived more than three hundred years before the Christian era. By the Indian sea, in acountry which he called Pan- chaia, he claimed to have seen a brazen column, which Zeus as an earthly monarch had set up as a memorial of his victorious march. He soon broached the theory, supported by facts manufactured at a wonderful rate, that mythology was but history; that the gods were but human conquerors, and the wonderful stories concerning them but exaggerated accounts of events which really occurred. He was rewarded for his pains by the universal detestation in which he was held by his countrymen and the epithet of atheist justly fastened upon him. More than a century later, Ennius translated his writings into Latin, Polybius adopted his views in éoto, and in the early Christian cen- turies, the fathers, led by St. Augustine, lauded him to the 1 Bacon — Essays on the Wisdom of the Ancients. Ware The Solar Theory of Myths. 61 skies as the one clear-sighted man in a blind nation. From the ground which the church took, and also from the fact that the explanation had at least the merit of simplicity, this theory, though never adopted by the more advanced thinkers, has been the one generally held. But the Abbé Banier, who died in 1741, not only supported this view, but laboriously compiled all that could be found concerning the pagan gods and heroes, arranged his material so well and explained it so cleverly, that the reader can scarcely avoid hoping that it mayall be true. He did the work too well to need successors, and from the translations of Banier has been derived the lore which cumbers the notes upon classic authors, and the pre-historic genealogies which torture the schoolboy. Even now, as an example of pure, parrot-like conservatism, we find the Encyclopedia Bri- tannica repeating the time-worn stories for which Eué- _ meros was indebted to an unlimited imagination. But meanwhile geology and astronomy, not imbued with tespect for classical learning and awe for hoary tra- dition, passed unheeded the “ procul, procul este profani,” . set up in their path, and, far beyond the old boundary, found the records of a measureless past, literally graven upon tablets of stone. As long as the veil had never been lifted it might seem plausible that nothing lay beyond ; but when behind it the path was still discerned, obscure yet real, theory yielded to fact, and the chroniclers began to write the story of a past so long forgotten. A new ally was called in. Language, hitherto but the herald of sovereign man, was made to tell its own marvelous history ; individuals no longer stood forth as the objects of specula- tion, but the story of races was written, and back of the so-called historical stretched a philological past. Individuals gave place to nations, nations gathered themselves into races, races were grouped into stocks, and it seemed that we must meet with humanity as one whole from which all races have diverged; when, just before the longed-for 62 The Solar Theory of Myths. goal, the clue failed. Greek and Latin, Sanscrit and Gothic melted into Indo-European; an almost equally numerous family grouped themselves as Semitic; still others as Turanian or rival stocks, but that was all. They stood distinct, and if their paths did converge as they receded, they did this too slowly to seem aught but parallel. But for the new emergency are found new resources. From the records left him the historian had traced the course of individuals; by the language which he spoke, he had marked the path of nations, and now, back of the written language, behind the spoken, did he find as guide the thoughts of humanity, its childlike explanation of the course of nature, its crude conceptions of an all-ruling divinity. No longer were Bel and Osiris and Zeus, Isis, Ashtaroth and Héré the mere children of fable; Apoll6 no longer disclosed the future but unlocked the arcana of the past; the queen of the fairies left the children she had loved so long; and touched with her wand the scholar; Tom Thumb was found a true porphyrogenite, and Cinderella the princess of a royal line, whose chaste splendor made cheap the courts of Susa, and before whose antiquity the house of the Pharaohs was an infant. For researches into the laws, philosophy, fable and re- ligions of different peoples showed that there existed be- tween them a marvelous accord. This was found most marked in such respects as later civilization had least affected them; there was noted a strange parallelism be- tween the religions of different races, a peculiar accord in the plan of their epic poetry, a wonderful agreement in the adventures of the heroes of their nursery tales; their theology, literature and story were seen to be but different manifestations of the same universal type, and — precedent to law and philosophy —to be the crystalized speculations of a baby world.’ Not merely are general fvatures the same, 1 Fiske — Mythsand Myth Makers, chap. 1: Origin of Folk Lore. Glad- stone — Juventus Mundi, chap. VII1: Athéné and Apollé. Tylor — Pri- mitive Culture, vol. I, chap. III: Survival in Culture, and chap. VIIL: My- thology. De Gubernatis— Mitologia Vedica, pp. 197 and 234. The Solar Theory of Myths. 63 but the very words in which the wondrous old story is told, are frequently so nearly the same, that they seem transla- tions of acommon text. The Hindoo mother quiets her babe with the same fairy tale that stilled the Grecian in- fant, and with which the sisters of New York or Boston amuse their baby brothers. Achilles, Moses and Hector, Sigurd, Romulus and good King Arthur, are born with the same haloabout their cradles; asthe heads of their peo- ples, and heroes of the same series of adventures, live par- allel lives: then, with a convoy of celestials or by the direct agency of deity, step at once from the groans of earth to the thrones of heaven. With their attributes re- peated in sublimer proportions, the bright warrior god Indra, the silver-bowed Apoll6 and the Immanuel of Christendom are the same as to the series of events in their noble lives, and many of the peculiar features of their supernatural nature. The more striking analogies are too well known to need that I should point them out. The fourth eclogue of Virgil and the glorious vision of Isaiah, the story of Samson’ and the legend of Hercules are alike in their most striking features ;? that the Léto of Homer is of similar type as the virgin of the evangelists, was long since noted, and has been recently argued by the learned Gladstone, who has also shown that Zeus, Apollé and Athéné are respectively the Greek equivalents for the three persons of the Trinity. But it may be well to introduce a few examples; and so, as a basis of comparison, the legend of King Arthur will be correlated with that of Théseus, the Attic king. The mother of Arthur was Igraine, wife of the Duke of Corn- wall. She had been put into the fortress of Tintagil to keep her from the British king. But her husband was slain ; Pendragon gained admittance in disguise, and pos- sessed the lady who became the mother of his heir. Aithra ' De Gubernatis — Mitologia Vedica, p. 81. *Lange’s Commentary: Book of Judges. 64 The Solar Theory of Myths. the mother of Théseus, was the beloved of Bellerophon, - who with her took refuge in the citadel of Corinth from the attacks of Aigeus, the Attic king. But Bellerophon was defeated, the fortress with its fair occupant fell into the hands of Aigeus and she became the mother of Théseus. Arthur was not to be the acknowledged prince, and was giver at the postern gate to a poor peasant. Théseus passed his boyhood in obscurity in Argos. At the death of Pendragon, Britain was torn by rival princes, till, in the great assembly at London, Arthur drew from the stone the brand Excalibur. Théseus remains in poverty till with years comes the strength which enables him to raise the great stone under which lay his father’s sword. Arthur, precedent to his coronation, repeated the exploits that had proved him prince, and Théseus, on his way to Athens, performed the works denominated his six labors. Arthur upon his coronation, Theseus upon his recogni- tion, start out on like rounds of conquest. As Arthur slew the revolting nobles, so Théseus con- quered the usurping sons of Pallas; as Arthur laid low the giant, so Théseus slew the Minotaur; as for Arthur and his knights, the holy grail is the object for which pilgrimage is to be undergone, so must Théseus join the Greeks as they leave their fatherland to search for the golden fleece. Mordred, the bastard son of Arthur, steals from him Guinever, his wedded wife, and Hippolytos, the illegitimate offspring of Théseus, gains the affection of Phaidra, the Attic queen. As Arthur returned vic- torious from the contineut to find his kingdom usurped and to die at the hands of the rebel, Théseus, back in triumph from Colchis, finds his fair realm seized by his enemies. Arthur dying is committed to the mourning queens in the mystic barge; Théseus, meeting a harsher fate, is cast into the sea from the Scyrian cliff.’ As the 1 This is the earliest extant form of the Thesean myth. The one made familiar to us by the “ Oidipous”’ was a later and apparently arbitrary in- vention of the dramatist. The Solar Theory of Myths. 65 castle of Tintagil could not guard Igraine, as the citadel of Corinth was no shield for Aithra; so was the brazen tower of Acrisius poor protection for Danaé, and the tem- ple of Vesta no guard for Rhea Silvia, and in Romulus and Perseus we see repeated Théseus and Arthur. As Arthur was wrapped in cloth of gold, Apolld was swathed in golden bands, Perseus locked in the wonder- ful chest, Moses laid in the cunningly plaited ark, Rom- ulus and his brother entrusted to the wooden trough, Adonis enclosed in the wonderful chest and Dionysius in like manner preserved. Not only Théseus and Arthur, but Achilles, Moses, Romulus, Perseus, Hercules, Apolld Saul and David pass their youth in a manner strangely contrasting with their glorious future. Each has some all- potent weapon. Théseus possesses the irresistible brand of his father; Sigurd and Achilles the lances that none but they can wield ; Perseus the barbed weapon with which he slays the monster; Hercules the club deadly to the Ne- mean lion; Moses with his wand marshalled the plagues of Egypt and cleft the waters of the Red sea; Apolld’s shafts brought pestilénce to the Grecian hosts and laid the Python low, and with Excalibur, Arthur slew the giant. When Romulus has conquered the tribes about him and settled the Roman state he is slain by his own senators; Arthur, though conqueror in the final battle, dies by the hand of his son; Achilles, when by his valor Troy has been taken, is slain by a treacherous shaft at his wedding feast; Sigurd, the all-conqueror, is killed by the wound of the thorn; Théseus returns from the successful search for the golden fleece to lose kingdom and life by the treachery of those whom he trusted ; Hercules, always victor, dies by the arts of a jealous wife; Samson, the irresistible, meets his end by the falseness of the woman he loved. ach is never conquered but by treachery, each meets his end whence he had the least reason to expect it. Trans. ix. | 9 66 The Solar Theory of Myths. But to them death is not as to mere mortals. Arthur is not only “ Rex quondam,” but “ Rexque futurus,” king again to be: Moses sleeps at Nebo but appears in glory on Tabor; Elijah is to rise and lead the Arabs against Antichrist ; Hercules is endowed with immortality ; Rom- ulus reappears and gives new vigor to the wavering legions ; Boabdil sleeps in the mount by the Alhambra, and will one day lead the faithful to reconquer Spain; the Tells slumber at Riutli, to come forth whenever Switzerland shall be oppressed, and Barbarossa, in the heart of the Thuringian mount, waits till Germany needs a champion. Each of these glorious personages is connected with an inferior, either as a brother, son or friend, bearing the same attributes in less marked form. Hraclés the Hel- lenic Hercules, is accompanied by Iphiclés; Patroclos dimly reflects Achilles; Phzeth6n is the son but not the equal of Pheebus; Théseus is associated with the less famous Peiri- thoos ; Castor is twin to his superor Pollux; Prométheus blesses the world, only to be thwarted by the folly of Epimétheus; Aaron is the brother, but not the peer of Moses; Remus is twin, but inferior to Romulus, and, preceding the divine child of Mary, came the inspired son of Elizabeth. It may here not be amiss in addition to these general comparisons, to follow out in detail, a parallel between two passages. In the second book of his Metamorphoses Ovid tells the story of Phaeth6n;* in the fourth chapter of Revelations,S¢. John describes a vision of the throne of God in heaven. In the twenty-third line of Ovid’s story, he describes Pheebus as ‘ purpurea veste velatus,” clad in purple robes. In describing the Lord of ; “ Purpurea velatus veste sedebat In solio Phebus, claris lucente smaragdis. A dextra levaque, Dies, et Mensis, et Annus, Seculaque, et posite spatiis equalibus Hore ; Verque novum stabat, cinctum florente corena ; Stabat nuda Aestas, et spicea serta gerebat ; Stabat et Autumnus, calcatis sordidus uvis ; Et glacialis Hiems, canos hirsuta capillos.” The Solar Theory of Myths. 67 heaven St. John says, “he was to look upon like a jasper and a sardine stone,” giving a general idea of glory but little differing from that of the Latin poet. Next comes the description of the throne, in Ovid. ‘ In solio Phcebus claris lucente smaragdis.”’ Phcebus on a throne glittering with bright emeralds. The evangelist says, ‘ and a rain- bow round about the throne like unto an emerald.’” At the right and left of Phcebus stand the day, the month, the year and the centuries, none of which are mentioned in the Apocalypse, but, strange to say, the week, the only division of time omitted by the Roman, is supplied by St. John in the ** seven lamps of fire which burn before the throne.” We are told that about the throne of the sun-god are placed the hours at even distances, ‘‘ positae spatiis aequalibus horae,” while the sacred record reads: “ Round about the throne were four and twenty seats, and upon the seats [ saw four and twenty elders sitting.” But the chief figures in the description of Ovid are the four seasons, who were the principal personages of his court and, bearing each the emblems peculiar to himself, stood about the throne; enough, I think, to remind every _ one present of the four beasts whose strangely symbolical formsare so prominent in the vision of the inspired dreamer. Such coincidences are to be met with in every part of the sacred writings and epic poetry of all nations. They are too common not to be noted, too unmistakable not to be regarded, and, accepting the fact, recent investigators have sought to find the reason of these likenesses, and the com- mon origin of the immense mass which they are com- pelled to class together. It was found that, by taking into consideration a great number of myths, gathered from nations most widely separated, minor differences being 1 In the passage from the Bible above referred to, the only precious stones mentioned are the sardonyx, jasper and emerald. In Plato’s description of the ideal world, to which he believed the virtuous passed at death, we find the same jewels mentioned as the common rocks in that glorious land. ‘‘ — 6adpdia te nai 1é6n16as nai Guapdysdovs.”— Phedo, 110, £. 68 The Solar Theory of Myths. eliminated, certain common characteristics remained. These became regarded as essentials, about which were clustered the minutize which caused the one to differ from the other. As might have been expected, it was also found that, the nearer we approached the infancy of races, the more these tales lost of their peculiar and non-essential characteristics; thus plainly hinting that their common origin would be discovered by examining their earliest forms, and also that, the more primitive the source from which they were taken, the more vivid and reliable would be the marks of their original. In India a sacred litera- ture, dating back more than two thousand years before the Christian era, preserved in transparent form the myths so strangely and variously colored in later times, and in the earliest forms of Vedic allegory was the solution found. In the Sanscrit tales, so fully explained by De Gubernatis, the hero is indifferently a personification of the sun in his celestial course, the bright god Indra, prototype of Phoibos Apollo, or the bull, the Indian emblem of divinity. In short, the sun in his course through the heavens was the one object that, riveting the attention of the infant race, had ages before been personified as deity and transformed into the varied symbols under which he was worshiped. Appearing full orbed from the gloom of night, chasing away the darkness that flees before him, triumphing as conqueror in his noontide march, doomed to die in the Western ocean and fated to reappear with the morn, he is seen to combine the unvarying characteristics of the heroic forms we have just considered. Of hidden birth and unknown childhood, from the obscurity in which his youth is passed he appears as the full grown prince; pene- factor of the world, he conquers the storm and dispels the clouds; then, by a mysterious fate, sinks into the waters of the West, ever to reappear and rescue the world from gloom. His anti-type and weaker self appears in the moon, 1De Gubernatis — Zodlogical Mythology, p. 12 et passim. The Solar Theory of Myths. 69 who, following with uneven pace, is now obscured by his glare at midday, as Remus yields to Romulus; now in his nightly absence is his vicegerent, as when pale Dian illy fills the place of her brother, the regal sun. It is now plain why in the West, where the sun sank, was placed the fabled wealth of the universe ;' why Perseus should there find the golden apples of the Hesperides ; why Arthur must die in the “ great battle of the West ;” why from the West of the Greek world should be lost the golden fleece which the solar heroes find again in the far Hastern realm of Colehis; why from Sparta in the West should be stolen the queen that another band of sun warriors should win in Eastern Troas; why in the paradise of the West, whose angel guarded the eastern gate, should be lost the purity, restored by the “ Sun of righteousness,” whose star was seen in the East. By the somewhat similar course of the sun in the zodiac are explained still other particulars. We can now see why Castor and Pollux are alternately in Hadés, in other words, the gloomy realm of winter; why Adonis remains six months in the underworld, and six in the bright ether the companion of Aphrodité; why Proserpine was one-half of the year the queen of Pluto, and one-half with her mother in the upper air, and why the Scandinavian Baldur is six months with Odin and the bright Adsir, and other six in the cold embrace of the blue lipped goddess of the dead. The above stated theory is now generally accepted, and, although individual thinkers may except to certain conclu- sions, the foremost investigators agree that the key to the strange parallels we have mentioned is found in their common derivation from the solar myth. The point next in question is as to the extent of the conclusions, based upon it, that may be legitimately drawn. In this case the zeal of its friends has been far more harmful than the attacks of its enemies. Germany being foremost in historical and philological re- 1De Gubernatis — Mitologia Vedica, pp. 57, 58, 85. 