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UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH

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ington Alemoi'ial -Library

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT

PHILADELPHIA,

FOR PROMOTING

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,

VOLUME II.

PHILADELPHIA;

PRINTED AND SOLD BY ROBERT AITKEN, AT POPE'S HEAD
IN MARKET STREET.

M.DCCLXXXVI.

^7f

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ft'

( iii )

ADVERTISEMENT.

TH E peculiar circumftanccs of America,
fince the publication of the firll volume
of the Tranfadlions of this Society, will be a
fufficient apology for the long delay in pub-
lifhing a fecond. The Society having, how-
ever, refumed their former labours in pro-
moting ufeful knowledge, which were necef-

l;j farily fufpended during the late war; and

finding themfelves in pofTeflion of materials
more than fufficient for a fecond volume of
Tranfadlions, appointed a Committee to felecl
fuch pieces as might be moll proper for that

V purpofe : The Committee have made that fe-

"^ lediion, which is here offered to the public.

Several pieces ftill remain worthy of publica-

;^ tion, which will probably appear in a future

K volume.

I

\

^

It

iv Advertisement.

It may not be amifs in this place to infert
the Rules which the Society have adopted for
the diredion of their Committees in the choice
of papers for publication.

First, " That the grounds of the Com-
" mittee's choice of papers for the prefs, fhould
" always be the importance or fingularity of
*' the fubjedls, or the advantageous manner of
« treating them, without pretending to an-
<* fwer, or to make the fociety anfwerable,
*' for the certainty of the fads, or propriety
** of the reafonings, contained in the feveral
•' papers fo publiflied, which muft Hill reft on
" the credit or judgment of their refpedive
" authors..

Secondly, " That neither the Society, nor
" the Committee of the prefs, do ever give
" their opinion as a body, upon any paper
" they may publifli, or upon any fubjed: of
*' Art or Nature that comes before them."

LAWS

( V )

LAWS AND REGULATIONS,

O F T H E

y^merican PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

Held at PHILADELPHIA^ for promoting

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

TWO focieties having formerly fubfifted in Philadel-
phia, whofe views and ends were the fame, viz.
^^ the advancement of ufefid knoivlcdge" it was judged
that their union would be of public advantage; and they
were accordingly united January 2d, 1769, by a certain
Fundamental Agreement \ the chief ^r/zf /if j of which are,

Firji, That the name of the United Society fhall be
The America7i Philofophical Society ■> held at Philadelphidt
for promoting ufeful Knoivledge.

Secondly., That there fhall be the following officers of
the fociety, viz. one Patron., one Preftdent, three Vice-
Preftdents, one Treafurer, four Secretaries, and three Cu-
7'ators.

Thirdly, That all the above officers fhall be chofea
annually by ballot, at the firft meeting of the Society in
January; excepting only that inftead of electing a Patron,
the Governor of the Province be requefted to be Patron.

Other Laws were to be made by the United Society ;
and accordingly the following LAWS, &c. were pafled
February 3d, 1769.

L Of the annual Payments to he made by Members.

Every Member of this Society fhall fubfcribe Ten Shil-
lings yearly, to be applied by the Society to fuch purpo-

fes

vi LAWS, &c.

fes as they fhall diredl; and no Member fhall be Intitled
to a vote in the annual eledlion of officers, unlefs it ap-
pears that he has paid into the hands of the Treafurer,
the fubfcription of the preceding year, and all former
arrears, if any there were.

Every Member hereafter to be chofen, agreeable to the
Laws of this Society, fhall pay Ten Shillings admiffion mo-
ney, and alfo fubfcribe for the yearly payment of Teii
Shillings^ before he is intitled to have any vote in the bu-
finefs of the Society at their meetings.

II. Of the Eleilion of Memhers.

The eledion of new Members fhall be by ballot, and
that only on the third Friday in the months of January,
April, July and Odlober; and in order to fuch eledtion at
leaft twenty Members muft be prefent.

Any Member may, at any meeting, propofe fuch per-
fon or perfons, as he thinks proper to be a Member or
Members of this Society ; but no perfon fhall be ballotted
for, unlefs his name, together with the name or names of
the Member or Members who propofed him, has been fix-
ed up by the Secretaries for the view of the Society, at
the two meetings preceding the time of eletlion. Nor
fhall any perfon be deemed duly chofen unlefs three-fourths
of the votes of the whole Members be in his favour.

III. Of the Officers^ and manner of their eledion.

The election of fuch Officers as are to be chofen in this
Society, fhall be on the firfi: Friday in January every year,
by ballot or written ticket, between the hours of two and
five in the afternoon, at fuch place in this city as ihall be
fixed by the Society at their previous meeting on the third
Friday in December every year ; of which notice fhall be
given in the Gazette, or fuch other public papers as the

Society

LAWS, 8cc. vlf

Society fhall order, at leaft one week before the day of
eledion.

Before opening the eleftion, the company that fhall be
met at half an hour after two, fhall appoint three Mem-
bers of the Society as judges of the election, and alfo two
clerks or fecretaries, for taking down the names of the
voters. And in cafe of an equality of votes for any Offi-
cer, after cafling up the ballots, the deciflon fhall be by
lots, to be drawn by one of the judges.

IV. Of the Preftdent.

The Prefident is to prefide at all meetings, to preferve
order, to regulate the debates, and to flate and put que-
ftions, agreeable to the fenfe and intention of the Members.

V. Of the Vice-Prefidents.

In the abfence of the Prefident, his duty fhall devolve
on the Vic e-Pref dents, fo that they fhall prefide alternate-
ly at meetings. But if the Vice-Prefident, whofe turn it
is to prefide at any meeting, fhould be abfent, his place
fhall be fupplied by any of the other Vice-Prefidents, who
fhall be prefent, according as he may be next in turn. If
only one Vice-Prefident be prefent, he fhall of courfe pre-
fide ; and if neither the Prefident, nor any Vice-Prefident
be prefent, the Members met, fhall appoint one of their
number to take the chair for that meeting.

VI. Of the Treafurer.

The Treafurer fhall receive the fubfcriptions of the
Members, and all other monies that may become due to
the Society, and fhall pay the fame agreeable to their or-
ders, certified to him by the Prefident, Vice-Prefident or
Member, who was in the chair when the order was made.

The

viil LA \v s, &c:

The Treafurer fhall keep a regular account of all monies
received and paid by him as aforefaid; and once every
year, or oftener if required by the Society, he fhall render
an account to them of the ftock in his hands, and the dif-
burfements made by their order, and fhall deliver up to
his fucceffor the books and all papers belonging to them,
together with the balance of cafh in his hands. And for
the faithful difcharge of his truft, he fliall, before he en-
ters on his office, give bond and fecurity to the Pr.efident
and Vice-Prefidents, in double the fum which they, or
any three of them, fhall judge he may probably become
entrufted with during his faid office.

VII. Of the Secretaries.

The Secretaries fhall fo fettle matters as to take equal
fhares of all bufmefs, and fo as that two of them fhall
ferve at every meeting, viz. one to take the minutes, and
one to read all letters and papers that may be communi-
cated to the Society. It is alfo the bufinefs of the two
Secretaries of each particular meeting, to copy into the
minute-book the proceedings of that meeting, in order to
produce the fame fair to the next meeting. They are fur-
ther to copy into the proper books all fuch letters, papers
and effays, as the Society may think fit to preferve on re-
cord, and to have the fame ready to be laid before the
next meeting.

The other two Secretaries are, in the mean while, to
give notice to new members of their eledlion, and agree-
able to the dire(D:ions of the Society, to write or anfwer
letters ; and, in general, to manage all matters ef corre-
J'pondence.

The Secretaries may, for their own eafe, change places;
fb that the two who have ferved as corrcjponding Secreta~
riest for one month or limited time, fhall take their turn
to ferve for the like time a.s Jitthig or attending Secretaries.

VIII. Of

LAWS, &c. k

Vill. Of the Curators.

The bufinefs of the Curators fhall be to take charge of,
and preferve, all Specimens of natural Produiiions, whe-
ther of the Animal, Vegetable or FoJ/il kingdom ; all mo-
dels of machines and inftruments, and all other matters
and things belonging to the Society, which fhall be com-
mitted to them ; to clafs and arrange them in their pro-
per order, and keep an exad: lift of them, with the names
of the refpedive donors, in a book provided for that pur-
pofe; which book fhall be laid before the Society, as often
as called for.

The Curators, on entering upon their office, fhall give
fuch a receipt for every thing that is committed to their
charge, as the Society fhall think proper; and, at the end
of their term, fhall deliver up the fame to their fuccefl'ors.
Tor the faithful performance of their duty, and of the
truft repofed in them, they fhall give bond to the Prefi-
dents and Vice-Prefidents, in fuch a fum as they, or any
three of them, fhall require.

IX. Of the Meetings of the Society.

The ordinary meetings of the Society fhall be on the
firft and third Fridays of every month, from Odlober to
May, both inclufive, at fix o'clock in the evening, and
on the third Friday in each of the other four months at
feven o'clock.

No meeting fhall be continued after ten o'clock, nor
any new matter be introduced by motion, or otherwife,
after nine o'clock.

X. Of the Difpoftion of Money, and making netu Laivs.

No part of the Society's ftock fhall be difpofed of in

■J^r-emiums, or otherwife, nor fhall any new laws be made,

b untii

X LAW S, &c.

until the fame have been propofed at one meeting, and
are agreed to by two-thirds of twenty or more Mem-
bers prefent at a fubfequent meeting.

XI. Of other Proceedings of the Society.

No queflion fhall be put on a motion^ unlefs the motion
he feconded ; and the determination of any queilion fhall
be by ballot^ inftead of open fuffrage, if delired by any
four Members. In cafe of an equality of votes on any
queftion, the fame fhall be deferred to another meeting.

When any Member fpeaks he fhall ftand up, and ad-
drefs himfelf to the chair, and the reft fhall remain filent
in their feats. When two or more offer to fpeak at the
fame time, the prefiding Member, in that, as in other
matters of order, fhall regulate and determine who fhall
fpeak firft.

XII. Of Committees.

The Members of this Society fhall be claflTed into one
or more of the following Committees.

1. Geography, Mathematics, Natural Philofophy and
Aftronomy.

2. Medicine and Anatomy.

3. Natural Hiftory and Chemiftry.

4. Trade and Commerce.

5. Mechanics and Architeilure.

6. Hufbandry and American Improvements.

Thefe Committees fhall meet on their own adjournments,
and at fuch other times as the Society fhall appoint, for
the confideration of any matters referred to them, and
fhall have power to chufe their own chairman. 13ut no
Committee, as fuch, fhall take up any new bufinefs of the
Society, but fhall confine thcmfelves only to the lubjefts
for which they are appointed, and to matters referred to
them by the Society.

( XI )

^n ACT for Incorporating the American P hilofophical

Society t held at Philadelphia, for Promoting ufeful

Knoivledge.

WHEREAS the cultivation of ufeful knowledge,
and the advancement of the liberal arts and
fciences in any country, have the moft dired: tendency to-
wards the improvement of agriculture, the enlargement of
trade, the eafe and comfort of life, the ornament of foci-
ety, and the increafe and happinefs of mankind. And
nvhereas this country of North-America, which the good-
nefs of Providence hath given us to inherit, from the vaft-
nefs of its extent, the variety of its climate, the fertility
of its foil, the yet unexplored treafures of its bowels, the
multitude of its rivers, lakes, bays, inlets, and other con-
veniencies of navigation, offers to thefe United States one
of the richefl fubjed:s of cultivation, ever prefented to any
people upon earth. And ivhereas the experience of ages
ihews that improvements of a public nature, are beft car-
ried on by focieties of liberal and ingenious men, uniting
their labours, without regard to nation, fedf or party, in
one grand purfuit, alike interefting to all, whereby mu-
tual prejudices are worn off, a humane and philofophical
fpirlt is cherlfhed, and youth are flimulated to a laudable
diligence and emulation in the purfuit of wifdom. And
vxihereas, upon thefe principles, divers public fpirited gen-
tlemen in Pennfylvania, and other American ftates, did
heretofore unite themfelves, under certain regulations,
into one voluntary fociety, by the name of " The Ameri-
*' can Philofophical Society, held at Philadelphia for pro-
.<' mating ufeful Knowledge" and by their fuccefsful la-
b 2 hours

xu CHARTER.

hours and inveftigatlons, to the great credit of America,
have extended their reputation fo far, that men of the firft
eminence in the republic of letters in the moft civilized
nations in Europe, have done honour to their publications,
and defired to be enrolled among their members. AnJ
ivherecis the Society, after having been long interrupted
in their laudable purfuits by the calamities of war, and
the diftrefles of our country, have found means to revive
their defign, in hopes of being able to profecute the fame
•with their former fuccefs, and being further encouraged
therein by the public, for which purpofe they have pray-
ed us, The Reprtjhitati'ues of the Freemen of the Common-
-wealth of Penyi/yhania, that they may be created one
body politic and corporate forever, with fuch powers, pri-
vileges, and immunities, as may be necelfary for anfwer-
ing the valuable purpofes which the faid Society had ori-
ginally in view.

Wherefore^ in order to encourage the faid Society in the
profecution and advancement of all ufeful branches of
knowledge, for the benefit of their country, and of man-
kind ; Be it enaffedt and it is hereby enafied, by the Re-
prefentatives of the Freemen of the Commoniuealth of Penn-^
fyl'vania in General Affembh juet^ and by the authority of
the finie, That the members of the faid American Philo-
fophical Society heretofore voluntarily affociatcd for pro-
moting ufeful knowledge, and fuch other perfons as have
been duly elcded members and ofhcers of the fame agree-^-
ably to the fundamental laws and regulations of the faid
Society, eomprifed in twelve fedtions, prefixed to their
volume of Tranfadions, publiflicd in Philadelphia by /•f^//-
liam and Thomas Bradford, in the year of our Lord on6
thoufand feven hundred and feventy-one ; and who (hall
in all rcipcds conform thcmfelves to the faid laws and re-
gulations, and fuch other laws, regulations and ordinan-
ces, as Ihall hereafter be duly made and enaftcd by th6
faid Society, according to the tenor hereof, be, and for-
ever

(T H A R T E R. xili

ever hereafter fhall be one body corporate and politic irt
deed, by the name and ftyle of 77?^ American Phllofophi-
cal Society, held at Philadelphia., for promoting ufcjul
knoijuledge, and by the fame name they are hereby con-
ftituted and confirmed one body corporate and poUtie, to
have perpetual fucceffion, and by the fame name they and;
their fuccelfors are hereby declared and made able and ca-
pable in law, to have, hold, receive, and enjoy lands, te-
nements, rents, franchifes, hereditaments, gifts and be-
quefts of what nature foever, in fee-fimple, or for term
of life, lives, years, or otherwife, and alfo to give, grant,
let, fell, alien, or affign the fame lands, tenements, here-
ditaments, goods, chattels, and premifes, according to the
nature of the refpedive gifts, grants and bequefts, made
to them the faid Society, and of their eftate therein.

Pro'videdy That the amount of the clear yearly value
of fuch real, eftate do not exceed the value of ten thoufand'
bulhels of good merchantable wheat.

And be it further enabled by the authority aforefaidy
That the faid Society be, and fhall be for-ever hereafter,
able and capable in laAv to lue, and be fued, plead and be
impleaded, anfwer and be anfwered unto, defend and be
defended, in all or any ot the courtlfe ©r other places,
and before any judges, juilices, and other perfon and per-
Ions, in all manner of adions, fuits, complaints, pleas,
caufes and matters, of what nature or kind foever, with-
in this commonwealth ; and that ic fhall and may be law-
ful to and for the faid Society, for-ever hereafter to have
and ufe one common feal in their affairs, and the fame at
their will and pleafure to break, change, alter and renew.

And be it further enabled by the authority aforefaid.
That for the well governing thift- faid Society, and order-
ing their affairs, they fhall have the following officers,
that is to fay, one Patron, who fhall be his Excellency
the Prefident of the Supreme Executive Council of this
commonwealth, for the time being, and likewile one Pre-
fident,

xlv CHARTER.

fident, three Vice-Prefidents, four Secretaries, three Cu-
rators, one Treafurer, together with a Council of twelve
Members ; and that on the firft Friday of January next,
between the hours of two and five in the afternoon, as
many of the members of the faid Society as fhall have paid
up their arrears due to the Society, and fhall declare their
willingnefs to conform to the laws, regulations and ordi-
nances of the Society, then duly in force, according to
the tenor hereof, by fubfcribing the fame, and who fhall
attend in the hall, or place of meeting of the faid Society,
within the time aforefaid, fhall choofe by ballot, agreeably
to the fundamental laws and regulations herein before re-
ferred to, one Prefident, four Secretaries, three Curators,
and one Treafurer, and at the fame time and place, the
Members met and qualified as aforefaid, fhall in like man-
ner choofe four Members for the Council, to hold their
offices for one year, four more Members for the Council
to hold their offices for two years, and four more Mem-
bers for the Council to hold their offices for three years.
And on the firft Friday in January, which fhall be in the
year of our Lord one thoufand feven hundred and eighty-
two, and fo likewife on the firft Friday of January, yearly
and every year thereafter, between the hours of two and
five in the afternoon, the Members of the faid Society met
and qualified as aforefaid, fhall choofe one Prefident, three
Vice-Prefidents, four Secretaries, three Curators and one
Treafurer, to hold their refpedtive offices for one year ;
and four Councilmen, to hold their offices for three years.
Pro-uided^ That no perfon refiding within the United
States fhall be capable of being Prefident, Vice-Prefident,
Secretary, Treafiirer, or Member of the Council, or of
eleding to any of the faid offices, who is not capable of
cle£ling and being cle<fled to civil offices within the ftate
in which he rcfidcs. Pro'uided alj'o., That nothing here-
in contained, fliall be confidered as intended to exclude
any of the laid officers or counfellors, whole times fhall

be

CHARTER. xt

expired, from being re-ele£ted, according to the pleafure
of the faid Society ; and of the day, hours, and place of
all fuch elections, due notice Ihall be given by the Secre-
taries, or fome one of them, in one or more of the pub-
lic news-papers of this ftate, agreeably to the faid funda-
mental laws and regulations before referred to.

And be it further enaSied by the authority aforefaidy
That the ofRcers and council of the faid Society fhall be
capable of exercifing fuch power for the well governing
and ordering the affairs of the Society, and of holding
fuch occafional meetings for that purpole, as fhall be de-
fcribed, fixed, and determined by the ftatutes, laws, regu-
lations and ordinances of the faid Society, hereafter to be
made. Provided alivays^ That no ftatute, law, regulati-
on or ordinance fhall ever be made or paffed by the faid
Society, or be binding upon the Members thereof, or any
of them, unlefs the fame hath been duly propofed, and
fairly drawn up in writing, at one ftated meeting of the
Society, and enadled or paffed at a fubfecpent meeting at
leaft the fpace of fourteen days after the former meeting,
and upon due notice in fome of the public news-papers,
that the enabling of ftatutes and laws, or the making and
paffmg ordinances and regulations, will be part of the bu-
finefs of fuch meeting ; nor fhall any ftatute, law, regu-
lation or ordinance be then or at any time enacted or paf-
fed, unlefs thirteen Members of the faid Society or fuch
greater number of Members as may be afterwards fixed
by the rules of the Society be prefent, befides fuch quo—
rum of the officers and council as the laws of the Society
for the time being may require, and unlefa the fame be
voted by two-thirds of the whole body then prefent ; all
which ftatutes, laws, ordinances and regulations fo as
aforefaid duly made, enacted and paffed, fhall be binding
upon every Member of the faid Society, and be from time-
to time inviolably obferved, according to the tenor and
effect thereof; provided they be not repugnant or con-
trary

^vl CHARTER.

trary to the laws of this commonwealth, for the time be-
ing in force and effect.

Andivhereas nations truly civilized (however unhappily
at variance on other accounts) will never wage war with
the arts and fciences and the common interefts of humanity.

Be it further enabled by the authority afore/aid.) That
it fliall and may be lawful for the laid Society, by their
proper officers, at all times, whether in peace or war, to
correfpond with learned focieties, as well as individual
learned men, of any nation or country, upon matters
merely belonging to the bufmefs of the faid Society ; luch
as the mutual communication of their difcoveries and pro-
ceedings in philofophy and fcience; the procuring books,
apparatus, natural curiofities, and fuch other articles and
intelligence as are ufually exchanged between learned bo-
tlies for furthering their common purl'uits. Provided al-
ivays^ That fuch correfpondence of the laid Society be at
all times open to the inl'peclion of the Supreme Executive
Council of this commonwealth.

(Signed) JOHN BAYARD, Speaker.

EnaBed into a Lanv at Philadelphia, on
Wednejday the fifteenth day of March,
Anno Domini one thoufand feven hun-
dred and eighty.

(Signed) THOMAS PAINE, Clerk
of the General Afftinbly.

(Copy)

( XVll )

A Laiu to encreafe the annual Subfcriptions of the Members
of the American Philofophical Society held at Philadel-
phia for promoting ifeful knotvledgCi and alfo to encreafe
the Depofttes of nenx/ly defied Members on their admiffion
into the f aid Society,

WHEREAS the cuftomary annual payment of 7>«
Shillings from each Member of the American
Philofophical Society, and alfo the cuftomary depofite of
Ten Shillings by each newly eledled Member, on his ad-
miffion into the faid Society, hath been found inadequate
to the neceffary and occafional expenditures of the Society.

Be it therefore enadted, and it is hereby enacted by the
American Philofophical Society, held at Philadelphia for
promoting ufeful knowledge, by virtue of the chartered
rights to the faid Society granted, and by authority of the
fame, That for the future, that is to fay, from and after
the firft of March next, the payments to be made by every
Member of the faid Society fliall be Four Dollars annual-
ly, and the depofite to be made by every newly eledled
Member, from and after the faid firft of March, fhall be
Ten Dollars. And no Member who fhall be in arrear for
his annual fubfcription or depofite, fhall be eligible to any
ofHce in the faid Society, or be permitted to vote at elec-
tions, or at the ordinary meetings of the Society, until he
fhall have fully paid up his faid arrears.

And be it further enadted, That no newly eledted Mem-
ber fhall receive a certificate of his eledion, or be admit-
ted as a Member of the faid Society, until he fhall have
paid into the treafury the faid depofite of 7>n Dollars and
alfo his arrearages of Four Dollars per annum, if any fuch
fliall have accrued from the time of his eledion.

c Provided

xvlH LAW CONCERNING SUBSCRIPTIONS, &c.

Provided always. That honorary Members in foreign
parts, fhall not be fubjedt to this law, nor fhall their cer-
tificates of eledion be with-held on account of their not
paying the depofite or annual fubfcription aforefaid. Ne-
verthelefs, if any fuch foreign Member fhould happen to
come to the city of Philadelphia with a view of fettlement
or refidence, then fuch Member fhall pay the depofite
money as before diredled, and fhall thenceforth be liable
for the annual fubfcription in common with other refident
Members.

And be it further enaded, That all former laws, ordi-^
nances or cuftoms inconfiftent with or contradictory to this
adt, be, and the fame are hereby repealed.

Enabled into a laiv at a meeting of the American Philofo-
phical Society-, according to Charter., this Jixth day of
'January., Jmio Domini^ one thou/and /even hundred and
eighty-Jix.

Ex-

( xlx )

HxtraBs from the Minutes of the American Philofophical
Society^ refpe^l'ing a Donation propofed by Mr. J. H. de
Magellan, of London.

January 1786,

MR. J. H. de Magellan of London, having in a let-
ter, dated the 1 7th of September laft, and com-
municated to the fociety by Mr. Vaughan, one of the
Vice-Prefidents, made an offer to the fociety of tivo hun~
dred guineas, to be veiled in a permanent fund, that the
intereft arifing therefrom may be difpofed of in annual pre-
miums, to the authors of the beft difcoveries or moft ufe-
ful improvements relating to navigation, or to natural
philofophy, mere natural hiftory only excepted : And the
fociety having moft thankfully accepted the generous offer,
appointed a committee to frame rules and conditions for
the difpofition of the propofed premiums, agreeable to the
intention of the donor, expreffed in his letter, but more
precife in the terms; which being done, and approved of
Ly the fociety, were immediately tranfmitted in a letter to
Mr, Magellan, for his confirmation or amendment. They
are as follow, viz.

I. The candidate fhall fend his dtfcovery, invention or
improvement, addreffed to the Prefident or a Vice-Prefi-
dent of the Society, free of portage or other charges ; and
Ihall diftinguifh his performance by fome motto, device or
fignature, at his pleafure. Together with his difcovery,
invention or improvement, he (hall alfo fend a fealed let-
ter, containing the fame motto, device or fignature, and
fubfcribed with the real name and place of refidence of
the author.

2. Perfons

XX EXTRACTS from the MINUTES of the

2. Perfons of any nation, fed, or denomination what-
ever, fhall be admitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No difcovery, invention or improvement ihall be
entitled to this premium, v^'hich hath been already pub-
lifhed, or for which the author hath been publicly re-
warded elfewhere.

4. The candidate fhall communicate his difcovery, in-
vention or improvement either in the Engliih, French,
German, or Latin language.

5. All fuch communications fhall be publicly read or
exhibited to the Society, at fome flated meeting, not lefs
than one month previous to the day of adjudication ; and
fhall at all times be open to the infpedion of fuch mem-
bers as fhall defire it. But no member fhall carry home
with him the communication, defcription or model, ex-
cept the ofBcer to whom it fliall be entrufted : nor fhall
fuch officer part with the fame out of his cuflody, to any
but the judges, who may demand it for confideration.

6. The twelve counfellors, together with the other of-
ficers annually eledted according to the charter and laws
of the Society, fhall be judges of the merits of the fevcral
communications, and award the premium. Which adju-
dication fliall be determined by a majority of judges met;
provided that fuch majority be not lefs than feven con-
curring votes.

J. And for this purpofe the counfellors and other offi-
cers, or at leaf! feven of them, fhall meet on the fecond
Monday in December, in every year, to form their judg-
ment and award the premium. After due confideration
had, a vote fliall firft be taken on this qucflion, viz. " Whe-
" ther any of the communications then under infpetStion,
" are worthy of the propofed premium ?" If this fliall be
determined in the vcgatii'e, the whole bufincfs fliall be
deferred till another year : But if in the afjinncitive^ the
judges fliall then proceed to determine, by vote, the dif-
covery, invention or improvement moft ufeful and worthy.

And

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. xxf

And that difcovery, invention or improvement which fhall
be lound to have the greateft number of concurring votes
(being not lefs than feven) in its favour, fliall be fuccefs-
ful. Whereupon a certificate in writing fhall be forthwith
drawn of this adjudication, and figned by thofe who voted
for the crowned fubjed : And then, and not till then-, the
fealed letter accompanying the crowned performance, fhall
be opened and the name of the author announced ; which
certificate fliall be prefented to the Society at their next
ftated meeting, and delivered to the Secretary to be enter-
ed on record, in a bound book provided for this purpofe-.

8. A full account of the crowned fubjedt fhall be pub-
lllhed by the Society as foon as may be, after the adjudica-
tion, either in a feparate publication, or in the next fucceed-
ing volume of their Tranfa£lions, or in both.

9. The unfuccefsful performances fliall lie over for con-
fideration, and remain, as candidates for the premium, for

f've fuccecding years next after their prefentment ; unlefs
the author or authors fhall think fit to withdraw them or
any of them : And the Society fhall publifh annually an
abftradl of the titles, objed; or fubjed matter of the com-
munications fo under confideration, fuch only excepted as
the counfellors and other officers fhall, by vote as aforefaid,,
have determined not worthy of public notice.

10. No counfellor or officer who is a candidate fhall fit
in judgment, or give his vote.

11. The letters containing the names of authors whofe
performances fhall be rejeded, or fhall be found unfuc-
cefsful after a trial of five years, fhall be burnt without
breaking the feals.

12. In cafe there fhould be a failure, in any year, of
any communication worthy of the propofed premium,
there will then be two premiums awarded in the next
year. But no accumulation of premiums fhall entitle«an.
author to more than one premium for any one difcovery, ^
invention or improvfiment.

13. The

xxll EXTRACTS from the MINUTES, Sec.

13. The premium fhall confift of an oval plate of folid
ftandard gold, of the value of Ten Guiiieas. On one fide
thereof fhall be neatly engraved the following motto,

■ together with thefe words. The donation

of of London, ejlahlijhed in the year 1786. And on

the other fide of the plate fhall be engraved thefe words,

Awarded by the A. P. S. to — — for his difcovery

of A. D. 1 7 — . Preftdent.

And the feal of the Society fhall be annexed to the faid
golden plate, by a ribbon paifing through a fraall hole
near the lower edge thereof.

LIST

( xxiii )

L I S T OF THE OFFICERS

or THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETT,

Held at Philadelphia, for promoting ufeful Knowledge,

For the Year 1786.

Patron. His Ex'' the Prefident of the Supreme Execu^
tive Council of the Commonwealth, for the time being.

President. His Excellency Dr. Benjamin Franklin,
Efquire, L. L. D F. R. S. &c. &c.

PRev. Dr. John Ewing, Provoft of

Vice-Presidents.

Secretaries.

Curators..

Treasurer.

! the Univerfity of Pennfylvania.
I Rev. Dr. William White.
L Samuel Vaughan, Efq.

fDr. James Hutchinfon.
Mr. Robert Patterfon, Profeflbr of
Mathematics in the Univerfity
of Pennfylvania.

j Rev. Dr. Samuel Magaw, Vice-Pro-
voft of the Univerfity of Penn-
fylvania.

[Dr. John Foulk.

[Dr. Samuel Duffield.

! Dr. Barnabas Binney.

j William Bradford, Efq. Attorney

{_ General of Pennfylvania.

pThe Honorable Francis Hbpkin-
*^ fon, Efq. Judge of the Admiralty
L in Pennfylvania.

GouNr-

sxlv LIST OF OFFICERS.

f The Hon. Thomas M'Kean, Efquire,
L. L. D. Chief Juftice of the Su-
preme Court of Pennfylvania.

The Hon. George Bryan, Efquire, a
juftice of the Supreme Court of
Pennfylvania.

Sieur Barbe de Marbois.

Mr. Samuel Caldwell.

Jared Ingerfoll, Efq.

Jonathan Bayard Smith, Efq.

Rev. Mr. Robert Blackwell.

David Rittenhoufe, Efq.

Dr. Benjamin Rufh, Profeffor of Che-
miftry in the Univerfity of Penn-
fylvania.

Dr. John Jones.

Dr. Adam Kuhn, Profeffor of Mate-
ria Medica in the Univerfity of
Pennfylvania.
[Rev. Mr. George Duflaeld.

Counsellors. <!

LIST of Members of the American Philosophical So-
ciety, elefted fince the Publication of the Firft Volume of
Tranfadtlons, viz. fince the i8th of January, 1771.

J OSEPH Aftolinge, Efq. of Georgia.
B

Mr. Gerard Banker.

Dr. William Bryant, of Newjerfey. *

Mr. James Bringhurft.

Honorable Thomas Bee, Efq. of South-Carolina.

John Beale Boardley, Efq. of Maryland.

Rev. Jeremy Belknap, of Ncw-Hampfliire.

Dr. Barnabas Binncy.

Rev. Mr. Robert Blackwell.

William

Note, Thofi- Members ivhofc places of rcfidcncc .nrc not fpccificJ, arc of PhihiJclplii
and tllolc murkeU wilh un * iirc dcccafcd.

L I S T OF M E M B E R S. xxv

■William Bradford, Efq. Attorney-General of Pennfylvania.

C
Dr. John Carfon.
R«v. Manafleh Cutler, of Ipfwich, Maflachufetts.

D
Sharp Delany, Efq.
Piev. Dr. Robert Davidfon, of Carlifle.
Mr. John Dunlap.

E
Dr. Jonathan Elmer, of New-Jerfey.
Jofeph EUicott, Efq. Bucks county. *
Andrew Ellicott, Efq. of Maryland.

F
Mr. George Fox.
Dr. John Foulk.

G
Mr. George Gauld, of Penfacola.
Ifaac Gray, Efq.
George Gray, Efq.
Mr- Archibald Gamble, Profeflbr of Englifh and Oratory, Uoivcr-

fity, Philadelphia. *
Dr. Samuel Powell Griffitts.

H
Dr. James Hutchinfon.

Thomas Hutchins, Efq. Geographer to the United States.
Ebenezer Hazard, Efq. Poftmafter-General.
Samuel Huntington, Efq. of Connefticut. *

Rev. Dr. Juft. Hen. Chrift. Helmuth, Prof, of the Germ, and Ori-
ental Languages, Univerfity, Philadelphia.
Thomas Hayward, jun. Efq. of South-Carolina.

I
Dr. Walter Jones, of Virginia.
Dr. John Jones, of Maryland.
Jared Ingerfoll, Efq.

His Excellency Thomas Jefferfon, Efq. of Virginia, Minifter Pleni-
potentiary to the Court of France.

K
Rev. Dr. John C. Kunze, of New-York.

L
Mr. Jefle Lukens. *

Henry Laurens,. Efq. of South-Carolina. .
Rev, Mr. William Ludlam, of Leicefter.

d Dr. James

xxvi LIST OB MEMBERS,

Dr. James Lloyd, of Bofton.

M
l\Ir. Archibald M'Clean, of York county. •

Capt. John Matrefon, of New-York. . ,.

Timothy Matlack, Efq.
Dr. George Millegan, of South-Carolina.
James M'Clurg, M. D. Williamfburgh, Virginia,
Mr. Benjamin Morgan.

Rev. Dr. Samuel Magaw, Vlce-Provoft of Univer. Pliihi.
Hon. Dr. James M'Henry, Efq. of Baltimore.
Rev. Dr. James Madifon, Prefident of the College of William auj

Mary, Virginia.
Rev. Mr. Henry Muhlenberg, of Lancafier.

P
Dr. John Perkins, of Bcfton, Mafiachufetts.
Dr. Thomas Park.

Mr. Robert Patterfon, Prof. Math. Univer. Philadelphia..
Hon. Mann Page, Efq. of Frederickfburgh, Virginia.
Thomas Paine, Efq. of Bordentown.
Charles Pettit, Efq.

R
Mr. Bernard Romans, of Penfacola.

S
Dr. Hugh Shiell. *
Jonathan Bayard Smith, Efq.
Jonathan Dickinfon Sergeant, Efq.
Rev. Dr. Samuel Smith, Vice-Prelident of tlie College in New- Jerfcy.

T
Dr. James Tilton, of Dover.
Mr. John Ternant.

V
Samuel Vaughan, Efq.
Mr. John Vaughan.

W
His Excellency General Walhington, Virginia.
Rev. Samuel Williams, L. L. D. Hoi. Prof. Mor. and Nat. Philof.

College of Cambridge, M.iflachufetts.
Dr. Nicholas Way, of Wilmington.
George Wall, jun. Efq. of Bucks county.

Hon. Anthony Wayne, Efq. Gen. in the Armies of the United States.
Mr. Benjamin Workman, Teacher of Math. Univcrfity, Philadelphia.

FOREIGN

LIST OF MEMBERS, xxvH
FOREIGN MEMBERS.

A

Monfieur le Marquis d'Angeville, of Paris.

Dr. Adams, of Barbadoes.

Lieut. Stephen Adye, of the Royal Artillery.

B
Dr. Forbcrn Bergman, Prof. Math. Stockholm.
Major Frederick F. S. de Brahm, Triers.
His Excellency M. J. Peter Van Berckel, Minifter Plenipotentiary

from the United Provinces of the Netherlands.
Frederick Eugene Francis Baroa de Beelen Bertholf, Imperial
Councellox of Commerce to the United States, Bruflels.

C
Le Chevalier de Chaftellux, Marflial of the Field in the Armies of
France, Chevalier of the Royal Military Order of St. Louis, and
one of the forty members of the French Academy.
Count de Campomaues, Fifcal of the Council of Caftile.
Dr. Adair Crawford, Phyfician to St. Thomas's Hofpital, London.
Dr. Cofte.

Rev. Thomas Coombe, Ireland.
Daniel Coxe, Efq. England.

D
Mr. Peter Dollond, of London.
Dr. Andrew Duncan, of Edinburgh.

Monfieur Daubenton, of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris.
Monfieur Dubourg, of Paris. *
Chev. Danmours, Conful of France for the Southern Department.

E
Hon. John Ellis, Efq. of Jamaica. *
Hon. Bryan Edwards, Efq. of Jamaica.

F
Le Marquis de la Fayette, Major General in the Armies of the

United States of America.
Abbe Fontana, Direftor of the Great Duke's Cabinet of Natural
Hiftory.

G
Rev. Thomas Gibbons, D. D. of London.
Count de Guichen, Lieut. Gen. in the French Army.

H
Hoxi> Samuel Guftavus Baron Hermelin, of Stockholm.

d -a William

xxvlii LIST OF MEMBERS.

William Herfchel!, Efq. F. R. S. of Bath, England.

I
Dr. Hugh James, of Jamaica.

K
Timothy Baron de Kleingftedt, Councellor of State to the Emprefs

of Ruffia.
Brigadiei--General Thadeus Kofcuzko.

L
Lc Chev. de la Luzerne.
Monfieur Lavoifier, of the Academy of Sciences in Paris.

M
Monfieur Barbe de Marbois, Intendant of St. Domingo.
Lord Mahone.

Monfieur Macquer, of Paris. *
Samuel Moore, Efq. of London.
Dr. Benjamin Mofley, of Jamaica.
Mr. John Hyacinth de Magellan, F. R. S. and Member of feveral

Academies, London.
Chrift. Fred. Michaelis, M. D. of Gottenburgh.
Mr. John Mandrillon, Merchant, Amfterdam.

P
Rev. Jofeph Prieftley, L. L. D. F. R. S. of Birmingham, England.
Rev. Richard Price, D. D. F. R. S. of London.
Dr. Robert Percival, Prof. Chym. Trinity College, Dublin.
Mr. William Parker, of London.

R
Monfieur le Roy, Vice-Dire£tor of the Academy of Sciences ia Paris.
Monfieur le Roux.
Abbe Raynal.
Abbe Rofier, of the Academy of Sciences in Lyons.

S
Monfieur Slie, Profefl'or Royal of Anatomy, &c. at Paris.
Monfieur Jean Baptifte Slie, Prof. Surgery in Paris.
Right Hon. Earl of Stanhope. *
Mr. Alexander Small, of London.
Mr. James Six, of Canterbury. England.

V
Monfieur le Count de Vergennes, Minifier of State for Foreiga
Affairs, France.

W
Fortunatus dc Warris, Efq.
William Wriglitj M. D. F.R.S. in the Parifli of Trelawncy, Jamaica.

( xxix )

CONTENTS

VOLUME IL

NO Page,

I. Jl LETTER from Dr. B. Franklin, to Dr. Ingenhaufz,

Phyfician to the Emperor, at Vienna, on the Caufes and
Cure of Smokey Chimneys, x

II. Explanation of an Optical Deception, by Mr. Rittenhoufe, 37

III. Defcription of the White Mountains in Ne-w-Hampfbire, hy

the Rev. Mr. Jeremy Belknap, /}2

IV. Defcription cf a remarkable Rock and Cafcade, near the
Weflern Side of the Youghiogeny River, by Tho. Hutchins, Efq. 50

V. Letter to Mr. Nairne, of London, from Dr. Franklin, pro-
pofing a flo-wly fenfible Hygrometer for certain Piirpofes, 51

VI. Defcription of an ev} Stove for burning of Fit coal, and con-

t. fuming all it's Smoke, by Dr. Franklin, 57

VII. A Theory of Lightning and Thunder Storms, by Andrew
Oliver, Efq. of Salem, in the State of Maffachufetts, 74

VIII. Theory of Water-Spouts, by Andrew Oliver, Efq, \oy

IX. Experiments on Evaporation, and Meteorological Obferva-
tions made at Bradfield in New-England, by the Rev. Samuel
■Williams, J. M. 118-

X. A Letter from J. Madifon, Efq. to D. Rittenhoufe, Efq.
containing Meteorological Obfervations, 123

XI. Defcription of a Machine for meafuring a Ship^s Way thro'

the Sea, by F. Hopkinfon, Efq, i^cf<

XII. Ac^-

XXX CONTENTS.

N ° Page.

XII. Account of an Eleclrical Eel, or the Torpedo of Surinavi,

by William Bryant, Efq. 166

XIII. Obfcrvations on the Numb Fifb, or Torporific Eel, by Hen-
ry Collins Flagg, of South-Carolina, i 70

XIV. A Letter to David Rittenhoufe, Efq. from John Page, Efq. 173

from David Rittenhoufe, £/^. ic John Page, Efq. 175
Concerning a remarkable Meteor feen in Virginia and Pennfylvania.

XV. Defcription of the Grotto at Swatara, by the Rev. Peter
Miller, of Ephrata ; communicated by 'WiWia.m ^a.rton, Efq, 177

XVI. All Account of fame Experiments on Magnetifm, in a
Letter to John Page, Efq, at Williamfhurg, from Mr. Ritten-
houfe, 178

XVII. Nciu Method of placing a Meridian Mark, in a Letter
to the Rev. Dr. Ewing, Provojl of the Univerfity. By D.
Rittenhoufe, Efq. 181

XVIII. Account of a Worm in a Horfe's Eye, by F. Hopkin-
fon, Efq. 183

XIX. An improved Method of falling a Harpfichord, by F.
Hopkinfon, Efq. j 85

XX. Obfervations on a Comet lately difcovered; communicated

by David Rittenhoufe, Efq. 195

XXI. ExtraB of a Letter from the Rev. Jeremy Belknap, con-
taining Obfervations on the Aurora Borcalis. 196

XXII. A Letter from J. Madifon, Efq. to D. Rittenhoufe, Efq.
containing Experiments and Obfervations upon lubat are com-
monly called the Sweet Springs. 197

XXIII. A Letter from the Rev. Jeremy Belknap, on the prcferv-

ing of Parfnips by drying. 199

XXIV. An Optical Problem, propofed by Mr. Hopkinfon, and
folvcd by Mr. Rittenhoufe, 201

XXV. An

CONTENTS. xxxi

N ° Page.

XXV. y4n Enquiry into the Caiife of the Increafe of Bilious and
Intermitting Fevers in Pennfylvania, with Hints for prevent-
ing them. By Benjamin Rufli, M. D. Profeffor of Chemifiry

in the Univerfity of Pennfylvania, 2o6

XXVI. Jn Account of the late Dr. Hugh Martin'j Cancer Pow-
der, "with brief Obfervations on Cancers. By Benjamin Kulh,

ikf. 23. be. 6c. 2IZ

XXVII. Mayeri Obfervationes Aflronomicce, 217

XXVIII. Obfervations on the Caife and Cure of the Tetanus, by
Benjamin Rufli, M. D. itc. iic. 225

XXIX. Letter concerning Chimneys, addreffcd to His Excelleiicy
Benjamin Franklin, Efq. L. L. D. Prefident of the State of
Pennfylvania, and of the American Philofophical Society, <bc.

by Br. Rufton, 23 1

XXX. Obfervations on the annual Paffage of Herrings, by Mr.
John Gilpin, " 236

XXXI. Obfervations on a Solar and' Lunar Eclipfe, communicat-
ed to the Society by M. M. de Grauchain, Major-General of

the French Squadron, 239

XXXII. An Account of the Tranfit of Venus over the Sun, June
1769, as ohferved at Newbury, in Majfachufetts ; by the
Rev. Samuel Williams, A. M. 246-

XXXIII. An eafy and accurate Method of finding a true Meri-
dian Line, and thence the Variation of the Compafs. By Ro-
bert Patterfon, 251

XXXIV. Aflronomical Obfervations, communicated by Mr. Rit-
tenhoufe, 260

XXXV. A Letter from Mr. Otto to Z)r. Franklin, with a Me-
moir on the Difcovery of America, 263

XXXVI. The antifeptic Virtues of Vegetable Acid and Marine
Salt combined, in various Diforders accompanied with Putri--
dity ; communicated in a Letter to John Morgan, M. D.

F. r: S..

xxxu

CONTENTS.

N ° Page.

F. R. S. and Profefor of the Theory and PraEiice of Phyfic at
Philadelphia, hy William Wright, M. D. of Trelawney in
Jamaica, 284

XXXVII. Medical Hijlory cf the Cortex Ruber, or Red Bark ,-
communicated to John Morgan, M. D. Profejfor of the Theory
andPra&ice of Phyfic at Philadelphia, and F. R. S. London, isc. 289

XXXVIII. A Letter from Dr. Benjamin Franklin to Mr, Al-
phonfus le Roy, Member of fever al Academies at Paris, con-
taining fundry Maritime Obfervations, 294

XXXIX. Account of two Hearts found in one Partridge, 33

XL. ConjeElures concerning Wind and Water Spouts, Tornados
and Hurricanes. Communicated by Dr. John Perkins, of
Bofton, to John Morgan, M. D. ibc. <bc. 335

XLI. The -whole Procefs of the Silk Worm, from the Egg to the
Cocon : communicated to Dr. John Morgan, iic. at Philadel-
phia, in two Letters from Mejfrs Hare and Skinner, ihc. in
London, July 27, 1774, and February 24, 1775, 347

XLII. The Art of making Anatomical Preparations by Corrofion.
By John Morgan, M. D. crc 6c. 366

XLIII. Of a living Snake in a living Horfe's Eye, and of other
unufual ProduEiions of Animals. By John Morgan, M. D.
F. R. S. London, 6c. 383

XLIV. Some Account of a motley coloured, or pyed Negro Girl
and Mulatto Boy, exhibited before the Society in the Month of
May, 1784, for their Examination, by Dr. John Morgan,
from the Hiftory given of them by their owner Monf. le Val-
lois, Dentijl of the King of France, at Cuadaloupe in the
JVefi-IndieSf 392

XLV. ExtraSl of a Letter from Bernard Romans, of Penfacola,
dated Auguft 7.0, 1773, on an improved Sea-Compafs, 396

TRANS-

%i

^

xxxii CONTENTS.

N o Page.

F. R. S. and Profeffor of the Theory and PraBice of Phyfic at
Philadelphia^ by William Wright, M. D. of Trelaviney in
Jamaica, 284

XXXVII. Medical Hijlory of the Cortex Ruber, or Red Bark ;
communicated to John Morgan, M. D. Profeffor of the Theory
and Pra&ice of Phyftc at Philadelphia, and F. R. S. London, iic. 289

XXXVIII. A Letter from Dr. Benjamin Franklin to Mr, Al-
phonfus le Roy, Member of feveral Academies at Paris, con-
taining fundry Maritime Obfervations, 294

XXXIX. Account of two Hearts found in one Partridge, 33

XL. ConjeEtures concerning JVind and Water Spouts, Tornados
and Hurricanes. Communicated by Dr, John Perkins, of
Be/Ion, to John Morgan, M. D. <bc. <bc. 335

XLI. The -whole Procefs of the Silk Worm, from the Egg to the
Cocon ; communicated to Dr. John Morgan, 6'c. at Philadel-
phia, in two Letters from Mcffrs Hare and Skinner, drc. in
London, July 27, 1774, and February 24, 177S' 347

XLII. The Art of making Anatomical Preparations by Corrofion.
By John Morgan, M. D. <bc. isc. 366

XLIII. Of a living Snake in a living Horfe's Eye, and of other
unufual ProduHions of Animals. By John Morgan, M. D.
F. R. S. London, isc. 383

XLIV. Some Account of a motley coloured, or pyed Negro Girl
and Mulatto Boy, exhibited before the Society in the Month of
May, I J 84, for their Examination, by Dr. John Morgan,
from the Hijlory given of them by their owner Monf. le Val-
lois, Dentijl of the King of France, at Cuadaloupe in the
Weji-Indies, 392

XLV. ExtraSl of a Lf^/^r /row Bernard Romans, of Penfacola,
dated Auguft 20, 1773, on an improved Sca-Compafst 396

TRANS-

JVcr/e I

PArA I

B

£Jg..l..
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i

J)^

B ^V

^ffzj.i-

^r-c^.^/.V'

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

American Philosophical Society, &c.

N° 1.

A Letter from Dr. B. Franklin to Dr. Ingenhausz,
Phyjician to the Einperor^ at Vienna.

Read zift
Oa. 178J

Dear Friend, At fea, Auguft 28th, 1785.

N one of your letters, a little before I left
France, you defire me to give you in writing
my thoughts upon the conftruftion and ufe of
chimneys, a fubjeit you had fometimes heard me touch
upon in converfation. I embrace •willingly this leifurc
afforded by my prefent fituation to comply with your re-
queft, as it will not only fhow my regard to the defires of
a friend, but may at the fame time be of fbme utility to
others ; the dodtrine of chimneys appearing not to be as
yet generally well underftood, and miftakes refpe£ting
them being attended with conftant inconvenience, if not
remedied; and with fruitJefs cxpence, if the true remedies
are miftaken.

Thofe wha would be acquainted with this fubjedt fhould
begin by confidering on what principle fmoke afcends in
any chimney. At firft many are apt to think that fmoke

2 LETTER CONCERNING

is in its nature and of itfelf fpecifically lighter than air,
and rifes in it for the fame reafon that cork rifes in water.
Thefe fee no caufe why fmoke fliould not rife in the chim-
ney, though the room be ever fo clofe. Others think
there is a power in chimneys to draiv up the fmoke, and
that there are different forms of chimneys which af-
ford more or lefs of this power. Thefe amufe themfelves
with fearching for the beft form. The equal dimenfions
of a funnel in its whole length is not thought artificial
enough, and it is made, for fancied reafons, fometimes ta-
pering and narrowing from below upwards, and fome-
times the contrary, &c. &c. A fimple experiment or two
may ferve to give more correct ideas. Having lit a pipe
of tobacco, plunge the ftem to the bottom of a decanter
half filled with cold water; then putting a rag over the
bowl, blow through it and make the fmoke defcend in the
ftem of the pipe, from the end of which it will rife in
bubbles through the water; and being thus cooled, will
not afterwards rife to go out through the neck of the de-
canter, but remain fpreading itfelf and refting on the fur-
face of the water. This fhows that fmoke is really hea-
vier than air, and that it is carried upwards only when at-
tached to, or aded upon, by air that is heated, and there-
by rarefied and rendered fpecifically lighter than the air in
its neighbourhood.

Smoke being rarely fccn but in company with heated
air, and its upward motion being vifible, though that of the
rarefied air that drives it is not io, has naturally given rife
to the error.

I need not explain to you, my learned friend, what is
meant by rarefied air; but if you make the public ufe you
propofe of this letter, it may fall into the hands of fome
who are unacquainted v.'ith the term and with the thing.
Thefe then may be told, that air is a fluid which has
weight as well as others, though about eight hundred times
lighter than water. That heat makes the particles of air

recede

CHIMNEYS. 3

recede from each other and take up more fpace, fo that
the fame weight of air heated will have more bulk, than
equal weights of cold air which may furround it, and
in that cafe muft rife, being forced upwards by fuch cold-
er and heavier air, which preffes to get under it and take its
place. That air is fo rarefied or expanded by heat, may be
proved to their comprehenfion by a lank blown bladder,
which laid before a fire will foon fwell, grow tight and
burft.

Another experiment may be to take a glafs tube about
an inch in diameter, and twelve inches long, open at both
ends and fixed upright on legs fo that it need not be han-
dled, for the hands might warm it. At the end of a quill
faften five or fix inches of the fineft light filament of filk,
fo that it may be held either above the upper end of the
tube or under the lower end, your warm hand being at a
diftance by the length of the quill. If there were
Kgure'i ^"y rnotion of air through the tube, it would ma-
, nifefl itfelf by its effedl on the filk; but if the tube
and the air in it are of the fame temperature with the fur-
rounding air, there will be no fuch motion, whatever may
be the form of the tube, whether crooked or ftrait, narrow
below and widening upwards, or the contrary ; the air in it
will be quiefcent. Warm the tube, and you will find as
long as it continues warm, a conftant current of air enter-
ing below and paffing up through it, till difcharged at the
top; becaufe the warmth of the tube being communicated
to the air it contains, rarefies that air and makes it lighter
than the air without, which therefore preffes in below,
forces it upwards, follows and takes its place, and is rare-
fied in its turn. And, without warming the tube, if you
hold under it a knob of hot iron, the air thereby heated will
rife and fill the tube, going out at its top, and this motion in
the tube will continue as long as the knob remains hot,
becaufe the air entering the tube below is heated and ra-
refied by paffing near and over that knob. That

4 LETTER concerning

That this motion is produced merely by the difference of
fpccific gravity between the fluid within and that without
the tube, and not by any fancied form of the tube iti'elf,
may appear by plunging it into water contained in a glafs
jar a foot deep, through which fuch motion might be
feen. The water within and without the tube being ot
the fame fpecific gravity, balance each other, and both re-
main at reft. But take out the tube, ilop its bottom with
a finger and fill it with olive oil, which is lighter than
water, then flopping the top, place it as before, its lower
end under water, its top a very little above. As long as
you keep the bottom ftopt, the fluids remain at reft, but
the moment it is unftopt, the heavier enters below, forces
up the lighter, and takes its place. And the motion then
ceafes, merely becaufe the new fluid cannot be fucceffively
made lighter, as air may be by a warm tube.

In facl, no form of the funnel of a chimney has any
fliare in its operation or effe£t refpedling fmoke, except its
height. The longer the funnel, if ereft, the greater its
force when filled with heated and rarefied air, to draiu in
below and drive up the finoke, if one may, in compliance
with cuftom, ufe the expreflion ^^raw , ■ when in fad it is
the fuperior weight of the furrounding atmofphere that
prejft's to enter the funnel below, and fo drives np before
it the fmoke and warm air it meets with in its paflage.

I have been the more particular in explaining thefe firft
principles, becaufe, for want of clear ideas refpefting them,
much frultlefs cxpcnce has been occafioned ; not only
Angle chimneys, but in fome inllances, within my know-
ledge, whole ftacks having been pulled down and rebuilt
with funnels of difterent forms, imagined more powerful
in Jrmving fmoke; but having ftill the fame height and
the fame opening below, have performed no better than
their predeccflbrs.

What is it then which makes ^fmoky cbh/niey, that is,
a chimney which inftead of conveying up all the fmoke,

difchargcs

CHIMNEYS. 5

<lifcharges a part of it into the room, offending the eyes
and damaging the furniture ?

The caufes of this effedt, which have fallen under my
obfervation, amount to nine., differing from each other,
and therefore requiring different remedies.

I. Smoky chimneys in a neiv houfe-, are Jtich, frequently
from mere tvant of air. The workmanfhip of the rooms
being all good, and juft out of the workman's hand, the
joints of the boards of the flooring, and of the pannels of
wainfcotting are all true and tight, the more fo as the
walls, perhaps not yet thoroughly dry, preferve a damp-
nefs in the air of the room which keeps the wood-work
fwelled and clofe. The doors and the fafhes too, being
worked with truth, fhut with exadnefs, fo that the room
is as tight as a fnuff-box, no paffage being left open for
air to enter, except the key-hole, and even that is fome-
times covered by a little dropping fhutter. Now if fmoke
cannot rife but as connefted with rarefied air, and a column
of fuch air, fuppofe it filling the funnel, cannot rife, unlefs
other air be admitted to fupply its place ; and if, therefore,;
no current of air enter the opening of the chimney, there
is nothing to prevent the fmoke coming out into the room.
If the motion upwards of the air in a chimney that is
freely fupplied, be obferved by the rifing of the fmoke or
a feather in it, and it be confidered that in the time fuch
feather takes in rifing from the fire to the top of the
chimney, a column of air equal to the content of the fun-
nel muft be difcharged, and an equal quantity fupplied
from the room below, it will appear abfolutely impofhble
that this operation fhould go on if the tight room is kept
ihut ; for were there any force capable of drawing con-
ftantly fo much air out of it, it mufl: foon be exhaufted
like the receiver oi: an air pump, and no animal could live
in it. Thofe therefore who flop every crevice in a room
to prevent the admiffion of frefh air, and yet would have
their chimney carry up the fmoke, require inconfiftencies,

and

6 LETTER concerning

and exped impoffibilities. Yet under this fituation, I
have feen the owner of a new houfe, in deipair, and ready-
to fell it for much lefs than it coft, conceiving it unin-
habitable, becaufe not a chimney in any one of its rooms
would carry off the fmoke, unlefs a door or window were
left open. Much expence has alfo been made, to alter
and amend new chimneys which had really no fault; in
one houfe particularly that I knew, of a nobleman in
Weftminfter, that expence amounted to no Icfs than three
hundred pounds, after his houfe had been, as he thought,
finifhed and all charges paid. And after all, feveral of the
alterations were ineffedtual, for want of underftanding the
true principles.

Remedies. When you find on trial, that opening the
door or a window, enables the chimney to carry up all
the fmoke, you may be fure that want of air /row ivith-
oittf was the caufe of its fmoking. I fay from 'without-,
to guard you againft a common miftake of thofe who may
tell you, the room is large, contains abundance of air,
fufficient to fupply any chimney, and therefore it cannot
be that the chimney wants air. Thefe reafoners are igno-
rant, that the largenefs of a room, if tight, is in this cafe
of fmall importance, fince it cannot part with a chimney
full of its air without occafioning fo much vacuum ; which
it requires a great force to effedt, and could not be borne
if efleaed.

It appearing plainly, then, that fome of the outward
air muft be admitted, the qucftion will be, how much is
abjohitcly necejfary ; for you would avoid admitting more,
as being contrary to one of your intentions in having a
fire, viz. that of warming your room. To difcover this
quantity, fhut the door gradually while a middling fire is
burning, till you find that, before it Is quite flmt, the fmoke
begins to come out into the room, then open it a little till
you perceive the fmoke comes out no longer. There hold
the door, and obfcrvc the width of the open crevice be-
tween

CHIMNEYS. 7

tween the edge of the door and the rabbit it fhould {hut
into. Suppofe the diftance to be half an inch, and the
door eight feet high, you find thence that your room re-
quires an entrance for air equal in area to ninety fix half
inches, or forty eight fquare inches, or a paffage of fix
inches by eight. This however is a large fuppofition,
there being few chimneys, that, having a moderate open-
ing and a tolerable height of funnel, will not be fatisfied
wit-h fuch a crevice of a quarter of an inch ; and I have
found a fquare of fix by fix, or thirty fix fquare inches^
to be a pretty good medium, that will ferve for moft
chimneys. High funnels with fmall and low openings,
may indeed be fupplied through a lefs fpace, becaufe, for
realons that will appear hereafter, ihejvrce of k'uity., if
one may fo fpeak, being greater in fuch funnels, the cool
air enters the room with greater velocity, and confequent-
ly more enters in the fame time. This however has its
limits, for experience fhows that no increafed velocity fo
occaiioned, has made the admiffion of air through the
key-hole equal in quantity to that through an open door ;
though through the door the current moves flowly, and
through the key-hole with great rapidity.

It remains then to be confidered how and where this,
necelfary quantity of air from without is to be admitted fo
as to be leaft inconvenient. For, if at the door, left fo
much open, the air thence proceeds diredly to the chimney,
and in its way comes cold to your back and heels as you
fit before your fire. If you keep the door ihut, and raife
a little the fafh of your window, you feel the fame incon-
venience. Various have been the contrivances to avoid
this, fuch as bringing in freih air through pipes in the
jams of the chimney, which pointing upwards fhould blow
the fmoke up the funnel ; opening paflages into the fun-
nel above, to let in air for the fame purpofe. But thefe
produce an effect contrary to that intended : For as it is
the conftant current of air paffingfrom the room through

the

8 LETTER concerning

the opening of the chimney into the funnel which prevents
the fmoke coming out into the room, if you fiipply the
funnel hy other means or in other ways with the air it
wants, and efpecially if that air be cold, you diminifh the
force of that current, and the fmoke in its efforts to enter
the room finds lefs refinance.

The wanted air muft then indifpenfahlyht admitted into
the room, to fupply what goes off through the opening
of the chimney. M. Ganger, a very ingenious and in-
telligent French writer on the fabje£t, propofes with
judgment to admit it aho-ve the opening of the chimney ;
and to prevent inconvenience from its coldnefs, he directs
its being made to pafs in its entrance through winding
cavities made behind the iron back and fides of the fire-
place, and under the iron hearth-plate ; in which cavities
it will be warmed, and even heated, fo as to contribute
much, inftead of cooling, to the warming of the room.
This invention is excellent in itfelf, and may be ufed with
advantage in building new houfes ; becaufe the chimneys
may then be fo difpofed, as to admit conveniently the cold
air to enter fuch paffages : But in houfes built without
fuch views, the chimneys are often fo fituated, as not to
afford that convenience, without great and expenfive al-
terations. Eafy and cheap methods, though not quite fo
perfect in themfelves, are of more general utility ; and
fuch are the following.

In all rooms where there is a fire, the body of air warm-
ed and rarefied before the chimney is continually changing
place, and making room for other air that is to be warm-
ed in its turn. Part of it enters and goes up the chimney,
and the reft rifes and takes place near the ceiling. If the
room be lofty, that warm air remains above our heads as
long as it continues warm, and we are little benefited by
it, becaufe it does not defcend till it is cooler. Few can
imagine the difference of climate between the upper and
lower parts of fuch a room, who have not tried it by the

thermometer,

CHIMNEYS. 9

thermometer, or by going up a ladder till their heads are
near the ceiling. It is then among this warm air that the
wanted quantity of outward air is heft admitted, with
which being mixed, its coldnefs is abated, and its incon-
venience diminifhed fo as to become fcarce obfervable.
This may be eafily done, by drawing down about an inch
the upper fafh of a window ; or, if not moveable, by cut-
ting fuch a crevice through its frame ; in both which cafes,
it will be well to place a thin Ihelf of the length, to con-
ceal the opening, and floping upwards to dire£t the enter-
ing air horizontally along and under the ceiling. In fome
houfes the air may be admitted by fuch a crevice made in
the wainfcot, cornifh or plaftering, near the ceiling and
over the opening of the chimney. This, if pra(3:icable,
is to be chofen, becaufe the entering cold air will there
meet with the warmeft rifing air from before the fire, and
be fooneft tempered by the mixture. The fame kind of
fhelf fliould alfo be placed here. Another way, and not
a very difficult one, is to take out an upper pane of glafs
in one of your fafhes, fet it in a tin frame, giving
it two fpringing angular fides, and then replacing Fi'"';J'j.
it, with hinges below on which it may be turned
to open more or lefs above. It will then have the ap-
pearance of an internal fky light. By drawing this pane
in, more or lefs, you may admit what air you find necef-
fary. Its pofition will naturally throw that air up and
along the ceiling. This is what is called in France a I'Faf
iji das ? As this is a German queftion, the invention is
probably of that nation, and takes its name from the fre-
quent aiking of that queftion when it firft appeared. In
England, fome have of late years cut a round hole about
five inches diameter in a pane of the fafh and placed againft:
it a circular plate of tin hung on an axis, and cut into
vanes, which being feparately bent a little obliquely, are
a£ted upon by the entering air, fo as to force the plate con-
tinually round like the vanes of a windmill. This ad-
.- B mits

lO LETTER CONCERNING

mits the outward air, and by the continual whirling of
the vanes, does in fome degree difperfe it. The noife
only, is a little inconvenient.

2. A fecond caufe of the fmoking of chimneys is, their
cpejiings in the room being too large ; that is, too wide, too
high or both. Architects in general have no other ideas
of proportion in the opening of a chimney, than what
relate to fymmetry and beauty, refpeding the dimenfions
of the room* ; while its true proportion, refpeding its
fundion and utility depends on quite other principles ;
and they might as properly proportion the ftep in a ftair-
cafe to the height of the ftory, inftead of the natural ele-
vation of men's legs in mounting. The proportion then
to be regarded, is what relates to the height of the funnel.
For as the funnels in the different ftories of a houfe are
neceffarily of different heights or lengths, that from the
loweft floor being the higheft or longefl, and thofe of the
other floors fhorter and fhorter, till we come to thofe in
the garrets, which are of courfe the fhorteft ; and the force
of draft being, as already faid, in proportion to the height
of funnel filled with rarefied air; and a current of air from
the room into the chimney, fufficient to fill the opening,,
being neceffary to oppofe and prevent the fmoke coming
out into the room ; it follows that the openings of the
longefl: funnels may be larger, and that thofe of the fhorter
funnels fliould be fmaller. For if there be a large open-
ing to a chimney that does not draw flrongly, the funnel
may happen to be furnifhed with the air it demands by a
partial current entering on one fide of the opening, and
leaving the other fide free of any oppofing current, may
permit the fmoke to ifliie there into the room. Much too
of the force of draft in a funnel depends on the degree of
rarefadion in the air it contains, and that depends on the
iicarncfs to the fire of its pafTage in entering the funnel.
If it can enter far from the fire on each fide, or far above
the fire, in a wide or high opening, it receives little heat

ia

• Sec Appendix, N ° I.

CHIMNEYS. II

in paffing by the fire, and the contents of the funnel is by
that means lefs different in levity from the furrounding
atmofphere, and its force in drawing confequently weaker.
Hence it too large an opening be given to chimneys in
upper rooms, thofe rooms will be fmoky : On the other
hand, if too fmall openings be given to chimneys in the
lower rooms, the entering air operating too diredlly and
violently on the fire, and afterwards ftrengthening the
draft as it afcends the funnel, will confume the fuel too
rapidly.

Remedy, As different circumftances frequently mix
themfelves in thefe matters, it is difficult to give precile
dimenfions for the openings of all chimneys. Our fathers
made them generally much too large ; we have lelTened
them; but they are often ffill of greater dimenfion than
they fhould be, the human eye not being eafily reconciled
to fudden and great changes. If you fufpedt that your
chimney fmokes from the too great dimenfion of its open-
ing, contract it by placing moveable boards fo as to lower
and narrow it gradually, till you find the fmoke no longer
iffues into the room. The proportion fo found will be that
which is proper for that chimney, and you may employ the
bricklayer or mafon to reduce it accordingly. However,
as, in building new houfes, fomething mull be fometimes
hazarded, I would make the openings in my lower rooms
about thirty inches fquare and eighteen deep, and thofe
in the upper, only eighteen inches fquare and not quite fo
deep ; the intermediate ones diminifhing in proportion as
the height of funnel diminifhed. In the larger openings,
billets of two feet long, or half the common length of cord-
wood, may be burnt conveniently ; and for the fmaller,
fuch wood may be fawed into thirds. Where coals are the
fuel, the grates will be proportioned to the openings.
The fame depth is nearly neceffary to all, the funnels be-
ing all made of a fize proper to admit a chimney-fweeper.
If in large and elegant rooms cuflom or fancy fhould re-

B 2 quire

12 LETTER CONCERNING

quire the appearance of a larger chimney, it may be form-
ed of expenfive marginal decorations, in marble, &c. In
time perhaps that which is fitteft in the nature of things,
may come to be thought handfomeft. But at prefent when
men and women in different countries fhow themfelves
dilTatisfied with the forms God has given to their heads,
waifts and feet, and pretend to fliape them more perfect-
ly, it is hardly to be expeifled that they will be content
always with the beft form of a chimney. And there are
fome I know fo bigotted to the fancy of a large noble
opening, that rather than change it, they would fubmit
to have damaged furniture, fore eyes and Ikins almoft
fmoked to bacon.

3. Another caufe of fmoky chimneys is, too /hort a fiat-
nel. This happens neceffarily in fome cafes, as where
a chimney is required in a low building; for, if the fun-
nel be raifed high above the roof, in order to ftrengthen
its draft, it is then in danger of being blown down, and
crufhing the roof in its falL

Remedies. Contra£t the opening of the chimney, fo as
to oblige all the entering air to pafs through or very near
the fire; whereby it will be more heated and rarefied, the
funnel itfelf be more warmed, and its contents have more
of what may be called the force of levity, fo as to rife
llrongly and maintain a good draft at the opening.

Or you may In fome cafes, to advantage, build additi-
onal flories over the low building, which will fupport a
high funnel.

If the low building be ufed as a kitchen, and a contrac-
tion of the opening therefore inconvenient, a large one be-
ing neccflary, at leaf! when there are great dinners, for the
free management of fo many cooking utenfils ; in fuch
cafe 1 would advife the building of two more funnels join-
ing to the firft, and having three moderate openings, one
to each funnel, inllcad of one large one. When there is
occalion to ufc but one, the other two may be kept fhut

by

CHIMNEYS. r^

by fliding plates* hereafter to be defcribed*; and two or all
of them may be ufed together when wanted. This will
indeed be an expence, but not an ufelefs one, fince your
cooks will work with more comfort, fee better than in a
fmoky kitchen what they are about, your victuals will be
cleaner dreffed and not tafte of fmoke, as is often the cafe ;
and to render the efFe£l more certain, a ftack of three fun-
nels may be fafely built higher above the roof than a fin-
gle funnel.

The cafe of too Ihort a funnel is more general than
would be imagined, and often found where one would not
expeQ: it. For it'is not uncommon, in ill-contrived build-
ings, inftead of having a funnel for each room or fireplace,
to bend and turn the funnel of an upper room fo as ta
make it enter the fide of another funnel that comes from
below. By this means the upper room funnel is made
fhort of courfe, fmce its length can only be reckoned from
the place where it enters the lower room funnel ; and that
funnel is alfo Ibortened by all the diftance between the en-
trance of the fecond funnel and the top of the ftack : For
all that part being readily fupplied with air through the
fecond funnel, adds no ftrength to the draft, efpecially as
that air is cold when there is no fire in the fecond chim-
ney. The only eafy remedy here is, to keep the open-
ing Ihut of that funnel in which there is no fire.

4. Another very common caufe of the fmoklng of
chimneys, is, their o'verpotvering ow: another. For in-
ftance, if there be two chimneys in one large room, and yoa
make fires in both of them, the doors and windows clofe
fhut, you will find that the greater and ftronger fire fhall
overpower the weaker, and draw air down its funnel to
fupply its own demand; which air defcending in the
■weaker funnel will drive down its fmoke, and force it into
the room. If, inftead of being in one room, the two chim-
neys are in two different rooms, communicating by a door,,
the cafe is the fame whenever that door is open. In a very

ti^ht

* See Appendix, N ° U.

14 LETTER concerning

tight houfe, I have known a kitchen chimney on the low-
eft floor, when it had a great fire in it, overpower any-
other chimney in the houfe, and draw air and fmoke into
its room, as often as the door was opened communicating
with the ftaircafe.

Remedy. Take care that every room have the means
of fupplying itfelf from without, with the air its chimney
may require, fo that no one of them may be obUged to
borrow from another, nor under the neceflity of lending.
A variety of thefe means have been already defcribed.

5. Another caufe of fmoking is, ivhen the tops of chim-
neys are commanded by higher buildings^ or by a hilly fo that
the wind blowing over fuch eminences falls like water over
a dam, fometimes almoft perpendicularly on the tops of
the chimneys that lie in its way, and beats down the fmoke
contained in them.

Remedy. That commonly applied to this cafe, is a
turncap made of tin or plate iron, covering the chimney
above and on three fides, open on one fide, turning on a
fpindle, and which being guided or governed by a vane,
always prefents its back to the current. This I believe may
be generally effediual, though not certain, as there may be
cafes in which it will not fucceed. Railing your funnels
if praiflicable, fo as their tops may be higher, or at leaft
equal with the commanding eminence, is more to be de-
pended on. But the turning cap, being eafier and cheaper,
Ihould lirft be tried. If obliged to build in fuch a fituation,
I would chufe to place my doors on the fide next the hill,
and the backs of my chimneys on the furtheft fide; for
then the column of air falling over the eminence, and of
courfe preffing on that below and forcing it to enter the
doors, or TVas-iJl-dases on that fide, would tend to balance
the preflurc down the chimneys, and leave the funnels
more free in the cxercife of their fundlions.

6. There is another cafe of command, the reverfe of
that laft mentioned. It is where the commanding emi-
nence

CHIMNEYS. 15

nence is farther from the wind than the chimney com-
manded. To explain this a figure may be neceflary.
Suppofe thenabuilding whofe fide A, happens to be expof-
ed to the wind, and forms a kind of dam againft its
progrefs. The air obftru£ted by this dam will like jjf^J'
water prefs and fearch for paflages through it ; and
finding the top of the chimney B, below the top of the
dam, it will force itfelf down that funnel, in order to get
through by fome door or window open on the other fide
of the building. And if there be a fire in fuch chimney,
its fmoke is of courfe beat down, and fills the room.

Remedy. I know of but one, which is to raife fuch-
funnel higher than the roof, fupporting it, if necetfary, by
iron bars. For a turn-cap in this cafe has no effedt, the
dammed up air preffing down through it in whatever po-
fition the wind may have placed its opening.

I know a city in which many houfes are rendered fmoky
by this operation. For their kitchens being built behind,
and connedled by a paffage with the houfes, and the tops
of the kitchen chimneys lower than the top of the houfes,
the whole fide of a ftreet when the wind blows againft its
back, forms fuch a dam as above defcribed ; and the wind
fo obftruded forces down thofe kitchen chimneys, (efpe-
cially when they have but weak fires in them) to pafs
through the paflTage and houfe, into the ftreet. Kitchen
chimneys fo formed and fituated, have another inconve-
nience. In fummer, if you open your upper room wind-
dows for air, a light breeze blowing over your kitchen
chimney towards the houfe, though not ftrong enough to
force down its fmoke as aforefaid, is fufficient to waft it
into your windows, and fill the rooms with it; which, be-
fides the difagreeablenefs, damages your furniture.

7. Chimneys, otherwife drawing well, are fometimes.
made to fmoke by the improper and inconvenient Jttiiatmt
of a door. When the door and chimney are on the fame
fide of the room as in the figure, if* the door A, being irt

the

i6 LETTER concerning

the corner is made to open agalnft the wall, which
KgurJ4. ^^ common, as being there, when open, more out
of the way. It follows, that when the door Is on-
ly opened in part, a current of air rufhing in paffes along
the wall into and acrofs the opening of the chimney B,
and flirts fome of the fmoke out into the room. This
happens more certainly when the door is ihutting, for then
the force of the current is augmented, and becomes very
inconvenient to thofe who, warming themfelves by the
fire, happen to fit in its way.

The Remedies are obvious and eafy. Either put an in-
tervening fkreen from the wall round great part of the fire-
place ; or, which is perhaps preferable, fhift the hinges of
your door, fo as it may open the other way, and when
open throw the air along the other wall.

8. A room that has no fire in its chimney, is fome-
times filled with fmoke nvhich is fecei'ued at the top oj
its funnel and defends into the room. In a former
paper* I have already explained the defcending currents
of air in cold funnels; it may not be amifs however
to repeat here, that funnels without fires have an effedt
according to their degree of coldnefs or warmth, on the
air that happens to be contained in them. The furround-
ing atmofphere is frequently changing its temperature ;
but ftacks of funnels covered from winds and fun by the
houfe that contains them, retain a more equal temperature.
If, after a warm feafon, the outward air fuddenly grows
cold, the empty warm funnels begin to draw ftrongly up-
ward ; that is, they rarefy the air contained in them, which
of courfe rifes, cooler air enters below to fupply its place,
is rarefied in its turn and rifes ; and this operation conti-
nues, till the funnel grows cooler, or the outward air
warmer, or both, when the motion ceafes. On the other
hand, if after a cold feafon, the outward air fuddenly grows
warm and of courfe lighter, the air contained in the cool
funnels, being heavier, defcends into the room ; and the

wanner

• See ApiK-ndix, N^ II.

CHIMNEYS. 17

warmer air which enters their tops being cooled in its
turn, and made heavier, continues to defcend ; and this
operation goes on, till the funnels are warmed by the paf-
fmg of warm air through them, or the air itfelf grows
cooler. When the temperature of the air and of the fun-
nels is nearly equal, the difference of warmth in the air
between day and night is fufficient to produce thefe cur-
rents, the air will begin to afcend the funnels as the cool
of the evening comes on, and this current will continue
till perhaps nine or ten o'clock the next morning, when
it begins to hefitate ; and as the heat of the day approach-
es, it fets downwards, and continues fo till towards -even-
ing, when it again hefitates for fome time, and then goes
upwards conftantly during the night, as before mentioned.
Now when fmoke iffuing from the tops of neighbouring
funnels pafles over the tops of funnels which are at the
time drawing downwards, as they often are in the middle
part of the day, fuch fmoke is of neceflity drawn into thefe
funnels, and defcends with the air into the chamber.

The Remedy is to have a Aiding plate, hereafter de-
fcribed*, that will fhut perfedly the offending funnel.

9. Chimneys which generally draw well, do neverthe-
lefs fometimes give fmoke into the rooms, it being driven,
doivn by Jirong ivinds pajjing over the tops of their funnels y
though not defcending from any commanding eminence.
This cafe is mofl: frequent where the funnel is fhort, and
the opening turned from the wind. It is the more griev-
ous, when it happens to be a cold wind that produces the
effect, becaufe when you mofl: want your fire, you are
fometimes obliged to extinguifh it. To underfland this,
it may be confidered that the rifmg light air, to obtain
a free iffue from the funnel, mufl pufh out of its way or
oblige the air that is over it to rife. In a time of calm or
of little wind this is done vifibly, for we lee the fmoke
that is brought up by that air rife in a column above the
chimney. But when a violent current of air, that is, a

G flrong

• See Apptndix, NO II.

i8 LETTER cokcerning

ftrong; wind, pafles over the top of a chimney, its particles
have received fomuch force, which keeps them in a hori-
zontal diredlion and follow each other fo rapidly, that the
rifing light air has not ftrength fufficient to oblige theni
to quit that dire(flion and move upwards to permit its iffue^
Add to this, that fome of the current paffing over that fide

of the funnel which it firft meets with, viz. at A,
r?Kure''5 l^^ving been comprefled by the refiftance of the

funnel, may expand iifclf over the flue, and ftrike
the interior oppofite fide at B, from whence it may be re-
fleded downwards and from fide to fide in the diredion of
the pricked lines c c c. .

Remedies. In fome places, particularly in Venice, where
they have not ftacks of chimneys but fingle flues, the cuf-

tom is, to open or widen the top of the flue round-
ri^'ure'e *"S ^"^ ^'^ ^'"'^^ form of a funnel ; which fome think

may prevent the eff^ed juft mentioned, for that the
•wind blowing over one of the edges into the funnel may
be flanted out again on the other fide by its form. I have
had no experience of this ; but I have lived in a windy
country, where the contrary is pradifed, the tops of the
flues being narroived inwards, fo as to form a flit for the
iflfue of the fmoke, long as the breadth of the funnel, and
only four inches wide. This feems to have been contrived
on a fuppofition that the entry of the wind would thereby
be obftruded, and perhaps it might have been imagined,
that the whole force of the rifing warm air being con-
denfed, as it were, in the narrow opening, would thereby
be ftrengthened, fo as to overcome the refiftance of the
wind. This however did not always fucceed ; for when
the wind was at north-eaft and blew frefh, the fmoke was
forced down by fits into the room I commonly fat in, fo as
to oblige me to fliift the fire into another. The pofition
of the flit of this funnel was indeed north-eaft and fouth-
weft. Perhaps if it had lain acrofs the wind, the eff^ed
might have been difterent. But on this I can give no cer-
tainty.

CHIMNEYS. 19

talnty. It feems a matter proper to be referred to experi-
ment. Poffibly a turn-cap might have been ferviceable,
but it was not tried.

Chimneys have not been long in ufe in England. I for-
merly faw a book printed in the time of queen Elizabeth,
which remarked the then modern improvements of living,
and mentioned among others the convenience of chimneys.
*' Our forefathers," faid the author, " had no chimneys.
" There was in each dwelling houfe only one place for a
*' fire, and the fmoke went out through a hole in the
*' roof; but now there is fcarce a gentleman's houfe in
" England that has not at lead one chimney in it." —
"When there was but one chimney, its top might then be
opened as a funnel, and perhaps, borrowing the form from
the Venetians, it was then the flue of a chimney got that
name. Such is now the growth of luxury, that in both
England and France we muft have a chimney for every
room, and in fome houfes every poffeflbr of a chamber,
and almoft every fervant, will have a fire ; fo that the flues
being neceflarily built in ftacks, the opening of each as a
funnel is impra£ticable. This change of manners foon
confumed the firewood of England, and will foon render
fuel extremely fcarce and dear in France, if the ufe of
coals be not introduced in the latter, kingdom as it has been
in the former, where it at firft met with oppofition ; for
there is extant in the records of one of queen Elizabeth's
parliaments, a motion made by a member, reciting, " that
" many dyers, brewers, fmiths, and other artificers of Lon-
" don, had of late taken to the ufe of pitcoal for their fires,
" infl:ead of wood, which filled the air with noxious va-
" pours and fmoke, very prejudicial to the health, parti-
" cularly of perfons coming out of the country ; and there-
" fore moving that a law might pafs to prohibit the ufe
" of fuch fuel (at leaft during the feflion of parliament)
" by thofe artificers." — It feems it was not then common-
ly ufed in private houfes. Its fuppofed unwholefomenefs
C 2 was

20 LETTER CONCERNING

was an objedlion. Luckily the inhabitants of London
have got over that objection, and nov^r think it rather con-
tributes to render their air falubrious, as they have had no
general peftilential diforder fince the general ule of coals,
when, before it, fuch were frequent. Paris ftill burns wood
at an enormous expence continually augmenting, the in-
habitants having ftill that prejudice to overcome. In Ger-
many you are happy in the ufe of ftoves, which fave fuel
wonderfully : Your people are very ingenious in the ma-
nagement of fire ; but they may ftill learn fomething in
that art from the Chinefe*, whofe country being greatly
populous and fully cultivated, has little room left for the
growth of wood, and having not much other fuel that is
good, have been forced upon many inventions during a
courfe of ages, for making a little fire go as far as poflible.
I have thus gone through all the common eaufes of the
fmoking of chimneys that I can at prefent recollect as hav-
ing fallen under my obfervation ; communicating the re-
medies that I have known fuccefsfully ufed for the differ-
ent cafes, together with the principles on which both the
difeafe and the remedy depend, and confefling my igno-
rance wherever I have been fenfible of it. You will do
well, if you publifti, as you propofe, this letter, to add in-
notes, or as you pleafe, fuch obfervations as may have oc-
turred to your attentive mind ; and if other philofophers.
will do the fame, this part of fcience, though humble, yet
ot great utility, may in time be perfedled. For many years.
part, I have rarely met with a cafe of a fmoky chimney,
which has not been folvable on thefe principles, and cured
by thefe remedies, where people have been willing to ap-
ply them ; which is indeed not always the cafe ; for many
have prejudices in favour of the noftrums of pretending
chimney-doctors and fumifts, and fome have conceits and,
fancies of their own, which they rather chufe to try, than
to lengthen a funnel, alter the fize of an opening, or ad-
mit air into a room, however neceflary j for fome are as

much

• See ArpcnJix, NO III.

CHIMNEYS. 21

much afraid of frefli air as perfons in the hydrophobia are
of frefh water. I myfelf had formerly this prejudice, this
aerophobia^ as I now account it, and dreading the fuppofed
dangerous effects of cool air, I confidered it as an enemy,
and clofed with extreme care every crevice in the rooms I
inhabited. Experience has convinced me of my error. I
now look upon frefh air as a friend : I even fleep with an
open window. I am perfuaded that no common air from
without, is fo unwholefome as the air within a clofe room
that has been often breathed and not changed. Moift air
too, which formerly I thought pernicious, gives me now
no apprehenfions : For confidering that no dampnefs of
air applied to the outfide of my fkin, can be equal to what
is applied to and touches it within, my whole body being
full of moifture, and finding that I can lie two hours in
a bath twice a week, covered with water, which certainly
is much damper than any air can be, and this for years
together, without catching cold, or being in any other man-
ner difordered by it, I no longer dread mere moifture, either
in air or in fheets or fhirts : And I find it of importance to
the happinefs of life, the being freed from vain terrors,
efpecially of objects that we are every day expofed in-
evitably to meet with. You phyficians have of late hap-
pily difcovered, after a contrary opinion had prevailed
fome ages, that frefh and cool air does good to perfons in
the fmall pox and other fevers. It is to be hoped that ia
another century or two we may all find out, that it is not
bad even for people in health. And as to moift air, here
I am at this prefent writing in a fhip with above forty
perfons, who have had no other but moift air to breathe
for fix weeks pafl ; every thing we touch is damp, and
nothing dries, yet we are all as healthy as we ftiould be-
on the mountains of Switzerland, whofe inhabitants are
not more fo than thofe of Bermuda or St. Helena, iflands
on whofe rocks the waves are dafhed into millions of par-
ticles, which fill the air with damp, but produce no dif-

eales

22 LETTER CONCERNING

cafes, the moifture being pure, unmixed with the polfon-
ous vapours arifing from putrid marfhes and ftagnant
pools, in which many infefts die and corrupt the water.
Thefe places only, in my opinion, (which however I fub-
mit to yours) afford unwholefome air ; and that it is not
the mere water contained in damp air, but the volatile
particles of corrupted animal matter mixed with that wa-
ter, which renders fuch air pernicious to thofe who breathe
it. And I imagine it a caufe of the fame kind that ren-
ders the air in clofe rooms, where the perfpirable matter
is breathed over and over again by a number of affembled
people, fo hurtful to health. After being in fuch a fitua-
tion, many find themfelvej affected by that febricuhiy
which the Englifh alone call a cold., and, perhaps from the
name, imagine that they caught the malady by going out
of the room, when it was in fa£t by being in it.

You begin to think that I wander from my fubjedt, and
go out of my depth. So I return again to my chimneys.

We have of late many lecturers in experimental philo-
fophy. I have wifhed that fome of them would ftudy this
branch of that fcience, and give experiments in it as a part
of their le£tures. The addition to their prefent apparatus
need not be very expenfive. A number of little reprefen-
tations of rooms compofed each of five panes of falh glafs,
framed in wood at the corners, with proportionable doors,
and moveable glafs chimneys, with openings of different
fizes, and different lengths of funnel, and fome of the
rooms fo contrived as to communicate on occafion with
others, fo as to form different combinations, and exem-
plify different cafes ; with quantities of green wax taper
cut into pieces of an inch and ha f, fixteen of which ftuck
together in a fquare, and lit, would make a ftrong fire for
a little glafs chimney, and blown out would continue to
burn and give fmokc as long as deiired. With fuch an
apparatus all the operations of fmoke and rarefied air in
rooms and chimneys might be feen through their tranfpa-

reat

CHIMNEYS. 25

rent fides; and the efFe'd of winds on chimneys, com-
manded or otherwife, might be fhown by letting the en-
tering air blow upon them through an opened window of
the lecturer's chamber, where it would be conftant while
he kept a good fire in his chimney. By the help of fuch
lectures our fumifts would become better inftrufted. At
prefent they have generally but one remedy, which per-
haps they have known effectual in fome one cafe of fmoky
chimneys, and they apply that indifcriminately to all the
other cafes, without fuccefs, — but not without expence to
their employere.

With all the fcience, however, that a man fliall fuppofe
himfelf poiTeffed of in this article, he may fometimes m.eet
with cafes that Ihall puzzle him. I once lodged in a houfe
at London, which, in a little room, had a fingle chimney
and funnel. The opening was very fmall, yet it did not
keep in the fmoke, and all attempts to have a fire in this
room were fruitlefs. I could not imagine the reafon, till
at length obferving that the chamber over it, which had
no fire-place in it, was always filled with fmoke when a
fire was kindled below, and that the fmoke came through
the cracks and crevices of the wainfcot ; I had the wainfcot
taken down, and difcovered that the funnel which went up
behind it, had a crack many feet in length, and wide
enough to admit my arm, a breach very dangerous with
regard to fire, and occafioned probably by an apparent ir-
regular fettling of one fide of the houfe. The air enter-
ing this breach freely, deftroyed the drawing force of the
funnel. The remedy would have been, filling up the
breach or rather rebuilding the funnel : But the. landlord
rather chofe to ftop up the chimney.

Another puzzling cafe I met with at a friend's country
houfe near London. His beft room, had a chimney in
which, he told me, he never could have a fire, for all the
fmoke came out into the room. I flattered myfelf I could
eafily find the caufe, and prefcribe the cure. I had a fire

made:

24 LETTER concerning

made there, and found it as he faid. I opened the door,
and perceived it was not want of air. I made a temporary
contraction of the opening of the chimney, and found that
it was not its being too large that caufed the fmoke to ifTue.
I went out and looked up at the top of the chimney : Its
funnel was joined in the fame ftack with others, fome of
them fhorter, that drew very well, and I faw nothing to
prevent its doing the fame. In fine, after every other ex-
amination I could think of, I was obliged to own the in-
fufficiency of my fkill. But my friend, who made no
pretenfion to fuch kind of knowledge, afterwards difco-
vered the caufe himfelf. He got to the top of the funnel
by a ladder, and looking down, found it filled with twiggs
and ftraw cemented by earth, and lined with feathers.
It feems the houfe, after being built, had flood empty fome
years before he occupied it ; and he concluded that fome
large birds had taken the advantage of its retired fituatioa
to make their neft there. The rubbifh, confiderable in
quantity, being removed, and the funnel cleared, the
chimney drew well, and gave fatisfadion.

In general, fmoke is a very tradable thing, eafily go-
verned and direfted when one knows the principles, and
is well informed of the circumflances. You know I made
it defcend in my Pennfylvania ftove. I formerly had a
more fimple conflrudtion, in which the fame effedt was

produced, but vifible to the eye. It was compof-
Firure'7. ^^ °^ ^'^'^ plates A B and C D, placed as in the

figure. The lower plate A B refted with its edge
in the angle made by the hearth with the back of the
chimney. The upper plate was fixed to the breaft, and
lapt over the lower about fix inches, leaving a fpace of
four inches wide and the length of the plates (near two
feet) between them. Every other pafTage of air into the
funnel was well flopped. When therefore a fire was made
at E, for the firff time with charcoal, till the air in the
tunnel was a little heated through the plates, and then

wood

CHIMNEYS. 25

wood laid on, the fmoke would rife to A, turn over the
edge of that plate, defcend to D, then turn under the edge
of the upper plate, and go up the chir.mey. It was pretty-
to fee, but of no great ufe. Placing therefore the under
plate in a higher fituation, I removed the upper
plate C D, and placed it perpendicularly, fo that ^ll^^^\
the upper edge of the lower plate A B came with-
in about three inches of it, and might be pufhed farther
from it, or fuffercd to come nearer to it by a moveable
wedge between them. The flame then afccnding from,
the fire at E, was carried to ffrike the upper plate, made
it very hot, and its heat rofe and fpread with the rarefied
air into the room.

I believe you have feen in ufe with me, the contrivance
of a fliding-plate over the fire, feemingly placed to oppofe
the rifing of the fmoke, leaving but a fmall palTage for it,
between the edge of the plate and the back of the chimney.
It is particularly defcribed, and its ufes explained, in my
former printed letter, and I mention it here only as ano-
-ther inflance of the tra£tability of fmoke*.

What is called the StafFordfhire chimney, affords an ex-
ample of the fame kind. The opening of the chimney is
bricked up, even with the fore-edge of its jams, leaving
open only a paflage over the grate of the fame width, and
perhaps eight inches high. The grate confifts of femicir-
cular bars, their upper bar of the greateft diameter, the
others under it fmaller and fmaller, fo that it has the ap-
pearance of half a round bafket. It is, with the coals it
contains, wholly without the wall that fhuts up the chim-
ney, yet the fmoke bends and enters the pafTage above it,
the draft being flrong, becaufe no air can enter that is not
obliged to pafs near or through the fire, fo that all that
the funnel is filled with is much heated, and of courfe
much rarefied.

D Much

■♦ Sec Appendix, N ° II.

26

LETTER CONCERNING

STAFFORDSHIRE -FIRE-PL AQE.

SIDE VIE W.

FRONT VIEW.

Much more of the profperity of a winter country de-
pends on the plenty and cheapnefs of fuel, than is gene-
rally imagined. In travelling I have obferved, that in
thole parts where the inhabitants can have neither wood
nor coal nor turfF bat at exceffive prices, the working peo-
ple live in mil'erable hovels, are ragged, and have nothing
comfortable about them. But where fuel is cheap, (or
where they have the art of managing it to advantage) they
are well furnifl-icd with neceflaries, and have decent habi-
tations. The obvious reafon is, that the working hours
of fuch people are the profitable hours, and they who can-
not afford fufficient fuel have fewer fuch hours in the
twenty four, than thofe who have it cheap and plenty :
For much of the domeflic work of poor women, fuch as.

fpinning,

I

CHIMNEYS. 27

fpinning, fewing, knitting ; and of the men in thofe ma-
nufadtures that require little bodily exefcife, cannot well
be performed where the fingers are numbed with cold :
Thofe people, therefore, in cold weather, are induced to go
to bed fooner, and lie longer in a morning, than they
would do if they could have good fires or warm ftoves to
fit by ; and their hours of work are not fufficient to pro-
duce the means of comfortable fubfiftence. Thofe pub-
lic works, therefore, fuch as roads, canals, &c. by which
fuel may be brought cheap into fuch countries from diflant
places, are of great utility ; and thofe who promote them
may be reckoned among the benefaftors of mankind.

I have great pleafure in having thus complied with your
requeft, and in the refledlion that the friendfhip you ho-
nour me with, and in which I have ever been fo happy,
has continued fo many years without the fmallefl: inter-
ruption. Our diftance from each other is now augment-
ed, and nature muft foon put an end to the poffibility of
my continuing our correfpondence : But if confcioufnefs
and memory remain in a future ftate, my efteem and re-
fped for you, my dear friend, will be everlafting.

B. F.

T> 2 APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

NOTES FOR THE LETTER upon CHIMNEYS.

N° I.

■"FHE latefl- work on architecture that I have feen, is that
entitled Nutshells, which appears to be written by
a very ingenious man, and contains a table of the propor-
tions of the openings of chimneys ; but they relate folely
to the proportions he gives his rooms, without the fmall-
eft regard to the funnels. And he remarks, refpedting
thofe proportions, that they are fimilar to the harmonic
divifions of a monochord*. He does not indeed lay much
flrefs on this ; but it fhows that we like the appearance of
principles ; and where we have not true ones, we have
fomc fatisfadtion in producing fuch as are imaginary.

N° 11.

HTHE defcription of the Aiding plates here promifed,
and which hath been fmce brought into ufe under va-
rious names, with fome immaterial changes, is contained,
in a former letter to J. B. Efq. as follows :

To J. B. Efy. at BoJIotiy in New-England.

Dear Sir, London, Dec. 2, 1758.

I HAVE executed here an eafy fimple contrivance, that
I have long fince had in fpeculation, for keeping rooms

warmer

• " It may he juft remarked here, that upon compnrintj thefe proportions with thofc ar'ifinT;
** from the common ilivifions of the monochord, it liappcns that the firfl anfwcri; to tinilbn,
" and althouj;h the fc> ond is a difcord, the tliird anfwers to the third minor, the fourth to the
" third major, the fiftli to the fotirth, the iixth to the liftJi, and the fcvculh to ihc odave."
NuTSUEi.i-s, page 85.

APPENDIX. ?9-

•warmer in cold weather than they generally are, and with
lefs fire. It is this. The opening of the chimney is con-
tratSted, by brick-work faced with marble flabs, to about
two feet between the jams, and the breaft brought down
to within about three feet of the hearth. — An iron frame is
placed juft under the breaft, and extending quite to the
back of the chimney^ fo that a plate of the fame metal
may Aide horizontally backwards and forwards in the
grooves on each fide of the frame. This plate is juft fo
large as to fill the whole fpace, and fhut the chimney en-
tirely when thruft quite in, which is convenient when there
is no fire. Drawing it out, fo as to leave a fjpace between its
further edge and the hack, of about two inches; this fpace
is fufficient for the fmoke to pafs; and fo large a part of
the funnel being ftopt by the reft of the plate, the paflage
of warm air out of the room, up the chimney, is obftrud:-
ed and retarded, and by that means much cold air is pre-
I'ented from coming in through crevices, to fupply its.
place. This effect is made manifeft three ways. Firft,
when the fire burns brifkly in cold weather, the howling
or whiftling noife made by the wind, as it enters the room
throvigh the crevices, when the chimney is open as ufual,
ceafes as foon as the plate is Aid in to its proper diftance.
Secondly, opening the door of the room about half an inch,
and holding your hand againft the opening, near the top
of the door, you feel the cold air coming in againft your
hand, but weakly, if the plate be in^ Let another perfoa
fuddenly draw it out, fo as to let the air of the room go up
the chimney, with its ufual freedom where chimneys are
open, and you immediately feel the cold air ruftiing in
ftrongly. Thirdly, if fomething be fet againft the door,
juft fufficient, when the plate is in, to keep the door nearly
Ihut, by refifting the preflure of the air that would force
it open: Then, when the plate is drawn out, the door will
be forced open by the increafed prefigure of the outwardi
cold air endeavouring to get in to fupply the place of the:

warmi

30 APPENDIX.

warm air, that now pafles out of the room to go up the
chimney. In our common open chimneys, half the fuel
is wafted, and its effedt loft; the air it has warmed being
immediately drawn off. Several of my acquaintance hav-
ing feen this (imple machine in my room, have imitated
it at their own houfes, and it feems likely to become pretty
common. I defcribe it thus particularly to you, becaufe I
think it would be ufeful in Bojion., where firing is often dear.

Mentioning chimneys puts me in mind of a property I
formerly had occafion to obferve in them, which I have
not found taken notice of by others; it is, that in the fum-
mer time, when no fire is made in the chimneys, there is,
neverthelefs, a regular draft of air through them; continu-
ally pafling upwards, from about five or fix o'clock in
the afternoon, till eight or nine o'clock the next morning,
when the current begins to flacken and hefitate a little, for
about half an hour, and then fets as flirongly down again,
which it continues to do till towards five in the afternoon,
then flackens and hefitates as before, going fometimes a
little up, then a little down, till in about a half an hour ic
gets into a fteady upward current for the night, which con-
tinues till eight or nine the next day; the hours varying a
little as the days lengthen and fhorten, and fometimes va-
rying from fudden changes in the weather; as if, after be-
ing long warm, it fhould begin to grow cool about noon,
while the air was coming down the chimney, the current
will then change earlier than the ufual hour, (^r.

This property in chimneys I imagine we might turn to
fomc account, and render improper, for the future, the old
faying, as iifelefs as a chimney inj'ummer. If the opening
of the chimney, from the breaft down to the hearth, be
clofed by a flight moveable frame or two, in the manner
of doors, covered with canvas, that will let the air through,
hut keep out the flies; and another little frame let within
upon the hearth, with hooks on which to hang joints of
meat, fowls, ^'C. wrapt well in wet linen cloths, three or

four

APPENDIX. 31

four fold, I am confident that if the linen is kept wet, by
fprinkling it once a day, the meat would be fo cooled by the
evaporation, carried on continually by means of the pafTmg
air, that it would keep a week or more in the hotteft wea-
ther. Butler and milk might likewife be kept cool, in vef-
fels or bottles covered with wet cloths. A fliallow tray, or
keelcr, fhould be under the frame to receive any water that
might drip from the wetted cloths. I think,, too, that this
property of chimneys might, by means of fmoke-jack vanes,
be applied to fome mechanical purpofes, where a fmall but
pretty conftant power only is wanted.

If you VN^ould have my opinion of the caufe of this chang-
ing current of air in chimneys, it is, in lliort, as follows.
In fummer time there is generally a great difference in the
warmth of the air at mid-day and midnight, and, of courfe,
a difference of fpecific gravity in the air, as the more it is
warmed the more it is rarefied. The funnel of a chimney
being for the mofl part fijrrounded by the houfe, is pro-
tected, in a great meafure, from the dire£t adtion of the
fun's rays, and alfo from the coldnefs of the night air. It
thence preferves a middle temperature between the heat of
the day, and the coldnefs of the night. This middle tem-
perature it communicates to the air contained in it. If
the ftate of the outward air be cooler than that in the fun-
nel of the chimney, it will, by being heavier, force it to
rife, and go out at the top. What fupplies its place from
below, being warmed, in its turn, by the warmer funnel,
is likewife forced up by the colder and weightier air below,
and fo the current is continued till the next day, when the
fun gradually changes the ftate of the outward air, makes
it firft as warm as the funnel of the chimney can make it,
(when the current begins to hefitate) and afterwards warm-
er. Then the funnel being cooler than the air that comes
into it, cools that air, makes it heavier than the outward
air, of courfe it defcends; and what fucceeds it from a-
bove, being cooled in its turn, the defcending current con-
tinues

32 APPENDIX.

tinues till towards evening, when it again hefitates and
-changes its courfe, from the change of warmth in the '
outward air, and the nearly remaining fame middle tem-
perature in the funnel.

Upon this principle, if a houfe were built behind Beacoii-
^h'llU an adit carried from one of the doors into the hill ho-
rizontally, till it met with a perpendicular fliaft funk from
its top, it feems probable to me, that thofe who lived in the-
houfe,, would conftantly, in the heat even of the calmeft
day, have as much cool air paffing through the houfe, as
they fliould chufe; and the fame, though reverfed in its.
current, during the ftilleft night.

I think, too, this property might be made of ufe to mi-
ners ; as where feveral fhafts or pits are funk perpendicu-
larly into the earth, communicating at bottom by horizon-
tal pafTages, which is a common cafe, if a chimney of thirty
or forty feet high were built over one of the fhafts, or fo
near the fhaft, that the chimney might communicate with
the top of the fhaft, all air being excluded but what fhould
pafs up or down by the fhaft, a conftant change of air
would, by this means, be produced in the paffages below,
tending to fecure the workmen from thofe damps which
fo frequently incommode them. For the frelh air would
be almoft always going down the open fhaft, to go up the
chimney, or down the chimney to go up the fhaft. Let
me add one obfervation more, which is, that if that part
of the funnel of a chimney, which appears above the
roof of a houfe, be pretty long, and have three of its fides
expofed to the heat of the fun fuccelFively, viz, when he is
in the eaft, in the fouth, and in the weft, a\ hile the north
fide is fheltcred by the building from the cool northerly
winds ; fuch a chimney will often be fo heated by the
fun, as to continue the draft ftrongly upwards, through the
whole twenty four hours, and often for many days toge-
ther. If the outfide of fuch a chimney be painted black,
ihc effedl will be ftill greater, and the current ftrongcr.

N^ IlL

■,v*

APPENDIX. 33

N° III.

T T is fald the northern Chinefe have a method of warm-
ing their ground floors, which is in^'cnious. Thole
floors are made of tile a foot fquare and two inches thick,
their corners being fupported by bricks fet on end, that
are a foot long and four inches fquare, the tiles, too, join
into each other, by ridges and hollows along their fides.
This forms a hollow under the whole floor, which on one
fide of the houfe has an opening into the air, where a fire
is made, and it has a funnel riling from the other fide to
carry off^ the fmoke. The fuel is a fulphurous pitcoal,
the imell of which in the room is thus avoided, while the
floor and of courfe the room is well warmed. But as the
underfide of the floor muft grow foul with foot, and a thick
coat of foot prevents much of the dire£t application of the
hot air to the tiles, I conceive that burning the fmoke by
obliging it to defcend through red coals, would in this
conftru^ion be very advantageous, as more heat would be
given by the flame than by the fmoke, and the floor be-
ing thereby kept free from foot would be more heated
with lefs fire. For this purpofe I would propofe ereding
the funnel clofe to the grate, fo as to have only an iron
plate between the fire and the funnel, through which plate
the air in the funnel being heated, it will be fure to draw
well, and force the fmoke to defcend, as in the figure
fiTrc' where A is the funnel or chimney, B the grate on
which the fire is placed, C one of the apertures
through which the defcending fmoke is drawn into the chan-
nel D of figure lo, along which channel it is conveyed by a
circuitous rout, as defignated by the arrows, until it ar-
rives at the fmall aperture E, figure lo, through which it
enters the funnel F. G in both figures is the iron plate
againft which the fire is made, which being heated there-
by, will rarefy the air in that part of the funnel, and caufe
the fmoke to afcend rapidly. The flame thus dividing
E from

34 APPENDIX.

from the grate to the right and left, and turning in paf-
fages difpofed, as in figure 13, fo as that every part of the
floor may be vifited by it before it enters the fuTinel F, by
the two paflages E E, very little of the heat will be loft,,
and a winter room thus rendered very comfortable..

N° IV.

pAGE 8. Few can imagine, &c. It is faid the Ice-
landers have very little fuel, chiefly drift wood that
comes upon their coaft. To receive more advantage from
its heat, they make their doors low, and have a ftage round
the room above the door, like a gallery, wherein the wo-
men can fit and work, the men read or write, &c. The
roof being tight, the warm air is confined by it and kept
from rifing higher and efcaping ; and the cold air which
enters the houfe when the door is opened, cannot rife
above the level of the top of the door, becaufe it is hea-
vier than the warm air above the door, and fo thofe in the
gallery are not incommoded by it. Some of our too lofty
rooms might have a ftage fo conftrufted as to make a tem-
porary gallery above, for the winter, to be taken away in
fummer. Sedentary people would find much comfort
there in cold weather.

N° V.

p AGE 26. Where they have the art of managing it, &c.
In fome houfes of the lower people among the northern
nations of Europe, and among the poorer fort of Germans
in Pennfylvania, I have obfcrved this conftruftion, which
appears very advantageous. A is the kitchen with its chim-
ney; B an iron ftove in the ftove-room. In a corner
r^ure'ii '^^ ^^^^ chimney is a hole through the back into the
ftove, to put in fuel, and another hole above it to let
the fiiiokeof the ftove come back into the chimney. As foon
as the cooking is over, the brands in the kitchen chimney are

put

APPENDIX.

BS

put through the hole to fupply the ftove, fo that there is
feldom more than one fire burning at a time. In the floor
over the ftove-room, is a fmall trap door, to let the warm
air rife occafionally into the chamber. Thus the whole
houfe is warmed at little expence of wood, and the ftove-
room kept conftantly warm ; fo that in the coldeft winter
nights, they can work late, and find the room ftill com-
fortable when they rife to work early. An Englifh farm-
er in America who makes great fires in large open chim-
neys, needs the conftant employment of one man to cut
and haul wood for fupplying them ; and the draft of cold
air to them is fo ftrong, that the heels of his family are
frozen while they are fcorching their faces, and the room
Is never warm, fo that little fedentary work can be done
by them in winter. The difference in this article alone
of oeconomy, fhall, in a courfe of years, enable the Ger-
man to buy out the Englifliman, and take pofleffion of
his plantation.

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS.

^HIMNEYS whofe funnels go up in the north wall of
a houfe and are expofed to the north winds, are not fo
apt to draw well as thofe in a fouth wall ; becaufe when
rendered cold by thofe winds, they draw downwards.

Chimneys enclofed in the body of a houfe are better than
thofe whofe funnels are expofed in cold walls.

Chimneys in ftacks are apt to draw better than feparate
funnels, becaufe the funnels that have conftant fires in
them, warm the others in fome degree that have none.

One of the funnels in a houfe I once occupied, had a parti-
cular funnel joined to the fouth fide of the ftack, fo that three
of its fides were expofed to the fun in the courfe of the day,
viz. the eaft fide E during the morning, the fouth fide
r'grae'ij. "^ ^^ ^^^ middle part of the day, and the weft fide W"
during the afternoon, while its north fide was fhelter-
E 2 ed

36 APPENDIX.

ed by the flack from the cold winds. This funnel, which
came from the ground floor, and had a confiderable heightL
above the roof, was conftantly in a ftrong drawing ftate
day and night, winter and fummer.

Blacking of funnels expofed to the fun, would probably
make them draw ftill ftronger.

In Paris I faw a fire-place fo ingenioufly contrived as to

ferve conveniently two rooms, a bedchamber and a ftudy.

The funnel over the fire was round. The fire-place was

of caft iron, having an upright back A, and two ho-

piate I. rizontal femicircular plates B C, the whole fo order-

ligure 13. -T _ '^

ed as to turn on the pivots D E. The plate B al-
ways flopped that part of the round funnel that was next
to the room without fire, while the other half of the fun-
nel over the fire was always open. By this means a fervant
in the morning could make a fire on the hearth C, then in
the fludy, without difturbing the mafter by going into his
chamber ; and the mafter when he rofe, could with a touch
of his foot turn the chimney on its pivots, and bring the
fire into his chamber, keep it there as long as he wanted
it, and turn it again when he went out into his ftudy. The
room which had no fire in it, was alfo warmed by the heat
coming through the back plate, and fpreading in the room,
as it could not go up. the chimney.

Explanation

[ 37 ]
N° II.

Explanation of an Optical Deception,

BY D. R I T T E N H O U S E.

Read March

\

1^80* C OME experiments were long ago commu-
^^ nicated to the Royal Society of London,,
fhewing, that through the double microfcope, the furfaceS
of bodies fometimes appear to be reverfed, that is, thofe
parts which are elevated feem depreffed, and the contrary.
But the caufe of this appearance, for any thing I know,
remains ftill to be explained.

In order to produce this effedl, no other apparatus is
neceflary than two convex lenfes placed in a tube, at a
diftance from each other nearly equal to the fum of their
focal diftances.. Through thefe glafles, objects that appear
diftindtly, always appear inverted ; for they are not feea
diredly, but by means of an image formed either between
the two glafles, or between both of them and the eye.

If we look through fuch glaflTes at cornifhes, pidlure
frames and other mouldings in carpenters work, and fome
forts of carved work, thofe parts which are raifed general-
ly appear depreflfed, and thofe parts which are deprefled:
appear raifed. But a very ready object, and which fuc-
ceeds as well as any thing I know of, is a brick pave-
ment ; whether it be a chimney-hearth, or pavement out
of doors. Viewed through the tube above defcribed, every
little cavity in the bricks, and the chinks between them,
almoft always appear to be fo many elevations above the
furface of the bricks.

When I confidered this odd appearance, the firft pro-
bable calife that offered was, that thofe parts of the object
which are funk, and fartheft from the eye, might have
their correfpondent parts of the image formed by the glaf-
fes nearell to the eye, and therefore would appear raifed.

But

%

38 EXPLANATION of an

Eut this is not the cafe ; for thofe parts which are fartheft
from the eye in the objedt, will always be fartheft from
the eye in the image, and often in a much greater propor-
tion. After fome time I concluded it to be a neceffary
confequencc of the apparent inverfion of the objecSt ; and
many things tended to confirm me in this opinion, before
I made the experiments which feem perfectly decifive.

It has often been matter of furprize to me, when view-
ing the moon through a good telefcope, in company with
perfons not accuftomed to fuch obfervations, that whilft
the cavities and eminences of the moon's furface appeared
to me marked out with the utmoft certainty by their light
and (hades, my companions generally conceived it to be
a plain furface of various degrees of brightnefs. The rea-
fon I fuppofe to be this ; the aftronomer knows from the
moon's fituation with refpedl to the fun, and even from
the figure of its enlightened part, precifely in what direc-
tion the light falls on its furface, and therefore judges
rightly of its hills and vallies, from their different degrees
of light, according to thofe rules which are imperceptibly
formed in the mind, and confirmed by long experience.
But a perfon unacquainted with aftronomy knows nothing
of the dire(£tion of the fun's light on the moon, nor does
he attend to the moon's globular figure, and is befides,
perhaps, poffeffed with a notion of its being felf-luminous ;
no wonder then that the fame object has a very different
effedl on his imagination. It feems to be thofe rules of
judging, which we begin to form in our earlieft infancy,
which we fet afide, re-eftablifli, alter, correct and confirm,
and at length rely on with the utmoft confidence, even
without knowing that we do fo, or that we have any fuch
rules : It is thefe rules, of fuch infinite general ufe to us,
that fometimes millead us on new and extraordinary oc-
cafions, and particularly in the cafe now before us. A
perfon entering into a room perceives, at a finglc glance,
■whence the light comes which illuminates the objeds be-
fore

OPTICAL DECEPTION. 351

fore him ; and that without remaining confcious for a mo-
ment that he has attended to this circumftance : But the
effeft remains, and will intluence his judgment. If on
looking at a brick hearth he perceives that thofe lines which
divide the bricks have a dark fhade on that fide oppofite
to the light, and a bright ftreak on the contrary fide next
to the light, he muft at the fame time perceive that they
have the property which he has conftantly obferved in
ridges, not in furrows. And fince the appearance ot the
hearth will be fuch, through the glaiTes, in confequence of
their inverting the fituation of its feveral parts, with refpedt
to the light, the obferver will inftantly pronounce the chinks
between the bricks, and every little cavity in them, to be
fo many perfedl elevations above the common furface, nor
can any effort of the mind correct the imagination or alter
the appearance

Though I was well fatisfied of the truth of this expla-
nation, I refolved neverthelefs to bring it to the teft of ex-
periment, which I did in the following manner.

In order to give my experiment fair play, I Ihut all the
windows of my chamber excepting one diredtly oppofite
to the chimney. I then took the tube, with two convex
glaffes, and looking through it at the hearth, all the bricks
appeared depreffed and the clefts between them elevated,
as ufual. I then placed a looking-glafs againft the chim-
ney back, fo that it reflected the light from the window
upon the hearth, and fet up a finall board before the hearth
to intercept the dire£t light of the window from it. Then
looking at the hearth through the glafles, I was much
pleafed to find it appear in its natural ftate, with the bricks
elevated. I then fat down on a chair at the edge of the
hearth, and looking through the tube which I held to my
eye with one hand, whilfl with the other I moved the
board fo as to make it fometimes intercept the direct light
of the window, and at other times the reflefted light of
the looking-glafs, I conftantly found that when the hearth

was.

40 EXPLANATION of an

was illuminated by reflefted light, it appeared in its na-
tural ftate, and when illuminated by the diredt light, in its
unnatural ftate ; for fo I call it when the bricks appear de-
prefled and the chinks between them elevated.

I then confidered that fince the hearth appeared in its
natural ftate by refledied light, and in its unnatural ftate
by dire£t light, only in confequence of the inverting pro-
perty of the glalTes, the appearance ought to be diredlly
the contrary when it was viewed v/ith the naked eye. And
accordingly I found, upon taking out both of the glaffes,
and looking through the open tube, that the hearth ap-
peared as perfectly, and as conftantly in its unnatural ftate
by reflected light, and in its natural ftate by dire£t light, as
it had before done the reverfe through the glaftes. But it
muft be obferved that fomething like a tube is neceflary to
confine the fight from other adjoining objedls, which not
being in the fame circumftances would otherwife corre(3:
the imagination.

If we look through fuch a tube and glafles at the hearth
or other objeit, fuppofe a piece of chocolate, the furrows
in it appear fo many ridges, on removing the tube they
fink into furrows, on applying it they again rife into ridges,
and the illufion might perhaps be repeated a thoufand
times, without the mind being at all able to conceive the
object to appear through the tube like what it really is.
But if whilft you arc looking through the tube, and the
obje£t appears in its unnatural ftate, that is, when its fur-
rows appear ridges, you apply your finger and feel that
they really are furrows, the deception vaniflies in a mo-
ment and the objedl appears in its natural ftate. This I
at firft fuppofed to arife from the fuperlor confidence which
we have in the fenfe of touching, as knowing by experi-
ence that this fenfe more perfedlly reprcfcnts the figure of
bodies than the fight does. But I was, at leaft in part,
miftaken. For if whilft you fee the objedt in its unnatu-
ral ftate, another perfon puts Jiis finger to the part you are

lookin":

OPTICAL DECEPTION. 41

looting at, the deception vanifhes as well as in the former
■cale. The application of a writing pen or pencil will pro-
■duce the fame effeft. And, which is very remarkable,
after the mind has been undeceived by thefe means once
or twice, it does not readily admit of the impofition again:
Though, as I obferved before, if it be done by removing
the glaffes, the deception will return again as often as you
pleafe. The truth feems to be, that the mind chufes the
leaft difficulty; and though in confequence of the judg-
ment it has formed concerning the dire£tion of the light,
it will fubmit to fuch a fmall impofition as to fuppofe one
piece of chocolate may have ridges where others ufually
have furrows, when indeed it has not, yet it will not rea-
dily endure fuch a grofs one, as to fuppofe it to have cavities
of the figure and colour of a finger or a writing pen. Or
perhaps the vifible motion attending fuch application pro-
duces the principal effed in convincing the mind that thofe
bodies are really elevated*, and then their fhades and mo-
difications of the light, fhew in what diredion it falls on
them; and the miftake of the mind in that particular be-
ing redified, the whole objedt muft aflume its natural ap-
pearance.

The explanation I have given of this phenomenon will
account for an odd circumftance mentioned (I think) by-
Mr. Short ; which once appeared fo whimfical to me as nei-
ther to merit credit or attention. Mr, Short carefully ex-
amined the Caffegrain telefcope, and in all probability fet
it by the fide of one of the Gregorian form, in order to de-
termine its comparative merits: He gives the preference
to the Gregorian, and mentions as a principal defeft of the
Caffegrain telefcope, that it reprefents the mountains in the
moon as vallies, and the contrary. I doubt not but this,
F otherwife

• Whilfl: I was making thefe experiments, I thought of a canned filver flioe buckle, as a very
proper objecfl to prevent a deception of this fort from taking place. But placing it on a brick
pavement, and looking at it through the glaffes, it neverthelefs appeared perfetlly depreffed.
Precifely as if you had taken a buckle and ilrcvving on it a white (hining powder, had prcffed
it into the brick whilft foft, and then removing the bui:kie, the glittering powder had remained
iu the imprelTiou.

+2 DESCRIPTION OF the^

otherwire unaccountable appearance, was occafion^d intire-^
•ly by its inverting the objedl, for the reafbns above given*
If it be alked, why then do not the common long refrac-
tors, which generally invert, produce the fame decepti-
on? I anfwer, very probably they would do fo if fet befide
a Gregorian refledior and the eye applied alternately to the
one and to the other*.

N° III.
Defcription of the White Mountains in Neiv-Hampjhire^

By the Rev. JEREMY BELKNAP of New-Hampshire.

Readoa. f I ^HE white mountains in the northern part
X of New-Hamp{hire have, from the earl left
fettlement of the country, attracted the attention of all
forts of perfons. They are undoubtedly the higheft lands
in New-England, and are difcovered in clear weather by
veflels coming on the eaftern coaft, before any other land;
but by reafon of their bright appearance are frequently
miftaken for clouds. They are feen on fhore at the diftancc '
of fixty or eighty miles on the fouth and fouth-eaft fides,
and are faid to be plainly vifible in the neighbourhood of
Quebec. The Indians had a fuperftitious veneration for
them as the habitation of invifible beings, and for this
reafon never ventured to afcend their fummits, and always
endeavoured to difcourage every perfon who attempted it;
From them, and the captives whom they formerly led to
Canada through tlie pafs of thefe mountains, many, fictions
have been propagated through the country which have in
time fwelled to marvellous and incredible ftories; particu-

larlyj

* The above was wriltcu in 1774) when 1 haj no achromatic afironomical tdcfcopc in my
poffcflion,

WHITE MOUNTAINS. 43

larly, It has been reported that carbuncles have been feen
at immenfe heights, and inacceffible fpots which give a
luftre in the night.

Thofe who have attempted to give an account of thefe
mountains, have afcribed th^ir brightnefs to fhining rocks
or white mofs, and the higheft fummit has been reprefent-
ed as inacceffible by reafon of the extreme cold which
threatens to freeze the traveller in the midft of fummer.
They have alfo differed fo widely from each other, and
their accounts have been embellifhed with fo iTiany mar-
vellous circumftances, and on the whole have been fo un-
fatisfadtory, that 1 have long wifhed for an opportunity to
vifit thefe mountains in company with fome gentlemen of
a philofophical turn, furnifhed with proper inftruments
and materials for a full exploration of the phenomena that
might occur. This pleafure I have in part enjoyed the
prefent fummer ; and though the roughnefs of the way
which prevented the ufe of convenient carriages, proved
fatal to fome of our inftruments, and the almoft continual
cloudinefs of the weather while we were in that region
hindered us from making fome obfervations which we in-
tended; yet till a better account can be obtained, I flatter
myfelf that what follows will prove more fatisfadory thaa
any which has yet been publifhed or reported.

The white mountains are the higheft part of a ridge
which extends north-eaft and fouth-weft to an unknown
length. The area of their bafe is an irregular figure fome-
what refembling an ifoceles triangle, whofe longeft ex-
tremity is toward the fouth, and whofe whole circuit can-
not be lefs than fifty miles. The number of fummits
within this area cannot be afcertained at prefent, the coun-
try round them being a thick wildernefs. On the north-
weft fide feven fummits are in plain view, and this is the
greateft number that can be feen at once from any flation
that is cleared of woods. Of thefe, four at leaft are bald.
The higheft of them is on the eaftern fide of the clufter,
F 2 on

44 DESCRIPTION" OF THE

on whicli fide we afcended, having firft gained the height,
of land between the waters of Saco and Amarifcogin rivers,
to which there is a gradual afcent for twelve miles front
the plains of Pigwacket. At this height of land there is
a meadow which was formerly a beaver-pond with a dam
at each end. The water iffues out of a mountain on its
eaftern fide in the form of fprings, and meandering through
the channels of the meadow appears ftagnant in the mid-
dle but dividing its courfe, at the fouth end of the meadow
it runs into Ellis river, a branch of Saco ; and at the north
end into Peabody river, a branch of Amarifcogin. From
this meadow- there is an uninterrupted afcent on a ridge
between two deep gullies to the higheft fummit.

The fides of the mountains are covered with fpruce trees;
the furface is compofed of loofe rocks covered with very
long green mofs, which reaches from rock to rock, and
is in many places fo thick and ftrong as to fupport a man's
weight. This immenfe bed of mofs, fpread over the fur-
face of thefe mountains ferves, as a fpunge to retain the
moifture brought by the clouds and vapors which are con-
tinually rifing and gathering round the mountains ; the
thick growth of fpruce prevents the fun's rays from pene-
trating to exhale it ; fo that there is a conftant fupply of
water to the numberlefs fprings with which this region
abounds, and an unceafing circulation of fluid, the procefs
of which is highly entertaining to the fpeilator ; for no
fooner has a Ihower defcended from the clouds, but the
vapor rifcs from the leaves of the forefl; in innumerable
little columns, which, having gained a certain height in
the atmofphere, colled: and converge toward the moun-
tains, where they cither fall again in Ihowers or are im-
bibed by the mofs and depofited i-nthe crevices of the rocks,
feeking their way to the hard ftratuni or pan which is
impenetrable, and which guides them till they find vent
■ii'i fprings. The fame liquid tribute is daily exhaled from
the rivers, ponds and low grounds, and attraded to the

mountains,.

WHITE MOUNTAINS. 45

mountains, which by thefe means are always replenifhed
with water in every part.

The rocks, of which thefe mountains are compofed, are
in fome parts flate, in others flint, but toward the top a
dark grey ftone, which, when broken, fhovvs fpecks of
ifing-glafs. On the bald parts of the mountains the ftones
are covered with a fhort grey mofs, and at the very fum-
mit the mofs is of a yellowilh colour and adheres firmly
to the rock.

Eight of our company afcended the higheft mountain
on the 24th of July, and were fix hours and fifty one
minutes in gaining the fummit, deducing one hour and
thirty eight minutes for the neceffary flops. The fpruce
and firs, as you afcend, grow fliorter till they degenerate to
Ihrubs and bufhes, then you meet with low vines bearing
a red and a blue berry, and laftly a fort of grafs called
winter grafs mixed with the mofs.

Having afcended the fteepeft precipice, you come to what
is called the plain, where the afcent becomes gentle and
eafy. This plain is compofed of rocks, covered with win-
ter grafs and mofs, and looks like the furface of a dry pafture
or common. In fome openings between the rocks you
meet with water, in others dry gravel. The plain is an
irregular figure, its area uncertain, but from its eaftern
edge to the foot of the fugar-loaf, is upwards of a mile;
on the weftern fide it extends farther. The fugar-loaf is a
pyramidal heap of loofe grey rocks, not lefs than three hun-
dred feet in perpendicular height, but the afcent is not fo
difficult as the precipice below the plain. From this fum--
mit in clear weather is a noble view, extending to the oceans
on the fouth-eaft; to the highlands on the weft and north"
weft, which feparate the waters of Connecticut river from
thofe of lake Champlain and St. Laurence; on the fouth it
extends to Winipifeogee lake, and the highlands fouthward
of Pemigewaflet river,-

U

46 DESCRIPTION of the

It happened unfortunately for our company, that a thick
cloud covered the mountain almoft the whole time that
they were on it, fo that fome of theinftruments which, with
much labor they had carried up, were ufelefs. In the ba-
rometer the mercury ranged at 22.6 inches, in 44 de-
grees of heat by Fahrenheit's thermometer. It was our in-
tention to have placed one of each of thefe inftruments at
the foot of the mountain, at the fame time that others were
carried to the top ; but they were unhappily broken in the
courfe of our journey, and the barometer which was carried
to the furnmit, had fufFered fo much agitation that an allow-
ance was neceffary to be made in calculating the height of
the mountain, which our ingenious companion, the Rev.
Mr. Cutler, of Ipfwich, eftimates in round numbers at 5500
feet above the meadow, the meadow being 3500 feet above
the level of the fea, and this feems to be as low an eftiraa-
tion as can be admitted. We intended to have made a ge-
ometrical menfuration of the altitude, but In one place
where we attempted it, we could not obtain a bafe of fuf-
ficient length, and in another, where this convenience was
removed, we were prevented by the almoft continual ob-
fcurations of the mountains by clouds.

On every fide of thefe mountains are many long wind-
ing gullies, beginning at the precipice below the plain and
deepening in the defcent; they are from one hundred to one
thoufand feet deep, and perhaps more. In winter, the fnow
driving with the north-weft winds over the tops of the
mountains, is lodged in thefe gullies, and forms a compact
body which is not eafily diflblved by the vernal fun. It
is obferved to lie longer on the fouth, than on the north-
weft fides; which is the cafe with moft other hills in this
part of the country. In 1 774 fome men who were at work
on a road under the eaftern fide of the mountain, afcended
to the fummit on the 6th of June, and upon the fouth fide
found a body of fnow thirteen feet deep, and fo hard as to

bear

WHITE MOUNTAINS^ 47

bear them. The man from whom I had this account, and
•vvho had the diredtion of the work, afcended the mountaia
on the 1 9th of June, with fome of the fame party, and in
the fame fpot the fnow was five feet deep. On the 2 2d
of July this year, we were aflTured by perfons who Hve
within plain view of the mountains, on the fouth fide, at
the diftance of fixteen miles, that the fnow had not been
gone more than ten days. We were alfo credibly inform-
ed that two men, who attempted to afcend the mountain
the firft week of September Lift year, found the bald top
fo covered with fnow and ice, then newly made, that they
could not gain the fummit ; but this does not happen every
year fo foon, for the mountain has been afcended fo late as
the firft week in October, when no fnow was upon it; and
fometimes the firft fnows that come diffolve before the
winter fets in ; but generally the mountains begin to be
covered with fnow and ice, either in the latter part of Sep-
tember, or the beginning of October, and it never wholly
leaves them till July. During this period of nine or ten
months, they exhibit more or lefs of that bright appearance,
from which they are denominated ivhite. In the fpring-
when the fnow is partly diflblved, they appear of a pale
blue ftreaked with white; and after it is wholly gone, at the
diftance of forty or fixty miles, they are altogether of a>
pale blue inclining to the colour of the fky; while viewed.
at the diftance of only ten miles, they are of the grey co-
lour of the rock inclining to brown. Thefe changes are
obferved by people who live within conftant view of them,,
and from thefe fadts and obfervations it may juftly be con-
cluded that the whitenefs of them is to be afcribed wholly
to the fiiow and ice and not to any other white fubftance,:
for in reality there is none. There are indeed in the fum—
mer months fome ftreaks which appear brighter than other
parts, but thefe, when viewed through a telefcope, I have
plainly difcerned to be the enlightened edges or fides of
the long deep gullies, and the dark parts the ihaded fidesr

o£

4S DESCRIPTION of the

of them ; and in the courfe of a day thefe fpots may be feen'
to vary according to the pofition of the fun.

It may not be amifs to query here, if fo great a quan-
tity of fnow is accumulated and remains on thefe moun-
tains, may it not be fuppofed to add a keennefs to the
winds which blow over them? Andhowmany more moun-
tains may there be toward the north and weft, whofe hoary
fummits contain the like or greater bodies of fnow and ice,
fome of which, at the remoteft regions, may remain un-
diflblved through the year ? May we not then afcribe the
piercing cold of our north-weft winds to the infinite ranges
of frozen mountains, rather than to the lakes and forefts ?

Thefe immenfe heights which I have been defcribing,
being copioufly replenifhed with water, exhibit a variety
of beautiful cafcades, fome of which fall in a perpendicu-
lar fheet or fpout, others are winding and narrow, others
fpread on the level furface of fome wide rock and then
gufh in catarads over its edge. A romantic imagination
may find full gratification amidft thefe rugged fcenes, if
its ardor be not checked by the fatigue of the approach.
Three of the largeft rivers in New-England receive a great
part of their waters from this region. Amonoofuck and
Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of Connedlicut, fall
from the weftern fide of the mountains, Peabody river and
another branch of Amarifcogin from the north-eaftern fide,
and almoft the whole of Saco defcends from the fouthern
fide. The declivities being very fteep caufe this latter
river to rife very fuddenly in a time of rain, and as fud-
denly to fubfide.

On the weftern part of thefe mountains is a pafs which
in the narroweft place meafures but twenty two feet be-
tween two perpendicular rocks. Here a road is conftrudt-
ing with great labor and expence, which is the fhorteft
rout to the upper Cohofs on Conne£ticut river, and to that
part of Canada which borders on the river St. Francis. At
the height of this narrow pafs the river Saco takes its rife.

A brook

I

WHITE MOUNT AliNS. 49

A brook defcends from the mountain, and meanders
through a meadow which was formerly a beaver-pond,
and is furrounded by fteep, and on one fide, perpendicular
rocks — a ftrikingly pifturefque fcene ! the rivulet glides
along the weftern fide of the defile, (the eaftern being
formed into a road) and tributary ftre^ms augment ils
v/aters, one of which is called the Flume, from the near
refemblance it bears to the flume of a mill. The pafs be-
tween the mountains widens as you defcend ; but for eight
or ten miles they are fo near as only to leave room for the
river and its intervals. In the courfe of this defcent you
fee at immenfe heights, and in fpots perfectly inaccefTible,
feveral rocks, fome of a whitifh and fome of a reddifh hue,
whofe faces are polifhed by the continual trickling of wa-
ter over them. Thefe, when incrufted with ice, being
open to the fouth and weft, are capable in the night of re-
fledling the moon and ftar-beams to the wondering tra-
veller, buried in the dark valley below ; and thefe are fuf-
ficient, by the help ot imagination, to give rife to the
fiction of carbuncles.

We found no ftones of any higher quality than flint* ;
no limeftone, though we tried the moft likely with aqua
fortis. It is faid there is a part of the mountain where the
magnetic needle refufes to traverfe ; this may contain rock
ore, but our guide could not find the place. It is alfo faid
that a mineral, fuppofed to be lead ore, has been difcover-
ed on the eaftern fide. One of the fprings which we meC
with in our afcent on that fide aff^orded a thick frothy fcum
and a faponaceous tafte. All fearches for fubterranean
treafijres in thefe mountains have as yet proved fruitlefs.
The moft certain riches which they yield are the frelhets
which bring down the foil to the intervals below, and form
a fine mould, producing corn, grain and herbage in the
moft luxuriant plenty.

G Defcription

* Some fpecimcns of rock-chryflal have been found lately by other pcrfons, but we did not
hear of it till after our return.

i so ]

N° IV.

Defcrtption of a remarkable Rock and Cascade, near ths
•wejiern fide of the Toiighiogeny ri'uer, a quarter of a
77nlefrom Cra'Viford''s ferry-, and about tivelve miles from
V nion-To'wnt in Fayette county ■, in the fate of Penn-
fylvanid.

BY THO. HUTCHINS.

f^z8^i"86" T~'HIS cafcade is occafioned by a rock of a fe-
J. micircular form, the chord of which, from
one extreme end of the arch to the other, is nearly one
hundred yards ; the arch or circular part is extenfive, and
upwards of twenty feet in height, exhibiting a grand and
romantic appearance. This very curious produ£tion is
compofed of ftone of variegated colours, and a fpecies of
marble beautifully chequered with veins running in dif-
ferent diredions, prefenting on a clofe infpedtion a faint
refemblance of a variety of mathematical figures of diffe-
rent angles and magnitudes. The operations of nature
in this ftrufture feems to be exceedingly uniform and ma-
jefl-ic ; the layers or rows of ftone of which it is compofed
are of various lengths and thicknefles, more refembling the
efFe(!lls of art than nature. A flat thin ftone from eight to
ten inches thick, about twenty feet wide, forms the upper
part of this amphitheatre, over v/hich the ftream precipi-
tates. The whole front of this rock is made up from top
to bottom, as well as from one extremity of the arch to
the other, of a regular fucccflion, principally, of limeftone,
ftrata over ftrata, and each ftratum or row, projeding in-
an horizontal diredtion a little further out than its bale, un-
til it terminates into one entire flat, thin, extenfive piece,
as already mentioned ; and which jets out at right angles

or

On hygrometers. 51

or in a parallel line with the bottom, over which it im-
pends fifteen or twenty feet, and that without columns or
even a fingle pillar for its fupport. This circumftance,
together with the grand circular walk between the front
of the rock and the fheet of water falling from the fum-
mlt, exhibits fo noble and fingular an appearance, that a
fpedator cannot behold it without admiration and delight.

N° V.

Letter to Mr. Nairne, of London.

Pajfy-, near Paris ^ No'u. 13th, 17S0.

SIR,

^^a8"^iT86 'T'HE qualities hitherto fought in a hygrome-
A ter, or inftrument to difcover the degrees of
moifture and drynefs in the air, feem to have been, an
aptitude to receive humidity readily from a moift air, and
to part with it as readily to a dry air. Different fubftances
have been found to poffefs more or lefs of this quality ;
but when we fhall have found the fubftance that has it in
the greateft perfection, there will ftill remain fome uncer-
tainty in the conclufions to be drawn from the degree
fhown by the inftrument, arifing from the adual ftate of
the inftrument itfelf as to heat and cold. Thus, if two
bottles or veffels of glafs or metal being filled, the one with
cold and the other with hot water, are brought into a room,
the moifture of the air in the room will attach. itfelf in
quantities to the furface of the cold veflel, while if you
adlually wet the furface of the hot veflel, the moifture will
immediately quit it, and be abforbed by the fame air.
And thus in a fudden change of the air from cold to warm,
the inftrument remaining longer cold may condenfe and
abforb more moifture, and mark the air as having become.
G 2 more

S2 Oj; HYGRt) meters.

more humid than it is in reality, and the contrary in a
change from warm to cold.

But if fuch a fuddenly changing inftrument could be
freed from thefe imperfedtions, yet when the defign is to
difcover the different degrees of humidity in the air of dif-
ferent countries, I apprehend the quick fenfibility of the
inftrument to be rather a difadvantage ; fmce, to draw the
defired conclufions from it, a conftant and frequent obfer-
vation day and night in each country will be neceffary for
a year or years, and the mean of each different fet of ob-
iervations is to be found and determined. After all which
fome uncertainty will remain refpedling the different de-
grees of exadlitude with which different perfons may have
made and taken notes of their obfervations.

For thefe reafons, I apprehend that a fubftance which,
though capable of being diftended by moifture and con-
traded by drynefs, is fo flow in receiving and parting with
its humidity that the frequent changes in the atmofphere
have not time to affedt it fenfibly, and which therefore
fhould gradually take nearly the medium of all thofe
changes and preferve it conftantly, would be the mofl: pro-
per fubftance of which to make fuch an hygrometer.

Such an inftrument, you, my dear fir, though without
intending it, have made for me ; and I, without defiring
or expelling it, have received from you. It is therefore
with propriety that I addrefs to you the following account
of it ; and the more, as you have both a head to contrive
and a hand to execute the means of perfeiSing it. And I
do this with greater pleafure, as it affords me the oppor-
tunity of renewing that antient correfpondence and ac-
quaintance with you, which to me was always fo pleafing
and fo inftruftive.

You may poffibly remember, that in or about the year
1758, you made for me a fet of artificial magnets, fix in
number, each five and a half inches long, half an inch
bro^d, and one eio^hlh of an inch tliick. Thefc, with two

pieces

On hygrometers. ^j

pieces of foft iron, which together equalled one of the
magnets, were inclofed in a little box of mahogany wood,
the grain of which ran with, aiVd not acrofs, the length of
the box ; and the box was clofed by a little fliutter of the
fame wood, the grain of which ran acrofs the box ; and
the ends of this fhutting piece were bevelled fo as to fit and
Aide in a kind of dovetail groove when the box was to be
Ihut or opened.

I had been of opinion that good mahogany wood was
not affe£led by moifture fo as to change its dimenfions,
and that it was always to be found as the tools of the
workman left it. Indeed the difference at different times
in the fame cotmtry, is fo finall as to be fcarcely in a com-
mon way obfervable. Hence the box which was made fo
as to allow fufBcient room for the magnets to Hide out and
in freely, and, when in, afforded them fo much play that
by fhaking the box one could make them ftrike the op-
pofite fides alternately, continued in the fame flate all the
time I remained in England, which was four years, with-
out any apparent alteration. I left England in Auguft
1 762, and arrived at F^hiladelphia in Oiftober the fame
year. In a few weeks after my arrival, being defirous of
fhowing your magnets to a philofophical friend, I found
them fo tight in the box, that it was with difficulty I got
them out ; and conftantly during the two years I remain-
ed there, viz. till November 1 764, this difficulty of get-
ting them out and in continued. The little fhutter too,
as wood does not fhrink length ways of the grain, was
found too long to enter its grooves, and not being ufed,
was miflaid and loft ; and I afterwards had another made
that fitted.

In December 1 764 I returned to England, and after fome
time I obi'erved that my box was become full big enough
for my magnets, and too wide for my new fhutter; which
was fo much too Ihort for its grooves, that it was apt to

fiilli

54 On hygrometers.

fall out; and to make it keep in, I lengthened it by adding
to each end a little coat of lealing-wax.

I continued in England more than ten years, and during
all that time after the firft change, I perceived no alteration.
The magnets had the fame freedom in their box, and the
little fliutter continued Awith the added fealing-wax to fit
its grooves, till fome weeks after my fecond return to A-
merica.

As I could not imagine any other caufe for this change
of dimenfions in the box, when in the different countries,
I concluded, firft generally that the air of England was
moifter than that of America. And this I fuppofed an ef-
fe£l of its being an Ifland, where every wind that blew
muft neceflarily pafs over fome fea before it arrived, and
of courfe lick up fome vapour. I afterwards indeed doubt-
ed whether it might be juft only fo far as related to the city
of London, where I refided ; becaufe there are many caufes
of moifture in the city air, which do not exift to the fame
degree in the country ; fuch as the brewers and dyers
boiling caldrons, and the great number of pots and teaket-
tles continually on the fire, fending fourth abundance of
vapour; and alfo the number of animals who by their
breath continually increafe it; to which may be added,
that even the vaft quantity of fea coals burnt there, do in
kindling dlfcharge a great deal of moifture.

When I was in England, the laft time, you alfo made for
me a little achromatic pocket telefcope, the body was brafs,
and it had a round cafe, (I think of thin wood) covered
with Ihagrin. All the while 1 remained in England,
though poffibly there might be fome fmall changes in the
dimenfions of this cafe, I neither perceived nor fufpeded
any. There was always comfortable room for the tele-
fcope to flip in and out. But foon after I arrived in Ame-
rica, which was in May 1775, the cafe became too fmall
for the inftrument, it was with much difliculty and vari-
ous contrivances that I ggt it out, and I could never after

get

On hygrometers. 55

get it in, again, during my ftay there, which was eighteen
months. I brought it with me to Europe, but left the cafe
as ufelefs, imagining that I fhould find the continental air
of France as dry as that of Pennfylvania, where my mag-
net box had alfo returned a fecond time to its narrownefs,
and pinched the pieces, as heretofore, obliging me too, to
fcrape the fealing-wax off the ends of the fliutter.

I had not been long in France, before I was furprifed to
find, that my box was become as large as it had always been
in England, the magnets entered and came out with the fame
freedom, and, when in, I could rattle them againfl its fides ;
this has continued to be the cafe without fenfible variati-
on. My habitation is out of Paris diftant almoft a league,
fo that the moift air of the city cannot be fuppofed to have
much effe£t upon the box. 1 am on a high dry hill in a
free air as likely to be dry as any air in France. Whence
it feems probable that the air of England in general may
as well as that of London, be moifter than the air of Ame-
rica, fince that of France is fo, and in a part fo diftant from
the fea.

The greater drynefs of the air in America appears from
fome other obfervations. The cabinet work formerly fenc
us from London, which confifted in thin plates of fine
wood glued upon fir, never would ftand with us, the van-
cering, as thofe plates are called, would get loofe and come
off; both woods fhrinking, and their grains often croffing,
they were forever cracking and flying. And in my elec-
trical experiments there, it was remarkable, that a maho-
gany table on which my jars ftood under the prime con-
ductor to be charged, would often be fo dry, particularly
when the wind had been fome time at north-weft which
with us is a very drying wind, as to ifolate the jars, and
prevent their being charged till I had formed a communi-
cation between their coatings and the earth. I had a like
table in London which I ufed for the fame purpofe all the
time I refided there; but it was never fo dry as to refufe
condudting the eledricity.. ~ Now

56 On hygrometers.

Now what I would beg leave to recormnend to you, is,
that you would recoiled:, if you can, the fpecies of mahoga-
ny of which you made my box, for you know there is a good
deal of difference in woods that go under that name ; or
if that cannot be, that you would take a number of pieces
of the clofeft and fineft grained mahogany that you can
meet with, plane them to the thinnefs of about a line, and
the width of about two inches acrofs the grain, and fix
each of the pieces in fome inftrument that you can con-
trive, which will permit them to contrail and dilate, and
will {how, in fenfible degrees, by a moveable hand upon
a marked fcale, the otherwife lefs fenfible quantities of fuch
contraction and dilatation. If thefe inftruments are all
kept in the fame place while making, and are graduated
together while fubjeft to the fame degrees of moillure or
drynefs, I apprehend you will have fo many comparable
hygrometers, which being fent into different countries,
and continued there for fome time, will find and Ihow
there the mean of the different drynefs and moifture of the
air of thofe countries, and that with much lefs trouble tharx
by any hygrometer hitherto in ufe.

With great efteem,

I am, dear fir,

Your moft obedient,

And mofl humble fervant,

B. FRANKLIN.

Dffcv'iptlon

\

56 On hygrometers.

Now what I would beg leave to recommend to you, is,
that you would recolle£l, if you can, the fpecies of mahoga-
ny of which you made my box, for you know there is a good
deal of difference in woods that go under that name ; or
if that cannot be, that you would take a number of pieces
of the clofeft and fineft grained mahogany that you can
meet with, plane them to the thinnefs of about a line, and
the width of about two inches acrofs the grain, and fix
each of the pieces in fome inflrument that you can con-
trive, which will permit them to contract and dilate, and
will ihow, in fenfible degrees, by a moveable hand upon
a marked fcale, the otherwife lefs fenfible quantities of fuch
contradiion and dilatation. If thefe inftruments are all
kept in the fame place while making, and are graduated
together while fubje<3; to the fame degrees of moiflure or
drynefs, I apprehend you will have fo many comparable
hygrometers, which being fent into different countries,
and continued there for fome time, will find and Ihow
there the mean of the different drynefs and moifture of the
air of thofe countries, and that with much lefs trouble than
by any hygrometer hitherto in ufe.

With great efteem,

I am, dear fir.

Your mofl obedient,

And moft humble fervant,

B. FRANKLIN.

Dfjciiption

r

Plate

^<fX:'j<dy.,^ /^ \

[ 57 1

N° VI,

Defcription of a netv ^iTOVE for burning of Pit coaU and
confuming all its Smoke,

BY DR. B. FRANKLIN.

S" 8/1786: TOWARDS the end of the laft century an
A ingenious French philofopher, whofe name
I am forry I cannot recoUedt, exhibited an experiment to
fhow that very ofFenfive things might be burnt in the
middle of a chamber, fuch as woollen rags, feathers, &c
without creating the leaft fmoke or fmell. The
machine in which the experiment was made, if I pi'^Jfrii
remember right, was of this form, made of plate
iron. Some clear burning charcoals were put into the
opening of the fhort tube A, and fupported there by the
grate B. The air as foon as the tubes grew warm would
afcend in the longer leg C and go out at D, confequently
air muft enter at A defcending to B. In this courfe it muft
be heated by the burning coals through which it paffed,
and rife more forcibly in the longer tube in proportion to
its degree of heat or rarefad:ion, and length of that tube.
For fuch a machine is a kind of inverted fyphon ; and as
the greater wei[,ht of water in the longer leg of a common
fyphon in defcending is accompanied by an afcent of the
fame fluid in the fhorter ; fo, in this inverted fyphon, the
greater quantity of levity of air in the longer leg, in rifmg
is accompanied by the defcent of air in the fhorter. The
things to be burned being laid on the hot coals at A, the
fmoke muft defcend through thofe coals, be converted into
flame, which, after deftroying the ofFenfive fmell, came
out at the end of the longer tube as mere heated air.

H Whoever

MiMtnttUm^

58 DESCRIPTION of a

Whoever would repeat this experiment with fuccefs,.
mufl; take care that the partA , B, of the fhort tube be quite-
full of burning coals, fo that no part of the fmoke may
defcend and pafs by them without going through them,
and being converted into flame ; and that the longer tube
be fo heated as that the current of afcending hot air is
eftablifhed in it before the things to be burnt are laid on.
the coals ; otherwife there will be a difappointment.

It does not appear either in the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, or Philofophical Tranfa£tions of the Englifli
Royal Society, that any improvement was ever made of
this ingenious experiment, by applying it to ufeful pur-
pofes. But there is a German book, entitled Vulcanus
Fnrmilans, by Joh. George Leutmann, P. D. printed at Wir-
temberg in 1723, which deferibes, among a great variety
of other ftoves for warming rooms, one which feems ta
have been formed on the fame principle, and probably
from the hint thereby given, though the French experi-
ment is not mentioned. This book being fcarce, I have
tranflated the chapter defcribing the ftove, viz.

" Vulcanus Famulans, by John George Leutmann, P. D. .
" Wirtemberg, 1723.

"CHAP. VII.

" On a ftove, which draws downwards.

" Here follows the defcription of a fort of ftove, which
" can eafily be removed and again replaced at pleafure.
*' This drives the fire down under itfelf, and gives no
" fmoke, but however a very unwholefome vapour.

" In the figure, A is an iron veflel like a fun-

ri'urc'jo " '^^^■> ^" diameter at the top about twelve inches,

" at the bottom near the grate about five inches ;

" its height twelve inches^ This is fet on the barrel C,

*' which is ten inches diameter and two feet long, clofed.

" at

N E W S T O V E. 59

" at each end E E. From one end rifes a pipe or flue
•' about four inches diameter, on which other pieces of pipe
" are fet, which are gradually contradled to D, where the
" opening is but about two inches. Thofe pipes muft to-
" gcther be at leaft four feet high. B is an iron grate.
" F F are iron handles guarded with wood, by which the
" ftove is to be lifted and moved. It rtands on three legs'.
" Care muft be taken to flop well all the joints, that no
" fmoke may leak through.

" When this ftove is to be ufed, it muft firft be carried
" into the kitchen and placed in the chimney near the fire.
*' There burning wood muft be laid and left upon its grate
" till the barrel C is w^arm, and the fmoke no longer rifes
" at A, but defcends towards C. Then it is to be carried
" into the room which it is to warm. When once the
" barrel C is warm, frefti wood may be thrown into the
" veflel A as often as one pleafes, the flame defcends and
" without fmoke, which is fo confumed that only a va-
" pour pafles out at D.

" As this vapour is unwholefome, and aff^ects the head,
" one may be freed from it, by fixing in the wall of the
" room an inverted funnel, fuch as people ufe to hang over
" lamps, through which their fmoke goes out as through
" a chimney. This funnel carries out all the vapour cle-
" verly, fo that one finds no inconvenience from it, even
" though the opening D be placed a fpan below the mouth
" of the faid funnel G. The neck of the funnel is better
" when made gradually bending, than if turned in a right
" angle.

" The caufe of the draft downwards in the ftove is the
" preflure of the outward air, which falling into the veflel
" A in a column of twelve inches diameter, finds only
*' a refifting paflage at the grate B, of five inches, and
" one at D, of two inches, which are much too weak
" to drive it back again ; befides, A ftands much higher
*' than B, and fo the preflure on it is greater and more
Ha " forcible,

6o DESCRIPTION of a

" forcible, and beats down the flame to that part where
" it finds the leaft refiftance. Carrying the machine firft
" to the kitchen fire for preparation, is on this account,
" that in the beginning the fire and finoke naturally afcend,
" till the air in the clofe barrel C is made thinner by the
" warmth. When that veffel is heated, the air in it is
" rarefied, and then all the fmoke and fire defcends
" under it.

" The wood fhould be throughly dry, and cut into
" pieces five or fix inches long, to fit it for being thrown
" into the funnel A." Thus far the German book.

It appears to me by Mr. Leutmann's explanation of
the operation of this machine, that he did not underftand
the principles of it, whence I conclude he was not the in-
ventor of it; and by the defcription of it, wherein the
opening at A is made fo large, and the pipe E, D, fo fhort,
I am perfiiaded he never made nor faw the experiment, for
the firft ought to be much finaller and the laft much higher,,
or it hardly will fiacceed. The carrying it in the kitchen,
too, every time the fire fhould happen to be out, muft be fo
troublefome, that it is not likely ever to have been in prac-
tice, and probably has never been fhown but as a philofo-
phical experiment. The funnel for conveying the va-
pour out of the room, would befides have been uncertain
in its operation, as a wind blowing againfl its mouth would
drive the vapour back.

The ftove I am about to defcribe, was alfo formed on
the idea given by the French experiment, and completely
carried into execution before I had any knowledge of the
German invention; which I wonder fliould remain fo many
years in a country where men are fo ingenious in the ma-
nagement of fire, without receiving long fince the im-
provements I have given it.

Description^

N E W S T O V E. 6r

Description of the Parts.

A, the bottom plate which lies flat upon the
hearth, with its partitions 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, that p'^'i.e'z
are caft with it, and a groove Z Z, in which are to
Aide, the bottom edges of the fmall plates Y, Y, figure 1 2 ;
which plates meeting at X clofe the front.

B I, figure 3, is the cover plate fhowing its under fide,
with the grooves i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, to receive the top edges
of the partitions that are fixed to the bottom plate. It
fhows alfo the grate W W, the bars of which are caft in
the plate, and a groove V V, which comes right over the
groove Z Z, figure 2, receiving the upper edges of the
fmall Aiding plates Y Y, figure 12.

B 2, figure 4, {hows the upper fide of the fame plate,,
with a fquare impreffion or groove for receiving the bot-
tom mouldings T T T T of the three fided box C, figure
5, which is caft in one piece.

D, figure 6, its cover, fhowing its under fide with grooves
to receive the upper edges S S S of the fides of C, figure
5, alfo a groove R, R, which when the cover is put on
comes right over another QJ^^in C, figure 5, between
which it is to Aide.

E, figure 7, the front plate of the box.

P, a hole three inches diameter through the cover D, fi-
gure 6, over which hole ftands the vafe F, figure 8, which;
has a correfponding hole two inches diameter through its
bottom.

The top of the vafe opens at O, O, O, figure 8, and turns
back upon a hinge behind when coals are to be put in; the
vafe has a grate within at N N of caft iron H, figure 9, and
a hole in the top one and a half inches diameter to admit air,
and to receive the ornamental brafs guilt flame M, figure
10, which ftands in that hole and, being itfelf hollow and
open, fuff"ers air to pafs through it to the fire.

G, figure 1 1, is a drawer of plate iron, that flips in be-
tween in the partitions 2 and 3, figure 2, to receive the

falling.

62 DESCRIPTION of a

falling afhes. It is concealed when the fmall Aiding plates
Y Y, figure 12, are fhut together.

I, I, I, I, figure 8, is a niche built of brick in the chim-
ney and plaftered. It clofes the chimney over the vafe, but
leaves two funnels one in each corner communicating with
the bottom box K K, figure 2.

Dimensions of the Parts.

Feet. In.

Front of the bottom box, - - * 20

Height of its partitions, - - o 4I

Length of N° i? 2, 3 and 4, each, - 13

Length of N° 5 and 6, each - - o 8-^
Breadth of the paflage between N ° 2 and 3, o 6
Breadth of the other paflages each, - o 31

Breadth of the grate, - - o 6|.

Length of ditto, - - -08

Bottom moulding of box C, fquare, - 10

Height of the fides of ditto, - - 04

Length of the back fide, - - 010

Length of the right and left fides, each, - o 91.
Length of the front plate E, where longeft, on
The cover D, fquare, • - - 012

Hole in ditto, diameter, - -03

Sliding plates Y Y their length, each, -10

■ their breadth, each, - o 4I

Drawer G, its length, - - - 10

—breadth, - - - 05^

— depth, - _ _ 04

depth of its further end, only, o i

Grate H in the vafe, its diameter to the extre-
mity of its knobs, - - - o 5|.
Thicknefs of the bars at top, - - 00^

at bottom, Icfs, -00

Depth of the bars at the top, - - 00'-
Height of the vafe, - - -16

Diameter of the opening O, O, in the clear, o 8

Diameter

N E W S T O V E. 6j

Feet. In.

Diameter of the air-hole at top, - - o ii
of the flame hole at bottom, -02

To jix this Machine.

Spread mortar on the hearth to bed the bottom plate A»
then lay that plate, level, equally diftant from each jamb,,
and projecting out as far as you think proper. Then put-
ing fome Windfor loam in the grooves of the cover B, lay
that on : Trying the Aiding plates Y Y, to fee if they move
freely in the groves Z Z, V V, defigned for them.

Then begin to build the niche, obferving to leave the
fquare corners of the chimney unfilled ; for they are to be
funnels. And obferve alfo to leave a free open communi-
cation between the paflages at K K, and the bottom of
thofe funnels, and mind to clofe the chimney above the
top of the niche, that no air may pafs up that vpay. The
concave back of the niche will reft on the circular iron par-
tition I A 4, figure 2, then with a little loam put on the
box C over the grate, the open fide of the box in front.

Then, with loam in three of its grooves, the groove R R
being left clean, and brought dire£tly over the groove QjC^
in the box, put on the cover D, trying the front plate E,
to fee if it Aides freely in thofe grooves.

Laftly, fet on the vafe, which has fmall holes in the.
moulding of its bottom to receive two iron pins that rife
out of the plate D at I I, for the better keeping it fteady.

Then putting in the grate H, which refts on its three,
knobs H H H againft the infide of the vafe, and Aipping
the drawer into its place ; the machine is fit for ufe.

To ufe it.

Let the firft fire be made after eight in the evening or/
before eight in the morning, for at thofe times and be-
tween thofe hours all night, there is ufiially a draft up a
chimney, though it has long been without fire; but be-
tween thofe hours in the day there is often in a cold chim-
ney

64 DESCRIPTION of a

ney a draft downwards, when if you attempt to kindle a
fire, the fmoke will come into the room.

But to be certain of your proper time, hold a flame over
the air-hole at the top. If the flame is drawn ftrongly
down for a continuance, without whiffling, you may be-
^in to kindle a fire.