70 The Solar Theory of Myths. search, it was there that the theory was first broached, and the general attention was first called to some of its conclu- sions by Strauss, the author of “ Das Leben Jesu.”” Taking the most ultra grounds, drawing the most extreme conclu- sions, he used the theory to overturn the authority of the Bible, and to destroy entirely, as he supposed,.the founda- tion truths of Christianity. This naturally set the church in direct opposition to him, and, as so often happens in such cases, not merely doubtful conclusions, but well grounded principles, were attacked with equal vigor. It was soon seen that he had gone too far: and that, if his reasoning were allowed, not merely religion, but history, ancient and modern, would be annihilated. A learned prelate,’ by a course of reasoning no more extreme than that of Strauss, proved that Napoleon was a solar hero and never had a real existence, while Washington was elimi- nated in the same way from the ranks of mortals. Thus came a division into two parties equally in error; the one believing that the solar theory completely overthrew Christ- ianity; the other that the transformed story of Napoleon and the historical proof of a large portion of the scriptures as completely nullified the theory itself. But it was soon seen that, even though the theory was accepted, many of the conclusions of Strauss must be labelled ‘ not proven ; ”’ and on the other hand that the clever travesties of well known historical characters, were but warnings against the misapplication of a principle, itself resting on too sound reasoning to be lightly disregarded. While the expression of a fact might be but the variation of a well known myth, it was seen that it might clothe the story of real events, in themselves important; that, among unlettered masses, nothing would be more natural, or in fact was more com- mon, than to perpetuate the memory of men and events by attaching to them attributes and exploits which had long since lost connection with their source. But few 1 Archbishop Whateley. The Solar Theory of Myths. 71 would question the existence of Charlemagne as a historical character, and it is no proof of his non-existence that we find him gifted with all the paraphernalia of the solar heroes, and in the barbarous Latin of many a bulky chronicle, the leader of crusades which set out centuries after his death. Barbarossa is a full fledged sun-warrior, but this is no proof against his real existence, and, on the other hand, such examples do not in the least exclude the belief that the various myths have plainly one common origin, which is the course of thesun. That the crop of heroes and demi- gods, which among barbarous peoples grows afresh every generation, may have men as its basis does not show that the divinities whose forms are unaltered by the lapse of ages, whose attributes are stolen to clothe the meaner creations, have the same original as their counterfeits. We are forced to the inevitable conclusion that mythology and history can mutually neither support nor destroy each other; that, in whatever form they may be fused together, they must be treated as distinct and independent. That Christ- mas is celebrated at the winter solstice is no proof that Christ was never born, but that the simple people found it the easier to remember the fact by the use of a long established holiday. The resurrection of our Saviour is neither proven nor falsified because Easter, occurring near the spring equinox, corresponds with an ancient heathen testival. That St. John’s day, at the summer solstice, was thus placed in opposition to Christmas in chance ac- cordance with the text “‘ He must increase, but I must de- crease,”’ proves as little in regard to St. John the Baptist as does the Jewish New Year, at the autumnal equinox, for or against the development theory. It may now be plainly seen that the prophets of the old testament and the Saviour of the new, may have been converted into solar heroes, without shaking the founda- tions of Christianity, and at present the chief exponents 1 New Testament, John 3: 30. 72 The Solar Theory of Myths. of the theory in our language are Max Miiller and the Rev. Mr. Cox, men of most thorough learning and Christian reverence. ‘The division is now upon an entirely different point; one party claiming that the common origin of humanity is proved by the accordance found in the myths ; the other that the identity of natural phenomena is suffi- cient cause for the resemblances noted, even though man- kind came from several distinct sources. The latter, favoring the views of a multiple origin of the race, has but few out- spoken supporters; but is rather favored by Tylor, the most careful investigator of our years, and by Brinton, the author of a well known work upon the myths of the western continent. The former view, that of a common origin of the different races, seems now to be the prevailing one, and is supported by evidence, weighty, if not con- clusive. In all parts of both hemispheres, among races differing most widely in every distinguishing particular, we find the same methods of burial, the same ceremonies attending marriage, and like formulations of what seem to us arbi- trary principles of law and morality. Not merely do we find that Solomon's song, is written upon the same general plan as songs of love among the Greeks, the Carmen Amcbaeum of Horace and the love passages in Frithiof’s Saga; but in South America, Africa, Polynesia and China, we meet with like manifestations of the universal pas- sion.! Not merely does the reformation headed by Buddha agree in its principles with the movement led by Luther, but in Persia, Peru and Aztec Mexico did the same causes, acting in a similar manner, produce like re- sults. It seems scarcely probable that such coincidences can be the result of mere chance, and we can hardly claim them as the result of processes of thought necessarily in- herent in man. The difficulty here is, that we find it impossible to conceive of the path which speculation must 1 Lange’s Commentary :Song of Solomon. N. Y., 1870. a The Solar Theory of Myths. 73 take in a mind unbiassed by education, and can illy judge what would, or would not be, an inevitable course of thought. At present, therefore, a supporter of either con- clusion need not fear that his arguments will be success- fully attacked. But, however great the work which the new science has still before her; whatever vistas of the past she has yet to open, one great office has already been performed. We have found that all nations stand on a common ground, and may learn as the first great lesson of mythology, that, however widely their paths have diverged ; however causes, long since forgotten, may have raised one race and degraded another; whatever distinc- tions, pride and power have made, to which weakness and humility have submitted, all men were born, if not free, at least equal. Trans. ix. | 10 PRINCE BISMARCK AND HIS POLICY. By Artuur Bort. [Read before the Albany Institute 16th January, 1877.] Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck was born at Schoenhausen on April 1, 1815. There were six children, three of whom died when young. The survivors were, Bernhard; the third child, Otto, the subject of our sketch; and the youngest, a girl, Malvina. His boyhood was spent at Kniephoff, Pomerania — an estate, which his father had inherited, and occupied in the year 1816. Otto was the favorite child of his father, who néarly spoiled him by indulgence, but his education at school was according to the spirit of the times, more severe. In his boyhood he showed marked traits of character; he was truthful and sincere, but very reticent. He had great strength of will and an insatiable thirst for knowledge. He loved country life in all its phases. His mother exer- cised great influence in the formation of his character. She was of an earnest, somewhat cold nature; a quiet, but highly gifted lady, with a touch of religious fanati- cism. She possessed unbounded ambition and great strength of will, and firmly believed in Prussia’s manifest destiny. She regulated his studies, roused his ambition, and imbued him with a sense of his duties to the king, © Prussia and the German nation. Napoleon I. had scarcely been conquered, Germany’s humiliation was fresh in the nation’smind. ‘The holy alliance was considered the only safeguard against a repetition of this degradation. These impressions received from the mother, were germs, which in late years, guided many of his actions. It was during the time of the Schwarzroth-goldene ay Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 75 unity-fanaticism, when Bismarck, in 1821, left the narrow circle of his home and entered the private school of Pro- fessor Plamann in Berlin. The time of the rod, of which Bismarck speaks so often in later years, commenced. His mother, aware of the con- sequences of his father’s indulgence, chose Plamann’s school on account of its iron discipline. Bismarck speaks of this institution as a jail, which had robbed him of the purest joys of his youth. . He remained there until 1827, when he entered the Frederick Werder gymnasium, with Dr. Winkelman as private tutor. Shortly after, he entered the pension of Prof. Prevost; then the school of Prof. Bonnell, who, with a classic sim- plicity and an earnest Christianity, combined clear intel- lectual capacities and a large pedagogic knowledge. The chaucellor of the German empireis as grateful andas much attached to Bonnell as was the youth Bismarck fifty years ago. From 1829-31 he laid the foundation for a thorough knowledge of English and French, which accomplish- ments proved so serviceable to him in his diplomatic ca- reer. He excelled in history and Latin; he was endowed with a wonderful memory, which enabled him to fill his mind with knowledge of every description. In 1832 he went to the University at Gettingen, to study law. It was the wish of his father to educate him for the higher administration. Ue distinguished himself at the university as a quick tempered, skilful duelist, an ac- complished drinker, a reckless, arrogant Prussian junker (aristocrat), who was more at home on the dueling ground than in the lecture room. But what he left undone at the university he made up by private study. He passed his examination in 1835; be- came ascultator, and practiced law at the city court at Berlin. In the winter of 1835-6, he was introduced at 76 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. the court, and met there for the first time Prince William (now emperor), whose iron minister he after- wards became. His athletic figure created a sensation. Prince William asked him jocosely, ‘“‘ whether the law se- lected its votaries by measure, as did the imperial guards.” In 1840 he was transferred to the administration at Aachen, which had for its president Count Arnim-Boitz- enburg. His intercourse with Englishmen and French- men was very extended.. In the following year he was transferred to Potsdam, where he served his year in the Garde-Hunters. The time of trial now commenced. His father had mort- gaged the family estate heavily, and the sons were called upon to support the family. Otto was transferred to the administration at Greifswalde, to be near the agricultural academy at Eldena, in order to prepare himself for his fu- ture vocation — agriculture. The united efforts of the brothers, to save the family estate, were crowned with success. Both brothers shared in the administration, and their mutual relation, which terminated in 1844, was of the most affectionate nature. During this time Bismarck developed his taste for agri- culture and hunting, which now gives him his purest pleas- ures and surest recreation. Whatever his opponents may say of him, all agree that he is a man of the warmest sympa- thies, and that those in need find in him an ever ready friend. Oct. 30, 1844, his only sister Malvina was married to a friend of his youth, Herr Oscar von Arnim. One year later his father died; the family circle was broken up; the estate divided, and Bismarck received Schoenhausen as his portion of the inheritance. But a restless spirit like his could not be satisfied with a life of comparative inactivity during a great part of the year; he longed for a more active life. Two symptoms Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 77 indicated this; he began to politize, and wished to get married. Prince Bismarck found plenty of material for political cogitations. Since the July revolution in France, and the outbreak in Poland, the peace-dream of the continent had been shattered, and many indications showed, that a new epoch would require new conditions and new men, and that new questions and new interests would spring into the foreground. An era of industry, a personal ambition, in short the epoch of individualism had arrived and offered battle to the existing authority. These signs showed them- selves first in France. The last remnants of the old mon- archical traditions fell with the last of the Bourbons, and with them feudal aristocracy. Louis Philip of Orleans, was the citizen king. Under him France enjoyed a lib- erty and prosperity, which might well cause the envy of Germany. An ‘industrial splendor, wealth, and an ex- tended commerce brought France into successful compe- tition with English industry. The old arrogance towards its neighbors showed itself in the same ratio as the na- tion’s wealth increased. The campaign in Belgium, the acquisition of Algeria, whose cultivation swallowed up millions, the desire after the Rhine, showed conclusively, that the citizen kingdom rested upon treacherous soil. In Prussia, matters were in a transition period; while its foreign relations were not imposing yet they were tolerably respectable. Central Europe, by reason of the holy alliance, was safe from aggressions from without. The diet of Frankfort curbed the ambition ofthe individual state through the power of the whole nation. This was the policy of the European equilibrium, whose founders were Metternich and Nesselrode, and whose champion was Nicholas I., of Russia — the symbol of abso- lute monarchy in Europe, which had been inaugurated by Louis XIV. During the czar’s visit in Berlin, in 18438, 78 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. he was the object of admiration and reverence of all abso- lutistie circles, and an object of hatred and fear of the liberal element of the people. The increasing ery after a constitution, more earnestly pressed by assemblies and municipalities; the signs in the religious world; the holy of coat Trier, German catho- licism; the growing discontent of the workingmen; a flood of revolutionary pamphlets; the new Polish insur- rection under Mieroslawsky; the open revolt at Krakau; the open letter of Christian VIII. of Denmark — all these events furnished plenty of material for Bismarck’s political predilections. The ministry of Eichorn was unable to stem the tide of radicalism, which slowly but surely came across the Rhine. A royal decree of Feb. 18, 1848 called the United Diet (Landtag), of which Prince Bismarck was a member. Before he appeared upon the battle ground he married Johanna von Puttkammer, of one of the oldest houses of the Prussian nobility. This happy union brought him that freshness of heart and mind, for which he had longed. There were three parties in the united Landtag: 1. The royalistic party, which recognized in the February | patent the utmost limit of concessions. 2. The party of parliamentary monarchy, which aimed at a constitution, based upon the February patent, and which advocated the dignity of the crown and the fulfill- ment of the just demands of the people; and | 3. The radical party, which aimed at a diminution of royal prerogatives. | Bismarck belonged to the second party. His motto was, a nation without a strong administration is lost; to protect royalty, is to strengthen the nation, and give it that free- dom, under whose wings every citizen can securely live and enjoy his own. In advocating these principles he made bitter enemies in both parties, whose animosity increased Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 79 in intensity, as his iron will and clear logic gained as- cendency. The 18th of March 1848 approached. The stormflood of rebellion.came from Paris; the Orleans dynasty had fled; Lamartine became president of the republic. Out- breaks in Vienna and Munich followed. Emperor Ferdi- nand of Austria abdicated in favor of his nephew, Fran- cis Joseph. King Louis of Bavaria placed his sceptre in the hands of his son Maximilian. On the 18th day of March, rebellion broke out in Prussia. The principle of legitimacy on the continent seemed to totter. During this time Bismarck maintained, that the people could only be free and prosperous by securing a strong king, hence he was in direct antagonism with the spirit of the times, while he was forced to admit, that behind all the mad chimere of those times there was a strong power of the people, a desire for independent government; and he hoped in his own time to build upon these germs a new era, clear, great, and German within and without — in short give to the German nationality that recognition _ among the nations of the world, to which its inherent merit entitled it. The revolution in Prussia continued; new ministries succeeded each other in quick succession. Bismarck followed the intellectual and material course of events, and worked faithfully to create in Berlin a loyal party, true to the king, with the Neue Preussische Zeitung as its organ. The socialistic tendencies of 1848 killed themselves by their excesses. The national parliament divided itself. The refusal of taxes; the bloody fight of the working- men in Berlin against the citizens; Wrangel’s entrance into Berlin, and the state of siege ended the reign of the sovereign people. In December 1848 Bismarck appeared in Berlin as re- presentative of Brandenburg. 