Firft put in a few charcoals on the grate H. *

Lay fome fmall flicks on the charcoals,

Lay fome pieces of paper on the flicks,

Kindle the paper with a candle,

Then fhut down the top, and the air will pafs down
through the air-hole, blow the flame of the paper down
through the flicks, kindle them, and their flame parting
lower, kindles the charcoal.

When the charcoal is well kindled, lay on it the fea-
coals, obferving not to choak the fire by putting on too
much at firft.

The flame defcending through the hole in the bottom
of the vafe, and that in plate D into the box C paflTes down
farther through the grate W W in plate B i, then paiTes
horizontally towards the back of the chimney ; there di-
viding, and turning to the right and left, one part of it
paflTes round the far end of the partition 2, then coming
forward it turns round the near end of partition i, then
moving backward it arrives at the opening into the bottom
of one of the upright corner funnels behind the niche,
through which it afcends into the chimney, thus heating
that half of the box and that fide of the niche. The other
part of the divided flame pafl"es round the far end of par-
tition 3, round the near end of partition 4, and fo into
and up the other corner funnel, thus heating the other
half of the box, and the other fide of the niche. The vale
itfelf, and the box C will alio be very hot, and the air
furrounding them being heated, and rifing, as it cannot
get into the chimney, it fprcads in the room, colder air

fuccceding

N E W S T O V E. 65

fucceeding Is warmed in its turn, rifes and fpreads, till by
the continual circulation the whole is warmed.

If you fhould have occafion to make your firft fire at
hours not to convenient as thofe above mentioned, and
when the chimney does not draw, do not begin it in the
vafe, but in one or more of the paflages of the lower plate,
firft covering the mouth of the vafe. After the chimney
has drawn a while with the fire thus low, and begins to
be a little warm, you may clofe thofe paflages and t indie
another fire in the box C, leaving its Aiding fhutter a little
open ; and when you find after fome time that the chim-
ney being warmed draws forcibly, you may fhut that paf-
fage, open your vafe, and kindle your fire there, as above
diredled. The chimney well warmed by the firft day's
fire will continue to draw conftantly all winter, if fires are
made daily.

You will, in the management of your fire, have need of
the following implements :

A pair of fmall light tongs, twelve or fifteen inches
long, plate II, figure 13.

A light poker about the fame length with a flat broad
point, figure 14.

A rake to draw aflies out of the paflages of the low-
er plate, where the lighter kind efcaping the afh-box
will gather by degrees, and perhaps once in a week or ten
days require being removed, figure 15.

And a fork with its prongs wide enough to flip on the
neck of the vafe cover, in order to raife and open it when
hot, to put in frefli coals, figure 16.

In the management of this ftove there are certain pre-
cautions to be obferved, at firft with attention, till they
become habitual. To avoid the inconvenience of fmoke,
fee that the grate H be clear before you begin to light a
frefh fire. If you find it clogged with cinders and aflies,
turn it up with your tongs and let them fall upon the grate
below i the aflies will go through it, and the cinders may
I be

66 DESCRIPTION OF A

be raked off and returned into the vafe when you would
burn them. Then fee that all the Aiding plates are in their
places and clofe fliut, that no air may enter the ftove but
through the round opening at the top of the vafe. And
to avoid the inconvenience of duft from the afhes, let the
afli-drawer be taken out of the room to be emptied ; and
when you rake the pafTages, do it when the draft of the
air is ftrong inwards, and put the afhes carefully into the
afh-box, that remaining in its place.

If being about to go abroad, you would prevent your
fire burning in your abfence, you may do it by taking the
brafs flame from the top of the vafe, and covering the
paffage with a round tin plate, which will prevent the en-
try ot more air than barely fufficient to keep a few of the
coals alive. When you return, though fome hours abfent,
by taking off the tin plate and admitting the air, your fire
will loon be recovered.

The effeft of this machine, well managed, is to burn
not only the coals, but all the fmoke of the coals, fo that
while the fire is burning, if you go out and obferve the
top of your chimney, you will fee no fmoke ifluing, nor
any thing but clear warm air, which as ufual makes the
bodies feen through it appear waving.

But let none imagine from this, that it may be a cure
for bad or fmoky chimneys, much lefs, that as it burns
the fmoke it may be ufed in a room that has no chimney.'
'Tis by the help of a good chimney, the higher the better,
that it produces its effe<£t; and though a flue of plate iron
fufficiently high might be raifed in a very lofty room, the
management to prevent all difagreeable vapour would be
too nice for common pradice, and fmall errors would have
unpleafing confequences.

It is certain that clean iron yields no ofl^enfive fmell
when heated. Whatever of that kind you perceive, ^.here
there are iron ftoves, proceeds tliercforc from fome foul-
iicfs burning or fuming on their furface. They fliould

therefore

NEW STOVE. ^^

therefore never be fpit upon, or greafed, nor flioulcl any
duft be fuffcred to lie upon them. But as the greatefl care
■will not always prevent thefe things, it is well once a
■week to wafh the ftove with foap lees and a brufli, rinfing
it with clean water.

The Advantages of this Stove.

1. The chimney does not grow foul, nor ever need
fweeping; for as no fmoke enters it, no foot can form in it.

2. The air heated over common fires inftantly quits the
room and goes up the chimney with the fmoke; but
in the ftove, it is obliged to defcend in flame and pafs
through the long winding horizontal paffages, communi-
cating its heat to a body of iron plate, which having thus
time to receive the heat, communicates the fame to the air
of the room, and thereby warms it to a greater degree.

3. The whole of the fuel is confume d by beingturned
into flame, and you have the benefit of its heat, whereas
in common chimneys a great part goes away in fmoke
which you fee as it rifes, but it aff^ords you no rays of
warmth. One may obtain fome notion of the quantity of
fuel thus wafted in fmoke, by refledting on the quantity
of foot that a few weeks firing will lodge againft the fides
of the chimney, and yet this is formed only of thofe par-
ticles of the column of fmoke that happen to touch the fides
in its afcent. How much more muft have pafl^ed off^ in
the air ? And we know that this foot is ftill fuel ; for it
will burn and flame as fuch, and when hard caked toge-
ther is indeed very like and almoft as folid as the coal it
proceeds from. Thedeftru£lion of your fuel goes on near-
ly in the fame quantity whether in fmoke or in flame : but
there is no comparifon in the difi^erence of heat given.
Obferve when frefh coals are firft put on your fire, what a
body of fmoke arifes. This fmoke is for a long time too
cold to take flame. If you then plunge a burning candle
into it, the candle inftead of inflaming the fmoke will in-

I 2 ftantly

68 DESCRIPTION of a

ftantly be itfelf extinguiflied. Smoke muft have a certain;
degree of heat to be inflammable. As foon as it has ac-
quired that degree, the approach of a candle will inflame
die whole body, and you will be very fenfible of the dif-
ference of the heat it gives. A ftill eafier experiment may
be made with the candle itfelf. Hold your hand near the
fide of its flame, and obferve the heat it gives ; then blow-
it out, the hand remaining in the fame place, and obferve
what heat may be given by the fmoke that rifes from the
ftill burning fnuff^. You will find it very little. And yet
that fmoke has in it the fubftance of fo much flame, and
will inftantly produce it, if you hold another candle above
it fo as to kindle it. Now the fmoke from the frefh coals
laid on this ftove, inftead of afcending and leaving the fire
while too cold to burn, being obliged to defcend through
the burning coals, receives among them that degree of
heat which converts it into flame, and the heat of that
flame is communicated to the air of the room, as above
explained.

4. The flame from the frefh coals laid on in this ftove,
defcending through the coals already ignited, preferves
them long from confuming, and continues them in the
ftate of red coals as long as the flame continaes that fur-
rounds them, by which means the fires made in this ftove
are of much longer duration than in any other, and fewer
coals are therefore neceflary for a day. This is a very
material advantage indeed. That flame ftiould be a kind
of pickle, to preferve burning coals from confuming, may
feem a paradox to many, and very unlikely to be true, as
it appeared to me the firft time I obferved the fa£t. I muft
therefore relate the circuraftances, and iliall mention an
eafy experiment, by which my reader may he in pofl'cflion
of every thing neceflary to the undcrftanding of it. In
the firft trial I made of this kind of ftove, which was con-
ftruiled of thin plate iron, I had inftead of the vafc a kind
of inverted pyramid like a mill-hopper ; and fearing at

firft

NEW STOVE. 6g

firft that the fmall grate contained in it might be clogged
by cynders, and the paflage of the flame fometimes ob-
flruded, I ordered a Uttle door near the grate, by means
of which I might on occafion clear it. Though after the
ftove was made, and before I tried it, I began to think
this precaution fuperfluous, from an imagination, that the
flame being contraSed in the narrow part where the grate
was placed, would be more powerful in confuming what
it fhould there meet with, and that any cynders between
or near the bars would be prefently deftroyed and the paf-
fage opened. After the ftove was fixed and in adlion, I
had a pleafure now and then in opening that door a little,
to fee through the crevice how the flame defcended among
the red coals, and obferving once a fmgle coal lodged on
the bars in the middle of the focus, a fancy took me to
obferve by my watch in how fliort a time it would be con-
fumed. I looked at it long without perceiving it to be at
all diminifhed, which furprifed me greatly.. At length it
occurred to me, that I and many others had feen the fame
thing thoufands of times, in the confervation of the red
Goal formed in the fnuff of a burning candle, which while
cnvelloped in flame, and thereby prevented from the con-
tact of palling air, is long continued and augments inftead
of diminifhing, fo that we are often obliged to remove it
by the fnuflers, or bend it out of the flame into the air,
where it confumes prefently to afhes. I then fuppofed
that to confume a body by fire, paffing air was neceffary
to receive and carry off the feparated particles of the body;
and that the air pafling in the flame of my ftove, and in
the flame of a candle, being already faturated with fuch
particles, could not receive more, and therefore left the
coal undiminiftied as long a,s the outward air was prevent-
ed from coming to it by the furrounding flame, which
kept it in a fituation fomewhat like that of charcoal in a
well luted crucible, which, though long kept in a ftrong
fire, comes out unconfumed.

Am

7d DESCRIPTION of a

An eafy experiment will fatisfy any one of this con-
serving power of flame envelloping red coal. Take a fmall
ilick of deal or other wood the fize of a goofe quill, and
hold it horizontally and fteadily in the flame of the can-
dle above the wick, without touching it, but in the body
of the flame. The wood will firft be inflamed, and burn
beyond the edge of the flame of the candle, perhaps a
quarter of an inch. When the flame of the wood goes out,
it will leave a red coal at the end of the flick, part of which
■will be in the flame of the candle and part out in the air.
In a minute or two you will perceive the coal in the air
diminifh gradually, fo as to form a neck; while the part
in the flame continues of its firft fize, and at length the
neck being quite confumed it drops off^; and by rolling it
between your fingers when extinguilhed you will find it
ftill a folid coal.

However, as one cannot be always putting on frefh fuel
in this ftove to furnifh a continual flame as is done in a
candle, the air in the intervals of time gets at the red coals
and confinnes them. Yet the confervation while it lafted,
fo much delayed the confiamption of the coals, that two
fires, one made in the morning, and the other in the af-
ternoon, each made by only a hattull of coals, were fuffici-
ent to keep my writing room, about fixteen feet fquare and
ten high, warm a whole day. The fire kindled at feven in
the morning would burn till noon ; and all the iron of
the machine with the walls of the niche being thereby
heated, the room kept warm till evening, when another
fmaller fire kindled kept it warm till midnight.

Inrteadof the Hiding plate E, jvhich fliuts the front of the
box C, I fometimes ul'cd another which had a pane of glafs,
or, which is better, of Mufcovy talc, that the flamemightbe
feen defctnding from the bottom of the vafe and palling in a
column through the box C, into the cavities of the bottom
plate, like water falling from a funnel, admirable to fuch
as are not acquainted with the nature of the machine, and
in itfclf a pleaiing Ipcdlaclc. „ Every

/

.NEW STOVE.' ji

Every utenfil, however properly contrived to ferve its
purpofe, requires fome practice before it can be ufed adroit-
ly. Put into the hands of a man for the firft time, a gim-
blet or a hammer, (very fimple inftruments) and tell him
the ufe of them, he fhall neither bore a hole or drive a nail
with the dexterity or fuccefs of another who has been a little
accuftomed to handle them. The beginner therefore in
the ufe of this machine, M'ill do well not to be difcouraged
with little accidents that may arife at firft from his want
of experience. Being fomewhat complex, it requires as
already faid a variety of attentions; habit will render them
unneceffary. And the ftudious man who is much in his
chamber, and has a pleafure in managing his own fire,
will foon find this a machine moft comfortable and delight-
ful. To others who leave their fires to the care of ignorant
fervants, 1 do not recommend it. They will with diffi-
culty acquire the knowledge neceflary, and will make fre-
quent blunders that will fill your room with fmoke. It
is therefore by no means fit for common ufe in families.
It may be advifeable to begin with the flaming kind of
ftone coal, which is largp, and, not caking together, is not
fo apt to clog the grate. After fome experience, any kind
of coal may be ufed, and with this advantage, that no fmell,
even from the moft fulphurous kind can come into your
room, the current of air being conftantly into the vafe,
where too that fmell is all confumed.

The vafe form was chofen as being elegant in itfelf, and
very proper for burning of coals : Where wood is the ufual
fuel, and muft be burnt in pieces of fome length, a long
fquare cheft may befubftituted, in which A is the co-
ver opening by a hinge behind, B the grate, C the wure^i;.,
hearth box with its divifions as in the other, D the
plan of the cheft, E the long narrow grate. This 1 have
not tried, but the vafe machine was compleated in 1 77 1 , and
ufed by me in London three winters, and one afterwards
in. America, much to my fatisfadionj and I have not yet

tliought

73 DESCRIPTION of a

thought of any improvement it may be capable of, though
fuch may occur to others. For common ufe, while in
France, I have contrived another grate for coals, which has
in part the fame property of burning the fmoke and pre-
ferving the red coals longer by the flame, though not fo
completely, as in the vafe, yet fufficiently to be very
ufeful, which I fhall now defcribe as follows.

A, is a round grate, one foot (French) in dia- pj^^^e'ig.
meter, and eight inches deep between the bars and
the back; the fides and back of plate iron; the fides hav-
ing holesof half an inch diameter diftant3 or 4 inches from
each other, to let in air for enlivening the fire. The back
without holes. The fides do not meet at top nor at bot-
tom by eight inches: that fquare is filled by grates of fmall
bars croffing front to back to let in air below, and let out
the fmoke or flame above. The three middle bars of the
front grate are fixed, the upper and lower may be taken
out and put in at pleafure, when hot, w ith a pair of pincers.
This round grate turns upon an axis, fupported by the
crotchet B, the ftem of which is an inverted conical tube
five inches deep, which comes on as many inches upon a
pin that fits it, and which is fixed upright in a caft iron
plate D, that lies upon the hearth; in the middle of the top
and bottom grates are fixed fmall upright pieces E E about
an inch high, which as the whole is turned on its axis flop
it when the grate is perpendicular. Figure 19 is another
view of the fame machine.

In making the firft fire in a morning with this grate,
there is nothing particular to be obferved. It is made as
in other grates, the coals being put in above, after taking
cut the upper bar, and replacing it when they are in. The
round figure of the fire when thoroughly kindled is agree-
able, it reprefents the great giver of warmth to our fyftem.
As it burns down and leaves a vacancy above, which you
would fill with frefh coals, the upper bar is to be taken
out, and afterwards replaced. The frefh coals while the

grate

N E W S T O V E. 73

grate continues in the fame pofition, will throw up as ufual
a body of thick fmoke. But every one accuftomed to coal
fires in common grates, mufl: have obferved that pieces of
frefh coal ftuck in below among the red coals have their
fmoke fo heated as that it becomes flame as faft as it is
produced, which flame rifes among the coals and enlivens
the appearance of the fire. Here then is the ufe of this
fwivel grate. By a pufh with your tongs or poker, you
turn it on its pin till it faces the back of the chimney, then
turn it over on its axis gently till it again faces the room,
whereby all the frefh coals will be found under the live
coals, and the greater part of the fmoke arifing from the
frefh coals will in its pafl'age through the live ones be heat-
ed fo as to be converted into flame : Whence you have
much more heat from them, and your red coals are longer
preferved from confuming. I conceive this conftrudtion,
though not fo complete a confumer of all the fmoke as the
vafe, yet to be fitter for common ufe, and very advanta-
geous. It gives too a full fight of the fire, always a plea-
fing object, which we have not in the o'lher. It may with
a touch be turned more or lefs from any one of the com-
pany that defires to have lefs of its heat, or prefented full
to one juft come out of the cold. And fupported in a ho-
rizontal pofition, a tea-kettle may be boiled on it.

The author's defcription of his Pennfylvania' fire-place,
firft publifhed in 1744, having fallen into the hands of
workmen in Europe, who did not, it feems, well compre-
hend the principles of that machine, it was much dif-
figured in their imitations of it ; and one of its main in-
tentions, that of admitting a fufficient quantity of frefh
air warmed in entering through the air-box, nearly de-
feated, by a pretended improvement, in lelTening its paf-
fages to make more room for coals in a grate. On pre-
tence of fuch improvements, they obtained patents for the
invention, and for a while made great profit by the fale,
till the public became fenfible of that defe(3:, in the ex-
K pedcd

74 THEORYoF

pelted operation. If the fame thing fhould be attempted
■with this vafe ftove, it will be well for the buyer to ex-
amine thoroughly fuch pretended improvements, left, be-
ing the mere produdlions of ignorance, they diminifh or
defeat the advantages of the machine, and produce incon-
venience and difappointment.

The method of burning fmoke, by obliging it to defcend
through hot coals, may be of great ufe in heating the
walls of a hot-houfe. In the common way, the horizon-
tal pafTages or flues that are made to go and return in thofe
walls, lofe a great deal of their effedt when they come to
be foul with foot ; for a thick blanket-like lining of foot
prevents much of the hot air from touching and heating
the brick work in its paflage, fo that more fire muft be
made as the flue grows fouler : But by burning the fmoke
they are kept always clean. The fame method may alfo
be of great advantage to thofe bufmeffes in which large
coppers or caldrons are to be heated*.

JVritteti at Sea, lySS'^. "

N° VII..

A Theory of Lightening and Thunder Storms, hy Andrew
Oliver, Efq. of Salem in the State of Majfachufetts.

Rcaj^janu- TT <-^ j^^g ]^qq^ generally, and, confidering the phe-
J. nomena themfelves, very naturally fuppofed,
that the eledric charges which are exhibited in repeated
flafhes of lightening during a thunder ftorm, are previoufly
accumulated in the vapors which conftitute the clOud ; and
that thefe vapors, when by any means they become either
over-charged with clei^lric matter, or are deprived of their

natural

THUNDER STORMS. 75

natural quantities of it*, difcharge their furplufage to, or
receive the neceffary fupplies from, either the earth or the
neighbouring clouds, in fucceffive explofions, till an equi-
librium is rertored between them. But 1 fhall endeavour
in the following pages to prove, that thefe charges refide,
not in the cloud or vapors of which it confifts, but in the
air which fuftains them ; and that, previous to the for-
mation of the cloud, or even the afcent of the vapors
of which it is formed. But, in order to convey my ideas
upon this fubjedt with perfpicuity, I find it neceffary to
introduce them with a quotation from dodlor Franklhi's.
letters on ele£tricity, in which the dodtor compares water,
■whether in its natural ftate, or rarefied into vapors, to a
fponge ; and the eledtric fluid, in connection with it, to
water applied to the fponge.

" When a fponge (fays he) is fomewhat condenfed by
*' being fqueezed between the fingers, it will not receive
*' and retain fo much water as when it is in its more loofe
*' and open ftate. If more fqueezed and condenfed, fome
*' of the water will come out of its inner parts, and flow
*' on the furface. If the preffure of the fingers be intire-
*' ly removed, the fponge will not only refume what was
*' lately forced out, but attradt an additional quantity. As
*' the fponge in its rarer ftate will naturally attrad: and
*' abforb more water ; and in its denfer ftate will naturally
*' attract and abforb lefs water ; we may call the quantity
*' it abforbs in either ftate, its natural quantity^ the ftate
*' being confidered."

The doctor then fuppofes, " that what the fponge is to
*' water, the fame is water to the eledric fluid ; — that
*' when a portion of water is in its common denfe ftate,
" it can hold no more ele£tric fluid than it has ; if any be
*' added it fpreads upon the furface." He adds, " when
*' the fame portion of water is rarefied into vapor and forms
K 2 "a cloud,

• A body 15 faid to be eleiSlrically charged, whenever it has either tr.trc or Ic/i than its na-
tural quantity o£ ekflric matter.

7d THEORY OF

" a cloud, it is then capable of receiving and abforbing; a
" much greater quantity, as there is room for each parti-
*' cle to have an eledric atmofphere. Thus water in its
*' rarefied ftate, or in the form of a cloud, will be in a
" negative ftate of eledlricity ; it will have lefs than its
*' natural quantity, that is, lefs than it is naturally capable
" of attrading and abforbing in that ftate*."

The foregoing paflages I have copied verbatim from
that celebrated eledrician, as I purpofe in the courfe of this
eftfay to avail myfelf of his idea of the fponge, in order to
illuftrate a different theory of thunder clouds, which I now
beg leave, though with diffidence of my own judgment,
and with all due deference to that of fo great a man, to
fubftitute in the room of the foregoing ; wliich I muft con-
fefs at firft fight carries great appearance of probability
with it, and is highly corroborated by the curious and
beautiful experiment the doctor made with the filver cann,
brafs chain, and lock of cottonf .

But in reading dodor Priejiley''s hiftory of eledricity,
fome thoughts of fignior Beccaria occurred, which fatisfi-
ed me that this hypothefis, however ingenious and plau-
fible, was infufficient for the purpofe of accounting for the
rife and phenomena of thunder ftorms, the frequent ex-
tent and violence of which feem to require a more general
caufe than that hinted above, to fupply them with fufficient
quantities of eledric matter.

" Confidering the vaft quantity of eleftric fire that ap-
" pears in the moft fimple thunder ftorms (fays do£tor
" PrieftlyJ) ^\^\iOY Beccaria thinks it impoftible that any
" cloud, or number of clouds, ftaould ever contain it all,
" fo as either to difcharge or receive it. Befides, during
" the progrefs and increafc of the ftorm, though the light-
*' ening frequently ftruck to the earth, the fame clouds

*' were

* Franlilm's Letters, page iry.

t PilRC 111.

J Pficftlcy's Hiftory of filcSricit)', page 325,

THUNDER STORMS. 77

" were the next moment ready to make a ftill greater dil-
" charge, and his apparatus continued to be as much af-
*' fe£ted as ever. The clouds muft confequently have re-
" cei'ved at one place the moment that a dif charge was
" made from them in another."

Signior Beccaria accounts for this vaft exhibition of
eled;ric fire from a thunder cloud, by fuppofmg that fome
parts of the earth may become more highly charged with
the electric fluid than others, and that great quantities of
it do fometimes rufh out of particular parts, and rife through
the air into the higher regions of the atmofphere; other
parts of the earth becoming cafually deftitute of their na-
tural quantity of the fluid at the fame time, and ready to
receive it :. That a chain of clouds nearly contiguous, or
a Angle cloud extending from one of thefe regions to an-
other, in an oppofite fl:ate, might ferve as a conductor or
conductors to reftore the eledlric equilibrium between them,
which would equally caufe thunder and lightening in both
regions, and throughout the intermediate clouds*. Here
dodlor PrzV/?/^7Juftly obferves, that " the greateft difficul-
" ty attending this theory of the origin of thunder ftorms
" relates to the colle£iion and tnfulation of eledric matter
" within the body of the earth." With regard to the col-
le^iiotiy the doctor obferves that his author " has nothing
" particularly to fay :" Nor indeed without a previous in-
fulation of thofe parts of the earth which may be concern-
ed in the produ(5tion of the phenomena, can any fuch col~
UElion take place. Now if we confider that in order to
have two regions of the earth thus infulated, and of fuffi-
cient dimenfions, one to fupply, and the other, to receive.
the quantities of ele£tric fire.difcharged during one thun-
der ftorm of any extent and continuance, the parts infu-
lated muft be not fuperficial regions, but muft reach to a.
confiderable depth; and we muft fuppofe, with dodtor
Priettley, " that the ele£lric matter which forms and ani-
" mates the thunder cloud, iflues from places far below

" the.-

» Ibid.

7» T H E O R Y OF

*' the furface of the earth, and that it buries itfelf there*."
But, with deference to the judgment of that unwearied
friend to fcience, I apprehend that fuch an infulation is
hardly confiftent with that diftribution of conductors,
efpecially of water, which provident nature has made
through all parts of our globe; the higheft mountains be-
ing furnifhed with internal fprings and fountains, and
•watered externally by rivulets, which derive their origin
from condenfing miiis or melting fnows upon their fum-
mits : While the furface of the earth in general, not ex-
cepting the moft fandy deferts, affords fupplies of water
to thofe who will be at the pains of digging for it. If then
the vapors which conftitute the cloud are, of themfelves,
incapable of furnifhing fuch quantities of ele£lric matter as
are neceflary for the repeated difchargee in a fevere thun-
der ftorm, as fignior Beccaria thinks they are, and as feems
to me indubitable ; and if the infulations of large portions
of the furface or exterior parts of the earth, which are ab-
folutely neceffary to fupport Beccaria^s hypothefis, cannot
take place ; which, how they can in our terraqueous mafs,
is difficult to conceive, confiftently with the hitherto dif-
covered properties of the electric fluid : We muft feek for
fome other fubftance in nature which may be capable of
aff"ording thofe reiterated fupplies, of that powerful element
w^hich are ufually exhibited in a thunder ftorm. This I
prefume, we fhall find in the atmofphere over our heads;
not in the vapors which float therein, but in the air itfelf
which fuftains them.

Air is by eledricians juftly clafled with ele^iric fubftan-
ces, as it poflefles the fame general properties in common
with others of that denomination, particular inftances of
which may occur in the following pages ; wherein I fhall
endeavour to prove,

I. That the eleflric capacity of air is lefl!ened by con-
denfation.

II. That this capacity is increafed by heat.

Premifing

• PricftUy, page 335.

THUNDER STORMS. 79

Premifing that by air I here intend that fluid in its com-
mon compreffed ftate with us near the furface of the earth;
and by its deSir'ic capacity y that ftate of it which difpofes
it, under any circumftances whatever, " to attrad:, abforb
and retain," what dodlor Franklin calls its natural quantitjy
or the quantity which is natural to it in that ftate.

I. I ftiall endeavour to prove that the electric capacity
of air is leflened by condeniation.

That a change of denfity in air produces alfo a change
in its eledlric capacity (as above defined), follows from fome
experiments of monfieur de Faye and dodlor Priejiley, the
former of whom found, upon repeated trials, that no elec-
tricity could be excited by the friftion of a glafs tube in
which the air was condenfed*. The dodlor, repeating the
experiments with fome variation, found, that when one
additional atmofphere was forced into the tube, the elec-
tricity excited by rubbing it was fcarcely dlfcernable.
Now, though the effect was a fufpenfion of the operation
of the excited tube ivithout, the caufe was evidently the
condenfed ftate of the air ivithin; which may be accounted
for if we confider, that although it is certain from many
experiments that glafs is abfolutely impermeable to the
electric fluid, infomuch that it cannot force its way through
a pane of glafs, or the fides of a phial, without breaking
the glafs, as was the cafe in thofe fpontaneous difcharges
of feveral of the jars in the eledlrical battery mentioned by
^oiXox Priejlleyj ; yet it is as certain, that this impermea-
bility of the glafs to the fl.uid itfelf, is no obftrudion to
the operation of that repellent power upon which the vi-
fible effeds of this element feem principally to depend;
which power undeniably adts from one fide of the glafs,
through the very fubftance of it, upon the fame fluid on
the other fide, provided there be any other fubftance on
that fide capable of receiving it when thus repelled.

This is the cafe in the Leyden experiment in every form
ia which it can be made ; the cliarge given to one fide of

the'

» Page 50, f Page 489.

^o T H E O R Y OF

the glafs, repelling and throwing off an equal quantity of
the eledric fluid from the oppofite furface, through the
non-ele£tric coating in contadt with it; nor can any charge
be given to either fide without a proportional difcharge
from the other. In like manner, when an uncoated tube
is excited by fridlion, a quantity of the fluid, equal to that
which is excited and condenfed upon the outer furface, is
thrown out from the inner, provided there is any fub-
flance within in a capacity to receive and abforb it, with-
out which no excitation can take place. " A glafs tube,
" out of which the air is exhaufted, difcovers no figns of
*' electricity outwards*," there being no fubftance within
capable of receiving and abforbing the fluid from the in-
ner furface, which though repelled from it inwards dur-
ing the operation, yet returns to it again inftantly upon a
cefl'ation of the adion of the rubber without. But upon
a readmiflion of air the excitation is eafy, and is attended
■with the ufual eff^efts. Air then, which is the only fub-
ftance admitted (excepting perhaps a few ftraggling va-
pors which float in it) receives and abforbs a fufficient
quantity of the eleilric fluid from the inner furface to per-
mit an excitation of the tube which contains it. But as
we have feen that air, when condenfed within, prevents
the vifible efi^edls of an excitation, equally with a total va-
cuity, we may adopt the idea of doctor Franklin, tfmtath
mutandis, and conlcude that " what the fponge is to water
*' the fame is air to the eledric fluid :" At leafi: that this ca-
pacity of air if leflened by condenfation in a manner, not
indeed perfedtly fimilar, but, fomewhat analogous to that in
which the capacity of a fponge to receive and retain water
is lefTened by comprcfTion. Agreeably to which idea, the
condenfed air within the tube, having its eledric capacity
filled and even crowded with the eledlric matter, will re-
ceive none from the inner furface, which, on the contrary,
as thereby prevented from being forced out of it, without

which

* PiiclUcy's liiftory of tlciJlricitj', page 5jo.

THUNDER STORMS. 8i

which none can be forced into or condenfed upon the out-
er furface, fo as to exhibit any figns of eledricity; as ob-
ferved before,

II. I fhall endeavour to prove that the eledric capacity
of air is increafed by heat.

This alfo appears probable, at leaft, from the above cited
experiments of do£tor Priejlley ; for after the air in his
tube had had this capacity fo far diminifhed by condenfa-
tion as not to permit an excitation withour, that capacity,
together with the confequent excitabiUty of the tube, was
reftored by the adion of heat upon the included air. " Re-
" peating my attempts (fays he) to excite the tube above
" mentioned, I found that, after very hard rubbing, it be-
" gan to ad a Httle, and that its virtue increafed with the
" labour. Thinking it might be the warmth which pro-
" duced this effed, I held the tube to the fire and found
" that when it was pretty hot, it would ad almoft as well
" as when it contained no more than its ufual quantity
« of air*."

In page ^^t^^ dodor Priejlley tells us that fome of his
eledrical friends were of opinion, " that the reafon why
*' a tube with condenfed air in it cannot be excited is, that
" the denfe air whhin prevents the eledric fluid from be-
*' ing forced out of the infide of the tube, without which
*' none can be forced into the outfide ; and that heating
" the tube makes the air within lefs eledrical." That is,
as I conceive their meaning, puts it in a capacity to re-
ceive and abforb more of the eledric fluid than it could
otherwife do in that condenfed ftate. The dodor indeed
queries by way of objedion to the foregoing folution, —
" How upon this principle can a folid flick of glafs be ex-
*' cited ?'' To which I would anfwer, that poffibly, when
a folid flick of glafs is excited, as much of the eledric fluid
maybe drawn out of one fideof it as is thrown into, or con-
denfed upon the other; if fo, although it may fhew equal
figns of eledricity on both fides, yet one fide will be in a

L pofitive

. * Page 551.

8& * T H E O R Y o F

pofitive, the other in a negative ftate ; when it will ex-
actly refemble the curious ftone called the tourmalin, by
feme lapis eleSiricus^ which do£tor Priejlley fays * " has
*' always, at the fame time., a pofitive and a negative elec-
" tricity ; one of its fides being in one ftate, and the other
" in the oppofite ;" which does not depend upon the ex-
ternal form " of the ftone." But the truth of this foluti-
on muft be determined by future experiments. \^

That the eledlrical ftate of the air is liable to be affe£led
by heat, is further evident from a courfe of experiments
which were made by the abbe Mazeas, with an apparatus
that was conftrudted folely with a view of determining the
eledricity of the atmofphere, anno 1 753 f. With this ap-
paratus the abbe obferved, that from the 1 7th of June, when
he began his experiments, the ele£tricity of the air was
fenfibly felt cw cry day, from /un rife till feu en or eight
o'clock in the evening, when the weather was dry ; but
that in the drieft nights of that fummer he could difcover
no figns of ele£lricity in the air, nor till the morning,
when the fun began to appear above the horizon, and
that " they vaniftied again in the evening, about half an
" hour after fun fet;" and further, " that the Jirongeji
*' common ele£tricity of the atmofphere, during the fum-
*' mer, was perceived in the month of Jtily on a very dry
" day, the heavens being very clear, and the fun extreme-
" ly hot."

Now, as this eledtricity of the air was fenfible only dur-
ing day light, no eledricity being difcoverable therein even
In the drief nights, and as the air exhibited \\\tfrongefi
figns of eledtricity when the fun flione extremely hot ; is
not the concluiion unavoidable, that heat fomehow affefts
the elc«Stric capacity of air, either enlarging it, and there-
by difpofing the air to attradt, receive and abforb greater
(]uantities of eledtric matter than it is capable of abforbing
in its natural ftate ; or fuperadding to its natural quantity
more than it can abforb, and thereby difpofing it to throw

ofF

• Page ^')^. t I'^r 342.

THUNDER STORMS. 83

ofF the redundancy upon any objeds which may be in a
lituation to receive it ? One or the other feems neceffarily
to follow, but the former is moft agreeable to dodor
Priejlley\ experiment of the condenfed air in the tube a-
bove mentioned, and is perfed;ly confonant with the ob-
fervations of dodtor Franklin, Mr. Kinnerjley and others,
that thunder clouds are generally in the negative ftate of
eled:ricity*. But more upon this head hereafter. I would
however obferve here, that many, and perhaps all other
eledtric fubftances, even the moft firm and folid, as well
as air, are liable to have their eledric capacities thus di-
verfified by heat, more particularly the tourmalin above
mentioned. But as, in treating of the properties of this
ftone, dodlor Priejlley has thought it deferving of a diftin£l
fedion in his eledtric hiftory, to that I fliall refer the read-
er for a particular account of them f ; wherein he will find
a difcovery made by Meflrs Canton and Wilfon, that thefe
properties are not peculiar to the tourmalin, but that many
gems have a natural difpofition to afford the fame appear-
ances ; from whence we may conclude as above, by ana-
logy, that all electric fubftances are, more or lefs, affeded
in like manner, by the fame caufe. But to return to the
fubjedt.

If from the foregoing confiderations the reader fhould
be fatisfied, that the ele^ric capacity of air, in its con-
denfed ftate in the lower regions of the atmofphere, is li-
able to be diminiftied by a further condenfation, and that,
ctEteris paribus, it is increafed by heat et 'vice njerfa ; the
folution of the phenomena of thunder and lightening, to
his fatisfadion, upon eledrical principles, will perhaps be
no difficult tafk.

For let us conceive a region of the atmofphere, extend-
ing over a large tradt of country, to be rarefied and heat-
L 2 ed

* Epitome of Phil. TranH Gent. Mag. Sept. 1773, page 447. Mr. Henley thinks cold
tleftrifics the atmofphere pofitively, and thence conjecftures that heat elcvftrifies it negatirely.
His condufions are founded upon a courfe of experiments.
\ Page 297.

S4 T H E O R Y o F

ed during a hot fummer's day, not only by the paffage of
the fun's diredl rays through it, and by the refledlion of
thofe rays from the furface of the earth into it; but chiefly,
by the communication of the heat acquired by that furfa,ce
to.it : The dearie capacity of that region of air would be
increafed, both on account of the heat it undergoes, and
of the rarefadlion confequent upon that heat : It will then
have lefs than its natural quantity^ or the quantity it is
naturally difpofed to receive and abforb in that ftate; it will
Gonfequently be, in the language of electricians, negatively
cledlrifed, or in a craving ftate, requiring and forcing fup-
plies from all fubftances capable of affording them, pro-
vided it be itfelf in a condition to receive them. But,
however craving, it caniiot receive thofe fupplies from the
neighbouring regions of the atmofphere, while thofe re-
gions feverally remain in the ftate of pure air, even fup-
pofing the latter to poflefs more than their natural quanti-
ties-, and thereby as much difpofed to impart, as the for-
mer is to receive them, without the intervention of non-
eledric condudlors ; and that, owing to the impermeability
of air, as fuch, to the eledlric fluid. This I ftiall endeavour,
I. To illuflrate by experiments made with glafs. 2. To
prove by experiments made upon air itfelf.

I. If a pane of glafs be coated on both fides, by the ap-
plication of plates of tin to them, the glafs may be charged
in the fame manner as the Leyden phial ; when, after the
removal of the plates, no difcharge having previoufly
taken place, both fides of the glafs will remain charged,
one poiitively, the other negatively ; the former having
more than its natural quantity-, the latter being proportion-
ably deficient, and in a craving ftate. Thefe ftates both
furfaces will obftinately maintain for a long time : Nor do
I know of any method of reftoring the electric equilibrium
between them, but, either to immerfe the pane in water or
fome other non-elecftric fluid, which will do it inftantly,
and filently j or to reapply the metalline coatings to both

fides

THUNDER STORMS. 85

fides as they were placed at firft, with a good condudtoi-
introduced between them, which will anfwer the fame pur-
pole, and be attended with an explofion, or fmart fpark
and fnap ; or laftly, to place it in a fituation where it may
be expofed to air replete with moift vapors, where, after
fome time, the vapors will, by condenling upon each fide,
furnifh it with a moiflure equivalent to a non-eleftric coat-
ing, while the vapors which remain in the furrounding
air will, by continually impinging upon and receding from,
the two furfaces, at length reftore both to their natural
flate.

It is evident from the foregoing experiment, Firji^ That
the charges refide in the glafs itfelf, as they remain after
the coatings are removed. Secondly^ That the oppofite fides
have a very ftrong propenfity, one to give, the other to re-
ceive the fluid, and thereby to reftore the electric equili-
brium between themfelves; which is done with violence,
as obferved above, when they are put in a condition of do-
ing it by the reapplication ot the metalline coatings, with
a conductor between them, and Laftly^ That notwithftand-
ing the violent propenfity in the fides of the glafs, to re-
ftore themfelves and each other to their natural electric
ftates, and the fmall diftance between them, they can ne-
ver eff"e£t it, without the_intervention of non-eledlric con-
dudtors.

2. I fliall now fhew by other experiments, that different
regions or ftrata of air 7nay become charged, both pofi-
tively and negatively, in the fame manner as the fides of
the pane of glafs were in the foregoing; and that the
eff'edts of fuch charges are precifely the fame.

Meflrs Wilkie and jEpiniis at Berlin, having the hint
naturally fuggefted to them by a previous courfe of experi-
ments, endeavoured to give the eledtrical fhock by means
of air, in the fame manner in which it may be given by
glafe; " ill which after making feveral attempts (fays doc-
" tor Prieftley*) they at length fucceeded, by fufpending-
V . " large

** Page 242,

.'86 THEORY of

" large boards of wood covered with tin, with the flat fides
*' towards one another, and at fome Inches afunder. For
*' they found, that upon eledrifying one of the boards
" pofitively, the other was always negative. But the dif-
■« covery was made complete and indifputable by a perfon's
*' touching one of the plates with one hand, and bringing
*' his other hand to the other plate ; for he then received
" a fhock through his body exadly like that of the Ley^
*' den experiment. With this plate of air, as we may call
*' it, they made a variety of experiments. The two me-
" tal plates, being in oppofite ftates, ftrongly attra£ted one
*' another, and would have rufhed together if they had
*' not been kept afunder by the firings. Sometimes the
*' eledricity of both would be difcharged by a ftrong fpark
*' between them, as when a pane of glafs burfts with too
*' great a charge. A finger put between them promoted
♦' the difcharge, and felt the ihock. If an eminence was
*' made on either of the plates the felf-difcharge would al-
" ways be made through it, and a pointed body fixed up-
*' on either of them prevented their being charged at all."
To the foregoing relation of the experiments themfelves,
I Ihall fubjoin the conclufions drawn from them by the cu-
rious electricians who made them, in the words of do£tor
Prlejlley, viz. " The ftate of thefe two plates, they " {JVil-
kie and JEpiniis) " excellently obferve, juftly reprefents the
" ftate of the clouds and the earth" (and perhaps of dif-
ferent clouds at various heights one over another) " dur-
*' ing a thunder ftorm; the clouds being always in one
*' ftate, and the earth in the oppofite; while the body of
*' air between them anfwers the fame purpofe as the fmall
" plate of air between the boards, or the plate of glafs be-
*' tween the two metal coatings in the Leyden experiment.
♦' The phenomenon of lightening is the burfting of the
*' plate of air by a fpontaneous difcharge, which is always
♦' made through eminencies, and the bodies through which
" the difcharge is made are violently fhocked."

As

THUNDER STORMS. 87

As in the former experiment made with the pane of
gtafs, the charges, both pofitive and negative, refide in the
glafs icfelf, and not in the coatings, thofe remaining after
thefe are removed; fo in the latter, which is completely
analogous to it, the charges are accumulated and refide in
the air fituated between the boards, and not in their tin
linings, which ferve only as conductors, to diftribute the
fluid equally over, or to convey it equally from, the whole
furface of air which is limited by, and in contadl with
them, on either fide; whereby the whole of each furface
may be equally charged at the fame time, or difcharged.
by the fame explofion.

If two or more regions of the atmofphere, when free
from vapors, become thus differently electrical in their
ftate and capacities, which, that they may, from the heat
and confequent rarcfa£lion in a fummer's day, we have al-
ready feen, and perhaps from a variety of other caufes to
us unknown; and if from the contrary currents of air
which frequently take place at different heights, they
fhould perchance become fituaCed one over or adjacent to
another, like ftrata of minerals within the bowels of the
earth ; what the metalline coating is to the pane of glafs,
or the tinned boards to the plate of air in the laft experi-
ment, the fame would clouds, formed and floating therein,
be to thefe regions of air; the eledlric equilibrium between
which might be reftored through their intervention, either
by fpontaneous difcharges through the pure air between
them in fevere flafhes of lightening or through the falling
drops of rain, which in their fucceffive defcent form a chain
of natural condudlors between one region of the air and
another, and betwixt each of them and the earth; the
paffage of the eledric fluid through which would alfo be
attended with lightening and thunder, but not fo fevere as
when the difcharge is made through the pure air; the moft-
fatal lightening ufually preceding the fall of the rain.

fix

88 T H E O R Y OF

It is not uncommon, during the rife and progrefs of a
thunder ftorm, to fee different fets of clouds, at various
heights in the atmofphere, moving promifcuoufly in all
diredlions, as though they w^ere impelled hither and thi-
ther by contending winds; when probably the whole phe-
nomenon arifes from the different eledlrical ftates of the
regions of the air in which they float; as they approach
one or other of which, they are attracted or repelled, and
move accordingly, communicating, receiving, or tranfmit-
ting the ele£tric fluid, to or from them refpeftively, as they
may be either deficient of their natural quantity, or pofTefs
a redundancy of this fluid. And as in the experiment of
Meffrs Wilkie and JEpiniis mentioned above, the two tin
plates with the boards they covered, would have rufhed
together had they not been kept afunder by the firings, fo
thefe clouds floating freely in air, and being at liberty
to a£t upon every impulfe, gradually coalefce, refloring
the eledtric equilibrium to the neighbouring atmofphere
by repeated difcharges as they unite*; till at length they
form one denfe mafs of humid vapors, which precipitating
in a heavy fhower of rain, refrefh the thirfty foil, leaving
the atmofphere above in a homogenous eledric ftate, calm
and ferene.

How thefe clouds are generated, formed, and adapted
to thofe grand purpofes in the oeconomy of nature, is next
to be confidered: In profecution of which inquiries I (hall
fubmit the following obfervations to the candor of the
reader.

Whatever the immediate caufe of evaporation may be,
it is certain that the fuperficial moifture of all bodies is
perpetually exhaling in vapors, which afcend into the
higher regions of the atmofphere, where they gather and
are formed into clouds, and at length recondenfe, defcend-

ing

* It is certain that in mod thunder ftorirts the flafhcs of lljjhtening arc chiefly dlfcharged
Tfom cloud to cloud, very kw, and frequently none at all taking place between the cloud and
the earth.

THUNDER STORMS. 89

lug in dew, mift or rain upon the furface of the earth from
whence they fprang.

Thefe vapors are either detached in flreams from the
humid ground by the Influence of the fun, or thrown off
by the perfpirations of thofe infinite mukitudes of animals
and plants which cover the face of the earth*, or fupplied
by evaporation, from the ocean, or other grand colledlions
of water.

Ignorant as we are of the nature of thefe operations, and
of the manner in which they are performed, it is natural
to fuppofe, that the vapors themfelves afcend in the fame
eledfric ftate, whether pofitive, neutral or negative, with
the fubftances from which they arife. Accordingly fignior
Beccaria, in making fome of his experiments, obferved,
that " fleam rifmg from an ele£trified eolipile diff^ufes it-
" felf with the fame uniformity with which thunder clouds
" fpread themfelves and fwell into arches, extending itfelf
" towards any conducing fubftanccj"." This ftream then
was ele(3;rified as well as the eolipile from whence it pro-
ceeded. The fea muft neceffarily be fuppofed, in common
"with the whole terraqueous mafs, to contain juft its natu-
ral quantity of the eleftric fluid, and no more : We may
therefore conclude that both the vapors which arife imme-
diately from it, and the air which fuftains them, and from
its fituation enjoys a more equable temperature, than that
over the land, are in the fame eledlrical ftate with the fea
itfelf, containing neither tnore nor lejs than their natural
quantity.

Confidering the vaft extent of the ocean, and the com-
paratively fmall degree of moifture of which the dry land is
fufceptible, we may conclude, that a very fmall proportion
of the clouds which are formed in the atmofphere are ex-
haled from the latter, and that the ocean is the grand
fource from whence they principally derive their origin.
M Our

• See Hales's vegetable ftatics, and Chambers's cyclofcd, under the word, Perfpiration.
t Prieilley's Hiftory, page 3Z7.

<

90 THEORYoF

Our fenfes accordingly convince us that the fea-alr Is al-
ways replete with molft vapors, even when its natural
tranfparency is not in the leaft interrupted by them.
Hence in a hot fummer's day, when the wind fuddenly
fhifts from weft to eaft, we immediately perceive a chill
from the fea-breeze ; and fometimes long before the ther-
mometer indicates a change in the temperature of the
atmofphere. Thefe vapors, when they firft arife from the
fea, are generally fo nearly of the fame denfity with the
furrounding and contiguous air, that the rays of light in
pafling through them, undergo no fenfible change in their
refradion; they are therefore at firft generally invifible,
but when the weather is extreamly cold, and the air of
confequence uncommonly denfe, they are always vifible,
and appear like a fteam arifmg from boiling water*. Not
that vapors afcend moft copioufly in the coldeft feafons,
which feems contrary both to reafon and experience; but
that the different denfities of the air next the furface of the
water, and of the vapors which afcend in it, render the
latter vifible, by the irregular refradlions of the rays of
light in palTuig through them. For the fame reafon our
breath is vifible in the winter, but not in warm weather.

Let us now fuppofe the atmofphere, on a fummer's
morning, to be all around in a homogenous ftate, as in-
dicated by a cloudlefs fky and a dead calm. As the fun
rifes on the eaftern coafts of America, and warms and ra-
refies the atmofphere eaftward, the rarefied air naturally
afcends, and a current of air as naturally flows thither from
the oppofite quarter, which is but juft emerging from the
cool fhades of night, to fupply its place. The confequence
of which is a light wefterly breeze. As the fun afcends
higher, the air over the land becomes heated and rarefied,
both by the pafTage of the fun's djredt and refledfed rays
through it, and by the reverberation of the heat acquired

from

♦ This is always the appearance in a dear, flill morning, when the mercury In f arcnlidt'i
thcrniomeur is at o, or below it.

THUNDER STORMS. 91

from them by the furface of the earth ; till at length that
■whole region of the atmofphere has its eleftrical capacity
enlarged, thereby becoming negatively eledlrifed, or in a
craving ftate, as obferved before. On the contrary the
fun's rays which fall upon the furface of the fea, efpecially
when ruffled by wind, chiefly enter that tranfparent me-
dium, in which they are refraded and irrecoverably ab-
forbed; very few, comparatively, being refledled; whence
very little heat can be reverberated from that element to
warm the incumbent air, which is fenfibly affedled only by
the palfage of the fun's diredt rays through it, unlefs the
weather be calm and the furface very fmooth*. Befides, it
is colder at fea than afliore in the fummer feafon, when, and
■when only thunder fhowers are frequent, and indeed
warmer in the winter, for the following reafon, viz. as the
fea is every moment changing its furface, neither heat nor
cold can affedt it fo foon as they do the furface of the earth,
which continues the fame.

The air over the land, when thoroughly heated and ra-
refied, naturally afcends into the higher regions, while the
denfer air from the fea neceflarily flows in and takes its
place. Hence, probably, the eafterly winds which ufually
fpring up near the middle of the day, after a fultry
morning.

This body of warm air afcends till it arrives at that re-
gion of the atmofphere in which thunder clouds are form-
ed ; while the vapors which are wafted to the continent
by the eafl:ern current, being attradted by this now fupe-
rior air which demands a fupply of the eledtric fluid, con-
M 2 tinually

* Ih a perfeift calm the furface of the fea afls like a mirror upon t\\e fun's rays, ftrongly re-
verberating them back into the atmofphere, -u'/jcw the heat is as fenfible upon water as upon
the dry land. But whenever that furface becomes agitated and broken by the force of wind
adling upon it, thofe rays, by perpetually impinging upon an infinite variety of new formed,
fluctuating furfaces undergo inntmierable refra(51ions, in all dlretftions, whereby they are ab-
forbed and loft within the fluid mafs in fome proportion to the violence of the agitation. Ac-
cordingly when the weather is ferene and calm, the furface like a looking-glafs refle6ls the phe-
nomena of the Iky over head ; upon the firft fpringing up of a breeze it changes to a light blue,
which deepens to a fine iky-blue as the wind rifes, to a deeper fea-greec in a brilk gale, and to
a fuUen btacknefs in a ftorm, excepting where the waves are interfperfed with white heads of
foam, which, by contraft, only render the fccne more gloomy.

ga T H E O Tv Y OF

tinually afcend till they arrive at it, leaving the denfer air,
with VN^hich they were firft conne£ted, behind. As thefe
vapors move freely through and mix with air, they eafily
infmuate themfelves between the particles of that fluid,
and unite with it, whereby every particle of air which,
from the caufes aforefaid, is become in any degree defti-
tute of the quantity of eledlric matter which is natural to
it in its prefent ftate, mav and will attratl and attach to
itfelf one or more particles of this vapor, and thereby fur-
iiiih itfelf with a non-eledric coating, and thus become
qualilied to receive from any neighbouring obje£l iuch a
I'upply of the ele£lric fluid as its ftate may demand.

Thus provided, this body of air, together with the va-
pors which are more or lefs attached to every particle of
it, will conftitute a denfe cloud ; and as the air itfelf was
before (by fuppoiition) in a craving or negative ftate of
cledlricity ; and as the vapors are prcfumed to have arifen
from the ocean in their natural or neutral ftate, the whole
body of a cloud formed by them will ftill be in a negative
ftate, and thereby conftitute a complete thunder cloud ;
which when formed, if uniform in denfity and contexture,
ihould it be attracted within xht Jinking d'lftance from any
objeft flanding upon the earth, v/ould have its ele(rtric
equilibrium rcftored at once by a flafli of lightening dart-
ing from the earth : Or Ihould it pafs near another cloud
in a different ftate, the flafli would reftore an equilibrium
between the two clouds.

That a body of air, either in a pofitive or negative ftate
of eledricity, while pure, fliould be incapable of commu-
nicating its furplufagc of the eledtric element to, or re-
ceiving fupplics from the neighbouring regions, though
in a contrary ftate ; and that the fame air, when replete
with watery vapors, may be rcftored to an equilibrium
throughout its wliole extent by an inftantaneous difcharge,
may yet require fome further evidence bcfore.it be admitted.

But,

THUNDER STORMS. ^ 93

But, as the particles both of air and vapor ai-e feverally
too minute to fall under our notice, I fhall endeavour to
illuftrate by analogy what cannot be diredtly demonftrated
by experiment. In order to this, I fliall (irft give a ge-
neral defcription of, and then fubjoin fome obfervations
upon doctor Priejiley^% electrical battery.

This battery confided of fixty four cylindrical glafs jars
fixed in a fquare box ; the jars were coated within and
without with tin foil, and the floor of the box was cover-
ed with the fame, whereby the outfides of all the jars
formed but one continued eledlrical furface. In like man-
ner, by means of fmall brafs bars extending over the
mouths of the jars in their feveral ranges, and by wires
which connedled the feveral bars, together with others
which defcended from them, communicating with the in-
ner coating of each jar, their interior furfaces were fo
connedled as to form, in the fame fenfe, but one furface.
Thus conftru£ted, the whole battery is capable of being
equally charged in every part at the fame time, and of be-
ing difcharged throughout by the fame explofion.

Here I would obferve, that if, Tnftead of the metalline
coatings, the jars were filled with water to the fame height
with them, and were immerfed in the fame order in a
fquare veffel of water to an equal depth, the bars and wire
remaining as before, the fuccefs of all the experiments
made with them would be the fame as above. Let then a
battery be conftrudted and charged in this form ; after
v.'hich let the bars and wires aforefaid be removed, and
the water contained in the jars be decanted off by glafs
fyphons, and let the water be drawn oif from the veffel in
which they Hand. It is evident from the experiment of
the charged pane of glafs already mentioned, and other
experiments recited in dodlor Franklin's letters, that thefc
jars will remain federally charged, as they were jointly'
before. They may now, when dry, be taken out and
handled at pleafure with fafety ; nor can they be eafily re-

floredi

94 T H E O R Y o F

ftored to their natural ftates, but either by immerfing them
fingly under water, or by replacing the whole apparatus
and filling both the jars, and the box which contains them,
-with water as at firft, and introducing a metalline conduc-
tor betwixt the water without the jars and any one of the
wires which conneft their infides ; then the whole will be
inftantly dilcharged Vt^ith an explofion*.

To apply thefe obfervations to the prefent fubjed, we
may regard every particle of a body of puref, but inci-
dentally eleftrified air, in the fame light with one of the
jars in the battery aforefaid, which, after having been
charged, is deprived of its adventitious coatings : Each
particle, like one of thofe jars, will retain the ftate it may
happen to be in, fo long as it remains deftitute of a con-
-dudting appendage. But when, and by what means foever,
a fufEciency of moifl: vapors fhall become interfperfed
amongft thefe particles of air to furnifh them feverally with
non-ele£lric coatings, and by the nearnefs or contiguity of
thefe vapors to form a communication from one to another
throughout the whole, they will then be in the fame con-
nedled ftate with the jars in the battery, when complete
in every part, and charged ; and like thofe jars be the
particles ever fo numerous, they will be in a capacity of
jointly receiving or communicating the eledtric fire. And
as, by the addition of jars in the conftrudion of the bat-
tery, the explofion at the difcharge may be increafed inde-
finitely, fo will the violence of the explofion from a thun-
der cloud be increafed in proportion to its extent, and to
the multitude of aerial particles together with their ap-
pendant vapors of which it confifts, and which are fo con-
neded as to be capable of uniting in the fame difcharge.
But as a thunder cloud is not ufually formed at once, but
by degrees, fmaller clouds generally forming themfelves

in

* Thefe experhncnts I never faw particularly made, but the conclufions neceffarily follow
from fome whicli 1 have fcen, as well as from thofe pointeil out above.

f I'ure as to the pui pofu! of eleiSlricity, or free from conducting vapors ; perhaps pure cl<-
mtntary air is not to be found in our atmofphere.

THUNDER STORMS. 95

in feparate parties before they join the main body ; and as
the ele(flrical ftates of thefe clouds may be very different
from each other, from the different ele<3:rical ffates of
thofe parts of the atmofphere in which they gather ; the
general equilibrium of the atmofphere over a country can-
not be reftored by a fmgle difcharge, but fucceffive fiafhes
will dart from cloud to cloud, and betwixt thefe and the
earth, till at length the whole colledled mafs of vapor is
ipent and dilTolved in rain.

Here a common obfervation naturally occurs, viz. that
frequently after a flafli of lightening a fudden fhower de-
fcends in large drops. The mutual attradlion between the
vapors and the air, when in this eledlrical ftate, is fuffici-
ent to fuftain the former, notwithftanding that they are by
this attradion greatly condenfed, being as it were forced
into a phyfical contact, both with the particles of air, and
with each other*. But as foon as the air is reftored to its
natural eledric ftate by a flafli of lightening, this attradion-
ceafes, and the vapors precipitate by their own fpecific
gravity in a heavy fhower.

Long and extenfive calms, in certain latitudes and fea-
fons, take place upon the ocean, during the continuance
of which, the heat is fcarcely tolerable. (See note, page 91.)
Where thefe take place the air will naturally undergo the
lame changes, in its denfity and eleilric capacity, as the
air over the land, does in. the fummer teafon, and, when:

fufEciently

* A e;entleman of my acquaintance, who Is both intelligent and curious, informed me fonie
years fince, that he was once upon the top of a mountain in Spain, upon which a thunder cloud
gathered ; that as foon as the cloud became infulated from the mountain it difcharged a vio-
lent temped: of thunder and lightening upon the plains below ; that he never was fo thorough-
ly foaked in the moft violent fhower as when in the body of this cloud, though without a drop
of rain, feeling as if he had been immerfed in a river. This idea is further juilified by the fo-
lid appearance of the clouds that rife in the weft on a hot funiraer's day, compared with thofe
which float in the atmofphere at other fcafons ; which fliews a manifeft difference in their den-
fity and contexture ; And when we obferve attentively the feveral parts of a thunder cloud, the
diftiniSnefs of their borders and their fwelling furbcloes ; how ftrongly they refled the rays of
the fun, thereby exhibiting the moft vivid lights and deep contrafting ihades ; and on-the other
hand obfei-ve the beautiful effefls of their refradlive power in the intenfe goldun fkirts v/hich
adorn the rifing cloud with a fetting fun behind it ; we muft neceffarily conclude, that, al-
though the vapors of which fuch clouds confift are coUetfted and condenfed in higher regions of
the atmofphere than are thofe which ufually form clouds at other feafons, yet their denfity and.
fpecific gravity is much greater; and they derive their fupport from the eleilric principle

<f6 T H E O R Y o F

fufficlently heated and rarefied, will in like manner afcend,
its place being lupplied by the denfer air from all quarters
■without the limits of the calm. This heated and confe-
qtiently (granting the principles of the prefent theory)
ele£trical air, when raifed to a certain height in the at-
mofphere, may become as well adapted to the formation
of a thunder cloud, from the vapors which are perpetual-
ly exhaling from the fea, as the air over the land under
the like circumftances. Wherefore, in Ibme latitudes in
all fealbns, and perhaps in all latitudes in different feafons
of the year, thunder ftorms may as well happen at fea,
even -at remote dirtances from land, as afliore.

I now proceed to confider an objedlion which may be
raifed againft the foregoing theory, which I fhall firft ftate
in its full force, and then endeavour to give a fatisfadory
anfwer to it.

Objection. If the eledtrification of that body of air in
which a thunder cloud is formed depends upon the heat
it has previoufly acquired, whence is it that thunder ftorms
are frequently attended with Ihowers of hail, which hail
is fometimes fo large as to indicate its defcent from the
coldeft regions of the atmofphere?

Anfiver. Sir IJhac Neivton afferts from experiments of
his own, that " the denfity of the air in the atmofphere of
" the earth is as the weight of the whole incumbent air.'*"
Confcquently the air gradually decreafes in denfity from
the furface of the earth to the top of the atmofphere. The
body of air which is fuppofed in this theory to be qualifi-
ed by the adion of heat upon it, to become a proper lub-
Jtratum for the formation and fupport of a thunder cloud,
is thereby expanded and rarefied, and thence becomes fpe-
cifically higher than it was before: It therefore alcends
till it arrives at that height in the atmofphere at which the
air is naturally, from its fituation, of the fame rarety with
itfelf ; and there it refts in equilibrio. This region is ex-
treamly cold at all feafons, as appears from the teftimonics

of

THUNDER STORMS. 97

of travellers who have vifited the tops of very high moun-
tains, even under the line. The greater the heat which
this body of air acquires below, the greater degree of ra-
refaction it undergoes, and the higher, of confequence, it
afcends in the atmofphere, where the cold is proportion-
ably more fevere than is ufual near the furface of the earth.
But though it was the heat which it acquired below that
firft rarefied and expanded it, it will by no means be pro-
portionably recondenfed by the cold which it meets with
in its afcent ; for as the heat which occafioned its rarefac-
tion decreafes upon that account, the preffurc of the in-
cumbent atmofphere upon it decreafes as it rifes, whereby
its denfity may, upon the whole, remain nearly the fame ;
if fo, may we riot fuppofe its eledlrical ftate alfo, previous
to the formation of the cloud, to continue nearly the fame ?
For fhould this warm air afcend all together as in a body,
without intermixing with the denfer furrounding air through
which it rifes, as a bubble of air does in any other fluid,
and as this air probably would in a calm feafon, the den-
fer parts of the atmofphere eafily giving way to it, till it
arrives at that region the denfity of which is equal to its
own, where it would be at reft ; fhould this, I fay, be the
cafe, it would not, even in that cold region, cool fo fud-
denly as to undergo any immediate change in its ele£trical
ftate, from the natural coldnefs of the region ; neither
would it be from condenfation, its denfity remaining nearly
the fame, as obferved above.

But when the cloud is formed, or rather when a number
of clouds are forming in the neighbourhood of each other,
and joining their forces preparatory to the tempeft, a ge-
neral confufioB takes place in the atmofphere; various and
even contrary currents of air flowing promifcuoudy hither
and thither, as is evident from the vifible irregular moti-
ons of detached parts of the clouds. In this general effort
of nature to reftore an equilibrium, fome of thefe aerial
currents will probably introduce air, which having beea

N till

98 T H E O R Y OF •

till now at a diilance from the fcene of a£tion, has fuffered
no material change in its natural eleftric ftate* ; and is on
the contrary fraught with all the cold which is natural to
the region of the atmofphere from whence it came. In
falling through this adventitious current of air, the drops
of rain, precipitating from the body of clouds above, are
congealed into ice, and defccnd in hail, which as it falls
collcQs other fnowy or icy particles round it ; a hail-ftone
when it comes to the ground relembling denfe fnow with
a nucleus or kernel of folid ice in the middle.

That the air which this hail-ftone falls through, is cold-
er than the region from whence it defcends, may be thus
proved, viz. If the freezing took place where, and as foon
as the- vapors were firft fet at liberty by a flalh of lighten-
ing, it would be impoflible for them ever to unite into
drops, but they muft defcend in the fineft chryftals, an
aflemblage of which conftitutes a flake of fnow ; the nu-
cleus, or proper hail-ftone then muft have been firft a fluid
drop, and afterwards congealed in its fall through a colder
region than that in which it was formed.

It may be further objeded, that a thunder cloud, in the
eaftern parts of America, always makes its firft appearance
in the weft, over the land, its progrefs being tcwards the
fea; which feems to contradi£l the fuppofition in the the-
ory, that the vapors of which it confiils are chiefly fuppli-
tAfrom the fea.

To which I anfwer, i. That a thunder cloud is with us
very rarely, indeed fcarcely ever formed in the weft, with-
out a fea-breeze fpringing up previoufly from the eaft,
2. That the fea air, as oblerved before, always abounds
with vapors, althouuh from the caufes already alfigned,
they are ufually, at their firft rifing, invifible. 3. That the
firft appearance of a cloud will always be where the vapors

are

* This furpofition will he juflificd by confidcring, that fuch is frequently the fta'.c of the,
attnofrhcrc, that the thunder clouds which are formed in it arc hut of fniall extent; notwith-
ifanHinE which, the change in the Jlate of the air occalioncd by thcni ispcrcciycU to the difr

tancc of many leagues round.

THUNDER STORMS. 99

are firft colleited into a body and condenfed, and thereby
rendered vifible, which in a thurider cloud will be in the
weft, notwithftanding the vapors of which it confifts may
chiefly have arifen from the fea. 4. That when a thunder
cloud is once formed it will be in a ftate of attradion with
the earth in general, and more efpecially fo with all fub-
ftances which are natural condudtors of the ele£tric fluid,
foch as the water contained in rivers, bays, arms of the
fea, &c. and by thefe the courfe of a thunder cloud is
known to be very fenfibly affeded.

But the ocean is the grand object towards which its
courfe will be diredled; accordingly the progrefs of the
clouds is from the weftern horizon, eaftward, be the wea-
ther below what it may, not excepting the moft violent
eafterly ftorms, which are fometimes, though but rarely,
accompanied with thunder and lightening.

To the foregoing obfervations I would add, 5. 'That
when an extenfive thunder cloud is forming in the atmof-
phere by means of the mutual attraction of the conden-
fmg vapors, and the body of ele£trifed air which fuftains
and condenfes them, the increafmg denfity of the whole
compound mafs of air and vapor will, by degrees, occafion
its redefcent towards the earth, from the law of gravity;
it will alfo be attrafted by, and move towards the ocean,
upon the principles of eledricity ; the cloud will then de-
fcend obliquely, in a diagonal betweefi the diredlions of
thefe two powers; and both, continually a£ting upon it,
will jointly accelerate its motion. Such a cloud, if denfe
and large, would end in a perfect tornado, either upon the
land or water, as thunder fhowers frequently do; fmaller
clouds being alfo, ufually, accompanied with gufts or
flurries of wind.

I fhall here add one obfervation more which I have fre-
quently made, and which may tend to confirm the fore-
going theory, viz. That as the general courfe of the eaftern
coaft of north America is from north-eaft to fouth-weft;
N 2 the

loo •• T H E O R Y OF

the cotirfe of a thunder cloud is ufually from the norths
weft, with the wind at fouth-eaft, perpendicular to the di-
reftion of the coaft, and contrary to each other.

Inland feas and great lakes, fuch as are thofe in North-
America, may anfwer the fame purpofes in the interior
parts of the country, as the ocean does near the limits of
the continent ; both by affording the neceflary fupplies of
vapors for the formation of the clouds, and by their attrac-
tive influence upon thofe clouds when formed.

I now conclude with a few hints, which I fhall throw
into the form of queries.

1. Whatever the primary caufe of evaporation maybe,
does not the formation of vapors into diftindl clouds de-
pend upon the eledrical ftate of the atmofphere ?

2. Were the atmofphere always uniformly eledlrical
could we have any rain*; in that cafe, if evaporation be
performed independent of eledlricity, fhould we not be
invelloped in everlafting fogs I

3. Mr. Canton fiippofes that the aurora bore alls may be
" the flalhing of eledtric fire from pofitive towards nega-
" tive clouds, throughout the upper part of the atmof-
" phere." But as the air is ufually charged more or lefs
with vapors, even when perfedtly pellucid ; and as the
moft remarkable aurorce frequently appear without a cloud
in the hemifphere, may not this phenomenon be rather
occafioned by the " flafhing of eleftric fire," from one
region or body of air to another in a different ftate of elec-
tricity, through the intervening vapors ?

4. May not thereafon of its ufual appearance in the north
and of its flafliing fouthward be, that, in every northern
latitude, the air to the fouthward is at all feafons of the
year, dttcrls paribus, more aft'edled by the heat of the fun
than the air northward of the fame latitude; and does not
this occafion an eleiftrical current to flow from north to

fouthj

* Sipnior B<-c,ar:a cnncliidcs from experiments, that gcmk rains arc the cffciUs of a moderate,
as tbi-ndo' fliowtrsart uf a more I'lcntjful, ckt'trkily.

I

W AT E R S P O UTS. ror

fouth, fo often as the above mentioned circuinftances con-
cur, though with fome interruption from the irregular dif-
pofition of the conducting vapors; and may not this occa-
fion thofe gleams and ftreams with which this phenomenon
is ufually attended ?

N° VIII.

Theory of Water Spouts, by Andrew Oliver, E/qjiire^
of Salem in the State of Ma£'achufetts.

IN my laft I took the liberty to communicate to the Phl-
lofophical Society a Theory of Light etiing and Thunder
Storms, which was fuggefted to my mind upon the peru-
fal of dodtor Priefiley''s hiflory of eleBricity. In the in-
veftigation of which theory, while I was endeavouring to
account for the exhibitions of thofe phenomena upon the
ocean, at great diftances from the land, fome thoughts na-
turally occurred relative to the -water fpout ; a phenome-
non as curious perhaps as any one in nature, and which
can rarely take place but at fea.

Water SPOUTS have by fome been fuppofed to be mere-
ly electrical in their origin; particularly by Vi^mot Beccaria,
(Prieflleyh hift. of eleCt. p. 2)55-> 3S^) ^^'^ feems to have
fupported his hypothecs by fome experiments. But as
feveral fucceffive phenomena are neceffary to conflitute a
complete water fpout, (fome of which undoubtedly de-
pend upon the eledrlc principle) if we attend to the moft
authentic defcriptions of thefe fpouts, through their vari-
ous ftages, from their firft exhibition to their total diffipa-
tion, we fhall be obliged to have recourfe to fome other
principle, in order to obtain a complete folution. I fliall
therefore, jfr/?, defcribe thefe phenomena according to the
beft obfervations I have met with ; and then, endeavour to

give

302 T H E O R Y OF

give a general philofophical folution of them. But I muft
here obferve, that the following defcriptions are all taken
from the accounts of mariners, who are indeed the only
perfons that have opportunities of viewing them; but, un-
fortunately for the caufe of philofophy, do not ufually ob-
ferve them with that circumftantial accuracy, refpeifting
the previous and fubfequent ftates of the atmofphere, which
may be neceflary to found a complete phyfical folution
upon ; nor with any view to that end, as it is foreign to
their main bufmefs, trade and commerce. But as fuch ac-
counts are the beft I have met with even in the Tranfac-
tions of the Royal Society down to 1 744, lower than which
I have not feen them; from fuch I fhall endeavour to draw
the beft conclufion which the nature of the evidence will
juftify.

The moft Intelligent and beautiful account of a water
fpout that I ever met with, is in the abridgment of the
Phil. Tranf. vol. viii, by Martin, pa. 6^^, as it was ob-
ferved by Mr, Jq/eph Hivris, May 21, 173-2, about fun-
fet, lat. 32'^ 30' JN. long. 9° E. from cape Florida; which
I fhall here tranfcribe.

" When firft we faw the fpout (fays he) it was whole
" and entire, and much of the fhape and proportion of a
*' fpeaking trumpet ; the fmall end being downwards, and
" reaching to the fea, and the big end terminated in a black
" thick cloud. The fpout itfelf was very black, and the
" more fo the higher up. It feemed to be exaftly perpen-
" dicular to the horizon, and its fides perfeiftly fmooth,
" without the leaft ruggednefs. Where it fell the fpray
" of the fea rofe to a confiderable height, which made
" fomewhat the appearance of a great fmoke. From tlic
" firft time we faw it, it continued whole about a minute,
" and till it was quite diflipated about three minutes. It
*' began to wafle from below, and lb gradually up, while
*' the upper part remained entire, without any vifibic al-
'* teration, till at lall it ended in the black cloud above.

*' Upon

WATERSPOUTS. roj

" Upon which there feemed to fall a very heavy rain in
" that neighbourhood. There was but little wind, and
" the flcy elfewhere was pretty I'erene "

In other accounts contained in the Philofophical Tranf-
adions, thefe phenomena are defcribed as having the ap-
pearance of a fword pointing downwards, fometimes per-
pendicularly fometimes obliquely towards a column of wa-
ter or froth, which feems to rife out of the fea to meet it,
attended with a violent ebullition or perturbation at the fur-
face. Again in others the appearance is compared to fmoke
afcending vifibly as through the funnel of a chimney, either
direftly, or with a fpiral motion, which according to the
fancies of fome refembles the afcent of water in the fcrew
of Archimedes ; by fuppofmg fomething fimilar to which
in the atmofphere, they have endeavoured to account for
the rife of the water from the fea in a water-fpout. To
which I would add, that, from the relations of fome per-
fons who ufe the fea, with whom I have converfed upon
the fubjedt, I find that it is no uncommon thing, during
a calm below, and a ferene fky above, to obferve at the
diftance of two or three leagues a fmall cloud hovering in
the air, from whence the commencing fpout feems to dart
downward to the fea, upon which the ufual phenomena
take place in their order. 1 have alfo been informed (and
to information I muft truft, having never been at fea) that
it is common during thefe appearances for fhips to fail,
even within hail of each other, with different winds; and
within the limits of the fame vifible horizon, with contrary
winds: And laftly, that the rife and progrefs of this pheno-
menon is fometimes fo rapid, that, even in a ferene fky, a
few minutes will be fufficient to generate a cloud from one
of thefe fpouts, and to difcharge from thence a heavy Ihow-
er of rain.

Before I proceed to attempt a philofophical folution of
thefe curious produftlons of nature, in which the two
principal fluids of our globe, air and water, are largely

concerned;;

304 T H E O R Y OF

concerned; it may be neceffary to make fome obfervatlons
upon the nature and properties of fluids in general, as fuch.

1. No fluid can be at reft unlefs every part of it refpec-
dvely be aded upon by an equal force or prefTure in every
direction, till when its feveral parts will neceflarily recede
from the greater preflure towards the lefler, nor can an
equilibrium take place.

2. If two or more fluids of different natures and denfi-
ties come together, fuch as quickfilver, water, oil and air,
which will not mix; they will take their places according
to their fpecific gravities, the denfeft remaining at the
bottom.

3. If a veflel be filled with either of thefe fluids, and a
denfer be admitted into it, the latter will expel, and take
place of the former.

4. If an empty cylindrical fpace be furrounded on all
fides by a fluid, which is excluded by fome refifting fur-
face terminating that fpace, the fluid will neceflarily, upon
the fudden removal of the obftacle, immediately flow in
from every fide towards the center of the void; and as it
flows inwards the parts next furrounding this fpace will
thereby be crowded together, and force each other up-
wards, till at length when clofed, the fluid will by its af-
cent have formed a column diredlly over the middle of the
fpace, to a height proportionable to the united force of the
converging currents. This muft be the cafe with every
fluid thus flowing into a vacuum; and in a lefler degree
when a denfer fluid in a fimilar fituation fupplants ararer:
And the greater the diff"erence of the denfities of the two
fluids might be, the more confpicuous would be the eff^edl.

This reaibning may be illuflrated, and the conclufions
exemplified by fa£l:s which muft have occurred to the
oblervation of every one. Do we not obferve when a
fliower of hail, or rain in large drops, falls upon the fur-
face of ftagnant water, that the water rifes wherever they
fall, like (o many little inverted icicles, which again

inftantly

WATERSPOUTS. 105

inftantly fubfide ? The caufe of which undoubtedly is, that
thefe drops, or hail-ftones, defcending from a great height
in the atmofphere, acquire feverally fuch a momentum in
their fall as to plunge through the furface to a proportional
depth, driving the fuperficial water back on every fide,
and leaving a momentary vacuum behind them ; not in-
deed a pure vacuum, but fuch, relative to the furrounding
fluid, which immediately returns to fill up the chafm, and,
as it clofes, gathers and rifes in the little columns above
defcribed. When a large round ftone, or any other heavy
body plunges, the effect is proportionably greater.

5. Let us, for argument's fake, fuppofe the atmofphtre
over any certain circular tradl of ocean of fome miles in
diameter, to be for a moment annihilated, the fpace it oc-
cupied before being reduced to a pure vacuum : The fur-
rounding atmofphere, when at liberty, would rufh in from
every quarter towards the centre, where the converging
currents would immenfely croud each other, and force up
a vaft quantity of air through a very narrow funnel, con-
tracted below by the united preflure of thofe currents from
all fides, into the higher regions ; which funnel, as the
denfity of the air lefTens according to its height, and the
furrounding preflure which contracts it mufl: decreafe near-
ly in the fame proportion, would more and more diverge
and expand the higher it rofe above the furface of the fea.
This would be attended with a moft furious blaft of wind
up to, and far above the top of the atmofphere. In like
manner,

6. If inftead of a pure vacuum, or a total annihilation
of fuch part of the atmofphere, we fuppofe the fame to be-
come, by any means whatever, fpecifically lihgter than the
furrounding regions, the eff^eit would be the fame as above,
in kind, though not in degree ; the denfer air flowing in,
but with lefs rapidity, from all quarters without, expelling
the lighter and fupplying its place, as in article four; upon
which alfo a large quantity of this confluent air, for the

O fame

io6 T H E O R Y OF

fame reafon, would be driven up with violence through a
like narrow vent, yet not with the fame impetuofity, nor
to the fame height as if forced through this funnel into a
pure vacuum.

That the atmofphere over large trad&of fea or land may
thus become fpecifically lighter than that over the fur-
rounding regions, will be evident, if we confider, i.That
heat has a natural tendency to rarefy and expand the air
upon which it a6ts. 2. That the atmofphere over our heads
does not confift of mere elementary air, but is an univer--
fal receptacle of all the heterogeneous vapors and effluvia
that are perpetually exhaling from every fubftance that
exifts upon the face of the earth, whether animal, veget-
able or mineral. 3. That, by the cafual difpofition of
thefe vapors and effluvia in the atmofphere, the air, which
is, of itfelf, naturally enough difpofed to acquire heat from,
the paffage of the fun's rays through it, may become more
difpofed to imbibe and retain that heat, in one region, than
in another in its neighbourhood ; which, from the inter-
vention of clouds, or from its purity and freedom from
thofe fleams and vapors with which the former is charged,
may, in a great degree, retain its natural coolnefs and
denfity, while the other becomes heated, rarefied and ex-
panded, and is thereby rendered fpecifically lighter.