80 Prince Bismarck and hs Policy. The old constitution placed the Prussian state upon two powers, viz: The crown as the sanctioning and executive power; and the united representatives as the consulting, agreeing and vetoing power. Electors were subjected to property quali- fications, and the indirect election was filtered by political opinion. This constitution was disliked by the people, but Bis- marck sustained it as it had emanated from the king, and promised to be more stable than the changeful tendencies of socialism. Outside of the fatherland two events had occurred, which changed the political aspect of Europe. The Holy Alliance had partly been rent. Its chief bearer, Metter- nich, had retired, and the youthful emperor had inaugu- rated a new policy. The French republic was near its — end. Louis Napoleon had been elected its first president, and Cesarism loomed up in the distance. On January 28, 1848, Christian VIII., of Denmark died, and his suc- cessor, Fred. VIL, promulgated immediately after his as- cension, a constitution, which made Schleswig-Holstein Danish. Bismarck watched with sad forebodings not only the state of affairs in Prussia, but also abroad. The assembly opened in Berlin, Feb. 26, 1848. His own party received him with enthusiasm. The bloody democracy had lost its power; many of his most bitter opponents like Virchow, Auerswald, etc., sided with him. When Bismarck appeared to friends and foes alike as changeful in his political opinions, it was owing to his quicker perception of principles which were opposed to his own ideas at the time; and in all such cases the in- terests of the fatherland were paramount to his own. His one aim was the welfare of the crown and nation, and often, when circumstances required it, he seemed more an Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 81 liberal or reactionary than he actually felt, hence his double character in 1849.. He favored the acceptance of the constitution which was obnoxious to him, and opposed with all his energy the war for the liberation of Schleswig-Holstein. The rea- sons were obvious. While the continent was out of joint and belligerent, Louis Napoleon was anxious for war, that he mightseize the purple; which he accomplished by intrigue, three years later. Germany was divided; revolutions in Baden and Saxony; the Prussian army disorganized, the treasury almost empty. Doctrines and phrases could not do the work of bayonets and bullets. The German im- perial crown could only be gained on the battle field. The offer of that crown by the Frankfort Diet showed conclusively the faith of the German nation in the house of Hohenzollern. When in later times it needed two great historical epochs to break the individualism of princes and people to unite them, can any one believe that such a union could have been accomplished in 1849? Neither the Frankfort nor Erfurt parliaments could un- derstand that unity could only be thought of, when the command of the army and the direction of a foreign policy rested in one man’s hands. The so-called Union Parliament opened in the spring of 1850. Since 1840 Prussia had demanded of Austria, as an act of self preservation, an alternate presidium at the diet in Frankfort.: The aim of such a demand was, Prussia’s desire to exercise an equal influence in Germany’s affairs. * The Diet at Frankfort was composed of seventeen envoys, presided over by the representatives of Austria. There were, however, thirteen states, exclusive of the free cities, represented in the last period of the Diet’s existence. The diet was so constituted that each of the following states, or combination of states, had one representative: Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Electorate of Hessia, Grand Duchy of Hessia; Denmark for the Duchies of » Trans. tz.] il 82 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. Hanover, on the 27th of February, broke loose from the treaty with Prussia and its North German policy, and went over to Austria. On the 26th of April, Austria demanded a parliament in Frankfort, a measure detrimental to Prussia’s interest. Prussia protested. The smaller states, to paralyze Prussia and Austria, formed a union headed by Herr von der Pfordten in Munich, and von Beust in Dresden. The Prussian em- bassador was recalled from Frankfort. Most of the Ger- man states leaned towards Austria. A conflict and ap- peal to arms between the two rivals seemed inevitable. The disorders in Hessia added to the old jealousy between Hohenzollern and Hapsburg. The Prussian army was mobilized against Austria. The chances of success were in favor of the latter. Russia called a conference at Warsaw on October 15th, to bring about a reconciliation. Austria again refused to Prussia a co-presidium at the Diet. Emperor Nicholas saw the Holy Alliance endangered, and the European equilibrium disturbed. Two Austrian army corps were ready to march into Prussia at amoment’s warning. Emperor Nicholas demanded a conference at. Olmiitz; Prussia assented, and was humbled. Bismarck Holstein and Lauenburg; the Netherlands for Limburg and Luxemburg the Duchies of Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg, Brunswick and Nassau, the two Mecklenburgs (Schwerin and Strelitz), Oldenburg, Anhalt and two Schwarzenbergs (Rudolstadt and Sondershau- sen), Lichtenstein, Reuss, Schaumburg Lippe, Lippe Detmold, Waldeck and Hesse Homburg; the free cities, Lubeck, Frankfort, Bremen and Ham- burg. The votes were equal, the sittings secret. On important occasions the assembly was resolved into what was called the plenum, in which'a greater number of votes were assigned to the chief states, and the total number of voices was then increased to seventy. In these cases a majority of three-fourths was necessary for any question to be carried. Ambassadors were accredited to the Diet. Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 83 defended the Olmiitz policy, while in his inmost soul he cursed it.? On the strength of the most excellent authority he knew that the Prussian army was no match for the Austrian. But this state of things cured him of one illusion, 7, e. _ that Austria could be the German representative power, and that Prussia alone could be the standard bearer of German unity. Henceforth he had only one idea, chi- merical as it seemed at first—to humble and _ isolate Austria; to fight Romanism and turn the smaller German states to seek for themselves unity of Germany through Prussia. In his defence of the Olmiitz conference, public opinion pursued him with bitter hatred, and especially was the Prussian nobility attacked in him. ‘‘Ich bin stolz darauf ein Preussischer Junker zu sein.” At this time Bismarck’s career underwent a great change; i. e. he became diplomatist. Prussia’s representation in Frankfort had to be guided by stronger hands since her humiliation at Olmiitz through Austria. She needed a representative, who was acceptable to Austria; who could manage Prussia’s interests with delicacy and firmness and who understood how to defend the rights of the crown and nation. King, ministry and the majority of the people felt this humiliating position; especially was the king’s brother, the present emperor, desirous of reorganizing thearmy,and making it a match for any on the continent. Bismarck was elected embassador to Frankfort; all felt that in his hands Prussia’s interests would be safe, while he, in defending the Olmiitz conference, was a personagrate at the court of Vienna. t A circular of Prince Schwarzenberg says: ‘“ His majesty the emperor . thinks it his duty to comply with the desire of the king of Prussia, so modestly expressed.” 84 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. The danger of his country had made him a politician, the day of Olmiitz a diplomatist. Diplomacy, up to this time, had been a kind of a mystery, something like the Holy Inquisition or the Coun- cil of Ten at Venice. European diplomacy originated in the old Italian mer- chant wisdom of the Medici, and was carried on with all the serpent-like distrust of those times. To play jugglery with God’s great gift of speech, to lie with the greatest appearance of truth, was diplomacy. The general condition of things at the beginning of this century found in the Diet a fertile soil for this kind of di- plomacy. The policy of the European cabinets, since 1815, was merely a defensive system against restless France, which since the fall of the first Napoleon up to 1851 had changed its rulers and form of government four times. This de- fensive system found expression in the Holy Alliance, the policy of which was defense against France, protection from rebellion at home, and the preservation of an abso- lute monarchy. Faulty as this system was, it gave security to the states, although it was antagonistic to the growing culture of the people. Metternich’s unchangeable states-maxim was, full accord with Prussia in all German questions at home and abroad. This system, changed in 1848, was a mere shadow in 1850, and was buried on the 31st of March with Metter- nich’s resignation. The then emperor of Germany had become emperor of Austria. Francis Joseph was sur- rounded by different influences; a Schwarzenberg, the bearer of Ultra-Catholicism, formed a cabinet. The expe- riences gained during the Hungarian revolution, which had proved the utter unreliability of the non-German races, dictated a new policy, which found its point of gravity in the German policy at the expense of Prussia. The Camarilla at the court of Vienna was against the Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 85 development of the people, against Protestantism — the emperor’s mother being the most pronounced advocate of the Jesuits and Redemptorists. One man hated Prussia most intensely, not as Austrian or Romanist, but from family instincts, and that man was Minister Schwarzenberg, whose ancestor, Count Adam von Schwarzenberg, had been sentenced to death by the great elector of Prussia. After this catastrophe the Schwarzenberg family went to Austria, became rich, were elevated to the highest no- bility, and recompensed all favors of the Austrian court by the most bitter hatred against Prussia. The situation at Frankfort, when Bismarck appeared there, was not very favorable to Prussia. Everybody snubbed Bismarck, except the Praesidial embassador, Count Thun Hohenstein, who saw in him the defender of the Olmiitz policy —a true adherent of Austria. His posi- tion was a very difficult one, but he was equal to the oc- easion. He visited the neighboring courts of Darmstadt, Biebrich and Carlsruhe, wrote almost daily confidential messages to his friends, especially the Adjutant General von Gerlach, at Berlin ; exposed anonymously all the fol- lies of his adversaries, created a public opinion favorable to his plans, and worked especially to convince Prince William (present emperor) that the days of Olmtitz must be ended. The following is a letter, written by him at this time to “ WRANKFURT, 18th May, 751. ‘‘Frankfurt is wretchedly wearisome. I am so spoilt with having so much affection about me, and a great deal to do; and I now first perceive how unthankful I have have been toward many people in Berlin — for I will not take you and yours into the question. Even the coolness of fellow-countrymen and party associates I had in Berlin, is an intimate connection compared with the relations 86° Prince Bismarck and his Policy. suspicious espionage. If one had any thing indeed to de- tect or to conceal! The people here worry themselves about the merest trifles ; and these diplomatists, with their important nothings, already appear more ridiculous to me than a deputy of the second chamber in his full-blown dignity. Unless outward events take place, which we clever members of the Diet can neither guide nor prede- termine, I now know accurately what we shall have done in one, two, or five years, and could bring it about in twenty-four hours, if the others would for a single day be reasonable and truthful. I never doubted that they all made soup with water, but such a simple, thin water-gruel, in which one cannot see a globule of fat, astonishes me! Send me Justice X. or Herr Von?arsky hither from the toll-gate, when they are washed and combed, and I will lord it in diplomacy with them. Jam making enormous progress in the art of saying nothing in a great many words. I write reports of many sheets, which read as tersely and roundly as leading articles; and if Manteuffel can say what there is in them, after he has read them, he can do more than L. ‘“‘ Hach of us pretends to believe of his neighbor that he is full of thought and plans, if he would only tell; and at the same time we none of us know an atom more of what is going to bhappev to Germany than of next year’s snow. Nobody, not even the most malicious skeptic of a demo- erat, suspects what quackery and self-importance there is in this diplomatizing. Well, I have railed long enough, and now I will tell you that 1am very well. Yesterday I was in Mainz: the neighborhood is lovely. The rye is in full ear, although it is infamously cold at night and in the mornings. Excursions by railroad are the best here. One can reach Heidelberg, Baden-Baden, Odenwald, Homburg, Soden, Weisbaden, Bingen, Rtidesheim, and one makes here — being, in fact, nothing more than mutual Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 87 Neiderwald comfortably in one day, stop five or six hours, and return here in the evening. As yet I have not gone much about, but shall do so, that I may take you about when you come. Rochow started yesterday for Warsaw, leaving at nine o’clock in the evening; the day after to-morrow he will be there, and probably back in aweek. As to politics and people, I cannot write much, as most of the letters are opened here. When they know your address or mine, and your hand writing on your letters, they will very likely find out they have no time to read family letters.” The unity of the Diet was merely dictated by self pre- servation of the smaller states, and was based upon the competition of Prussia and Austria. United, the small states could exist; a connection with either Prussia or Austria could give them some import- ance, which would enable them to co-reign over Germany. The only bond of union was the custom-union; it was the regulator of the Diet, and touched the most vital in- terests of all the states. The storm burst forth at last. In October, 1852, the members of the Holy Alliance met in Warsaw for the last time. The first electric shock already made the gentle- men in Frankfort tremble. By a plebiscite Louis Napo- leon became emperor of France. The bloody play of can- non ended the republic. The emperor’s marriage with Kugénie van Montijo indicated an alliance of the empire with Jesuitism : he became a Romanist of the purest water. He brokeon December 2d with all liberal elements, which from henceforth became his enemies. He could only hold himself by his bayonets, Rome and the clergy. The con- science of France was governed from the Vatican. As an instance of the animosity of all the states against Prussia, one example may suffice. On the 24th of April 88 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. an agreement was made between Saxony and Austria, by which Saxony bound herself not to allow the Prussian go- vernment, for twenty-five years to come, to establish a rail- road connection at Reichenberg, which act was a great commercial disadvantage to Prussia. The Holy Alliance was buried in 1854, during the Cri- mean war; Russia was defeated; Emperor Nicholas died March 2, 1855; Alexander Il. made peace. Napoleon was victor. The tone of France against Prussia now be- came somewhat overbearing. Napoleon turned his eyes towards the Rhine, and the French journals discussed the importance of a rectification of the frontier and the treaty of 1815, while at the same time there was a growing inti macy between France and Russia, which could not be very agreeable to Prussia and aroused trouble in Austria. In June, 1855, Bismarck visited the Paris exhibition, and began herewith his intimate relations with the court of France, thenceforth continued to the day of Sedan, and which brought him the repute of being a scholar and im- itator of the policy of Napoleon IIL. On February 25, 1856, the Paris conference came to an end, and Napoleon emerged from it with power and glory, making him the most powerful sovereign in Europe, and, by which, he arrogated to himself the dictation of his commands to the European courts. This policy showed itself in his throwing down the gauntlet to those powers, whom he considered as instru- mental in restricting and subduing France in 1815. Austria, whose intentions of a hegemony in Europe were too plainly to be seen during the Crimean war, was considered next to Russia, Napoleon’s most dangerous neighbor; hence her influence in her southern , provinces had to be lessened, and an enemy created in her rear, who was bound to Napoleon byties ofgratitude. Thatstate was Italy. Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 89. All the actors played as yet behind the scenes and only a few favored ones were initiated. Bismarck visited Paris in the spring of 1857, and held long consultations with Napoleon. The world will never know what transpired between the two, but that Prus- sia’s power and German unity may have loomed up before Bismack in the future, may safely be assumed. It is fashionable to-day, in France, to represent the Prussian government as having meditated for half a cen- tury a war of revenge and conquest, slowly brightening their arms and training a succession of generations for the decisive hour of combat. This is a fallacy. The swords of Blucher and Scharnhorst were sheathed in 1815. Even the adoption of the needle gun in 1847 was only an accident, or rather a scientific experiment; and in 1848 and 1849 Prussian troops did not shine with marvelous éclat in the war of the Duchies, and were even miserably held in check by the undisciplined bands of the insurrec- tion of Baden and Posen. It was only the mobilization attempted during the Italian complications, which opened their eyes to all the ‘ grave inconveniences and incoherencies of the organiza- tion till then in force. Two men, Von Moltke and Von Roon, joined with the prince regent in remodeling the system from the very bottom, and produced, at the end of Six years an armed force, entirely new, powerful and invincible. In August, 1857, Von Moltke became chief of the great general staff. The next year William I. became king of Prussia, and with the change in the ministry, the Ol- mutz policy fel] to the ground. In the king’s address to his ministry one sentence was especially emphasized: “I will never allow religion to be the cloak for politics.” The year 1859 brought the Italian war, and we find Trans. ix. | 12 90 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. Bismarck as embassador in Petersburg. Russia leaned towards France: that tendency had to be neutralized, and Bismarck was the man to accomplish that object. Napoleon, in promoting Italian unity, foresaw not its con- sequences, Italy was the central point of the Catholic church: the Vatican its spiritual head — its natural ruler. The Latin race, through the strength of its hierar- chical political regimen, bad gained and maintained itself in power and rule. Elizabeth and William of Or- ange, Luther and Calvin, the gradual growth of the north and middle German municipal life, could but cur- tail the power of the Latin race; but up to 1858 that race had not lost anything of its preponderance in European politics; neither had the successor of Peter diminished his authority as head of Catholicism. _ It was reserved for Napoleon III. to dig the grave of Catholicism with his own hands. The French nation had been, since the days of the Medici, the bearer of the Romanistic power in western Kurope. Austria, in its total hierarchic life, was Rome’s spiritual domain. Italy, cut up and dissatisfied, up to 1858 represented the conscience of Romanism, and found in Lombardo Vene- tia the strongest bulwark of the Roman Catholic principle. The unity of Italy was anational necessity, dictated by the spirit of the times, but inasmuch as Napoleon, with sword in hand, gave to that necessity a living form, he became the head of Italy’s rebellion against Rome’s authority, and — the Latin race itself. With Austria’s defeat at Villa-franca fell the mightiest shield of the Vatican against modern society, against the free rights of self-determination of the European peoples. With Italy’s unity, Napoleon robbed the Vatican of its old possessions, and degraded the pope from a temporal sove- Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 91 reign to a Roman bishop, who was only the head of the Catholic church, and whose power from henceforth rested merely in the faith of the Catholic nations. Napoleon, without knowing it, had raised the German unity question, whose deadly enemy he was. Magenta and Solferino were the first building stones of German unity. That Napoleon had some undefined suspicion of his blunder may be inferred from the fact, that he left a French army at the disposal of the Roman curia. He kept the new kingdom in a state of dependence, and was always ready to march with an army and correct the work of his own hands. On April 1, 1859, Bismarck was recalled from Frank- fort and sent to Petersburg as embassador. The observations of his Frankfort experiences were ex- pressed in the following conclusions: ‘ All measures at the Diet are carried by Austria and its smaller states to the manifest disadvantage of Prussia. The curtailing of Prus- sia’s power seems to be the magnetic needle of all their actions.” _ Napoleon III. descended to the plains of Lombardy : Austria was vanquished at Magenta and Solferino, and Russia could enjoy its first revenge on the ungrateful Hapsburg, who had betrayed it before Sebastopol. The declaration of peace at Villa-franca made Napoleon the political pontifex of Europe, and Prussia was the next power on whom Austria’s fate was to be repeated. - To meet the emergency, which seemed to every clear- sighted statesman inevitable, the reorganization of the army was at last decreed (merely decreed) on July 4, 1861. Prussia’s direct gain by the Franco-Austrian war was, an estrangement of some of the smaller German states from Austria and a firmer attitude of Prussia in the Diet, 92 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. But Austria showed considerable spite towards Prussia, and an open rupture was only avoided by the meeting of the two sovereigns at Bavaria’s invitation at Teplitz. At this time Bismarck writes as follows: “St. Pererssure, 22d August, 1860. ‘‘Tam quite excluded from home politics, for with the ex- ception of newspapers, I only receive official statements, which do not give me the groundwork of things. Accord- ing to these, we have promised nothing definite at Teplitz but have made our support of Austria dependent upon that practical demonstration of her good-wil] towards us in German politics; when this has been done, she may reckon on our gratitude. I should be very content with this ; and if we only see the Vienna soap in a lather, we should be glad to return the service. Certainly the in- direct accounts we receive from other courts sound other- wise. According to these, if true, though we have not con- cluded any guarantee treaty, we have, at any rate, bound ourselves verbally to assist Austria, under all circumstances, shouldshe be attacked by France in Italy. Should Austria find it necessary to act on the offensive, our consent would be requisite, if our codperation is to be anticipated. This version appears more unprejudiced than it would, in fact, be. Austria having security that we should fight for Venice, she will know how to provoke the attack of France. It has been asserted that since Teplitz, Austria has come out boldly and defiantly in Italy. Viennese politics, since the Garibaldian expedition, desire to make things in Italy, as bad as they can be, in order that if Napoleon himself should find it necessary to declare against the Italian re- volution, movements should commence on all sides and former conditions be assimilatively restored. This reckon- ing with and upon Napoleon may be very deceptive, and, : it would seem as if, since Teplitz, it has been given up, Prince Bismarck and his Folicy. 