That thefe dift'erent affetftions of the atmofphere aflti-
ally take place, and difpofe the air, at one time and in one
place, even in the fame feafons of the year., to imbibe and
retain the heat excited by the fun's rays, more than at
another, is not a matter of mere conjedure ; but, what-
ever the caufe may be, is notorious to all perfons of ob-
fervation.

Thefe things being premifed, I beg leave to obferve fur-
ther, that feme parts of the ocean are liable to long and
extenfive calms, during the continuance of which the heat
is fcarcely tolerable. Where thele take place the air muft
neceflarily untjergo proportional changes in its denfity and

ekih'ia

WATERSPOUTS. 107

ehBr'ic capacity^ ; and when heated and rarefied to fome
certain degree will give way, as obferved above, to the
denfer air, now proportionably difpofed to flow in from
all quarters without the limits of the calm.

When once this ftagnated air, efpecially if of any great
extent, becomes fpecifically lighter than the furrounding
air, and fufficiently rare to be fupplanted by it ; the latter
will, of courfe, fet it from every fide in horizontal currents;
which will flow, either diredlly, or obliquely, towards one
point, in or near the centre of the becalmed region afore-
faid ; the obliquities of which currents will depend upon
the dire(flions and velocities of the winds, or currents of
air which might previoufly have taken place in the fur-
rounding regions. When thefe currents arrive at the cen-
tre of their mutual convergency, all the ftagnated and ra-
refied air which was before incumbent upon the calm fur-
face of the fea, will have been expelled and forced higher
up into thcatmofphere; upon which thefe currents, by their
mutual concourfe in one place, will exceflively croud each
other, as obferved above, wherever it happens, driving the
central air upwards with a violent blaft ; which, Ihould
the currents fet in obliquely, and fo converge with a fpiral
motion towards the centre of their mutual concourfe,
would afcend as through the fcrew of Archimedes, or the
■worm of a cork-fcrew, to both of which navigators have
likened thefe fpouts : Otherwife it would rife through a
ftrait, narrow funnel, as in articles five and fix above; which
if filled with any opaque matter would become vifible, and
at a diftance would referable a fpeaking trumpet with the
fmall end downwards, in which form the water fpout fre-
quently appears. In the former cafe a whirlwind round
about the centre would undoubtedly be the confequence ;
and in either, a water fpout would probably be producedf.
O 2 For

* See Theory of Lightening, &c. page 8 1.

f We Ihall in the fequel fee abundant reafon to conclude with do<3or FraM'm zni others,
that water fpouts at fea and whiilwinds on the land (fomc fpacies of them at Icafl) are produc-
ed by the fame caufes.

io8 T H E O R Y OF

For the preflTure of the atmofphere is taken off from that
part of the furface of the fea, which is diredly under the
funnel through which the air is driven up; whereas the
furrounding furface is at the fame time uncommonly pref-
fed, from the confluence of the currents from all quarters*,
whereby the water muft necelTarily be forced up to a cer-
tain height, proportional to the furrounding preffure,
through the fame funnel with the air itfelf, nor is this all,
for in their afcent the air and water become confufedly
mixed together, whereby the latter is broken and attenu-
ated into the fineft globules and particles, as when one
forcibly blows water out of his mouth; and from this
mixtur-e of the two fluids doubtlefs arifes that opacity
which renders the fpout vifible.

This opaque column of air and water, together with the
paffage through which it afcends, will expand as it rifes,
in proportion as the compreffure diminifhes; and, to fpec-
tators at too great a diftance to difcern the narrow flem
next the water, will refemble a fword, or acute cone
pointing downwards from a fmall cloud; to which they
are frequently likened. But that they do at the fame time
communicate with the fea is evident from the perturbati-
on of the water dire£tly under them, which fometimes
boils and foams at a great rate. This is ufually the firft
appearance of one of thefe fpouts, the duration of which
is either longer or Ihorter, and the fubfequent phenome-
na more or lefs confiderable, according to the extent of the
caufe, and the mode of its operation.

The water being thus railed from the fea, and forced
Irrefifliably upwards in the fineft globules by the protrud-
ing air, arrives at length at the warm electrical airf lately

expelled,

• In the abridj^mcnt of PhiloropI-.icalTranfaiSlions, vol. II. (by Eames and Martin) page 6r,
at the botton^, it aj pears, that the meeting of two contrary currents of air or contrary winds, rai-
fcs the mercury in inc barometer near tlio place where it happens, which indicates an inctcafc of
the prelTiirc of the atmofphere upon the furface of tJie earth or fea. How much more then muft
that prefl'ure be iucreal'ed, from a general confluence of the ail from all quarters towards one
fpot ?

f Sec Theory of Lightening, &c. page 90.

WATER SPOUTS. rog

expelled, which was previoufly incumbent upon the calm
furface beneath ; the eledtric attradlion of which probably
uflifts the further afcent of thefe particles after the firft fury
of the blaft is fpent. There it undergoes another opera-
tion being converted into vapor, whereby it is wholly dif-
charged of the marine falts it carried up with it*; which
are now left to fhift for themfelves, together with innu-
merable other heterogeneous corpufcles which fuceffively
float in the atmofphere, and which in due time, become
feverally fubfervient to many wife purpofes in the oecono-
my of nature. Thefe vapors will then be greedily attach-
ed by the craving particles of this air, now deficient of its
natural quantity of eledric matterf, and form a denfe
cloud, in like manner as thunder clouds are formed over
the land; but \\'ith much greater expedition, as the fupply
of vapors is more fudden. This cloud will then be ready
in a fhort time to difcharge a fhower of frefh water upon
the fea from whence it rofe, and may be attended with,
thunder and lightening, or not, as the air in which the
eloud was formed was more or lefs eledtrical, or the cloud
extenfive.

A previous calm may not be necejfary to the produdfion
of thefe phenomena, and indeed they frequently happen
without one : But, upon the fame principle, if it be calm-
er where they arc produced, or the ftate of the atmofphere
there be fuch as to difpofe it to acquire and retain the heat
acquired from the fun's rays, more than in the furround-
ing regions, which, as we have feen above, may be the
cafe, the effedls may be the fame in kind, though perhaps
not in degree ; the moft perfedl water fpouts probably rif-
ing from whence there has previoufly been a dead calm,,
or nearly fuch, for the foregoing reafons.

If

* The water carried up in tine of thefe fpouts is undoubtedly fait when it firfl: rifes from the
fea, as it afcends in great (Quantities, and in a very denfe column; but it is always frefh when it
defcends again in a ihower : It muli therefore in the mean time have gone through, a compka-t
natural diftillation.

-f Theory of Lightening, &c. page 9a.

no T H E O R Y OF

If there be any wind at the time of the phenomenon,
the aerial funnel through which the water afcends, inftead
of being perpendicular to the horizon, as it "would be in a
calm, might incline more or lefs to it, in proportion to the
flrength or weaknefs of the prevailing current of air: Or,
inftead of continuing in one fpot, it might have a progref-
fiv^e motion over the furface of the fea, in the direction of
the general current; both of which circumftances frequently
take place. In either cafe it is natural to fuppofe, that both
air and water would afcend fpirally, as through the worm
of a fcrew, every current which fets in towards the centre
receiving an oblique bias from the prevailing current.

It fometimes happens, that after the fubfiding of a fpout,
it is fucceeded by a fecond, and that by a third, either in
the fame place, or at no great diftance from it. But this
alfo is analogous to what we obferve upon the plunging
of heavy bodies out of air into water. For, after the flrll
fubfiding of the fmall column of water which is occafion-
ed by it, and is above refembled to an icicle, the water
again rifes and fubfides as at firft, though not in the fame
degree, as may be concluded from thofe fainter concentric
circles which expand from the fame centre after the fub-
fidence of the firft column. The fame thing which here
takes place in water, may alfo take place in air, under
fimilar circumftances.

Since writing the foregoing, while I was endeavouring
to contrive fome experiment to illuftrate the fubje<ft, a very
fimple one was fuggefted to my mind, the fuccefs of which
I think demonftrates the truth of the hypothefis introduced
above to account for the firft afcent of the water in the
fpout ; the event being precifely the fame as was expeded
before hand, and as ought to have taken place upon the
principles above advanced.

EXPERIMENT.

In a ftiff paper card I made a hole juft big enough to
infert a goofe quill fo as that it might be fixed perpendi-
cularly

WATER SPOUTS. 1 1 1

cularly to the plane of the card : After cutting the quill
off fquare at both ends and fixing it, I laid the card upon
the mouth of a wine glafs, filled with water to within one
fifth or fixth part of an inch from the lower orifice of the
quill ; then applying my mouth to the upper part, I drew
out the air in the quill by a ftrong fu£tion, and in one
draught of my breath drew in about a fpoonful of the wa-
ter ; this by ftronger fu£tions I was able to repeat again
and again, the quill remaining as before. The water, as-
I expeded, did not afcend to the mouth in a ftream, as it
would have done had the quill reached below the furface j
but broken and confufedly mixed with the air which afcend-
ed with it ; as is above fuppofed to be the cafe in the aicent
of water in a fpout at fea.

In this experiment the fudtion occafioned a vacuum, or
at leaft a great rarefadion of the air, within and diredly
under the quill ; the furrounding air of courfe flowed in
from every quarter to fupply it, rufhing up into the quilU
and through it to the mouth ; the prefTure of the atmof-
phere being thereby taken off from the furface of the wa-
ter immediately under the orifice, while the prefTure upon
the furrounding furface remained, and was probably in-
creafed, the water was forced up together with the air as
above notwithftanding the quill had no manner of com-
munication with the water. If the fuftion be made very
ftrong, and the quill be fixed at the diflance of a quarter
of an inch or more from the water, a confiderable agitation
and ebullition takes place in the vrater under it, fimilar to
that obferved in mofl: natural water fpouts, and the pafl^age
of the water from the furface to the quill becomes very
vifible.

It was hinted in a preceding note, that water fpouts at
fea and whirlwinds at land, fome fpecies of them at leaft,
arife from the fame caufe, how different foever their ap-
parent effeds may be. This I think is made fulficiently
evident from the obfervations of a couple of land fpouts at

Hatfidd

112 T H E O R Y OF

Hatfield in Torkpoire, by Mr. Abr. de la Pryine*, whofe ac-
counts of them I fhall here tranfcribe, as the Tranfadions
of the Royal Society are in the hands of but few among
us, and as the fads related by him tend ftrongly to con-
firm the prcfent theory, however his conclufions from
them may differ from it.

" On the 15th of Auguft, 1687, (fays he) appeared a
" fpout in the air at Hatfield in York/hire ; it was about a
" mile off coming diredly to the place where I was ; I
" took my profpedive glaffes to obferve it as well as I
" could.

" The feafon was very dry, the weather extreme hot,
" and the air very cloudy ; the wind aloft, and pretty
" ftrong, and (which is remarkable) blowing out of feve-
" ral quarters at the fame time, and filling the air here-
*' abouts with mighty thick and black clouds, layer upon
*' layer ; the wind thus blowing foon created a great vor-
" tex^ gyration and •whirling among the clouds ; the cen-
" tre of which every now and then dropt down in the
" fliape of a thick, long, black pipe, commonly called a
*' fpout ; in which I could dirtindtly view a motion like
" that of a fcrew, continually drawing upwards, and fcrew-
" ing up (as it were) whatever it touched. In its progrefs
*' it moved flowly over a hedge-row and grove of young
" trees which it made to bend like hazle wands, in a cir-
" cular motion ; then going forward to a great barn it
" twitched off in a minute all the thatch, and filled the
•' whole air therewith. Coming to a very great oak tree,
" it made it bend like the foregoing trees, and broke off
" one of the greatcft and ftrongeft branches that would
" not yield to its fury, and twilling it about, flung it to a
" very confiderable diftance off; then coming to the place
" where I flood, within three hundred yards of me, I be-
" held this odd phenomenon, and found that it proceeded
" from nothing but a gyration of the clouds by contrary

-winds

' Abridgment of Philofophical Traiifaiflions, vol. IV. by Jones, page ic6, lo;.

WATER SPOUTS. 113

*' ivinds meetiJig in a point or centre ; and where llie great-
" eft condenfation and gravitation was, falling down into
" a pipe or great tube (fomething like the cochlea Archi-
" medis) and that in its working or whirling motion, ei-
" ther fucks up water, or deftroys fliips, &c. Having tra-
" veiled about a quarter of a mile farther, it dilTolved by
" the prevalency of the wind that came out of the eaft."
The account of the other is as follows, viz. " I have
" feen another fpout in the fame place, which very much
*' confirms me in my notion of the origin and nature of
" them. — The 21ft of June, 1702, -was pretty ivarm ; on
" the afternoon of which day, about two of the clock, no
" nvindjiirring heloiv though it was fomewhat great in the
" air, the clouds began to be mightily agitated and driven
" together; whereupon they became very black, and were /^
" (moft vifibly) hurried rounds from whence proceeded a
" moft audible whirling noife, like that commonly heard
" in a mill. After a while, a long tube or fpout came
*' down from the centre of the congregated clouds, in
" which was a {^\{\.Jpiral motion like that of a fcrew, or
" the cochlea Archiniedis when it is in motion, by which
*' fpiral nature and fwift turning, water afcends up into
" the one as well as into the other. It travelled flowly
" from weft to north-eaft, broke down a great oak tree or
*' two, frighted fome out of the fields, and made others
" lie down flat upon their bellies, to fave being whirled
" about and killed by it, as they faw many jackdaws to
" be, that were fuddenly caught up, carried out of fi^ht,
" and then caft a great way amongft the corn ; at laft it
" paffed over the town of Hatfield^ to the great terror of
" the inhabitants, filling the whole air with the thatch that
" it plucked off from fome of the houfes ; then touching
" upon a corner of the church, it tore up feveral ftieets of
" lead, and rolled them ftrangely together-; foon after
" which it diflblved and vanifhed without doing any fur-
*' ther mifchief.

P "By

114 THEORY OF

" By all the obfervations that I could make of this, and
" the former, I found that had they been at fea and joined
*' to the furface thereof, they would have carried a vaft
" quantity of water up into the clouds, and the tubes would
" then have become mvich more ftrong and opaque than
" they were, and have continued much longer.

" It is commonly faid that at fea the water colle<3;s and
" bubbles up a foot or tv\'o high under thefe fpouts before
" that they be joined : But the miftake lies in the pellu-
" cidity and finenefs of thofe pipes, which do moft certaln-
*' ly touch the furface of the fea before that any confider-
*' able motion be made in it, and that, when the pipe be-
" gins to fill with water, it then becomes opaque and
" vifible."

I fhall here make a remark or two upon the above cited
author's mode of exprefhon in the foregoing accounts,
which is evidently adapted to a preconceived idea of the
cochlea Archwiedis, by fuppofing fomething fimilar to
which, as taking place in our atmofphere, he is not alone
in endeavouring to account for thefe phenomena. In con-
formity to this idea he fpeaks of the fpout as cirazi'ing up-
•wards, and Jcreiuing up whatever it touched ; and fup-
pofes that by its Jpiml motion and JiJL'ift turning, water
afcends in it as in xhe/creiv of Archimedes. But this hy-
pothefis, however fpecious, has been long fince exploded
as unphilofophical.

Mr. de la Pryme mentions the appearance of a long black
pipe which now and then dropped down from the centre
of the gyrating clouds ; in which pipe he diilindly view-
ed a motion like that of a fcrew ; and as fuch he ieems to
have fuppofed it afted, viz. either in the manner of a cork-
fcrevv upon folids, or as the cochlea Archnnedis upon ihiids,
drawing them up into the atmofphere. But as he himfelf
afterwards, when applying; his obfervations to a fpout at
fea, very juHly concludes that the pelluciditv and fmencfs
of thefe pipes over the water reader them invihble below,

" aotwithflanding

WATER SPOUTS. 115

*' notwithftanding (as he conceives) that the pipes do mofl
" certainly touch the furface of the lea before any confidcr-
" able motion be made in it, and that they are then rendered
*' opaque and vifible when they begin to fill with water ;"
might he not with equal reafon have fuppofed that thofe
aerial pipes which he obferved over the land were alfo con-
tinued from the clouds down to the furface of the earth, as
from their effedts below, one would naturally conclude
they were, and that they were pellucid and invifible fo
long as they contained nothing but air ; but that " every
" now and then," when they met with any fubftances
which might perchance pafs within the compafs of their
gyration, or which they could eafily carry up ; fuch as
detached parts of the broken clouds ; water from ftagnant
ponds, brooks and rivers, hay, ftubble, thatch, duft, &c.
they then become opaque and vifible, and that they ap-
peared to dart downwards by a kind of optical deception ?
For upon the foregoing principles thefe pipes of air muft
neceifarily be broadeft above, as we have already feen, and
terminate in a narrow ftem below, the broadeft part being,
at a diftance, firft vifible, and the fhank feemingly taper-
ing downwards to a point. It is however certain from the
efte£ts of the above mentioned fpouts, that, whatever the
appearances were aloft., they were all occafioned by the
rulhing of the air upwards through a narrow paflage, that
was contracted beloiv, by the concourfe and preflTure of the
oppofite currents of that fluid, and dilated above from the
diminution of that preffure.

I have referved for this place an account of a curious
fpout which made its appearance anno 1 694, not at fea,
but in the harbour of Topjhmtr, and at low water ; which
pafled with a flow progreflive motion over both land and
water; ading as a complete water fpout over the latter, and
as a whirlwind upon the former: For when it pafl^ed over
the channel of the river, it threw up the water in a denle
P 2 ftream,

* Lowthorp's Abridgm. Phil. Tranf. vol, II. page 104.

ii6 T H E O R Y OF

ftfeam, as if it had been impelled through the hofe of a
fire engine, and the ftream accordingly ended in a thick
mift, refembling a dark fmoke; the furface of the water,
round about the fpot from wlience it rofe, being greatly
agitated, as is ufual in thole phenomena. In its courfe it
met with the hull of a new fhip of about one hundred tons,
■which was much fhaken by it, but received no hurt. In
palhng over the flats it took hold of a boat which was
faftened to an anchor, whirled both boat and anchor to
fome height in the air, and rent the boat " from the head
" to the keel.'''' When it reached the fhore it lifted up an-
other boat about fix feet from the ground, letting it fall
again upfidedown; and had a ftrange efFe£t upon a parcel
of planks, fome of which were raifed up perpendicularly,
and flood upon their ends while it palfed along; and in
its further progrefs it was attended with the ufual effeds
of a whirlwind, fuch as ftripping off, not only thatch, but
fheets of lead from the tops of houfes, and tearing off the
limbs of trees. This account may tend to confirm the
theory here oftered, as it proves to a demonftration, that
the water fpout therein defcribed, was occafioned by a pre-
vious whirlwind in the atmofphere ; which whirlwind was
alfo occafioned by the rufliing of a large quantity of air,
upwards, from all quarters near the furface of the earth,
through a very contracted aerial palfage, towards the top
of the atmofphere; the narrownefs of which pafiagc, as
determinable from the effefts obferved in its progrefs, fliews
it to have been comprefled upon all fides by a general con-
flux of oppofite currents of air ; as the rufliing of the air
through it with fuch violence from beneath, does, that the
denfity of the fluid and the comprelfive force of the cur-
rents were greatert there. The afcending air carried up
the water with it through the fame paflage ; not by any
mechanical operation upon it, like the ail ion of a fcrewof
any kind ; but, merely, by taking off the preifure of the
atmofphere from the furface of tlie water dire(Stly under

it;

W A T E R S P'O U T S. nj

it ; ■whence the water muft neceflarily afcend, as in any-
common hydrauhc machine ; and that with a force pro-
portional to the preffure of the atmofphere upon the fur-
rounding furface, now greatly increafed by the confluence
of thofe currents.

Before I clofe this fubjed, I Ihall juft mention, without
making any remarks, the effefts which a whirlwind had
amongft a number of fliocks of corn at Warrington in
NorthaiiiptonJJjire, Auguft ift, 1694; out of which from
eighty to a hundred fhocks were carried up into the air^
a great part of them out of fight; thefe when the fury of
the blaft was fpent, fell down again at the diftance of fome
miles from their own field. The account of this whirl-
wind immediately precedes the article laft quoted from the
Philofoph'ical Tranfaclions. Should the foregoing theory be
adjudged tenable, it will render very credible thofe ftrange
accounts which we have fometimes had, of its raining tad-
poles and frogs, which have been found upon the tops of
houfes after a fhower; and even fmall fifhes, a Ihower of
which fell at Cranjlead near Wrotham in Kent-, anno 16(^6,
ontheWednefday before Eafter (Lowthorp's abridgement of
Philofophical Tranfaftions, vol. II. page 144.) For fhould
one of thofe aerial pipes pafs over a frog pond, or the
{hallow parts of a fifh pond, the fame natural caufe which
in a fpout at fea, would carry up the water from the ocean,
vrould alfo carry up the water from the ponds aforefaid,
together with the contents; whether tadpoles, frogs or
fillies: Thefe muft defcend again fomewhere; and where—
ever they fell, a fhower of fifties, frogs or tadpoles, would
be the confequence. .

Experiments

I "8 ]

N° IX.

Experiments on Evaporatioti, and Meteorological Obferva-
tions made at Bradford in Neiv-England, ifi 1772, by
the -S^fi;. Samuel Williams, A. M.

IN making experiments on the quantity of water that
evaporated in the year 177 1, the method I ufed, was
to fill the veflel the beginning of every month: In the
courfe of thefe experiments, I obferved that in the begin-
ning of the month when the tube was newly filled, it cx-
haufted much fafter than towards the latter end, when one
or two inches of the water was evaporated ; and that the
quantity of evaporation meafured this way, came out lefs
than the quantity of rain that fell in the courfe of the
year. The beginning of the year 1772, I attempted to
examine this matter more carefully. With this view I
made the following experiments.

EXPERIMENT I.

T procured two cylindrical veffels of three inches diame-
ter, and fix deep, as much alike as they could be made:
One, I filled with water as I had done in 1771, once a
month; the other, with the fame kind of water, once a
week; and placed them about fix inches apart, in fuch a
manner as to be expofed to the wind, and fun, but cover-
ed from the rain. The refult was, that which was filled once
a week, exhaufted about one third more than the other. In
January and February., the difference uas a little lefs; in
March and April, it was a little more. In May, the laft
month in which I compared them, the evaporation from
the former was 6-2)$ inches; from the other 4. 1 o. By this

experiment

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 119-

experlment I was convinced that it never could be known
with much accuracy by either of thefe methods, what
quantity of water does really evaporate from the furface
of feas, lakes and rivers. For in the one cafe, after
about an inch is exhaufted the furface of the water is too.
much fheltered from the wind, which greatly retards the
evaporation. In the other, as the water has all the advan-
tage of the wind, and is heated by the fun, and atmof-
phere, to a confiderable greater degree than the water in
feas, lakes and rivers, the quantity of evaporation comes
out too much. And therefore nothing certain as to the
real quantity of evaporation from watery fluids, can be de-
termined by fuch experiments, however carefully they
may be made.

EXPERIMENT 11.

To meafure with more certainty the real quantity of
evaporation, I attempted in the next place to examine
what it was in fadt from the furface of a river. This ex-
periment was made in the following manner : I filled one
of the veflels with river water, and placed it as before.
The other I fixed in the centre of a circular board of three
feet diameter. This inftrument, by means of a line
faftened to a tree on a fmall ifland, was placed fo as to
float near the middle of Menimack river. To defend the
tube againft the dews and rain, a circular piece of glafs,
fifteen inches diameter, was fupported by wires fixed to
the board, eight inches above the tube; and the whole
was fo balanced by weights as to leave half an inch of the
tube above the furface of the water. When thus afloat I
filled the tube with water, propofing to let it remain in
this fituation a week, to fee how much would evaporate in
that fpace of time. After repeated difappointments by
the rain, wind and waves, for three months, I at laft fuc-
ceeded in trying the experiment from Aiigiijl 26th, to
September 2d. During that time there was little wind,

ftilL

I20 EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION.

ftill water, no rain, nor any thing to difturb the experi-
ment. The event was, that at the end of the feventh day,
the tube was exhaufted 1.15 inch. And that no water
had got into the tube in that time, I was certain from this
circumftance ; all that part of the furface of the board
which was within half a foot of the tube was dry every
morning and evening. In the other tube, the evaporation
in the fame time was 1.50 inch; which gives ^S decimal
parts of an inch difference between the real evaporation
from the furface of the river, and that of the water when
fufpended in the air, as in the other veflel. All the eva-
porations therefore meafured the latter of thefe ways,
ought to be diminiflied in this proportion, to have the true
quantity fuch as it is in nature.

EXPERIMENT III.

Thefe experiments on watery fluids put me upon en-
quiring what the evaporation was from the furface of the
earth. To determine this, Sept. 14, two days after there
had been any rain, I funk one of the vefTels into the earth
in a light foil, fo as to take up all the earth contained in
a fpace equal to the contents of the veflel. Having care-
fully weighed the vefl^el with the earth it contained, I fix-
ed it in the ground in a plain open field, where it was ex-
pofed to the fun and wind, but defended from the dew and
rain, as in the former experiment. At the end oi J'e-veu
days I took it up, and weighing it again found it had loft
783 grains, troy. The diameter of the veflTel being three
inches, its furface exprefl'ed in whole numbers was equal
to nine fquare inches. Dividing the number of grains that
evaporated, 783, by the number of fquare inches contain-
ed in the furface of the veflel, 9, we Ihall have 87 grains
for the evaporation from one fquare inch ; and this, (af-
fuming 2^4 grains as the weight of a cubic inch of water)
will give J*-^ parts of an inch, as the depth of water that
paflTcd off by evaporation. In the other veffel filled with

water,

EXPERIMENTS on EVAPORATION. 121

water, and placed as before, the evaporation in the fame
time was exaftly one inch. If this experiment may be
fuppofed to reprefent the operations of nature, the con-
cluiion will be, that the evaporation from the furface of
the earth, is but little more than 07ie third of what the
evaporation is from the furface of water.

EXPERIMENT IV.

. Another thing I had in view was to know what the eva-
poration was from plants and trees. In order to make an
eftimate of this, Augiiji 20, I took up four different forts
of plants, with as much of the earth adjoining to each as
wholly covered their roots. Each plant, with the earth
thus about it, being fix inches fquare, I put into a wooden
box of the fame form and fize. The boxes were covered
with thin lead, well cemented at the joints, that nothing
might evaporate that way ; and had two apertures at the
top ; one, to admit the ftem of the plant, the other, that
the plant might be fupplied with water, but which was
kept flopped when not in ufe. Having taken the weight
of each, I placed them in the ground that they might have
the fame degree of heat as before ; leaving as much of the
plant above the furface of the earth, as when it was in its
natural ftate. In this fituation I added known quantities
of water, aiming to put in from time to time as much as
I thought they w^ould throw off. At the end of thirty
days I took them up, taking an account of their weight as
before, and alfo that of each plant. The refult is expref-
fed in the following particulars :

The feueral forts

Weight of the

Water evaporat-

of plants.

plants.

Grains.

ed in 30 days.

Gniiiis.

Apple tree, -

- - 23 - -

- - I 271

Alder tree.

- - 30 - -

- - 2593

Spear mint, -

- - 22 - -

- - 5186

Clover, -

- - 43 - -

- - 1894

II

122 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

In this experiment, the evaporation from thefe four verj
fmall plants was 10944 grains; amounting to about 43
cubic inches of water, in thirty days. The evaporation
in the fame time from the veflel fufpended in the air, was
4.25 inches in depth : The quantity therefore thrown off
by the plants, was more than what the evaporation would
have been from a watery furface, of ten inches fquare. If
this way of reafoning may be applied to fields covered with
trees, grafs, and_ other vegetables, the inference will be,
that the evaporation for feveral months is greater from,
them, than it is from equal areas of the furface of water.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS made
at Bradford in 1 772.

THE inftruments ufed in the following obfervations,
the times at which they were taken, and the method in
which they are fet down, were defcribed in the paper fent
to the Society laft year. With regard to thofe of the pre-
fent year the following things are to be obferved : The
barometrical obfervations till Nov. 6, muft be viewed as
Imperfcdt, being taken with a barometer of too fmall a
bore. From the 6th of November to the end of the year,
they are very exa<Sl ; being taken by a very good barome-'
ter made by Na'wne. In meafuring the quantity of eva^
poration, I uied a tube three inches diameter and fix deep ;
which was filled once a week. The rain was meafured by
a tube of the fame form and fize. In all other relpedls,
the fame method was obferved as in the meteorological
obfervations of 1771.

The obfervations taken by the barometer and thermome"
ter are fet down in three columns ; the firft: column con-
tains the obfervations taken ufually about 6'' A. M. the
fecond at noon, and the third at i)'' p. m. The other co-
lumns give the general ftatc of the winds and weather of
the day.

J A N U-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 123

<:

z

<:

■H.S

•3 'H.^'c.-f . ^'

"^f^ " -S !S ^ &" J •l"'?'^ 'S ^ - -■ ^

£ s o S y o o E 5 i5 p o E S (5 ci o o o s £ y o Q E 3 G 6 fe u c

^' ^' m m Z Z ^' ^' g q 3 W oi ^' 5 M ^ Z ;s 2 Z w to S ^' Z 2 Q ^' z z

O *^ w 00 O c* 0, ^O -O rt -^ O »^00 O 00 »^ O OsOO sO O O M O t~--NO f* rt.

O tH o 'oi^O >- i^r-w tt-fo O CN^CN »^NO <

J C* M W C4 (Ti (

r-oo ^^0^^^^0 O^

Mr* wir* Ml-Me*wt-*- Mf< Mf* mIc* m1+ Hlr»M|c*

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) "!t lO'O f^OO O O M c» PO ^ »o^ P^OO Oy O M ct r^ *!■ *0'0 t-^00 ON O i

m

E E B R U^

124 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

<
ID

pq

1
1

Fair A. M; cloudy P. M.

Fine bright day.

Clo. day ; hea. ftor. of fn. & hail in the nig.

Dull cloudy day.

Flying clouds, with bright intervals.

Fine bright day. Aur. Bor. in the night.

Fine pleafant weather.

Cloudy dull day.

Rainy A. M; cloudy P. M. bright even.

Fair and clear.

Ditto.

Fair day.

Fair day; cloudy evening.

Snow A. M; clear P. M.

Clo. A. M;fn. with ra. P.M.&inthcnig.

Fair pleafant day.

Flying clouds, with bright intervals.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Cloudy day; rain in the night.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Heavy ftorm of fnow and rain all day.

Flying clouds, with bright intervals.

Fine pleafant day. Aur. Bor. in tlic nig.

Ditto.

Ditto.

1

S.

W. little.

E. frelh.

S. to N. W. frefh.

N. W. frefh.

N. W. little.

S. W. to W.

N. toE. S.E.

S. to W. frefti.

N. W. frefh.

S. W- to W. frefh,

N. W.

N. W. to N. E.

N. to W.

W. to E.

S. W. little.

W. to S. W. frefli.

S. W. little.

S. W.

Ditto.

W. S. W.

Ditto, frdli.

S. W. to E.
N.E.toS. ftrong.
W. to N. ftrong.

S. W. little.
Ditto. frcOi.

1

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M w t.^ rt i^so t^OC C\ O '-' c' '^ ^ ^.sc r^oo CVO " r* fO't'',sC I^OO OS

MARCH,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 125

U
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ifi S S §

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fceoSKofiSoSuyyooQooSoaSSoEOKoXB!'^;

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Hc^Hrt He* ^f*-

s (^ O r^ M so r^sO r^t^OsOP*HO0OOn^f*^t^6c>s OssO 30 so «0 so so

&&

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s O O CN O CN OsOO CN C

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O 'H P* t^ Tf ^^^0 1^00 Os O

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APRIL,

-.26 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

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TJ ^

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d ©"^ s'^-i'^-l c"^ ="^2"^ i"^!;"^- s't's S 2 2

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=§ bo" ^ 4 Z

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m t t^\o *^oo ov O

MAY,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 127

hund.
evening.

e night.
& night.

th t
the

nth
M

P.

M

weather.

Lightg. in the night, v.
dy, with bright interval
r A.M. clou. P.M. & in
cloudy weather,
pleafant day.

dyA.M. rainy P.M. &
A. M. fmall (howers P
and pleafant.

dy A. M. rainy P. M.
r and pleafant.

0.

dy A. M. rainy P. M.

day ; cloudy evening.
11 fnowers A. M. cloudy

pleafant day.
0.
0.

till 3 P. M. cloudy even

cloudy day.
0.-)

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JUNE,,

;28 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

> s

.-■S

• ?j-"^ S § ^ I

' -b j: _g -c ^" —

to Q ti; a 5 Q Q 3 (5 tS o '£ p 3 p 0 o oi Q Q o u E fi a u fe "^

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to 6 ^ o '*-«o^»H ^t-* nso

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t^MD M O ^ M MSO

r^^ lo^ c^ c^ r^ c*.^ ^S *o'0 ^ t~^oo r^sQ no lO ^ sO tr*^ c»- t»«-^o r^ t^o

M|H M[c* Hirt h1c»

3 O i^ to '-o'O *o "O *o *^ "^ *o ^n*0 r^^o NO >o *o "o *o *o »oO NO NO ^ r^-o r^

O oo r*. Onno f^ ifl-io c< f^ O NO O

5^0^

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) •* ^O <*»00 On O H t* trj ^ >o*o t^OO ^ O M r» r*: -ft »oNO r^OO c\ O

JULY,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, i

29

1 wcatntr.

Small ihowers A. M. fair & plcaf P. M

Cloudy, with fmall fliowers.

Ditto, lightening in the evening.

Ditto. ^

Fine plcaf day. Aur. Bor. in the evening.

Fair A. M; cloudy P. M ^

Fair till 2 P. M. clou, with th. & ra. nig.

Fair day. W^r. ^or. in the night.

Fine plcafant day.

Fair A. M. lliower of rain and hail P. M.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Fair A. M. a fmall (hower P. M.

Cloudy, dull weather.

Cloudy, with bright intervals.

Fine plcafant weather.

Fair A. M. cloudy P. M.

Fine pleafant day.

Fair A.M. cloudy P.M. rain in the night.

Cloudy A. M. clear P. M.

Ditto, ditto.

Cloudy, with thunder and rain.

Pleafant day. Rem. Aur. Bor. in the nig.

Fair plcafant weather.

Ditto. Lightening in the evening.

Ditto.

Fair A. M. thunder and rain P. M.

Dull rainy day.

in a (liadc in the open air.

>r -

S. W.

Ditto.

N. to E.

S. W. to W.

W.

S. W.

S. W. ftrong.

S. W. to N. W.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

W. to S. little.

S. W.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

N. E. to W.

Variable.

W. to N.

S. W.

S. to S, W.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Variable.

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r^ c^ r-s t^ t^ ,^ ^00 j.^jjQ 00 r^ (v.

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s

AUGUST,

130 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

.5> • .S

« 4 1 1 ■s'^j

he ni

. in t
the

t.

n the
tcrva

H " to S ^ . — B 1

■3 .= .£•; . .«> t^ cz

^

with brighl
weather.

:s; clears up

. thun. &lig
; fair P. M.
fmall Ihowcr
ither.
fant.

lowers P. M

ram in the n

;ather.

Ither.

weather.

Tiall ihowcrs

day.

heavy Ihowe

, with brigh

day.

1

1

'ng clouds,

i pleafant

to.

to.

ivy fliowei

r weather.

to.

r day ; terr

udy A. M

ludy day ;

fettled we;

r and plea

to.

to.

r A. M. fli

11 cloudy d

ludy day ;

11 rainy wi

fettled we;

to.

c pleafant

to.

r A. M. fi

e pleafant

iudy day;

ing clouds

e pleafant

to.

to.

to.

E E o 5 X £ 3 £ o u P fe S 5 (£ o G Q 5 5 s 5 s2 £ o «. £ (5 a 3 fi

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NO^ tH_ r*l rl rt NO 1^ <^ n^nO^no^ S? ^ '^ *^.. "CI 'Q^'^ *^'* O^ rt 0^"*''0 p»00 O rt^s

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^

SEP-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 1 3 1

Pi

w

CO

1

Fair pleafant weather.

Cloudy day ; ftorm of rain in the night.

Rainy till 4 P. M. clears up in the night.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Fair A. M. cloudy P. M.

Cloudy day ; fair evening.

Cloudy dull weather.

Rainy day ; fair evening.

Storm of rain all day.

Rainy A. M. cloudy P. M. fair evening.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Fair A . IVI. cloudy P. M. rain in the night.

Rainy day ; fair evening.

Fair day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Rainy day.

Cloudy dull weather.

Flying clouds, with bright intervals.

Fair weather.

Ditto.

Fine bright day.

Dull mining day.

Ditto.

E. little.
N. to N. E,
N. frem.

Ditto.

Ditto.

W. to S.

S. to W.

S.

N.

N. ftrong.

N. to W.

W. little.

W. to S. W. little.

W.

W. to N.

S. to W.

W. little.

Ditto.

S. httle.

Ditto.

S. to E,

s.

N.

Ditto.

Ditto.

N. to E.

S. to S. W.

E.

Ditto.

i

C^sO t^ t^sO SO NO >0 ;^ i^ i^. i.n K-,sO lo »0'0 so so >0 ^0

C?s f^ f^ »^ »^ c» xo t^so
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^ ^00 t-( 0 w t-^ ^ f^ »^sO M 00 00 0 r^ t^ »j^so *J- trt
t^so so 00 r^so so *o r^ >o »o 'o "o-O so >o i^^ so ^ so

w|c»wle»

r» -too w f^ Os'.^ O Os
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o* tso 00 Osooo t^ r^

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OO ^sO 00 OO OSOO so t^

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C^OsOsOsoic^Cs^C^

M|t4H|c» Wirt Wirt
so t-~C< t^W. M MOOSO ^ (^ HOO 0 0 Os ^^ " "OOO OO 00

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00 stsO 00 00 OS CN (^ t^

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1

£■£•

OCTO-'

1^,2 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

3 aS .S -5 3 o .S 3 .S -5 .S .5 .S .S .S .S J i .2 J 3 i ■- -2 .§ ^ .5 = .3 jr

^

=« ^ s

ss

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HNOOO^OOOCN'-n*

ij^ii^Li^o^vi-)ij-iw-)tri u^\o *n ^n "o^ ^ >^sO ^ *o "^ ^ *o^ lo *n "^ "^ "^ '

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N O V E M-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 133

.s

d

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m

•S 1.5

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J J:J T)_1J

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^ 1*^ .*^00 <^00 T» O

H)rt He* Hc'r»ltiHlrt«K H*

«|t< H+ NHdh

Mjt^Nlw t<^'.'<!»*i[w<t< rtbt»k Mlc*H|p»^e* M|e»HhWe»

h-IH-iCNISl-lWMlH-HM rtkoHH ►^WMjc' Mj-t-lMNIS" H|HH[e»-HH|d>^C<

c/&

I fl CO ^ »0*0 r*-0O Os O M f« ro -(f tn»C f^OO Ov O i

) ^ »o»o (^00 C\ o

DECEM-

134 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

"^ ^

J. ^ If

1 1 % •§ u

1

Fair day ; rainy evening.

Rainy weather.

Cloudy A. M; fair P. M.

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Cloudy unpleafant weathe:

Fair day.

Flying clouds, with bright

Fair A. M. clo. with fmall

Bine pleafant day.

Fair and clear.

Ditto.

Cloudy day ; fair evening.

Fine pieaf day. Aur. nor.

Fair A. M. cloudy P. M.

Cloudy A. M ; rainy P. A

Cloudy unfcttled weather.

Ditto.

Fine pleafant day.

Cloudy A. M; rainy P. A

Fine pleafant day.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Cloudy day ; fnow in the <

Fine pleafant day.

Cloudy day; rain in the n

Dull milling day.

Fine pleafant weather.

Ditto.

Ditto.

Cloudy, dull weather.

c5

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f>.

y

t--

1

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w

f~l— 1

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4 "^ 4A a w !§

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little.

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W. to

W.
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The

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 13 j

The greateft height of the barometer this year, was on
the 17th of November : The mercury was then at 30.5^
inches. The leaft height was 28.2^ inches on Auguft the
26th. The thermometer on the 29th of July, rofe to
96 °4; on February the 13th, it flood at 3° : The former
was the greateft, the latter its leaft height. The quantity
of rain that fell in the year was 36.30 inches. The
quantity of evaporation, meafured by filling the veflel
once a week, came out 42.65 inches.

It is however to be obferved that different methods of
meafuring the evaporation, will lead to different conclufi-
ons. It was becauie the tube was of too fmall a diameterj
and not filled often enough, that the quantity of evapora-
tion came out fo fmall in 1771. The method of making
the experiments being altered, the evaporation turns out
very different in 1772. If the experiments could be made
on the furface of a watery fluid the refult would determine
the quantity of evaporation, with much greater certainty
and accuracy, than can ever be done by means of a veffel
fufpended in the air.

OBSERVATIONS in

The quantity of rain which fell in

1773'

January, was

i»95

February,

0'95

March,

^^75

April,

1,90

May,

2,10

June,

1,70

July,

1,00

Auguft,

4'i5

September,

1,05

Oaober,

4'io

November,

1,90

December,

4,00

T a To

136 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

To meafure the quantity of rain, I fixed a tube about
three inches diameter,- in fuch a manner as to receive the
rain as it fell; which I meafured as foon as it was over,
and added up the whole of each month together. In this
account the ftioiu and hail are included i Thefe were
meafured by taking up in the tube all the fnow or hail that
fell on a fpace equal to its furface, and then melting it.
The method of meafuring the quantity of evaporation by
a tube fufpended in the air being uncertain and inaccu-
rate, thofe obfervations are omitted.

The greateft height of the barometer this year, was on
the 22d and 23d of February: The mercury at 12'' on
each of thefe days, was at 30.6 inches. The leaft height
was 28.6 i inches, on December 26th at 12^. The ther-
mometer on the 8th of July, at i2''-i, rofe to 96°4- • On
February the 22d, at Si^ a. m. it flood at 9°^- below o.
At both thefe times the thermometer was hung in the
open air, in a fhade : The former was the greateft, the
latter its leaft height. The quantity of rain this year
amounted to 26,55 inches.

On the 1 7th of July there was an Aurora, uncommon
in this refpedt, that there were feveral appearances of it in
the /out h : The firft of thefe was about 9''. It began about
ao"" above the horizon and inftantly fpread itfelf in a ho-
rizontal direction to the diftance of 30° each way from
the meridian. For the fpace of one quarter of an hour
there were five fuch appearances, all in the fouth as before;
their duration was not more than half a minute, and their
colour a pale light, exadly like that of the Aiu-ora in the
north.

There was alfo a remarkable Hurricane this year,
the efFefts of which were principally felt at Salisburyy
Ameshury, and Ha'uerhill. Thefe towns lie on Merrimack
river, on the north fide ; Salifbury being the place where
the river empties itfelf into the ocean.

The

REMARKABLE HURRICANE. 137

The hurricane came on Augujl 14th, 1773. Its rife
was very fudden, and without any previous uncommon,
appearance in the Iky, or other fymptom of its approach.
In the morning there was a Hght breeze of wind at the
eaft, attended with plentiful fhowers. At j^ 4 the wind
veered about to fouth-eaft, where it became a brifk gale.
In about two minutes, it got into the fouth-weft, and be-
came on a fudden very violent. From thence in about two
minutes more, it Ihifted to weft-north-weft, and then fud-
denly died away to a moderate breeze. While the wind
was thus changing, it feemed to blow in every diredlion ;
the gufts became very violent, and formed many little
whirlwinds all around, attended with a very heavy fhow-
er of rain, and an uncommon darknefs.

At the place where Salisbury and Ai7iesbiiry join, the
•violence of the hurricane was very great. Its firft appear-
ance was on Merrimack river.. At the time when the wind
was veering to the fouth-eaft, its waters feemed to be in-
ftantly thrown into a violent agitation; and came rolling
from the eaft as if they would have overflowed the banks.
The hurricane immediately ftruck the fliore at Salifbury-
Point and Amefbury, levelling before it feveral well built
houfes almoft new, unroofing, twitting, and wrecking
others ; and thus tearing down, or fhattering moft of the
buildings that were in its way. Several buildings were
fliattered to pieces, and others removed in an inftant. A
fail-maker's loft in which a man was fitting, was carried
away and difperfed in a moment; the unhappy man be-
ing found fenfelefs at the diftance of 94 feet from the place
where the loft flood. A large oak poft 14 feet in length
and 1 1 inches in diameter, was taken up and carried by
the wind 138 feet. Two new veffels of 90 tons burthen,
were lifted up from the blocks and carried to the diftance
of 22 feet. And a large bundle of fhingles was taken up
from the earth and thrown near 330 feet, in a diredtion
contrary to that of the poft and veffels. The trees around

were-

138 REMARKABLE HURRICANE.

were torn up, the fences were thrown down, fcattered or
carried off, and the various kinds of lumber that lay dif-
perfed on the fhore, were whirled about in different direc-
tions, and to different diftances. Some houfes and vefTels
that feemed the moft expofed to the wind, fuffered nothing
at all ; and others that feemed to be the leaft expofed, were
much damaged or carried off. The number of buildings
that fuffered was about 120: And though many perlbns
were carried to fome diftance, and others much hurt, be-
ing covered in the ruins or in the cellars of their houfes,
no lives were lofl. At the place where this deftruftion
was done, the buildings were pretty thick, amounting to
about 150. The general direiiion of the hurricane was
from eaft-fouth-eafl: to weft-north-wefl:. Its extent., in
width, was about a quarter of a mile ; in length, about a
niile and three quarters : And its duration, not more than
four minutes from the time it firft began' till all became
ftill and quiet again.

At the fame time confiderable damage was done at Ha-
•verhill, ten miles higher up the river. There the hurri-
cane came on from the fouth-weft. Its firft effed; was the
deftrucftion of a large new barn. The barn containing a
large quantity of hay and grain, was crufhed down in an
inftant. The hay, boards and fhingles were fcattered
round to all points of the compafs, to the diftance of
four or five rods from the place where the barn ftood ;
and fome of them were carried to the diftance of three
miles nqrth-eaft. A large dwelling houfe at eight or ten
rods difl:ance, was much damaged ; every board and rib
was torn from the roof, and the chimney wrecked to the
foundation. Five barns were almoft wholly deftroyed,
and a number of houfes and other buildings were much
damaged. In fome, the windows and doors were drove
in; in others, the boards and fliingles were ripped oft' and
fcattered in all diredlions. The ftone walls in fome places
were almuft levelled with the ground; and the trees to the

number

REMARKABLE HURRICANE. 139

number of five hundred were fwept ofF in the fpace of a
mile. The general direBion of the hurricane was diffe-
rent here from what it was in Salifbury, being from fouth-
weft to north-eaft. Its extent was about three miles in
length, and half a mile in width: Its duration not more
than four minutes. The 'violence of the hurricane was
probably as great at Haverhill, as it was at Salifbury : But
as it pafled half a mile above or north-weft of the centre
of the town, where the buildings were not very thick, the
damage done by it was much lefs.

To what extent the difturbance in the atmofphere reach-
ed, cannot be exadlly determined. Though it did not
form whirlwinds of fuch force as to produce any remark-
able effeds at any other places but thofe mentioned above,
it evidently extended to all the towns on Merrimack river,
from the mouth to fome miles above Haverhill. In all the
adjacent towns, the fudden change and different direftions
of the wind, with their effects in twifting the trees, corn,
&c. were obferved to the diftance of fix or eight miles
on each fide of the river. And yet there did not feem to
be any very great alterations in the ix'eight or temperature
of the atmofphere, at any confiderable diftance from the
place where the winds were fo violent. At Bradford
oppofite to Haverhill, and not more than a mile from
the place where the damage was done, the barometer at
"f^ A. M. ftood at 29,81 inches. At the time of the hur-
ricane it fuddenly fell to 29,61 ; and juft after to 29,51,
which was its leaft height that day. By noon it rofe to
29,7;, and at 9*^ p. m. it got up to 29,8 J^ ; alterations very
common in this part of America. Farenheit^s thermome-
ter in the morning was at 74° ; at noon and <^ p. m. it was
one degree lower : The wind continuing very moderate
between weft and north-weft from 8*" a.m. till night.

From thefe phenomena we may form fome probable
conjectures as to the caiife and origin of the hurricane*
What occafroned fuch a violent irregular commotion in the;

air,,

340 REMARKABLE HURRICANE.

air, was probably the great rarefa6iion of it. The wea-
ther, for a week before, had been uncommonly hot, and
the wind conftantly at fouth or fouth-weft. The air next
to the furface of the earth muft therefore have been great-
ly heated and rarefied ; and probably was become fpecifi-
cally lighter than the air in the higher regions. The con-
fequence would be that the lighter rarefied air would af-
cend, while the heavier condenfed air would defcend; and
in this way the equilibrium of the air would be deflroyed :
To the place where the equilibrium of the air was thus bro-
ken, the adjacent air would inftantly flow on every fide as to
a common centre; forming eddies and whirlpools, and thus
afluming a circular motion. And this it is probable gave rife
to thofe fudden changes, diff^erent directions, and violent
gufts of the wind. The place where this circular motion
began, fcems to have been in the upper region of the air,
at fome diftance from the furface of the earth; for feveral
of the effedts of the hurricane bear the marks of a defcent.
At the place where it firfl ftruck Merrimack river, it hove
up the waters, as if fome great force had been imprefled
upon its furface: And at Haverhill, where it was firft felt
it crufhed a barn to pieces as if fome immenfe weight had
fallen upon it. When the defcending air and whirl came
to the earth, being flopped in its defcent it feems to have
inftantly fpread itfelf in to a larger circle or compafs, blow-
ing every way from the centre. And hence the pieces of
the barm that was crufhed down by it, became fcattered
to the diftance of four or five rods all around. A defcent
of the air in one place would be immediately fucceeded
with an afcetit of it in another. And thus the whirlwind,
where the air was defcending crufhed down the buildings
before it : But where the air was afcending, lifted up, un-
roofed, or carried them away; fhattering and throwing off
the materials thus carried up, as they came to the extre-
mity of the whirl, in tangent lines, to different diftan-
ces and in all directions. Befides this circular, the whirl-
winds

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 141

Tpinds had alfo a progrejfive motion. Had the different
winds by which the whirlwinds were formed been of
equal violence, the whirlwinds would have been ftation-
ary confifting only of a circular motion ; but being of
Unequal violence, the whirlwinds had a progreffive moti-
on, proceeding in different directions at different places,
according to the direction of the ftrongeft wind.

Tht fum7ner preceding this hurricane had been in fome
refpefts different from what is common in this part of the
country. There had been an uncommon drought for two
months before, which was no where more fevere than in
the towns upon the river ; and in no fummer for feveral
years, have we had fo much hot weather. ^ This circum-
ftance is agreeable to the prefumption of theory ; for, if
whirlwinds and hurricanes are derived from the great ra-
refaction of fome part of the atmofphere, it might be ex-
pected that the times in which they would happen, would
be in the moft calm, or hot weather.

N° X.

A Letter from J. Madison, Efquire, to D. Rit-
T£NHOUS£, EJquire.

William and Mary College, Virginia, November, 17^9.
DEAR SIR,

AGREEABLY to promife, I now tranfmit you a
feries of obfervations upon our climate. They
comprehend an entire year, and part of the fucceeding,
I thought once of fending you only a mean of the obfer-
vations for each month, but as it was a part of our natu-
ral hiftory, which has never yet been made public, I have
therefore fent a copy of the journal. Some fingular cir-
U cumftances

142 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

cumftances too attending the barometer I thought deferved
to be particularly noted, which could not have been done
had the firft idea been adopted. Fer the obfervations
upon the barometer not only fhew us the different
ftates of the atmofphere, but, perhaps, may throw far-
ther light' upon the true caufe of the Aurora Eorealis.
The fadt is, that a fall of the barometer always fucceeds
that phenomenon. The frequency of its appearance
lately, gave me an opportunity of obferving this efFe£t
at different times. It has for fome time been fuppofed.
(after Dr. Franklin had firft given rife to the opinion)
to be an eledrical appearance ; and I think, the levity of
the atmofphere, as proved by the barometer, adds great
weigbtHo that fuppofition : fince it is well known to every
eleftrician, that a rarefaction of the air, in our experi-
ments, will' always produce fimilar appearances. One
circumftance indeed was obfervable, that a change of wea-
ther, to wet, generally fucceeded; but as this effed: was not
fo conftant, it was not much attended to. But the baro-
meter by fliewing that the atmofphere is aflually lighter,
and of confequence more rarefied at the time of fuch ap-
pearances than at others, evinces at leaft, that it is in a
ftate the moft likely to exhibit them ; it is to be obferved
alfo, that the greateft fall of the barometer is not prior to,
but always fucceeds this appearance; fhewing that the ra-
refa£tion firft begins in the upper parts of the atmofphere.
It is remarkable that the range of the barometer was
not more than one inch and a tenth throughout the whole
year, nor do I remember ever to have feen a greater dif-
ference at any time not included in the journal ; whilft we
fee in other countries, the atmofphere undergoing changes
fo great as to cffedt a difference of three or four inches.
Whence is it then that we are expofed to more violent
ftorms of wind and rain ? Perhaps indeed the changes here,
though not fo great, may be more fudden, of which fome
remarkable inflances may be feen in the journal.

Our

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 143

Our coldeft winds, as well as the moft violent, are the
north-weft. The fouth and fouth-weft winds are the hot-
teft, though the fenfations of heat to which we are expof-
ed, do not correfpond to the different degrees marked by
the thermometer, as they depend much upon a current of
air with which we are generally favoured about the hotteft
time of the day, and copious fweating. I do not recoiled,
ever to have feen the thermometer here at more than 95,
though Dr. Franklin mentions that in June 1750, it flood
at 100 in the Ihade at Philadelphia, when he obferves,
" I expected that the natural heat of the body, 96, added
*' to the heat of the air, 1 00, fhould jointly have created
*' or produced a much greater degree of heat in the body;
*' but the fait was, that my body never grew fo hot as the
*' air that furrounded it, or the inanimate bodies immerf-
*' ed in the fame. For I remember well, that the defk,
*' when I laid my arm upon it, a chair when I fat down
*' in it, all felt exceeding warm to me, as if they had been
*' warmed before the fire. And I fuppofe a dead body
*' would have acquired the temperature of the air, though
*' a living one, by continual fweating, and by the eva-
*' poration of that fweat was kept cold." I have been
the more particular in tranfcribing this paflage from
the works of this philofopher, as it certainly fhews to
whom the merit of certain late difcoveries, which have
made fo much noife in the philofophical world, moft juftly
belongs; I mean, that power which the human as well
as all animate bodies have, of counteradling the heat of
an atmofphere in which they are placed. For what do all
the experiments upon heated rooms evince, farther than
had before been publiftied by the doSor? It is thus that
Franklin fetting in his chair, like Newton reafoning upon
the figure of the earth, could fhew what muft coft others
infinite labour and fatigue. But, though the efFecf was
obferved and attributed to evaporation, yet I do not re-
member that it is any where fhewn in what manner eva-
U 2 poration

144 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. '

poration produces cold. Hamilton, in his excellent ef-
iay upon the afcent of vapors, fpeaking of the natures of
folution and evaporation, has thefe words, " how cold is
" produced in either cafe, I cannot pretend to fay." The
dodor has given the moft probable explanation of the
manner in which it is produced by folution, and I think
the following, which is collefted from his general dodrine
may be applied to evaporation. It is admitted that there
is a ftronger attradion between heat and water, or fuch like
fluid, than between heat and any other body, for on this
account it is that bodies are cooled when plunged into wa-
ter. When ever therefore, water for inftance, is put upon
any part of the human body, its natural heat is more at-
tracted in that part by the water, than by the flefh, and
therefore, the water in going off in the form of vapour
carries with it part of the heat, and confequently leaves
that place in a negative ftate, or with lefs than its natural
quantity. It is the fame with the thermometer. Hence
it is, that we are much hotter frequently when the ther-
mometer fcarcely exceeds 82 or 83, there being no current
of air to carry off the moifture from the furface of the body,
than when it even Hands as high as 90 or 95.

I am, with the greateft refpeft.
Your fervant and friend,

J. MADISON.

JULY,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 145

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METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 149

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Defcription

[ 159 ]

N° XI.

Defcriptlon of a Machine for Meafwing a Ship's Way
through the Sea, by F. Hopkinson, Efquire.

^ii\^'lil T* -^ ^ errors and uncertainties incident to the
A mariner's log, in common ufe, are too obvious
not to be univerfally acknowledged. Were it not for the
obfervations navigators are accuftomed to make of a fhip's
progrefs, by the apparent paflage of the water along fide,
and the figns that ufually prefent on approaching the land,
the log, alone, would be a very unfafe dependence.

Several attempts have, therefore, been made to improve
the log, and render its indications more accurate, but with-
out fuccefs. All the machines of this kind, that I have
heard of, were compofed of a number of wheels, which
were to be put in motion by the twifting of a line let out
aftern, having a drag at the end fo conftrudted as to whirl
round, fafter or flower, according to the motion of the
fhip.

The objeftions to a machine, fo conftru£ted, are, Firji^
If the line is not very long the drag will be confiderably
afFe£ted by the fhip's wake ; and, if it is very long, the
tvviftings will be irregular, and the line liable to kink.
Secondly .^ If the drag is fo heavy as to fink below the bot-
toms of the waves, when the Ihip fails faft, it will be too
heavy, and fink too deep when {he hath but a flow pro-
greflive motion : Or, otherwife, if the drag is of a proper
weight when flie makes but little way, it will fls:ip from
•wave to wave through the air when flie fails with a briflc
gale, and fo be of no ufe. And, Thirdly, It will be liable
to moft of the other irregularities to which the loj in
<:ommon ufe is expofed.

Y 2 The

i6o MACHINE tor MEASURING a

The machine now propofed will, it is hoped, be free-
from, at leaft, fome of thefe objedions. And, although
it may not be able to afcertain a (hip's way through the
fea to a mathematical precifion, yet if it fliould be found
to anfwer the purpofe better than any inftrument hitherto
contrived, it may be admitted as an acquifition to the art
of navigation.

This machine, in its moft fimple form, is reprefented by
Fig. I, Plate 3. Wherein AB is a ftrong rod of iron move-
able on the fulcrum C. D is a thin circular plate of brafs
rivetted to the lower extremity of the rod. E an horizon-
tal arm connected at one end with the top of the rod AB
by a moveable joint F, and at the other end with the
bottom of the index H by a like moveable joint G. H is
the index turning on its centre I and travelling over the
graduated arch K ; and Lisa ftrong fpring bearing againft
the rod AB and conftantly countera£ling the preflure upon
the palate D. The rod AB fhould be applied clofe to one
fide of the cut water or ftem, and fhould be of fuch a
length that the palate D may be no higher above the keel
than is neceffary to fecure it from injury when the vefiel
is aground or fails in fhoal water. As the bow of the
fhip curves inward towards the keel M, the palate D will
be thrown to a diftance from the bottom of the veffel, al-
though the perpendicular rod, to which it is annexed, lies
clofe to the bow above ; and, therefore, the palate will be
more fairly afted upon. The arm E fhould enter the bow
fomewhere near the hawfer hole, and lead to any convenient
place in the forecaftle, where a fmooth board or plate may
be fixed, having the index H and graduated arch K upon it.

It is evident from the figure, that as the fliip is urged
forward by the wind, the palate D will be preffcd upon by
the refifting medium, with a greater or lefs force accord-
ing to the progreffive motion of the fhip : and this will
operate upon the levers fo as to immediately a{fe£t the in-
dex ; muking the Icaft encreafe or diminution of the fhip's

way

jr/e:.Jo. ^q\JJ .

J^^.o

^r

jPd^f JSS

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I

Fjg.m.i>3^.'2.4i

i6o MACHINE roR MEASURING a

The machine now propofed will, it is hoped, be fret
from, at leaft, fome of thefe objedions. And, although
it may not be able to afcertain a fhlp's way through the
fea to a mathematical precifion, yet if it fhould be found
to anfwer the purpofe better than any inftrument hitherto
contrived, it may be admitted as an acquifition to the art
of navigation.

This machine, in its moft fimple form, is reprefented by
Fig. I, Plate 3. Wherein AB is a ftrong rod of iron move-
able on the fulcrum C. D is a thin circular plate of brafs
rivetted to the lower extremity of the rod. E an horizon-
tal arm connected at one end with the top of the rod AB
by a moveable joint F, and at the other end with the
bottom of the index H by a like moveable joint G. H is
the index turning on its centre I and travelling over the
graduated arch K ; and Lisa ftrong fpring bearing againft
the rod AB and conftantly counteract ing the preflure upon
the palate D. The rod AB fhould be applied clofe to one
fide of the cut water or ftem, and fhould be of fuch a
length that the palate D may be no higher above the keel
than is neceflary to fecure it from injury when the vefTel
is aground or fails in fhoal water. As the bow of the
Ihip curves inward towards the keel M, the palate D will
be thrown to a diftance from the bottom of the veflel, al-
though the perpendicular rod, to which it is annexed, lies
clofe to the bow above ; and, therefore, the palate will be
more fairly aded upon. The arm E fhould enter the bow
fomewhere near thehawfer hole, and lead to any convenient
place in the forecaftle, where a fmooth board or plate may
be fixed, having the index H and graduated archK upon it.
It is evident from the figure, that as the fliip is urged
._ forward by the wind, the palate D will be prelTcd upon by
the reiifting medium, with a greater or lefs force accord-
ing to the progrelTive motion of the fhip : and this will
operate upon the levers fo as to immediately affetSl the in-
dex ; making the leaft cncreafe or diminution of the fhip's

way

Platc.3.

Xfj^iyian/ y?.^, i

S H I P's W A Y. i6i

way vlfible on the graduated arch. The fpring L always
counteracting the preffure upon the palate, and bringing
back the index on any relaxation of the force imprefled.

A fliip going through the fea opens a paflage for her-
felf, making a hole in the water equal to her immerged
bulk. As fhe pafles on, this vacancy is filled up by the
tumbling in of the waters from each fide, and from un-
derneath, at the ftern, with great violence. So that there
is a fair current of water from her bow to her ftern, paf-
fmg under the bottom and along fide ; the force of which-
current is in direct proportion to the velocity of the fhip's
progrefllve motion. This machine is, therefore, advan-
tageoufly placed at the bow of the fhip, where the current
firft begins, and afts fairly upon the palate ; in preference
to the ftern, where the tumultuous clofing of the waters
caufes a wake, vifible to a great diftance. The palate D is
funk nearly as low as the keel, that it may not be influ-
enced by the heaping up of the water, and the dafhing of
the waves at and near the water-line. The arch K is to
afcertain how many knots or miles fhe would run in one
hour, at her then rate of failing. But the graduations on
this arch muft be unequal ; becaufe the refiftance of the
fpring L will encreafe as it becomes more bent ; fo that
the index will travel over a greater fpace from one to five
miles (which I fuppofe to be a medium) than from five to
twelve. Laflly, the palate, rod, fpring and all the metallic
parts of the inftrument fhould be covered with a ftrong
varnilh, to prevent ruft from the corrofive quality of the
Iklt water and fea air.

IMPROVEMENT of this MACHINE.

Let the rod or fpear AB Fig. i , be a round rod of iron
or fteel ; and inftead of moving on the fulcrum or joint as-
at C, let it pafs through and turn freely in a focket, to
which focket the moveable joint muft be annexed as, re-

prefentedi

i62 MACHINE FOR MEASURING a

prefented in Fig. 2. The rod muft have a fhoulder to bear
on the upper edge of the focket, to prevent its flipping
quite dovi^n. The rod muft alfo pafs through a like focket
at F, Fig. I. The joint of the lower focket muft be fixed
to the bow of the fhip, and the upper joint or focket muft
be connedled with the horizontal arm E. On the top of
the uppcrmoft focket, let there be a fmall circular plate,
bearing the 32 points of the mariner's compafs ; and let
the top of the rod AB come through the centre of this
plate, fo as to carry a fmall index upon it, as is reprefent-
ed in Fig. 3. This fmall index muft be fixed to the top
of the rod on a fquare ; fo, that by turning the index round
the plate, the rod may alfo turn in the fockets, and of courfe
carry the palate D round with it. The little index always
pointing in a diredtion with the face of the palate. The
fmall compafs plate Ihould not be faftened to the top of
the focket, but only fitted tightly on, that it may be move-
able at pleafure. Suppofe, then, the intended port to bear
fouth-weft from the place of departure ; the palate muft be
turned on the focket till the fouth-weft point thereon looks
<lire£tly to the fhip's bow ; fo that the fouth-weft and
north-eaft line on the compafs plate may be precifely pa-
rallel with the fhip's keel ; and in this pofition the plate
muft remain during the whole voyage. Suppofe then the
fhip to be failing in the diredt courfe of her intended voy-
age, with her bowfprit pointing fouth-weft, let the little
index be brought to the fouth-weft point on the compafs
plate, and the palate D will neceflarily prefent its broad
face toward the port of defti nation ; and this it muft al-
ways be made to do, be the fhip's failing courfe what it
•may. If, on account of unfavourable winds, the fliip is
obliged to deviate from her intended courfe, the little in-
dex muft be moved fo many points from the fouth-weft
line of the compafs plate, as the compafs in the binnacle
(hall fliew that flie deviates from her true courfe. So that,
in whatever diredion the fliip fi\all fail, the palate D will

always

S H I P's WAY. 163

always look full to the fouth-weft point of the horizon,
or towards the port of deftination ; and, confequently, will
prefent only an oblique furface to the refifting medium-
more or lefs oblique as the fhip deviates more or lefs from
the true courfe of her voyage. As, therefore, the refift-
ance of the water will operate lefs upon the palate in an
oblique than in a dire£t pofition, in exa£l proportion to
its obliquity, the Index H will not fhew how many knots
the vefTel runs in her then courfe, but will (it is expeded)
indicate how many {he gains in the direit line of her in-
tended voyage. Thus, in Fig. 5, if the fhip's courfe lies
in the diredion of the line AB, but fhe can fail by the
wind no nearer than AC; fuppofe then, her progrefTive
motion fuch as to perform AC, equal to five knots or miles
in one hour ; yet the index H will only point to four knots
on the graduated arch, becaufe fhe gains no more than at
t-hat rate on the true line of her voyage, viz. from A to B.
Thus will the difference between her real motion and that
pointed out by the index be always in proportion to her
deviation from the intended port, until fhe fails in a line
at right angles therewith, as AD ; in which cafe the palate
would prefent only a thin fharp edge to the refifting me-
dium ; the preffure of which fhould not be fufficient to
overcome the fridion of the machine, and the bearing of
the fpring L. So that at whatever rate the fhip may fail
on that line yet the index will not be affedled: Shewing,
that fhe gains nothing on her true courfe. In this cafe,
and alfo when the vefiel is not under way, the aiflion of
the fpring L fhould caufe the index to point at o; as repre-
fented by the dotted lines in figure' i and 4.

As the truth of this inftrument muft depend on the'
equal prelfure of the refifting medium upon the palate D
according to the Ihip's velocity, and the proportionable
atftion of the fpring L, there fliould be a pin or fcrew at
the joints C and F, fo that the rod may be readily unfhip-
ped and taken in, in order to clean the palate from any

foulncfs .

i64 MACHINE for MEASURING a

foulnefs it may contrad ; which would greatly increafe its
operation on the index H, and thereby render the gradu-
ated arch, falfe and uncertain.

Further, the fpring L may be expofed too much to in-
jury from the fait water, if fixed on the outfide of the
fhip's bow. To remedy this it may be brought under cover
by conftrudling the machine as reprefented by figure 4.
Where, A B is the rod, C the fulcrum or centre of its mo-
tion; D the palate; E the horizontal arm leading through
a fmall hole into the forecaftle : M is a ftrong chain, faft-
ened at one end to the arm E and at the other to a rim or
barrel on the wheel G, which by means of its teeth gives
motion to the femicircle I and index H. The fpring L is
fpiral and enclofed in a box or barrel, like the main fpring
of a watch : A fmall chain is fixed to and pafling round
the barrel is faftened by the other end to the fuzee W.
This fuzee is connected by its teeth with the wheel G, and
counteradls the motion of the palate D. NN are the two
fockets through which the rod A B pafl'es, and in which it
is turned round by means of the little index R. S is the
fmall compafs plate, moveable on the top of the upper
focket N. The plate S hath an upright rim round its edge
cut into teeth or notches; fo that when the index R is a
little raifed up, in order to bring it round to any intended
point, it may fall into one of thefe notches and be detained
there: Otherwife the preffure of the water will force the
palate D from its oblique pofition, and turn the rod and
index round to the diredion in which the (hip ftiall be
then failing. Should it be apprehended that the palate D,
being placed fo far forward, may affedl the fliip's fteerage
or obflrudl her failing, it fhould be confidered that a very
fmall plate will be fufficient to work the machine. I Ihould
fuppofe that one of three or four inches in diameter would
fully anfwer the purpofe : And yet not be large enough to
have any fenfible operation on the helm or fhip's way.

The

S H I P's W A Y. 165

The greateft difficulty, perhaps, will be in graduating
the arch K; (if the machine is conftru£led as \njigure i,)
the unequal divifions of which can only be afcertained by
aiftual experiment on board of each fhip refpeftively; in
as much as the accuracy of thefe graduations will depend
on three circumflances, viz. The pofition of the fulcrum
C with refped; to the length of the rod, the fize of the palate
D and the ftrength or bearing of the fpring L. When thefe
graduations, however, are once afcertained for the machine
on board of any one veflel, they will not want any future
alterations ; provided the palate D be kept clean, and the
fpring L retains its elafticity.

But the unequal divifions of the graduated arch will be
unnecelTary, if the machine is con{lru£ted as in figure 4.
For as the chain goes round the barrel L, and then winds
through the fpiral channel of the fuzee W, the force of
the main-fpring muft operate equally, or nearly fo, in all
pofitions of the index ; and confequently, the divifions of
the arch K may, in fuch cafe, be equal.

After all, it is not expected that a fhip's longitude can
be determined to a mathematical certainty by this inftru-
ment. The irregular motions and impulfes to which a
fhip is continually expofed, make fuch an accuracy unat-
tainable perhaps by any machinery : But if it fhould be
found, as I flatter myfelf it will on fair experiment, that it
anfwers the purpofe much better than the common log, it
may be confidered as an acqulfition to the art of navigation.

It fhould be obferved that in afcertaining a fhip's longi-
tude by a time-piece, this great inconvenience occurs, that
a fmall and trifling miflake in the time, makes a very great
and dangerous error in the diflance run : Whereas the er-
rors of this machine will operate no farther than their real
amount ; which can never be great or dangerous, if cor-
rected by the ufual obfervations made by mariners for cor-
recting the common log.

A like machine made in its fimple form, (as at fig, i.)
fo conftruCted as to fhip and unfhip, might occafionally

Y be

i66 ACCOUNTorTiiE

be applied along fide about midihips in order to afcer-
tain the lee-way ; which, if rightly Ibewn will give the
fhip's precife longitude. As to fea-currents, this and all
other machines hitherto invented, muft be fubje£t to their
influence ; and proper allowances muft be made, accord-
ing to the (kill and knowledge of the navigator.

Laftly, fome difcretion will be neceflary in taking ob-
fervations from the machine to be entered on the log-book.
I mean, that the moft favourable and equitable moment
fhould be chofen for the obfervation. Not whilft the fliip
is rapidly defcending the declivity of a wave ; or is fud-
denly checked by a ftroke of the fea ; or is in the very a£t
of plunging. In all cafes, I fuppofe, periods may be found
in which a fhip proceeds with a true average velocity ; to
difcover which a little experience and attention will lead
the fkilful mariner*.

N° XII.

Account of an Eledncal Eel, or the Torpedo of Siirinamy
by William Bryant, Efqiitre.

SURINAM a colony of South America belonging
to the ftates of Holland, abounds with as many
natural cnriofities as any country in the w^orld. But that
which I look upon to be as furprifing as any in it, and
which I believe has not yet been accurately defcribed, is a
fifh of the fpecies of eel, and is caught there in nets among
other fifh; generally in muddy rivers, and I believe is
found in moll of the neighbouring provinces. In fize and

colour

* An ine^enious mechanic would proTiaMv conflni6l thi^ machine to liettcr ail\'ant;ige in
many refpcels. The author only meant to fugffeft the principle ; experiment alone can point
out the heft method of applyinjj it. He is fenfilile of at leaft one deiicicucy, viz. '1 hat the
little index R, figure 4, will not he ftrorg enough to retain the palate D in an oblique pofiti-
on when the (hip is failing liy the wind ; more cfpecially as the conip.ifs plate S, in whofe
notched rim the index R i^ to tall, is not fixed to, but only fitted tight ou the ibckct N. MiWy
mca^is liowevtr might be contrived to remedy this mcouveuieiice.

ELECTRICAL EEL. 167

colour it is not unlike a common eel of Europe or Ame-
rica, and in fhape refembles it more, except that it is thicker
in proportion to its length, and the head is more flat and
not fo pointed ; but diflrers from them in this refpect, that
it comes to the furface to breathe in the air/ It is called
by the Dutch Beave Aal, and by the Englifh inhabitants
the Numbing Eel. As to the other qualities, of which
1 mean chiefly to take notice, and which I think are as dif-
ferent from the Torpedo of Europe, as the fifh is in fhape,
they are as follows.

On touching the fifh as it lies in the water in a tub pro-
vided for it, a fudden and violent fliock is received, in all
refpeils like that which is felt on touching the prime con-
ductor, when charged with the ele£lrical fluid from the
globe; and like that chiefly, aflfedls the ends of the fingers
and elbow. Gently holding the tail of the fifh with one
hand and touching the head with the other, a very violent
fhock is felt in both elbows and through the breaft and
Ihoulders. I at firft imagined that the violence of the
fliock proceeded from both arms receiving it at the fame
time, and that the pain was no more than that of the two
ftrokes added together; but I found myfelf miflaken. For
upon feven perfons joining hands, and the firft taking hold
of the tail (which may with more eafe be held than the
head) and the feventh at the fame time touching the head,
we were all aff"efted in both elbows, and that in the fame
manner as I remember to have been in the eledrical expe-
riment, when feveral perfons take hold of the wire and the
equilibrium is reftored by the fluids paifing through their
bodies.

I find the fhock may be received throua,h metallic fub-^
fiances. On touching the fifh with an old fword blade I
was ftrongly affefted. But arming it with fealing-wax
and taking hold of that part which was covered with it, the
ele£lrical fluid (I cannot help calling it fo) would not pafs.
Neither has it any effedl on the body when touched with
Y 2 glafs

i68 A C C O U N T OF THE

glafs bottle, fealing-wax, &c. Yet I cannot obferve the
leafl: diminution of this quality by placing the tub which
contains the fifli on glafs bottles; it continues the fame in
all refpedls. So that whether it has an unaccountable fa-
culty of coUedling a quantity of the fluid from the fur-
rounding waters, or through the body of the perfon touch-
ing it, or has in its own body a large fund which it can
difcharge at pleafure, I am greatly at a lofs to think or
imagine.

Although it has no effe£t on the human body when
touched with a piece of wood, or indeed any other fubftance
not metallic ; yet an accident difcovered to me, that on
fome occafions the effecSt would be fenfible through wood.
For one morning while I was ftanding by, as a fervant was
emptying the tub, which he had lifted intirely from the
ground, and was pouring off the water to renew it, and the
fifh left almofl dry, the negro received fo violent a fhock
as occafioned him to let the tub fall, and calling another
to his affiftance, I caufed them both to lift the tub free from
the ground, when pouring off the remains of the water
they both received fmart fhocks and were obliged to delift
from emptying the tub in that manner. This I afterwards
tried myfelf and received the like fliock. This flfh in-
deed was one of the largeft I have feen and but newly
caught. For I obferve that after being fometime confined
in a tub and wanting perhaps their natural food, they lofe
much of the flrength of this extraordinary quality. I am
fometimes apt to conjedure, that this animal has the pow-
er of communicating the ffroke when, and with what de-
gree of force it will; and that it fcrves him as a weapon of
defence againft his enemies. For I have often obferved that
on firfl taV:ing hold of it, the fliock is tolerable; but as foon
as he perceives himfelf the leaft confined, it is much more
violent. This I experienced to my cofl, as I one day took
hold of it, about the middle of the fifb, I lifted it partly out
of the water, when on a fudden 1 received fo fmart a fhock

that

ELECTRICAL EEL. 169

that it occafioned a ftrong contra£lion in the bending
mufcles of my fingers, and I could not immediately let it
go; but endeavouring to difengage my hand threw it on
the ground; taking hold of it a fecond time, to return it
into the tub, I was more ftrongly affefted than at firft, and
that not only in my hands and arms, but throughout my
whole body ; the forepart of my head and the back part
of my legs fuffered principally ; and in the fame manner
as on receiving a very fmart fhock from a highly charged
phial in eledrical experiments.

On obferving that the fenfation occafioned by the fliock
as to the nature and degree of ftrength upon touching dif-
ferent parts of the filh, was different, I was at firft In-
clined to think it might be owing to its having an extra-
ordinary faculty of containing more of the fluid in one
part of its body than in another. The tail part to above
one third of its length, occafions rather a numbnefs and
tingling, than pain, but on applying the end of the fing-
ers to the back, head, and under part of its body, it caufes
a fharp pricking pain. This may poffibly be accounted
for by the difference in the texture of the furface of the
fkin, as the manner of the electrical fluids coming from a
glafs tube is different when its furface is altered by being
rubbed with different fubftances, as has been lately taken
notice of in a letter to the Royal Society.