938 and there were hopesof attaining results by opposing Napo- leon. The restless, passionate character of Austrian polli- tics endangers peace in both ways. What will the chamber say to Teplitz —to the organization of the army? All sensible men will naturally agree with government as to the latter. But the influence of foreign politics can first be estimated, when itis known what the meaning of Teplitz really is. A well-informed but somewhat Bonapartist cor- respondent writes to me from Berlin, ‘We were prettily taken in at Teplitz by Viennese good-humor; sold, for nothing, not even a mess of pottage.’ God grant that he errs in this! In speaking of the Bonapartists, it occurs to me that some kind of general rumors reach me, that the press, Wational Verein, Magdeburger, Ostpreussische Zeitung, carry on a systematic war of calumny against me. [am said to have openly supported Russo-Franco pretensions respecting a cession of the Rhine province, on the condi- tion of compensation uearer home; Iam a second Borries, and soon. I will pay a thousand Fredericks-d’or to the person who will prove to me that any such Russo-Franco propositions have ever been brought to my knowledge by any one. In the whole period of my German residence I never advised any thing else than that we should rely on our own strength, and in the case of war, upon the aid of the national forces of Germany. These foolish geese of the German press do not see that in attacking me they are losing the better part of their own efforts. [am informed that the fountain-head of these attacks was the court of Coburg, in a writer who has personal spite against me. Were I an Austrian statesman, or a German prince and Austrian reactionist, like the Duke of Meiningen, our Kreuzzeitung would have protected me as it has him. The mendacity of these assaults is unkuown to some of our political friends. As I am, however, an old member of their party, entertaining particular ideas upon certain 94 Prinee Bismarck and his Policy. points, well known to the writer to his misfortune, I may be slandered to their hearts’ content. . I hear of the whole affair principally from the officious advocacy of the Elber- feld Zeitung, which is sent tome. There is nothing like an inquisition, and friends, who long have partaken of the Same cup, are more unjust than foes. I am satisfied. One ought not to rely on men, and I am thankful for every breath which draws me inward.” In a conversation with the Austrian embassador, Count Karolyi, Bismarck said: “‘ The centre of gravity of Austrian politics ought to rest in Ofen” (the Hungarian capital). This sentence received wings: it was repeated at all courts, was in the mouths ofall diplomatists, and gave the court of Vienna food for reflection. Neither the court of Berlin, nor the two houses, nor the diplomatists understood him, so that he could ery out with the philosopher Hegel: ‘* Of all my scholars only one un- derstood me, and he misunderstood me.” With the London treaty of October 31, 1862, between France, England and Spain, Bismarck saw his time slowly approaching. Napoleon, busily engaged in Mexico, would find neither time nor opportunity to take advantage of Prussia’s internal dissensions, which to Bismarck’s clear conceptions were merely the prelude to the new order of things, which must lift Prussia to strength and greatness, May 28, 1862, Bismarck was transferred from Peter: burg as embassador to Paris, one of the boldest and most sagacious movements in modern diplomacy. The ad- vantages derived from this position were incalculable. None of his letters indicated any of his experiences, but after events clearly demonstrated that he most carefully studied Napoleon and his policy. Matters at Berlin hurried on to acrisis. The govern- Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 95 ment needed a strong arm to carry through its measures ; Bismarck was cited to Berlin, to take the premiership of the ministry. He answered the king, “‘ Your majesty has called me into your service, I shall do my duty,” and never entered aman upon a position at a more critical time. Bismarck’s liberal opponents, the enemies from below, believed that the reactionary junker of 1848, the down- right Prussian of Erfurt, the man, who made himself hated in Frankfort and beloved in Petersburg —who had just graduated at the school of intrigues at Paris — that this man must be a despot, who would kill the constitution. Bismarck’s opponents from above, expected that he would kill the constitution and cause a reaction. Both parties reasoned, that matters could not be any worse, and al- lowed him to take his course. He entered upon his office with strong confidence. He conferred with many of the hostile party leaders, liberals, as well as progressists, who desired the well-being of Prussia and Germany; but he succeeded in winning only very few. Rigid party doctrines, an unvanquishable sus- picion kept many from joining him; but his tone towards his opponents was that of conciliation. On the 29th of September, 1862, he announced the withdrawal of the budget for 1863, ‘+ because the govern- ment considered it its duty not to allow the obstacles to- wards a settlement to increase in volume.” He then an- nounced his intentions — his aims —as clearly as he dared. “The conflict has been too tragically understood, and too tragically represented by the press; the government sought no contest. Ifthe crisis could be honorably surmounted, _ the government would gladly lend a hand. It was owing to the great obstinacy of individuals that it was difficult to govern with the constitution in Prussia. A constitutional crisis was no disgrace, it was an honor. We are, per- 96 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. haps, too cultured to indorse a constitution: we are too critical. Public opinion changes; the press was not pub- lic opinion ; it was well known how the press was upheld. Germany does not contemplate the liberalism of Prussia, but her power. Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Baden might indulge liberalism, but they are not, therefore, called upon to play the part of Prussia. Prussia must hold her power together for the favorable opportunity, which has already been sometimes neglected. The great questions of the day were not to be decided by speeches and majorities, but by iron and blood.” The chamber answered by the resolutions of October 7th, by which all expenditure was declared unconstitu- tional, if declined by the national representatives; to which Bismarck replied: “ According to this resolution, the royal government cannot, for the present, anticipate any result from the continuance of its attempts to arrive at some settlement ; it must rather expect from any renewal of the negotiation a heightening of party differences, which would render any understanding in the future more difficult.” At the close of the session of the Diet, October 18th, Bismarck said: ‘‘ The government is perfectly aware of the responsibility which has arisen from this lamentable crisis, but at the same time, it is also observant of the duties it owes to the country, and in this finds itself strength- ened to press for the supplies necessary for existing state institutions and the furtherance of the common weal, be- ing assured that at the proper time, they will receive the subsequent sanction of the Diet.” After assuming the ministry in December, 1862, Bis- marck entered upon negotiations with Austria. In the famous circular dispatch of the 24th of January, 1868, he says: Prince Bismarck and his Policy. — OT “In order to bring about a better understanding of the two courts I took the initiative in the form of negotiations with Count Karolyi, in which I brought the following considerations under the notice of the imperial embas- sador. According to my convictions our relations to Austria must unavoidably change for the better or the worse. It isthe sincere wish of the royal government that the former alternative should arise, but if we should not be met by the imperial cabinet with the advances we could desire, it will be necessary for us to contemplate the other alternative, and prepare for it accordingly.” “The fact that Prussia did not seek for any advantage in consequence of the difficulties of Austria in 1859, but rather armed to assist Austria in need, clearly shows the results of the former more intimate relations. But should these last not be renewed and revivified, Prussia would, under similar circumstances, be as little debarred from con- tracting an alliance with an antagonist of Austria, as, un- der opposite circumstances, from forming a faithful and firm alliance with Austria, against common enemies, I, at least, as I did not conceal from Count Karolyi, under such circumstances could never advise my gracious sove- reign to neutrality. Austria is free to choose, whether she prefers to continue her present anti-Prussian policy, with the leverage of the coalition of the central states, or seek an honest union with Prussia. That the latter may be the result, is my most sincere desire. This can, however, only be obtained by the abandonment of Austria’s inimi- eal policy at the German courts,” ete. ‘J indicated that the passing once the border of legiti- mate competency by resolutions of the majority, would be _ regarded by us as a breach of the federal treaties, and that we should mark our sense of the fact by the withdrawal of the royal embassador to the Diet, without nominating any successor, and I drew attention to the practical con- Trans, tx. ] 13 98 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. sequences likely to ensue upon such a situation in a com- paratively short time, as it would naturally occur that the activity of an assembly, in which, from just causes we no longer took part, would be regarded by us as unauthorita- tive on the whole business sphere of the Diet.” In the summer of 1863, Bismarck accompanied his king to Carlsbad, and thence to Gastein, when Austria proposed reorganization on the federal principle, as op- posed to Prussian uniouistic efforts. King William declined to attend the princes’s congress at Frankfort, where the fundamental principles of the Austrian project were accepted. Their compact proved fruitless. Nothing was possible in Germany without Prussia. Bismarck, in his royal reply to the members of the princes’s congress promulgated a series of “ preliminary conditions,” as to the part Prussia might take in further negotiations. He demanded, 1. The veto of Prussia and Austria upon every federal war not undertaken in resistance of an attack upon federal authority. 2. The entire equality of Prussia, with Austria in the presidency and government of federal concerns. 3. A national representation, not to consist of delegates, but of directly chosen representatives, in the ratio of the populations of single states, the powers of which, in resolu- tion, should, in any case, be more extensive than those in the project of the Frankfort reform act. As a plea for this condition he inserted in his report to the king, that the interests and requirements of the Prussian people were essentially and indissolubly identical with those of the German people whenever this element attained its true construction and value, Prussia never need fear to be drawn into any policy adverse to her own interests. This firm attitude saved the future of Prussia, and also that of Germany. a Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 99 War seemed imminent and war came; not between Prussia and Austria, but Prussia and Austria against Denmark. The Schleswig-Holstein question was managed with ardor, audacity and incomparable acuteness. On the 29th of September, 1863, the council of the em- pire of Denmark promulgated a decree of a common consti- tution for the whole monarchy, which was nothing more nor less than an incorporation, and a Dananizing of Schleswig- Holstein. On Nov. 13th, the Diet of Copenhagen sanctioned this decree, and two days afterwards King Frederick VIL., of Denmark, was a corpse. In the meantime the heredi- tary Prince Frederic of Augustenburg had proclaimed himselfduke of the two provinces, while the Danish ministry at Copenhagen gave the crown to Christian IX. under the condition, to Dananize Schleswig-Holstein and incorporate them into the monarchy. How Prussia succeeded in inducing Austria to draw the sword for Prussia’s interest in contradiction to her entire previous policy, is impossible to tell, suffice it to say, that Austriaand Prussia did fight together; that Prince Frederick Charles planted the Prussian standard on the walls of Diippel in April, 1864 ; Bismarck renounced, on May 18th, the conditions of the London protocol; on May 28th, Austria and Prussia demanded in London the complete separation of the Duchies from Denmark. June 25th, the London conference adjourned without reaching any result, and on June 29th, Gen. Herworth took the island of Alsen. The war was ended.’ I shall pass over the time from autumn 1864, to May, 1866. ‘It was in the midst of dark intrigues, and of nego- 1“ Tn 1865, Bismarck visited Napoleon at Biaritz, when he disclosed to him some of his projects. Napoleon, resting on the arm of the author of *‘ Colomba,” whispered from time to time into the ear of the academician senator these words: “ He is crazy.” Five years later the dreamer of Ham gave up his sword to the crazy man of the Mark.” 100 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. tiations more or less regular, of preparations for war and of continual exchange of notes, of parliamentary conflicts and of almost continual daily combats with the old fogies of the court, that the first six months of the year of 1866 passed for Bismarck, and rarely has a statesman lived through a more troubled period. ‘The waves of events first cast him ashore, then threw him back again and seemed to remove him farther than ever from his goal.” Never in all his public career has Bismarck shown greater intellectual resources; never was he more fruit- ful in expedients. He moved step by step. in every political question ; every move was carefully weighed and balanced ; every succeeding measure most skillfully prepared.” Before the close of 1865, Bismarck had become firmly convinced that Austria bad returned to the central state policy, the advocate of which was Freiherr von Beust, who saw the salvation of Germany in the hegemony of Austria. This latter power, smarting under the defeat of her policy in Schleswig-Holstein and encouraged by Saxony, Hanover and Hessia, prepared for war by mobilizing her army in Venice. As an offset, Prussia concluded a treaty with Italy, and contrary to the king’s inclinations ordered the mobilization of her own army March 28th, 1866. While negotiations for a peaceful settlement were still pending, with every prospect of success, an attack was made on the life of Prince Bismarck, by Carl Blind, which opened the eyes of the king at last, who now became con- vinced that peaceable means were futile, and that the sword alone could settle the controversy. On May 8th, the whole Prussian army was called under arms. On June 12th, the Diet of Frankfort declared war against Prussia. Prussia declared its withdrawal from the Diet. War commenced June 15, 1866. On July 8d, the battle between Hapsburg and Hohenzollern ended. Prince Bismarck and his Policy.. 101 ~~ When the news of the Prussian victory reached the Vatican, Cardinal Antonelli exclaimed in terror: “ The world is out of joint.” A cry of anguish came from the whole Roman camp. Bismarck’s position after the Prussian-Austrian war, was an exceedingly difficult one. There were dangers ahead which neither the genius of Von Moltke, nor the bravery of the army, nor the masterly leadership of its generals could overcome. It needed the consummate skill of Bis- marck’s statesmanship. The Scaninavian North hated Prussia. Austria’s watchword was “ Revenge.” France was poison and gall. England could not forget the occupation of Hanover. - Russia was a doubtful ally. A new war had to be prevented and yet the fruits of victory to be reaped. The treaty of peace of Nikolsburg solved the problem. Benedetti stepped forward and proposed French inter- vention, which could not be refused. _ Venice was ceded to Napoleon, and by him transferred to Victor Emmanuel. Napoleon desired a recompense for his magnanimity in not throwing ‘an army across the Rhine. This demand had been feared in Prussia and expected in South Germany. While the peace of Nikolsburg had disclosed Austria’s and its allies’ weakness, it had showed also the weakness of France. Napoleon’s army was still in Mexico, and therefore unavailable for active operations; tne doubt whether direct interference would not reconcile the con- tending parties was a further reason for delaying matters, which proved fatal to him afterwards. Prussia’s victory had astounded Napoleon. As he could not trust to force of arms, he resorted to intrigue. The treaty of 1815 had been annihilated — France hoped to bene- fit by it. 102 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. On August 5th, Benedetti wrote the following letter to Prince Bismarck: “© My dear President: | ‘¢Tn answer to communications made by me on July 26th, °66, from Nikolsburg, I have received a plan from Vichy for a secret treaty, of which I enclose a copy, which you may read and examine at your leisure. I am ready to talk over the matter, whenever you think the proper time has arrived. ‘* BENEDETTI.” The treaty of Nikolsburg guarantied Saxony’s territorial possessions and Austria’s consent to the Prussian annexa- tion of those territories, which had fought against Prussia. The increase ofterritory was to France the most obnoxious condition,and Drouyn del’Huys insisted upon a correspond- ing cession of German territory to France. Benedetti delivered France’s ultimatum Aug. 6, 1866: ‘¢ Mayence or war,” ‘* Well, war then.” Benedetti left Berlin. Von Moltke was ready to march. to which Bismarck gave the answer, Matters remained in a state of uncertainty for two weeks, when Napoleon disclaimed any serious intentions against Prussia. “I have neither men, nor horses, nor cannons,” exclaimed he, when the minister of war delivered his last report. If Bismarck showed consummate skill before the conclu- sion of the peacetreaty, he evinced great boldness at a time when many statesmen would have been discouraged. The leniency towards Austria was the surest way of securing her friendship for the future, and it had already been agreed upon to remunerate the dispossessed princes munificently. The year of 1867 opened not auspiciously for Bismarck Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 103 and his work. France, whose hopes for territorial acquisi- tion had been dashed; the antipathy of the South German states in the work of unification; the particularistic ten- dencies of the states, which were to form the North German confederation, were problems the solution of which taxed his utmost energies. The political animosities in South Germany were fanned by influences from the Vatican, which now, for the first time, saw conclusively, that a united Germany under Prussia’s hegemony would be the death-knell to Romanism in Germany. With a final desperation, means were set in motion in Rome, Austria, France and at home to neutralize, if possible, the effect of the measures proposed by Bismarck for political union and separation of church and state. But the old, ideal longing after a strong fatherland helped the new confederation to overcome all dangers and steer onward to national unity. In the winter of 1869, von Moltke prepared his famous campaign plan in case of war with France, which in 1870, was carried out to the letter. | - There are sufficient evidences, however, to show that Napoleon himself was adverse to war. The Mexican campaign had shown the utter unreliability of his army, and thedeath of Maximilian was the crowning act ofaningloriouswar. ‘The intrigues of ex-King George of Hanover at Paris; the formation of a Polish legion in France; the open letter of the elector of Hessia; the agitation in Denmark and the encouragement it received from Paris, showed that the emperor personally had lost control of the situation. Victor Emmanuel, in a fit of _ pious remorse, was ready to form an alliance with France, contrary tothe wishes of his ministry. The intrigues about the Belgium-French Eastern Rail Road; the obstacles in regard to the St. Gotthard Rail Road were indications of the 104 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. coming storm. Romanism, however, was the visible dawn behind all these machinations. Empress Eugenie and her followers were merely the marionettes in this dark play. Bismarck hastened the consolidation of the North Ger- man confederation, and tried to overcome the opposition of the different states. In all his speeches, up to the time when the war drum silenced all admonitions, he urged harmony and united action against the common foe. Documents found in France prove conclusively, that the church party was chiefly instrumental in hastening the issue. Jesuitism forced Melac and Turenne across the Rhine; devastated the Palatinate; wrenched Strassburg from Germany. The followers of Loyola had settled in France, Belgium and Holland, to keep up the fight against Protestant Prussia. Father Bekh gained the ascendancy over Pope Pius IX., and the latter saw in the former’s doctrines alone the expression of true faith. Italy’s unifi- cation and Austria’s loss of Lombardy had robbed the Jesuit curia of the material nerve of their power. Austria’s defeat in 1866 annihilated their cherished hope of regaining their worldly (temporal) possessions by means of the sword, and filled them with terror lest the German race should triumph over their Latin neighbor. To frustrate this, two motors were set in motion: the so-called invincible military power of France: and the dogma of papal infallibility. Napoleon took the part assigned to him. ‘The first card played was Napoleon’s request, through Benedetti, that Prussia might assist France in the annexation of Luxemburg. Bismarck refused. The church and military party in Paris proposed further demands, when opportunity should offeritself. It needed little to set the ball in motion. The candidature of Prince Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the Spanish crowu offered the desired pretext. In inducing his kin to withdraw his Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 105 acceptance King William had taken from Napoleon all pretence for war; but the French ruler, lulled into se- curity by General Leboef’s readiness, ordered a throne for a triumphal entry into Paris, including all requisite deco- rations, laid 6ut the programme for the march to Notre Dame to listen to the Te Deum, and — declared war against Prussia. “‘The reasons assigned for this war were so flippant, the insults at Ems so coarse, that Germany, from the Alps to the Baltic, rushed to arms. King Ludwig of Bavaria, in his despatch to King William, July 15th, gave the parole to Southern Germany: “ We shall go with you against the common enemy.” Three days after the adjournment of the North German parliament, which had accepted France’s challenge, the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed at Rome. Its voice was drowned amidst the military march of the German hosts towards the Rhine. After the battles of Weissenburg, Woerth and Saar- briicken, Bismarck published the confidential communica- tion of Beneditti’s, of Aug. 5th, 1866. ' The results of the Franco-Prussian war are too fresh in our minds to engage our further attention. After the battle of Sedan, Bismarck, in a circular des- patch, dated Sept. 16th, says: “It will be necessary for Germany, in order to secure peace for the future, to make France less able to attack us; the open borders of South Germany must be protected and those fortresses which have been the starting point of all French invasions, must be brought into our possession.” On December 3, 1870, King Ludwig of Bavaria an- nounced in Versailles “‘ that the time had come, when all ‘Germany was ready to conferthe old imperial crown upon him, at whose side they were fighting for Germany’s honor, and on the 18th of the same month King William received the imperial delegation of the North German parliament. Tranis, ix.] 14 106 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. The crowning event of Prince Bismarck’s life, the pro- clamation of the German empire at Versailles, on the 18th day of January, 1871, wanted no element of picturesque effect, of historical solemnity, or of political significance. On February 20th, 1871, Prince Bismarck invited Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Baden, to participate in the final arrangement of the work of peace, which was con- cluded six days afterwards. The French war, like the Austrian, introduced a new order of things, to which it was necessary to adjust the civil and political machinery, and it has been followed by a course of domestic legislation, extending to the present time. Alsace and Lothringen were reunited with Germany, and France had to pay an indemnity of one thousand millions of dollars. When President Thiers had signed the articles of peace, he remarked to Prince Bismarck: ‘Peace is now secured forever,” to which Bismarck replied: “I doubt it. Old as my family is there has not been a generation in which some of them have not fought against France. And this state of things will, L fear, continue.” The most important enterprise of internal reform, in which Bismarck is now engaged, is the campaign against the power of the Roman Catholic church in Germany. The proclamation of the infallibility dogma, and the reorganization of the German empire so affected the rela- tion between pope and kaiser that in the opinion of Prince Bismarck — which the emperor and the majority of the people shared — a new adjustment, which would secure the state greater freedom of action, and more ample means of self-defense, had become imperatively necessary. This question between the Catholic church and the state is no new one. Mr. Wheaton, our embassador to Berlin, wrote as early as Dec. 6, 1837, No. 55. ‘The Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 107 disputes which have recently taken place between the Prussian government and the archbishop of Cologne have at last been terminated by the forcible removal of the prelate from his post to the fortress of Minden in West- phalia.” The principal points in dispute were: 1. Education. 2. Mixed marriages. 3: The publication of the papal bulls. In a despatch [92], dated the 2d of February, 1839, in speaking of ‘the conduct of the Prussian government in its intercourse with the papal see and its proceedings towards the Catholic prelates,’ Mr. Wheaton said: ‘*'This question still continues to be a constant source of uneasiness and debility to Prussia. “The Austrian government is more successful in manag- ing the clergy in its dominions. Measures which on the part of a Protestant sovereign are regarded as proofs of the spirit of proselytism and persecution, may be, and in fact are, accepted with docility when proceeding from the house of Austria. This fact tends to confirm the suspicion indulged by many persons here, that the religious dissen- sions in Prussia have been, if not fomented, at least re- garded with no unfavorable eye by Prince Metternich, who seeks to weaken the increasing influence in Germany obtained by Prussia through the commercial union, by opposing moral to material interests,and engaging Prussia, which, ever since the thirty years’ war, has continued to be the representative of the Protestant party in Germany, in an embarrassing conflict with a religious faction, from which Austria has not only nothing to fear, but upon whom she might count as ler natural ally in a struggle for political influence and power.” In 1850, a new fundamental or constitutional law was enacted, that the ecclesiastical organizations named in the law, among which was the Roman Catholie church, should have the right of managing their own affairs. This law 108 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. continued in force until 1873, and under it the Roman Catholic church in the Rhine provinces prospered greatly. On the 5th day of April, 1873, the fundamental law of 1850 was amended, so as to give to the state a supervisory control over the ecclesiastical organizations. The right of the Evangelical, Roman Catholic and other religious or- ganizations to manage their own affairs was to remain, but subject to the laws of the state and to a legally organ- ized state inspection. The law passed upon May 11, 1873, related to the education of priests and religious teachers. It required all priests to be educated in Germany, and it gave to the state authorities a power of examination and rejection of unfit persons. It also established at Berlin an ecclesiastical court for the purpose of hearing and finally determining cases arising under these ecclesiastical laws, or from violations thereof. This court was to consist of eleven members, six of whom were required to be regular judges, and they were authorized to order, in cases of adjudged violations of these laws, the several measures of punishment provided by the laws. In the session of 1874, there was still further legislation. By the law of May 4th (1874), provision was made in case of a vacant bishopric for authorizing a person to perform the functions of the office and to administer the tempo- ralities. ‘The new bishop, when appointed, was required to give the upper president of the province notice of his appointment, and to prove to the satisfaction of the proper officer that he possessed the personal qualifications for the office required by law, and further, to take an oath of alle- giance to the sovereign. In case of his rejection by the civil authorities, he had the right of appeal to the eccle- siastical court at Berlin, whose decision was to be final. If, however, he should undertake to exercise his office without authority, he was to be punished in the manner prescribed by law. Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 109 ‘Upon a vacancy by judicial determination, the upper president was to summon the cathedral chapter, in order that the vacancy might be filled by election; and in case no election should be had, then the minister for church affairs was authorized to appoint a commissioner to manage the real and personal property. Provisions were also made for filling vacancies in other orders of the priesthood. The persons appointed under the provisions of the law were authorized to cause this to be done by election by the congregation, and provisions were made for holding such elections, and for investing the persons elected with the offices. On May 20th, 1874, another law was passed concerning the management of the vacated Catholic bishoprics. On the 5th day of February, 1875, the pope issued his encyclical letter, addressed to ‘‘ his venerable brothers the archbishops and bishops in Prussia,” in which among other things he said: “In order to fulfil the duties of this apostolic seat we declare publicly to all whom it concerns, as well as to the entire Catholic world, that these laws are null, because they are contrary to the divine constitution of the church ; for it is not to the powers of the earth that the Lord has committed the bishops of His church in what concerns His sacred service, but to Peter, to whom He has com- mitted His lambs and His sheep.”’ The gauntlet thus thrown down was taken up at once at Berlin. ‘We shall not go to Canossa.” A law was passed for the management of the property of the Catholic church ; and on the 3d of March, 1875, a law concerning the suppression of the payment of the state _ aid to the Roman Catholic bishops and clergy. It abso- lutely suspends such payments, but the suspension is to be removed so soon as the archbishop, or bishop, ete., pledges himself in writing to obey the laws of the state. The re- 110 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. vocation of such a pledge, once given, is to involve dis- missal from office by judicial sentence, and incapacity for the exercise of office thereafter. The Roman church in Germany is divided. One branch sends a deputation to the pope with an address, in which they “Declare before you, most holy father, that no human force shall separate us from our lawful pope, for we re- member, that it is an eternal truth that one of the condi- tions of salvation is to be subject to the pontiff at Rome.” On the other hand a large number of Roman Catholic members of the Reichstag and Landtag have joined in a protest, in which it is said that ‘‘'We dispute in the most decided manner that the ecclesiastical laws of the German empire and of the Prussian state entirely overthrow the divine government of the church, and reduce to nothing the inviolable jurisdiction of the bishops; and we protest solemnly;: first, against all principles set forth in the papal document, which are dangerous to the authority, the constitution and the exist- ence of the state; and most especially, secondly, against the claim of the pope to declare invalid state laws, which have been enacted by constitutional means. We are more- over of the opinion that the teaching of the Catholic church expressly commands every Catholic to recognize as fully valid and binding all state laws enacted in constitutional manner, and to give his obedience to them.” On June 20, 1875, a law was passed concerning the management of property in Catholic parishes. On Sept. 29, 1876, a decree was issued concerning the exercise of the right of supervision on the part of the state in the administration of property in the Catholic dio- ceses. The fight is still going on. All that can be said by an impartial observer, who does not believe in the infallibility of the pope in matters of tactics, is, that with a am Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 111 the prudent and tenacious energy of the government of Prussia, and with the predominance of the national sen- timent over the religious instinct, which is the dis- tinguishing characteristic of Prussian education among cultivated minds, the victory will be on the side of the state. Prince Bismarck entertains the most friendly sentiments towards the United States, “that great commonwealth, which has taught the European people the art of self- government, which side by side with most enlightened nations marches in the path of civilization, and which has gained, for the cause of true humanity, through the greatest struggle of modern times, the most splendid triumph for mankind.” The outbreak of our rebellion gave him food for reflec- tion. He followed our war step by step, sympathizing with the cause of humanity and predicting its final victory. His own sentiments and those of the German govern- ment were expressed in the Reichstag the day after the assassination of President Lincoln, when Dr. Loewe, a member of the Reichstag, prefaced appropriate resolutions ‘as follows: *“Gentlemen: I have ventured to request the president to permit me to make a communication, for which I claim your sympathy. That which I wish to request of you does not, indeed, belong to the immediate field of our labors, but it goes so far beyond the narrow circle of private life that, in union with a number of our colleagues, I have ventured to call your attention to it. A considerable number of our colleagues feel the need, under the dismay produced by the news of the unhappy death of President Lincoln, to give expression to their views in regard to his fate, and their sympathy with the nation from which he has been snatched away. Abraham Lincoln has fallen by the hand of an assassin,-in the moment of triumph of the 112 Prince Bismarck and his Policy. cause which he had conducted; and while he was in hopes of giving to his people the peace so long desired. Our colleagues wish, in an address, to express the sympathy not of this House, that I may say in order to remove all appre- hension of a violation of the rules, but the sympathy of the individual members of the House, in this great and unhappy event. This address we desire to present to the minister of the United States. ‘Gentlemen, I will lay the paper on the table, and I beg those of my colleagues who share with me the feeling of warm and heartfelt sympathy in the lot of a nation which is united by so many bonds with our own people, to give expression to those feelings by appending their signatures to the address. These sympathies I regard as all the more justified since the United States have won a new and splendid triumph for mankind, through the great struggle which they have been carrying on for the cause of true humanity, and which, asI confidently hope, in spite of this murder of their chief, they will conduet to a successful termination. In expressing our feelingsof pain, we desire, at the same time, to prove our hearty sympathy with the American nation, and those of our brothers, who have taken part in the struggle for their cause. The man, gentlemen, who has fallen by the murderer’s hand, and whom I seem to see with his simple, honest countenance; the man who accomplished such great deeds from the simple desire conscientiously to perform his duty; the man who never wished to be more or less than the sincere and faithful servant of his people; this man will find his own glorious placein the pages of history. In the deepest reverence, I bow my head before this modest greatness, and I think it is especially agreeable to the spirit of my own nation, with its deep inner life and admiration of self- sacrificing devotion and effort after the ideal, to pay the tribute of veneration to such greatness, exalted as it is by Prince Bismarck and his Policy. 