Thefe are the principal obfervations, the fhort time I
refided at Surinam, allowed me an opportunity of making
relating to this extraordinary animal..

Ohfervations

[ 170 1

N° XIII.

Obfervations on the Numb Fi/Jj, or Torporific Eel, by
Henry Collins Flagg, South-Carolina.

Rrad March T DQ mvfelf the pleafure, thoueh late I con-
7th, 1783. I ^ ^ ^ 1 • 1 -re

J_ fefs, to comply with my promile or commu-
nicating fome obfervations on the Numb Fifli, or Torpo-
rific Eel, which I think a more proper name. Thefe ob-
fervations are contained in two letters I had the honor to
write to the Rev. Dr, Stiles, a member of your philofo-
phical fociety, from Rio Eflequebo. Pleafe to accept the
following extradts.

The apparent difference between the torporific eel and
that vifually caught in your harbour is, the former is flatter
on the back and head, the upper part of which is perfo-
rated with fevcral holes*, and has on each fide, behind, a
fmall fin which fome fay are elevated or depreffed as the '
fifh is pleafed or notf ; the body I think is larger in pro-
portion to the length, and it has a broad fin connedted to
the belly and continued to the tail. I have feen this fifla
four feet long. The fenfation occafioned by touching it
appeared to me exadlly fimilar to an eleclric fliock. I have
as yet been able to procure only one of thefe eels, and that
was injured by laying too long dry before it came to me.
The following are the remarks 1 made the little time it
lived. I received the fi(h from a negro in a wicker bafket,
and laying it on the ground felt a confiderable Aiock, as I
did too when 1 turned the filh out of the bafket into a tub

of

• Thifc holes do not penetrate to the mouth, nor could I difcovcr the ufc of them. But I
was not fuflicicntly cxa6l in my dilltiJlion of the head, cr I Uiiuk 1 might have found the ttr-
niinatiim of thtfv; dude.

I 'I'hia \i true.

TORPORIFIC EEL. 171

of water. The fhock is greater if the fifli is enraged; but
whether repeated touches will exhauft this ftrange power,
as frequently repeated bites do the viperin,e and fome other
poifons for a time, I believe no experiment has yet deter-
mined*. If a perfon hold his finger in the water feveral
inches diftant from the fifli and another touch it, a fhock
equally fcvere is felt by him who does not touch it. The
fime thing happens if the fifh exerts itfelf without being
touched. If a number of perfons join hands, and one
touch the eel, they are all equally fhocked, unlefs there
fliould happen to be one of the number incapable of being
affecled by the eel, which is the cafe of a very worthy
lady of my acquaintance, who can handle this fifli at will.
I am informed fome Indians and negroes can do the fame ;
whether by the affiftance of any means to counteract the
power of the eel, I know not ; but am perfuaded it is
fomething in the conftitution of the ladyj". The eel I had
obtained got out of the tub, and it was with fome difficul-
ty I returned it, for the repeated fhocks I received through
a piece of deal board eighteen inches long, with which I
attempted to lift it, made my arms ache very much, and
for a confiderable time. I think the numbnefs occafione'd
by touching this eel continues longer than that from an
eledtric fhock of the fame degree of force, and I have been
afl'ured by a perfon of good fenfe and veracity, that a ne-
gro fello'v formerly being bantered by his companions for
his fear of this eel, determined to give a proof of his re-
folution, and attempted to grafp it with both hands. The
unhappy confequence was, a confirmed paralyfis of both
arms. I hear this fellow is ftill living in the ifland of St.
Chriftopher's ; if fo, I can obtain more fatisfadlion, for I
have my doubts of the negro's honefty:}:. But very cer-
tain

* 1 am fince convinced they do.

f This lady, ivhen I became acquainted with her, was far gone in an heflic fever. And I
did not tliink to enquire if ihe could treat the fiih with fo much familiarity while in a perfc<5t
ftate of health.

t This account was afterwards confirmed to me, with the further information, that after fe-
veral years the negro recovered the ule of his arms by flow degrees, and I think without- any
afliftance from medicine.

172 O B S E R V A T I O N S ON the

tain it is, that many perfons have been knocked down by
the feverity of the fhock. The languid ftate in which I
found the eel the morning after it was taken, gave me an
opportunity of obferving that though I could perceive no
Ihock by touching it on or near the tail ; yet applying
my finger near the belly, the torporific power was very
confiderable, notv/ithftanding the filh was now almoft dead.
This I repeated feveral times, as a remark of fome confe-
quence in afiifting us to determine whether, or how far,
the emiffion of torporific particles depends on the exertion
of any mufcular force* ; upon which principle Mr. Rea-
mure accounts for the benumbing power of the Torpedo.
I much doubt if the moft acute eye can difcern any moti-
on in the eel at the time it Ihocks'l". I have been fo par-
ticular in taking notice of the bafket and deal-board, be-
caufe it has been afferted that the eel fhocks only by im-
mediate contad, through metal or very hard wood. This
eel is frequently eat by the negroes, and reckoned very
delicious. Its common food is flirimps or any fmall fiili.
I have lately made another experiment upon the torpo-
rific eel. It was fuggefted to me by the very great fimi-
larity between the effeds of a Ihock from the eel and an
eledric machine. I held an iron rod between two pieces
of glafs and touched the eel with it, but could not perceive
the leaft fliock. I held the rod in a filk handkerchief with
the fame efFed. I repeated thefe experiments on two eels
with equal fuccefs. I think this experiment demonftratcs
that the eledric and torporific particles are the fame. I
have tried the effeds of this fifli upon the needle of a com-
pafs but perceived no influence. I have not, however,

done

• 1 have not ventured as yet to give any opinion of the (Irano'C property by which this flflj
becomes the conduflor of the eleiftric fluid. But tliat the emiflion of it depends upon the ex-
ertion of mufcular force may, I think, be concluded from hence ; that, as has already been
determined, repeated exertions will exhauft its power to (liock for a time, and before it can
again exert its influence, a frefli quantity of fire muft be collcifted ; nor do I think the ciqieri-
ment 1 made on the dying eel invalidates this opinion, for to the beft of my rccolleflion it
ceafed to fliock fome time before its death.

f I am informed the motion is perceptible, tliough I confefs I could not diftinguifli it.

ACCOUNT OF A METEOR. 173

^one with the eel, and hereafter will repeat all the old and
make new experiments upon it*.

This fifh raifes its head every few minutes above the
water to refpire.

I have feen negroes take hold of it, at firft very cauti-
oufly, receiving many light fhocks, but prefently have
grafped it hard and taken it out of the water.

There is a kind of light wood through which the eel
cannot fhock.

Mrs. Behn, in her Oroonoko, gives a defcription of this
fifh, which fhe calls the numb-eel, and fays it is taken in
the river Surinam.

From the above experiments, partial as they are, I leave
you, fir, to judge how far the torporific and electric fluids
are alike.

I am, with the greateft refped and efleem,

Your moft humble fervant,
caotrri"!'..! HENRY COLLINS FLAGG.

N° XIV.

To David Rittenhouse, Efquire, from John
Page, Efquire.

■Williamfljurg, December 4, 1779.
,D E A R SIR,

Read May T HAVE oftett thought there was a ftrong re-
2d, 17 3- J^ refemblance between fome of the phenomena
of electricity and magnetifm, and fancied I faw fomething
like the two elettricities in the attraction and repulfion of
Z ,the

• I had not been long in South-America when I made my ohfervations ; foon after which,
the neceffary avocations of my profelTion, together with that relaxation of the mental powers
generally confequent upon the laffitude of body incident to the inhabitants of warm climates,
radifpofed me to the farther profecution of experiments I am now mortified at not having made.

174 ACCOUNT of a METEOR.

the two poles. I have amufed myfelf with fuppofing that
magnetil'in Is only a fpecies of ele£tricity, whofe matter is
as yet not difcovered by human fight; as that of eledrici-
ty was, when a few years ago, it was perceivable only by
its effeifts in attracting or repelling light bodies, as mag-
netifm now is in attra£ling or repelling iron. Experi-
ments by which polarity may be given to needles by means
of eledtricity, perhaps, further improved and clofely at-
tended to, might throw great light on this fubjedl. I wifh
we had more cafes ftated of the effeds of lightening and
the Aurora Borealis on the needle. But mentioning the
Aurora Borealis recalls to my mind, the meteor which was
feen at many diftant places in Virginia on the 31ft of Oc-
tober, at about 6'' lo"" P. M. It was what is vulgarly
called a falling ftar. It fell as feen at Rofewell about
three or four degrees to the north of weft and left a bright
trail of light behind it; which extended from the horizon
perpendicularly above 7°;^ unluckily I loft a view of It when
falling, but was called out time enough to fee the grand
and beautiful appearance of its trail of light. It was feen
for near 15'", it was as bright as fliining filver, and as broad
as the enlightened part of the new moon, when firft vifi-
ble, and about 7° in length. It might be reprefented by
]NI ° r, when I firft faw it, and by the
other figures at intervals of about a mi- i 2345
nute after. Juft before it difappeared
it refembled the edge of a cloud. The
fky was remarkably clear and fcrene.
It appeared in the fame manner exadl-
ly to feveral gentlemen above an hun-
dred miles from Rofewell, but on a dif-
ferent point of the compafs. I have not yet had fo accu-
rate an account of its bearing as to afcertain its height and
diftance. Did you fee any thing of it ?

I am, dear fir, yours moft fincerely,

JOHN PAGE.

r

1

ACCOUNT OF A METEOR. 175

From David Rittenhouse, Efquire-, to John
Page, Ef quire.

Philadelphia, January l6, 1 780.
DEAR SIR,

^r'^T'^T DESIGN to give you my thoughts on Mag-
J. netifm in fome future letter, at prefent I fliall
confine myfelf to the fubjedl of the latter part of yours of
the 4th of December laft.

The extraordinary Meteor you mention was likewife
vifible here, the air being ferene and clear. I did not fee
it until the bright ftreak was become very crooked,, it then
bore S. 70° W. nearly, from Philadelphia, and comparing
this courfe with that obferved by you, I find it muft have
fallen on or near the Ouafiota mountains mentioned in
Lewis Evans's map, about 480 miles from Philadelphia
and 2)^^ from Williamfburg. And taking its altitude 7,°
as obferved by you, adding ai- degrees for the deprefTion
of that place below your horizon, its entire apparent alti-
tude above the fpot where it fell was 9°i-, which, on a
radius of 365 miles, will be 61 miles perpendicular height.
The breadth of the luminous vapour was, I think, in fome
places, when I faw it, not lefs than a quarter of a degree ;
this at 480 miles diftance mufl have been at leaft two miles.
It was certainly a grand appearance near the place where
it fell, if any human eye was there.

May not thefe (hooting ftars be bodies altogether foreign
to the earth and its atmofphere, accidentally meeting with
it as they are fwiftly traverfing the great void of fpace ?
And may they not, either electrically or by fome other
means, excite a luminous appearance on entering our at-
mofphere ? I am inclined to this opinion for the following
reafons : ift. It is not probable that meteors fhould be ge-
nerated in the air at the height of 50 or 60 miles, on ac-
count of its extreme rarenefs ; and many falling ftars, be-
sides this, are known with certainty to have been at very

Z 2 great

17& ACCOUNT OF A METEOR.

great heights. 2dly. Their motions cannot be owing to-
gravity, for they del'cend in all diredlions, and but feldom
perpendicularly to the horizon. Befides, their velocities
are much too great. This meteor would not have fallen
by the force of gravity, from the place where it firft ap-
peared, to the earth, in lefs than two minutes of time ;
nor in Icfs than ten feconds, if we fuppofe it impelled by
gravity from the remoteft diftance. They are neverthe-
lefs afFe£ted by gravity in fome manner, for I cannot find
that any one was ever obferved to afcend upwards in its
courfe.

It is true that difficulties will likewife occur, if we fup-
pofe them to be foreign bodies of fufficient denfity to pre-
ferve fuch great degrees of velocity even in paffing through
the atmofphere, for it may be afked why do they not fre-
<iuently ftrike the earth, buildings, &c.

Perhaps they are generally, if not always, exploded in
paffing through the air, fomething in the manner that
filings of fteel are exploded in paffing through the flame
of a candle. And at the fame time that they afford us
occafion to admire the variety and immenfity of the Cre-
ator's works, they may perhaps produce fome important
and neceflary effedts in the atmofphere furrounding this
globe, for the welfare of man and its other innumerable
tribes of inhabitants.

I am, dear fir, your afFe£tionate friend.

And very humble fervant,

DAVID RITTENHOUSE.

Defcription

[ ^11 I

N° XV..

Defcript'ion of the Grotto at Stvatara, by the Rev. Peter-

MiLLER, of Ephrata ; communicated by William

Barton, Efquire.

^^^f'^^lf'' "AS the courfe of my letter now" tends this
/~\ way, I muft remind you, if. ever you
fliould pubUih a natural hiftory of Pennfylvania, not to
Gonfign to oblivion that very curious petrifying cavern, of
which, left you fhould not have I'een it already, I iliall
give fome defcription.

" It is fituate on the eaft fide of Swatara, clofe to the
river. Its entrance is very fpacious, and there is fome-
what of a defcent towards the other extremity ; infomuch
that I fuppofe the furface of the river is rather higher than
the bottom of the cave. The upper part is like an arched
roof, of folid lime-ftone rock, perhaps twenty feet thick.
On entering, are found many apartments, fome of them
very high, like the choir of a church. There is, as it
were, a continual rain within the cave, for the water drops
inceffantly from the roof upon the floor; by which, and
the water petrifying as it falls, pillars are gradually form-
ed to fupport the roof. I faw this cave about thirty years
ago, and obferved above ten fuch pillars, each fix inches
in diameter and fix feet high ; all fo ranged that the place
inclofed by them refembled a fanftuary in a Roman church :
And I can aflure you, that no royal throne ever exhibited
more grandeur, than the delightful profpett of this hfus
naturie. Satisfied with the view of this, we difcovered the
refemblances of feveral monuments, incorporated into the
v^alls, as if the bodies of departed heroes were there de-
pofited. Our guide then conduced us to a place, where,

he

178 DESCRIPTION OF a GROTTO.

he faid, hung the bell : This is a piece of ftone iflulng out
of the roof, which when ftruck founds like a bell.

" Some of the ftaladtites are of a colour like fugar-candy,
and others refemble loaf-fugar ; but it is a pity that their
beauty is now almofl dcftroyed by the country people.
The water, as it falls, runs down the declivity ; and it is
both wholefome and pleafant to drink, when it has dif-
charged its petrifying matter. It is remarkable that we
found feveral holes at the bottom of the cave, going down
perpendicularly, perhaps into the abyfs, which renders it
dangerous to be without a light. At the end of the cave,
there is a pretty run, which takes its courfe through part
of it, and then lofes itfelf among the rocks : Here is alfo
its exit, by an aperture which is very narrow. Through
this the vapours continually pafs outwards, with a ftrong
current of air ; and, at night, thefe vapours afcending re-
femble a great furnace. Part of thefe vapours and fogs
appear, on afcending, to be condenfed at the head of this
great alembic, and the more volatile parts to be carried
off, through the aperture communicating with the exterior
air before mentioned, by the force of the air in its palTage.

" I beg pardon for having troubled you with fuch a long
detail. It appears ftrange to me that none of our philo-
fophers have hitherto publifhed a true account of this re-
markable grotto."

N° XVI.

An Account offome Experiments on Magnet'ifin^ in a Letter
to John Page, EJquirc^ at Wdliainsburg.

DEAR SIR,

Read Feb. yi GREEABLE to the promife in my laft, I
',17 '■ y-^ fliall now communicate to you fome conjec-
tures and experiments on magnetifm, which may perhaps

either

EXPERIMENTS in MAGNETISM.

179

either afford you feme amufement, or induce you to pur-
fue the fubjedt to more certainty.

I i'uppofe then, that magnetical particles of matter are
a neceflary conftituent part of that metal which we call
iron, though they are probably but a fmall proportion of
the whole mafs. Thefe magnetical particles I fuppofe
have each a north and a fouth pole, and that they retain
their polarity, however the metal may be fufed or other-
wife wrought. In a piece of iron which ihews no figns of
magnetifm thefe magnetical particles lie irregularly, with
their poles pointing in all poffible diredions, they there-
fore mutually deftroy each other's effedls. By giving
magnetifm to a piece of iron we do nothing more than
arrange thefe particles, and when this is done it depends
on the temper and fituation of the iron whether that ar-
rangement fhall continue, that is, whether the piece of
metal fhall remain for a long time magnetical or not.

There is fome power, whencefoever derived, diffufed
through every part of fpace which we have accefs to,
which a£ls on thefe magnetical particles, impelling one of
their poles in a certain direction with refpedt to the earth
and the other pole in the oppofite direction. The direc-
tion in which this power acts I take to be the fame with
that of the dipping needle.

By applying a magnet to a piece of iron it becomes
magnetical; for the magnet ading ftrongly on the above
mentioned particles, that action arranges them properly;
overcoming the refiftance of the furrounding parts of the
iron, and this refiftance afterwards ferves to fecure them in
their proper fituations, and prevents their being deranged
by any little accident.

If we place a piece of iron in or near the diredion of
the dipping needle, it will in time become magnetical;
that general power producing in this cafe the fame effed;
as the application of the magnet, though in a weaker
degree.

Iror^i

i8o EXPERIMENTS in MAGNETISM.

Iron or foft fteel receives magnetifm more eafily than
hardened fteel, but will not retain it; may not this be, be-
caufe the magnetical particles are not fo clofely confined in
foft as in hardened fteel, and on that account more cafily
admit of arrangement or derangement. By making a
piece of fteel red hot, or by twifting it or beating it with
a hammer, we may eff"ed:ually deftroy its magnetifm.
Now all thefe operations certainly derange the particles
which compofe the bar. By rubbing one piece of fteel
with another, magnetifm may be produced, and it is eafy
to conceive how this operation, by the tremulous motion
which it excites, may contribute to arrange the magneti-
cal particles.

We took a foft fteel ramrod, which did not difcover the
leaft fign of magnetifm, and holding it in the direction of
the dipping needle, ftruck it feveral fmart blows with a
hammer, on one end ; then laying it on a watch chryftal it
traverfed very well; that end which was held downwards,
when ftruck, becoming a north pole, whether the ftroke
was applied to the upper or the lower end. By turning
the fouth end downwards and ftriking it afrefli, the mag-
netifm was deftroyed or reverfed, and it was curious to
obferve how very nicely you muft adjuft the number and
force of the ftrokes, precifely to deftroy the magnetifm be-
fore communicated, without giving it anew, in a contrary
tlireftion. When we held the ramrod diredlly acrofs the
line of the dipping needle, whilft it was ftruck with a
hammer, on many trials it did not dilcover any figns of
magnetifm. But when held in any other direction, that
end which approached neareft to the point which the lower
end of the dipping needle tends to, always became the
north pole. From all this does it not feem very probable
that during the concuffion of the ftroke, and whilft the
magnetical particles of the rod were moft difengaged from
the furrounding matter, the adive power abovementioned
fcizcd them and arranged them properly, where being

confined,

EXPERIMENTS in MAGNETISM. i8i

confined, the rod afterwards remained magnetical. All
this is neverthelefs little more than conjecture, until con-
firmed by further experiments.

I am, dear fir, yours, &c.

DAVID RITTENHOUSE.

N° XVII.

Neiv Method of placing a Meridian Mark, in a Letter to

the Rev. Dr. Ewing, Pro'vojl of the Univerjity. By

D. RlTT£NHOUSE, Efqiiire.

DEAR SIR,

Read Nov. O OME time ago I mentioned to you a new in-
^'^'^" k^ vention I had for fixing a Meridian Mark for
my Obfervatory. This I have fince executed, and as it
anfwers perfe<£tly well, I fhall give you a particular de-
fcription of it.

When my obfervatory was firft eredled, I placed a me-
ridian mark to the northward at the diftance of about 1 200
feet, my view to the fouth being too much confined by
adjacent buildings, and that to the north was not diftant
enough to have the mark free from a fenfible parallax.
But laft fummer a new brick houfe was built direttly north
of the obfervatory, and much too nigh for diftant vifion
with the tranfit inftrument. Now though a fixed mark is
not abfolutely neceflary where you have a good tranfit in-
ftrument, the pofition of which may be examined and ac-
curately correded, if neceflary, every fair day, by the
paflage of the pole-ftar above and below the pole, it is ne-
verthelefs very convenient, faves much trouble, and may
fometimes prevent miftakes. We have an inftance in the
obfervalions of the Aftronomer Royal at Greenwich. His
A a mark

i82 NEW METHOD of placing a

mark being taken down at repairing the building to which
it was fecured, the tranfit inftrument was accidentally-
thrown out of its true pofition, and the obfervations with
it were continued for a confiderable time before the error
was detedled. My meridian mark being thus rendered
ufelefs, I contrived feveral other methods of fupplying its
place, all of which were, on fufficient deliberation, reject-
ed for the following.

I fattened the objeft glafs of a thirty fix feet telefcope,
firmly, to the wall which fupports the tranfit inftrument,
oppofite to and as near as convenient to the objeft glafs of
the tranfit, when brought to a horizontal fituation. In
the focus of the thirty fix feet objed glafs I fcrewed faft a
piece of brafs to a block of marble, fupported by a brick
pillar built on a good foundation, for this purpofe, in my
garden. On this piece of brafs are feveral black concen-
tric circles; the reft of the plate is filvered. The diverg-
ing rays of light which proceed from every point in thefe
circles, after paifing through the thirty-fix feet glafs be-
come parallel, and entering the tranfit inftrument, an image
of the plate and its circles is formed in the fame place
where the images of ftars or the moft diftant objects are
formed. The circles are therefore diftindtly feen through
the tranfit, and being placed in the fame meridian with
the centre of the thirty fix feet glafs, the innermoft circle,
about the fize of a brevier r, ferves for a meridian mark,
to the centre whereof the crofs hair of the tranfit may be
nicely adjufted.

This mark is in feveral refpeds preferable to one placed
in the common way. It is entirely free from parallax,
which the other cannot be, unlefs placed at a very great
diftance, when glaftes of great magnifying powers are
ufed. It is not fenlibly aft'efted by the undulation of the
air, which very often renders it impoflible to fet the tran-
fit accurately to a diftant mark. And it can be illuminat-
ed at night without difficulty, fliould the fufpicion of any

accident

MERIDIAN MARK. 183

accident to the tranfit make it necefTary. But it has like-
wife one difadvantage. Should the pillar in fettling, carry
the mark a little to the eaft or weft, the error will be
greater in proportion to its nearnefs.

1 am, dear fir, your humble fervant,

DAVID RITTENHOUSE.

P. S. The great improvement of object glaffes by Dol-
land has enabled us to apply eye glaffes of fo fhort a fo-
cus, that it is difficult to find any fubftance proper for the
crofs hairs of fixed inftruments. For fome years part I
have ufed a fingle filament of filk, without knowing that
the fame was made ufe of by the European aftronomers, as
I have lately found it is by Mr. Hirfchell. But this fub-
ftance, though far better than wires or hairs of any kind,
is ftill much too coarfe for fome obfervations. A fingle
filament of filk will totally obfcure a fmall ftar, and that
for feveral feconds of time, if the ftar be near the pole. I
have lately with no fmall difficulty placed the thread of a
fpider in fome of my inftruments, it has a beautiful effedt,
it is not one tenth of the fize of the thread of the filkworm,
and is rounder and more evenly of a thicknefs. I have
hitherto found no inconvenience from the ufe of it, and
believe it will be lafting, it being more than four months
fmce I firft put it in my tranfit telefcope, and it continues
fully extended, and free from knots or particles of duft.

N° XVIII.

Account of a Worm in a Horfe's Eje, by F. H o P-
K I N s O N, Efquire,

Read Sep. T TAVING bceu myfelf a witnefs to the fol-

a6. 1783- J-J^ lowing curious fadt, I thought it fhould

A a 2 not

i84 ACCOUNT of a WORM in a

not pafs unrecorded, efpecially as it occurred in this city,
under the immediate notice of the Philofophical Society.

A report prevailed laft fummer that a horfe was to be
fccn which had a living ferpent in one of his eyes. At
firft 1 difregarded this report, but numbers of my acquain-
tance, who had been to fee the horfe, confirming the ac-
count, I had the curlofity to go myfelf, taking a friend
along with me. The horfe was kept in Arch-ftreet and
belonged to a free negroe. I examined the eye with
all the attention in my power, being no ways difpofed to
credit the common report, but rather expe£ting to de-
tect a fraud or vulgar prejudice; I was much furprifed,
however, to fee a real living worm within the ball of the
horfe's eye. This worm was of a clear white colour, in
fize and appearance much like a piece of fine bobbin; it
feemed to be from 2I to 3 inches in length, which how-
ever, could not be duly afcertained, its whole length ne-
ver appearing at one time, but only fuch a portion as could
be feen through the iris, which was greatly dilated. The
creature was in a conftant lively vermicular motion; fome-
times retiring fo deep into the eye as to become totally in-
vifible, and at other times approaching fo near to the iris
as to become plainly and diftinclly feen; at leafl: fo much
of it as was within the field of the iris. I could not dirtin-
guifh its head, neither end being perfectly exhibited whilll:
1 viewed it, and indeed its motion was fo brifk and con-
ftant, that fo nice a fcrutiny was not to be expeiflcd. The
horfe's eye was exceedingly enflamed, fwoln and running;
I mean the mufcles contiguous to the eye ball, and feemed
to give him great pain; fo that it was with much difficulty
the eye could be kept open for more than a few feconds
at a time; and I was obliged to watch favourable moments
for a diftinft view of his tormentor. I believe the horfe
was quite blind in that eye, for it appeared as if all the
humours were confounded together, and that the worm
had the whole orb to range in, which, however, was not

of

H O R S E's E Y E. 185

of a diameter fufficient for the worm to extend its full
length, as far as I could difcover. The humours of the
eye were beginning to grow opake like a chilled jelly, and
became altogether fo afterwards, as I was informed.

As this is a very uncommon circumftance and, may af-
fect fome philofophical dodtrines, it is much to be lament-
ed that the horfe had not been purchafed, and the eye
differed for better examination. That there was a living,
felf-moving worm within the ball of the horfe's eye, free
from all deception or miftake, I am moft confident. How
this worm got there, or if bred in fo remarkable a place,
where its parents came from, or how they contrived to
depofite their fcmen or convey their egg into the eye of
an horfe, I leave for others to determine.

N° XIX.,

An improved Method of ^liUing a Harpfichord^ by
E. HoPKiNSON, Efquire.

Read Dec. "^ /ff"XT C H of the plcafurc and effedt in perform-
j. 1783- J_Yj_ ing on a harpfichord depends on the equa-
lity of what is called the touch ; and this is principally
owing to a continuance of uniformity in the fpring of the
little quills, which by their impulfe fet the firings in V\-
bration. Thefe quills, in the prefent manner of applying
them, will not retain their elafticity for any length of
time, but require conftant repair ; which is one of the moft
troublefome and difficult operations in keeping the inftru-
ment in order. To remedy this inconvenience, I have
fought for a fubflitute for the crow quill, and tried a va-
riety of fubftances, but without fuccefs. I then confider-
ed whether an improvement might not be made in the
application of the quills themfelves, and to this purpofe I

examined

•i86 IMPROVEMENT IN THE

examined the caufe of the quills being fo liable to break,
and obferved that the piece of quill is thruft through a
fmall hole in the tongue of the jack, projecting only about
a quarter of an inch beyond the face of the tongue : That
this quill is too fhort to yield in all its parts, and fo adt
properly as a fpring ; but bends only at the place where
it iffues from the hole in the tongue, and works up and
down as upon a hinge, in that place; and there only is the
quill ever known to break.

Thus in Plate III, Figure 6, a., is the tongue, b, the
quill fixed firmly in it, which being too fhort to a£t fairly
as a fpring, will bend only at c, when it is forced to pafs
the firing ; and by repeated exercife muft necelTarily break
in that part, as any fpring would do if compelled to ad:
in the fame manner.

But if this quill could be made longer, or applied fo
that its fpring fhould be part of a curve, it would proba-
bly preferve its elafticity for any length of time, as other
fprings do.

To effect this I have conftru£ted the tongue and applied
the quill as reprefented in figure 7, where a, is the tongue,
the top of which is rounded off; the quill is firmly fix-
ed in the hole at c, as ufual, but inftead of paffing through
a length fufficient to ftrikc the firing, it is cut off even
with the face of the tongue aty^ The quill thus fixed
with its polifhed face downwards, is bent upward round
the top of the tongue, and then proceeds horizontally the
proper length ; being kept in the horizontal pofition by
the little wire ftaple e, being firmly driven into holes drill-
ed for the purpofe, but not fo far as to pinch the quill
againfl: the top of the tongue ; a little fpace being left for
the quill to play in.

From this conftrudion it is manifeft, that the fpring of
the quill will be in its whole length, but chiefly in the
curve r, f / ; and that a quill fo applied will adt fairly as a
fpring, and may be expeded to retain its clallicity for

years,

H A R r S I C H O R D. 187

years, fubje£l to no variations but fuch as may be occafi-
oned by alterations in the ftate of the air, to which all
known fubftances are more or lefs liable.

Read, jj<| (.|jg beginning of laft winter, I had the honour to
lay before the fociety an improved method of quilling
a Harpsichord. Wilhing to bring my difcovery to the
teft of full experiment and to the judgment of abler critics,
I forwarded a defcription and a model of my improvement
to a friend in London, requefting that it might be fubmitted
to the examination of proper judges, and directing, in
cafe it fhould be approved of, that an inftrument made by
one of the firft artifts and" quilled according to my pro-
pofed method, fhould be fent to me. I have accordingly
received an excellent double harpfichord, made by MefTrs
Shudi and Broadivood of London, and quilled according
to my method; with this difference, I had rounded off the
top of the tongue, and bending the quill over it, kept it in a
horizontal pofition by means of a fmall wire ftaple; as
will be more fully underflood by referring to my former
defcription. But Mr. Broadivood has left the tongue of
its full length and ufual form : But made the hole, in
which the quill is commonly fixed tight, fo large, that the
quill has free room to play therein; and then fixing the
quill below, has bent it round and brought it through
this hole; which renders a ftaple unneceffary; the top of
the tongue anfwering the fame purpofe. The principle
on which the improvement depends is the fame in both;
but his is the beft method of executing it.

He informs, however, that one inconvenience occurs
viz. the quills being fo forcibly bent in the curved part,
are liable, in fome inftances, to fpring back, and fo be-
come not only too fhort to reach the ftring it fl:iould ftrike,
but the projection of the curve will be apt to touch the
ftring behind it, when the flop is pufhed back.

To

I&8 IMPROVEMENT IN THE

To explain this, let a-, b-, figure 8, reprefent the tongue,
Ci dt e, the quill, firmly fixed at c, then bent upwards and
brought through a hole, which is large enough for the
quill to play freely therein. But the curved part of the
quill at d-, being fo forcibly bent, will in fome inflances
fpring back (as reprefented in the figure) not keeping clofe
to the back of the tongue, as it fliould do: And as there
is no wafte room, the curve d, will be apt to touch the firing
behind it, when the ftop is pufhed back, I acknowledge
that this inconvenience occurs in fome few inftances in the
inftrument Mr. Broadtvood has fent me; but would ob-
ferve that as it does not alivays happen, it is a fault in the
execution and not in the principle. Yet, as it may be dif-
ficult to guard againft it, I have confidercd how this evil
may be effectually prevented.

Inftead of punching the fmall hole, in which the quill
is to be fixed, ftraight through the tongue, let it be punch-
ed flanting downwards; this will relieve the quill from
that ftrained pofition which caufes it to fpring back. Ac-
cording to the firll mode of application the curve formed
by the quill will be as at «, figure 9, in thefecond as at b.
I have conftru£ted many tongues in this way, and found
none of them liable to the inconvenience complained of,
or fhewing any tendency whatever to fpring back; but to
remove all jealoufy on this head, fliould any remain, it
will be eafy to drive a fmall wire fiaple againft the bottom
of the curve behind, which muft effedually retain it clofe
to the back of the tongue.

I mention this expedient of the wire ftaple merely with
a view of removing all doubt; but I do not think it ne-
ceffary; the objedlion being perfeiflly remedied by the
other method : To prove this, I have cut out the entire
block between the two holes, in the manner of a mortife,
and drove a pin acrofs the upper part of it. I then caufed
the quill to lie in this flanting mortife, and bending it
round brought it over the pin; and I found it would re-
main

HARPSICHORD. 189

main perfedly at eafe In its birth, although not pinched or
reftralned in any part; a, figure 10, reprefents the tongue
in front, and I?, the mortife, of which the flanting fhape
cannot be feen in this view; but will be better underftood
by obferving the pofition of the quill in figure 11, where
a is a. profile of the fame tongue, b, c, the quill lying in
the mortife, and <i, the pin over which the top of the quill
pafles.

I have need to apologize to the fociety for directing {o
much of their attention, to an objedl which may appear to
fome to be of little importance. To the mufical tribe,
however, this improvement will prefent itfelf in a differ-
ent light. Many perfons who play very well on the
harpfichord, are not able to keep the inftrument in order:
And to fend for a perfon to repair the quills and tune the
inftrument as often as it fhall be neceffary, is not only
troublefome and expenfive, but fuch affiftance is not al-
ways to be had, efpecially in the country. And for thefe
reafons many a good harpfichord or fpinnet lies negledl-
ed and the fcholar loofes the opportunity of pradice. To
fuch perfons a method of quilling that fhall feldom want
repair is a dijideratum of no fmall importance. And this,
I flatter myfelf I have accompliflaed.

The difficulty of quilling being thus removed, I confi-
dered in what manner tuning might be made eafy to the
praditioner in mufic. Harpfichords are tuned by means of
ffths and thirds; but fiach is the mufical divifion of the
monochord as to make it neceflTary, that none oithtk ffths
or thirds {hould be perfedt; an allowance muft be made;
and to do this with judgment, fo that the chords may be
good and the inftrument be in tune, requires much atten-
tion and praftice. Of the numbers that play, there will
not be found one in an hundred that can tune a harpfi-
chord. To render this talk eafy, I have procured t'weh)e
tuning forks 1 for the tivel'ue femitones of the odave; thefe
I had perfectly tuned; and as they will not be fenfibly af-
B b fedlcd

190 IMPROVEMENT in the

fe£ted by any change of weather, they remain as ftandards.
I take it for granted that any perfon at all accuftomed to
mufical founds can tell when one tone is in unifon with
another; and that a very little practice will enable him to
tune one found an oBave to another, thefe conchords are fo
manifeft that they cannot eafily be miftaken. There is then
nothing to be done but to tune the twelve firings in uni-
fon with the twelve forks ; this will fix the fcale, or tem-
perature for one o£tave, which is the whole difficulty ; the
reft of the inftrument is eafily tuned by unifons and oc-
taves to the fcale, fo afcertained*.

Having, I hope, fully accomplilhed the defign I had in
view when I turned my thoughts to this fubjedt, I fhall
now take leave of it ; and fhall be highly gratified if I
find others benefited by my attentions, although in a mat-
ter of no very ferious import.
Nov. 1784.

Defcrlption of a further Impro'vement in the Harp-
sichord.

^ts'^rse'^ IN a former paper read before the fociety,
refpe£ling an improved method of quilling a
Harpsichord, I made fome apology for troubling you
with a fubjedl not ftri£lly within the limits of your view
as a philofophical fociety, and which might appear to fome
of fmall importance. At the fame time 1 took formal leave
of a purfuit which had accidentally engaged my attention,
and which I had obtruded upon your's. Notwithftanding
this, I find myfelf under a nccefllty of again requefting
your indulgence, whilrt I defcribe a difcovery I made in
Auguft lart, of a flill further improvement to the fame
purpoie.

Having

• My fct of forlis arc tuned Jrom the middle C fliarp to the C ahovc, incluCvc.

HARPSICHORD. 191

Having "fucceeded to the extent of my expedation in a
more advantageous way of applying the crow quill in com-
mon ufe in a harpfichord, I thought to reft content with
that improvement; which had principally for its obje£t the
duration of the quill's elafticity, and of courfe the durati-
on of the equality of touch. But notwithftanding the
long eftablifhed prejudice in favour of the crow quill, and
the prevailing opinion that no fubftance can fupply its
place to advantage, I think a~candid critic will allow that
one of the following pofitions is founded in fadt, and the
other in reafon.

Firjl. Although the three flops of a harpfichord fhould
be quilled to the heft advantage, the refuk of the whole
will be an obfervable jingle or tinkling between the quills
and wires, which depreciates the dignity and fweemefs of
the inftrument. The beft harpfichords are fo cenfurable
for this imperfection, that the Forte Piano^ which is free
from it, ftands a chance of rivalling that noble inftrument,
for this caufe only ; being far inferior in every other
refpe£t.

Second. Is it not reafonable to fuppofe that fo long a
ftring, fo advantageoufly ftretched over fo large a box,
fhould yield a greater body of tone, than that which is
produced by the in^pulfe of a quill ? If the quill be made
very ftifF, this will render the touch difagreeable and en-
creafe the jingle, but not add to the body of tone. One
reafon why the quill does not draw a fuller tone from the
ftring, I fuppofe to be the fmallnefs of its conta£t. The
back of a quill is a portion of a circle, the extended ftring
is a right line, and a circle can touch a right line only in
a point ; the conta£t therefore muft be fo very fmail, that
mere ftrength of impulfe is not fufficient to put the ftring
into full vibration.

The method I am now to defcribe of quilling, or rather
tonguing a harpfichord, I have found by experiment, to
draw forth the powers of the inftrument to a furprifmg
B b 2 efFed, '

193 IMPROVEMENT in the

efFedt, caufing it to yield a full and pure body of tone,-
free from all jingle and very pleafant to the ear.

N. B. What hath hitherto been called the tongue of the
jack, I fhall denominate the palate ; and the fubftitute I
have made for the quill, I Ihall call the tofigue. The
propriety of this will appear in the defcription.

Let A, figure 12, reprefent the palate in front,
Plate III. ^,[^1^ a mortife cut through it for the tongue to
work in. B, is the tongue, having two fmall holes
drilled through it, one in the centre of its motion and the
other at a little diftance behind, for the reception of one
end of a wire fpring hereafter mentioned.

Figure 13, is the palate in profile, with the tongue pro-
perly mounted and moveable on the centre pin. This
figure alfo fhews how the palate 4Tiuft be hollowed in be-
hind to expofe the root of the tongue, and the fmall hole
in it for the reception of one end of the wire fpring.

Figure 14, is a back view of the palate, fhewing the
groove in which the hair fpring of the jack lies, and a
fmall wire ftaple at b, to which the lower end of the fteel
fpring is to be fattened.

Figure 15, is the fpring which is to govern the tongue.
It mufl be of fine fteel wire, fomewhat annealed by being
forcibly rubbed between pieces of leather or cork, and is
formed by winding the wire backwards and forwards with
a tight hand, over pins driven deep and firm into a piece
of wood. As the palate muft play freely within the fork
or jaws of the jack, the windings of the fpring muft not
exceed the width of the palate. The upper end of the
fpring being run through the finall hole in the root of the
tongue and bent round, fo as to fccure it, and the fuper-
fluous part cut off; the lower end of the fame fpring muft
be run under the little ftaple (/;, figure 14,) and bent up-
wards with a gentle ftrain, fo as to hook it on and fecure it
to that ftaple ; the fpring will then operate with all its
elafticity, and the tongue will be fubjeded to its operation.

Figure

HARPSICHORD. 193

Figure 1 7, reprefents the palate in a back view with the
zlg zag fprlng fattened by one end to the root of the tongue,
and by the other to the little ftaple.

To prevent the tongue from rlfing by the force of the
fprlng above a horizontal pofitlon, there muft be a wire
ftaple driven in the front of the palate immediately above
the tongue (as at a, in figure 12 and 13;) and the tongue,
if of wood, fhould be armed with a fmall piece of foft lea-
ther juft under the ftaple, to prevent nolfe.

It muft be left to future experiment to determine the
moft proper of all fiibftances of which the tongue fhould
be made; different fubflances drawing different tones from
the ftring. After many effays to this purpofe, I have con-
cluded to furnifh my harpfichord in the following manner.

The tongues of the firft unifon are of Ben Jole-leather,
Thofe of the fecond are of a foft leather faced with Mo-
rocco, fuch as is frequently ufed in harpfichords, though
applied in a different way, and the tongues of the odtave
are of wood, fuch as pear tree, laurel, or any wood of an
even grain and not too hard in fubftance. But all mount-
ed on fprings, as above defcrlbed, and their faces well po-
lifhed with black lead where they come in contadt with
the ftrlngs.

My reafons are. The fole-leather produces a full, fweet
and vigorous tone from the firft unifon. The fecond uni-
fon, which is the piano of the Inftrument when the pedal
is preffed, is furniftied with Morocco leather, which draws
a full but more foft and fmothered tone from the ftring.
And the odtave is ftruck with wooden tongues for the fake
of vivacity or brilliancy, which is the genius of that ftop ;
yet I am not fure but that the odave alfo had better be
ftruck with fole-leather, like the firft unifon*.

A harpfichord thus furnlfhed, will produce a body or
quantity of found, and a purity of tone, that will aftonlfti.

at

* Becaufe, after the (Iroke has been given, the wooden tongue repaffing the ftrhig, yet ia.
vibration, makes a jingle, which the leather tongues do not.

194 IMPROVEMENT in the HARPSICHORD.

at the firft hearing, much refembling the diapafon flop of
an organ. And it is manifeft that if the touch be well
regulated at firft, it will not afterwards be fubje£t to alte-
ration for a long courfe of time. The touch is in part re-
gulated by the ftrength of the ferpentine fpring and the
number of its zig zag evolutions ; and in part by the man-
ner of rounding off the tip of the tongue ; for the tip of
the tongue muft not be cut off fquare, (in which cafe, the
ftring would leave the tongue too abruptly and caufe a dlf-
agreeable twang,) but fhould be flanted off from under-
neath, and its extreme point rounded and well polifhed
by rubbing it very hard with a piece of black lead. As
to the ftrength of the fpring, four fizes of wire, viz. from
n"- 4 to n°- 8, will be fufficient for the whole inftrument;
but the touch is more immediately regulated by rounding
off the tips of the tongues by the preffure and polifh of the
black lead, more or lefs, as occafion fhall require. When
the tongues are of wood, a ftroke or two of a fine file will
be neceffary to take off the fquare edge left by the knife,
previous to the polifhing it with the black lead.

After all, a harpfichord juft furnifhed in this way, will
not be fo pleafant to the touch or to the ear as it will be
after a few weeks ufe ; when the ftrings will, by repeated
fridion, have rounded off and polifhed the tips of the
tongues, and have made for themfelves a broad bearing or
contad, which cannot perhaps be fo accurately produced
by any care of the workman.

Lallly, it is fcarce neceffary to obfervc that the ferpen-
tine fpring and the root of the tongue muft be comprifed
•within the thicknefs of the jack ; otherwife they will be
apt to interfere with the ftring behind, when the flop is
puflied back.

F. HOPKINSON.

Ohfervations

[ 195 ]

N° XX.

Obfervations on a Comet lately difcovered ; communicated'
^/ David Rittenhouse, Efquire.

ResdMar. £~^\^ thc 2ift of January laft, John Lukens,
19. 1784- \^J Efquire, informed me that he had difcover-
ed a comet the preceding evening, and on the evening
of the fame day, aflifted by Mr. Lukens and Mr. Prior, I
obferved the apparent place of the comet to be in the 15th
degree of Pifces, with 16° 6' fouth latitude. By fubfe-
quent obfervations I found its motion to be north eaflerly,
with refped: to the ecliptic, and that its neareft approach to
us had preceded our firft obfervation. It paifed the ecliptic
on the 31ft in the 25° of Pifces, and February the 17th
it was in Pifces 29° with 13° 10' north latitude. This
was the laft time I faw it, clouds and moonlight having
fince prevented.

The light of this comet was ib very faint that it was
impoffible to obferve it with accuracy, at leaft without bet-
ter inftruments than I am poffefTed of, efpecially as the
comet was always involved in day light, moonlight or the
thick atmofphere of the horizon. No pains or attention
however were wanting, and from the beft obfervations I
could make, I find it pafled its perihelion about the 20th of
January, its diftance from the fun being about -/-„- of the
fun's diftance from us. The place of its afcending node is
in the 25th deg. of Taurus, and the incHnation of its orbit
53''. Its motion is retrograde, that is, contrary to the or-
der of the figns. I have ftill hopes of feeing it in the
morning, though its diftance is now fo very great that it
can fcarcely be vilible to the naked eye,

ExtroM

[ 19^ 1

N° XXI.

Extra^ of a Letter from the Rev. Jeremy Belknap,
containing Obfervations on the Aurora Borealis.

Dover, New-Hampfliire, March 31ft, 1 783.

Read May it TPV I D you cvcr, In obferving the Aurora Bo-
\j realis, perceive a found? I own I once
looked on the idea as frivolous and chimerical, having
heard it at firft from perfons whofe credulity, I fuppofed,
exceeded their judgment ; but, upon hearing it repeated-
ly, and from fome others whom I thought judicious and
curious, I began to entertain an opinion in favour of it.
I was ftrengthened in this opinion about two years ago,
by liftening with attention to the flafhing of a luminous
arch which appeared in a calm frofty night, when I thought
I heard a faint ruftling noife like the brufhing of filk. Laft
Saturday evening I had full auricular demonftration of the
reality of this phenomenon. About ten o'clock the hemi-
fphere was all in a glow ; the vapours afcended from all
points, and met in a central one in the zenith : All the
difference between the fouth and north part of the heavens
was, that the vapour did not begin to afcend fo near the
horizon in the fouth as in the north. There had been a
fmall fhower with a few thunder claps, and a bright rain-
bow in the afternoon ; and there was a gentle weftern
breeze in the evening which came in ilaws, with intervals
of two or three minutes ; in thei'e intervals I could plain-
ly perceive the ruftling noife, which was eafily diftinguifh-
able from the found of the wind, and could not be heard
till the flaw had fubfidcd. The flafhing of the vapour
was extremely quick j whether accelerated by the wind I

cannot

EXPERIMENTS on the SWEET SPRINGS. 197

cannot fay; but from that quarter where the greateft quan-
tity of the vapour feemed to be in motion, the found was
plaineft; and this, during my obfervation, was the eallern.
The fcene lafted about half an hour, though the whole
night was as light as when the moon is in the quarters."

N° XXII,

J. Letter from J. Madison, Efq. to D. Rittenhouse,
Efq. containing Experiments and Obfervations uj)on ivhat
are commonly called the Siveet Springs.

THESE waters rife on the north fide of a large moun-
tain at the foot of it, called the Sweet Spring Moun-
tain, in the county of Botetourt. The fouth fide is co-
vered wth ftones of an ocrous appearance. In many
places iron ore may be found; but on the north the moun-
tain is fertile, covered with a rich mould, at leaft near the
fpring. The remarkable efficacy of thefe waters in many
diforders, efpecially, it is faid, in confumptive complaints,
firft induced me to attempt their analyfis. Such experi-
ments as I had time and opportunity to make, I fhall faith-
fully relate, and leave it to others, better qualified than
myfelf, to judge of their merits.

Experiment i. Having plunged a very fenfible mer-
curial thermometer in the fpring, it flood at y^"- The
temperature of air was about 69.

2. A good hydrometer funk one-twentieth of an inch
deeper in common mountain water, than in the fpring.

3. Nut-galls mixed with the water in a wine glafs ftruck
a palifh brown, which fhewed that there was little or no
iron in it.

4. Violets mixed with the water in a wine glafs, turn-

C c ed

19S EXPERIMENTS on the SWEET SPRINGS.

cd it in a fliort time of a recklifli colour. This was a proof
that the waters contained fome kind of acid.

5. Having made a folution of filver in the nitrous acid,
and mixed a little of it with the water, it immediately be-
came milky, and a white pulvurent precipitate enfued.^
This experiment fhewed by the whitenefs of the precipi-
tate, that the waters contained nothing fulphureous, and
by the pulvurency of the precipitate that the acid contain-
ed in the waters was vitriolic.

6. A folution of lead in the nitrous acid being mixed
with/the water, it became fomewhat milky, and a white
precipitate was obferved. This experiment alfo Ihews that
the waters contain an acid, moft probably the vitriolic,
and alfo that they contain calcareous earth. Soap is not
readily mifcible with them.

7. A folution of faccharum faturni in the nitrous acid
being made, and lines marked upon paper with it, and
placed over the water, the lines retained their former co-
lour. This experiment alfo fhews that the water contains
nothing fulphureous.

8. Having poured a little of the fplrit of fait into the
water, after fome time a coloured precipitate was obferved,
but as the waters did not ftrike a green or blue colour, it
fliewed that there was no copper in them.

9. A folution of vitriol of copper mixed with the water
produced a thick, green, curdly appearance, but did not
become bluer. This experiment flievved that there was no
vol. alkali contained in them.

10. The vitriolic acid mixed with the water fuddenly
cffervefced, and produced a heat which ralfed the ther-
mometer from 75 to 83, by applying the bulb to the
outfide of the glafs.

11. As the fpring is continually difcharging large bub-
bles of air, M'hich rihng from the bottom break upon
the furface of the water, 1 was defiroiis of making fome
experiments upon the air, in order to determine whether

the

EXPERIMENTS on the SWEET SPRINGS. 199

the acidity of the water might not be owing to it ; and
alfo to determine the nature of the air, whether fixed or
not. Having therefore caught a quantity of the air in a
decanter, I communicated a part of it to an equal bulk of
pure mountain water, and after agitating them for fome
time, gave it to feveral to tafte ; who agreed that it had
the tafte of the fpring water. Upon a fecond trial this ex-
periment did not fucceed. I had not an opportunity of
trying the nature of the air by means of chalk-water, and
was prevented from profecuting any farther enquiries into
the nature of thefe celebrated waters by a fudden alarm,
to which the frontiers were then continually expofed,

Thefe waters have been falfely called Jhveet, for their
tafte is evidently acidulous. The experiments alfo ihew
that they contain an acid. Their tafte refembles exactly
that of waters artificially impregnated with fixed air, ex-
tricated from chalk, by means of the vitriolic acid, and I
conceive muft be nearly the fame with the true Pyrmont
water. They have little or no fmell, do not form an in-
cruftatlon, nor do they leave a depofit upon ftanding many
hours. Upon bathing in the morning, the fkin has a
foapy kind of feel. This was not obferved in the evening.

There is near this fpring another, a very ftrong cha-
lybeate.

I am, with great regard, yours,

J. MADISON,

N° XXIII.

A Letter front the Rev. Jeremy Belknap, on the
prefer'uing of Parfnips by drying.

Dover, New-Hampfliire, March 5, 1784.
SIR,

Read Apr. A MONG thc number of efculent roots, the

16, 1784. jt-^ ^^^j,yjj^-p has two fingular good 'qualities.

C c 2 One

ioo On preserving PARSNIPS.

One is that It will endure the levereft froft and may be
taken out of the ground in the fpring, as frefh and fweet
as in autum; the other is that it may be preferved by
drying to any defired length of time.

The firfi: of thefe advantages has been known for many
years paft; the people in the moft northerly parts of
New-England where winter reigns with great feverity,
and the ground is often frozen to the depth of two or three
feet for four months, leave their parfnips in the ground till
it thaws in the fpring, and think them much better preferv-
ed than in cellars.

The other advantage never occurred to me till this
winter, when one of my neighbours put into my hands a
fubfiance which had the appearance of a piece of buck's
horn. This was part of a parfnip which had been drawn
out of the ground laft April and had lain negledled in a
dry clofet for ten months. It was fo hard as to require
confiderable ftrength to force a knife through it crofs-wife;
but being foaked in warm water, for about an hour, became
tender, and was as fweet to the tafte as if it had been
frefh drawn from the ground.

As many ufeful difcoveries owe their origin to accident,
this may fuggeft a method of preferving fo pleafant and
wholefome a vegetable for the ufe of feamen in long
voyages, to prevent the fcurvey and other diforders inci-
dent to a fea-faring life, which is often rendered tedious
and diftreffing for want of vegetable food ; fince I am per-
fuadcd that parfnips dried to fuch a degree, as above relat-
ed, and packed in tight cafks, may be tranfported round
the globe, without any lofs of their flavour or diminution
of their nutritive quality.

I am fir, your humble fervant,

JEREMY BELKNAP.

An

[ 201 ]

N° XXIV.

Jn Optical Problem, propofed by Mr. Hopkinson,
andfolved by Mr. Rittenhouse.

Philadelphia, March l6th, 1785.
DEAR SIR,.

I

TAKE the liberty of requefting your attenti-
on to the following problem in optics. It is I
believe entirely new, and the folution will afford amufe-
ment to you and inftruiSlion to me.

Setting at my door one evening laft fummer, I took a
filk handkerchief out of my pocket, and ftretching a por-
tion of it tight between my two hands, I held it up be-
fore my face and viewed, through the handkerchief, one
of the flreet lamps which was about one hundred yards
diftant; expe£ting to fee the threads of the handkerchief
much magnified. Agreeably to my expectation I obferv-
ed the filk threads magnified to the fize of very coarfe
wires; but was much furprifed to find that, although I
moved the handkerchief to the right and left before my
eyes, the dark bars did not feem to move at all, but re-
mained permanent before the eye. If the dark bars were
occafioned by the interpofition of the magnified threads
between the eye and the flame of the lamp, I Ihould have
fuppofed that they would move and fucceed each other, as
the threads were made to move and pafs in fucceffion be-
fore the eye ; but the fadl was otherwife.

To account for this phenomenon exceeds my fkill in
optics. You will be fo good as to try the experiment,
and if you find the cafe truly ftated, as I doubt not you
will, I fhall be much obliged by a folution on philofophi—
cal principles. I am fir, with great fincerity.
Your moft effeCtionate friend,
And very humble fervant,

F. HOPKINSON>.

202 A PROBLEM in OPTICS.

The Anfwer-, by Mr. Rittenhouse.

DEAR SIR,

TH E experiment you mention, with a filk handker-
chief and the diftant flame of a lamp, is much more
curious than one would at firft imagine. For the object
we fee is not the weh of the handkerchief magnified, but
fomething very different, as appears from the following
confiderations. ift. A diflin£t image of any objedl', placed
clofe to the eye, cannot be formed by parallel rays, or
fuch as iffue from a diftant luminous point : for all fuch
rays, paffmg through the pupil, will be colled:ed at the
bottom of the eye, and there form an Image of the lumi-
nous point. The threads of the handkerchief would only
intercept part of the rays, and render the image lefs bril-
liant. 2dly. If the crofs bars we fee were images of the
filk threads, they muft pafs over the retina, whilft the
threads are made to pafs over the pupil ; but this, as you
obferve, does not happen ; for they continue ftationary.
3dly. If the image on the retina was a piflure of the ob-
ject before the eye, it muft be fine or coarfe, according to
the texture of the handkerchief. But it does not change
with changing the filk, nor does it change on removing
it farther from the eye. And the number of apparent
threads remains the fame, whether lo, 20, or 30 of the
filk threads pafs acrofs the pupil at the fame time. The
imaQ-e we fee muft therefore be formed in fome different
manner ; and this can be no other than by means of the
injieB'ion of light in pafling near the furfaces of bodies, as
delcribed by Newton.

It is well known in optics that different images of the
different points of objedls without the eye are formed on
the retina by pencils of rays, which, before they fall on
the eye, are inclined to each other in fenfible angles. And
the great ufe of telefcopes is to encrcafe thefe angles, re-
gularly, in a certain ratio ; fuffcring fuch rays as were

parallel

A PROBLEM IN OPTICS. 203-

parallel before they enter the telefcope to proceed on, pa-
rallel, after paffing through it. The extended image which
we fee in this experiment muft therefore be formed by
pencils of rays, which before they entered the eye, had
very confiderable degrees of inclination with relpedt to
each other. But coming from a fmall diftant flame of a
lamp, they were nearly parallel before they pafled through
the filk handkerchief. It was therefore thej;hreads of filk
which gave them fuch difi^erent directions.

Before the filk is placed to the eye, parallel rays of light
will form a fmgle lucid fpot, as at A, Plate III. Figure 16.
And this fpot will ftill be formed afterwards by fuch rays
as pafs through the little mefhes uninfluenced by the
threads. But fuppofe the perpendicular threads by their
action on the rays, to bend a part of them one degree to
the right and left, another part two degrees ; there will now
be four new images formed, two on each fide of the original
one at A. By a fimilar adlion of the horizontal threads, this
line of five lucid points will be divided into five other lines,
two above and two below, making a fquare of twenty-five
bright fpots, feparated by four perpendicular dark lines and
four horizontal ones ; and thefe lucid fpots and dark lines
■will not change their places on moving the web of filk over
the eye parallel to any of its threads.. For the point of the
retina on which the image flaall fall is determined by the
incidence of the rays, with refpeit to the axis of the eye, be-
fore they enter, and not by the part of the pupil through.
which they pafs.

In order to make my experiments with more accuracy,,
I made a fquare of parallel hairs about half an inch each:
way. And to have them nearly parallel and equidiftant,
I got a watchmaker to cut a very fine fcrew on two pieces,
of fmall brafs wire. In the threads of thefe fcrews, 106
of which made one inch, the hairs were laid jo or 60 in.
number. Looking through thefe hairs at a fmall opening
in the window fhutter of a dark room, ~g. of an inch wide

- ap-di

204 A PROBLEM in OPTICS.

and three inches long, holding the hairs parallel to the
flit, and looking toward the fky, I faw three parallel lines,
almofl: equal in brightnefs, and on each fide four or five
others much fainter and growing more faint, coloured and
indiftindl, the farther they were from the middle line,
which I knew to be formed by fuch rays as pafs between
the hairs uninfluenced by them. Thinking my apparatus
not fo perfe£l as it might be, I took out the hairs and put
in others, fomething thicker, of thefe 190 made one inch,
and therefore the fpaces between them were about the -5-4-0
part of an inch. The three middle lines of light were now
not fo bright as they had been before, but the others were
ftronger and more diftind:, and I could count fix on each
fide of the middle line, feeming to be equally diftant from
each other, eftimating the diftance from the centre of one
to the centre of the next. The middle line was ftill well
defined and colourlefs, the next two were likewife pretty
well defined, but fomething broader, having their inner
edges tinged with blue and their outer edges with red.
The others were more indiftindl, and confifted each of the
prifmatic colours, in the fame order, which by fpreading
more and more, feemed to touch each other at the fifth or
fixth line, but thofe neareft the middle were feparated from
each other by very dark lines, much broader than the
bright lines.

I inding the beam of light which came through the win-
dow fliutter divided into fo many diftin£t pencils, I was
defirous of knowing the angles wliich they made with
each other. For this purpofe I made ufe of a fmall prif-
matic telcfcope and micrometer, with which I was favour-
ed by Dr. Franklin. I faftened the frame of parallel hairs
before the object glafs, fo as to cover its aperture entirely.
Then looking through the telefcope, I meafured the fpace
between the two firft fide lines, and found the angular
diftance between their inner edges to be 13', 15" ; from
the middle of one to the middle of the other 15' , 30", and

from

A PROBLEM IN OPTICS. 205

from the outer edge of one, to the outer edge of the other
17', 45". In the firft cafe I had a fine blue ftreak in the
middle of the obje£t, and in the laft a red ftreak. The
other lines were too faint, when feen through the telefcope,
to meafure the angles they fubtended with accuracy, but
from fuch trials as I made I am fatisfied that from the fe-
cond line on one fide to the fecond on the other fide, and
fo on, they were double, triple, quadruple, &c. of the firft
angles.

It appears then that a very confiderable portion of the
beam of light pafled between the hairs, without being at
all bent out of its firft courfe ; that another fmaller porti-
on was bent at a medium about 7', 45" each way ; the
red rays a little more, and the blue rays a little lefs ; an-
other ftill fmaller portion 15', 30"; another 23', 15", and
fo on. But that no light, fi* next to none, was bent in any
angle lefs than 6' , nor any light of any particular colour,
in any intermediate angle between thofe which arife from
doubling, tripling, &c. of the angle in which it is bent^
in the firft fide lines.

I was furprized to find that the red rays are more bent
out of their firft dirediion, and the blue rays lefs ; as if the
hairs a£led with more force on the red than on the blue
rays, contrary to what happens by refra£tion, when light
paflTes obliquely through the common furface of two dif-
ferent mediums. It is, however, confonant to what Sir
Ifaac Newton obferves with refpe£l to the fringes that
border the fhadows of hairs and other bodies ; his words
are, " And therefore the hair in caufing thefe fringes,
*' afted alike upon the red light or leaft refrangible rays
*' at a greater diftance, and upon the violet or moft re-
*' frangible rays at a lefs diftance, and by thofe adtions
*' difpofed the red light into larger fringes, and the violet
*' into fmaller fringes."

By purfuing thefe experiments it is probable that new

and interefting difcoveries may be made, refpecting the

D d properties

2o6 ENQUIRY into the CAUSE of

properties of this wonderful fubftance, light, which ani-
mates all nature in the eyes of man, and perhaps above
all things difpofes him to acknowledge the Creator's boun-
ty. But want of leifure obliges me to quit the fubje(5t for
the preient.

I am, dear fir, your afFedlionate friend,
And very humble fervant,

DAVID RITTENHOUSE,

N° XXV.

An Enquiry into the Caiife of the Increafe of Bilious and
Intennitting Fevers in Fe7injyl'va7iia, ivith Hints for
preventing them. By Benjamin Rush, M. D. Pro-
fcjfor of Chemiftry in the Uni'verfity of Pennfylvania..

Read December "w" 'p jj^g \yQQx\ remarked, that Pennfylvania for
_|^ fome years paft has become more fickly than
formerly. Fevers which a few years ago appeared chiefly
on the banks of creeks and rivers, and in the neighbour-
hood of mill-ponds, now appear in parts remote from
them all, and in the higheft fituations. This change with
reiped; to the healthinefs of our country, may be traced
to the three following caufes.

1. The eftablifhment and increafe of mill-ponds. There
are whole counties in Pennfylvania in which intermittents
were unknown, imtil the waters in them were dammed,
for the purpofe of ercifting mill-ponds.

2. The cutting down of wood, under certain circum-
ftanccs, tends to render a country fickly. It has been re-
marked that intermittents on the fhores of the Sufquehan-
nah have kept an exatfl pace with the pafTages which have
been opened for the propagation of marfh effluvia, by

cutting^

BILIOUS AND INTERMITTING FEVERS. 207

cutting down the wood which formerly grew in its neigh-
bourhood. I remember the time, when intermittents
were known only within half a mile, in fome places, of
that river. They are now to be met with ten miles from
it in the fame parts of the ftate.

I beg a diftindlion to be made here between clearing and
culti%>ating a country. While clearing a country makes
it fickly in the manner that has been mentioned, culti'uat-
ing a country, that is, draining fwamps, deftroying weeds,
burning bruih, and exhaling the unwholfome or fuperflu-
ous moifture of the earth, by means of frequent crops of
grain, graffes, and vegetables of all kinds, render it heal-
thy. I could mention, in fupport of thefe fads,, feveral
countries in the United States, which have pafled through
each of the ftages that have been defcribed. The firft fet-
tlers received thefe countries from the hands of nature pure
and healthy*. Fevers foon followed their improvements,
nor were they finally baniflied, until the higher degrees of
cultivation that have been named took place. I confine
myfelf to thofe countries only where the falutary efFeds of
cultivation were not rendered abortive by the neighbour-
hood ot mill-ponds.

A 3d caufe of the late increafe of bilious and intermit-
ting fevers, muft be fought for in the different and une-
qual quantities of rain which have fallen within thefe laft
feven years. While our creeks and rivers, from the uni-
formity of our feafons, were confined to fteady bounds,
there was little or no exhalation of febrile miafmata from
their fhores. But the dry fummers of 1780, 1781, and
1782, by reducing our creeks and rivers far below their
ancient marks ; while the wet fprings of 1784 and 1785,
by fwelling them both beyond their natural heights, have,
when they have fallen, as in the former cafe, left a large
D d 2 and

* A pKylician who travelled through part of Bedford county, in Pennfylvania, in the year
1781, informed me that he was witncfs of fome country people having travelled twenty mile;,
■to fee whether it was poflible for a German girl who laboured under an intermittent, to lie
•HOT and COLD at the fame time.

2o8 ENQUIRY into the CAUSE of

and extenfive furface of moift ground expofed to the ac-
tion of the fun, and of courfe to the generation and exha-
huion of febrile miafmata. The hiftory of epidemics in
foreign countries, favours this opinion of the caufe of their
increafe in Pennfylvania. The inhabitants of Egypt are
always healthy during the overflowing of the Nile. Their
fevers appear only after the recefs of the river. It is re-
markable that a wet feafon is often healthy in low, while
it is fickly in hilly countries. The reafon is obvious. In
the former the rains entirely cover all the moift grounds,
while in the latter, they fall only in a fufficient quantity
to produce thofe degrees of moifture which favour febrile
exhalations. The rains which fall in the fummer are ren-
dered harmlefs only by covering the ivhole furface of
marftiy ground. The rains which fall in our ilate after
the middle of September, are fo far from producing fevers,
that they generally prevent them. The extraordinary
healthinefs of the laft autumn, 1 believe was occafioned
by nothing but the extraordinary quantity of rain that fell
during the autumnal months. The rain probably adts at
this feafon by diluting, and thus deftroying, the febrile
miafmata that were produced by the heat and moifture of
the preceding fummer. In fupport of the truth of this
third caufe of the increafe of fevers in Pennfylvania, I have
only to add a fadl lately communicated to me by Dr.
Franklin. He informed me that in his journey from Paffy
to Havre de Grace, laft fummer, he found the country
through which he travelled, unufually fickly with fevers.
Thefe fevers it was generally fuppofed, were produced by
the extraordinary dry weather, of which the public papers
have given us fuch melancholy and frequent accounts.

I come now to fuggeft a few hints for obviating and
preventing fevers, and for rendering our country agam
healthy. For this purpofe I beg leave to recommend in
the firft place, the planting of trees around all our mill-
ponds, (befidcs cleaning them occafionally) in order to

prevent

BILIOUS AND INTERMITTING TEVERS. 209

prevent the difeafes that have juftly been afcribed to th-em.
Let the trees be planted in the greateft number, and clofeft
together, to leeward of the ordinary current of the fum-
mer and autumnal winds. I have known feveral inftances
of families being preferved from fevers by an accidental
copfe of wood ftanding between a mill-pond and a dwell-
ing houfe, and that in cafes too where the houfe derived
no advantage from an high fituation. The trees around
or near a mill-pond, adl perhaps in a fmall degree mecha-
nically. By ftieltering the pond from the adion of the
fun, they leflen exhalation, as well as obftruft: the pafTage
of the vapors that are raifed to the adjacent parts. But
they adl likewife chemically. It has been demonftrated
that trees abforb unhealthy air, and difcharge it in a high-
ly purified ftate in the form of what is now called " de-
" flogifticated" air. The willow tree, according to Mr.
Ingenhaufz, has been found to purify air the moft rapidly
of any tree that he fubjedled to his experiments. The ra-
pidity of its growth, its early verdure, and the late fall of
its leaf, all feem to mark it likewife as a tree highly pro-
per for this purpofe..

A fecond method of preventing fevers, is to let the cul-
tivation always keep pace with the clearing of our lands.
Nature has in this inftance connected our duty, intereft
and health together. Let every fpot covered with moifture
from which the wood has been cut, be carefully drained,
and afterwards ploughed and fowed with grafs feed ; let
weeds of all kinds be deftroyed, and let the waters be fo
directed as to prevent their ftagnating in any part of their
courfe.

Thefe are the two principal means of extirpating inter-
mitting and bilious fevers from our country, but as thefe
means are flow in their operation, I fhall fubjoin a few
directions for preventing fevers till the above remedies-
can take effect..

t. Whethec

210 ENQUIRY INTO THE CAUSE of

1. Whether the matter which produces fevers be of an
organic, or inorganic nature, I do not pretend to deter-
mine, but it is certain, that fire or the Jmoke or heatt
•which iffue from it, deftroy the cffeds of marlh miafmata
upon the human body; hence we find cities more healthy
than country places, and the centre of cities more heal-
thy than their fuburbs in the fickly months. To derive
the utmoft poffible benefit from this method of prevent-
ing ficknefs, I would advife large fires to be made every
evening of bruih between the fpots from whence the ex-
halations are derived, and the dwelling houfe, and as
near to the latter as is fafe, and not difagreeable. This
practice fhould be continued till the appearance of two
or three frofts, for frofts as well as heavy rains in the au-
tumnal months never fail to put a flop to the progrefs of
intermittents.

During the fickly feafon, fires fhould be likewlfe kept
in every room in the dwelling houl'e, even in thofe cafes
where the heat of the weather makes it neceffary to keep
the doors and windows open.

2. Let me advife my countrymen in fickly fituations,
to prefer woolen and cotton to linen clothes in the fum-
mer and autumnal months. The moft fickly parts of the
ifland of jamacia have been rendered more healthy, fince
the inhabitants have adopted the ufe of woolen and cotton
garments inflead of linen.

During the late war, I knew many officers both in the
Britifh and American armies who efcaped fevers in the
moft fickly places, by wearing woolen iLirts, or waift-
coats conftantly next to their fkins. I have heard the pre-
fcnt diminution of the human body in ftrength and iize,
compared with its ancient vigor and form, afcribed in
part to the introduction of linen garments. I am not
difpofed to controvert this opinion, but I am lure of the
efficacy of woolen clothes in wet and cold climates in pre-
venting fevers of all kinds. The parliament of Great

Britain

BILIOUS AND INTERMITTING FEVERS. 211

Britain compels every body that dies within the ifland to
be buried in a woolen fhirt or winding fheet. The law-
would be much wifer if it compelled every body to wear
woolen garments next to their fkins during life, and linen
after death,

3. The diet in the fickly months fliould be generous.
Wine and beer fhould be the drinks of this feafon inftead
of fpirits and water, I do not think that fruit and vege-
tables of any kind produce fevers, but as the feafon of the
year produces languor and weaknefs, a larger quantity of
animal food than ufual is beft calculated to oppofe them.
Salted meat for this reafon is preferable to freih meat.
Food of all kinds eaten during the fickly months fhould
be well feafoned,

4. The evening air fhould be avoided as much as pof-
fible. There are at prefent few places in Pennfylvania
where it is fafe to fleep, or even to fet, after the going dovi^n
of the fun, in the fickly months, with the windows open. The
morning air before the fun rifes, fhould not be breathed,
until the body has been fortified with a little folid aliment,
or a draught of bitters,^ Thefe bitters fhould be made of
centaury, wormwood, camomile, or the bark of the willow
or dogwood trees, infufed in ivater. Bitters made with
fpirits, or even wine, cannot be taken in a fuflicient quan-
tity to do fervice, without producing intoxication, or the
deadly habit of loving and drinking fpirltuous liquors.

5. Too much cannot be faid in favour of cleanlinefs,
as a means of preventing fevers. The body fhould be
bathed or wafhed frequently. It has been proved that in.
the highlands of Jamaica adding fait to water, renders it
more powerful in preventing difeafes when applied to the
body. Equal pains fliould be taken to promote cleanli-
nefs in every fpecies of apparel. Offal matters, efpecially
thofe which are of a vegetable nature, fliould be removed
from the neighbourhood of a dwelling houfe. The dung:
of domeflic animals during its progrefs towards manurer

HS

212 ENQUIRY INTO THE CAUSE of

may be excepted from this diredion. Nature, which
made man and thefe animals, equally neceflary to each
other's fubfiftence, has kindly prevented any inconveni-
ence from their living together. On the contrary, to re-
pay the hufbandman for affording a fhelter to thefe ufe-
ful and helplefs animals, nature has done more. She has
endowed their dung with a power of deftroying the effects
of marlh exhalations, and of preventing fevers. The
miferable cottagers in Europe who live under the fame
roof, and in fome inftances in the fame room with their
cattle, are always healthy. In Philadelphia, fevers are lefs
known in the neighbourhood of livery ftables, than in
any other part of the city. I could mention a family that
has lived near thirty years near a livery ftable in a fickly
part of the city, that has never known a fever but from,
the meafles or fmall-pox.

N° XXVI.

An Account of the late Dr. Hugh Martin'/ Cancer
Poivder^ ivith brief Obfervatmis on Cancers. By Ben-
jamin Rush, M. D. drc. ^c.

Read February A fgw years ago a Certain Dr. Hugh Mar-
/~\ tin, a furgeon of one of the Pennfylvania
regiments ftationed at fort Pitt, during the latter part of
the late war, came to this city, and advertifed to cure can-
cers with a medicine which he faid he had difcovered in
the woods, in the neighbourhood of the garrifon. As
Dr. Martin had once been a pupil of mine, I took the li-
berty of waiting upon him, and afked him fome queftions
refpcdling his difcovery. His anfwers were calculated to
make me believe, that his medicine was of a vegetable
nature, and that it was originally an Indian remedy. He

fliewed

On Dr. MARTIN's CANCER POWDER.

213

fliewed me fome of the medicine, which appeared to be
the powder of a well dried root of fome kind. Anxious
to fee the fuccefs of this medicine in cancerous fores, I
prevailed upon the do£tor to admit me to fee him apply it
in two or three cafes. I obferved in fome inftances, he
applied a powder to the parts affeded, and in others only
touched them with a feather dipped in a liquid which had
a white fediment, and which he made me believe was the
vegetable root diffufed in water. It gave me great plea-
fure to witnefs the efficacy of the doctor's applications.
In feveral cancerous ulcers, the cures he performed were
complete. Where the cancers were much conneded with
the lymphatic fyftem, or accompanied with a fcrophulous
habit of body, his medicine always failed, and in fome
inftances did evident mifchief.

Anxious to difcover a medicine that promifed relief in
even a few cafes of cancers, and fuppofing that all the
cauftic vegetables were nearly alike, I applied the Phyto-
lacca or poke root, the ftramonium, the arum, and one
or two others, to foul ulcers, in hopes of feeing the fame
efFeds from them which I had feen from Dr. Martin's
powder, but in thefe I was difappointed. They gave fome
pain, but performed no cures. At length I was furnifh-
ed by a gentleman from fort Pitt with a powder which I
had no doubt, from a variety of circumftances, was of the
fame kind as that ufed by Dr. Martin. I applied it to a
fungous ulcer, but without producing the degrees of pain,
inflammation, or difcharge, which I had been accuftomed
to fee from the application of Dr. Martin's powder. After
this, I fhould have fufpeded that the powder was not a
fimple root, had not the dodor continued upon all occafi-
ons to aflure me that it was wholly a vegetable preparation.

In the beginning of the year 1784 the dodor died, and

it was generally believed that his medicine had died with

him. A few weeks after his death, I procured from Mr.

Thomas Lieper, one of his adminiftrators, a few ounces of

E e the

214 On Dr. MARTINIS CANCER POWDER.

the dodor's powder, partly with a view of applying it to
a cancerous fore which then offered, and partly with a
view of examining it more minutely than I had been able
to do during the dodor's life. Upon throwing the pow-
der, which was of a brown colour, upon a piece of white
paper, I perceived diftinftly a number of white particles ■
Scattered through it. 1 fufpefted at firft that they were
corrofive fublimate, but the ufual teftsof that metallic fait
foon convinced me that I was miftaken. Recolle£ting
that arfenic was the bafis of moft of the celebrated cancer
powders that have been ufed in the world, I had recourfe
to the tefts for detecting it. Upon fprinkling a fmall
quantity of the powder upon fome coals of fire, it emitted
the garlic fmell fo perceptibly as to be known by feveral
perfons whom I called into the room where I made the
experiment, and who knew nothing of the objed of my
enquiries. After this with fome difficulty I picked out
about three or four grains of the white powder, and bound
them between two pieces of copper, which I threw into the
fire. After the copper pieces became red hot, I took them
out of the fire, and when they had cooled, difcovered an evi-
dent whltcnefs imparted to both of them. One of the
pieces afterwards looked like dull filver. Thefe two tefts
have generally been thought fufficient to diftinguifh the
prefence of arfenic in any bodies, but I made ufe of a third,
which has lately been communicated to the world by Mr;
Bergman, and which is fuppofed to be in all cafes infal-
lible.

I infufcd a fmall quantity of the powder in a folution of
a vegetable alkali in water for a few hours, and then poured
it upon a folution of blue vitriol in water. The colour of
the vitriol was immediately changed to a beautiful green,
and afterwards precipitated.

I ihall clofe this paper with a few remarks upon this
powder, and upon the cure of cancers and foul ulcers of
all kinds.

The

On Dr. MARTIN's CANCER POWDER. 215

1. The ufe of cauftics In cancers and foul ulcers is very-
ancient, and univerfal. But I believe arfenic to be the
moft efficacious of any that has ever been ufed. It is the
bafis of Plunkett's and probably of Guy's well known
cancer powders. The great art of applying it fuccefs-
fully, is to dilute and mix it in fuch a manner as to mi-
tigate the violence of its a£lion. Dr. Martin's compofiti-
on was happily calculated for this purpofe. It gave lefs
pain than the common or lunar cauftic. It excited a mode-
rate inflammation, which feparated the morbid from the
found parts, and promoted a plentiful afilux of humours to
the fore during its application. Itfeldom produced an efcar;
hence it infinuated itfelf into the deepeft recefl'es of the
cancers, and frequently feparated theie fibres in an un-
broken fl:ate which are generally called the roots of the
cancer. Upon this account, I think, in an ulcerated can-
cer it is to be preferred to the knife. It has no adlion up-
on the found fkin. This Dr. Hall proved by confining a
fmall quantity of it upon his arm for many hours. In
thofe cafes where Dr. Martin ufed it to extradt cance-
rous or fchirrous tumors that were not ulcerated, I have
reafon to believe that he always broke the Ikin with Spa-
nifh flies.