113 simplicity and modesty. I beg of you, gentlemen, -dingly, to join in this expression of veneration for reat dead, which, without distinction of party, we r to him as a true servant of his state, and of the cause humanity.” whole House rose in token of concurrence. iz.] 15 DRINKING-WATER AND SOME OF ITS IMPURI- 7 TIES. [A paper prepared by F. G. Ballart, and F. M. Comstock — Fellows of Union College, and read by Prof. M. Perkins, before the Albany Institute Oct. 2, 1877.] Much attention has been given of late to the drinking- water supplied to cities. In England the subject has been regarded as of so much importance that parliament has appointed committees at various times to investigate the subject. Their reports have done much to turn the pub- lic attention in that direction. The question is now often asked, ‘‘ What constitutes good water?” This may be answered roughly by saying that good water must be transparent, colorless, odorless even when a bottle half filled with it, is placed in a warm place for several hours and then shaken, and without taste except perhaps a slight pungency due to oxygen or carbonic acid. But water may comply with all these conditions and still be unsafe to drink. It may contain injurious substances in suspen- sion or solution, in sufficient quantities to render the water bad, and still show no traces on a rough examina- tion. These impurities can only be determined by a careful analysis of the water. Let us consider a few of these im- purities. Natural water often contains carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, sodium, magnesium, iron, etc., in solution. They also contain phosphates, chlorides, and nitrates. All natural waters, even rain water, contain the latter in cer- tain proportions. Almost all of them contain the salts of ammonia. Pond, lake, and river waters are generally softer than spring water for the reason that while those bodies of water receive the waters of springs, they also re- ceive a considerable quantity which has simply run over Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 115 the surface of the earth without taking with it much solu- ble mineral matter. Rivers are more likely to be charged with suspended impurities for the reason that their waters, which have not been filtered through the soil, carry with them a certain quantity of mud and organic matter. When water flows into lakes and the sediment subsides, it becomes clear, but in streams where the water runs rapidly, it has no opportunity to deposit its sediment and it often appears very turbid. The question arises, which of these impurities may be allowed, and in what quantities. We will first consider the lime and magnesian salts. In order to determine them roughly the method devised by Dr. Clark and called *Clark’s Method” is generally employed. This method is based upon the fact that when pure water is mixed with avery small quantity of alcoholic solution of soap, and shaken for a few minutes, a froth is produced which is persistent for some minutes; while on the contrary, when the water contains lime or magnesian salts in solution, no such froth is produced, until a sufficient quantity of the soap solution has been added to decompose them. The amount of soap solution requisite to produce the froth in water containing such salts is moreover to such an ex- tent proportional to the amount of these salts in the water, that with a soap solution of known volumetric value, the degree of hardness is indicated by the quantity requisite to produce the froth in a given quantity of water. The hardness is expressed in degrees each of which represents .01 grm. per litre, or one part per 100,000 of carbonate of lime or its equivalent of some other lime or magnesian salt. Water of less than 8°.5 hardness is called soft water, _of more than 8°.5 hard water. Water which is too hard is less wholesome than that which may be called soft. It is not so good for household purposes nor for boilers. Tt also entails an enormous waste of soap. Natural waters contain carbonic acid dissolved in them, 116 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. and also the constituents of the air. Water containing carbonic acid in solution has the property of holding in solution quantities of certain salts that would not other- wise be dissolved. If this carbonic acid be driven off by boiling, a precipitate of carbonate of lime is formed, and the water loses part of its hardness. That which remains is called permanent hardness, while that which dis- appears is called temporary hardness, and is due to the carbonates. The permanent hardness is due chiefly to sulphate of lime, chloride of lime and to magnesian salts. These are all highly objectionable. As heat liberates carbonic acid we would naturally infer river or lake water to be softer in summer than in winter, and this we find to be true. The hardness of the water also varies with the height of the stream. After a rain, when soft rain water in large quantities has run in, the stream is softer, and when it is low the water is harder. This would account for the greater hardness of the water in the winter, for there is no soft rain water flowing in, the river being almost entirely supplied from springs. The following table shows the hardness of the Mohawk at Schenectady for each day during the month of March, 1877 with the height of the river above low water for the first two weeks. Date. Hardness. Height of river. Date. Hardness. Height of river. Mae 8y 510247 Sie: 1 ft. Mar. 05...'.>. fee ea ne 6 ft. 3 in, bie be tO Ah ee Be Sa A ites 14 .6 pW ee ee (Ee eee Pee ce Fs ANd is taae 13 cP eon ee Abed oe ai niclesetere Le redeem: F< Patt 13 et! be aie 1S Bi pak ames 2“ 6in ey SS Fc alete 13 se, ie eels cick 13.905 adios Seda | eg apis eee 12 as he vlessotees 1B ike acess & LO weda | I 12 cAWity secre V2 ere eee Mae | | Bd Bar 11.5 Fi AO ore ce Pe es 5 ig AB es MS agen aah 11 een eR i | i Rd ye ye See 10 A es TO. 2. shes #0, 6% FO BHT bro atin 10 zo) el I= Pee 1D A ce. pean Sit fase OY oh ee wie bie 10 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 117 Taking the average of the first seven days we find it to be 12°.9 and of the last seven 10°.9, a difference of two degrees, due, without doubt, to the inflowing rain and snow water. A great source of pollution to water is sewage. Dr. Frankland says, ‘‘ nearly the whole of the animal matter which gains access to drinking-water consists of sewage, that is, solid and liquid excrements.”’ Thisis dangerous because it contains decomposing organic matter. The products of the decomposition of the animal matters are far more in- jurious than those from the vegetable, and are highly in- jurious even when present in minute quantities. These impurities do not make themselves apparent to the taste, but on the contrary, wells containing such waters frequently acquire a wide spread reputation and people go a long dis- tance for the waters which they regard as of a peculiarly fine flavor. Nevertheless they contain an active poison. Many diseases of the most fatal character are now traced to the use of water poisoned with the soakage from soils charged with sewage and excremental matter. Sudden outbreaks of disease of a dysenteric character are often ‘caused by an irruption of sewage into wells, either from a break in the sewer or from a cesspool, or from some pe- culiarity of the season. Such contamination isnot indicated by any perceptible change in the appearance of the water. In Dr. Schuyler’s Turkistan we find the following account of a disease which is quite common among the inhabitants where the water is bad. ‘ The Sarts are not only attacked by the usual maladies to which our frame is heir, but they have besides two or three which are pecu- liar to the country, or at all events very common there. One of these is the reshia or Guinea-worm (Filaria medi nensis) which is known also in several other parts of the world where the climate is hot and the water bad. It is probably produced by infusoria from bad water being 118 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. taken into the system, which in about a year developes into a white worm that passes through the bodyand makes its appearance usually in one of the legs. The part affected begins to swell, and the native physicians to whom the symptoms are well known immediately make an incision, and dextrously catching hold of the worm, slowly wind it off on a stick. Thisis an operation which has to be done with great care, as should the worm be broken each part would become a separate worm, and would be the cause of innumerable ulcers. There are often many such worms at the same time. The disease is accompanied by severe pains in the bones and internal heat and thirst. * * * * Most of the water for drinking is taken from the large pools and tanks where it has remained in a stagnant state for many months.” * * When sewage flows into running streams, besides being largely diluted, a portion of it is oxidized and another por- tion is taken up by fish, infusoria, aquatic plants, ete. The completeness of this oxidation is still a disputed point with chemists, some holding that the water is completely purified by merely flowing ten or twelve miles, especially if it be broken up by dams or rifts, and others contending that it can never be completely purified in this manner. The Thames, which receives a large amount of sewage above London, is, according to the report of the committee of chemists appointed by the royal commission, “ perfectly wholesome, palatable and safe” at that city. It is claimed on the other side, that water need not necessarily contain enough animal matter to be readily recognized by chemical tests in order to be prejudicial to health. ‘“ At the present time, a chemical analysis alone is not sufficient to deter- mine the desirability of a given water supply. The rice- water evacuations of a cholera patient, diluted with no very large amount of water, would form a liquid in which chemical tests would fail to indicate the presence of any- a Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 119 thing which could be pronounced injurious, and yet there is no destruction of the poisonous material ; itis still in the liquid, although not to be recognized, and such water is _ now regarded by physicians as the most direct and certain vehicle for the transmission of Asiatic cholera.” (Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of Mass., Jan., 1874.) It is now very generally held that drinking- water polluted by even avery small amount of excremental matter from those suffering from typhoid fever, is capable of propagating that disease. This was shown most re- markably by the case of the village of Lausen, Switzerland, when all the inhabitants except those living in six houses procured their water from onespring. Typhoid fever made its appearance in nearly every house except the six that did not use the water from the spring: seventeen per cent of the whole population had the disease. ihe cause was found a mile away at an isolated farm-house on the opposite side of a ridge of land, where an imported case of typhoid fever, followed by two others, had occurred shortly before the outbreak. From the valley where this farm-house was situated, there extended to the valley of Lausen, a stratum of porous earth, based on some impervious floor dipping towards Lausen, and a small brook that ran near the house into which the dejections of the typhoid patients were thrown, and in which their linen was washed being used to irrigate some meadows, sank into the porous stratum, passed through it, under the ridge, and poisoned the Lausen spring. To prove this, careful experiments were made. Highteen cwt. of salt were dissolved at the meadows, which was followed by its appearance in the spring. Fifty cwt. of flour then being mixed with the water, no traces of it could be discovered at the spring — the water evidently filtering through the earth, and not passing by an underground channel. This filtering removed the suspended flour but could not remove the dissolved salt. In this case at Lausen, 120 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. we have the oxidizing influence of one mile of porous stratum, which, though much more effective than the same distance in the open air, would be utterly unable to de- stroy the fever germs. Nitrates and nitrites are produced by the oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter and almost always from animal matter. They are called in the Registrar General’s Re- port the test of ‘‘ previous sewage contamination.” They are found in all waters, even in small quantities in rain water, and though not injurious in themselves yet lead us . to suspect that the water containing them in solution, to any extent, has at some time been contaminated largely with organic matters. These organic matters have been oxidized and the results are nitrates and nitrites, but it may some time happen that they are not all oxydized, and then we have them existing in a dangerous form, as at Lausen. The chlorine is of considerable importance in judging of the character of a water, as it is usually derived from animal excreta, though in some cases it may come from the soil. It is usually present as sodic chloride, but . occasionally as a calcic salt. Of course, attention should be paid to the geological nature of the district from which the water comes, its distance from the sea, ete., in order to decide on the origin of the chlorine. | Unpolluted river and spring waters contain a little less than one part in 100,000 of chlorine: average sewage in water-closeted towns, about ten parts. Itsamount isscarcely affected by any amount of filtration through soil. Thus the water flowing from land irrigated by sewage, contains as much chlorine in proportion as the sewage itself; unless it has been diluted by subsoil water or concentrated by evaporation. Under ordinary circumstances, a water con- taining more than two or three parts of chlorine in 100,000, should be regarded with suspicion. When the free ammonia exceeds 8 parts in 100,000 it ‘ee oa Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 121 almost invariably proceeds from the fermentation of urea into ammonia carbonate, and is a sign that the water in question consists of diluted urine. In these cases the water will also be found to contain large quantities of chlorine. Ammonium salts are found in natural waters in exceed- ingly small quantities. They do no particular harm in themselves, but they frequently come directly from sewage. The annexed table shows the results of the analysis of the water supplied to Schenectady, Troy and Albany. The nitrites were reduced to nitrates and both appear under that heading. Ammonium salts are represented by organic nitrogen. The analyses were carried on under the supervision of Prof. Perkins. The numbers represent parts per 100,000 by weight. Trans. ix.] 16 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 122 ‘[[eus oq 0} 4Ydno ‘oovtd puooos OT} UT JT IO ‘QOO‘OOT Ul Syed Tox sTeuIOep Jo oov[d paLy) OY} UT Oq OF YSNO 8}[Vs WIMIUOWIUAL SUTJUOSeIdod IOJVM-SUIYULIp B UL S1oqUINU oJ, Og T 08'S 06% 08 GT OF'8S 00ST 00 TT 08° 09° 0g 08" “euTIOTYH e0cTes 00200° c, eeoecee eeeeee esseue + eeenereeese Tg AVN "ss 199TOYOR ‘ooUT GyIvg ‘TL OrTs9go's Fd ouoN Meat Cenvene eee eee s ecseeevuvraes 61 tudy NR ae ee ALEC EU ‘OL 00L0%8" oud Ny LGS8P00' eeevte ero ees eoeeen a eevee veneces vy [udy “eee ss 9TOT OR “40 Lee 6 009FFO'F 00900" 9ul0 NT eoeeenr eveeee eeeen =) ee § eeeerves 2g Tudy ee “qoomUOYOR STH younyo 8 S00LE8'S 00STO’ CPG UOr ale Oer eG et OEE Se Ge aN i “ op zh ave. a giwste. e.8 e Oe es i eeaee eoeeen eeseeen ee eveeveeveees te AVI * * op ‘9 Uoyei JON *00800' 2 0.2 co eeee | eee wee a ee eee erene LZ ‘ABW | yoouoyos fag ojo Auyery ‘g 989620" 0000° ,» Fee ee omg OSLO T LOT ar.| Gites HINT 9 jo AUT ae 836180" 00800° 9 C20 Ts a See eal 5, "* ‘mospny, |g [Mdy |** ‘sytom-r0ye Ay ‘AuBqly | ‘g OFLOFO' 00F00° ” 726 ae Gg Sl -Gep ” coreeesens 1g Tudy |"****syros-1e98 A, Lory, |/°¢ 619830" 00800" ‘ou0 NT 6.1L | Got | FOP | IBOTO | * “YMVyoW | eg Tudy | ‘sytom-1oyVAA “JOoMOYOS | *T ‘woSomty | ‘ermouury | T2}OL, | ‘Wx | ‘duro, ‘SOHCIIN | oraesi9 ool ‘IoToD | ‘eo1nog ‘aR ‘o[duivg ‘ON ‘SSUNCULV FL ‘unqgy pun howz ‘hpojoauayay fo sayy ayn 07 pouddns wan oy) fo sishyoup ayp fo sznsayy ayn buamoys) aTAVL | Pl ad Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. 123 Let us now look at these results and see what they in- dicate. The total hardness of the water supplied to the three cities is about the same, the difference being no more than would exist in the same water on different days. In permanent hardness the Troy water is much better than that of Schenectady. The nitrates indicate the sewage contamination perfectly, increasing as we go down stream from Schenectady to Albany. Above Schenectady, there is very little sewage flowing into the Mohawk, until we reach Utica, eighty miles above, that being the only place on the river with a system of sewers. The river itself passes over many rifts and shallows between these places, affording every opportunity for the oxidation of the organic matter. At Troy the river has received the sewage of Cohoes, Waterford, Lansingburgh, etc., and at Albany that of Troy and West Troy in addition, and the nitrates accordingly increase. The water of Tivoli lake haying received no sewage is consequently purer than that from the river, and is the best water supplied to these cities. As far as the analyses go, however, the river waters are perfectly safe and wholesome, being far purer than any well-water analyzed. | In the analyses of the well-water from Schenectady we find nothing more than would naturally be expected. The city‘is a very old one, situated in a valley, and with- out the slightest attempt at a system of sewers. For over two hundred and fifty years the inhabitants have been pouring their refuse on the ground, and the contents of their privy vaults have been soaking into the earth. In old cities the ground becomes almost honey-combed with vaults. As fast as one is filled, itis covered up and _another is dug. When the property is sold, the first vault is forgotten or unknown. Finally a well is to be dug on the place, and itis easily seen that there is some possi- bility of striking an old vault. 124 Drinking- Water and some of its Impurities. A short time since, on removing a building in Schenec- tady,no fewer than five vaults were found on a lot of ground only 25 feet by 100. Into such soil as this the wells are dug, and the water in some of them has become nothing but sewage in a concentrated form. There are always cases of typhoid fever in the city, and an unhealthy season increases their number at an alarming rate. Samples 5 and 6 were from the same well, the former taken just before it was cleaned, and the latter about six weeks after. There is a vault a short distance from the well with which it is evidently in direct communication, the chlorine being more in the second analysis than in the first. No.7 was furnished by a physician who was called to prescribe for a man sick with typhoid fever. He suspected that the cause lay in the water, although the man affirmed that it was the best water in the city. The analysis shows, besides ammonia, organic nitrogen, and nitrates in large quantities, an amount of chlorine nearly three times as great as that in common sewage. In No. 8 the nitrates and chlorine were very high, es- pecially-the former. The well is only eighteen feet from a vault. No. 10 was received from aphysician at Albany. He writes as follows concerning it. ‘‘I send you aspecimen of well- water which I think has caused three cases of severe illness, two of which were fatal. I was called some months after these cases, to see a patient who had a high fever (Temp. . 105°. pulse 140) with diarrhoea and nausea, in whom I could find no disease of any organ to account for the fever. I forbid her use of the well-water and she commenced to improve and is now, after the lapse of two weeks, nearly well. Since I saw her, she has been drinking filtered rain- water. The well in this case is within ten feet of a privy- vault and the two have been thus located for twenty years.”’ These examples show us how nearly impossible it is to » ” Index. Ludwig, King, of Bavaria, 105, Lumbriconereis, 241; tennis, 241. Luther, 72, 90. Luther, David B., 337. Lutheran church, 31; the old, 40. Luxemburg, 82 ; annexation of, 104. Lybian desert, 57. Lycoperdon, 285, 286, 287; gigan- teum, 293, 295; celatum, 299; Bovista, 296; cyathiforme, 296, 298; saccatum, 298, 299; con- stellatum, 300, 801; atropurpu- reum, 301-303; gabellum, 304; Wrightii, 304-3806; pedicella- tum, 806; echinatum, 306, 307; gemmatum, 307-309; molle, 310; pyriforme, 311; subincar- natum, 311, 312; pusillum, 312, 818; leprosum, 313; coloratum, 313, 314; calyptriforme, 314, 815; Curtisii, 315; calvescens, 015, 316. Lydius, Balthasar, 52. Lydius, Domine, 52. Lydius House, 51, aie: Major ‘Sydney 8., 178, 174, 180. Lyon, Mr., 180. Lyons, professor at, 270. Lysilla, 263 ; alba, 263. ACAO, 148; Japanese, brought into, 147. McAlpine, William J., 337. McBride, Alexander, 337, 348. McCall, Henry S., 387, 348. McCammon, William, 337. McClelland, William, M.D., 337. McClure, Archibald, 337. McClure, James H., 337, 342. McClure, Thomas E., 337. McCoy, Amasa, 337. McCulloch, William A., 337. McDole, 55. McDoual, Alexander B., 387. Macedon, Philip of, pronounced in- vincible, 58. McElroy, William, 337. Macfarlane, Robert, 337. McHarg, William C., 337. Macintyre, 13. Mclntyre, Archibald, 237. Mcintyre, John McD., 337. ~ McKechnie, Thomas, 204. McKee, Rev. Robert, 337. McKelway, St. Clair, 337, 348. McKercher, Duncan, 337. McLaughian, David, M.D., 337. Trans. ix.] 46 357 McMillan, Andrew, 333. McNamara, John W., 337, 3438, 366. McNaughton, James, C. E., 337, 342. McNaughton James, M. D., 337. Macomb, 13. Maesterlandt, Roeloff Jansen van,50. Magdeburger, 93. Magee, Irving, D.D., 387, 348. Magenta, 91. Maiden Lane, 31, 36, 37. Maine, 205. Mainz, 86. Maldane, 259; elongata, 259. Maldanide, 258. Malmgren, 208, 204, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266. Malvina, 74, 76. Mandeville, "Henry, D.D., 3387, Matthattan, 40. Manhattan, whale ship, 148, 149, 150, 151. Manual of the Albany Institute, 318-345. Marcellus shale, 170, 171. March, Henry, M.D., 337. Marcy, William L., LL. D., 337. Marcy, Mount (Ta-ha-wus), 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 28, 25. Marenzeller, 224, 225, 227. Marion, 217, 220, 225, 237. Mariotte’s proposition, 276. Mark lane, 36. Market street, 35. Marphysa, 236 ; sanguinea, 236. Martin, Benj. N., D.D., L.H.D., 387. Martin, Henry H., 837, 343. Martin, Henry T., 337, 348. Martin, William, 337. Marvin, Selden E., 337. Mary, the divine child of, 66. Maryland, 297. Mason, James Weir, 337. Mass., Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of, 119. Mather, Andrew E., 337, 348. Matthews, Frederick, 337. Maximillian, 79, 103. Mayell, Willliam, 324, 337. Maynard, George W., 337. Mead, Melvin N., D.D., 387. Meads, Orlando, 887, 348. Mechanic’s and Farmers’ Bank, 50. Mchelinia, 169. Mecklenburgs, the two (Schwerin and Strelitz), 82. Medici, wisdom of the, 84. Meech, Harry, 55. Meech, Henry D., 387. Megapolensis, 40. 308 Meiningen, Duke of, 93. Meigs, Richard M., 337. Melac, 104. Melinna, 261; maculata, 261. Mellen, Rev. Wm. R. G., 337. Memoirs of the Academy of Sci- ences, 271, 273. Mémoires de ]’Academie, 282, 283, 284. Meneely, George P., 337, 343. Merchant, Lansing, 337, 348. Merchant’s or Trader’s street, 39. Mercury, 133, 186, 189, 100, 192. Mercury, transit of, 181, 191. Meske, Otto, 337, 343. Metamorphoses, 66. Metternich, 77, 80. Metternich, Prince, 107; his states- maxim, 84; his resignation, 84. Mexico, 94, 101. Meyer, Frederick, 337. Michaelis, Gustav, 337. Michener, 317. Michigan, 170. Middle Dutch church, 49. Mieroslawsky, 78. Miller, Rev. Alexander, 337. Miller, Ernest J., 337, 343. Miller Rev. John, 29. Miller, Peyton F., 337. Miller, Rev. William A., 337. Miller, William C., 337. Milwaukee, 179. Minden, fortresses of, 107. Miner, Theodore F., 337. Minnesota, 293, 296, 299. Minor, W C. , 337. Minotaur, 64. Mississippi, 56; valley of, 170. Mitchel, Mr., 2. Mitologia Vedica, 62, 63, 69. Moak, Nathaniel C., 337, 343. Mohawk, the, 123; hardness of at Schenectady, 116. Mohawks, the, 36. Mole, star-nosed, 20. Moliére, 272. Molinard, Julien, 337. Montagu, 236. Montijo, Eugénie van, 87. Moore, Levi, M.D., 337, 348. Moose, 24. Morange, William D., 337. Morgan, Wm., M.D., 357. Mordred, 64. . Morrison, the, American vessel, 147. Moses, 63, 65, 66. Mosher, Cornelius D., M.D., 337. Mosher, Jacob 8., M.D., 337, 343. Index. Mott, Joseph P., 387. Mott, Isaac, 337. Mt. Marcy, winter fauna of, 11-26. Mt. Morris, 333. Mowbray, George W.., 338. Miiller, 262. Miller, Max, 57, 60, 72. Munich, 79, 82. Munsell, Joel, 29, 387, 348. Munson, Frank A., M.D., 337. Munson, Frederick W., 3387. Munson, Samuel L., 337, 341. Murray, David, Ph.D., 337. Museum building, 55. Mythology, 62; of the Aryan Na- tions, 57. Myths, the Solar Theory of, 57-73; of the New World, 57; and Myth Makers, 57, 62. AGASAKTI, 147. Napoleon, 70, 91, 92, 94, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105; victor, 88; turned his eyes toward the Rhine, 88; his most dangerous neighbor, 88; consultation with, 89. Napoleon I, 74, 84. Napoleon III, 88, 90, 91. Nares, Captain, 148, 144. Nassau, 82. National Verein, 93. Nature, 4, 5, 6. Naval Academy, 185, 186, 187, 188. Nebo, 66. Neesen, Herr, 4, 5. Neiderwald, 87. Nemean lion, 65. Nephthydide, 213. aera 213 ; ingens, 213; picta, 14. Nereida, 2381. Nereis, 231; irritabilis, 231; Dum- erillii, 234 ; virens, 235 ; limbata, 235. Nerine, 249 ; heteropoda, 249. Nesselrode, 77. Netherlands, the, 82. Neue Preussiche Zeitung, 79. New Albany, 172. Newark, N. J., 204. Newbery, Dr., 171. | Newcomb, 185, 187, 188. Newcomb, David, M.D., 337. New England, 242, 299. Newell, George, 337. | Newell, George W., 387. “j New Haven, Conn., 185, 218, 242. ef Index. Newland, John, 337. oo Rev. Frederick M., 337, New York, 25, 29, 50, 57, 68, 129, 149, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 180, 319, 320, 321, 383; an express sent to, 42; State Sur- vey, 191, 193, 200; State Mu- seum of Natural History, 203 ; Paleontology, 180. Niagara group, 172. Niagara river, 170. Nichols, Asher P., 333. Nichols DeAzro A., 337, 348. Nicholas, Emperor, 82; died, 88. Nicholas I, of Russia, 77. Nikolsburg, treaty of, 101, 102. Niphon, 148, 149. North Adams, Mass., 333. North America, 19. Northampton Co., Va., 202. North Carolina, 293, 309, 315. North Galway, 293. North Greenbush, 304. North Market street, 39. North Pear] street, 31. Northrop, Richard H., 337. Norton, John T., 337, 343. Norton street, 32. tas of North American Fungi, Notre Dame, march to, 105. Nott, Howard, 337. oe Onn, Dr., 50. O’Callaghan, Edward B.., M.D., LL.D., 837. Odenwald, 86. Odin, 69. O’Donnell, William, M.D., 337. Odontosyllis, 220; fulgurans, 220. Ofen, 94. O’Hara, John. 193, 194. Ohio, 170,171, 178, 179; falls of the, 169, 172, 178, 174, 175, 178; Geolovical Reports, 179. Oidipous, 64. Olcott, Thomas W., 337. Orcutt, Lysander A., 337. Oldenburg, 82. Olds, George D., 337, 343. Olds, Prof. G. D., 1938, 197. Oliniitz, 82, 84,85; policy, 83; con- ference, 83; policy, defender of, 85; policy fell to the ground, 89. Olney, 316. Olympus doomed, 58. Onderdonk, Abraham F., 3387. 359 Oneida, 293, 297, 300, 306. On Light in some of its Relations to Disease, 153-168. Onondaga limestone, 70, 171, 173. Opalescent river valley, 15. Orange, Fort, 40, 41; street, 29. Origin of Folk Lore, 62. Orirkany sandstone, 170, 171. Orleans dynasty, 79. Orleans, Louis Philip of, 77. Osborn, Abijah, 337. Osiris, 62. Ostpreussische Zeitung, 93. Otto, 74, 76. Ovid, 66, 67. ACIFIC, 19, 147. Packard, Dr. A. 5S., Jr., 23. Peedophylax, 223; dispar, 223. Paige, John K., 837, 348. Paine, 293. Paine, Henry D., M.D., 337. Paine, Horace M., M.D., 337, 348. Paine, John A., Ph.D., 335. Palatinate, the, devastated, 104. Pallas, sons of, conquered, 64. Palmer, Edward D. L., 337. Palmer, Erastus D., 337, 341. Panchaia, country called, 60. Panther gorge, 15, 22, 23. Paris, 57, 79, 94, 95, 103, 270, 272; ex- hibition, 88; conference ended, 88. Parker, Amasa J., LL.D., 337. Parker, Amasa J., Jr., 387. Parker, Philip 8., 337. Parmelee, William, 337. Parsons, L. Sprague, 337. Pasko, Wesley W.., 337. Paterson, John, 337, 343. Patroclos, 66. Paul, 185, 187, 188. Pear] street, 29, 31, 32, 34, 38. Pearson, Prof., 56. Pearson, George, 337. Pease, Erastus H., 587. Pease, Frederick 8., 337. Peck, Charles H., A.M., 285, 337, 4: 343. Pectinaria, 261; (Lagis) dubia, 261. Perithods, 66. Pemberton house, 38. Pendragon, 63, 64. Pennsylvania, 2938, 309, 316. Pennant, 18. Penrose, 185, 187. Perkins, George R., LL.D., 337. Perkins, Maurice, M.D, 333. 360 Perkins, Prof. M., 114, 121. Perrin, 188. Perry block, 53. Perry, Commodore, 162. Perry, John §., 337, 343. Perry, Nathan B., 337, 348. Perseus, 65, 69. Persia, 72. Peter, 109; successor of, 90. Petersburg, 95; Bismarck embass- ador in, 90, 91. Peru, 72. Petit, 280. Pfordten, Herr von der, 82. Phaedo, 67. Pheth6n, 66. Phaidra, the Attic queen, 64. Pharaohs, house of the, 62. Phelps, William F., 337. Phelps, William L. M., 338, 348. Phil. May., 282, 283, 284. Philadelphia, 57, 135, 189. Philip Pietersen, 35. Philip of Macedon, pronounced invincible, 58. Pheebus, 66, 67. Phoibus Apollo, 68. Phronia, 268; tardigrada, 268. Phyllodice, 214; fragilis, 214. Phyllodocide, 214. Physiology of Man, 182. Picard, Henry, 338. Picus villosus (hairy wood pecker), 22 Pierson, Henry R., LL.D., 388, 343. Pista, 263; cristata, 263. Pius IX, Pope, 104. Plamann, Professor, 75. Plato, 67. Platt, Charles Z., 338. Plectrophanes nivalis (white snow bird), 22. Plumb, Josiah B., 388. Plutarch, 59. Pluto, queen of, 69. Podarke, 216; obscura, 216. Poland, 77. Polar hare, 20. Polish insurrection, new, 78; legion, formation of, 108. Pollux, 66, 69. Polybius, 60. Polycirrus, 263; eximius, 263. Polydora, 251; hamata, 251; ceca, Polynesia, 72. Polynoide, 204. Polytechnic School of Paris, 270, 273, Index. Pomfret, James E., M.D., 338. Porcupine, 24. Port-Vendres, 217. Poson, 89. Potamilla, 265; tortuosa, 265. Potsdam, 76. Potter, Eliphalet N., D.D., 388. Potter, Horatio, D.D., 3388. Poughkeepsie, 388; Society of Nat- ural Science, 6. Powers, Titus W., M.D., 338. Praesidial embassador, the, 85. Pratt, D. J., Ph.D., 321, 338, 348. Premiers Elemens de Chimie, 271. Prentice, Sartell, 338, 348. Prescott, Prof., 125. Prescott, Richard, 388, 343. Preston, Henry G., M.D., 338. Prevost, Prof., 75. Primitive Culture, 57, 62. Prince Bismarck and his Policy, 74-118. Pritchett, 185, 187, 188, 189. Prize Essay on the Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors, 1338, 137. Proceedings of the Albany Institute, 321 Procerea, 227 ; tardigrada, 227; ce- rulea, 230. Prometheus, 66. Proserpine, 69. Proteoides, 287, 300. Protestantism, 85. Prout, Dr., 186, °137, Prussia, 74, 80, 81, 82, 88, 84, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 95, 96, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102; her destiny, 74; rebellion broke out in, 79; king of, 89; Protestant, 104. Prussian junker, 75; army disorgan- ized, 81; army, mobilized against Austria, 82; no match for the Austrian, 83; embassa- dor, recalled, 82. Pruyn Erastus C., 338. Pruyn, Frans Janse, 51. Pruyn, Jobn V. L., LL_D., 388. Pruyn, John V. L., 338, 344. Pruyn, Lansing, 338. Pruyn, Robert C., 338. Pruyn, Robert H., LL.D., 388, 344. Pruyn, Samuel, 45, 338. Ptarmigan, 24, 20. Pulslovski, Count Leon, 3388. Pythia, the, 57, 58, 65. UACKENBUSH, Jno. V. P., M.D., 338. —_ : 4 ’ Index. 361 Quackenbush street, 4. Quarterly Journal of Science, 4. Quatrefages, 220, 236, 287, 239, 258. ABBIT, gray, 24. R Raccoon, 24. Radiation, Mechanical action of, 1-10; repulsion by, 4 Rag market, the, 33. Ramsey, Charles H., 338, 344. Ramsey, Joseph H., 338, 344. Randall, Samuel 8., 338. Rankin, Edward W., 388, 344. Ransom, Albion, 338. Ransom, Joel R., 3388, 344. Rathbone, Clarence, 338, 344. Rathbone, Joel, 338. Rathbone, John F., 338. Ravenel, Mr., 313. Ravenel’s Fungi Caroliniani, Exsic- cati, 315, 318. Read, John Meredith, Jr., 338. Redfield, Charles B., 338. Redfield, James, 888. Red sea, 65. Redemptorists, 85. Reese, J. Livingston, D.D., 388, 344. Registrar General’s Report, 120. Regnault, Henri, killed in the battle of Buzenvyal, 272. Regnault, Henri Victor, 270, 271, 272; domestic troubles, 272; became paralytic, 272; died, 273; his funeral, 273; his most important work, 278 ; his state- ment, 274; his ten memoirs, 274-280; the importance of his scientific work, 281; list of his scientific writings, 282-284. Reichenberg, 88. Reichstag, the, 110, 111. Reid, John, 338. _ Reilly, James W., U. 5S. A., 388, ov8. - Remarks on the Dudley Observa- tory Observations of the Tran- sit of Mercury, 181-201. Remus, 66, 69. Renselaerswyck, 41. Rensselaersville, 298, 294. Reports on the N. Y. State Museum of Natural History, 318. Reports on the N. Y: State Cabinet of Natural History, 318. Reuss, 82. Reynolds, Rev. Charles, 338. Reynolds, Dexter, 338. Reynolds, Marcus T., 338. Reynolds, Prof. Osborne, 6. Reynolds, Walter G., 338. Rhea Silvia, 65. Rhine, the, 77, 78, 104, 105. Rhoades, Julius, 838. Rhode Island, 316. Rhynchobolus, 245; Americanus, 245 , disbranchiatus, 245. Rice, William A., 3388. Richardson, 20, 21. © Richardson, Dr., 134,139. | Richardson, Felis, canadensis of, 16. Robertson, Charles A., M.D., 3388. Robison, Hugh, 388. Robison, Johnny, 55. Rochow, 87. Rockwell, Lewis H., 888. Rockwell, William S., 338. Rocky mountains, 19, 296. Roman admiral, 58. Roman Catholic church in Ger- many, campaign against the power of, 106. Romanism, 83. Roman state settled, 65. Rome, 108; traditions of, 58. Rom street, 36. Romulus, 68, 65, 66, 67. Ronan, Edward D., 388, 344. Root, Arthur H., 338. Rosendale, Simon W., 388, 344. Roscoe, 275. Rosse, Ear] of, 2. Rostkovius, 287 316. Round mountain notch, 24. Royal Institution, 2; Society, paper sent to, 4; Society of London, foreign member of, 271. Riidesheim, 86. Rugg, George S., 338. Rumford, 280; medal, 271. Runkle, Jacob G., 388, 344. Russ, Charles E., 3388. Russell, Rev. Edwin B., 3388. Russell, Henry, 388, 344. Russell, Joseph W., 3388. Russia, 82, 90; defeated, 88; a doubtful ally, 101. Riitli, 66. Rutten kil, 31, 32, 35; great bridge over, 30. Ryseck, 46. AARBRUCKEN, 105. Sabella, 265; misrophthalma, 265. Sabellaria, 259; varians, 259. Sabellidee, 265. 362 Sackett, Charles E., 338. St. John, Joseph 8., 338, 344. St. John, 66, 67; the Baptist, 71. St. John’s day, 71. St. Louis, Mo., 333. St. Martin, 131, 182. St. Peter’s, 148. St. Petersburg, letter from, 92; cor- responding member of the society of, 271. Salisbury, James H., M.D., 338. Sallust, 59. Sampson, Ira B., 388, 344. Samson, 63, 65. Sanders, James B., 3388. Sandlake, 297, 299, 302, 313. Sandras, 136. Sandusky limestone, 177. Sanford, Joseph P., 338, 344. Sanscrit, 62; not known, 60. Sard, Grange, 338, 344. Sars, 235, 246, 262. Sarts, the, 117. Satterlee, Edward, 338. Satterlee, Eugene H., 338. Saul, 65. Sauter, Louis M., 338. Savery P B., 338. Saxe, John G., 338. Saxe-Altenburg, 82. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 82. Saxe-Meiningen, 82. Saxony, 81, 88, 100; revolution, 81. Scandinavian Baldur, the, 69. Scandinavian North, 100. Schaets, Dom., 51, 52. Scharnhorst, 89. Schaumburg, Lippe, 82. - Schenectady, 121, 122, 128, 124, 125, 203, 333; road to, 43; hardness of the Mohawk at, 116. Schleroderma, 286. Schleswig-Holstein, 80, 81, 99. Schoenhausen, 74, 76. School of Mines, 273. Schurz, Carl, 383. Schuyler’s, Dr., ‘Vurkistan, 117. Schuyler, John, 36. Schuyler, Capt. John, lot occupied Schuyler, Madame, 382. Schuyler, Philip, 46. Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 338. Schuyler, Philip Pietersen, Van, 35 Schuyler, Pieter, 35, 86; residence of, 35. Schuyler, William C., 338. Schwarzenberg, Count Adam Von, Index. Schwarzenberg, 84; Minister, 85. Schwarzenberg, Prince, 83. Schwarzenbergs, two (Rudolstadt and Sondershausen), 82. Schweinitz, 309, 317, 318. Schoharie grit, 170, 171. Scientific Life and Work of H. Y. Regnault, 270 — 284. Scientific American, 2. Scionopsis, 262; palmata, 262. Scotland, 4. Scovill, Oliver, 388.. Scribner, G. Hilton, 338. Scyrian cliff, the, 64. Sebastopol, 91. Sedam, Charles, 338. Sedan, 105; day of, 88. Seeley, George, 338, 344. Seman, John F., 388, 344. Semitic, 62. Serpulide, 266. Sessions, Rev. John, 338. Sevres, director of the porcelain works at, 272. Seward, Mount, 21. Seymour, Norman, 333. Shaw, Joseph, LL.D., 3388. Sheboygan, Wis., 296. Shepard, Ashbel K., 388. Sherman, Watts, 338. Shiland, Andrew, 388. Shumard, Mr., 172, 178. Sickels, Hiram E., 388, 344. Sigalionide, 213. Sigmaringen, Prince Hohenzollern, 104. Sigurd, 63, 65. Sill, George W., 388. Silliman’s journal, 288, 284. Simonds, Thomas, 338. Simons, Nathan E., 388, 344. Skeel, Theron, 388. Skilton, George S., 388. Skinner, 185, 186, 187. Skinner, Elisha W., 3388. Skunk, 24. Skylight, Mt., 18, 15, 17. Smart, William 8, D.D., 388. Smith, Adam R., 888. Smith, Charles E., 338, 344. Smith, Dr. Edward, 129, 1386. Smith, Erastus C., 388, 344. Smith, James H., 388. Smith, John §., 388. Smith, J. Mereau, 338. Smith, J. Wesley, 338. Sinith, Louis B., 838. Smith & Covert, 34. Smith’s English Flora, 317, 318. Index. Snow, Norman L., M.D., 338, 344. Snyder, Henry W., 338. Society for the Promotion of Use- ful Arts, 319, 820, 823, 324. Society instituted in the State of New York for the Promotion of Agriculture, Artsand Manu- factures, 3819; Transactions, 319. Soden, 86. Solferino, 91. Solomon’s song, 72. Song of Solomon, 72. Sorex fosteri, 20. Souls, William, 338. South America, 72. So. Bethlehem, Pa., 185. South Carolina, 297, 313. South Corinth, 297, 310. South Pearl street, 31. Southwick, Arthur C., 338. Spain, 66. Sparta, 69. Spectator, time of the, 36. Spelman, Benjamin R., 388, 344. Spencer, William, 338. Spherosyllis, 221; fortuita, 221. Spiochaetopterus, 246; oculatus, 247. Spionide, 249. Spoor, Charles T. F., 338, 344. Sprague, Thomas Bond, 333. Sprague, William B., D.D., 338. Sprecher, Samuel T., D.D., 338. Staats’s, Abram, alley, 36. Staats House, 32, 39. Staats, Jochim, 52. Stadhuis (City Hall), 54, 55. Stanwix, Fort, Stanwix Hall, 37. Stas, 275. State Bank, first president of, 33. State botanist, 23; entomologist, 23; survey station Ferris, 193, 194. State street, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36. Staurocephalus, 242; pallidus, 242; sociabilis, 243. Steele, Rev. Florida, 338. Steele, Oliver, 338. Steele, Samuel,.338. Steienwyck, Cornelis, lot ‘patented, 32. Steenwyck, Cornelius, 52. Stearns, Eben S., 338. Sterling, Clarence, 338. Steuben street, 31, 37. Stevens, Dr., 125. Stevens, George T., M.D., 1538, 338, 344. 363 Stevens, Samuel, 338. Stevenson, James, 3388. Sthenelais, 218; picta, 213. Stillé, 136, 137. Stimpson, 213. Stimson, Daniel M., M.D., 338. Stockholm, Sweden, 885. Stone, 185, 187; tavern, 34. Stonehouse, John B., Jr., M.D., 388, 344. Strang, executed, 55. Strassburg wrenched from Ger- many, 104. Stratigraphical Arrangement of the Rocks of Kentucky, 178. Strauss, 70. Street, Alfred B., 838, 344. Street, Alfred W., 338. Stringer, Dr. Samuel, residence, 39. Strong, Anthony M., 339. Strong, Richard M., 889. Sturms’ Deutschlands Flora, 316, 318. Stuy vestant, Gov., 41. Stuyvestant, Peter, 40. Stuyvestant’s city line, 41. Summit, 310. Sunnyside, 53. Supreme Court, 53. Survival in Culture, 62. Susa, courts of, 62. Susquehanna rail road office, 41. Sutherland, James H., 389, 344. Swan, Richard W., 339. Swart, Gerrit, widow of, 47. Swiss village, 125. Switzerland, 66, 119. Syllide, 217. Syllis, 217; gracilis, 217, fragilis, 217. Synopsis of North American Fungi, Schweinitz’s, 317, 318. Synopsis of the Fungi of North Carolina, Schweinitz’s, 317, 318. Synoptical Table of Species, 291, 292. Syracuse, 3388. ABER, Azor, 339. Tabor, 66. Ta-ha-wus (Mount Marcy), 12. Talcott, S. Visscher, 3389. Talcott, William H., 339. Tarquin, 57. Tayler, Gov. John, 33, 34; house removed, 33; died, 38. Tayler, John, 339. Taylor, Alfred H., 339, 344, Taylor, George W., 339. 