2. The arfenic ufed by the do£tor was the pure white
arfenic. I fhould fuppofe from the examination I made
of the powder with the eye, that the proportion of arfenic
to the vegetable powder, could not be more than ^V P^rt
of the whole compound. I have reafon to think that the
doctor employed different vegetable fubftances at diff'erent
times. The vegetable matter with which the arfenic was
combined in the powder which I ufed in my expe-
riments, was probably nothing more than the powder
of the root and berries of the folanum lethale, or deadly
nightfhade. As the principal, and perhaps the only de-
fign of the vegetable addition was to blunt the adli-
vity of the arfenic, I fliould fuppofe that the fame propor-

E e 2 tion

2i6 OxN Dr. martin's CANCER POWDER.

tion of common wheat flour as the do£tor iifed of his
cauftic vegetables, would anfwer nearly the fame purpofe.
In thofe cafes where the doctor applied a feather dipped
in a liquid to the fore of his patient, I have no doubt but
his phial contained nothing but a wea4c folution of arfenic
in water. This is no new method of applying arfenic to
foul ulcers. Dr. Way of Wilmington, has fpoken in the
higheft terms to me of a wafh for foulnefles on the fkin, as
well as old ulcers, prepared by boiling an ounce of white
arfenic in two quarts of water to three pints, and apply-
ing it once or twice a day.

3. I mentioned formerly that Dr. Martin was often
unfuccefsful in the application of his powder. This was
occafioned by his ufing it indifcriminately in all cafes. In
fchirrous and cancerous tumours, the knife fhould always
be preferred to the cauftic. In cancerous ulcers attended
with a fcrophulous or a bad habit of body, fuch particularly
as have their feat in the neck, in the breads of females,
and in the axillary glands, it can only protradt the pati-
ent's mifery. Moft of the cancerous fores cured by Dr.
Martin were feated on the nofe, or cheeks, or upon the fur-
face or extremities of the body. It remains yet to difcover
a cure for cancers that taint the fluids, or infed the whole
lymphatic fyftem. This cure I apprehend muft be fought
for in diet, or in the long ufe of fome internal medicine.

To pronounce a difeafe incurable, is often to render it
fo. The intermitting fever, if left to itfelf, would proba-
bly prove frequently, and perhaps more fpeedily fatal than
cancers. And as cancerous tumours and fores are often
negle£led, or treated improperly by injudicious people,
from an apprehenfion that they are incurable, (to which
the frequent advice of phyficians " to let them alone," has
no doubt contributed) perhaps the introdu£tion of arfenic
into regular practice as a remedy for cancers, may invite
to a more early application to phyficians, and thereby pre-
vent

On Dr. MARTIN's CANCER POWDER. 217

vent the deplorable cafes that have been mentioned, which
are often rendered fo by delay or unfkilful management.

4. It is not in cancerous fores only that Dr. Martin's
powder has been found to do fervice. In fores of all kinds,
and from a variety of caufes, where they have been attend-
ed with fungous flefh or callous edges, I have ufed the
doftor's powder with advantage.

I flatter myfelf that I fhall be excufejd in giving this
detail of a quack medicine, when the fociety refledl that it
was from the inventions and temerity of quacks, that phy-
ficians have derived fome of their moft attive and ufeful
medicines.

N° XXVII.

Illuflriffimse ac celeberrimae Societati Scientiarufti qu^c
eft Philadelphice.

S. P. D.

Christianus Mayer Ser"' Eledloris Palatini
Aftronomus.

SCRIBENDI occafionem a CI. D. Fcrdinando Far-
mer oblatam eo minus negligendam putavi quod hac
ratione aliquantum refpondeam honori, quo me illuftriffima
focietas affecit, cum me in album fuorum fociorum ad
fcripfit. Ex libro Philadelphiae impreflb & ad me tribus
circiter abhinc annis tranfmiflb intellexi non fine magno
animi mei fenfu, etiam Philadelphiae excoli aftronomiam.
Libro illo fcriptifque meis aftronomicis infelici incendio
abhinc biennio confumtis, de novis meis quibufdam in coelo
inventis ad focietatem illuftriffimam aliquid fcribendum
effe, duxi. Speculam novam ad omnes ufus accommoda-

tam

2i8 MAYERI OBSERVATIONES ASTRONOMICiE.

tarn Manhemii inhabito ; nee defunt pretiofiffima Londi-
nenfia inftrumenta, in quibus praecipue eminet quadrans
muralis ^neus 8 pedum in rhadio a eel. artifici Bird anno
1775 confedus & plane infigni tubo achromatico inftruc-
tus, folidiffimeque muro affixus ad plagam coeli meridio-
nalem, quo inftrumento, quoties coelum favet, utor quo-
tidie. Advert! autem ftatim abhinc biennio in ftellis fixis
plane multis a primo gradu magnitudnis ad fextum ufque,
diftingui alias ftellulas parvulas comites, quarurti alia: ob
lucem tranquillam & obtufam planetarum fpeciem referunt,
alis telefcopicam parvitatem non excedunt. Quod maxime
mirabar, illud eft, quod has ftellulas comites, pauciflimis
duntaxat exceptis, nullo noto catalogo contineri viderem,
cum tamen earum ufum ad determinandum motum pro-
prium fixarum efle plane infignem evidenter colligerem.
Cum cnim ibi, ubi paucorum plerumqe lecundorum repe-
ritur diff"erentiaafcenfionis reftje «Sc declinationis inter fixam
lucidiorem, ejufque comitem, lapfus temporis baud aliam.
variationem ftellae fixse, quaiii ejus comlti inducere poffit,
unde demum cunque ifta mutatio oriatur, five a prscefli-
one sequinodtiorum, five a variatione obliquitatis ecliptica:,
five a deviatione inftrumenti, feu ab aberratione luminis
aut nutationis, five ab alia quacunque caufa, qux pendeat
a mutabili ftatu atmofphers aut locorum latitudine, con-
tingit fane, ut omnis mutatio vifa inter fixam, ejufque
comitem, motusproprii argumentum prxbeat certiftlmum,
five is iixam five ejus comitem afliciat. Noveram Halleum
eel. Angliae aftronomum primum fuifte, qui anno 1 719 ex
inftituta comparationc obfervationum Flamfteadii cum illis
Ptoloma:i in paucis quibufdam fixis, Syrio, Arfturo &
Aldebaran deprehendit has ftellas moveri motu fingulari
proprio. Sed fimul noveram in Hiftoria Coelcfti Brittan-
nica Flamfteadii jam anno 1690 ufurpatam fuiffe a Flam-
fteadio vocem comitis fixarum, cum vir fummus nee dum
de motu proprio fixarum eogitaflct. Aftronomi reliqui
Halleo poilcriores quotquot in motum proprium fixarum

inquifiverunt,

MAYERI OBSERVATIONES ASTRONOMICiE. 219:

inquifiverunt, Hallei methodum fecuti funt, comparando
obfervationes fuas cum obfervatlonibus antiquorum : me-
thodus heec prolixos requirit calculorum labores, multifque
dubitationibus manet obnoxia ob incertitudinem, lubricam-
que conditionem inftrumentorum, & obfervationum anti-
quarum ; non item methodus mea nova, qua ex variatione
inter comitem & fixam illuftriorem obfervata, ftatim con-
fequitur dari motum proprium, vel utriufque vel allerutrius
fideris. Itaque ducentos fere diverfarum fixarum comites
a biennio obfervavi, eundem fere paralellum ftatim ante
vel port fixam decurrentes, & obfervationes hujufmodi
plures cum eel. Anglije aftronomo Nevil Mafkelyne com-
municavi, qui eas libi gratiflimas accidifle refpondet. Ex
multis, obfervationes paucas ad illuftriflimam focietatem
fpeciminis loco tranfmitto, quarum refpondentes in Hifto-
ria Coelefti Britannica Flamfteadii invenio, unde limul
patet, quam obfervationes hujufmodi prjeclare ferviant
motui proprio detegendo. Prima et fecunda columna
finiftima tabulse fequentis ex titulo faclllime intelligitur.
Tertia columna differentiam A. R. in tempore medio in-
dicat inter ftellam ejufque comitem : comes prsecedens
fixam, primo loco in tabula fcribitur, comes fequens pofl
fixam ponitur. Quarta columna differentiam declinationis
Tnter fixam ejufque comitem notat, qualem ego Manhemii
obfervavi. Litera A fignificat comitem effe auftraliorem^
litera B magisborealem. Sequentes columnae, obfervationes.
ejufdem ftellx fa£tas a.Flamfteadio, continent..

2 20 MAYERI OBSERVATIONES ASTRONOMICiE.

AlAVi.R, AlMhcim.

Flams

TAED, OrCclUVlcil. 1

Nomina

Diir. A. R.

Differ.

Diff.

Differ. , 1

lixarum.

m tempore.

Declina.

A. R.

Declina.

1777
Oie 28 Feb.

f Leonis
Comes 7a;.

1690
Die 25 Mar.

five Svx. ■

2'. li".

38'.,;8".6.A

a'. 18".

38'. 50". A

1777

28 Feb.

Item 23 Feb.

Com. y Leonis
6t.^.
y Leonis 4tx

j"-

2i'.57".2.A

-'■

22'. j".

1691
6 Aprilis.

^777.
4 Aprilis.

Comes
T Leonis

I'. 5"-

8'. 0". Ij. B

56.

8'. 30". B

1690
25 Martii.

1777
11 Martii.

Propus
Comes jta;

i'. 36".

','. 30."

s'- 38".

7'. 0".

1690
7 Feb.

1777
8 Martii.

Procyon
Comes n. 8vK

I'. 40". 5-

3'. 6". 2. A

I'. 34".

4'. 40". A

1691
4 0do.

1777
13 Nov.

Com. 7ma2
£ Pifcium

51"-

2'. 57". I. B

47"-

2'. 30". B

1700
Nov. 13.

1777
Aprilis 6.

Comes
n Cancri

2'. 49"-

I'. 40". B

a'. 44".

I'. 12". B

1690
Feb. 18.

1777
Aprilis 8.

Com. 7a:
/3 Leonis

30".

i8'.27".l.A

3o"i

1692
Aprilis 24.

1776
Mai. 18.

Arfturus
Comes.

0. 0. 6".

o- n- 37-3

jCom. 0. 5".
Arfturus.

0. 26. 30.

1690
Febru. 14.

1777
Mart. II.

1776
Mai. 18.

1777
Aprilis I.

Procyon
Conus ^x.

Ar(51urus
Comes.

0 Cancri feg.
n Cancri 6.

39"-

0. 0. 6.
14'- 56"-

3'. 8". I. A

0. 23. 37. 4
32. 29. 6. B

3S"-

1692
2ija,-.u.

Mask
A. R.
0. 0. 4.
15. 1.

LV.NE.

0.23'. 5 8". 8.
32- 25. B

1765

20 Mai.

1691

10 Martii.

Apparet ex omnibus Ardturum omnium celerrime ferri
motu proprio in occafum, fequidem idem comes, qui
tempore Flamfteadii 1690, die 14 Februarii Ardturum
prxcedebat 5" in tempore nunc 6" port Arfturum meridi-
anum ingreditur : ex imminuta quoque differentia decli-
nationis inter Ardturum ejufque comitem, patet, Arifturum
motu proprio quotannis fere 2" in circulo moveri verfus
auftrum. Id ex eo perfpicuum eft, quod declinatio a me
obfervata comitis redudta ad parallelum grenovicenfem
eandem producat altitudincm poli grenoviccnfis, qualis ex
obfervatione Flamfteadii eruitur, non item declinatio hodie
obfervata Ar£luri etiam aberratione & nutatione corre£ta.
Similis indagatio fieri poteft in rcliquis fixis, earumque
comitibus, atque ex inftltuta comparatioac cum aliis fixis

deprehendi

MAYERI OBSERVATIONES ASTRONOMIC^. 22 r

deprehendi poteft, num fixx an comiti vel utrique motus
proprius tribuendis fit.

Obfervationes omnes in piano meridlani quadrante mu-
rali fa£t3e funt Manhemii in nova fpecula a me sedificata
S. Eledoris Palatini : ejus longitudo ad ortum Grenovicii
eft fere 34' 6" in tempore, latitudo fere 49° 27' 50"
Gaudebo maxime fi has meas obfervationes illuftriffimis
focietati baud ingratas accidiffe intellexero, cujus benevo-
lentise me demififfime commendo.

Illuftriffimas ac celeberrimae Societati,
Cuetor et fervus perpetuus,

CHRISTIANUS MAYER, Sereniffimi
Eledoris Palatini et Ducis Bavarise Aftronomus.

Manhemii in Germania, ">
die 24 Aprilis 1778. 5

(Translation.)

To the lUuftrious and celebrated Society of Sciences at
Philadelphia,

Christian Mayer, Aftronomer to his Serene High-
nefs the Elector Palatine,

Wifheth Profperity,

I THOUGHT it my duty to embrace the opportunity
•which my good friend the Rev. Mr. Ferdinand Farmer
has procured meof w^riting to your illuftrious fociety, that
I may make fome return to the honour which you have
done me by electing and enrolling me among your mem-
bers. It gave me a very fenfible pleafure to find, by the
printed volume of tranfadions, which you fent me about
three years ago, that the fcience of aftronomy was culti-
vated even at Philadelphia. That volume of yours, to-
F f gether

222 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

gether with my own aftronomical papers, having been
unhappily deftroyed by fire about two years ago, I have
refolved to give your illuftrious fociety fome fhort account
of certain new celeftial difcoveries which I had made.

My refidence is now at Manheim, in a new obfervatory,
fitted for every aftronomical purpofe ; and well furnifhed
with the moft precious and accurate inftruments made at
London ; amongft which the chief is a brafs mural qua-
drant of eight feet radius, the workmanfhip of that cele-
brated artift Mr. Bird, finifhed in the year 1775, fitted
with an achromatic telefcope, and fixed to a folid wall to-
wards the meridian. With this inftrument I make daily
obfervations of the heavens, when the weather will per-
mit, and two years ago I diftin£lly difcovered, among
many of \kiz fixed Jlars (from the firjl to thtftxth magni-
tude) other concomitant or attendant little fiars ; fome of
which, from their mild, faint (or unfparkling) light, have
the appearance of planets, while others of them have the
appearance of telefcopic ftars, in refpedt to their fmallnefs.

But what furprifed me moft was, that none of thefe
attendant little ftars, a few perhaps excepted, have ever
been noted in any catalogue which I have fecn ; although
I could clearly collecfl the fingular ufe which may be made
of them for afcertaining and determining the proper mo-
tion of the fixed ftars, as it is called. When the diff"erence
of right akenfion and declination betw een two flars is at
moft but a few feconds, any variation arifing from the
preceflion of the equinoxes, the variation of the obliquity
of the ecliptic, the deviation of the inftrument. the aber-
ration of light or the nutation, or from any other caufe
depending on the mutable ftate of the air or latitude of
places, muft afteft them both equally. Therefore when
after any length of time a greater variation of right afcen-
fion or declination is found in one of fuch ftars than in the
other, it aff^ords a certain argument of the proper motion
of one or the other, whether that change affeifis the fixed
ftar or its attendant. 1 know

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 223

I know that the celebrated Englifh aftronomer Halley,
was the firft who, about the year i 719, by a careful com-
parifon of the obfervations of Flamftead with thofe of
Ptolemy, refpedling a few fixed ftars, viz. Sirius, Ar£turus
and Aldebaran, difcovered that thefe ftars had a proper
motion of their own. But I likewife know, that in Flam-
ftead's Britifh celeftial hiftory the word concomitant or at-
tendant of fixed Jlars Is made ufe of, when that great man
had not even thought of a proper motion of the fixed ftars.

The other aftronomers, pofterior to Halley, as far as
they inveftigated the proper motion of \he fixed Jiars, fol-
lowed the Italian method of comparing their own obfer-
vations with thofe of the ancients. This method requires
the labour of prolix calculation, and remains liable to
doubts and uncertainty, on account of the inaccuracy of
ancient inftruments and obfervations. My new method
is not liable to fuch obje£tions, becaufe from the obferved
variation of the attendant ftar and the brighter fixed ftar.
It Immediately follows that there is a proper motion giv-
en, either of the one or the other.

I have, therefore. In the fpace of two years, obferved
almoft two hundred attendants of different fixed ftars,
running almoft the fame parallel, Immediately before
or after the fixed ftar ; and have communicated many
of fuch obfervations to the celebrated Englifti aftronomer
Nevil Mafl?;elyne, who has expreffed his high fatisfadion
therewith.

Out of many obfervations, I fend your illuftrious foci-
ety a few by way of fpecimen, being fuch whereof I find
correfpondent obfervations in the Flamfteadian celeftial
hiftory ; whence it appears at once how excellently ob-
fervations of this kind ferve for difcovering the proper mo-
tion of fuch ftais.

The firft and fecond column of the following table next

to the left hand is eafily underftood from its title. The

third column fliews the difference of A. R. in mean time

E f 2 between

224 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

between the attendant a.ndj?ar. The attendant which pre-
cedes the fixed ftar occupies the firft place in the table.
The fubfequent attendant is placed after the fixed ftar.
The fourth column (hews the difference of declination be-
tween the fixed ftar and attendant. The letter A, fignlfies
that the attendant is more fouth, B, that it is more north
than the ftar. The fubfequent columns contain Flam-
Head's obfervations of the fame fixed ftars.

The table.

-by Mayer, at

Manheim.

By Flamstead, at Greenwich. |

rimeolOb-
lervation.

Names of
Star.

Diff. A. R.
in time.

Differ.
ofDecUna.

Diff. A. R.
in time.

Differ,
of Declina.

Time of Ob-
fervation.

1777
Februar. 28.

p I.eonis
attendant 7m.

2'. XJ".

38'.58".6.A

2'. 1 8".

38'. JO". A

1690
March 25.

1777
Feb. is, iS.

Attend. 6m.
y Leonis 4m.

5"-

2i'.57".2.A

2".

22'. J".

1691
6 April.

1777
April 4-

Attendant,
T Leonis

I'.5"-

8'. 0". 15. B

56-

8'. 30". B

1690
2J March.

1777
March II.

Propus
attendant 5m.

5'- 36".

7'. 30."

5'- 38".

7'. 0".

1690
7 Feb.

1777
March 8.

Procyon
attendant 8m.

I'. 40". S-

3'. 6". 2. A

I'. 34".

4'. 40". A

1691

4oao.

1777
■ 13 Nov.

Attendant 7m.
I Pifciura

Jl"-

2'.57"-i-B

47".

a'. 30". B

1700

Nov. 13.

1777
April 6.

Attendant,
n Cancri

a'. 49"-

1'. 40". B

2'. 44".

I'. 12". B

1690
Feb. 18.

1777
April 8.

Attendant 7m.
y3 Leonis

30".

i8'.27".i.A

33"i

1692
April 14.

1776 'Arflurus
May 18. Attendant,

0. 0. 6".

o- 23- 37- 3

Com. 0. 5".
Ariftunis.

0. 26. 3c.

1690
Febru. 14.

1777 Procyon
March II. Attendant 7m.

39"-

0. 0. 6.
14'. 56".

3'. 8". I. A

0. 23- 37- 4
■?!. 29. 6. B

3.?"-

1692
22 Janu.

1776
May 18.

1777
April I.

Arflurus
Attendant,

0 Cancri
rr Cancri 6m.

Maskeiv ne.
A. R. .1

0.0.4. 'o.23'.58".8.
15. I. 1 31. 25. B

1765

20 May.

ifVl

10 March.

It appears from every obfervation, that of all the ftars,
Ardurus, by his proper motion, is carried with the great-
eft celerity weftward ; frnce the fame attendant, which in

Flamftcad's

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 225

Flamftead's time, 1690, February 14, preceded Ar^lurus
5" in time, now comes to the meridian 6" after him.
Likewife from the very fmali difference of declination be-
tween Ar£turus and his attendant, it appears that Ardtu-
rus by his proper motion moves almoft 2" foutherly every
year in a circle.

N° XXVIII.

Obfervations on the Caufe and Cure of the Tetanus-^ by
Benjamin Rush, M. D. Profejfor of Chemijiry in
the Univerftty of Pennfylvania.

Read Mar. "TXURING my attendance upon the military
17. 1786. j|^ hofpitals of the United States, in the courfe
of the late war, I met with feveral cafes of the Tetanus. I
had frequently met with this diforder in private pradice, and
am forry to fay that I never fucceeded with the ordinary re-
medy of opium in any one cafe that came under my care. I
found it equally inefFe£tual in the army. Baffled in my ex-
peftations from a remedy that had been fo much celebrated,
I began to inveftigate more particularly the nature of the
diforder. I found it to be a diforder of warm climates, and
warm feafons. This led me to afcribe it to relaxation. I
refolved to attempt the cure of it by a fet of medicines in
fome meafure the oppofites of moft of the medicines that
had been employed in that diforder. Soon after I adopt-
ed this refolution, I was called to vifit Col. John Stone,
■who was wounded through the foot at the battle of Ger-
inantown on the 4th of Odober 1777. He was in the
third day of a Tetanus. His fpafms were violent and his
pains fo exquifite that his cries were heard near a hun^
dred yards from his quarters. His head was thrown a little
backwards, and his jaw had become ftifF and contraded..

Ha

226 OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS.

He was under the care of a fkllful regimental furgeon
who was pouring down opium in large quantities with-
out efFeO:.

Duty and friendfhip both led me to do my utmoft to fave
the life of this valuable officer. I immediately difmiffed
the opium, and gave him large quantities of wine and
bark, to the amount of two or three ounces of the latter,
and from a bottle to three pints of the former in the day.
In a few hours I was delighted with their efFedts. His
fpafms and pains were lefs frequent and violent, and he
flept for feveral hours, which he had not done for feveral
days and nights before.

With the fame indication in view, I applied a blifter be-
tween his {houlders, and rubbed in two or three ounces
of mercurial ointment upon the outfide of his throat. He
continued to mend gradually under the operation of thefe
medicines, fo that in ten days he was out of danger, al-
though the fpafm continued in his wounded foot for feve-
ral weeks afterwards. In the fummer of the year 1782
I was called to vifit a fervant girl of Mr. Alexander
Todd, merchant of this city, who had brought on a Teta-
nus by fleeping in the evening on a damp brick pave-
ment, after a day in which the mercury in Farenheit's
thermometer had flood at near 90°. The cafe was near-
ly as violent and alarming as the one I have defcribed.
1 treated her in the fame manner, and with the fame fuc-
ceis. To the above named medicines, 1 added only the
oil of amber which fhe took in large doles, after I fuf-
peded the tonic powers of the bark and wine began to
loofe their effedts. The good effetHis of the oil were very
obvious. She recovered gradually and has continued ever
fmce in good health. In the fummer of the fame year
I was called to Alexander Leilie, a joiner, who had i"un a
nail in his foot. I found him the day afteru'ards in ex-
treme pain, with fmall convulfions and now and then a
twinge in his jaw. The wound in his foot was without

fwelling

OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS. 227

fwelling or inflammation. I dilated the wound and filled it
with lint moiftened with fpirit of turpentine. This in a
little while produced a good deal of pain and a great inflam-
mation in his foot. While I was preparing to treat him in
the manner I had treated the two former cafes, the pains
and fpafms In his body fuddenly left him, and in twenty-
four hours after I faw him, he complained of nothing but
of the pain and fwelling in his foot, which continued for
feveral weeks and did not leave him till it ended in a fup-
puratlon. From the hiftory of thefe three cafes, I beg
leave to make the following remarks.

1. That the predifpofition to the Tetanus depends upon
relaxation. This relaxation is generally produced by heat;
but exceffive labour, watchings, marches, or fatigue from
any caufe, all produce it likewife, and hence we find It more
•frequent from wounds received in battles, than from fimi-
lar wounds received in any other way. Thefe wounds
more certainly produce the Tetanus, If they have been
preceded for fome time with warm weather. Dr. Shoepft,
the phyficlan general of the Anfpach troops that ferved at
the fiege of York in the year 178 1, informed me of a An-
gular fadt upon this fubje<£l. Upon converfing with the
French fujgeons after the capitulation, he was Informed
by them that the troops who arrived jufi: before the fiege
from the Weft-Indies with Count de GralTe, were the only
troops belonging to their nation that fuffered from the
Tetanus. There was not a fingle inftance of that dlfor-
der among the troops who had fpent a winter in Rhode-
liland.

2. As the Tetanus feems to be occafioned by relaxati-
on, the medicines indicated to cure it are fuch only. as are
calculated to remove this relaxation and to reftore a tone to
the fyftem. The bark and wine appear to a£t In this way.
The operation of the blifters is of a more complicated na-
ture. That they are fedative and antifpafmodic In fevers
is univerfally acknowledged, but in the peculiar ftate of

irritability

228 OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS.

irritability which occurs in the Tetanus, perhaps their ef-
fefts are more fimply ftimulating. But I will go one ftep
■further. In order to cure this diforder, it is neceffary not only
to produce an ordinary tone in the fyftem, but fomething like
the inflammatory diathefis. The abfence of this diathefis is
taken notice of by all authors, particularly by Dr. Cullen*.

Mercury appears to a£t only by promoting this diathefis.
Hence it never does any fervice unlefs it be given time
enough to produce a falivation. The irritation and in-
flammation produced in the mouth and throat, feldom fail
to produce the inflammatory diathefis, as blood drawn in
a falivation has repeatedly Ihewn.

I apprehend that the oil of amber adts as a ftimulant
chiefly in this diforder. I have heard of a Tetanus being
cured in the ifland of Grenada by large dofes of muftard.
Dr. Wright, lately of the ifland of Jamaica, relates in the
6th volume of the London Medical Efl'ays, feveral remark-
able cafes of the Tetanus being cured by the cold bath.
Both thefe remedies certainly a£t as fl:imulants and tonics.
By reafoning a priori, I conceive that eledtricity would be
found to be an equally powerful remedy in this diforder.

As a general inflammatory diathefis difpofes to topical
inflammation, fo topical inflammation difpofes to general
inflammatory diathefis. Wounds upon this account are
lefs apt to inflame in fummer than in winter. In the Te-
tanus I have uniformly obferved an abfence of all inflam-
mation in the wounds or injuries that produced it. A
fplinter under the nail produces no convulfions, if pain,
inflammation and fuppuration follow the accident. It is
by exciting pain and inflammation I apprehend that the
fpirit of turpentine a£ls in all wounds and punctures of
nervous and tendinous parts. I have never known a fingle
inflance of a Tetanus from a wound, where this remedy
had been applied In time. It was to excite an inflamma-
tion in the foot of Mr. Leflie, that I dilated the wound

and

• rirft Lines, Vol. III.

OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS. 229

and filled it with the fpirit of turpentine. I was not fur-
prifed at its good effedls in this cafe, for I was prepared
to expeft them.

I find a remarkable cafe related in Dr. W. Monroe's
Thefis, publifhed in Edinburgh in the year 1783, of a
black girl who had a Tetanus from running a nail in her
foot, being perfedly cured by deep andextenfive incifions
being made in the wounded part by Dr. John Bell, of the
ifiand of Grenada.

It is by producing inflammation in a particular part,
and tone in the whole fyftem, I apprehend that the am-
putation of a wounded limb fometimes cures a Tetanus ;
and it is becaufe the degrees of both are too inconfiderable
to oppofe the violence of the fpafms in the advanced ftages
of the Tetanus, that amputation often fails of fuccefs.

I have been informed by a phyficlan who refided fome
time at St. Croix, that the negroes on that ifland always
apply a plaifter made of equal parts of fait and tallow to
their frefh wounds, in order to prevent a locked jaw.
The fait always produces fome degree of inflammation.

If the fadls that have been ftated are true, and the in-
ferences that have been drawn from them are juft, how
fhall we account for the action of opium in curing this
diforder ? I do not deny its good eff"e£ts in many cafes, but
I believe it has failed in four cafes out of five in the hands
of mofl: practitioners. It is remarkable that it fucceeds
only where it is given in very large dofes. In thefe cafes
I would fuppofe that its fedative powers are lofl: in its fl:i-
mulating. It is upon a footing, therefore, in one refpedt,
with the ftimulating medicines that have been mentioned;
but from its being combined with a fedative quality, it is
probably inferior to moft of them. I am the more inclin-
ed to adopt this opinion, from an account I once received
from Dr. Robert, of the ifland of Dominique, who in-
formed me that after having cured a negro man of a Te-
tanus with large dofes of opium, he was afterwards feized
G g with

230 OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS.

with a diforder in his ftomach, of which he died in a few
days. Upon opening him, he found his ftomach inflam-
ed and mortified. I do not forbid the ufe of opium aUo-
gether in this diforder. I think fmall dofes of it may be
given to eafe pain, as in other fpafmodic diforders ; but as
its quaUties are compHcated, and its efficacy doubtful, I
think it ought to yield to more fimple and more powerful
remedies.

To the cafes that have been mentioned, I could add
many others, in which I have reafon to believe that the
excitement of a topical inflammation by artificial means,
has effe<£tually prevented a Tetanus.

To this account of the Tetanus, I beg leave to fubjoin
a few words upon a diforder commonly called the jaw-tall
in infants, or the Trifmus Nafcentium of Dr. Cullen,
which is nothing but a fpecies of Tetanus.

I have met with three cafes of it in this city, all of
which proved fatal. The flage of the diforder in which
I was confulted, and the age and weaknefs of the infants,
forbad me to attempt any thing for their relief. I have
introduced the fubjeft of this diforder in children, only
for the fake of mentioning a fa£l communicated to me by
the late Dr. Cadwalader Evans of this city. This gentle-
man prailifed phyfic for feveral years in Jamaica, where
he had frequent opportunities of feeing the Tetanus in
the black children. He found it in every cafe to be in-
curable. He fuppofed it to be occafioned by the retention
of the meconium in the bowels. This led him invaria-
bly to purge every child that was born upon the eftates
committed to his care. After he adopted this pradice,
he never met with a fingle inftance of the Tetanus among
children.

Perhaps it may tend to enlarge our ideas of the Teta-
nus, and to promote a fplrit of enquiry and experiment, to
add, that this diforder is not confined to the human fpecies.
I have known feveral inllances of it in horfes from nails

running

OBSERVATIONS on the TETANUS. 231

ranning in their feet, and other accidents. It is attended
with a rigidity of the mufcles of the neck, a ftiffnefs in
the limbs, and fuch a contradion of the jaw as to pre-
vent their eating. It is generally fatal. In two cafes
I had the pleafure of feeing the difeafe perfedlly cured
by applying a potential cauftic to the neck under the
mane, by large dofes of oil of amber, and by plunging
one of them into the river, and throwing buckets of cold
water upon the other.

How far the reafonings contained in this paper may
apply to the hydrophobia, I cannot determine, having had
no opportunity of feeing the difeafe fince I adopted thefe
principles ; but from the fpafmodic nature of the diforder,
from the feafon of the year in which it generally occurs,
and above all, from the cafe related by Dr. Fothergill, of a
young woman having efcaped the effects of the bite of a
mad cat by means of the wound being kept open, (which
from its feverity was probably conneded with fome degrees
of inflammation) is it not probable that the fame remedies,
which have been ufed with fuccefs in the Tetanus, may be
ufed with advantage in the hydrophobia? — In a difeafe fo
deplorable, and hitherto fo unfuccefsfully treated, even a
conjedure may lead to ufeful experiments and enquiries.

N° XXIX.

To His Excellency Benjamin Franklin, Efq. L. L. D.
Prejident of the State of Pennfylvania, and of the Ame-
rican P bilofophical Society., <^'c.

S I R, Philadelphia, January II, 1786.

^ijf fyl't T* H E fubjed of fmoky chimneys, of which

1 I had the honor of converfing with you at

your own houfe laft evening, is of fo much importance to

G g 2 every

232. LETTER concerning

every individual, as well as to every private family, that
too much light cannot be thrown upon it.

A fmoky houfe and a fcolding wife,

Are (faid to be) two of the greateft ills in life.

And however difficult it may be to remedy one of thofe
ills, yet any advances we may be able to make towards
removing the inconveniencies arifing from the other, can-
not fail to be favourably received by the public. As they
are fhortly to be favoured with your fentiments on that
fubjeft, poffibly the following obfervations, which were
in fa£t occafioned by neceffity, and are the refult of my
own experience, may not be altogether undeferving of
notice.

When I left London and went to live in Devonfhire in
the latter end of the year 1777, it happened to be my lot
to dwell in an old manfion which had been recently mo-
dernifed, and had undergone a thorough repair. But as
in moft of the old houles in England, the chimneys, which
were perhaps originally built for the purpofe of burning
wood, though they had been contrafted in front, fince coal
fires came into general ufe, to the modern fize, yet they
were ftill, above, out of fight, extravagantly large. This
method of building chimneys may perhaps have anfwered
well enough while it was the cuftom to fit with the doors
and windows open; but when the cufloms and manners
of the people began to be more polilhed and refined, when
building and architecture were improved, and they began
to conceive the idea of making their chambers clofe, warm,
and comfortable, thefe chimneys were found to fmoke
abominably, for want of a fufficient fupply of air. This
was exadly the cafe with the houfe in which I firft lived,
near Exeter, and I was under the neceffity of trying every
expedient I could think of to make it habitable.

The firfl: thing I tried, was that method of contrading
the chimneys by means of earthen pots, much in ufe in

England,

CHIMNEYS. 233

Enc^land, which are made on purpofe, and which are put
upon the tops of them ; but this method by no means an-
fwered. I then thought of contrading them below, but
as the method of contracting them in front to the fize of
a fmall coal-fire grate has an unfightly appearance, as it
makes a difagreeable blowing like a furnace, and as it is
the occafion of confuming a great deal of unneceffary
fuel, the heat of which is immediately hurried up the
chimney, I rejected this method, and determined to con-
tract them above, a little out of fight. For this purpofe
I threw an arch acrofs, and alfo drew them in at the fides.
This had fome effect, but as this contraction was made
rather fuddenly, and the fmoke, by llriking againft the
corners that were thereby occaficned, was apt to recoil, by
which means fome part of it was thrown out into the
room ; I determined to make the contraction more gra-
dually, and therefore run it up at the back, where the
depth of the chimney would admit of it, and alfo fhelving
or Hoping in a conical kind of direction at the fides, as
high as a man, ftanding upright, could conveniently reach,
and by this means brought the cavity within the ipace of
about twelve by fourteen or fixteen inches, which I found
fufficiently large to admit a boy to go up and down to
fweep the chimnies. This method I found to fucceed per-
fectly well, as to curing the chimneys of fmoking, and it
had this good effect of making the rooms confiderably
warmer; and as this experiment fucceeded fo well, fince
the only ufe of a chimney is to convey away the fmoke,
I determined to carry it ftill farther, in order to afcertain
with precifion, how much fpace is abfolutely necelTary for-
that purpofe, becaufe all the reft that is fhut up, muft be
fo much gained in warmth. Accordingly I laid a piece
of flate acrofs the remaining aperture, removable at plea—
fure, fo as to contraCt the fpace above two thirds, leaving
about three inches by twelve remaining open; but. this
%ace, except when the fire burnt remarkably clear, was

fcarcely

234 LETTER concerning

fcarcely fufficient to carry away the fmoke. I therefore
enlarged it to half the fpace, that is, to about fix by feven
or eight inches, which I found fully fufficient to carry
away the fmoke from the largeft fires.

When I removed into the Bedford Circus in Exeter,
though the houfe was modern, and almoft perfedly new,
yet the chimneys were large ; in confequence of which al-
moft every room of it fmoked. My predeceflbr, who was
the firft inhabitant, had been at great expence in patent
ftoves, &c. but without effeft ; but by adopting the me-
thod I have juft now defcribed, I not only cured every
chimney of fmoking, but my houfe was remarked for be-
ing one of the warmeft and moft comfortable to live in of
any in that large and opulent city.

The houfe I now live in, in Philadelphia, I am told,
has always had the charadter of being both cold and
fmoky ; and I was convinced, as foon as I faw the rooms
and examined the chimneys, that it deferved that charac-
ter ; for though the rooms were clofe, the chimneys were
large : And we fhall ever find, that if our chimneys are
large, our rooms will be cold even though they fliould be
tolerably clofe and tight ; becaufe the conftant rufliing in
of the cold air at the cracks and crevices, and alfo at
every opening of the door will be fufficient to chill the air,
as taft as it is heated, or to force the heated air up the
chimney ; but by contracting the chimneys I have cured
it of both thefe defe£ls. There was one remarkable cir-
cumftance attending the contradlion of the chimney in
the front parlour, which deferves to be attended to ;
which was, that before I applied the caft iron plate, which
I made ufe of inftead of Hate, to dimlnifh the fpace requi-
fite for a chimney fweeper's boy to go up and down, the
fuftion or draught of air was fo great, that it was with
difficulty I could fhut the door of the room, infomuch that
I at firft thought it was owing to a tightnefs of the hinges,
which 1 imagined muft be remedied, but upoa applying

the

CHIMNEYS. 235

the iron plate, by which the fpace was diminifhed one
half, the door fhut to with the greateft eafe. This ex-
traordinary preflure of the air upon the door of the room,
or fu<£lion of the chimney, I take to be owing in fome
meafure to the unufual height of the houfe.

.Upon the whole, therefore, this fadt feems clearly af-
certained, viz. That the flue or fize of the chimney,
ought always to be proportioned to the tightnefs and clofe-
nefs of the room, fome air is undoubtedly neceflary to be
admitted into the room in order to carry up the fmoke,
otherwife as you juflly obferved we might as well expedt
fmoke to arife out of an exhaufted receiver; but if the
flue is very large, and the room is tight, either the fmoke
will not afcend, in confequence of which will be, that the
air of your room will be fo frequently and fo conftantly
changed that as faft as it is heated, it will be hurried
away, with the fmoke, up the chimney, and of courfe
your room will be conftantly cold.

One great advantage attending this method of curing
fmoky chimneys is, that, in the firft place, it makes no
aukward or unfightly appearance, nothing, being to be
feen but what is ufual to chimneys in common; and in
the fecond place that it is attended with very little ex-
pence, a few bricks and mortar with a plate or covering
to the aperture, and a little labour, being all that is requi-
fite. But in this new country where crops of houfes may
be expedted to rife almoft as quick as fields of corn, when
the principles upon which chimneys ought to be thorough-
ly underftood, it is to be hoped, that not only this ex-
pence, fmall as it is, but that all the other inconveniencies
we have been fpeaking of, will be avoided, by conftrudt—
ing the flues of the chimneys fufficiently fmall.

From your humble fervant,

THOxMAS RUSTON..

I 236 ]

N° XXX.

■Obfervations on the annual Pajfage of Herring s^ by
Mr. John Gilpin.

AS this very ufeful part of the finny race has never
been found in the frefh rivers, or waters of Eu-
rope, it remains a query amongft the naturalifts, where
they go to fpawn and perpetuate their fpecies. I appre-
hend this query may be anfwered to the fatisfaftion of the
curious by an account of their annual progrefs, from
which it will appear they are a fifh of paffage, and ob-
ferve one regular annual rout in the fea, fhifting their
climate with the fun, and that it is the fame fcoole which
is found at different times about Britain and in America.
This opinion is founded on obfervations made on feeing
them caught at "Whitehaven and in this country, from
which I have not obferved that there is any vifible differ-
ence in the fifh in the different places, except that thofe
at Whitehaven are fatter and rounder than thofe in
America ; but this difference is not (o great as that be-
tween the fpring and fall mackarel, and which I conceive
might be accounted for from the time of the year, and
manner in which they appear on each coaft. For they are
found on the other fide the Atlantic, or rather in the North
fea, in the favourable month of June about the iflands of
Shetland, from whence they proceed down to the Ork-
neys, and then dividing, they furround the iflands of
Great-Britain and Ireland, and unite again off the Land's
End in the Britifh channel in September, from whence
this grand united fcoole lleers fouth-well, and is not found
any more on that fide or in the Atlantic, until tlie fame
time the enfuing year, but appear next on the American

coalls.

Of herrings. 237.

coafts. They arrive in Georgia and Carolina the latter
end of January, and in Virginia in February ; and coaft-
ing from thence eaftward to New-England, they divide
and go into all the bays, rivers, creeks and even fmall
ftreams of water in amazing quantities, and continue
fpawning in the freili water until the latter end of April,
when the old fifti return into the fea, where they change
their latitudes by a northward diredlion and arrive at New-
foundland in May; after which we neither hear or fee any
thing more of them in America, until their return amongft
us the enfuing fpring, and bring with them a providential
blefling to the poor. Their coming fooner or later up our
rivers depends on the warmth or coolnefs of the feafon : And
it is further obferved that if a few warm days invite them
up, and cool weather fucceeds, it totally checks their paffage
until more warm weather returns. From all which cir-
cumftances it appears probable there is a certain degree of
warmth particularly agreeable to them, which they en-
deavour to enjoy by changing their latitude according to
the diftances of the fun. Thus they are found in the Bri-
tifh channel in September, but leave it when the fun is at
too great a diftance from them in the fouthern hemifphere,
and pufti for a more agreeable climate ; and when the
weather in America becomes too warm in May, (after
having depofited their eggs in fhallow water and fecured
their young fry from the fifh of prey,) fteer the courfe
which leads to the cooler northern feas, and by that pru-
dent change of place perpetually enjoy the temperature of
climate beft adapted to their nature; which from the table
hereto annexed, fhewing the places and times of their vi-
fitation, and the calculation of the diftance of the fun at
thofe times from them, is that degree of warmth which
is produced by the mean diftance between 37 to 43 de-
grees ; except whilft they are fpawning ; during which
they bear a greater degree of heat from the neceflity of
remaining in it a fhort time to fpawn ; and alfo on the
other extreme, when defeined at too great a diftance by
the ifland of Great-Britain and its dependencies.

H h Here

238,

On the annual PASSAGE

Here another query occurs, what becomes of the young
fry, the produce of the fpawn they left in the frefh waters
of America ? We know they do not follow the old ones-
the firft feafon, becaufe they are found in great fcooles in
all the American bays during the fummer, and difappear
in the fall, from whence it may rationally befuppofed that
from their natural propenfity to keep at a certain dirtance
from the fun, the leafon leads them to a different courfe
from the old ones, by which they meet their parentage
about the latitude 23° N. and 70° W. longitude, and there
tack about and follow the older ones ; which, being larger
and ftronger than the younger, come firft into our harbours,
but are fewer in number than the leffer, probably from,
having fuffered great lofs and pillage in their long rout
from the fifh of prey, and their greater enemies the fifh—
ermen in the different parts of the world;

A Table Jloeiving nearly about the place of the grand fcoole
of herrings^ and their mean difance from the fun.

* Place and Time.

Latitude.

Longitude.

bull S uc-

clinatiou.

I he niciin
Diftance.

I.

January,

23

70

20 s.

43

II.

February,

32

79

12

44

III.

March,

36

75

0

36

IV.

April,..

39

72

loN.

29

V.

May,

49

50

19

30

VI.

June,.

65

15

23

42

VII.

July,

58

0

21

37

VIII.

Auguft,

5^

0

14

38

IX.

September,

48

6

0

48

X.

Odober,

ZS

22

9

44

XI.

November,

22

40

18

40

XII.

December,

iS

52

23

41

Sec Map 13, io Plate V.

OF H E R R I N G S. 239

Some Obfervations and Reafons given for the courfe of the Herrings, and the variation in
their Mean Diftance from the Sun in diiFcrent months of the year.

[See Map B, Plate V.]

January. In this month the herrings are fuppofed to be returning from too warm a cli"
mate and the approaching fun, from which they retreat fall.

February. The time of fpawning aovr drawing nigh, the herrings, in this month pafs
througli the gulph ftream, and fall on the coaft of America, in order to depofit their fpawn
in frclh Ihoal water.

March. Now being the beginning of the time of fpawning, thelargeftand ftrongeftfifli,
which perhaps are the oldeft, ruih up into the bays, inlets and frelh water llrcams.

April. In this month the leffer, weaker, and perhaps younger filh, rufh up even to the
heads of fmall ftreams, as far as it is poflible for them to get, and lay their fpawn. Thefe are
twice as numerous as the other.

May. Having been d"jtained by the fpawning feafon, they are overtaken by the fun, and
aiearer to It now than at any other time ; they therefore haften out of the rivers in this month,
and make great way towards the North fea.

June. Now having by a rapid progrefs pufhed into a cold climate, on a chilly, icy coaft,
and the fun beginning to draw towards the fouth, they whirl round eaftward.

July. The coldnefs of this fea, and the fun's declination towards the fouth, now inclines
them that way, in which they fall on the Orkneys, and the fcoole divides.

August. The grand fcoole being divided, now furround the whole ifland of Great -Bri-
'tain and Ireland, and are caught on every fide.

September. Having been detained the laft month by their obftru<fl:ion amongfl: theiflands,
and being harrafied by the fifliermen, their mean difiance is now the greateft ; they coUe<Sl
into one body and haften to the foutliward.

October. Being now under great way, they leficn their mean diftance, and by the courfe
-which they fteer, which perhaps is incUned more wcftward by the current of the trade wind,
ihey pafs the Atlantic.

November. Being now more in the trade, and having approached a warmer climate,
their motion is fuppofed to incline more weftward.

December. The fun now beginning to return, they are fuppofed to incline more north-
■Ward, to the place where we began ; where they are fuppofed to meet their young fry.

N° XXXL

Obfervations on a Solar and a Lunar Eclipfe, communicated
to the Society by M. M. De Grauchain, Major Ge-
neral of the French Squadron.

( Tranjlated from the French.)

GENTLEMEN, Newport, 5th December, 17S0.

TH E ftudy of aftronomy having often occupied my
leifure during the peace, I could not refufe myfelf
even in the midfl of the preparations for war, an oppor-
H h 2 tunity

24-0 On E C L I P S E S.

tunity -wliich prefented of making two important obferva-
tions, which I have the honour of fending you.

EcHpfes form the bafis of chronology ; this may one
day ferve to fix the epocha of the independence of Ame-
rica, one of the moft interefting in the hiftory of man-
kind. This is a motive to dedicate thefe obfervations to
you ; and I pay this refpe£t with the greateft pleafure to
an illuftrious fociety, whofe members know how at the
fame time to enlighten their country by their knowledge
in mathematics and philofophy, and to ferve them fuccefs«
fully in their councils and armies.

I am, &c.

De GRAUCHAIN, Major General
of the French Squadron.

MESSIEURS,

L' ETUDE dc I'aflrononiie aynnt fouvent occiipe mon loifir pendant la paix, je n'ai pu
me reftiler, m^mc au milieu de I'appareil de la giierre, a I'occafion qui fut prefciUcc de
faire deux obfervations importantcs et j'ai I'honneur de vous les adrcller. lies cclipfesformcnl
la bnle de la chronologie, et colics cy pourront un jour fervir a fixir I'cpoque de I'indcpcndance
de I'Amerique Tune dcs plus intcrrcUantes de I'liHloire du genre humain. Cell un motif
pour vous en dedier Ics oblcrvations, inefiicurs, et je rends cet hommage avec Ic plus grand
plaifir a line fociete illuitrc dont Ics mcmbres Jcavnnt en nicnic temps eclalrcs leur patrie par
leur connoifances dans les mathematiques et dans la philiquc, et la lervir utUement d;uis Ics
cpnicils et dans les armees.

Je fnis avec refpc(3, Meflieurs,

^'otre tres humble et trcs obciffant ferviteur,

DE GRAUCilAIN, Major general de Tefcadre Fi-ancoifc.

A Newport le 5 Novembre, 1780.

Aa

OBSERVATION of an ECLIPSE.

241

An Obfervation of an Eclipfe of the Sun on the 27th of
October, 1 780, at Newport in the State of Rhode-Ifland^

Time by
Clock

the

True Time. 1

h.

'

"

h. '

"

The time that the eclipfe was perceived to begin,

9

24

31

H 0

12'

The preceding limb of the fun at the vertical.

II

21

39

0 57

27

The upper edge of the fun at the horizontal.

ir

54

57

42

The upper horn of the moon at the horizontal.

22

3

57

51

The edge of the moon at the vertical,

22

45

58

33

The tipper horn at the vertical, - - -

23

7

58

55

The lower horn at the vertical, ...

23

35

59

23t

The lower horn at the horizontal, - - -

29

31

I 5

20

The lower limb of the fun at the horizontal.

31

2

6

5lt

The preceding limb of the fun at the vertical.

II

37-

12

I 13

I

The upper limb ditto at the horizontal.

37

59

13

48

The upper horn J) at the horizontal.

38

52

14

21

The limb ditto at the vertical, - -

not

obferved.

The upper horn ditto at the vertical.

38

57

14

16

The lower horn ditto at the vertical, ...

39

19

15

8

The lower horn ditto at the horizontal.

4',

38

19

8

The lower limb of the fun at the horizontal.

45

27

21

17

The preceding limb 0 at the vertical.

II

47

8

I 22

58

The upper edge of ditto at the horizontal.

48

17

24

7

The hmb of the J) at the vfrtical, ...

49

0

24

50

The upper horn at the vertical, . - _

49

5

24

55

The upper horn at the horizontal.

47

7

24

51

The lower limb of 0 at the horizontal.

55

2

30

52

The end of the Eclipfe,

The rate of tlie clock,

12

4

50

I 40

41

At Noon.

Oaober 31,

10

35

12,8

24,

lo

29

■42.0

2.?.

lo

27

5^,3

37,

lo

34

ic,8

» When the fun was perceived to be indented, it was about l' 20" after the echpfe began^
therefore the true time of beginning was at loh. 58' 52".

■j- Uncertain.

\ The fuperlor limb is called the inferior, &c. as the glafs of the quadrant inverted the
obje<5ls.

The latitude of the place of obfervation on Goat-
Wand, 41° 30' 20" N.

An:

242 OBSERVATIONS on TWO ECLIPSES.

An Obfervation of the Eclipfe of the Moon on the nth
of Nov. 1780, at Newport in the State of Rhodc-Ifland.

Time by the

-

Clock.

True Time.

h. ' "

h.

r II

The beginning of the Eclipfe, • . • -

7 40 5

10

24 39

Immerlion of Grimaldi begins, - . -

7 48 50

10

33 2j

Ditto, - - - ends,

7 Ji 25

10

36 10

Immerlion of Tycho begins, - - -

8 0 36

10

45 12

Ditto, - - ends, - - - -

not obferved.

The iliadow to Gallilco, - . - -

8 3 41

10

48 18

Immerfion of Copernicus begins, ...

8 27 54

II

12 31

Ditto, - . - ends, . . -

8 3J 35

II

17 12

I'he Ibadow in the middle of DionyCus,

8 46 55

II

31 33

The ihadow of the Pointed Promontary,

8 55 42

II

40 21

Copernicus begins to appear, ....

9 17 54

12

2 34

Grimaldi^ - - ditto, ....

9 22 a

12

6 41

Copernicus wholly appears, . . . -

9 23 35

12

8 15

Grimaldi . ditto, ....

9 25 45

12

II 26

The Pointed Promontary appears, ...

9 51 12

12

35 55

Tycho wholly appears, ...

10 10 6

12

54 51

The end of the Eclipfe, ....
The rate of the Clock,

10 3z 10

13

16 J7

At Noon.

November 11,

9 16 15,7

li,

9 14 30,7

Re7Jiarks upon the Obfervation of the Eclipfe of the Sun.

THE clock by which the time was obferved, is a pen-
dulum one with a verge of compenfation, made by Mr.
Parthond, a celebrated clock maker at Paris. It was re-
gulated many days before and after the obfervation by
correfponding altitudes taken with a quadrant of Ramfden,
having a radius of one Englifh foot j it is a very good one
and well graduated.

The fame quadrant ferved to obferve the time when
the horns and limbs of the moon and fun arrived at the

hori-

EclaircilTcments fur robfcrvation dc Teclipfe de Soleil.

I. A pcndulc dont on s'eft fcrvi pour obtcnir I'heure eft unc pendule a verge de compenfati-
on faitc par M. Barthond cclebre horlogcr de Paris, clle a etc re^lce pluficurs jours avantct
apres I'ljiifei-vation par dcs hauteurs correfpondantcs prifcs avcc un quart dc circle dc Ramfden
tl'un picil anglois dc rayon tresbon, et tres bien divifc.

Le mfmc quart de cercle a fcrvi pour Ics obfervations dcs palTagcs dcs comes et des bords du
foleil ct dc la hmc au fil horifontal, ct an fil vertical dc la lunette qui y eft adaptee.

1/obfcrvateur qui en embarquant des infiruments d'aftronomie n'avoit eu pour objot que de
rcglvr dcs montrcs marines, n'etoit pas auUi bien pourvu dc lunettes que dc pcudules cc dc quart

dc

OBSERVATIONS on TWO ECLIPSES. 24J

fiorizontal and vertical threads of the glafs which is fitted
to the quadrant.

The obl'erver who provided and fhipped the inftruments,
had no other objedt in view but to re£lify the clock be-
longing to the fhip, which was the caufe that he was not
ib well provided with telefcopes as with clocks and qua-
drants, he was therefore obliged to make ufe of a fimple
achromatic fea-glafs of four feet focus, to obferve the be-
ginning and end of the eclipfe.

Yet he believes he can anlwer for the end of the eclipfe
within about four or five feconds. The inftant of time
which it began is much more uncertain. The fun was
already indented when it was firfl: perceived, but in order
that he might eftimate grofsly the true time of its begin-
ning, he has eftimated pretty nearly the diftance of the
horns, the moment when the fun's limb was firft perceiv-
ed to be indented. By comparing the time elapfed after
the end of the eclipfe to the inftant when the diftance of
the horns of the moon were fenfibly the fame, hence he
judged that it ftiould have been about i' 20" from the true
time in which the eclipfe began until the obferved time.

At

de cercle, ct il a ete oblige de fe fervir pour les obfervations du commencement et de la fin de
Teclipfe d'une finiple lunette achromatic de mer de quatre pieds de foyer.

Cependant on croit pouvoir repondi'e de la fiu de Teclipfe a quatre ou cinq fecondes pres ;
Tinftant du commencement eft bf.aucoup plus incertain ; le foleil etoit deja confiderablement
entame, lors qu'on s'en eft appercu : pour conclure au moins groflierement I'inftant vrai du
commencement de i'eclipfe, on a elliuie a peu prcs quelle etoit la diftance des cornes au mo-
ir.ent ou on s'eft appercu que le dilque du foleil etoit cnta^me, et vers la fin de I'eclipfe on a
examine combien ii s'eft ecoule de tenis depuis I'inllant ou !a diftance des cornes a ettr fenfible-
ment la meme jufqu'a la fin de reclipfc. C'cft de cette maniere que Ton a juge qu'il devoit
s*etre ecoule environ i' 20^' depuis I'inftant vrai du commencement de Teclipfe, jufqua celui
" ou on s'eft appercu, quelle etoit commencee.

On a dabord cru inutile de chcrcher a obferver la grandeur de I'eclipfe avec le quart de cer-
cle, a caufe de la lenteur du movement des deux aftres dans le fens vertical, cependant a la re-
flexion on a penfc que les paffages des cornes et des bords du foleil et de la lune au fil vertical
feuiement furfirolent pour donner les differences de hauteur et d'azimuth des centres des deux
aftres, et par confequent leur difference de latitude et de longitude. On les a done obferves
vers la fin de rcclipfe, et en meme terns on a obferve les paSliges au fil horifontal, mais fans
eipercr qulls puffent etre d'un grand fecours pour calculer la diftance des centres.

Dans la premiere obfervation le paffage de la coriie fuperieure au fil vertical eft un peu dou-
teux. On pcnfe done qu'il eft a propos d'employer de preference dans le calcul de cette obfer-
vation les paffages du bord de la lune, et de la corne inferieure au m^me fil vertical. De cette
maniere on connoitra immediatement les lignes N B et C O dont la premiere combinee avec
les deux diametres L N et ST donnera L E; difference d'azimuth des centres des deux aftres.
On obtiendra auffi facileraent la difference apparente de hauteur S E des memes centres en cal-

culanj

244 OBSERVATIONS on TWO ECLIPSES.

At firft it was thought ufelefs to endeavour to obferve
the magnitude of the ecHpfe with the quadrant, becaufe of
the flow movement of the two planets vertically, yet upon
reflection he thought that the palTage of the horns and
limb of the fun and moon- to the vertical thread only,
would be fufficient to give the differencies of the altitude
and azimuth of the centers of the fun and moon, and of
courl'e their difference of latitude and longitude. He
then obferved them towards the end of the eclipfe, and at
the fame time obferved the time of their arrival at the ho-
rizontal thread, but without any expedation of their be-
ing of great fervice to calculate the diftance of the cen-
ters from.

In the firft obfervation the paffage of the upper horn to
the vertical thread, is a little doubtful ; at the time it was
thought proper to give the preference to the paffages of
the limb and lower horn of the moon to the fame vertical
thread, in making the calculations from this ob-
piateiii. fervation : by this means we may find the lines

Figure 10. 'J ^

NB and CO, the firft of which combined with the
two diameters LN and ST will give LE, the difference
of azimuths and of the centers of the two planets; the
apparent difference of the altitude from the lame centers
may be eafily obtained, by calculating SF and CM, fides
of the right-angled triangles CSF and CLM, in which
are known the other two fides.

In

culant SF ctCM cotes dcs triangles retSangles CSFct CLM>^dans Ics quels on connoit
deja Ics deux autres cotes.

Dans la fecondc obfervation on a obmis par diftra(51ion, Tinftant du pafiage du bord de la
lune au Td vertical, on fe fervira done jiour la calculcT <lts paffages dcs comes au miymc fd le»
quels donneront iinniediatement C A et C O d'ou I'ouftrayant S 1", on aura CD et C F con-
noiffant ces deux lignes et Ic demi-diametre du foleil on cakulera Ics angles C S D, CSF
fouftrayant leur fonime de i8o°, on aura Tangle C S L partageant cet angle par la luoitic on
aura Tangle C S I-, du triangle C L S, on connoitra done aifement S 1. cott* de cetrianglc et dti
triangle .S L E calculant entin ce dernier triangle K L E dans Ic quel on connoit deux angles
ct un c6tc on obtiendraL E; difference cTazumuth et S E ; diflcrciice apparente de hauteur des
centres des deux afires.

I. a dcMiiere obfervation et.int plus complette on pourra la ralculer indiffcrement de Tune ou
I'autre nianicre. On pourra nieme faire ufage du paffage au fil horifcntal pour conclure la dif-
ference de hauteur attendu que le movement dcs deux uffrcs dans Ic fens vertical conuncncoit a
alevcDirmuiiia Icut lorfi^uc ccttc QbTervatiuii a etc fuitc

Si

OBSERVATIONS on TWO ECLIPSES. 245

In the fecond obfervation was omitted, by inattention,
the inftant of the arrival of the limb of the moon to the ver-
tical thread, which however may be calculated by the arri-
val of the horns to the fame thread, by which CA and C O
are obtained : By fubtradting S T from thefe, the remain-
der will be CD and C F, having thefe two lines and the
femi-diameter of the fun, the angles C S D, CSF, may be
had, and fubtrading their fum from 180° the remain-
der will be the angle CSC, the half of which is the angle
C S L ; from the triangle C S L you may readily obtain
SL, a fide of this triangle, and of the triangle SLE ; from,
thefe at length this laft triangle SLE may be calculated,
in which are had two angles and one fide, from which
may be obtained LE the difference of azimuth, and SE
the apparent difference of altitude of the centers of the
fun and moon.

My laft obfervation being more complete, might be
calculated either from the one or the other method, and
the paffage to the horizontal thread might even be ufed
to determine the difference of the altitude of the centers, as
the motion of thefe planets with refpedt to the vertical,
began to be quicker when this obfervation was made.

If we are defirous to afcertain the time of the paffage
of the upper horn of the moon to the vertical thread in the
firft obfervation, or to know in the fecond obfervation the
time of the paffage of the limb of the moon by the fame
thread, they may eafily be calculated by the help of the
quantities already found. Perhaps it might be ufeful to
make this calculation, to determineihe variation which ought
to have place in the pofition of the two points obferved,
I i relatively

Si Ton vouloit dans la premiere obfervation veriffier I'lnftant du paffage de la corne fupe-
ricure au fil vertical, ou connoitre dans la feconde obfervation I'inllant du paffage du bord
de la lune au meme fil on poun-oit aifement les calculer avec le focours des quantites deja
connues. 11 fera peutetre meme utile de faire ce calcul pour fe mettre en etat de determiner
la variation qui a du avoir lieu dans la pofition des deux points obfervcr relativement I'un a
I'autre, pendant I'efpace de terns ecoule entre leurs pafiages au meme fil.

Obfervation

246 TRANSIT OF VENUS

relatively to each other during the time elapfed between:
their paiTage to the fame thread.

Obfervation de I'eclipfe de Lune.

GN a fait ufagc dans cctte obfervation de la meme quart de ccrde, ft dc la meme lunette
^ui avoient fervi pom* I'obfervation de Teclipfe de foieil. La marche dc la pendule etoit cc-^
pendant un peu difTerente parte qu'on y avoit louche.

N' XXXII..

^n Account of the Tranjtt of Venus over the Sun^ June 3 J,
1769, as ohfewed at Neivhury., in Majfachufetts ; by the
Rev. Samuel Williams, A. M.

THE tranfit of Venus over the fun, being one of the-
moft uncommon and ufeful phenomena in aftrono-
my, I determined to make as careful an obfervation of it
as I could. Early in May I received an invitation from
Tr'ijlram Dalton^ Efq. a gentleman of Newbury-Port, to
obferve it M'ith him. He had a feat at Newbury, in a
high elevated fituation, very convenient for this purpofe,
at which we agreed to make the obfervation. The wea-
ther for feveral days had been dull and rainy, but clear-
ing up on Tuefday evening I went early on Wednefday
to put every thing in readinefs. The regulation of our
clock being an article of great importance, I was very
careful to have it thoroughly examined, and well fitted
up. To adjuft it to apparent time we took correfponding
altitudes of the fun, both before and on the day of the
tranfit. In thefe obfervations, it was eafy to arrive to a
pretty great exaftnefs; and as they were very numerous,
the going of the clock was well afcertained by them, and
found to be ftcady and regular. The telefcope we had
prepared was a reflcdor made by Nainie-, magnifying
about ^^ times; a good inftrument, but not fitted with a

micrometer,

OVER THE SUN. 247

•micrometer, or with vertical and horizontal hairs, as we
could have wifhed.

The third of June proved favourable to our wifhes.
The air was uncommonly clear, and the Iky ferene*
About twenty minutes before the tranfit, I began to keep
my eye fteadily fixed on that part of the fun's limb, on
which the planet by calculation was to enter; an afliftant
counting the clock in the mean time, while another Hood
by to write down the obfervations. Thus prepared, we
waited with a kind of agreeable anxiety for the high fa-
tisfadion of feeing Venus on the fun; a fatisfadtion I had
once before enjoyed in viewing the tranfit of lydi*, and
which I knew muft end with that of 1 769 ! The firft ini-
preffion of Venus on the fun, I expedled would not ap-
pear like a diftin£t well defined black fpot coming on a^
it were in an inftant, but rather like an ill defined mix-
ture of limbs. The event was agreeable to the conjec-
ture, for at 2*" 30' 14", apparent time, I imagined I faw
a/mall dijlurbance on the fun's limb ; but the impreffion
was then fo fmall, irregular and ill defined, that it was
not till after feveral feconds that I was certain the tranfit
was begun. But the impreffion increafing and growing
more diftind:, I fixed on the time mentioned above as the
time of the external contaii. To obfervers with tele-
fcopes and eyes equally good, and fixed on that part of the
fun on which the planet entered, I conceive this firft im-
preffion might have been obferved to an agreement of 5
or 6 feconds. Though perhaps it might be the contad:
of the atmofphere, rather than of the body of Venus with
the fun.

In about ten minutes after the external, I began to look
for the internal contaB. From the form in which Venus
appeared, being furrounded with a glimmering light, not
very diftin<£lly defined, I concluded it would be difficult if
not impoffible to fix upon the precife moment when her
I i 2 limb

* At St. Joi/i's, ill N'lvfomdland,

248 TRANSIT OF VENUS

limb would be exaftly coincident with that of the fun; ancT
therefore determined to wait till there fliould appear a fmall:
thread of light betw^een them. As the contact drew
near, the thread of light began to form, and feemed to
dart on each fide of the planet for feveral feconds without
being fixed or fettled. At 2'' 48' 44", with a feeming
uncertainty of not more than 7" it became clofed and fix-
ed ; Venus then appeared wholly within the fun, feparat-
ed from its limb by a fine ftream of light flowing gently
round it. This I fixed upon as the internal conta6l^ though
this might alfo be the contact not of Venus but of her
atmofphere with the fun. Not having a micrometer or
hairs fixed in the reflector, inftead of making any further
obfervations, we could only enjoy the pleafure of viewing
this curious phenomenon, and fhowing it to a number of
gentlemen that had aflembled on the occafion.

To determine the latitude of the place, we took the
meridian altitude of the fun on the day of the tranfit, by
tranfmitting his rays from a ftyle 10 feet high, upon a
large horizontal platform. From this obfervation our la-
titude came out 43° 2' north. Sufpeding the obfervatioa
was not fufficiently accurate, I have fince carefully exa-
mined the matter, and from feveral obfervations which
nearly agree, I find it to be but 42° 57'. With regard
to our longitude, the mean of fix or feven obfervations of
the eclipfes of Jupiter's firfl: fatellite, gives it about 4" 42'
30" weft from Greentvich.

In the above account of the contaBs^ the duration of
the ingrefs, or patfage of Venus over the fun's limb, is
18' 30"; n^^i" ^ minute longer than in moft of the ^;h^-
rican obfervations. By theory it Ihould be 18' 56", but
as this muft have been contrafted at the place of obferva-
tion, 15", by parallax, the apparent duration of the in-
grefs, would be but 18' 41"; that is, 11" longer than
it was made by obiervation. I much doubt whether it
was poffible to difcern the planet fo foon as 11" after the

firft

overtheSUN. 24c)

firft contadl, when not a fecond of its diameter had enter-
ed upon the fun. It is moft probable that the internal
contact was paft before the thread of Hght appeared to
me to be compleated. It feems as though fomething of
the fame kind, muft alfo have been the cafe in moft of the
European obfervations ; as they make the ingrefs near a
minute longer, than it was feen by moft of the American
obfervers, when by theory it muft rather have been fhort-
er. But the different appearances of Venus, different
ideas of the contacts, with the unavoidable dift'erence of
eyes, telefcopes, the ftate ot the atmofphere and the like,
might eafily occafion fuch differences in the obfervations.
Though in the fame circumftances, it can hardly be
thought but that the European and the American obferva-
tions would have more nearly agreed.

An Account of the Tranfit of Merctiry O'uer the Sun, JSfo"
■vember gth, 1 769, as ohjer'ved at Salein, in Majfachii~
,Jetts; by the Rev. Samuel Williams, A. M.

THE tranfits of Mercury, though they are not of equal
ufe in aftronomy with thofe of Venus, are yet of great ad-
vantage to perfeift the elements of his theory, and to de-
termine the longitude of places on the earth. I had an
opportunity to obferve one of thefe tranfits, November 9*
1769, in company with Andreiu Oliver^ Efq. at Salem.
Mr. Oliver had a good refiedlor, magnifying about fixty
times. But his clock not being in fo good order as was
to be wifhed, and not having any inftrument to take al-
titudes, I was obliged to have recourfe to the following
method to determine the time. The day before the tran-
fit I drew a meridian line, with which I examined the
going of the town clock on the day of the tranfit, and on
the day after, and found it had kept time very well.
Comparing my watch with the clock, the time was point-
ed out to minutes pretty exadlly. Taking the minutes

from..

250 TRANSIT of MERCURY.

from the watch, I endeavoured to count the feconds, which
by a perfon ufed to it may be done pretty near the truth.
This method of determining the time, though fuch as an
aftronomer would by no means chufe, was the only one
that I could make ufe of; and from the pains I took to be
exad, I believe it might be depended upon to eight or ten
feconds.

At Xhtfrjl contaci I expeded Mercury would have ap-
peared as Venus had done, fomething irregular, uneven,
and not very diftin£tly defined. But at 2' 54' 40" appa-
rent time, I was agreeably difappointed by feeing the pla-
net come on as it were in an inftant, in the form of a
clear, regular, well defined black fpot. The internal con-
fab was equally inftantaneous; at 2" 56' o" the thread of
light clofed to appearance in a moment, without a feem-
ing uncertainty of a fecond. The fky being perfedly
clear and ferene, nothing could be better defined than the
limbs of Mercury and the fun. There was no appearance
of any thing like an atmofphere round the planet, but all
the time the fun was vifible, Mercury appeared like a fteady
diftinft black fpot, much lefs than feme that were then
upon the fun. Not having a micrometer, it was not in
our power to make any further obfervations, either on the
diameter of the fun or Mercury, or of the leaft diftance
of their limbs.

An Ohjervation of an Eclipfe of the Sun, No'uemher Gth^
1 77 1, at Bradford, in Mojfachufctts ; by the Rev,
Samuel Williams, A. M.

FROM the beginning of the year 1769 till the end of
1 77 1, there were but two eclipfcs that could be obfervcd
at Bradford. One of thefe was a total eclipfe of the moon,
June 19th, 1769; of this I had no obfervation, being
prevented by an indifpofition. The other was an eclipfe
of the fun, November 6th, 1771. The weather for fcve-

ral

ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. 251

ral days before, was fo cloudy that I attempted in vain to
regulate my clock, though I watched every favourable
opportunity. On the day of the eclipfe I got it pretty
•well adjufted by feveral correfponding altitudes of the fun.
About I*" P. M. the clouds gathered fo much round the
fun, that I was apprehenfive they would prevent any ob-
fervation. But being pretty much fcattered, at i'' t,^ 42"
apparent time, I could very plainly perceive that the
eclipfe was juft begun. This I judged was very near the
beginning, if not exadlly fo, though it was attended with
fome uncertainty. In a few minutes the fun was wholly
covered with the clouds, and remained thus till 34'', when
they began again to fcatter, and left that part of the hea-
vens in which the fun appeared, perfectly clear. The
weather continued thus till the end of the eclipfe, which
by a good obfervation was at 3'' 47/ 2". Thefe obfervati-
ons were made with a reflector made by Nairne-, magni-
fying as near as I could judge about fixty times ; but as
to the quantity of the eclipfe, no obfervation could be made,
the fun being obfcured by the clouds the biggeft part of
the time..

N° XXXIII.

An eafy and accurate Method of finding a true Meridian'

Line, and thence the Variation of the Compafs.

By Robert Patterson.

Read Apr. /^^ F the varlous methods which aftronomers
7> 1786. y^^^ employ for finding a true meridian line,
none feems fo well adapted, as could be wifhed, to the
common ufe of furveyors, in finding the variation of the
Compafs.

To find the azimuth of the fun by a fingle obfervation
of his altitude, befides a quadrant which is neceffary fo

thi

252 An easy method of finding the

this purpofe, requires the previous knowledge either of the
latitude of the place, or hour of the day, at the time of
obfervation ; neither of which can, by the common ap-
paratus of a furveyor, be found with fufficient accuracy.

The fun's azimuth may, it is true, be found without
knowing either the latitude of the place or hour of the
day, by taking equal altitudes before and after noon; but
this requires time, attention and inftruments, which fur-
veyors can but feldom command.

That method, which is perhaps the moft exa£t, viz.
meafuring the time between the paflage of two ftars which
differ confiderably, in declination and but little in right
afcenfion, over the fame vertical circle, is ftill farther out
of the reach of common furveyors.

The following table of the pole ftar will, it is prefum-
ed, furnifh a more eafy, and yet fufficiently accurate me-
thod of determining this problem; free from all the
above inconveniencies, and requiting no difficult calcula-
tion, nor any other inftrument than the common theodo-
lite, or circumferentor. For though the latitude ot the
place fhould not be known within a whole degree, nor
the hour of the night within 2 or 3 minutes, this table,
by a fmgle obfervation of the magnetic azimuth or bearing
of the pole ftar, will generally give the variation of the
needle true to a fingle minute of a degree. Nay if the ob-
fervation be made (as it may be every night) when the ftar
is near its greateft elongation, an error of 10, or even 20
minutes in time will, as is plain from the table, produce lit-
tle or no fenfible error in the azimuth. And as thefc obfer--
vations may be repeated at pleafure during the night, and
a mean of all taken, the variation may, by this means, be
found to any degree of accuracy that can be defwcd. Be-
fidcs, the needle is not at this time afFe<fled with any di-
urnal variation; which in the day-time is very uncertain,
and frequently amounts to more than one quarter of a
degree.

The

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 253

The beft inftrument for obferving the flar's magnetic
azimuth is a theodolite, furnifhed with fplrit-levels, and a
fmall telefcope with a perpendicular wire. A common
circumferentor may, however, anfwer the purpofe. When
this inftrument is uied, a fine thread or hair muft be
ftretched along from the top of one fight to that of the
other, direiVly over the center of the compafs ; and the
obferver muft be very careful to place the fights perpen-
dicular to the horizon when he makes the obfervation ;
for this purpofe a fiiiall pocket i'pirit-level, in the form of
a carpenter's fquare, would be very convenient.

By the common circumferentor we cannot, indeed, take
the bearing of an objeft with very minute accuracy ; for
though the eye can very well judge of the coincidence of
two lines, or of the point of the needle with any whole
degree on the compafs, yet the parts of a degree cannot
readily be obferved to greater exadlnefs than one third or
one fourth of the whole. This inconvenience may, how-
ever, be eafily remedied, and at a very trifling expence,
in the following manner.

Let one of the fights, by means of a fcrew, be made
movable at right angles to the index ; and on the end of
the index, clofe to the movable fight, fet off, on each fide
of the central line, the tangent of three degrees to a radius
equal to the whole length of the index, or diftance between
the two fights. Let each of thefe degrees be divided into
fix equal parts ; then will a nonius divilion on the fight,
where ten equal parts muft correfpond with eleven on the
index, fubdivide thefe parts into minutes of a degree.

It will be unneceffary to make the fight move in the
arch of a circle, the difference between this and the tan-
gent, in fo fmall an arch, being quite imperceptible. With
this fimple improvement the common circumferentor will
take the bearing of an objeft true to a minute, thus : Let
the end of the needle be made exadly to coincide with the
K k neareft

254 An easy METHOD of Binding the

neaieft whole degree, then move the fcrew till the obje£k
appears in the diredtion of the fights, and the nonius on
the movable fight will point out the odd minutes.

Explanation and Ufe of the Table.

The left hand double column of the table contains the
time before the ftar's pafTage over the meridian above the
pole, for every twenty minutes of its whole diurnal circuit.
The firft column, under each particular latitude, fhews
the azimuth of the ftar at thefe times, refpeftively, in de-
grees, minutes and tenths of a minute. The fecond co-
lumn fhews the difference of azimuth in every twenty
minutes of intermediate time, in minutes and tenths.

To find the true azimuth of the ftar in any latitude, at
any given time.

From the ftar's right afcenfion, viz. o'' 49", increafed by
24'' if neceffary, fubtra£t the right afcenfion of the fun
computed to the time of the ftar's pafTage over the meri-
dian, above the pole, nearly, the remainder will be the
time of faid paffage, reckoned from noon. From which,
increafed by 24'' if neceffary, fubtra£l the time of the ob-
fervation, reckoned alfo from noon, the remainder will
flievv the time before the ftar comes to the faid meridian.
Look for this time in the left hand column of the table,
oppofite to which in the column of azimuth, under the
proper latitude, you will have the true azimuth of the ftar
at that time.

If the time before the ftar comes to the meridian be lefs
than 12 hours, its azimuth will be eafterly ; but if more
than 12 hours, its azimuth will be wefterly.

If the magnetic azimuth, and the true azimuth at the
time of the obfervation, be both eafterly or both wefterly,
their difference will be the variation of the needle. But
if one be eafterly and the other wefterly, their fum will

be

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 255

be the variation. And if the magnetic be to the weftward
of the true azimuth, the variation will be wefterly ; but if
to the eaftward, the variation will be eafterly.

If the time before the ftar's paffage over the meridian
be fome intermediate minute, or the latitude of the place
fome intermediate degree, not found in the table, a pro-
portional intermediate azimuth, by means of the differ-
ences, muft be taken.

The right afcenfion of the pole ftar annually increafes
10 feconds of time, and its polar diftance decreafes 20 fe-
conds of a degree, therefore to its prefent right afcenfion
(in 1785,) viz. o'' 49", muft be added one minute every
year; and from its prefent polar diftance (1° 50'. 5) one
minute muft be fubtradted, and a proportional part from
all the numbers in the columns of azimuth, every three
years. The eff'edt of aberration and nutation may be
fafely neglected; as the error arifing from thefe caufes
can never amount to more than half a minute of a degree
in azimuth.

In computing the fun's right afcenfion to the time of
the ftar's paffage over the meridian nearly, the following
little table will be ufeful.

K k 2 TABLE.

256 An easy method of finding the
T A B L E.

Time,

Star pafles Meridian

nearly at

April 2

Noon

19

II A.M.

May 5

10

20

9

June 4

8

18

7

July 3

6

17

5

Auguft 2

4

17

3

September 3

2

19

I

Odober 6

Midnight

22

II P. M.

November 6

10

21

9

December 5

8

19

7

January i

6

15

5

29

4

February 13

3

March i

2

17

I

Ex A MPLE I.

Suppofe on the 12th of September 1785, at 8 o'clock
in the evening, in the latitude of 40° N. the magnetic
azimuth of the pole-ftar had been obferved to be 0° 38'
cafterly ; required the variation of the needle at the time
and place of obfervation.

Star's

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 257

H.

II

25

13

8

24
0

Star's R. A. increafed by 24 hours, - 24 49
Sun's R. A. computed to i" a. m. (taken

from the nautical almanac, or any other

table of the fun's R. A.) fubtra£t

True time of ftar's paflage over meridian,

reckoned from noon.
Hour of the night fubtradt,

Time before ftar's paflage, - - 5 24

Which correfponds to true azimuth, 2° 23' E.
Magnetic azimuth, - - o 38 E. "

Variation of the needle, - i 45 W.

Example II.

In the latitude of about 32° north, on the 4th of July
178 J, at 48 minutes after 10 o'clock at night, iuppofe the
magnetic azimuth of the pole ftar, to be 2 ° 40' eaft ; re-
quired the variation of the needle.

Star's R. A. + 24", - -

Sun's R. A. - -

Time of ftar's pafling meridian,
Time of obfervation.

Time before ftar comes to meridian,

Which correfponds to true azimuth, 2° 4 E.
Magnetic azimuth, - - 2 40 E.

Variation, - - o 38 E.

Ex'

H.

M.

24

49

6

54

17

55

10

48

258 An easy method of finding the

Example UI.

Latitude of the place 42° north, time of obfervation,.
January 17th 1785, at 2" 40"" A. M. Magnetic azi-
muth, I ° 5' eafterly.

H. M.

Star's R. A. + 24* - - - 24 49

Sun's R. A. - - - - 20 I

Time of ftar's pafling the meridian, - 4 48

24

28 48
Time of obfervation reckoned from noon, 14 40

Time before ftar comes to meridian, - 14 8

Correfponding to true azimuth, 1° 16' W.
Magnetic azimuth, - - i 5 E.

Variation, - - - 2 21 E.

A Table

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 259

A Table of the Azimutli of the Pole-ftar for every 20
Minutes of its diurnal Motion round the Pole.

1

Latitude 30°

Latitude 3J°

Latitude 40°'jLatitlide45°

Latitude 50^

Latitude5i°|

iTiniebcforetht.

ftar comts to

(the meridian a-

1 bove tlie pole.

'2 s

3

i5 ^

id

s

1 ^

Diff.

Star'sazi-
muth.

13

'i ^ .

hi

a

'if

5

H. M.

0 0

20

40

H. M.
24 c
23 4C

2C

0 0

22

33
44
54

0

3
6

4
8

II-3
"•3

TI.l

10.7
10.4

ICO

9-5
8.9

8.2

7.6
6.7

5.9

5-0
4.1

3.1

2.2

1-3

0 6
12
24

0
0
0

12
12

II

II
II

10

10

9

8

7
7
6

5
4

3

2

I

c
c

5

6
0

4

8

8

1

3

2

3
3

4

3 0
12
25

50
C 2

0
9
7

3
6

5

12.9
12.8

12.6

12-3

II.9

11-3
10.9

lO.O

9-3

8.5
7-5
6.7

5-5
4.5
3-6

2.4
1-3

0 0
14
28

0
I

0

14

13

13
13

12

12

II

10

10

9
8

7
6
4
3

2
I

I

9
7
4
9
3
8
9
I

I

2

2
0
9

7

5
•1

0 0.0
15.6
31.0

15

15

15

14

14

13
12

;;

10
9

7

6

5
4

2

I

6
4

2

8
3
6

9

0

2

0
0

7
6
4
0
6
4

0 0.0

17.6

35-0

17

16
16

15

14
13
12

II

10

6

4

2

7
0

4

5
5

5

0

7

3
6

6

.0
4

I 0

20
40

22 4C
2C

3S
47
58

7
2
2

41

55
I 8

7
I

0

46.2

I I.O

15-3

J2.2

I 8.9

24.9

2 0
20
40

0
21 4C

20

I 4
14
23

8

3
2

I 8
18
28

8
8

2

13

24
34

8

7
7

20
32
43

3
I
0

28. 9
41.8
53-8

40.3

54.8

2 8.3

20.8
32.0
42.0

3 0
20
40

20 40
20

31

: 39
45

4

0
7

37
44
51

0
8
9

44

52
2 0

0
5
0

'2

I
2
4

2 5-0
IJ.O

24.0

4 0
20
40

0
19 40

20

, ji
■ 56

2 0

6
6

7

58

2 3
7

2

4
7

6

12
16

7

2

7

17
23
28

6
6

5

31-7
38.3
43-7

50-7! ,

II. 2 •'
12.6 [^i

5 0

20
40

0
18 40

_ 20

1 6

; 7

8

0

20
22
24

3
7

0

32

34
36

2

7
I

47-7
50-3
51-7

13
14

3
7

6 0

20
4C

0

17 40

20

1 7

6

5

6

9

2

1-7

2-5

3-5
4-5

5-1

6.2

6.8
7-5
8.2
8.8

9-3

9-7
10.2

to.5

10.7
to. 8
10.9

14
14

12

9

5

I

8

2
3

5
7

i

I

2

3
4

5
6
7
7
8
9
9

10
10

II

II
II
II

6
9
8

8
6

6

4

9

8

3

7
0

4
5

24
23
21

2
3
3

2

3

4
5
6
6
7
8

9
9

10

II

II

II

12
12
12

9

0

0

I
0

°

'6

5
4
9

4
0
4
7
0
2

2

36
35
33

2

2

0

I

2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
9

(O

ti
ri

12

12
13
13

0
2

3

5

5

5

5
5

9
8

8

3

7

9

I
2

51-8
50.7
48.2

I.I

2.5
3-9

6.2

7.1

8.4
9.2

10.2
1 1.0
11.7
12.4
12.9
13-4
14.0
14.2
14-3

14.4

"■^ ' 1.5

4-3

i 51-2 '•"
• 8.2

1 33;° 9-^

i 23.3^°-^

7 0
20
40

0

r6 40

20

2
I 59

54

7
2

7

18
14
9

3
4
2

29
25
19

2

44-3
39-4
33-2

8 c

20
4C

0
ij" 40

20

49
43
36

6
4
6

I 55
49
41

5
I
8

3

r 56

48

2

3

7

13

5

I 57

2
2

26.1

17.7
8.5

9 c

2C

4C

14 40

20

29

' 20
12

J
9

33
25
16

9

2
0

• 40
30
20

2
8
9

48
38

27

C
I

I 58.3
47-3
35-6

: II. 8

I 59-7
46.5

12.1
l'3-2

13-8

14-5
14.9

15.6

15-7
15.9
16.1

lO c

2C
4f

c
13 AC

2C

2

3 53
42

I
9

6

•> 55
45

2
9

2

10
48

5
5

16

4
0 51

9

23.2

10.3

0 56.9

32-7
18.2
3-3

11 (
2C
4C

12 C

0

12 40

2C
0

32
21
10
0

4
7
9
0

34
22
II

0

2
9
5
0

36
24
12
0

4
4
2
0

39
26
13
0

2
c

42.9
28.7
14-4

- 0.0

0 47-7
32.0
16.I

0.0

[ 26o ]

N° XXXIV.
Aftrmomical Ohfervatlons^ communicated by Mr. R i T-

TI»f HOUSE.

By Mr. James Six, of Canterbury.

Geocentric place of the New Planet.
April ift, 1782, 29" 5' 30" in n lat. 13' N.

October 15th, 7 21 18 as nearly ftationary.

December 26th, 5 2 30 in oppofition.

March loth, 1783, 3 15 o ftationary.
0£tober 15th, 11 53 10 ftationary.

December 30th, 9 47 25 in oppofition.

March 14th, 1784, 7 46 o ftationary.

Lat. 23 N.

By D. Rittenhou/e, at Philadelphia.

Tranfit of Mercury over the fun's diflc, Nov. 12th, 1782.

Firft external contact, 9'' 34' 50" morn, ")
Internal, uncertain, 40 o I

Second internal, 10 51 30 [ '

Laft contadl, 57 35 ^

Greateft diftance of g center from fun's limb, 31".

1784, On Meridian.
Jan. 29th. y Gemino 9" 49' 20"
' Gem. 9 54 45

New Planet 10 i 48

? Gem. 10 15 19

Feb. 1 2th. V Gem.

New Planet,
I Gem.

' Mean Time.

8"

54'

19"

9

4

54

9

20

18

\

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 261

1785. On Meridian.

January 26th. ^ Geniiiio loh 24' 14"

New Planet jo 31 22

S'Gem. 10 40 7

February 4th. ^ Gem. 9 48 48

New Planet 9 54 32
S"Gem. 10 4 41

C^ Gemino 19" 5' 7"
Feb. 1 2th. Obferved zenith diftance, < New Planet 16 40 45

^^Gem. 17 35 33

^Gem. 8h 57' 42"

New Planet p i 46 zenith diftance, i5° 40' 42"
2~Gem. 9 13 35 ditto, 17 35 40

Febr. 27th. ^Gem. 8 iS 34

New Planet 8 21 32
J^Geci. 8 34 27

Febr. 17th.

March 12th.

^Gem.

7

47

14

New Planet

7

29

4ii

J- Gem.

7

43

6i

March 15th. Sirius 6 59 51

^Gemino 7 15 30

New Planet 7 17 54

J Gem. 7 ji 23

March 17th.

Sirius

6

S»

S3

^Gem.
New Planet

7

7

7
9

37
59

March 2 2d.

Sirius
^ Gem'.
New Planet

6
6
6

3*
47
SO

18
'9

March 27th.

Sirius
^Gem.
New Planet

6
6
6

12

28
30

38
16

45

aSth.

178(5,
January 25th.

^Gem.
New Planet

^ Gemino
New Planet

6
6

loh
10

24
26

45'
56

"9

1"
48

Micrometer mea-
fure of Z. D.

r. <3.
+ » 35

— 4 37i-

Diflerence I'n
min. & feco.

36th.

S'Gem.
New Planet

10
10

41 ■
52

5

44

Difference, 6 2^^ = zc/ 59"

L 1

262 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.

Micrometer mea- Difference in
1 786, fure of Z. D. niin. & fectx

On Meridian. r. d.

January 2;th. S'Gcmino loh 37' 8' + 1 34.

New Planet 10 4S 37 — 4 34

21' 17*

= 2* 33

Dlff. 6

29

31ft.

J Gem.

10

21

24

New Planet

10

32

13

Pebruary ill.

?■ Gem.
Pluto

10
10

'7

28

11

Diff. 7

0

id.

fi Gem.

9

1 6

23i

S- Gem.

10

13

33

8

40

New Planet

10

24

2

16

0

Di'fF. 7

tJ

Z^-

t Gem.

.

.

S

39

New Planet

"

16

3^

Diff. ,7

I2i

6th.

JGan.

9

57

50

8

391

New Planet

10

7

43

16

17

Diff. 7

25i

loth.

fi Gem.

.

.

13

2l4

S- Gem.

9

42

7

New Planet

9

51

2+

16

29^

D!ff,~

8

2lfl.

S-Gem.

8

58

52

New Planet

9

6

46

March loth.

J Gem.

7

52

2

12

Si

New Planet

7

58

3'

21

21

Diff.~7

'Si

nth.

f4 Gem.

6

SO

55

S- Gem.

7

4?

5

li

5

New Planet

7

5+

31

21

20I

Diff. 9

'51

1 2th.

S-Gem.

7

44-

9

13

,74

New Planet

7

SO

32

22
Diff. 9

34i
'7

I8th.

fi Gem.

6

23

23

J Gem.

7

20

33

'3

.6i

New Planet

7

26

43^

22

35*

= 23 24

24 7

10 13

30 3

== 30 4

= 30 9

Diff. 9 if-i = 30 16

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS. 263

n Micrometer mea- Difference in

I7°°> fureofZ. D. min. &feco.

On Meridian. r. d.

March Jpth. c Gem. 7 16 571 14 36

New Planet 7 22 47I 24 8t

= 30 H

30 iS

= 30 15

DIfF.

9 2oi

aitt.

S-Gem.
New Planet

7
7

8

46
53

Diff.

5 '8

14 37 +

9 >95

23d.

S-Gem.
New Planet

7

7

0
7

54^

DJff.

3 28i

13 47

9 iS4

24th.

J Gem.
New Planet

6

7

S6
3

59
6

8 141
17 34

25th.

S-Gem.
New Planet

6

6

S3
59

3
16

Diff.

9 19+

27th.

J'Gem.
New Planet

6
6

4S
SI

II

18

8 13!
17 31

= 30 iS

DifF. 9 17* = 30 10

April 2d. S~Gem. 6 21 36

New Planet 6 27 53

N. B. In thefe obfervations the declination of the New Planet was con-
ftantly greater than thaf of S~Geminorum, but lefs than ft.

N° XXXV.

A Letter from Mr. Otto, to Dr. Franklin, ivith a
Memoir on the Difco'uery of America.

New-York, ift April, 1786.
SIR,

Read Apr. Ik LMOST all the authors who have written
^' '^ ■ '^ upon the difcovery of America, make men-

tion of fome information which Chriftopher Columbus
procured at Madeira, upon the exiftence of a weftern con-
tinent j but they do not tell us, pofitively, how far this in-
L 1 3 formation

264 MEMOIR ON THE

formation affiftrd him, or from what fource he derived it,
I have always been curious to clear up this interefting
part of hiftory ; and in running over many ancient hiftori-
ans, as well German as Spanilh, I have found fome cir-
cumftances, which have appeared to me to eftablifh, in the
cleareft manner, a difcovery anterior to that of Columbus.
I have the honor to fend you the refult of my enquiries;
and if you think this piece worthy of being fubmitted to
the confideration of the Philofophical Society, I beg you
to prelent it to them as a mark of my homage, and of the
dcfire which I have of being of fome fervice.

I have the honor to be, with refpedful attachment,

Your excellency's very humble and

Moft obedient fervant,

O T T O^

His excellency Dr. Franklin.,

A New- York, ie 1 Ainil, 1786.
MONSIEUR,

PRESQUE tons les autcurs qui ont cent fur la dccoiiverte de TAmerique, font mention de
quelques renllignemL'ns que Chriftophe Colonib s'eft procures dans I'lfle dc Madere fur
I'cxiftcnrc d'un continent otcidcntal, niais ils ne nous difcnt pas poiitivement jufiju' a quel point
CCS relatic)ns ont pu lui etrc utiles, ou quelle en a etc la fource. J'ai toujours t'te- curieux de
debiouilkr ccttc partie inte'relTante de I'hiftoire ; ct en pareourant plufieurs anclens hilloricns,
taut AUemans qu'Efpapiols, j'ai trouvt' quelques details qui m'ont paru t'tablir d'une maniere
indubitable une decouverte antcrieure a celle de Colomb. J'ai I'honncur dc vous en adrcflcr
Ic rcfumt', ct fi vous croycs que cette piece foit digne d'etre mife fous Ics yi-ux de la fociete
philofopbique, jc vous fupplie de la lui prefeuter comme une marque de mon houiiuage ct du
dtlir que j'ai dc lui ctre de quclquc utilitc.

J'ai I'honncur d'etre avcc un rcfpeilucux attaehcment,

MoN SI K u R,

Dc votrc Excellence,

Le trJs humble ct ttcs ob.iffant fcrvitciir,

OTTO,

S. E. M. TRANKLIN.

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 265

Memoir upon the Dif cover y of America.

T has always been looked on as a piece of injuftice,
not to have given the name of Columbus to that valu-
able part of the world which he difcovered; and that
Americanus Vefpucius, who did nothing but follow his
footfteps, has had the good fortune of having his name
handed down to the moft diftant pofterity, to the preju-
dice of his predeceilbr. What then will be faid, if it fliall
be proved, that neither of thofe celebrated navigators
were the firft difcoverers of this immenfe country, and
that this honor belongs to a man fcarcely known in the
republic of letters. This, however, is what I fhall at-
tempt in the following paper; and if the obfcurity of co-
temporary writers and the diftance of time, do not afford
arguments fufficient for an abfolute demonllration, there
will however be enough to call in queftion the pretenfions
of Chriftopher Columbus.

I flaall not here enter into an examination of the reve-
ries of fome hifforians, on the voyages of the Carthagini-
ans, the Atlantis of Plato, the bold expedition of Madoc
prince of Wales and fon of Owen Guinnedd, of which
Hackluyt has preferved fome account, nor on the voyages
of Bacchus, or the land Ophir of Solomon. Conjeftures
of this kind, whether true or talfe, cannot lelTen the glory
of Columbus, were there not proof that he received, juft

before

MEMOIRE SUR LA DECOUVERTE DE L'AMERIQUE. Mars 1786.

ON a regarde jufqu'ici comme une injuftice qu'on n'ait point donne le nom de Chriftophe
Colomb a la belle partie du monde qu'il a decouvcrte, et qu'Americ Vefpucc, qui n'a
fait que marcher fur fcs traces, ait cu le bonheur de faire paffer Ion fouvcnir a la pofteritc la
plus eloignee au prejudice de fon prcdecefleur. Que diroit 'on s'il etoit prouve qu'aucun de
ces grands navigateurs n'a le merite de la premiere decouverte de ce pays immenfe, et que
I'honneur en eitdu a un homme prefqu'inconnu dans la republique deslet'tres ? C'eft ce que je
me propofe de faire dans ce memoire, et fi I'obfcurite des ecrivains contemporains et I'c'loigne- -
ment des epoques ne me permettent pas de pouilermesargumens jufqua I'evidence, ilsfuffiront
au moins pour etablir des doutes fondes fur la pretendue decouverte de Chriftophe Colomb.

Nous n'cxamincrons point ici les reves de quelques hiftoriens fur la navigation des Cartha-
pnois, fur I'Atlantide de Platon, fur les expeditions hardies de Madox, prince de G:: l.-s, et
ills d'Owen Guynet, dont Hakluit nous a conferve les details, ni fur les voyages de Bachus ni
fur rOphir de balomon ; ces conjeftures vraies ou fauffes nc fauroient dimincuer la glorie de

Chriilopjie,

266 MEMOIR ON the

before his expedition, the charts and journal of a learned
aftronomer who had been in America.

Garcilaffo de la Vega, born at Cufco in Peru, has given
lis an hiftory of his country, in which, to take from Co-
lumbus the merit of the difcovery of America, and to
give the honor of it to the Spaniards, he affures us, that
this navigator had been informed of the exiftence of an-
other continent by Alonzo Sanchez de Huelva, who in his
voyage to the Canaries had been driven by a gale of wind
to the Antilles; but that his chief information was procur-
ed from a celebrated geographer of the name of Martin
Behenira. Garcilaffo fays nothing more of this Behenira;
and fince we know of no Spanifh geographer of this name,
Garcilaffo has been fufpedted of making a facrilice of truth
to the defire of wreftlng from a Genoefe the glory of dif-
covering the new world.

On looking over, with attention, a lift of all the learn-
ed men of the fifteenth century, I find the name of Martin
Behem, a famous geographer and navigator. The chrifti-
an name is the fame with that mentioned by Garcilaffo,
and I find that the fyllables ira., added to his name, are
owing to a particular circumftance; namely, the honor
conferred on him by John II. king of Portugal. It is then
poffible, that this Martin Behem is the fame perfon as
Martin Behenira mentioned by Garcilaffo; but this vague
conjecture will receive the ftamp of truth by the follow-
ing detail. The

Chriftojilic Colomb, s'il n'ctoit prouvc, (jiic, peu dc terns avant fon cxpolitinn, un allronoine
fiivant avoit etc en Anieriquc, et lui avoit conmuiniquc Ics cartes etfes journaux.

Garcilafl'o de la Ve)>;a, lie a Cufco en Perou, nous a donne une hiltoire de fa patrie dans la-
quclle, pour oter a Colomb le morite de la dccouverte de rAmeriquc, et pour en faire honncnr
aux r.fpagnols, il afl'ure que ce navigateur avoit etc inftruit de I'exiftence d'un autre continent
par Alonzo Sanchez de Huelva, qui faifant route pour les Canaries avoit etc pouflc aux An-
tilles par un coup de vent ; mais jk'/V avmlfur tout tirt grand farti det wJortnatioKi il'un ctlchrr gco-
^i-.iyV^c mmm,' Mjrlin Jiebtmra. Garcilaflo ne nous dit ricn de plus furce Srkniir.!, ct comnie ou
ne connoit point dc geographe F.lpagnol de ce noni, on a foup;onne de la Vcga davoir facri-
lic b vcritc au deCr de nc pas laifTcr a un Gcnois la gloire d'avoir dccouvcrt le nouveau tncndc.

En parcourant avec attention la lifte de tous les favans du XV fiecic, jc trouve le nom de
Martin Brlcm, j;rand gcographe et navigateur, je trouve que le nom dc bat^me eft confornit i
cclui qui eft cite par Garcilaflo, que les lyllabcs ira ajoutccs a fon nom doivcnt ^tre dues a une
circoilftance particuliire, ct ctttc circonftance je la trouve dans la confiancc dont il a etc hon-
ii.ire par Jean 11 roi dt I'ortugd. II eft done poftible que ce Martin H,lrmion Ic mfnic hom-
nu- que ce .''.farlin liebincra nienlionnc par Garcilaflo; mais ccltc conjcfturc vague aura tons
Ics-caratlcrcs dtl'cvidcucc py les details fuivtna.

L'hilluire

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 2C7

The literary hiftory of Germany gives an account of
a Martin Behem, Beheim, or Behin, who was born at Nur-
enburgh, an imperial city of the circle of Franconia, of a
noble family, fome branches of which are yet extant.
He was much addided to the fludy of geography, aflro-
nomy and navigation, from his infancy. At a more ma-
ture age he often thought on the poffibility of the exi-
ilance of the Antipodes and of a weftern continent. Fil-
led with this great idea, he paid a vifit in 1459 to Ifabella
daughter of John the I. king of Portugal and regent of
the duchy of Burgundy and Flanders. Having informed
her of his defigns, he procured a vefTel, in which he made
the difcovery of the illand of Fayal in 1460. He there
eftablilhed a colony of Flemings, whofe delcendants yet
exift in the Azores; which were, for fome time called the
Flemifh iflands. This circumftance is proved, not only
by the writings of cotemporary authors, but alio by the
manufcripts preferved in the records of Nurenburg, from
which the following is copied. " Martin Behem tender-
*' ed his fervices to the daughter of John king of Lufita-
" nia, who reigned after the death of Philip of Burgun-
*' dy firnamed the Good, and from her procured a iliip,
*' by means of which, having failed beyond all the then
*' knovvn limits of the weftern ocean, he was the firft who,
" in the memory of man, difcovered the ifland of Fayal,

" abound-

L'hiftoire litteraire de rAlIcmagne nous apprend que Mai-lhi BAem^ Beleini ou Bch'm cH ne
a Niirenberg, ville imperiale du cercle de Franconie, d'linc famille noble dont quelqucs branches
exiftent encore aujourdhui. Des fa plus tendre jeunefTc il fe livra a I'etude de lu geographie,
de raftronomie et de la navigation. Parvenu a un age mur il reflechit beaucoup fur la pof-
fibilite de Texiftence. des Antipodes et d'un continent occidental. Rempli de cette grande idee,
n fut trouver en 1459 Jlabelle fille de Jean I. roi de Portugal et regente du duche de Bour-
gogne et de Flandre. Apres lui avoir fait part de fes projets, il en obtint un vaifTcau avec lequel
il fit, en 1460, la decouverte de I'ifle de Fayal. II y etablit una colonie Flaniande, dont Ics de-
fcendans exiftent encore aujourdhui aux Azores, qu'on a appellees pendant quelquc terns les illes
Flaniandes. Cette circonftance eftprouvee, non feulement par les auteurs contemporains, mais
par des manufcrits conferrcs dans les archives de Nurenberg, dont voici la copie : " Martinug
*' Behemus, Joannis Lufitani^e regis filiie, qu<i: poft obitum Philippi Burgundi cognomcnto
•' boni, reruni dominabatur, operam fuam addixit, et ab ea navim in^petravit, qua occidentalis
" oceani haiSenus cognitos terminos et fines prjetervedlus jffr/wwj poft hominum niemoriani
" Fayaiem infulam, Fago arbore, quam LuCtani Foy vocant, ac unde appcllatio ei hajfit abun.

_ " dantcra

268 M E M O I R ON THE

*' abounding; with beachtrees, which the people of Lufita-
" nia call Faye; whenceit derived its name. After this
" he difcovered the neighbouring iflands, called by one
" general name the Azores, from the multitude of hawks
" which build their nefts there (for the Lufitanians ufe
" this term for hawks, and the French too ufe the word
" EJfos or EJores in their purfuit of this game) and left
" colonies ot the Flemifh on them; when they began to
" be called Flemifli iflands, &c." Although this record is
contrary to the generally received opinion, that the Azores
were difcovered by Gonfalva Vclho, a Portuguefe, yet its
authenticity cannot be doubted; it is confirmed by feveral
cotemporary writers, and efpecially by Wagenceil, one of
the moil; learned men of the laft century; who after hav-
ing travelled into Africa, and throughout all Europe, was
made doftor of laws at Orleans and chofen fellow of the
academy of Turin and Padua, although he was a Ger-
man by birth. The particulars are to be found in his
univerfal hiftory and geography. I have moreover re-
ceived, from the records of Nurenberg, a note written in
German on parchment, which contains the following fadls.
" Martin Behem, efquire, fon of iMr. Martin Behem of
" Schroperin, lived in the reign of John II. king of Portu-
*' gal, in an ifland which he difcovered, and called the ifland
*' of Fayal, one of the Azores, lying in the weftern ocean."
After having obtained from the regent Ifabella a grant
of Fayal, and refided there about twenty years, during

which

" dantem rcpcrit, nee minus poftca finitinias infiilas, uno nomine ab accipitrum ibi niilifican-
" tiuni multitudine /li^orcs liiihis (Lufilani cnim hoc vocabulo accipiircs eflVriint, et Galli quo-
** que in aiicupiis vcrbuni Effm et EJpires adiiibrnt) dctexit, ac flandrorum colonias in iis re-
" liquit, undc et inl'ula; ilia; Flandrix vocari c.xjitrunt, &c." Quoique ce monument foit con-
traire a I'opinion jieiicralement rc^tie que les Azores ont etc' decouvertes par un Portugais
nomme Gonzalve Vclho, on ne faurolt duuter dc fon authenticitc ; il fe troiivc eonfirmc par
plufjcurs auteurs contemporains, et iurtout par Wagenfeil, un des plus grands lax'ans du dernier
iicclc, qui aprcs avoir voyage par I'Afrique et par toufe I'Europe, a etc fait dodeur en droit a
Orleans, et acadcmicien a Turin et a Padoue quoiqu'il fut ne Allemand. On en trouve des
details dans fon liiftoire univerfcUe et dans fa geographic. On m'a d'ailleurs communique dans
les archives de Nurenberg une note en AlVmand ccritc fur parelicmin, contcnant les faita
fuivans : " M. Martin Beham, ecuyer, fi^ de M. Mr.rtin Beliam de Seoppcrin, a vecu fous le
•' regnc dftjean II. roi dc Portugal, dans unc iflc qu'il a trouvee lui memc, ct qu'il a appellee
'• ille dc Fayal ; elle eft fituec uux Acorcs dans I'o.-can occidental."
Aprcs avoir obtcnu de la rcgciitc IfabclJe la proprietc dc I'ayal, et aprts y avoir employe en-
viron

r^ISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 2(39

which time he was bufied In making frefh difcoveries iu
geography, by fmall excurfions, which need not be men-
tioned, Behem applied in 14B4 (which was eight years
tefore Columbus's expedition) to John II. king of Portu-
gal, to procure the means of undertaking a great expedi-
tion towards the foulh-weft. This prince gave him fome
fliips, with which he difcovered that part of America,
which is now called Brazil ; and he even failed to the
ftreights of Magellan, or to the country of fome favage
tribes, whom he called Patagonians, from the extremities
of their bodies being covered with a fkin more like a bear's
paws than human hands and feet. This fadl is proved by
authentic records, preferved in the archives of Nurenberg.
One of which in particular deferves attention " Martin
" Behem, traverfing the Atlantic ocean for feveral years,
" examined the American illands, and difcovered the
" ftrait which bears the name of Magellan, before either
" Chriftopher Columbus or Magellan failed thofe leas;
•' and even mathematically delineated on a geographical
" chart for the king of Lufitania, the fituation of the
" coaft, around every part of that famous and renowned
" ftrait." This aflertion is fupported by Behem's own
letters, written in German and preferved in the archives
of Nurenberg, in a book which contains the birth and il-
luftrious adions of the nobility of that city. Thefe let-

M m ters

viron 20 annees a faire des recherches ulterieures fur la geographic, dans de pctitcs excurfions
que ne meriteut par d'etre rapportees ici ; Behem s'adrelTa en 1484, c'eft a dire huit annees
avant I'expedition de Chriftophe Colomb, a Jean II. roi de Portugal, pour obtenir de lui les
nioyens d'entreprendrc une grandc expedition vers le fud-oueft. Ce prince Uii confia quelques
vaiffeaux avec lefquels il decouvrit la partie de I'Amerique connue fous le nom de Brefil, et
il etendit meme fa navigation jufqu'au detroit de Magellan, ou a la terre de quelques hordes
fauvages qu'il appella Patagons, puifque les extremitcs de leurs corps couvertcs de pcaux refiem-
bloient plut6t a des pattes d'ours qu'a des pieds et a des mains. Ce fait eft prouve' par des do-
cumens authentlques depofes dans les archives de Nurenberg. II y en a un furtout qui meritc
notre attention : *' Martlnus Behemus per oceanum Atlanticum hue illuc annos plufculos
*' oberrans, ante Chriftophonim Columbum AmericsE infulas, ante FernaiidumMagellanum,
** fretum quod ab eo cognomentum habet perveftigavit, undeetin tabula geop-afb/ca loii^e ptius
" giiarn Ma^dlanes de expcditione fua cogitalfet, omnem circa infigiie clariflimumqueTretum
** illud or.^ habitudinem Lufitanix regi radio delineavit." Cettc aflertion fe trouve appuycc
par des lettres de Behem ecrites en Allemand, et confervees dans les archives de Nurenberg,
(iam uu volume contenant I'origine et les aiSions eclaitantes despatriciensdecette ville. Ccs

• lettres

2-0 M E M O I R O N T H E

ters are dated in i486; that is, fix years before the expe^
dition of Cohimbus. This wonderful difcovery has not
efcapcd the notice of cotemporary writers. The follow-
ing paffage is extradled from the chronicle of Hartman
Schedl: "In the year 14851 John the fecond, king of
*' Portugal, a man of a magnanimous fpirit, furnlihed
" fome gallies with provifions, and fent them to the fouth-
*' v^'ard beyond the itraits of Gibraltar. He gave the com-
" mand of this fquadron to James Canus, a Portuguefe,
" and Martin Behem a German of Nurenberg in Upper
" GeriTiany, defcended of the family of Bonna, a man
" very well acquainted with the fituation of the globe,
" bleiled with a conftitution able to bear the fatigues of
" the fea, and who by actual experiments and long fiil-
" ing, had made himfelf perfectly mafter with regard to
" the longitudes and latitudes of Ptolemy, in the weft.
*' Thefe two, by the bounty of Heaven, coafting along the
" fouthern ocean, and having crofled the sequator, got
" into the other hemifphere, where facing to the eaft-
" ward, their fhadows projefted towards the fouth and
*' right-hand. Thus, by their induftry, they may be faid.
" to have opened to us another world hitherto unknown,
" and for many years attempted by none but the Genoefe,
" and by them in vain. Having finiflied this cruife in the
*' fpace of twenty-fix months, they returned to Portugal,
*' with the lofs of many of their feamen, by the violence
*' of the climate." ' This

Icttres font datccs dc 14'"'. c'l'l a •'ire fix aniiccs avant I'eicpcditlon de Cliriftoplic Colomb.
Quclqucs auteiirs conteniponiins n'oiit pas maiiquc de faire mcnlion d'linc dt-couverto atiili
ttoiiiiantc. Jc trouvc entrc autrts dans !a clironiquc df Hartman Schedl le paflagc fuivam :
•' Anno Domini 1485, Johannes fecundiis Portugallias icx, altilllmi vir cordis, certas galeas
•' omnibus ad viiftum neceirariis inftruxit, cafquc ultra colinnnas Hercidis ad meridiem mi6t.
•' Pr3;fcclt antcm hispatronos duos Jacobnm Canum Portugallcnfem et Maninunt Behcmum,
•' hominem Gcrmanuni ex Nurimbcrga ('u]>eriorisGcrmaniA; dc Honna familia datum, homincm
" inquam in cognofcendo iitu terrx peritiflimum, marifque patientifiiniuni, qui Ptoloraa:i lon-
" pkudincs ct latitudines in occidcntc ad unguem experlmcnto lonn.xvaque navigatioiie novit.
** Hi duo, bono Deorum aufpicio marc mcriodionale fuleantt's a Tittore non louge evagantes
" fupcnito circulo .-Equinoifliali in altcrum orbcm excepti funt, ubi iplis ftantibus orientem
*' verfns umbra ad meridiem ct dcxteram projicicbatur. Aperucre y^itUT fua inJuJlria alium
" crlrm hciilmtis mill i/tcoirniltim,ct multisannisa nullis (\mm a yam rnjiiiij th.-lftiiJlratcDtatum;
" peraiJla autem luijufmodi navigatioiie viciliiiHO fcxlu racofc revcrfi funt in "Portugalliam,
" pluribus ob iicria impaticntiam mortuis."

Cctjui

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 271

This paffage becomes more interefting, from being
quoted in a book on the ftate of Europe during the reign
of the emperor Frederick III. by the learned hiftorian
:Sneas Sylvius, afterwards pope Pius II. This hiftorian
died before the difcoveries of Behem were made, but the
publifliers of his works, thought the paffage in Hartman
Schedl fo important, that they inferted it in the hiftory.
We alfo find the following particulars, in the remarks
made by Petrus Matceus, on the canon law, two years be-
fore the expedition of Columbus > " The firft chriftian
" voyages to the newly difcovered iflands became fre-
" quent, under the reign of Henry fon of John king of
*' Lufitania. After his death, Alphonfus the fifth profecut-
" ed the defign, and John who fucceeded him followed
" the plan of Alphonfus by the affiftance of Martin Boehm,
" a very experienced navigator, fo that, in a fhort time,
" the name of Lufitania become famous over the whole
" world." Cellarius, one of the moft learned men of his
age, fays exprefsly : " Boehm did not think it enough to
" furvey the ifland of Fayal, which he firft difcovered, or
*' the other adjacent iflands which the Lufitanians call
** Azores, and ive after the example of Babul's companions^
♦' call Flemifh iflands; but advanced ftill farther and far-
" ther fouth, until he arrived at the remoteft ftrait, be-
*' yond which, Ferdinand Magellan, following his tradt,
■" afterwards failed and called it after his own name."

M m 2 All

Ce qui rend ce paffage plus intereflant encore, c'efl: qu'il eft cite dans I'ouvrage du favant liif-
torien JEmns Sylvius, depuis pape fous le nom de Pie II. i'ur I'e'tat de I'Europe du terns de
I'empereur Frederic III. Get hiftorien eft mort avant les dc-couvcrtes de Bchem, mais les
copiftes de I'ouvrage d'jEneas Sylvius ont trouve le paflage de Hartman Schedl fi intereflant
qu'ils Tent inferc dans le corps de cette hiftoire. Nous trouvons d'aiUcurs dans les notes que
Petrus Mat.xi a faites fur le droit canon, deux ans avant I'expedition de Colonib, les details
fuivans: " Prinise navigationos chriftiana: ad novas inAilas elucefcere csperunt iub Henrico
" Johannis Lufitania; regis filio, &c. illo niortuo Alphonfus V. caepta profecutus eft ; Al-
*' phonfum Johannes imitatus opera Miiriim Bohemi, honiinis in curfu navium peritifiimi, iit
** brevi tempore nihil celebrius "per tctum orbem audiretur ipfo Lufitani.-c nomine." Cel-
larius, un des plus grands favanl de fon fiecle, dit exprelTement : " Behaimius non modo
'* Fagalem infulam, quam primus invenit, aut alias circumjctftas quas Azores l.ufitani, nos
" Flandrias a Behaimi comilibus, nominant, perluftrandas libi cenfuit, verum etiam in auftrum
*' magis et magis progreffus ufque ad ultimum fretum, quod Ferdinaodus Magellanus hujus
■«' du<Sum fecutus, pcrtranfiit et de fuo id nomine appellavit."

Toutes

272 M E M O I R ON THE

All thefe quotations, which cannot be thought tedious,
fince they ferve to prove a fadl almoft unknown, feem to
demonftrate, that the firft difcovery of America is due to
the Portuguele, and not to the Spaniards; and that the
chief merit belongs to a German aftronomer. The expe-
dition of Ferdinand Magellan, which did not take place
before the year 15 19, arofe from the following fortunate
circumftance. This perfon, being in the apartment of the
king of Portugal, faw there a chart of the coaft of Ameri-
ca, drawn by Behem, and at once conceived the bold pro-
iecl of following the rteps of this great navigator. Jerome
Eenzon, who publiflied a defcription of America in 1550,
fpeaks of this chart, a copy of which, fent by Behem him-
felf, is preferved in the archives of Nurenberg. The cele-
brated aftronomer Riccioli, though an Italian, yet does not
fcem willing to give his countryman the honor of this ini-
portant difcovery. In his geography reformed, book III.
page 90, he fays: " Chriftopher Columbus never thought
" of an expedition to the Weft Indies, until fome time
" before, while in the iiland of Madeira, where amufing
*' himfelf in forming and delineating geographical charts,
" he obtained information from Martin Boehm, or as the
" Spaniards fay, from Alphonfus Sanchez de Huelva, a
" pilot, who by meer chance had fallen in with the ifland
" afterwards called Dominica." And in another place,
*' let Boehm and Columbus have each their praife, they

Toutes ces citations qui ne fuuroient hrc trop longucs, parccqii'clles fervent ;i i>rouvcr un
fait jircfqu' inconni^, paroiffcnt demontrcr que la premiere decoiivcrte de I'y^nierique ell due
aux Portup;ai», e' non aux lifpaKio's; et que c'ell un allrononie Alleniand qui ttoit a Icur
the. L'cxpcdition de I'crdinand Magellan, qui u'a eu lieu qu'en 1519, ell due a un hcu-
reux liazard. Ce navigatcur fc trouvant dans rappartemeiit du roi de Portupal, y vit tine carte
dcs cotes de I'Amerique trace'e par Beluin, ct con9Ut des lors le projet hardi de fuiwc la
route de ce j^rand navigateur. Jerome Benzon, qui a donnee ^L 15JO, unc defcription de
I'Anicrique, fait hiention de cctte carte, flont on a conrerv(^||^K)pic dans Ics archives dc
Nurenber)^, 011 Behem I'avoit envoyce lui-ni6nie ; le eol^M^ff^^Bie Riccioli, qui ctoit lui-
mfme Italien, ne paroit pascependant voulnir attribuer a^^BnigEtriote cctte importante de-
couvertc ; il dit dans fa gcoc;raphic refornice, livre 3. p. yoflp* GtaHophorus Columbus, cum
" prius iii Madera infula, ubi conliciendis et delineandis eha*^c6»aphicis vacabat, inJicic la-
•* ii!o a Atiirtino liuheit:i^ aut ut Htff'ani diSUmtt ah Alphoiif^S;uic|(pz dfr Hticlva, nauclero
" qui forte incidcrat in inftdam, poftea Dominkam dii5lam,xopitavit de navit;,:tioue in Indiani
" occidcntalcm." £t dans un autre cndroit, " Sit fua l|^s Bubcmo, lit Aia laus Coluinbo,

.\

V

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 273

" were both excellent navigators; but Columbus would
" never have thought of his expedition to America, had
" not Boehm gone there before him. His name is not fo
" much celebrated as that of Columbus, Americus or Ma-
" gellan, although he is fuperior to them all."

But the moft pofitive proof of the great fervices ren-
dered to the crown of Portugal by Behem, is the recom-
pencebeftowed onhim by king John, who in 1485 knight-
ed him in the moft folemn manner, in the prefence of all
his court. I have before me a German paper extracted
from the archives of Nurenberg to the following pur-
pofe. " In the year 1485, on the i8th of February, in
" Portugal, in the city of Allafavas, and in the church of
" St. Salvador, after the mals, Martin Behem of Nurenberg,
" was made a knight by the hands of the moft puiifant
*' lord, John the fecond king of Portugal, Algarve, Afri-
" ca and Guinea; and his chief fquire was the king him-
" felf, who put the fword in his belt; and the dukeof Begia
" was his fecond fquire, who put on his right fpur; and
" his third fquire was count Chriftopher de Mela, the
" king's coufm, who put on his left fpur; and his fourth
" fquire was count Martini Marbarinis who put on his
" iron helmet; and the king himfelf gave him the blow
" on the fhoulder, which was done in the prefence of all
" the princes, lords and knights of the kingdom : and he

" efpoufed

" ambo fiienint mag-ni navarchi, fed nunquam de fua in Americam expcditione cogitaffet
" Columbus nifi Boh;niuin habuiffet pntdcccirorem. Hujus non-.en non tantopcre celebra-
" tur qu; nto Cf.lumbi, Americi et Magcllanl, quamvls histribus fit prsferendus."

Mais cc qui prouve plus que toute autre cliofe les grands fervices rendus par Behem a la
coiironne lie Portugal, c'eft la reconnoiflance du roi Jean, qui eu 1485, le fit lui-meme che-
valier, de la mar.ierc la plus folemnelle, et en prefence dc toute fa cour. J'ai feus mes yeux
un document AUcniand, tire des archives de Nurenberg, de latenur fuivante : " En 1485,
" le iS Fevrier, en Portuo-al dans la viUe d'AlIafavas, et dans I'eglife de Santo Salvador,
" apres la mal!;, a cte fait chevalier Martinp Behem, de Nurenberg, par la main du tres
" p'jiffant f.igr.v'ur roi?Jean fecond de Portugal,^ roi d'Algarve, roi_ d'Afrique et roi de
" Guinee ; et fon premier ecuyer etoit le roi lui-meme, qui mit fon epee a fon ceintnron ; et
" le due de Eegia etoit fon fecond ecuyer qui lui mit fon eperon droit ; et fon troifieme
" ecuyer etoit le comte Chriffephe de Mela coufin du roi, qui lui mit fon e'pcron gauche ; et
" fon quatricme ecuyer etoit le comte Martini Marbarinis, qui lui mit fon cafque de fer; et
" le roi lui donna lui-meme im coup fur I'tpaulc ; ce qui fe pafia en prefence de tous les princes
" et de tous les leigneurs et chevaliers du royaume ; et il a efppufe la fiUe d'un grand feigneur

274 MEMOIR ON the

*' efpoufed the daughter of a great lord, in confideratlon
" of the important fervices he had performed, and he was
" made governor of the ifland of Fayal." Theie marks
of diftiniSion conferred on a ftranger, could not be meant
as a recompence for the difcovery of the Azores, which was
made 20 years before; but as a reward for the difcovery of
Congo, from whence the chevalier Behem had brought gold
and different kinds of precious wares. This difcovery made
much greater imprefiion than that of a weftern world, made
at the fame time, but it neither increafed the wealth of the
royal treafiiry, nor fatisfied the avarice of the merchants.

In 1492 the chevalier Behem, crowned with honors
and riches, undertook a journey to Nurenberg, to"vifit his
native country and his family. He there made a ter-
reftrial globe, which is looked on as a mafter-piece for
that time, and which is ftill preferved in the library of
that city. The tradt of his difcoveries may there be feen
under the name of weftern lands, and from their fituation
it cannot be doubted, that they are the preient coafts of
Brazil and the environs of the ftraits of Magellan. This
globe was made in the fame year that Columbus fat out
on his expedition, from whence it is not poffible that
Behem could have profited by the works of this naviga-
tor, who befides, went a much more northerly courfe.

After having performed feveral other intereft;ing voy-
ages, the chevelier Behem died at Lifbon in July 1506,

regretted

" en confideratlon dcs fervices qu'il a rendus, et il a etc fuit gouverneur dc rifle de Fayal."
Cctte grande diftindllon accordee .'i un c'tran;?er, nc pouvoit ctrc ta rccompcnfc de la ilccouvcrte
dcs Azores, qui avoit cu lieu pi'js dc 20 ans auparavant ; mais el!e etoii Ic pris dc la decouvertc
du Congo, d'ou le chevalier Bi.hem avoit apporte dc I'or et plufieurs inarehandifcs preeieufes.
Cette decouvertc fit heaucoup plus d'iniprelfion que ccUe d'unc terre occidcntalc faite dans le
mcme terns, mais qui n'offroit aucun henefirc a\i trefor royal ni a la cupidite dcs marchands.

En 1491, le chevalier Behem, comble d'honneur et de richeffes, entreprit un voyage a Nu-
renberg, pour revoir fa patrie et fa faniille. II y compofa un globe terreflre, qui eft regarde
comme un chef d'ocuvre de fon terns, et qui eft encore confcrvc dans la bibiliotheque dc ccttc
villc. On y voit la trace de fes dccouvertes fous le nom dc terres occidentales, et par Icur fi-
tuation on nc pcut difcoiivenir qu'cllcs ne Ibient Ics cotes a<5tuellcs du Brefil et Ics environs du
dt'troit de Magellan. Cc globe eft fait dans la ni/'nie annee on Colonib a conimcnje fon
expedition ; il eft done impollible que Behem ait profite du travail dc cc navigatcur, qui d'ail-
Icurs a dirigc fa courfe beaueoup plus au nnrd.

AprJ» avoir achcvc plufieurs autrcs voyages intercftans, le chevalier Behem mourut .a I.if-

bonnc

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. ij^'

regretted by every body, but leaving behind him no other
work than the globe w^hich we have juft been fpeaking of.
It is made from the writings of Ptolemy, Pliny, Strabo,
and efpecially from the account of Mark Paul the Vene-
tian, a celebrated traveller of the Xlllth century, and of
John Mandeville, an Englifhman, who, about the middle
of the XiVth century, publiflied an account of a journey
of 33 years in Africa and Afia. He has alfo added the
important difcoveries made by himfelf on the coafts of
Africa and America.

From thefe circumftantial accounts, little known to mo-
dern writers, we muft conclude that Martin Behenira, of
whom GarcilaiTo makes mention, is the fame chevalier
Behem, upon being the place of whofe birth Nurenberg
prides itfelf fo much. It is probable, that as foon as he
was knighted in Portugal, he thought it neceffary to give
a Portuguefe termination to his name, to make it more
fonorous and more conformable to the idiom of the country.
GarcilaiTo, deceived by this refemblance of found, has made
him a Spaniard, in order to deprive Chriftopher Colum-
bus of the honor of having procured to his country fo great
an advantage. And what ought to confirm us in this
opinion is, that we neither find in Mariana nor any other
Spanifli hiftorian, the name of this Martin Behemira, who
was certainly a man of too much importance not to have
had a diftinguilTied place in hiflory. Befides, the Spanifh

pride

bonne en Juillct 1506, generalement regrettc, mais ne laifTant a la pofterite d'autre ouvrage
que le gloLe dont nous vtriions de parler. II eft fait d'apres ies ecrits de Ptolomce, de Pline,
de ytrabon, et furtout d'apres Ies relations du Venitien Marc Paul, voyageur celebre du XIII
fiecic, et de Jean Mandeville, Anglois, qui ai milieu du XIV fiecle a public Ies details d'un
voyage de 3,^ annees en Afrique et en Afie ; il y a ajoute, Ies grandes decouvertes qu'il a
faites lui-nicme fus Ies cotes d' Afrique et d'Amcrique.

D'apres ces details peu connus des ecrivains nxodernes, nous devons conclure que Afiirtin
Sck-ntr.i, dont Garciliflb fait mention, eft ce meme chevalier Behem que la ville de Nurenberg
fe glorifie d'avoir vu naitre dans fes muraillcs. II eft vraifemblable qu'au moment ou il fut
cree chevalier en Portugal, il a cru devoir donner une terminaifon Portugaife a fon nom,
pour le rcndre plus fonore et plus conforme a I'idiome du pays. GarcilaiTo trompc par cette
refemblance de fon, en a fait un Efpagnol pour enlever a Chriftophe Colomb la gloire d'avoir
procure a fa metropolc un aulfi graiide acquifition. Ce qui doit nous confirmer dans cette
opinion, c'cir que nous ne trouvons ni dans Mariana ni dans aucun autre hiftorien Efpagnol
lo uoai de ce iVLirt'm JSch.mira qui auroit d\i etre un homme trop important pcur ne pas oc-

cupfr

276

M E M O I R ON THE

pride would have been flattered in giving to a native thofc
laurels with which it crowned Chriitopher Columbus.

It is then very unlikely, that this navigator was treated
as an enthufiaft, when he offered to the court of Portugal
to make difcoveries in the weft. The learch after unkno.vn
countries was at that time the reigning paffion of this court;
and even if the chevalier Behem had not offered the intereft-
ing ideas which he had procured, the novelty of the pro-
jed had undoubtedly engaged king John to give into the
views of Columbus; but it appears that this prince declin-
ed it, becaufe all his thoughts were turned at that time to
the coaft of Africa, and the new paffage to the Indies,
from whence he promifed himfelf great riches ; whilft the
fouthern coaft of Brazil and the territories of the Patago-
nians, feen by Behem, offered to him only barren lands,
inhabited by unconquerable fava^^es. The refufal of John
II. very far from weakening the teftimony of Behem's dif-
coveries, is then rather a proof of the knowledge, which
this politic prince had already procured, of the exiftence
of a new continent; and it was only in 1501, that is to
fay three years after the voyage of Vafco de Gama to the
Indies, that Emanuel thought proper to take advantage of
the difcoveries of Behem, by fending Albarez Cabral to
Brazil ; a meafure which was perhaps rather owing to the
jealoufy which has always exifted between Portugal and

Spairi}

cupcr une place dlfting;uce dans rhiftoirc. La ficrte Kfpagnole aurolt tl'ailleurs etc flattce
d'accordcr a un national Ics lauriers dont elle a couronnc CUiriUnphc Colonib.

11 eft done pen vraifcmblable que ce navigatcur ait ete traite ctmime un extravagant quand
il ofTrit a la cour dc Portugal dc faire dcs decouvcrtes dans Toucft. La recherche dcs pays
inconnus ctoit alors la paffion doniinantc de cctte cour, et quand nifnie le clicvajier Behem
n'auroit pas donnc les notions iniportantes qu'il s'etoit jirocurccs, la nouveaute du projct cut
indubitablcment cngapc le roi Jean a fe prctcr aux vucs dc Colomb ; mr.is il pai^^it que cc
prince s'y cd refufe, puifque toutts fcs vucs portoicnt alors fur la cote d'Afriquc et le nouveaii
jiafTape dans I'lndc, d'oii il fe promettoit dc tircr de grandes richeflcs, tandifqtie les cotej
meiidionalcs du Brcfil et la terie dcs Patagons, vucs pur Behem, nc lui offroicut que de»
tcrres ftcriles, habitecs par dcs fauvages indotnptables. Lc refiis dc Jean II. bicn loin d'af-
foiblir revidcncc des decouvcrtes dc Behem, eft done plutot unc prcirve ilcs connoiflances
que ce prince habile s'ctoit deja procurces fur rexlftence d'lm nouveau continent ; ct cc n'cft
qu'en 1501, c'eft a dire troisans antes rcxpedition dc Vafco de Garia dans I'lndc, qu'Ema-
nucl jugea a propos dc tircr parti nes decouvcrtes de Behem, en envoyant au Brefd Albarez
Cabral ; mcfurc qui ctoit pcuc 6trc plutdt unc fuitc de ccttc jalouilc qui a toujours exilic entre

lc

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 277

Spain, than to a defire of making advantageous eftablifh-
ments, for which the Indies were much more proper than
this part of America.

If any doubts yet remain refpe£ling the important dif-
covery made by the chevalier Behem, it is particularly
the authority of Dr. Robertfon, which attacks the tefti-
mony of the different authors we have tranfcribed. This
learned writer treats the hiftory of Behem as a fidlon of
fome German authors, who had an inclination to attri-
bute to one of their countrymen, a difcovery, which has
produced fo great a revolution in the commerce of Europe.
But he acknowledges neverthelefs, with Herrera, that Be-
hem had fettled at the ifland of Fayal, that he was the
intimate friend of Chriftopher Columbus, and that Ma-
gellan had a globe made by Behem, by the help of which
he undertook his voyage to the South fea; a circumftance
which proves much in favor of our hypothefis. He re-
lates alfo, that in 1492, this aftronomer paid a vifit to his
family at Nurenberg, and left there a map drawn by him-
felf, which Dr. Forfter procured him a copy of, and
■which, in his opinion, partakes of the imperfediion of the
cofmographical knowledge of the fifteenth century ; that
he found in it, indeed, under the name of the ifland of St.
Brandon, land which appears to be the prefent coaft of
Guiana, and lies in the latitude of cape Verd, but that
there is reafon to believe, that this fabulous ifland, which
N n is

'le Portugal et I'Efpagne, que du defir de faire des etabliiTemens avantageux aux quels Tlndc
•etoit beaucoup plus propre que cette partle de rAmerique.

S'il nous eft permis de douter encore de Timportante decouverte faite par le chevalier Be-
liem, c'cft furtout Tautoritd du Dr. Robertfon, qui doit porter atteinte aux temoignages des
'diiferens auteurs que nous avons tranfcrits. Ce favant ccrivain traite Thifloire de Behem
comme une fiftion de quelques auteurs Allemans, qui defiroient d'attribuer a un de leurs coni-
patriotes une decouverte qui a produit une fi grande revolution dans le commerce de TEurope.
Mais il avoue cependant, d'apres Herera, que Behem ctoit etabli a Tifle de Fayal, qu'il etoit
Vami intime de Chrijlopbe Colombo et queMagellan avoiteu un globe compofe par Behem, d'apres
lequel il avoit entrepris fon cx^iedition dans la mer du Sud ; circonftance qui prouve beaucoup
en faveur de notre hypothefe. Il rapporte de plus qu'en 1492, cet aftronome a ete voir la
famille a Nurenberg, et qu'il y a laifTe une carte deflinee par lui-meme ; que le Dr. Forfter
lui a procure une copie de cette carte, qui fuivant lui fe reffent de Timperfediion des connoii-
fances cofmographiques du XV fiecle ; qu'il y a trouve a la verite fous le noni de I'ifle de St.
Brandon, une terre qui paroit ctre la cotea<^ueUe de la Guyane, et (jui eft placee dans la la-
titude

27S MEMOIR" ON THE

is found in many ancient maps, merits no more attentioft^
than the childilh legend of St. Brandon hlmfelf Although
Dr. Robertfon does not appear difpofed to grant to Behem
the honor of having difcovered the new continent, we find
the means of refuting him in his own hiftory. He allows
that Behem was very intimate with Chriltopher Columbus,
that he was the greateft geographer of his time, and fcho-
lar of the celebrated John Muller or Regiomontanus ; that
he had difcovered, in 14B3, the kingdom of Congo upon
the coaft of Africa ; that he made a globe, w^iich Magel-
lan made ufe of; that he drew a map at Nurenberg con-
taining the particulars of his difcoveries, and that he
placed in this chart land which is found to be in the latir
tude of Guiana. Dr. Robertfon afferts, without any proof,
that this land was but a fabulous ifland; we may fuppofe,
upon the fame foundation, that the chevalier Behem, en-
gaged in an expedition to the kingdom of Congo, was
driven by the winds to Fernambouc, and from thence, by
the currents, very common in thole latitudes, towards the
coaft of Guiana ; and that he took for an ifland the firft
land which he difcovered. The courfe which Chriftopher
CoUunbus afterwards fleered, makes this fuppofition ftill
more probable ; for if he knew only of the coaft of Brazil,
which they believe to have been difcovered by Behem, he
would have laid his courfe rather to the fouth-weft. The

expeditiou .

titudc (111 cap Vcrd; mais qu'il y 3 lieu dc croirc, que cctte ifle fabuleufe, qui fe trouve fur plu- ■
ficurs ancicimcs cartes, ne mcritc pas plus d'attcntion que la legcndc puerile de St. Brandon
lui-m^-me. Quoique le Dr. Robertfon ne paroiite pas difpofc d'accordcr k Behem la gloiife
d'avoir dccouvert le nouvcau continent, nous trouvons dans fon hiftoirc nieme des armcs pour
1c combattre. II convient que Beiiem ctoit trcs lie avec Chriftophc ■Colomb, qu'il etoit ]c
plus grand geographe de fon terns, ct difciple du celebre Jean MuUcr ou Regiomontanus ;
qu'il a decouvert en 1483, le royaume de Congo, fur la cote d'Afrique; qu'il a compofc un
plobc dont s'eft fervi Magellan ; qu'il a delfinc a Nurenberg, une carte contcnant des details
fur fes decouveitcs, et qu'il a marque fur cette carte une tcrre qui fe trouve dans la latitude
dc la Guyane a*5luelle. L.e docleur Robertfon admet fans aucune preuvc, que cette terrc
n'etoit qu'unc ifle fabuleufe ; nous pouvons fuppofer avec autant dc fondement, que le cheva-
lier Behem faifant fon expedition dans le royaume de Congo, ait cte poufle par les vents vers
Fernambouc, ct de l.i par des courans trcs communs dans ces parages vers les cotes de la
Guyane, ct qu'il ait pris pour ime ifle la premiere terre qui s'eft olferte a fes ycux. l.a route
qn'a pris dans la fuite C'hriftophc Colomb rend cette fuppofition encore plus vraifemblabic,
car s'il n'avoit eu connninaucc que des cotes du Brefd, que Ton croit avoir etc rcconnues par
Behem, il auroit dirige fa navigation plut6t vers Je fud-oucft. L'expcditiou au Congo a cu

Ucu

DIS-COVERY OP AMERICA. 279

^expedition to Congo took place in 1483 ; it is then pof-
fible, that, at his return, Behem propofed a voyage to the
eoafts of Brazil and Patagonia, and that he requefted the
affiftance of his fovereign, which we have mentioned
above. It is certain, that we cannot have too much de-
ference for the opinion of fo eminent a writer as Robert-
fon, but this learned man not having it in his power to
confult the German pieces in the original, which we have
quoted, we may be allowed to form a different opinion
without being too prefumptuous.

But fliould it be afked, why we take from Chriftopher
Columbus the reputation which all Europe has to this day
allowed him? Why we are fearching in the archives of
an imperial city, for the caufes of an event which took
place in the moft weftern extremity of Europe ? Why the
enemies of Chriftopher Columbus, who were numerous,
did not take advantage of the pretended chevr. Behem,
to leflen his confequence at the Spanifh court ? Why Por-
tugal, jealous of the difcovery of the new world, had not
protefted againft the affertions of the Spaniards? Why
Behem, who died only in 1506, had not left to pofterity
any writing to confirm to himfelf fo important a difco-
very ?

To anfwer all thefe queftions, I ftiall fubmit to the im-
partial reader, the following remarks :

N n 2 I. Before

lieu en I483, il eft done poffible qu'a fon retour Behem ait projette une expedition vers les
cotes du BreCi et des Patagons, et qu'il ait demande a fon fouverain les fecoiirs dont nous
avous purle plus haut. II eft fur qu'on ne fauroit avoir trop de deference pour I'opinion d'un
ccrivain tel que Robertfon, mais ce favant n'ayant pu avoir connoifiance des pieces AUe-
mandes originales que nous avous citees, nous pouvons avoir un avis different du fien fans ?
nous rendrc coupable de prefomption.

Mais, dira-ton, pourquoi enlever a Chriftophe Colomb une gloire que toute I'Europe lui a
accordee jufqu'ici ? Pourquoi chercher dans les archives d'une ville imperiale les caufes d'un
evenement qui a eu lieu a I'extremitc la plus occidentale de I'Europe ? Pourquoi les ennemis
de Chriftophe Colomb, qui etoient en grand nombre, n'ont 'ils pas tire parti des pretenducs
decouvertcs du Chevalier Behem pour diminuer fon importance a la cour d'Efpagne ? Pour-
quoi le Portugal, jaloux de la decouverte du nouveau monde, n'at'il pas protefte contre les
.aftertions des Efpagnols ? Pourquoi Behem qui n'cft mort qu'cn 1506, n'at'il pas laiflc lui
jneme a la pofterite un ecrit pour s'attribuer une decouverte aufti importante ?

Pour repondre a toutes ces queftions je foumcttrai au letSeur impartial Ics remarques
Xuivantes:
, - I. Avant

28o MEMOIRONTH£

1. Before Columbus, the great merit of a navigator
confifted rather in conceiving the poffibility of the exift-
ence of a new continent, than in fearching for lands in a
region where he was fure to find them. If it is then cer-
tain that Behem had conceived this bold idea before Co-
lumbus, the fame of the latter muft be confiderably di-
minilhed.

2. The hiftorical proofs, which we have given above,
leaving us no doubt of the fa£l, we have only to explain
the moral caufes of the filence of the Spanifli and Portu-
guefe authors, of the enemies of Columbus, and of Behem
himfelf.

3. It is well known, that previous to the reign of
Charles V. there was little communication between the
learned men of different nations. Writers were fcarce,
excepting fome monks who have related, well or ill,
the events which came to their knowledge, in chronicles
which are no longer read; or they had but little idea of
what paffed in foreign countries. Gazettes and journals
were unknown, and the learned obliged to travel to in-
form themfelves of the progrefs of their neighbours. Ita-
ly was the center of the arts and what are called fcience
at that time. The frequent journies of the German em-
perors to Rome gave them an opportunity of knowing
perfons of merit, and of placing them in the different uni-
verfities of the empire, it is to this circumftance that we

ought

T. Avant Colomb le grand merite d'un navigateur conCftoit plut6t a concevoir la pofTibilitc
«lc rcxiftencc d'un nouvcau continent, qu'a cherchcr dcs tcrrcs dans unc region oil il ctoit fur
d'en trouver. S'il eft done certain que Behem a cu cette idee bardie avant Colomb, la gloire
dc ce dernier en eft finguHcrcment dimlnuce.

2. Toutcs Ics prcuvci hiftoriques que nous avous donncs ci defTus ne nous lailTant aucun
doute fur le ftiit, il s'agit feulement d'cxpliquer les caufes morales du filcncc dcs autcur»
Efpagnols et Portugais, des cnncmis de Colomb, ct de Behem lui-mfme.

3. On fait qu'avant Charles quint il y avoit trcs peu de communication cntre les favans
des difFerentes nations. I.es ecrivainyctoient fort rares, a IVsception de quelqucs moines qui
oni rapportc bicn ou mal les evenemcns qui etoient a leur portce dans dcs chroniqucs qu'on
ne lit plus, ou n'avoit que peu de notions fur ce qui fe palToit en pays etranger ; les gazettes,
les journaux ctoint inconnus, ct les favans etoient obligt's de voyager pour voir de leurs pro-
pres yeux les progres de leurs voifins. L'ltalie etoit le centre des arts et de cc qu'on appelloit
fcience dans ce tems-Ia. Les frequens voyages des empereurs d'AlIcmagne a Rome leur don-
na la facilitc dc connoitrc des gens de merite, ct de les placer dans )cs diffcrculcs univcrfitts

4t

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 2&r

ought to attribute the great progrefs which the Germans
made, particularly in mathematics, from the fourteenth to
the fixteenth century; during which time they had the
bed geographers, the beft hiftorians, and the moft en-
lightened politicians. They were particularly attentive to
what pafled in Europe, and the multiplied connedions of
different princes with foreign powers, affifted them great-
ly in colle£ling in their archives the original pieces of the
moft important events of Europe. It is to this fpirit of
criticifm and enquiry, that we are indebted for the refor-
mation of Luther, and we cannot deny, that particularly
in the fifteenth century, there was more hiftorical and
political knowledge in Germany than in all the reft of
Europe, Italy excepted. It is not then aftoniftiing, that
we fl:iould find, in the archives of one of the moft ancient
imperial cities, the particulars of an expedition, planned
upon the banks of the Tagus by a German, a man of
great repute in his own country, and whofe every a£tion
became very interefting.

4. It was different in Portugal, where the whole nati-
on, except the king, was plunged in the moft profound
ignorance. Every body was either fhopkeeper, failor or
foldier; and if this nation has made the moft important
difcoveries, we muft afcribe them rather to avarice than to
a defire of knowledge. They were fatisfied with fcrap-

ing

de Tempire, C'eft a cette circonftance que Ton doit attribuer les grands progres que les Al-
lemans ont faJts furtout dans les mathematiques, depuis le XIV. jufqu'au XVI. Cede ; ils
avoient les raeilleurs geographcs, les meilleurs hiftoriens et les politiques les plus eclaires.
lis etoient attentlfs fur tout ce qui fe palToit en Europe, et les Uaifons multipliees des dlfFc-
rens princes avec les puifTances ctrangcres, leur donnoient une grande facilite de raiTembler,
dans leurs archives, les pieces originales des evenemens les plus importans de I'Europe. C'efl
a cet efprit de critique et de recherche qu'eft due en grande partie la reformation de Luther,
et on ne peut fe diffimuler, que, furtout dansle XV. fieclc, il n'y ait eu plus de connoiflances
hifloriques et politiques en Allemagne que dans tout le refte de I'Europe, a I'exception de
ritalie. Il n'eft done pas etonnant que nous trouvions dans les archives d'une des plus anci-
enncs viUcs imperiales des details fur une expedition, projett^ fur les bords du Tage par uu
AUemand, par un homme tres confidere dans fon pays, et dont par confequent toutes les de-
marches devenoient intereffantes.
. 4. II n'en c-oit pas de meme du Portugal, oil toute la nation a I'exception du fouverain,
etoit plongee dans la plus profonde ignorance. Tout Ic monde y ctoit ou marchand, ou ma-
telot, ou fcldat ; et fi ce peuple a fait les decouvertes les plus importantes, il faut en chercher le
motif dans fa cupidite, et non dans fon dciir de s'inilruire. 11 fe contenta d'amaffer de l*or

dauft

t282. MEMOIR ON THE

ing together gold in every quarter of the known world,
whilft the German and the ItaHan took up the pen, to
tranfmit to pofterity the remembrance of their riches and
cruelties. The Spaniards were not much more informed
before Charles V. introduced at Madrid the learned men
of Flanders and Germany. It is then very pofTible, that
the chevr. Behem made very interefting difcoveries in
geography, in 1485, without the public's being acquaint-
ed with them. If he had brought back from his expedi-
tion, gold or diamonds, the noife would have been fpread
in a few weeks; but fmaple geographical knowledge was
not of a nature to intereft men of this turn of mind.

5. The long ftay which Chriftopher Columbus made
at Madeira, makes his interview with Behem more than
probable. It is impoffible that he fhould have negledted
feeing a man fo interefting, and who could give him every
kind of information, for the execution of the plan which
he had formed. The mariners who accompanied the
chevr. Behem, might alfo have fpread reports at Madeira
and the Azores, concerning the difcovery which they had
been witnefles of. What ought to confirm us in this, is,
that Mariana fays himfelf (book 26. chap. III.) that a cer-
tarn veflel going to Africa, was thrown by a gale of wind
upon certain unknown lands, and that the failors at their
return to Madeira had communicated to Chriftopher Co-
lumbus

dans toutcs les parties du monde connu, tandifquc rAIlcmand ct I'ltalien tcnoicnt la plume
pour tranfmettre a la poftcritc le foiivcnir de fcs richcflcs et de fes cruautes. l.es Kfpag'iiols
n't-tolcnt par bcaucoup plus inrtruits, avant que Charlcsquiiit cut anieitc a Madrid dcs favans
dc Flaiidres et d'Allcmaenc. II eft done trcs poflible que le chevalier Behem ait fait en
1485, des dccouvertes tres intereflantcs pour la geographic, lans que le public en ait etc in-
ftruit. S*il eutrapportc de fon expedition de Tor ou des diamans, ic bruit s'en feroit repandu
en pcu dc femaincs, mais de fimples notions gcographiques n'ctoient pas de nature a interef-
fer des hommes Jc cette trenipc.

5. Le long feiour qu'a fait Chriftophc Colomb a ATaderc, rend fon entrcvuc avcc Behem
plus que vraifcniblablc. II eft inipofliblc qu'il ait neglige de voir un homme aulFi intcrelTant,
ct qui pouvoit lui donncr toutes fprtes dc confcils fur Texccution du plan qu'il avoit forme.
LiCs marins qui ont accompagnc le chevalier Behem pouvoient d'ailleurs repandre a Maderc,
et aux Azores, des bruits concemant les dccouvertes dont ils avoicnt c'te' te-moins. Cc qui
doit nous confirmcr dans cette opinion, c'eft que 71f.:r;.j/uj dit lui-menie (li\Tc j6. chap. 3.)
qu'un certain batimcnt allant en Afriquc, avoit ^tc jettc par un coup dc vent fur de ccrtainet
tcrics ijiconnucs ; et que les matelots aprcs leur rctour a Madcre, avoicnt communique a

Chrittopht

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 283

lumbiis the circumilances of their voyage. All authors a8;ree
that this learned man had fome information refpeding
the wertern fliores, but they fpeak in a very vague man-
ner. The expedition of the chevr. Behem explains this
Inyftery.

6. This aftronomer could not be jealous of the difco--
varies of Columbus, becaufe the laft had been farther
north, and that in a time when they did not know the
whole extent of the new world, and when geographical
knowledge was extremely bounded, it might be believed,
that the country difcovered by Columbus, had no connec-
tion with that difcovered by Behem.

It appears however, certain, that Behem difcovered this
continent before Columbus, and that this queftion, which
is only curious in Europe, becomes interefting to the
American patriot. The Grecians have carefully preferv-
ed the fabulous hiftory of their firft founders, and have
raifed altars to them; why are not Behem, Chriftophef
Columbus and Vefpucius, deferving of ftatues, in the
public fquares of American cities? Thefe precious monu-
ments would tranfmit to pofterity the gratitude which
the names of thefe benefactors of mankind fhould infpire.
Without knowing it, they have laid the foundation of the
ilappinefs of many millions of inhabitants; and Sefoftris,
Ehul,, Cyrus, Thefeus and Romulus, the founders of the

greateft:

Chriftophe Colomb les circonftances de leur navigation. Tous les auteurs s'accordent en
general, que ce favant avoit eu quelques renfeignemens fur des terres occidentales, mais ils
ne nous en parlent que d'une maniere tres vague. L'expedition du chevalier Behem nou?
ejcplique ce myilere.

6. Get aftronome ne pouvoit ctre jaloux des decouvertes de Colomb, puifque celui-ci a
etc beaucoup plus nord ; et que dans un terns oii Ton ne connoifibit par toute i'etendue du
nouveau monde, et ou les connoiffaiices geographiques etoienrextremement bomees, ou pou-
voit croire que le pays trouve par Colomb n'avoit aucun rapport avec celui de Behem.
' Qaoiqu'il en foit, il paroit certain que Behem a decnuvert ce continent avant Colomb, et
que cette queftion qui n'eft que de pure curiofite en Europe, devient intereffante pour le pa-
triote Americain. Les Grecs ont conferve foigncufement I'hiftoire fabuleufe de leurs pre-
mieres fondateurs, ils leur ont eleve des autels ; pourquoi Behem, Chriftophe Colomb et
Vefpuce ne meriteroicnt'-ils pas des ftatues fur les places publiques des villes Americaines .'
Ces monumens precieux tranfmettroient a la pofteritc la reconnoilTance que doivent infpirer
les noms de ces bienfaiteurs du genre humain. Sans le favoir ils ont jette les fondemens du
bonheur de plulieurs millions d'habit;;ns ; et Sefoftris, Phul, Cyru.^, Thefeej Romulus, le*

fondateurs

2S4 Of vegetable ACID and

greateft empires, will be forgotten, before the fervices ren-
dered by thele illuftrious navigators can be effaced from
the memory of man.

fondateurs des plus grands empires, feront oublies, avant que les fervices rendus par ces na-
vigateurs illuftres, puilTent s'elTacer dc la niemoire des hommes.

N° XXXVI.

The antifeptic Virtues of Vegetable Acid and Marine Salt
combined-, in 'various Diforders accompanied ivith Pu-
tridity; communicated in a Letter to John Morgan,
M.D. F.R.S. and Profejfor of the Theory and PraSiice
of Phyfic at Philadelphia^ by William Wright, M.
D. of Trelaivney in Jamaica.

HAVING experienced the virtues of vegetable acid
and marine fait, when combined ; I beg leave to
lay before you a few obfervations on the ufe of this fimple
medicine in feveral difeafes. It is my fincere wifli, that
it may prove as beneficial to mankind in general, as it has
been to many of my patients in this part of the country.

Take of lime-juice or lemon-juice three ounces, of ma-
rine fait as much as the acid will diflblve ; of any fimple
diftilled cordial water one pint ; and of loaf fugar a fuf-
ficient quantity to fweeten it. The dofe of this mixture
muft be proportioned to the age, fex, and violence of the
difeafe. A wine glafs-ful may be given to adults every
two, four or fix hours.

By Geoffroy's table it appears, that the foffil alkali has
a greater affinity with the marine, than with the vegeta-
ble acid. However, marine fait diflblves readily in the
lime-juice, throws up a white fcum to the furface, and on
applying the ear near the vefiTel where the experiment is
made, a fmall hiffing may be heard, fimilar to that when

acids

^

MARINE SALT. 285

scids and alkalies are mixed. It would feem probable
that part of the marine fait is hereby decompofed.

That vegetable acids and marine fait are antifeptics, has
long been known, but their effedts when mixed I appre-
hend to be but lately difcovered.

Without farther preface, I fhall proceed to the particu-
lar difeafes in which they have been adminiftered, pre-
j)ared as above.

Of the dysentery.

The dyfentery is a very frequent diforder in this and
'Other Weft-India iflands; and fometimes is epidemic, par-
ticularly in the rainy feafons, or when provifions are fcarce.
Amongft other caufes of dyfenteries, I havfc often known
the eating of yams not arrived at maturity, as alio unripe
alligator pears, produce a bloody flux.

Dyfenteries commonly begin with frequent loofe ftools
for a day or two, attended with gripings : by degrees, the
gripes grow more fevere, nothing is voided by ftool but
a fmall quantity of mucus, mixed with blood ; a tenefmus
comes on and is exceedingly troublefome.

The appetite foils, the patients are low fpirited, and fuf-
fer a great proftration of ftrength. The mouth and tongue
are much furred and flimy, and the tafte is like that of
rotten butchers meat. The defire of drink is fometimes
€xceffive, but for the moft part very moderate. The pulfe
is very low, feeble and undulating; and rarely rifes fo
high, as to indicate the ufe of a lancet. Such was the
dyfentery in 177 1. It proved fatal to many people, both
old and young, though treated according to the moft ap-
proved methods of cure, and the lofs of feveral patients
of mine, convinced me of the neceffity of ufing antifep-
tics early in this difeafe.

A vomit feemed neceffary to clear the ftomach, and

fome gentle purge, to carry off part of the offending mat-

O o ter

286 Of vegetable ACID and

ter by ftooL But the adtion of thefe, however mild, often,
increafed the proftration of ftrength, and rendered ths
ftools fooner bloody. Nor was opium of any real ufe..
A tea made of Simarouba and given to fome, had a very
falulary effect, whilft, if given to others, it would by no
means lye on their ftomachs.

From a confideration of the antifeptic quality of both the
fal: marin: and of the vegetable acid, I was induced to make
trial of their effects united in the manner above mention-
ed. It a£ted like a charm, and I find that from the ufe
of it, the frequency of ftools, gripes and tenefmus, have
foon worn off; the ftools gradually become of a natural
confiftenceand quantity; the fpirits, ftrength and appetite
returned, and the patient has been reftored to perfect health
in a very few days..

When the dyfentery was of long ftanding, ftarch cly-
fters, with a fmall portion of opium, abated the tenefmus..

This medicine was equally ferviceable in diarrhoeas.

DIABETES.

As I had fucceeded fo well in the cure of dyfenteries,
i was determined to try its effedts in the diabetes : fe-
veral opportunities foon oft'ered; but as thefe cafes were
accompanied with other complaints, efpecially with fevers
of the reiiiiiting kind, it will be proper firft to fpeak of

Tiiri. REMITTENT FEVER.

This by far the moft common fever within the tropics,
is the leaft undcrftood, and conlequently for the moft part
badly treated. Strangers, ^yho walk much, or work hard
in the heat of the fun, are ift^re fubjedt to it than feafon-
ed Europeans or natives of the "country.

Dr. Clcghorn's defcription of this, fever is accurate and
juft. His method of cure, fimple and eafy. Every phy-

fician

^MARINE SALT. 287

fician, who would wifh to pra£tice with fuccefs, fliould be
well acquainted with that valuable performance, as alio
with what Dr. Lind has faid on the fubjed.

It is then fufficient here, to obferve that remittent fevers
are often attended with diarrhoeas, the diabetes, and fome-
times with a copious difcharge of faliva, as if mercury
had been previoufly given. In fuch circumftances I ne-
ver found the bark of fervice; a few glafles of the above
mixture fully anfwered the intention, not only by re-
moving thefe fymptoms, but the fever at the fame time.

The Peruvian bark afterwards, taken out of fome of the
fame mixture, effeftually fecured the patient from a re-
turn of this dangerous malady.

The mixture rarely adted as an aftringent in this or any
other diforder. But when this effeft took place, the in-
terpofition of fome lenient purge was deemed neceflary.

BELLY-AC H.

The belly-ach with inflammatory fymptoms has fre-
quently occured in the courfe of my praftice ; they yield-
ed with difficulty to bleeding, fmall dofes of emetic tar-
tar, a mercurial pill, repeated dofes of caftor oil, diluting
drinks, with nitre, fomentations and glyfl^ers. A copious
difcharge of foetid excrement for the moft part gives im-
mediate relief.

I have obferved in many cafes, after mofl: excruciating
belly-achs, that the ftools were liquid, white, fmall in
quantity, and very foetid. The patients being worn out
with pain, grew difpondent, did not care to fpeak, fell
into cold clammy fweats and were very reftlefs. They
-complained of an ill tafte in their mouths. Their tongues
were much furred. Their breath ofFenfive, and they had
a great propenfity to vomit.

Formerly I attempted the relief of thofe threatening

fymptoms with the bark, in various forms, as well as

O o 2 claret.