364 Taylor, John, Jr., 339. Taylor, William H., 339. Tear, Lake, 20, 22. Tear-of-the-Clouds, lake, 16. Tear, little lake, 16. Teft, 293. Tells, the, 66. Temple, Charlotte, 56. Temple, Robert E., 339. Templeton, John, 339, 344. Ten Eyck, Elisha Y., 339. Ten Eyck, James, 339, 344. Ten Eyck, Philip, M.D., 339, 344. Tenney, Jonathan, 339, 844. Teplitz, 92. Terrebellide, 262. Thames, the, 118. The First Visit of an American Ship to Japan, and its Results, 147-152. The Hydraulic Beds and Associated Limestones at the Falls of the Ohio, 169-180. The Physiological Effects of Alco- hol, etce., 135. The Physiology of Digestion, 131. The Solar Theory of Myths, 57-73. Theological and Homiletical Com- mentary, etc., 57, 63. Therapeutics and Materia Medica, 136. Therapeutics, Materia Medica and Toxicology, 139. Thermoscope, 3. Thesean myth, earliest form of, 64. Theseus, 64, 65, 66; the Attic king, 63; mother of, 63. Thiers, President, 106. Thomasse, Jan, 52. Thompson, David A., 339, 344. Thomson, Lemon, 889, 344. __ Thomson, Wm. Thomas, 838. Thucydides, 58, 59. Thudichum, 136. Thuringian mount, 66. Tillinghast, Charles, 339, 344. Tintagil, fortress of, 63, 65. Tivoli lake, 123. Tom Thumb, 62. Tontine, the, built, 50. Townsend, Ambrose §., 339. Townsend, Franklin, 339, 344. Townsend, Frederick, 339 344. Townsend, Howard, 389, 344. Townsend, Isaiah, 339. Townsend, John, 339. Townsend, John F., M.D., 339. Townsend, Robert, 339. Townsend, Theodore, 339. Index. Townsend’s Furnace, 341. Tracy, James G., 3389. Trager, 329. Transactions of the Albany Insti- tute, 321. Trans. Am. Med. Association, 138. Treadwell, John G., 339. Tremain, Grenville, 339. amer, holy coat of, 78. Trinity Church, New York, dona- tion to, 50. Trinity, equivalents for the three persons of, 63. Troas, 69. Trophonia, 245; arenosa, 245. Troy, 65, 121, 122, 128, 334, 036. Truax, Cornelius, '36. Tucker, Gilbert M. , 039, 344, Tucker, Luther i: 339, 344. ee Willis G., M.D., 127, 339, 344. Tuckerman and Frost’s Catalogue 2 eal near Amherst College, If Tully, William, 339. Turanian, 62. Turenne, 104. Turkistan, Dr. Schuyler’s, 117. Tweed Dale, William A., 339. Twedale Hall, 53. Twenty- second State Cabinet Re- port, 298, 303. Twenty- sixth Report of the N. Y. State Museum, 305. Twenty-third New "York State Cab- inet Report, 296, 298. Twombly, Rey. Alexander S., 339. Tycho Brahe, 281. Tylor, Edw ard B., 57, 62, Re Tyndall, John, 383. LTRA-CATHOLICISM, 84. Union College, 193; fellows of, 114; physical department of, 201; zodlogical expeditions sent out by, 202; special stu- dent in, 270; laboratory, 279; library of, 282. Union parliament, 81. United Diet (Landtag), 78. United States, 111, 112, 148, 181. United States Species of Lycoper- don, 285-318. Upper Helderberg group, 169, 171, 173, 174, 175, 179, 180. Upson, Anson J., D.D., 339, 344. Utica, 123, 338. Utrecht, 165. Index. 365 ALENTINE, William T., 339, | Vesta, temple of, 65. 345. Van Allen, Adam, 339. Van Allen, Garrett A., 339, 345. Van Alstyne, Thomas J., 339, 345. Van Alstyne, William C., 339. Van Antwerp, John H., 339, 345. Van Antwerp, William M., 339, 345. Van Benthuysen, Arthur L., 339, 345 Van Benthuysen, Charles, 345. Van Benthuysen, Clarence, 339, 345. Van Benthuysen, Frank, 339, 345. Van Benthuysen, Paulus Martense, 37 Vanderheyden House, 51, 82. Vanderheyden, Jacob Tysse, 52. Vanderpoel, Isaac, 339. Vanderpoel, James, 339. Vanderpoel, S. Oakley, LL.D., 339, 345. Vanderpoels, progenitor of, 51. Van Derveer, Albert, M. D., 339, 345. Van Derzee, Andrew, 339, 345. Van Dyck, Henry H., 339. Van Heusen, Theodore V., 345. Van Ingen, Harmanus 6., 339. Van Rensselaer, Cortlandt, 359. Van Rensselaer, Eugene, 359, 345. Van Rensselaer, John S., 339. Van Rensselaer, Phillip 8., 339, mansion erected by, 53. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 320, 324. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, Jr., 339. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, LL.D., 339. Van Rensselaer, William P., 339. Van Santvoord, Alfred, 339. Van Schaick, Anthony, 339. Van Schaick, Cornelis, the last of the sextons, 45. Van Schaick, Gerrit, 339. Van Schaick, John B., 339. Van Slyke, Eugene, M.D., 339. Van Vechten, Abraham, 339. Van Vechten, Jacob T. B., 339. Van Vechten, Teunis, 339. Van Voorst, Hooper C., 339. Van Zandt, John, 34. M.D., ' Vatican, the, 87. Venice, 84, 92, 100, 101. Venus, transit of, 181. Vermont, 297, 301, 304. Verrill, 241, 245, 258, 259, 262, 263, 265, 266. Verrill, Prof., 203, 204, 205, 213, 216, 235, 2386, 237, 241. Versailles, 105,106; proclamation of the German empire at, 106. Trans. ix. ] 47 Victor Emmanuel, 101, 108. Viele, Maurice E., 339, 345. Vienna, 79; the court of, 83, 84. Vierordt, 138. Villa-franca, Austria’s defeat at, 90; declaration of peace at, 91. Vineyard Sound, 205, 213. Vinhagen, Elizabeth, baptized, 42. Virchow, 80. Virgil, 63. Virginia, 205, 213, 217, 242. Vodden markt, the, 33. Von Arnim, Herr Oscar, 76. Von Beust, 8&2. Von Beust, Freiherr, 100. Von Ertbon, 185, 187. Von Moltke, 89, 101, 102, 103. Von Roon, 89. Von Steinwehr, Adolph, 339. W ADE, Edward, 339, 345. Wadhams, Frederick, 339. Walcott, Charles D., 389, 345 Waldeck, 82. Walford, Cornelius, 333. Walker, Henry A., 339. Walker, James E., 339, 345. Wallace, Sir William, 56. Walsh, John S., 339. Walsh, William, 339. Wampum, or Sewan, 48. Ward, Robert E., 339. Ward, Samuel B., M.D., 339, 345. Warne, 293, 297, 300, 306. Warne, Mr., 294, 300. Warner, James M., 339, 345. Warner, John De Witt, 57, 339. Warsaw, conference at, 82; Holy Alliance met in, 87; Russia, Wasson, James D., 339. Washington, 70, 184, 192. Washington, D. C.; 185, 338. Washington street, 33: Waterbury, Edward P., 339, 345. Waterbury, Daniel, 339. Waterford, 123, 336. Waterloo, 333. Waterman, Robert H., 339. Watkins, 333. Watson, 185, 187. Watt, Mark, 1. Webster, Charles R., 339. Webster, George, 339. Webster, Harrison E., 202, 333. Webster, Horace B., 339. Webster, Matthew Henry, 339. 366 Websters & Skinners, publishing house of, 53. Weed, Rev. Henry R., 339. Weisbaden, 86. Weissenburg, 105. Welles, Samuel R., M.D., 333. Wendell, Evert Janse, 51. Wendell, Harvey, 339 Wendell, Herman, M.D., 339. Wendell, John H., 39. Wendell, John J., 839. Wendell, Peter, M.D., 3389. Wendell, Philip, 58, 339. Wendell, William, 339. Werder, Frederick, gymnasium, 75. Werner, Jacob I., 339 Westerlo, Rensselaer, 339. ‘Westphalia, 107. West Point, 333. West Troy, 123. Whateley, Archbishop, 70. Wheaton, Mr., embassador to Ber- lin, 106, 107. Wheaton, Henry G., 339. Wheeler, Charles F. , 339, 345. Whipple, 55. White, Jesse M., 339. White, William J., 339. Whiteface, 138, 29. Whitfield, Robert P., 389, 345. Wild cat, 24. Willard, Elias, M.D., 339. Willard, Sylvester D., M.D., 339. Willers, Diedrich, Jr., 339. Willemstadt, 41. William, King, 98, 105. William of Orange, 90. William I., 89. William, Prince, 85, 276. William street, 40. Williams, Chauncey P., 339, 345. Williams, Robert D., 340. Williams, William H., 340, 346. Williamstown, Mass., 383. Wilsdon, James C., 340. Wilson, 185, 187, 188. Wilson, Gilbert L., 340. Wilson, Jacob, 340. Index. Wilson, James M., 340. Wilson, John, 340. Wilson, Col. John M., 340. Wilson, O. S., 193, 194, 195, 196, ~ 197, 198. Wilson, Mr., 191, 192. Wimbledon, Eng., 185. Winchell, Alexander, LL.D., 333. Wing, Joel A., M.D., 340. Winkelman, Dr., 75. Winne John, 340. Wisconsin, 179, 297, 318. Witch of Endor, 55, 56. Woerth, 105. Wolf, 24. Wolford, George, 340, 345. Wood, Rev. Abel, 340. Wood, Bradford R., 340. Wood, J. Hampden, 340, 345. Woodruff, Samuel M., 340. Woollett William L., 340. Woolworth, Samuel B., LL.D., 340. Word, H. C., 139. Wright, 315. Wright, Frank P., 340, 345. Wright, Mt., 13. Wrightson, Willian, 340. Wiirtemberg, 81, 96, 106. Wurtz, 272. Wynantse, Gerrit, 51. ANDELL, Mr., 172, 178. Yankees, 36. Yates house, 53. Yates, John W., 340. Yates, Richard, 340. Yates, Robert, chief justice, 53. Yonse, Onneke, 49; residence of, 49; came to Albany, 50. Young, William A., 240, 345 AHNE, 289. Zaphrentis, 169. Zeus, 62, 63; column set up by, 60. Zodlogical Mythology, 57, 68. ERRATUM. Page 337. For “1878, John W. McNamara,” read 1869, John W. Mc- Namara. This name is also out of its alphabetical order. 6 ee eee ay Oe _o -- = = . © Ly y+ - <2 = —_ + ~ 2 < — c —~ a aa 4 ° muy ~— a ~ “ Vege oT y~ . h Se r oe aT art 2 ; ae | ee ¢ sree anew eed Te 2 ‘ as ay ee , a 4 EXPLANATION. OF PLATE I LEPIDONOTUS SQUAMATUS Andy. Page 204. Fig. 1. Head of a small specimen, X 25. Fig. 2. Foot seen from below, X 285. Fig. 3. Seta of ventral ramus, x 140. Fig. 4. Seta of dorsal ramus, x 240. Fig. 5. Seta of first ventral ramus, x 240. LEPIDONOTUS VARIABILIS 7. sp. Page 205. Fig. 6. Head of a small specimen, X 25. Fig. 7. Elytron from middle of body, x ar Fig. 8. Foot from a larger specimen, x 2 Figs. 9,10. Setee of lower ramus, x 140. Fig. 11. Seta of first segment, lower ramus, < 149. ith. T = agers, ntice Ro 5 hb Ere EE SSS ee ee H.EWebster, Del — Lrans, Ubari lus, Lr- = at S ./ ba ; . s hy WY WB \\ SS ES { iy 28 es 77, — Zi SS ZF SS 5 G77, SS 2G SS i; rane oS . ip \\\\ \ WSS WS . rere RE ER a HEWebster, Del Prentice Rodgers, Lith. ie Si “a ti | - [i Dt * # r ‘ oe - tr t* | ‘4 ” “ iss ~ o jo Wan es box WFO KO hi aS 5 a) ae ’ * > A TA £. A ~ _— 06 - TT » . > ow * ¥ + Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. EUMIDA MACULOSA 7. sp. Page 215. Head, etc., < 70. Anterior foot, x 70. Foot from middle third, x 70. Posterior dorsal cirrus from a large specimen, x 70. SYLLIS FRAGILIS 7. sp. Page 217. Seta, x 750. Acicula, < 750. (Fig. 43 is not good, the terminal button not being shown.) SPHAROSYLLIS FORTUITA 7. Sp. Page 221. Head and anterior sezments, * 130. Posterior segments, < 1380. Compound seta with long appendix, X 750. Compound seta with short appendix, < 750. Simple seta, x 750. PADOPHYLAX DISPAR 2. Sp. Page 223. Head and anterior segments, * 130. icers, Lith ro Ss Prentice Ro Wehster, Del Fig. 5 Fig. ' Fig. Fig. Fig. 5 Fig. Fig. 62. EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. PADOPHYLAX DISPAR, %. Sp. Page 223. Posterior segments, X 130. Seta with short appendix, x 750. Seta with longer capillary appendix, x 750. Same as 52, different view, xX 750. Simple seta, slightly curved, x 750. Simple seta, more curved, X 750. NEREIS IRRITABILIS 7. sp. Page 231. Head and extended proboscis, x 20. Proboscis, ventral view, X 20. Foot from 7th segment, x 20. Foot from 30th segment, x 20. Foot from 50th segment, < 20. Foot from 70th segment, x 20. Foot from 160th segment, & 20. Figs. 63, 64. Sete, x 450. Prentice Rodgers, Lith ees ey a ie aus i ge re e i PO a. a Pie s oe Z > ; ry a ee SAT = , 7 ~) Fig. . Fig. >" 70. ara . 72. 7B. ig. 74. he. ne. ryt ae Si 78. 79. 80. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL. NEREIS IRRITABILIS 7. Sp. Page 231. Adult female, foot from 70th segment, x 20. Sexual seta, K 230. Adult male, foot from 70th segment, 20. Adult male, 7th dorsal cirrus, « 20. Adult male, 8th dorsal cirrus, « 20. NEREIS LIMBATA /ilers. Page 235. Asexual form, posterior segments, x 70. Sexual form, posterior segments, x 70. Female, foot from 10th segment, « 20. Female, foot from 20th segment, X 20. Female, foot from 50th segment, x 20. Female, foot from 70th segment, x 20. MARPHYSA SANGUINEA Quatr. Page 236. Compound bidentate seta, not found in adult, « 450. Simple seta, few in young, numer. us in adult, x 450. Compound seta, few in young, many in adult, x 400. Acicula of upper bundle of sete, x 450. Acicula of lower bundle, x 450. Rodgers, Lith Prentice HEWebster, Del. e- “ ; + sTevd ir apt ~~ ro . i le tie ag Figs. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. . 82. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL. MARPHYSA SANGUINEA Quatr. Page 236. Series (c). Head and anterior segment, x 70. Series (d). Head with short lateral antenne, x 25. Series (d). Head, x 35. DRILONEREIS LONGA 7. 8p. Page 240. Foot from middle of body, x 70. Outline of feet from posterior third of the body, x 70. Posterior foot, x 70. Sete, X 230. Jaw pieces, enlarged. STAUROCEPHALUS SOCIABILIS 7. Sp Page 243. 89, 90, 91. Sete, x 750. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. TROPHONIA ARENOSA 2. 8p. Page 245. Transverse section of 16th segment, 15. Part of same segment, enlarged. Dorsal papilla, x 130. Dorsal seta from 16th segment, x 130. Ventral seta from 16th segment, x 130. Posterior ventral seta, 130. seh HEWebster, Del. OT >@ wokget sf! OT % .gofess Tolseeg sett eden temi0G ~~ «00! .3I ‘ - O8S SZ ibiget DoMsIMa MOT BIS OC 2 3 tn ss > ee wr | a0 . (4) at 7 P eno tsniibe dit to sttegeilnoe4 \.OE1 > Pak , ¢ Ge ix Fon ast) bos 4 ; ; Salll Ker . . f a A . . » ; ‘ ) “ES Me ge Agososs ran azies = a i” ° | - j : . . cle nr 2a} ar xX efoonrese jonaion bak 4 eo SOT 3 iA . ~* —- Fs «2 JELt Ss , | U ; . “ > or se | Lae rt | Pd a TA * OC Jnsarqoe Page toot =A Bt : Bs —_ ' t : "s ah » a : t a» oc & snorruse teIS MoT Joo “17 ¥ : : - ~ vith vs : | he ry oe ‘oes —— aA o N& Sé tqenrese IGE mon Joo > OOF ia =~ ; a «ee A” — nS : nt “ht I gu) ip a | ‘ ne ‘ inmoaese sak Tile t joo 11 sui = { : . e owe FN t sabe : i * —— fy . lacy ib 219¢ mist or 7 4 se x devine 10its10R Dak isetod .£Pe 2 S ’ 3 hratiod #192 {eins \ . z ofA ie ae 2 eesti SHR eres Stig Lins J Y = J , ee in . b oa = fees fo tl ) : rh i | 19720q . wis! DiViijs= ivi ¥ ! a Ve et ese x dg {hVSV Aoins20q . {ry faaie « | _ ms mh, P ; if é | \ a = oe ; eu ATAMAH ATOGTIOS ‘ F i ea § 122 oye ‘ nt ; a? i... ietipey wins bos jag {ob . | a 2280) (ETD Oe = Be 2157 Sti art L x \ - P8b ~ ,eofiee “toqq!! 4fows iG t 7 a S ; ‘ wan i we -Hhanolesmiiom uge diG eorise taqwol oi -benwole x, IngiszIe ee UT og 0G Xx 6 a6 istinsy t rom £. li? 2S fanwtornawy tArteaIen 3 y ail cs; - - { 4 . t < in ) ot if .2 (0d) x ,2352 intiaey 1120 2 . . 4, 2A loons Art =i og¢ x imemresa torasieog Yo dood lee Q .OFy Ait .< \ MF | | : i \ *% - ‘ . } } ? Ps bl Aa o4 s te . a) ee ‘Re 5 (oz _ i} ‘ { 4 4 - 7 oe . : wy ' 7 i —~ a A OS ga’ da" 0a 09° 05 EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. SPIOCHZTOPTERUS OCULATUS 7. Sp. Pave 247. 98. Head and buccal segment, x 70. 99. Dorsal ramus from middle region, x 70. 100. Dorsal ramus from posterior region, x 70. 101, a, b,c, d. Sete from anterior region, x 230. 102. Peculiar seta of 4th setigerous segment, x 130. NERINE HETEROPODA 7 Sp. Page 249. ig. 103. Head and anterior segments, X 15. ig. 104. Foot from 7th segment, x 20. ig. 105. Foot from 21st segment, x 20. . 106. Foot from 25th segment, x 20. g. 107. Foot from 35th segment, x 20. ig. 108. Seta, dorsal and anterior ventral, x 235. ig. 109. Ventral seta, behind the 25th segment, x 235. ig. 110. Seta with single margin, posterior ventral rami, x 235. PoLYDORA HAMATA 7%. 8p. Page 251. . 111. Capillary seta, dorsal, and anterior ventral rami, x 450. ig. 112. Sete of 5th segment, upper series, 450. ig. 113. Seta sometimes found in lower series 5th segment, x 450 . 114. Anterior ventral seta, x 450. ig. 115. Posterior ventral seta, x 450. ig. 116. Dorsal hook of posterior segments, x 230. Plate VI[T = =a [= Bebieeaui ne N) / \C \ h 't aN SSS HEWebster, Del. - - — £ »// Ge 2B8 J j oe tee ADMO AHOGUYIO% we" SES aunt ; * Pi . te : geri. 1 ‘4 if OG x Ja if fon BHNOw 4 ©. -t *R 4 +4 ve *K s$eye : _ i : F GY “oj 1 wo %, - : »» 4 4 rat a | Oe . 19h - iv St 2 ‘ "1 ie - i ~ ‘ . Phd a) | : i . « oa) > 4 a , wit , ~ . ‘ ; Oct % pil ya | : c , ord » ¥ raat 7 if rygyt yy he Seve {iki 4 — . OS x jn9mTg9 fOrisd 18 lou : , AG w tnenrase tormliz0og > Apo vO" J s rq * . eM SLIIDANT £4 A AD ay ett i oye*t : : ’ vik. ~ ve A ™ - i . Ob XK alin Rerilan OF ent \s ; ' ' ¥ y - r £1 Pr a eponicn £0 Jagetrge ora stray laee Oe rf St, : ' : fo) : ™ “* . {HI > is harel sowie 401 e0go ko ret weHoVe : { ty ag = : : “4 —_ “wu ty loa “fol ic} tt gimyos = ti T ' ~ Talons Dos! 2 . ‘' 3 ps ; \ UGE OX BF TOU a \ ’ r, ' 7 - *% ret / : 2 iy : lito V : 4g ; 4 fs . ¢ 6 } * 4 —_ } . A BV AVIARY RIAA BIBL AG Pre ope & , ‘ - - ‘ * a = ; 3 . 7 —- F ; OT X oTten 491080 10 BISe TAIN i .of4 y = ¥ rts ‘ P : a. a x ine sib hin: to. atge tnlneraqgt® 261 git “a jlo aise tainorgG Ti 2M . 4 a P e bE te wae Fig s* Fig. Fig. Fic Ss: Fig Fig. Fig. 117. 2 AAS: 133. oe, 134. _ 135. . 136. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. POLYDORA HAMATA 7. 8p. Page 251. Long seta of posterior segments, X 450. Anal plates, X 20. POLYDORA CACA N. sp. Page 252. Long dorsal seta, X 450. Short dorsal seta, x 450. Sete of 5th segment, x 230. Bidentate ventral seta, & 450. ARICIA RUBRA 7. 8p. Page 253. Anterior ventral sete, x 450. Long ventral seta, X 450. Transverse section of anterior segment, X 20. Transverse section of posterior segment, x 20. ARICIDEA FRAGILIS 7. 8p. Page 255. Head and anterior segments, x 40. Transverse section of anterior segment, magnified. Transverse section of posterior branchiated segment, mag- nified. Transverse section of non-branchiated segment, magnified. Dorsal seta, X 450. a,b. Ventral sete, x 450. SABELLARIA VARIANS 7. §p. Page 259. Opercular seta of outer series, X 70. Opercular seta of middle series, 70. Opercular seta of inner series, X 70. Dorsal seta of 3d segment, X 280. Ph aele ee ae —————— D rentice Koo sers, Lith Ss a2) Bo : ; ‘HEWebster, Del ites Ae wt JO MOWMACAIGLA o Se ae AP tae ke . : = A 5 oda y ; a (te x< ,daiouy tear {j iF : iy 0¢ 7 ~~? i a trom, ot scam beds ger r , . ’ 4 . C+ m. eee Gs BISe meh YF ; za Abs, nf , : : ; a - se agar ua (eimal pe 1a 7 : a j * -. 7 vo . 7 = 4 j HSsze'l P ve > - + te = 4 sy” ? 7 - ‘ “ thy ~ ties) tit ; : ;

7 : : my i * \ ‘ ’ AS n AG : : -. = | ' . 7 ‘ we. se 4 - 4 - _ f i. ‘ ry i "> ] ‘ ; H 4 ¥ 7 J im APO UTHeE Tm! t -#. _* > a ' = : ™ ee ‘ os 2% = 7 vy ~ . 7 ‘. A 7 , . | 4 4 daorws: led qi TB I tl #342 $38 d oul W ‘ + Wie 4 & } ¢ Ps . : oastii ; - — “i be P TOPPOTIL 11K é one O8i sts ak bi — ¢ “ 4 =» - eee 6 bal Boe ‘TOM : : : 7 : ee C . PSA NSiTuee TOMBeOCd MOTT Bre { ; 4 Oe ad a Cal . r ’ f ey “~~ ’ ere" 4} aa ay 43 =. a \ . Toe gye't _ > gue : : > Se ; ae , h-- | “ aa ‘ 7 : c Pe one A " a =! ' b airiobmon tists bres | Bal urd ‘ ne 2 , EXPLANATION OF PLATE X. SABELLARIA VARIANS 2. 8p. Page 259. Fig. 137. Dorsal seta of 4th and 5th segments, x 230. Fig. 138. Dorsal uncinus, x 450. Fig. 139. Ventral seta, outer half, x 450. PECTINARIA (LAGIS) DUBIA Nn. sp. Page 261. Fig. 140. Paleola, x 70. ig. 141. Dorsal seta, outer half, x 450. Fig. 142. Geniculate dorsal seta, outer third, x 450. Fig. 143. Ventral uncinus, x 450. Fig. 144. Spinule of the scapha, x 280. MELINNA MACULATA YN. Sp. Page 261. Fig. 145. Uncinus, x 450. Fig. 146. Capillary seta, x 230. Fig. 147. Spinula, x 130. LYSILLA ALBA 7. 8p. Page 263. Fig. 148. Seta, x 750. POTAMILLA TORTUOSA 7%. 8p. Page 265. Fig. 149. Long capillary seta from anterior segment, x 450. Fig. 150. Short capillary seta from anterior segment, x 450. Figs. 151, 152. Uncini from anterior segment, X 450. Fig. 153. Capillary seta from posterior segment, x 450. CABIRA INCERTA N, 8p. Page 267. Fig. 154. Head and anterior segments, dorsal view, < 70. Plate X. SS ZZ, —— — — lus, LE. ~~ HEWebster, Del. 2 * — ; DF rzres, Ue a ere arom \ . i i ¥ ’ wa | io : ng aid a a » 7 Uy Y 1 ~. ] “> “a - ¥ P aa a ‘ ¢ ® , y é rm = a j oo Pee P ~ vey - _ < * . 7 e » ty = a. ¢ * : + ect 7 7 — —_ = *~< is —- > es ry Dwi ids . de. ig. 156. sey eg ... LBS. . 159. . 160. Ser 162. 163. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. CABIRA INCERTA %, SD. Page 267. Head and anterior segments, ventral view, X 70. Ventral hook, X 230. a, b. Dorsal sete, x 450. PHRONIA TARDIGRADA N. Sp. Page 268. Head and anterior segments, dorsal view, x 40. Foot from 6th segment, dorsal view, x 115. Foot from 6th segment, ventral view, X 115. Foot from 300th segment, dorsal view, x 115. Foot from 300th segment, ventral view, x 115. Transverse section taken at the 300th segment, x 20. Pla JeAf : <> \ ty ‘ SAN vw LNS., i i Jel > av Mba ans, HEWebster Lt