288 Of vegetable ACID an£)

claret, and often faved my patient ; fometimes however
I failed of fuccefs. When fuch cafes fall now under my
care, I have immediate recourfe to the antifeptic mixture r
nor have I been hitherto difappointed : the ftools becom-
ing lefs frequent on the ufe of it, and of a better confid-
ence ; the cold fweats alfo difappear, and the fpirits foon
return, together with an appetite for food.

The putrid SORE THROAT.

In June 1770, the putrid fore throat made confiderable
havock amongft adults and children. It attacked thofe of
a lax habit, who for a few days had flight head-achs,
chillinefs and heats alternately, and an uneafinefs about
their throats, but not fo much as to hinder their fwal-
lowing.

On examination, the mouth, tongue and gums were
foul and flimy ; the tonfils and uvula covered with white
fpecks or floughs ; the breath was hot and offenfive ; the
fkin felt hot and pungent to the touch; the pulfe low and
quick ; a diarrhoea often attended, and the patients were
in general much dejected.

Antimonial wine with cordials and nourifhing diet fuc-
ceeded beft, till the floughs or fpots were removed and
feparated ; then the bark completed the cure. When a
diarrhoea accompanied this diforder, I gave the mixture
with fuccefs.

In all diforders where a gargle is neceflary, I make ufe
of the above mixture in preference to any other ; and I
find it fpeedily cleanfes the tongue, gums and fauces, and
fweetens the breath.

Where lemons or limes cannot be had, vinegar of
cremor tartar may be fubflituted in their room.

From what has been laid, it is evident, that the medi-
cine is poflTelTed of confiderable antifeptic powers, and its

virtue

MARINE SALT. 2S9..

■virtue confifts in correding the peccant matter in the Ilo-
mach and inteftinal canal.

All the difeafes in which I have given it, had a putrid
tendency. I fhall be happy to hear of its fuccefs in your
wellexn hemifphere.

And am, with efteem.
Si r.

Your moft humble fervant,
WILLIAM WRIGHT.

N° XXXVIL.

Medical H'ljlory of the Cortex Rtiher^ or Red Bark ; com-
municated /o John Morgan, M. D. Profejjor of the
Theory and Pra^ice of Phyfic at Philadelphia-, and
F. R. S. LofidoHy lii'c..

^2o\^t' T HAVE lately received the following commu-
I nications upon the Cortex Ruber, which I have
found fo efficacious in the cure of obftinate rernittent and
bilious fevers, that I think it my duty to lay them before
this fociety, in hopes of fo valuable a medicine being
thereby better known, and introduced more generally in-
to practice..

Extrad of a Letter from Thomas S. Duche, dated Lon-
don-, Auguft 9, 1783.

" Lwas lately at a lecture delivered at Guy's hofpital,
by Dr. Saunders, upon the cure of intermittent fevers,
and obferving the dodtor fpoke very much in favour of
a new fpecies of bark which he had introduced into the
pradiice of phyfic, I procured a fpecimen of it for you,

thinking

290 MEDICAL HISTORY of the

thinking it might be agreeable to you to hear of any new
improvements in the healing art. It is called Red Bark.
According to his account it poffeffes fo much virtue, and
is of fuch certain efficacy, that, compared with it, the com-
mon bark is an inert mafs. It contains a much larger
portion of refm, has a much ftronger aromatic tafte than
the common bark, and does not require half the quantity
for a dofe. Amongft other particulars, he mentioned the
following proof of its fuperior virtue, namely, that of this
medicine, when adminiftered in a fimple cold infufion,
any given quantity is much ftronger and effeilual to re-
move the fever than a chemical extradl from the fame
quantity of the other. I now fend you a fpecimen, by
which you will be able to make a trial and form fome
judgment of its virtues." ,

T. S. DucHE.

Soon after the receipt of the foregoing letter, I received
the following valuable communication from Dr. George
Davidfon of St. Lucia, which it affords me great pleafure
to lay before this fociety.

St. Lucia, Auguft 29, 1783.
To Dodor John Morgan, at Philadelphia.

Si R,

IF the fubjed: upon which I have the honour to write
you, fliould be found to merit attention, and prove in any
refpeifl ufeful and advantageous to mankind, I fliall eafily
ftand excufed in addrelling you, perfonally unacquainted
as I am.

I have by this opportunity fent a fmall fpecimen of the
Cinchona of this ifland, refembling the Peruvian bark in
its botanical charadler, and from the trial made here fur-
paffinp; it in medical virtues. It is now nearly four years
fnice the Caribnt;an bark was difcovered upon the heights

adjoining

CORTEX RUBER, or RED BARK. 29-1

adjoining Morne Fortune, and introduced into pradice by
Dr. Young, phyfician to his Britannic majefty's troops.
The freflmefs of the bark, the Httle attention beftowed in
drying it, and the large dofes in which it was exhibited,
produced alarming fits of vomiting and purging, and de-
terred us, at that time, from the further profecution of the
fubjed, until the other day that a treatife upon the red
bark, by Dr. Saunders of London, and a belief which we
entertained that this was the fame bark which he defcribes,
induced us again to make a trial of it. Having properly
dried it, and given it in the cold infufion with greater
caution and in lefs dofes than at the firft elTay, we are now
happy in alluring the public, that in moft inftances it has
not difappointed us. Still, however, notwithflandino- the
utmoft care in drying it, in fome cafes it ftill feems to re-
tain its emetic and purgative qualities, as the ftomach and
firft paflages, in complaints here, are loaded with a quan-
tity of putrid bile. Thefe are not its leaft valuable pro-
perties. It will, however, be neceflary when thefe effeds
are produced, to check them afterwards by opiates.

With regard to its preparations : I have generally given
it in the cold infufion either made with lime or cinnamon
water. An extract made with fpirits and water fits eafi-
]y on the fl;omach and can be given in larger quantities.

In fome late cafes of tertians, where I have been cal-
led to the patient during the fecond fit ; without watch-
ing for its going off, I have begun with this bark, which
efl'edually cleanfed the ftomach and bowels, and paved
the way for its future adminiftration.

In putrid dyfenteries, and in a remarkable fpecies of
dyfentery, conjoined with an intermittent fever, which I
have met with here, the bark has done more than all the
remedies which I have feen employed. The purgative
effeds which it produced enabled us to throw it in earli-
er; the hardened fcybula, the fupport of the difeafe, were

removed

292 MEDICAL HISTORY of the

removed, the ftomach and bowels braced up, and, by the
interpofition of opiates, the fpafms were removed.

Having fent feveral fpecimens of the bark for a trial
to different parts of the continent of America, and parti-
cularly to my worthy friend Do£tor Hall of Peterfburgh
Virginia, I impatiently wait the refult of your trials, and
•will efteem myfelf particularly obliged by your commu-
nication. If you chufe, I fhall fend you fome of the
young trees planted in tubs, with fome of the feeds.

Should it be found to anfwer my expe£tation, the plea-
fure refulting from the thoughts of having communicat-
ed fomething ufeful, will be to me ample enough recom-
penfe. I have the honor to be.

With the utmoft refpe£t,
Your moft obedient humble fervant,
GEORGE DAVIDSON.

P. S. Dr. Wright of Jamaica (in fifth vol. of medical
commentaries,) defcribes a fpecies of Cinchona, with only
one flower on a footflalk; the fame was llkewife found at
the Havanna. It differs in that particular from the old
bark, which refembles the St. Lucia bark, in having feve-
ral flowers on each footftalk.

The follozving is a Dcfcription of the CiNCHONA Cari-

BJEA SaNCTJE LuCIJE.

The tree is commonly found in ravines, near fprings,
under the fliade of a larger tree. It delights in places well
fliaded, and defended from the north-eafl: trade wind.
The foil is commonly a ftiff red earth with a clayey fub-
fl;ratum ; quantities of fmall beautiful chryllals, of a regu-
lar angular form, are found intermixed.

The tree is about the fize of the cherry tree ; feldom
exceeding the thicknefs of the thigh, and twenty-five feet
in height.

The

CORTEX RUBER, or RED BARK. 293

The flowers begin to appear at the commencement of
the rainy feafon in beautiful tufts, upon pannicles branch-
ed out in threes and fours. I have never feen that fpecies
defcribed by Jacquin and found at the Havannah, pedun-
culis zinifloris.

'.Before the corolla is fully expanded, and the ftamina
make their appearance without the tube of the corolla,
the flower is white, but it afterwards turns to a beautiful
purple. Then dropping off^, the germen enlarges to the
fize of an hazle-nut, oblong and round. It gradually
dries, burfts in two, and fcatters the feeds, which fall to
the ground and again take root.

The wood of the tree is light, fpongy, and fit for no
ufeful purpofe. It has not the bitter tafte of the bark.
The leaves are rery bitter, and the flowers, feeds, &c.
feem to poflefs the bitternefs and aftringency in a more
eminent degree.

An ounce of the bark in fine powder infufed in a quart
of cold water for twenty-four hours, and the infufion af-
terwards filtered, appears higher coloured than a decodtion
made with double the quantity of the old bark. The co-
lour which it ftrikes with the tin£i. jlor. martial, smd fai
nmrtist is likewife of a deeper black. The fpirituous
tin£ture is of a deep red colour, and ftrikes a deep black
by the addition of the preparations of iron.

The tafte of the Cinchona Caribsea is manifeftly more
aftringent than the tafte of the old bark ; an inference may
therefore, a priori^ be made, that its tonic powers are
greater.

The quantity of refin which it yields is much more
confiderable, and an extract made with both fpirits and
water, feems to poflefs the whole virtues of the bark.

Pp To

[ 294 T

N° XXXVIIL

A Letter from Dr. Benjamin Franklin, to Mr. Al-
PHQNSUS le Roy, Member of fe'ueral Academies., at
Paris. Containing fundry Maritime Obfer'vations. ■^,

At Sea, on board the London Packet, Capt. Tnixton, Auguft 1785.
SIR,

Read Dec. "'1|V' O U R learned writings on the navigation of
, 2,1785. j^ j^g antients, which contain a great deal of
curious information; and your very ingenious contrivances
for improving the modern fails [voilure) of which I faw
with great pleafure a fuccefsful trial on the river Seine, have
induced me to fubmit to your confideratiun and judgment,
forae thoughts I have had on the latter fubje£t.

Thofe mathematicians who have endeavoured to im-
prove the fvviftnefs of veffels, by calculating to find the
form of leaft refiftance, feem to have confidered a fhip
as a body moving through one fluid only, the water ; and
to have given little attention to the circumftance of her
moving through another fluid, the air. It is true that
when a veflel fails right before the wind, this circumftance
is of no importance, becaufe the wind goes with her; but"
in every deviation from that courfe, the refiftance of the
air is fomething, and becomes greater in proportion as
that deviation increafes. I wave at prefent the confidera-
tion of thofe diff'erent degrees of refiftance given by the
air to that part of the hull which is above water, and con-
fine myfelf to that given to the fails; for their motion
through the air is refirted by the air, as the motion of the
hull tlirough the water is refiftcd by the water, though
with lefs force as the air is a lighter fluid. And to fim-
plify the difcuffion as much as poffible, I would ftate one
fituation only, to wit, that of the wind upon the beam,
the ftiip's courfe being diredly acrofs the wind j and I would

fuppofe

[ 294 T

N° xxxviir.

A Letter ft'om Dr. Benjamin Franklin, to Mr. Al-
PHQNSUS le Roy, Member of fe'vcral Academies., at
Paris. Containing fundry Maritime Obfernjations. ■^,

At Sea, on board the London Packet, Capt. Tnixton, Auguft 1785.
SIR,

Read Dec. "'^T' O UR Icamcd writings on the navigation of
, 2, 17 s- j^ ^jjg antients, which contain a great deal of
curious information; and your very ingenious contrivances
for improving the modern fails ['voilure) of which I faw
with great pleafure a fuccefsful trial on the river Seine, have
induced me to fubmit to your confideratiun and judgment,
feme thoughts I have had on the latter fubje£t.

Thofe mathematicians who have endeavoured to im-
prove the fwiftnefs of vefTels, by calculating to find the
form of leaft refiftance, feem to have confidered a ihip
as a body moving through one fluid only, the water ; and
to have given little attention to the circumftance of her
moving through another fluid, the air. It is true that
when a veflel fails right before the wind, this circumftance
is of no importance, becaufe the wind goes with her; but"
in every deviation from that courfe, the refiftance of the
air is fomething, and becomes greater in proportion as
that deviation increafes. I wave at prefent the confidera-
tion of thofe diff'erent degrees of refiftance given by the
air to that part of the hull which is above water, and con-
fine myfelf to that given- to the fails; for their motion
through the air is refifted by the air, as the motion of the
hull tlirough the water is refifted by the water, though
with lefs force as the air is a lighter fluid. And to fiin-
plify the difcuflion as much as poflible, I would ftate one
fituation only, to wit, that of the wind upon the beam,
thclhip's courfe being diredly aero fs the wind; and I would

fuppofe

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 295

Tuppofe the fall fet in an angle of 45 degrees with the
keel, as in the following figure ; wherein

AB reprefents the body of the veflel, CD the ^^^'^J^^,
pofition of the fail, EEE the direction of the
wind, MM the line of motion. In obferving this figure
it will appear, that fo much of the body of the veflel as is
immerfed in the water, muft, to go forward, remove out of
its way what water it meets with between the pricked lines
F F. And the fail, to go forward, mufl: move out of its
way all the air its whole dimenfion meets with between
the pricked lines CG and DG. Thus both the fluids give
refift:ance to the motion, each in proportion to the quantity
of matter contained in the dimenfion to be removed. And
though the air is vaftly lighter than the water, and there-
fore more eafily removed, yet the dimenfion being much
greater its eflfeit is very confiderable.

It is true that in the cafe ftated, the refiftance given by
the air between thofe lines to the motion of the fail is not
apparent to the eye, becaufe the greater force of the wind
which ftrikes it in the direction EEE, overpowers its
cff^edl, and keeps the fail full in the curve a, a, a, a, a'.
But fuppofe the wind to ceafe, and the veflTel in a calm
to be impelled with the fame fwiftnefs by oars, the fail
would then appear filled in the contrary curve b, b, b, b,
b, when prudent men would immediately perceive that
the air refifl:ed its motion, and would order it to be taken
in.

Is there any poffible means of diminifhing this refifl:-
ance, while the fame quantity of fail is expofed to the ac-
tion of the wind, and therefore the fame force obtained
from it ? I think there is, and that it may be done by di-
viding the fail into a number of parts, and placing thofe
parts in a line one behind the other ; thus inftead of one
lail extending from C to D, figure 2, if four fails
containing together the fame quantity of canvas, were
placed as in figure 3, each having one quarter of the di-
P p 2 menfions

296 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

menfions of the great fail, and expofing a quarter of its
furface to the wind, would give a quarter of the force; fo
that the whole force obtained from the wind would be the
fame, while the refiftance from the air w^ould be nearly
reduced to the fpace between the pricked lines aba.nd ccfy
before the foremoft fail.

It may perhaps be doubted whether the refiftance from
the air would be fo diminiflied ; fince poffibly each of the
following fmall fails having alfo air before it, which muft
be removed, the refiftance on the whole would be the
fame.

This is then a matter to be determined by experiment.
I will mention one that I many years fince made with
fuccefs for another purpofe; and I will propofe another
fmall one eafily made. If that too fucceeds, I fhould
think it worth while to make a larger, though at fome
expence, on a river boat ; and perhaps time and the im-
provements experience will aff'ord, may make it applicable
with advantage to larger velTels.

Having near my kitchen chimney a round hole of eight
inches diameter, through which was a conftant fteady
current of air, increafing or diminifhing only as the fire
increafed or diminilhed, I contrived to place my jack fo
as to receive that current; and taking off^ the flyers, I fix-
ed in their ftcad on the fame pivot a round tin plate of
near the fame diameter with the hole ; and having cut it
in radial lines almoft to the centre, fo as to ha.e fix equal
vanes, I gave to each of them the obliquity of forty-five
degrees. They moved round, without the weight, by the
impreffion only of the current of air, but too flowly for
the purpofe of roafting. I fufpeited that the air ftriick by
the back of each vane might poftibly by its refiftance re-
tard the motion; and to try this, I cut each of them into
two, and I placed the twelve, each having the fame obli-
quity, in a line behind each other, when I perceived a great
augmentation in its velocity, which encouraged me to di-
vide

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 297-

vide them once more, and, continuing the fame obliquity,
I placed the twenty-four behind each other in a line»
when the force of the wind being the fame, and the fur-
face of vane the fame, they moved round with much great-
er rapidity, and perfectly anfwered my purpofe.

The fecond experiment that I propofe, is, to take two
playing cards of the fame dimenfions, and cut one of them
tranfverfely into eight equal pieces ; then with a needle
firing them upon two threads one near each end, and place
them fo upon the threads that, when hung up, they may
be one exactly over the other, at a diftance equal to their
breadth, each in a horizontal pofition ; and let a fmall
weight, fuch as a bird-fhot, be hung under them, to make
them fall in a ftraight line when let loofe. Sufpend alfo
the whole card by threads from its four corners, and hang
to it an equal weight, fo as to draw it downwards when
let fall, its whole breadth preffing againft the air. Let
thofe two bodies be attached, one of them to one end of
a thread a yard long, the other to the other end. Extend
a twine under the ceiling of a room, and put through it
at thirty inches diftance two pins bent in the form of fifli-
hooks. On thefe two hooks hang the two bodies, the
thread that conneds them extending parallel to the twine,
which thread being cut, they muft begin to fall at the fame
inftant. If they take equal time in falling to the floor, it
is a proof that the refiftance of the air is in both cafes-
equal. If the whole card requires a longer time, it fhows
that the fum of the refiftances to the pieces of the cut card
is riot equal to the refiftance of the whole one*.

This principle fo far confirmed, T would proceed to make
a larger experiment, with a ftiallop, which I would rig in
this manner.

AB is

• The motion of the veffel made it inconvenient to try this Cmple experiment, at fea,
when the propofal of it was written. But it has been tried Cnce we came on fhore, and
i'ucceeded as the other.

298 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

Plate IV. AB is a lone; boom, from which are hoifted fe-
ven jibs, a, b, c, <1, e, f, g, each a feventh part of
the whole dimenfions, and as much more as will fill the
whole fpace when fet in an angle of forty-five degrees, fo
that they may lap when going before the wind, and hold
more wind when going large. Thus rigged, when go-
ing right before the wind, the boom fhould be brought at
right angles with the keel, by means of the fheet ropes
C D, and all the fails hauled flat to the boom.

Thefe pofitions of boom and fails to be varied as the
wind quarters. But when the wind is on the beam, or
when you would turn to windward, the boom is to be
hauled right fore and aft, and the fails trimmed according
as the wind is more or lefs againft your courfe.

It feems to me that the management of a fhallop fo rig-
ged would be very eafy, the fails being run up and down
feparately, fo that more or lefs fail may be made at plea-
fure; and I imagine, that there being full as much fail
expofed to the force of the wind which impells the veflel
in its courfe, as if the whole were in one piece, and the
refiftance of the dead air againft the forefide of the fail be-
ing diminifhed, the advantage of fwiftnefs would be very
confiderable ; befides that the veflel would lie nearer the
wind.

Since we are on the fubjedt of improvements in navi-
gation, permit me to detain you a little longer with a fmall
relative obfervation. Being, in one of my voyages, with
ten merchant-fliips under convoy of a frigate at anchor in
Torbay, waiting for a wind to go to the weftward ; it
came fair, but brought in with it a confiderable fwell. A
fignal was given for weighing, and we put to fca all to-
gether; but three of the Ihips left their anchors, their ca-
bles parting juft as the anchors came a-peak. Our cable
held, and we got up our anchor ; but the fhocks the flup
felt before the anchor got loofe from the ground, made
me refletit on what might poflibly have caufed the break-
ing

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 299^

mg of the other cables ; and I imagined it might be ther
fhort bending of the cable juft without the haufe-hole,.
from a horizontal to an almoft vertical pofition, and the
fudden violent jerk it receives by the rifing of the head of
the fhip on the fwell of a wave while in that pofition.
Tor example, fuppofe a vefTel hove up fo as to have her
head nearly over her anchor, which ftill keeps its hold,
perhaps in a tough bottom; if it were calm, the cable ftill
out would form nearly a perpendicular line, meafuring the
diftance between the haufe-hole and the anchor ; but if
there is a fwell, her head in the trough of the fea will fall
below the level, and when lifted on the wave will be as
much above it. In the firft cafe the cable will hang loofe
and bend perhaps as in figure 5. In the fecond cafe figure
6, the cable will be drawn ftraight with a jerk, muft fuftain
the whole force of the rifing ftiip, and muft either loofen the
anchor, refift the rifmg force of the fliip, or break. But
why does it break at the haufe-hole ?

Let us fuppofe it a cable of three inches diameter, and
reprefented by figure 7. If this cable is to be bent round the
corner A, it is evident that either the part of the triangle
contained between the letters a, b, c, muft ftretch confider-
ably, and thofe moft that are neareft the furface ; or that
the parts between d, e, f, muft be comprefl"ed ; or bothj
which moft probably happens. In riiis cafe the lower half
of the thlcknefs affords no ftrength againft the jerk, it not
being ftrained, the upper half bears the whole, and the
yarns near the upper furface being firft and moft ftrained,
break firft, and the next yarns follow ; for in this bent
fituation they cannot bear the ftrain all together, and each
contribute its ftrength to the whole, as they do when the
cable is ftrained in a ftraight line.

To remedy this, methinks it would be well to have a
kind of large pulley wheel, fixed in the haufe-hole, fup-
pofe of two feet diameter, over which the cable might
gafs ; and being there bent gradually to the round of the

wheel,,

300 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

wheel, would thereby be more equally ftrained, and better
able to bear the jerk, which may fave the anchor, and by
that means in the courfe of the voyage may happen to
fave the fhip.

One maritime obfervation more fhall finifh this letter.
I have been a reader of news-papers now near feventy
years, and I think few years pafs without an account of
fome veffel met with at fea, with no foul living on board,
and fo many feet of water in her hold, which veilel has
neverthelefs been faved and brought into port: and when
not met with at fea, fuch forfaken veflels have often come
afhore on fome coaft. The crews who have taken to their
boats and thus abandoned fuch veffels, are fometimes met
with and taken up at fea by other fliips, fometimes reach a
coaft, and are fometimes never heard of. Thofe that give
an account of quitting their velfels, generally fay, that fhe
fprung a leak, that they pumped for fome time, that the
water continued to rife upon them, and that defpairing
to fave her, they had quitted her left they ftiould go down
with her. It feems by the event that this fear was not
always well founded, and I have endeavoured to guefs at
the reafon of the people's too hafty difcouragement.

When a veflel fprings a leak near her bottom, the wa-
ter enters with all the force given by the weight of the
column of water, without, which force is in proportion to
the difference of level between the water without and that
within. It enters therefore with more force at firft, and
in greater quantity, than it can afterwards when the water
within is higher. The bottom of the veflel too is nar-
rower, fo that the fame quantity of water coming into
that narrow part, rifes fafter than when the fpace for it
to flow in is larger. This helps to terrify. But as the
quantity entering is lefs and lefs as the furfaces without
and within become more nearly equal in height, the pumps
that could not keep the water from rifing at firft, might af-
terwards be able to prevent its rifing higher, and the people

misrht

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 301

'might have remained on board in fafety, without hazard-
ing themfelves in an open boat on the wide ocean. (Fig. 8.)
Befides the greater equaUty in the height of the two
furfaces, there may fometimes be other caufes that retard
the farther fmking of a leaky veffel. The rifing water
within may arrive at quantities of light wooden work,
empty chefts, and particularly empty water cafks, which
if fixed fo as not to float themfelves may help to fuftain
her. Many bodies which compofe a fhip's cargo may be
fpecifically lighter than water, all thefe when out of wa-
ter are an additional weight to that of the fhip, and fhe is
in proportion prefled deeper into the water ; but as foon
as thefe bodies are immerfed, they weigh no longer on the
fhip, but on the contrary, if fixed, they help to fupport
her, in proportion as they are fpecifically lighter than the
■water. And It fhould be remembered, that the largeft
l)ody of a fhip may be fo balanced in the water, that an
ounce lefs or more of weight may leave her at the furface
or fmk her to the bottom. There are alfo certain heavy car-
goes, that when the water gets at them are continually
diflblving, and thereby lightening the veffel, fuch as fait
and fugar. And as to water cafks mentioned above, fince
the quantity of them mufl be great in fhips of war where
the number of men confume a great deal of water every
day, if it had been made a conftant rule to bung them up
.as faft as they were emptied, and to difpofe the empty
cafks in proper fituations, I am perfuaded that many fhips
Avhich have been funk in engagements, or have gone down
afterwards, might with the unhappy people have been
faved ; as well as many of thofe which in the laft war
foundered, and were never heard of. While on this to-
pic of fmking, one cannot help recollefting the well known
praftice of the Chinefe, to divide the hold of a great fhip
into a number of feparate chambers by partitions tight
■caulked, (of which you gave a model in your boat upon
the Seine) fo that if a leak fhould fpring in one of them
Q^q the

3C2 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS^.

the others are not afTefted hy it; and though that cham-
ber ihould till to a level with the fea, it would not be fuf'^
ficient to fink the veflel.. We have not imitated this prac-
tice. Some little difadvantage it might occafion in the
ftowage is perhaps one reafon, though that I think might
be more than compenfated by an abatement in the infu-
rance that would be reafonable, and by a higher price
taken of paflengers, who would rather prefer going in fuch
a veflel. But our feafaring people are brave, defpife dan-
ger, and reje£t fuch precautions of fafety, being cowards
only in one fenfe, that oi fearing to be thought afraid.

I promifed to finifh my letter with the lall obfervation,
but the garrulity of the old man has got hold of me, and
as I may never have another occafion of writing on this
fubje£t, I think I may as well now, once for all, empty
my nautical budget, and give you all the thoughts that
have in my various long voyages occurred to me relating
to navigation. lam fure that in you they will meet with
a candid judge, who will excufe my miflakes on account
of my good intention.

There, are fix accidents that may occafion the lofs of
nfips at fea. We have confidered one of them, that of
foundering by a leak. The other five are, i. Overfetting
by fudden flaws of wind, or by carrying fail beyond the
bearing. 2. Fire by accident or carelelfnefs. 3. A heavy
ftroke of lightning, making a breach in the fhip, or
firing the powder. 4. Meeting and Ihocking with other
fhips in the flight. 5. Meeting in the night with iflands
of ice.

To that of overfetting, privateers in their firft cruize
have, as far as has fallen within my knowledge or infor-
mation, been more fubjcdl than any other kind of vefl'cls.
The double defire of being able to overtake a weaker flying
enemy, ortoelcapcwhenpurfued by a ftronger, has induced
the owners to overmaft: their cruizcrs, and to fpread too
much canvas; and the great number of men, many of

them

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. ^o;^

■tliem not feamen, who being upon deck when a fliip heels
■fuddenly are huddled down to leeward, and increafe by their
weight the effed of the wind. This therefore fliould be
more attended to and guarded againft, efpecially as the
advantage of lofty mafts is problematical. For the upper
fails have greater power to lay a velTel more on her fide,
which is not the moft advantageous poiition for going
fwiftly through the water. And hence it is that veflels
which have loft their lofty mafts, and been able to make
little more fail afterwards than permitted the fhip to fail
upon an even keel, have made fo much way, even under
jury mafts, as to furprize the mariners themfelves. But
there is befides, fomething in the modern form of our
fhips that feems as if calculated exprefsly to allow their
overfetting more eafily. The fides of a fliip inftead of
fpreading out as they formerly did in the upper works,
are of late years turned in, fo as to make the body nearly
round, and more refembling a cafk. I do not know what
the advantages of this conftrudion are, except that fuch
fhips are not fo eafily boarded. To me it feems a contri-
vance to have lefs room in a fhip at nearly the fame ex-
pence. For it is evident that the fame timber and plank
confumed in raifing the fides from a to b, and from d to c,
-would have raifed them from a to e, and from d to f, fig. 9.
In this form all the fpaces between e, a, b, and c, d, f, would
have been gained, the deck would have been larger, the
men would have had more room to a£t, and not have
ftood fo thick in the way of the enemy's fhot; and the
veffel the more flie was laid down on her fide, the more
bearing flie would meet with, and more effeftual to fup-
port her, as being farther from the center. Whereas in
the prefent form, her ballaft makes the chief part of her
bearing, without which fhe would turn in the fea ahnoft
as eafily as a barrel. More ballaft by this means becomes
necefiary, and that finking a veiTel deeper in the water
occafions more refiftance to her going through it. The
Qjl 2 Bermudian

304 MARITIME OBSEPvV ATIONS:

Bermudian floops ftill keep with advantage to the old'
fpreading form. The iflandcrs in the great Pacific ocean,
though they have no large Ihips, are the moft expert boat-
failors in the world, navigating that fea fafely with their
proas, which they prevent overfetting by various means.-
Their failing proas for this purpofe have outriggers gene-
rally to windward, above the water, on which one or'
more men are placed to move occafionally further from,
or nearer to the veffel as the wind frefhens or flackens.
But fome have their outriggers to leeward, which refting
on the water fupport the boat fo as to keep her upright,
when prefled down by the wind. Their boats moved by
oars or rather by paddles, are, for long voyages, fixed two
together by crofs bars of wood that keep them at fome
diftance from each other, and fo render their overfetting
next to impofTible. How far this may be pra£licable in
larger veflels, we have not yet fufficient experience. I
know of but one trial made in Europe, which was about
one hundred years fince by, Sir William Petty. He built a
double vefTcl, to ferve as a pacquet boat between England
and Ireland. Her model ftill exifts in the mufeum of the
Royal Society, where I have feen it. By the accounts we
have of her, fhe anfwered well the purpofe of her con-
flrudlion, making feveral voyages; and though wrecked
at laft by a ftorm, the misfortune did not appear owing
to her particular conftrudion, fince many other veflels of
the common form were wrecked at the fame time. The
advantage of fuch a veflel is: That fhe needs no ballaft,
therefore fwims either lighter or will carry more goods;
and that pafl'engers are not fo much incommoded by her
rolling: to which may be added, that if flie is to defend
herfelf by her cannon, they will probably have more ef-
fect, being kept more generally in a horizontal pofition,
than thofe in common veflels. I think however that it
would be an improvement of that model, to make the fides

which

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 305.

■whlck are oppofed to each other perfectly parallel, though
the other fides are formed as in common thus, figure 10.

The building of a double fhip would indeed be more
expenfive in proportion to her burthen; and that perhaps
is fufficient to difcourage the method.

The accident of nre is generally well guarded againft
by the prudent captain's ftri£l orders againft fmoking be-
tween decks, or carrying a candle there out of a lanthorn.
But there is one dangerous pradice which frequent terrible
accidents have not yet been fufficient to abolifh ; that of
carrying ftore-fpirits to fea in cafks. Two large fhips, the-
Seraphis and the Duke of Athol, one an Eaft-Indiaman,
the other a frigate, have been burnt within thefe two laft
years, and many lives miferably deftroyed, by drawing
ipirits out of a cafk near a candle. It is high time to make
it a general rule, that all the fhip's ftore of fpirits fhould-
be carried in bottles.

The misfortune by a ftroke of lightning I have In my
former writings endeavoured to fhow a method of guard-
ing againft, by a chain and pointed rod, extending, when
i-un up, from above the top of the maft to the fca. Thefe
inftruments are now made and fold at a reafonable price
by Nairne mid Co. in London, and there are feveral in—
fiances of fuccefs attending the ufe of them. They arc
kept in a box, and may be run up and fixed in about five
minutes, on the apparent approach of a thunder guft.

Of the meeting and fhocking with other ftiips in the
night, I have known two inftances in voyages between
London and America. In one both fhips arrived though
much damaged, each reporting their belief that the other
muft have gone to the bottom. In the other, only one
got to port ; the other was never afterwards heard of.
Thefe inftances happened many years ago, when the com-
merce between Europe and America was not a tenth part
of what it is at prefent, ftiips of courfe thinner fcattered,.
and the chance of meeting proportionably lefs. It has long

been-

3o6 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

been the pradice to keep a look-out before in the channel, -
but at fea it has been negledted. If it is not at prefent
thought worth while to take that precaution, it will in
time become of more confequence ; fince the number of
fhips at fea is continually augmenting. A drum frequent-
ly beat or a bell rung in a dark night, might help to pre-
vent fuch accidents.

Iflands of ice are frequently feen off the banks of New-
foundland, by fliips going between North-America and
Europe. In the day-time they are eafily avoided, unlefs
in a very thick fog. I remember two inftances of ihips
running againft them in the night. The firft loft her
bowfprit, but received little other damage. The other
ftruck where the warmth of the fea had wafted the ice
next to it, and a part hung over above. This perhaps
faved her, for ftie was^ under great way ; but the upper
part of the cliff taking her foretopmaft, broke the fliock,
though it carried away the maft. She difengaged herfelf
wath fome difficulty, and got fafe into port ; but the acci-
dent fhows the poffibility of other ftiips being wrecked
and funk by ftriking thofe vaft maffes of ice, of which I
have leen one that we judged to be feventy feet high above
the water, confequently eight times as much under water;
and it is another reafon for keeping a good look-out before^
though far from any coaft that may threaten danger.

It is remarkable that the people we confider as favages,
have improved the art of lailing- and rowing-boats in fe-
veral points beyond what we can pretend to. We have
no failing boats equal to the flying proas of the fouth feas,
no rowing or paddling boat equal to that of the Green-
landers for fwiftnefs and fafety. The birch canoes of the
North-American Indians have alfo fome advantageous pro-
perties. Tlxey are fo li;4ht tJKit two men may carry one
of them over land, which is capable of carrying a do/en
upon the water ; and in heeling they are not ^o fubjetfl
to take in water as our boats, the fides of which are

1 owe ft

MARITIME observations: 307

Jbwefl: in the middle where it is moft likely to enter,-
this being higheft in that part, as in figure 11.

The Chinefe are an enlightened people, the moft anti-
ently civilized of any exifting, and their arts are antient,
a prefumption in their favour : their method of row^ing
their boats differs from ours, the oars being worked cither
two a-ftern as we fcull, or on the fides with the fame k-ind
of motion, being hung parallel to the keel on a rail and
always a£ting in the water, not perpendicular to the fide
as ours are, nor lifted out at every ftroke, which is a lofs
of time, and the boat in the interval lofes motion. They
fee our manner, and we theirs, but neither are difpofed to
learn of or copy the other.

To the feveral means of moving boats mentioned above,
may be added the fingular one lately exhibited at Javelle,
on the Seine below Paris, where a clumfy boat was mov-
ed acroi's that river in three minutes by rowing, not in the
water, but in the air, that is, by whirling round a fet of
windmill vanes fixed to a horizontal axis, parallel to the
keel, and placed at the head of the boat. The axis was
bent into an elbow at the end, by the help of which it was
turned- by one man at a time. I faw the operation at a
diftance. The four vanes appeared to be about five feet
long, and perhaps two and a half wide. The weather
was calm. The labour appeared to be great for one man,
as the two feveral times relieved each other. But the ac-
tion upon the air by the oblique furfaces of the vanes muft
have been confiderable, as the motion of the boat appear-
ed tolerably quick going and returning ; and fhe returned
to the fame place from whence fhe firfl fet out, notwith-
ftanding the current. This machine is fince applied to the
moving of air balloons : An inftrument fimilar may be
contrived to move a boat by turning under water.

Several mechanical projedlors have at different times
propofed to give motion to boats, and even to fhips, by
means of circular rowing, or paddles placed on the circum-
ference

3o8 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

feren.ce of wheels to be turned conftantly on each fide of
the veffel ; but this method, though frequently tried, has
Tiever been found fo effectual as to encourage a continuance
of the pradtice. I do not know that the reafon has hither-
to been given. Perhaps it may be this, that great part of
the force employed contributes little to the motion. For
inftance, (fig. 12.) of the four paddles a, b, c, d, all under
water, and turning to move a boat from X to Y, c has the
moft power, b nearly though not quite as much, their
motion being nearly horizontal ; but the force employed
in moving a, is confumed in preffing almoft downright
upon the water till it comes to the place of b ; and thfe
force employed in moving d is confumed in lifting the
water till d arrives at the furface ; by which means much
of the labour is loft. It is true, that by placing the wheels
higher out of the water, this wafte labour will be diminilh-
ed in a calm, but where a fea runs, the wheels muft un-
avoidably be often dipt deep in the waves, and the turn-
ing of them thereby rendered very laborious to little
purpofe.

Among the various means of giving motion to a boat,
that of M. Bernoulli appears one of the moft fingular,
which was to have fixed in the boat a tube in the form of
an L, the upright part to have a funnel-kind of opening
at top, convenient for filling the tube with water; which
defcending and pafling through the lower horizontal part,
and iffuing in the middle of the ftern, but under the fur-
face of the river, fhould pufl^ the boat forward. There
is no doubt that the force of the defcending water would
have a confiderable eff"e£l, greater in proportion to the
height from which it dcfcended ; but then it is to be confi-
dercd, that every bucket-full pumped or dipped up into
the boat, from its fide or through its bottom, muft have its
"uis inertie overcome fo as to receive the motion of the
boat, before it can come to give motion by its defcent;
and that will be a dedudion from the moving power.

To

MAUITIME OBSERVATIONS. 309

To remedy this, I would propofe the addition of another
fuch L pipe, and that they fhould ftand back to back in
the boat thus, figure 13. the forward one being worked
as a pump, and fucking in the water at the head of the
boat, would draw it forward while puflied in the fame di-
rection by the force at the ftcrn. And after all it fhould
be calculated whether the labour of pumping would be
iefs than that of rowing. A fire-engine might poffibly in
fome cafes be applied in this operation with advantage.

Perhaps this labour of raifing water might be fpared,
and the whole force of a man applied to the moving of a
boat by the ufe of air inftead of water; fuppofe the boat
conftru(Sed in this form, figure 14, A, a tube round or
fquare of two feet diameter, in which a pifton may move
•up and down. The pifton to have valves in it, opening
inwards to admit air when the pifton rifes; and ftiutting,
■when it is forced down by means of the lever B turning
on the center C. The tube to have a valve D, to open
•when the pifton is forced down, and let the air pafs out at
E, which ftriking forcibly againft the water abaft muft
pufli the boat forward. If there is added an air-veflel F
properly valved and placed, the force would continue to
a£t while a frefli ftroke is taken with the lever. The boat-
man might ftand with his back to the ftern, and putting his
hands behind him, work the motion by taking hold of the
crofs bar at B, while another fliould fteer ; or if he had two
fuch pumps, one on each fide of the ftern, with a lever for
each hand, he might fteer himfeif by working occafionally
more or harder with either hand, as watermen now do with
a pair of fculls. There is no pofition in which the body of
a man can exert more ftrengththanin pulling right upwards.

To obtain more fwiftnefs, greafing the bottom of a vef-
fel is fometimes ufed, and with good eff^e<S. I do not
know that any writer has hitherto attempted to explain
this. At firft fight one would imagine, that though the
fridion of a hard body Hiding on another hard body, and

R r the

3IQ MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

the refiftance occafioned by that fridtlon, might be d!ml-
nifhed by putthig greafe between them, yet that a body
Aiding on a fluid, fuch as water, fliould have no need of
nor receive any advantage from fuch greafing. But the
faft is not difputed. And the reafon perhaps may be this..
The particles of water have a mutual attraction, called the
attradlion of adhefion. Water alfo adheres to wood, and
to many other fubftances, but not to greafe : On the
contrary they have a mutual repulfion, fo that it is a
qiieftion whether when oil is poured on water, they ever
adlually touch each other; for a drop of oil upon water,,
inftead of rticking to the fpot where it falls, as it would if
it fell on a looking-glafs, fpreads inftantly to an immenfe
diftance in a film extremely thin, which it could not eafily
do if it touched and rubbed or adhered even in a fmall de-
gree to the furface of the water. Now the adhefi ve force of
water to itfelf, and to other fubftances, may be eftimated
from the weight of it neceflary to feparate a drop, which,
adheres, while growing, till it has weight enough to force
the feparation and break the drop off. Let us fuppofe the
drop to be the fize of a pea, then there will be as many
of thefe adhefions as there are drops of that fize touching
the bottom of a veflel, and thefe muft be broken by the
moving power, every ftep of her motion that amounts to
a drop's breadth : And there being no fuch adhefions to
break between the water and a greafed bottom, may oc—
cafion the difference.

So much.refpedting the motion of veffels. But we have
fometimes occafion to ftop their motion ; and if a bottom
is near enough we can caft anchor : Where there are no
foundings, we have as yet no means to prevent driving in
a ftorm, but by lying-to, which ftill permits driving at
the rate of about two miles an hour; fo that in a ftorm
continuing fifty hours, which is not an uncommon cafe,
the ftiip may drive one hundred miles out of her courfe ;
and Ihould Ihc in that diftance meet with a lee fliorc, Ihe
may be loft. To

n

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 311

To prevent this driving to leeward in deep water, a
fwimming anchor is wanting, which ought to have thefe
properties.

1. It fhould have a furface fo large as being at the end
of a haufer in the water, and placed perpendicularly,
fhould hold fo much of it, as to bring the fhip's head to
the wind, in which fituation the wind has leaft power to
drive her.

2. It fhould be able by its refiftance to prevent the fhip's
receiving way.

3. It fhould be capable of being fituated below the heave
of the fea, but not below the undertow.

4. It fhould not take up much room in the fhip.

5. It fhould be eafily thrown out, and put into its pro-
per fituation.

6. It fhould be eafy to take in again, and {\.ov<: away.
An ingenious old mariner whom I formerly knew, pro-

pofed as a fwimming anchor for a large fhip to have a Hem
of wood twenty-five feet long and four inches fquare, with
four boards of 18, 16, 14, and 12, feet long, and one foot
wide, the boards to have their fubftance thickened feveral
inches in the middle by additional wood, and to have each
a four inch fquare hole through its middle, to permit its
being dipt on occafionally upon the ftem, and at right
angles with it ; where all being placed and fixed at four
feet diflance from each other, it would have the appear-
ance of the old mathematical inftrument called a foreftafF.
This thrown into the fea, and held by a haufer veered out
to fome length, he conceived would bring a veffel up, and
prevent her driving, and when taken in might be flowed
away by feparating the boards from the ftem. Figure 15.
Probably fuch a fwimming anchor would have fome good
effeft, but it is fubjedt to this objedion, that lying on the
furface of the fea, it is liable to be hove forward by every
wave, and thereby give fo much leave for the fhip to
drive.

R r 2 Two

312 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

Two machines for this purpofe have occurred to me,
which though not (o fimple as the above, I imagine would
be more effeftual, and more eafily manageable. I will
endeavour to defcribe them, that they may be fubmitted
to your judgment, whether either would be ferviceable;
and if they would, to which we fhould give the prefer-
ence.

The firft is to be formed, and to be ufed in the water
on almoft the fame principles with thofe of a paper kite
ufed in the air. Only as the paper kite riles in the air,
this is to defcend in the water, its dimenfions will be
different for fhips of different fize.

To make one of fuppofe fifteen feet high ; take a fmall
fpar of that length for the back-bone, AB, figure i6, a
fmaller of half that length C D, for the crofs piece. Let
thefe be united by a bolt at E, yet fb as that by turning
on the bolt they may be laid parallel to each other. Then
make a fail of flrong canvas,, in the fhape of figure 17.
To form this, without wafte of fail-cloth, few together
pieces of the proper lerkgth, and for half the breadth, as.
in figure 18, then cut the whole in the diagonal lines a»
b, c, and turn the piece F fo as to place its broad part op-
pofite to that of the piece G, and the piece H in like man-
ner oppofite to I, which when all fewed together will ap-
pear as in figure 17. This fail is to be extended on the
crofs of figure 16, the top and bottom points well fecured
to the ends of the long fpar ; the two fide points d, e,
faftencd to the ends of two cords, which coming from the
angle of the loop (which mufl be fimilar to the loop of a
kite) pafs through two rings at the ends of the fhort fpar,
fo as that on pulling upon the loop the fail will be drawn
to its extent. The whole may, when aboard, be furled
up, as in figure 19, having a rope from its broad end, to
which is tied a bag of ballafl: for keeping that end down-
vrards when in the water, and at the other end another
rope with an empty keg at its end to float on the furface ;

this

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 313

this rope long enough to permit the kite's defcending into
the undertow, or if you pleale lower into ftill water. It
fhould be held by a haufer. To get it home eafily, a fmall
loofe rope may be veered out with it, fixed to the keg.
Hauling on that rope will bring the kite home with fmall
force, the refiftance being fmall as it will then come endways.

It feems probable that fuch a kite at the end of a long
haufer would keep a fhip with her head to the wind, and
refilling every tug, would prevent her driving fo faft as
when her fide is expofed to it, and nothing to hold her
back. If only half the driving is prevented, fo as that
fhe moves but fifty miles inftead of the hundred during a
ftorm, it may be fome advantage, both in holding fo much
diftance as is faved, and in keeping from a lee fhore. If
fingle canvas fhould not be found ftrong enough to bear
the tug without fplitting, it may be doubled, or ftrength-
ened by a netting behind it, reprefented by figure 20.

The other machine for the fame purpofe, is lO be made
more in the form of an umbrella, as reprefented, figure 21.
The ftem of the umbrella a fquare fpar of proper length, ;
■with four moveable arms, of which two are reprefented
C, C, figure 22. Thefe arms to be fixed in four joint
cleats, as D, D, &c. one on each fide of the fpar, but fo
as that the four arms may open by turning on a pin in
the joint. When open they form a crofs, on which a
four fquare canvas fail is to be extended, its corners faft-
ened to the ends of the four arms. Thofe ends are alfo
to be flayed by ropes faftened to the ftcm or fpar, fo as to
keep them fhort of being at right angles with it : And to
the end of one of the arms ftiould be hung the fmall bag
of ballaft, and to the end of the oppofite arm the empty
keg. This on being thrown into the fea, would immedi-
ately open; and when it had performed its fundion, and
the ftorm over, a fmall rope from its other end being
pulled on, would turn it, clofe it, and draw it eafily home
to the fhip. This machine feems more fimple in its ope-
ration.

314 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

ration, and more eafily manageable than the firft, and
perhaps may be as efFe£tual.*

Veflels are fometimes retarded, and fometlmes forward-
ed in their voyages, by currents at fea, which are often
not perceived. About the year 1769 or 70, there was
an application made by the board of cuftoms at Bofton, to
the lords of the treafury in London, complaining that the
packets between Falmouth and New- York, were general-
ly a fortnight longer in their paffages, than merchant
fhips from London to Rhode-Ifland, and propofmg that for
the future they fhould be ordered to Rhode-Ifland inftead
of New-York. Being then concerned in the manage-
ment of the American poft-ofEce, I happened to be cou-
fulted on the occafion; and it appearing ftrange to me
that there fliould be fuch a difference between two places,
fcarce a day's run afunder, efpecially when the merchant
fhips are e^enerally deeper laden, and more weakly man-
ned tha^i the packets, and had from London the whole
length of the river and channel to run before they left
the land of England, while the packets had only to go
from Falmouth, I could not but think the fa£l mifunder-
ftood or mifreprefented. There happened then to be in
London, a Nantucket fea-captain of my acquaintance, to
whom I communicated the affair. He told me he believ-
ed the fa£l might be true ; but the difference was owing
to this, that the Rhode-Ifland captains were acquaint-
ed with the gulf ftream, which thofe of the Englifli
packets were not. We are well acquainted with that
ftream, fays he, becaufe in our purfuit of whales, which
keep near the fides of it, but are not to be met with in it,
we run down along the fides, and frequently crofs it to
change our fide: and in croffing it have fometimes met
and fpoke with thofe packets, who were in the middle of
it, and (lemming it. We have informed them that they

were

• Captain Tnucton, on board whofc fliip this was written, has eiecutcd tliis propoAil
machine; lie has given fix arms to tlic iiinltrella, they are ioined to the fiein i;y irou binges,
and the canvas ib double. He has taken it witli him to China, lebruary 1/86.

314 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

ration, and more eafily manageable than the firft, and
perhaps may be as efFe£tual.*

VefTels are fometimes retarded, and fometimes forward-
ed in their voyages, by currents at fea, which are often
not perceived. About the year 1 769 or 70, there was
an application made by the board of cuftoms at Bofton, to
the lords of the treafury in London, complaining that the
packets between Falmouth and New- York, were general-
ly a fortnight longer in their paffages, than merchant
fhips from London to Rhode-Ifland, and propofmg that for
the future they fhould be ordered to Rhode-Ifland inftead
of New-York. Being then concerned in the manage-
ment of the American poft-office, I happened to be con-
fulted on the occafion; and it appearing ftrange to me
that there fhould be fuch a difference between two places,
fcarce a day's run afunder, efpecially when the merchant
ihips are e-enerally deeper laden, and more weakly man-
ned tha/i the packets, and had from London the whole
length of the river and channel to run before they left
the land of England, while the packets had only to go
from Falmouth, I could not but think the fad miiunder-
ftood or mifreprefented. There happened then to be in
London, a Nantucket fea-captain of my acquaintance, to
whom I communicated the affair. He told me he believ-
ed the fa£t might be true ; but the difference was owing
to this, that the Rhode-Ifland captains were acquaint-
ed with the gulf flream, which thofe of the Englifh
packets were not. We are well acquainted with that
ftream, fays he, becaufe in our purl'uit of whales, which
keep near the fides of it, but are not to be met with in it,
we run down along the fides, and frequently crofs it to
change our fide: and in crolTing it have fometimes met
and fpoke with thofe packets, who were in the middle of
it, and ftemming it. Wc have informed them that they

were

• Captain Truxton, on board wliofc fliip this was written, has executed tliis propofctl
machini-; tic has piven fix anus to thi imihrclhi. ihcy an- joined to the fii-iu Vy irou binges,
and the canvas is double. He has taken it with liini to China, Icbruary 1786.

PMe.'5^

REMARKS

Vjnn Ihi Nnvigaiion from
NEWFOUNDLAND to NEW-YORK,

//) order to avoid tbi

GULPH STREAM

- m hand, ami m tht olljcr Ihr. SiiOAf.s thai Ik la Ihc Siiilh-warJ •/
Ni^iiluihl and of Hi. OVorjf/,. lianh.

AFTER you liavi- piifTiil tlic lianlts of Newfoundland in about
the 44tli (kK"M' ol latilliiic, you will meet with nothing, till
you draw near tlii-'Iflc of .Salilcs, which wc commonly puis in la-
titude 43. Southward of this iflc, the current is found to extend
itfelf as far North as 41° ifj or 30', then it turns towards the E.
S. E. or H. E. i E.

Having palTcd the Illc of Sables, fliane your tourfc for the St.
George's Banks, fo as to' nafs them in about latitude 40°, bccaul'i;
the current fouthward of tliofe biyiks reaches as far North as 31/°,
The flioals of thoi'e banks lie in 41° 35'.

After having palTed St. George's Banks, you mull, to clear Nan-
tucket, form your .uurl'e fo us to pals between the latitudes 38° 30^
and 40° 45'.

The mofl foutbcvn part of the iltoals of Nantucket lie in about
40° 45'. The northern part of the current dirciftly to the loTjth of
Nantucket is felt in about latitude 38° yd.

By obferving thcfe dirciflions and keeping between the ftreani
and the Ihoals, the palfage from the Banks of Newfoundland to
New-York, Delaware, or Virginia, may be onliderably (liorten-
cd; for fo you will have the advantage ofthe edtly current, which
moves contrary to the Gulph Streaui. Whereas if to avoid the
flioals you keep too far to the fouthward, and get into that flrcam,
you will be retarded by it at the rate of 60 or 70 miltjs a day.

Thc^Nantucket whale-men being extremely well acquainted with
■the Gulph Stream, its courfe, llrength and extent, by their con-
ftant pradlice of whaling on the edges of it, from their illand quite
down to the Bahamas, this draft of that ftream was obtained from
one of them, Capt. Folgcr, and caufed to be engraved on the old
chart in London, for the benefit' of navigators, by

B. frank;lin.

Note, The Nantucket captains who arc acquainted with this
ftream, make theii voyages from England to Bofton in as
fhort a time generally as others take in going from Bofloii
to England, viz. from jo to 30 days.

A ftranger may know when he is in the Gulph Stream, by
the warmth of the water, which is much greater than that
of the water on each fide of it. If then he is bound to the
■weft ward, he Ihould crofs the ftream to get out of it asfoon

as poOible,

B. F.

R

M

K

■riate.(5

upon the Namgation from
NEWFOUNDLAND to NEW-YORK,

In order to avoid the

GULPH STREAM

Ok one hand, and on the other the Shoal s that lie to the Southward »/
Nantucket and of St. George's Banh.

AFTER you have paffed the Banks of Newfoundland in ahout
the 44th degree of latitude, you will meet with nothing, till
vou draw near the IQe of Sables, which we commonly pais in la-
titude 43. Southward of this ifle, the current is found to extend
itfelf as far North as 41° %d or ^d, then it turns towards the 1,
S. E. or S. E. \ E.

Having paffed the lOe of Sables, (hape your courfc for the St.
George's Banks, fo as to pafs them in about latitude 40°, becaule
the cSrrent fouthward of thofe banks reaches as far North as 39°.
The ftioals of thole banks lie in 41° 35'.

After having paffed St. George's Banks, you muft, to clear Nan-
tucket, form your courfe fo as to pafs between the latitudes 38 SO*
and 40° 4j'.

The moft fouthcrn part of the fhoals of Nantucket lie in about
40° 45'. The northern part of the current direflly to the fouth of
Nantucket is felt in about latitude 38° id.

Bv obferving thefe direaions and keeping between the ftream
and the fhoals, the paffage from the Banks of Newfoundland to
New- York, Delaware, or Virginia, may be confiderably (horten-
cd • for fo you will have the advantage of the eddy current, which
moves contrary to the Gulph Stream. Whereas if to avoid the
Ilioals you keep too far to the fouthward, and get into that ftream,
you will be retarded by it at the rate of 60 or 70 miles a day.

The -Nantucket whale-men being extremely well acquainted with
the Gulph Stream, its courfe, ftrength and extent, by their con-
ftant praaice of whaling on the edges of it, from their liland quite
down to the Bahamas, this draft of that flream was obtained from
one of them, Capt. Folger, and caufed to be engraved on the old
chart in London, for the benefit of navigators, by

B. FRANKLIN.

Note The Nantucket captains who are acquainted \vith thij
ftream, make their voyages from England to Bofton m as
fhort a time generally as others take in going Irom iSoUoii
to England, viz. from 20 to 30 days.

A ftranger may know when he is in the Gulph Stream, by
the warmth of the water, which is much greater than that
of the water on each fide of it. If then he is bound to the
weftward, he fliould crofs the ftream to get out of it as loon
as poffible.

foundland

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 5x5:

were ftemming a current, that was againft them to the
Talue of three miles an hour; and advifed them to crofs
it and get out of it; but they were too wife to be coun--
felled by fimple American fiihermen. When the winds
are but Hght, he added, they are carried back by the'
current more than they are forwarded by the wind; and-
if the wind be good, the fubtradtion of 70 miles a day
from their courfe is of fome importance. I then obferved
that it was a pity no notice was taken of this current up-
on the charts, and requefted him to mark it out for me,
which he readily complied with, adding directions for a-
voiding it in failing from Europe to North-America. I
procured it to be engraved by order from the general port-
office, on the old chart of the Atlantic, at Mount and Page's,
Tower-hill ; and copies were fent down to Falmouth for
the captains of the packets, who flighted it however ; but
it is fmce printed in France, of which edition I hereto an--
nex a copy.

This ftream is probably generated by the great accu-
mulation of w ater on the eaftern coaft of America between'
the tropics, by the trade winds which conftantly blow
there. It is known that a large piece of water ten miles
broad and generally only three feet deep, has by a ftrong
wind had its waters driven to one fide and fuftained fo as
to become fix feet deep, while the windward fide was laid
dry. This may give fome idea of the quantity heaped up
on the American coaft, and the reafon of its running down
in a ftrong current through the iflands into the bay of
Mexico, and from thence ifluing through the gulph of'
Florida, and proceeding along the coaft to the banks of
Newfoundland, where it turns off towards and runs down
through the Weftern iflands. Having fince croffed this
ftream feveral times in paffing between America and Eu--
rope, I have been attentive to fundry circumftances relat-
ing to it, by which to know when one is in it; and be-
fides the gulph weed with which it is interfperfed, I find

that-

3i6 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

that it is always warmer than the fea on each fide of it,
and that it does not fparkle in the night : I annex hereto
the obfervations made with the thermometer in two voy-
ages, and poiTibly may add a third. It will appear from
them, that the thermometer may be an ufeful inftrument
to a navigator, fmce currents coming from the northward
into fouthern feas, will probably be found colder than the
water of thofe feas, as the currents from fouthern feas into
northern are found warmer. And it is not to be wonder-
ed that fo vaft a body of deep warm water, feveral leagues
wide, coming from between the tropics and ifTuing out of
the gulph into the northern feas, fhould retain its warmth
longer than the twenty or thirty days required to its paf-
fmg the banks of Newfoundland. The quantity is too
great, and it is too deep to be fuddenly cooled by pafling
imder a cooler air. The air immediately over it, how-
ever, may receive fo much warmth from it as to be rari-
fled and rife, being rendered lighter than the air on each
fide of the ftream ; hence thofe airs muft; flow in to fup-
ply the place of the rifing warm air, and meeting with
each other, form thofe tornados and water-fpouts fre-
quently met with, and feen near and over the ftream; and
as the vapour from a cup of tea in a warm room, and
the breath of an animal in the fame room, are hardly vifi-
ble, but become fenfible immediately when out in the cold
air, fo the vapour from the gulph ftream, in warm lati-
tudes is fcarcely vifible, but when it comes into the cool
air from Newfoundland, it is condenfed into the fogs, for
which thofe parts are fo remarkable.

The power of wind to raife water above its common
level in the fea, is known to us in America, by the high
tides occafioned in all our fea-ports when a ftrong north-
eafter blows againft the gulph ftream.

The conclufion from thefe remarks is, that a veflel from
Europe to North-America may fhorten her paffage by a-
voiding to ftem the ftream, in which the thermometer will

be

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 317

'be very ufeful ; and a veflel from America to Europe may
do the fame by the fame means of keeping in it. It may
have often happened accidentally, that voyages have been
fhoriened by thefe circumftances. It is well to have the
command of them.

But may there not be another caufe, independent of
■winds and currents, why palTages are generally Ihorter
from America to Europe than from Europe to America ?
This queftion I formerly confidered in the following fhort
paper.

On board the Pennfylvania Packet, Capt. Ofborne,
At fea, April 5, 1 775.

" Suppofe a fhip to make a voyage eallward from a
■place in lat. 40° north, to a place in lat. 50° north, diftance
in longitude 75 degrees.

" In failing from 40 to 50, fhe goes from a place where
a degree of longitude is about eight miles greater than in
the place fhe is going to. A degree is equal to four mi-
nutes of time ; confequently the fhip in the harbour fhe
leaves, partaking of the diurnal motion of the earth, moves
two miles in a minute fafter, than when in the port fhe
is going to ; which is 120 miles in an hour.

" This motion in a fhip and cargo is of great force ; and
if fhe could be lifted up fuddenly from the harbour in
which fhe lay quiet, and fet down inflantly in the latitude
of the port fhe was bound to, though in a calm, that force
contained in her would make her run a great way at a
prodigious rate. This force muft be loft gradually in her
voyage, by gradual impulfe againft the water, and proba-
bly thence fhorten the voyage. Query, In returning does
the contrary happen, and is her voyage thereby retarded
and lengthened ?" *

Would it not be a more fecure method of planking fhlps,

if inftead of thick fmgle planks laid horizontally, we were

S s to

* Since this paper was read at the Society, an ingenious member, Mr. Patterfon, has cor,-
viaced th<; writer that the returning voyage would not, from this caufe, be retarded.

3i8 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

to ufe planks of half the thicknefs, and lay them double"
and acrofs each other as in figure 23 ? To me it feems thaC
the difference of expence would not be confiderable, and
that the fhip would be both tighter and ftronger.

The fecuring of the fhip is not the only neceffary thing;'
fecuring the health of the failors, a brave and valuable or-
der of men, is likewife of great importance. With this
view the methods fo fuccefsfuUy pradtifed by Captain Cook
in his long voyages, cannot be too clofely ftudied or care-
fully imitated. A full account of thofe methods is found
in Sir John Pringle's fpeech, when the medal of the Royal
Society was given to that illuftrious navigator. T am glad
to fee in his laft voyage that he found the means effeftual
which I had pr.opofed tor preferving flour, bread, &c. from
moifture and damage. They were found dry and good
after being at fea four years. The method is defcribed in
my printed works, page 452, fifth edition. In the fame,
page 469, 470, is propofed a means of allaying thirft in
cafe of want of frefh water. This has fmce been pradtifed
in two inftances with fuccefs. Happy if their hunger,
when the other provifions areconfumed, could be relieved
as commodioufly;. and perhaps in time this may be found
not impofTible. An addition might be made to their pre-
fent vegetable provifion, by drying various roots in flices
by the means of an oven. The fweet potatoe of Ameri-
ca and Spain, is excellent for this purpofe. Other po-'
tatoes, with carrots, parfnips and turnips, might be pre-
pared and preferved in the fame manner.

With regard to make-fhifts in cafes of neceffity, feamen
are generally very ingenious themfclves. They will ex-
cufe however the mention of two or three. If they hap-
pen in any circumftance, fuch as after fliipvvreck, taking
to their boat, or the like, to want a compafs, a fine few-
ing-needlc laid on clear water in a cup will generally
point to the north, mofi: of them being a little magnetical,
or may be made fo by being ftrongly rubbed or hammer-
ed,

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 319

'ed, lying in a north and fouth dlredion. If their needle is
too heavy to float by itfelf, it may be fupported by little
pieces of cork or wood. A man who can fwim, may be
aided in a long traverfe by his handkerchief formed into
a kite, by two crofs flicks extending to the four corners;
which being raifed in the air, when the wind is fair and
frefli, will tow him along while lying on his back.
Where force is wanted to move a heavy body, and there
are but few hands and no machines, a long and ftrong
rope may make a powerful inftrument. Suppofe a boat
is to be drawn up on a beach, that fhe may be out of the
fiirf, a ftake drove into the beach where you would have
the boat drawn ; and another to faften the end of the rope
to, which comes from the boat, and then applying what
force you have to pull upon the middle of the rope at right
angles with it, the power will be augmented in proporti-
on to the length of rope between the ports. The rope
being faftened to the ftake A, and drawn upon in the di-
redtion C D, will Aide over the ftake B; and when the
rope is hent to the angle A D B, reprefented by the prick-
ed line in figure 24, the boat will be at B.

Some failors may think the writer has given himfelf un-
neceflary trouble in pretending to advife them ; for they
have a little repugnance to the advice of landmen, whom,
they efteem ignorant and incapable of giving any worth
notice; though it is certain that moft of their inftruments
were the invention of landmen. At leaft the firft veffel
ever made to go on the water was certainly fuch. I will
therefore add only a few words more, and they ftiall be
addrefled to paffengers.

When you intend a long voyage, you may do well to
keep your intention as much as poflible a fecret, or at leaft
the time of your departure ; otherwife you will be conti-
nually interrupted in your preparations by the vifits of
friends and acquaintance, who will not qnly rob you of
the time you want, but put things out of your mind, fo

S s 2 that

320 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.'

that when you come to fca, you have the mortification to-
recolleft points of bufinefs that ought to have been done,,
accounts you had intended to fettle, and conveniencies you;
had propofed to bring with you, &c. &c. all which have
been omitted through the effeft of thefe officious friendly
vifits. Would it not be well if this cuftom could be chang-
ed ; if the voyager after having, without interruption,
made all his preparations, fhould ufe fome of the time he
has left, in going himfelf to take leave of his friends at
their own houfcs, and let them come to congratulate hiiiX'
on his happy return.

It is not always in your power to make a choice in your
captain, though much of your comfort in the paffage may
depend on his perfonal chara£ler, as you muft for fo long
a time be confined to his company, and under his direc-
tion ; if he be a fenfible, fociable, good natured, obliging
man, you will be fo much the happier. Such there are;
but if he happens to be otherwife, and is only fkilful,
careful, watchful and a£tive in the condudl of his fhip,.
excufe the reft, for thefe are the effentials.

Whatever right you may have by agreement in the mafs
of flores laid in by him for the pafl^engers, it is good to
have fome particular things in your own pofleffion, fo as
to be always at your own command.

I. Good water, that of the fhip being often bad. You
can be fure of having it good only by bottling it from a
clear fpring or well and in clean bottles. 2. Good tea.
3. Coffee ground. 4. Chocolate. 5. Wine of the fort
you particularly like, and cyder. 6. Raifins. 7. Almonds
8. Sugar. 9. Capillaire. 10. Lemons. 1 1. Jamaica fpirits.
12. Eggs greas'd. 13. Diet bread. 14. Portable foup.
15. Rufks. As to fowls, it is not worth while to have
any called yours, unlefs you could have the feeding and
managing of them according to your own judgment under
your own eye. As they arc generally treated at preient
in fhips, they are for the moft part fick, and their flefh

tough

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 321

tough and hard as whitleather. All feamen have an opi-
nion, broached I fuppoled at firft prudently, for faving of
■water when Ihort, that fowls do not know when they
have drank enough, and will -kill themfelves if you give
them too much, fo they are ferved with a little only once
in two days. This is poured into troughs that lie flope-
ing, and therefore immediately runs down to the lower
end. There the fowls ride upon one another's backs to
get at it, and fome are not happy enough to reach and
once dip their bills in it. Thus tantalized, and torment-
ed with thirft, they cannot digeft their dry food, they fret,
pine, ficken and die. Some are found dead, and thrown
overboard every morning, and thofe killed for the table
are not eatable. Their troughs fhould be in little divifi-
ons like cups to hold the water feparately, figure 25. But
this is never done. The fheep and hogs are therefore
your beft dependance for frelh meat at fea, the mutton
being generally tolerable and the pork excellent.

It is pofTible your captain may have provided fo well
in the general ftores, as to render fome of the particulars
above recommended of little or no ufe to you. But there
are frequently in the fhip poorer pafTengers, who are
taken at a lower price, lodge in the fteerage, and have no
claim to any of the cabbin provifions, or to any but thofe'
kinds that are allowed the failors. Thefe people are'
fometimes deje£ted, fometimes fick, there may be women
and children among them. In a fituation where there
is no going to market, to purchafe fuch neceflaries, a
few of thefe your fuperfluities diftributed occafionally may
be of great fervice, reftore health, fave lit-e, make the mi--
ferable happy, and thereby afford you infinite pleafure.

The worrt thing in ordinary merchant fhips is the
cookery. They have no profefled cook, and the worft
hand as a feaman is appointed to that office, in which he
x& not only very ignorant but very dirty. The failors

have-

322 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

have therefore a faying, that God fends meat and the devil
cooks. Paffengers more piouHy difpofed, and willing to
believe heaven orders all things for the beft, may fuppofe
that knowing the fea-air and conftant exercife by the mo-
tion of the veflel would give us extraordinary appetites,
bad cooks were kindly fent to prevent our eating too
much ; or, that forefeeing we fhould have bad cooks, good
appetites were furnifhed to prevent our ftarving. If you
cannot truft to thefe circumftances, a fpirit-lamp, with a
blaze-pan, may enable you to cook fome little things for
yourfelf ; fuch as a hafh, a foup, &c. And it might be
well alfo to have among your ftores fome potted meats,
which if well put up will keep long good. A fmall tin-
oven to place with the open fide before the fire, may
be another good utenfil, in which your own fervant
may roaft for you a bit of pork or mutton. You will
fometimes be induced to eat of the fliip's fait beef, as it is
often good. You will find cyder the beft quencher of
that thirft which fait meat or fifh occafions. The fhip
bifcuit is too hard for fome fets of teeth. It may be foft-
ened by toafting. But rufk is better; for being made of
good fermented bread, fliced and baked a fecond time, the
pieces imbibe the water eafily, foften immediately, digeft
more kindly and are therefore more wholfome than the
imfermented bifcuit. By the way, rufk is the true ori-
ginal bifcuit, fo prepared to keep for fea, bifcuit in French
fignifying twice baked. If your dry peas boil hard, a
two-pound iron fliot put with them into the pot, will by
the motion of the fhip grind them as fine as muftard.

The accidents I have feen at fea with large difhes of
foup upon a table, from the motion of the fliip, have made
me wifh that our potters or pewterers would make foup-
difhes in divifions, like a fet of fmall bowls united toge-
gethcr, each containing about fufficient for one pcrfon, in
fome fuch form as fig. 26 ; for then when the fliip fhould
make a hidden heel, the foup would not in a body flow

over

MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 323;

over one fide, and fall into people's laps and fcald them,;
as is fometimes the cafe, but would be retained in the fe-
parate divifions, as in figure 27.

After tliefe trifles, permit the addition of a few general-
reBe(£tions. NaA'igation when employed in fupplying ne-
celfary provilions to a country in want, and thereby pre-
venting famines, which were more frequent and deftruc-
tive before the invention of that art, is undoubtedly a
bleffmg to mankind. When employed merely in tranf-
porting fuperfluities, it is a queftlon whether the advan-
tage of the employment it affords is equal to the mif-
chief of hazarding fo many lives on the ocean. But when
employed in pillaging merchants and tranfporting flaves, it
is clearly the means of augmenting the mafs of humaa
mifery. It is amazing to think of the fhips and lives
rifqued in fetching tea from China, coffee from Arabia,
fugar and tobacco from America, all which our anceftors
did well without. Sugar employs near one thoufand fhips,
tobacco almoft as many. For the utility of tobacco there
is little to be faid ; and for that of fugar, how much more
commendable would it be if we could give up the few mi-
nutes gratification afforded once or twice a day by the tafte
of fugar in our tea, rather than encourage the cruelties
exercifed in producing it. An eminent French moralift'
fays, that when he confiders the wars we excite in Africa
to obtain flaves, the numbers neceffarily flain in thofe wars,
the many prifoners who perifh at fea by ficknefs, bad pro-
vifions, foul air, &c. &c. in the tranfportation, and how
many afterwards die from the hardfhips of flavery, he can-
not look on a piece of fugar without conceiving it ftained
with fpots of human blood ! Had he added the confidera-
tion of the wars we make to take and retake the fugar
iflands from one another, and the fleets and armies that
perifh in thofe expeditions, he might have feen his fugar
not merely fpotted, but thoroughly dyed fcarlet in grain.
It is thefe wars that make the maritime powers of Europe,

the

324 MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

the Inhabitants of London a«d Paris, pay dearer for fugar
than thofe of Vienna, a thoufand miles from the fea ; be-
caufe their fugar cofts not only the price they pay for it
by the pound, but all they pay in taxes to maintain the
fleets and armies that fight for it.

With great efteem, I am, Sir,

Your moft obedient humble fervant,

B. PRANKLIN.

Obfervatlons

IWfARTTIME OBSERVATIONS. 32J

renheit's thermometer, in crofling
d the Pennfylvania packet, Capt.
il and May 1775.

i

s

Much gulph weed ; faw a whale.

Colour of water changed.

No gulph weed.

Sounded, no bottom.

Much light in the water laft nig.

Water again of the ufual deepfea
colour, little or no light in it at
night.

Frequent gulph weed, water con-
tinues of fea colour, little light.

Much light.

Much light all laft night.

Colour of water changed.

Much light.

Much light. Thunder-guft.

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ti other remarks made
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MARITIME OBSERVATIONS.

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MARITIME OBSERVATIONS. 329

OBSERVATIONS.

July 31. At one P. M. the Start bore W N W. diftant rix leagues.

Auguft I. The water appears luminous in the fnip's wake.

—2. The temperature of the water is taken at eight in the morning and at eight in the
evening.

—6. The water appears lefs luminous.

— 7. Formegas S \V. dilt. 324 dcg. St. \^ary's SW-^S ;^2 leagues.

— 8. From this date the temperature of the water is taken at eight in the mornino- and at
fix in the evening.

— 10. Moonlight, which prevents the luminous appearance of the water.

— II. A ftrong foutherly current.

—12. Ditto. From this date the temperature of the air and water was talcen at noon,
as well as morning and evening.

— 16. Northerly current.

—19. Firll faw gulph weed.

—21. Southerly current.

— 22. Again law gulph weed.

■^24. The water appeared luminous in a fmall degree before the moon rofc-

—29. No moon, yet very little light in the water,

—30. Much gulph weed to-day_.

—31. Ditto.

Sept. I. Ditto.

■ — 2. A little more light in the water.

—4. No gulph weed to-day. More light in the water.

—5. Some gulph weed again.

•^6. Little-light in the water. A very, hard thunder-guft in the night,

— 7. Little- gulph 'W^ced.

—8. More light in the water. Little gulph weed.

—9. Little gulph weed. Little light in the water laft evening.

— 10. Saw Ibme beds of rock-weed; and we were furprifed to obferve the water fix dc--
grees colder by the thermometer than the preceding noon.

This day (10th) the thermometer iHUkept defccnding» and at five in the morning of the
Ilth, it was in water as low as 70, when we ftruck foundings. The fame evening the pilot
came on board, and we found our fliip about five degrees of longitude a-head of the reckon-
ing, which our captain accounted for by fuppofmg our courfe to have been near the edge of the
gulph ftrcam, and thus an eddy-current always in our favour. By the dirtance we ran from
Sept. 9, in the evening, till we llruck foundings, we muft have then been at the weftern edge
of the gulph rtream, and the change in the temperature of the water was probably owing to
our fuddenly palTrng from that current, into the waters of our own climate.

On the 14th of Auguft the following experiment was made. The weather being perfectly
calm, an empty bottle, corked very tight, was fent down 20 fathoms, and it was drawn up
ftill empty. It was then fent down again ^s fathoms, when the weight of the water having
forced in the cork, it was drawn up full ; the water it contained was immediately tried hy
the thermometer, and found to be 70, which was fix degrees colder than at the furface : The
lead and bottle were vifible, but not very diftindlly fo, at the depth of 1 2 fathoms but when
only 7 fathoms deep, they were perfe(51:ly fccn from the fhip. This experiment was thus re-
peated Sept. II, when we were in foundings of 18 fathoms. A keg was previoufly prepared
with a valve at each end, one opening Inward the other outward ; this was fent to the bottom
in expedlation tliat by the valves being both open when going down, and both fhut when com-
ing up, it would keep within it the water received at bottom. The upper valve performed
its office well, but the under one did not Ihut quite clofe, fo that much of the water was lort
in hauling it up the ftiip's fide. As the water in the keg's palTage upwards could not enter at
the top, it was concluded that what water remained in it was of that near the ground, and on
trying this by the thermometer, it was found to be at 58, which was la degrees colder than
at the furface.

This laji Journal tyas obligingly hptfor me by Mr, J. IViUiams, my fellozv-pajfenger in the ton- -
don Packet, ivbo made all the ei^pcriments.ivitb great eaa^nefi, -^

I SS'^ ]

N° XXXIX.

Two Hearts found in one Partridge.

ALL the works of nature are linked the one to the
other and form a whole, in the immenfity of which
we only perceive fome points which appear to us detach-
ed, becaufe thofe which unite them are concealed from
us.

The refult of this connexion is, that no work of na-
ture ought to be negleded, that there is not one which
may not derive fome diredt or indirect utility to man.

That which appears futile, fhould be grafped like the
others, and inpoffeffing ourfelves of it we fhould be aflured
that we have hold of a chain, the precious links of which
will be difcovered by time\ If thofe links which are
wanting leave vacancies, the intermediate links are every
day prefented to us by the hand of chance; and it is the
bufmefs of the naturalift to arrange them. Let us then of-
fer

DEUX COEURS TROUVES DANS UNE PERDRIX.

TOUS Ics faits de la nature font lies les uns aux autres, et fornient un tout, dans I'imnien-
fite duquil nous n'appercevons que quclqucs points, qui nous paroiffcnt ifolcs parcc-que
ceux qui Ics unifient nous Ibnt caches. II refulte de cet enchaiiiement qu'aucun fait dc la na-
ture ne doit etre neglige, qu'il en eft pas un qui ne puiffe dcvenir de quelque utilite pour
I'homme, foit direifte ou indirefte. Celui qui paroit le plus futile doit ftre recueilli comme
les autres ; en Ic faifilTant on doit etre affure qu'on tient une chaine ou le temps dccouvrira dc»
chainons precieux'. Si ceux qui manquenty laiffcnt des lacunes, ccs chainonsintermediaires nou»
font tous ics jours prefcntes par la main du hazard, et celle du naturaliftc les met a leurs places.

OflVons

(a) We here fee women fit quiet in their houfes whilft thunder is rumMing over their heads;
would they, at tiiis day, enjoy this happy fecurity, if a man ha'd not obfervcd, fome thoufand
years ago, that a piece of amlier when ruhbed attraifted light bodies which are near it. It
is he who put into the hands of inodern philofophers the chain in which Franklin was to find
the link, from which his imagination took the hint of his conduiilor.

• Nout voyonj id Ifs jcmmcs iratiquiltei datis hurt m^lfcns Urfqtir la taittifrre grondc fur leur ictf,
^ouiroic/tt ellei aitjourJbiii de cdte heureufe JccitrH!^ ft un hamme nui'oit oUJcrve U y a tjudqucs miHu-rt
d'amm, qu' un moruail d'ambre frottf attire lis cwpa le^ns qui'Vavoifinrnl? C'cjilui qui a mis daiit
les maths des ph^fuitns mtderms la cbaine ou Franklin dcvoit trouver le chainm dont il cj) farti fvut
imagiiier fun condu^cur.

FARTRIDGE with two HEARTS, jjr

fEr him all thofe which we meet with. It increafes the
mafs of human knowledge, and enriches a ftore-houle
which is very precious to man; a ware-houfe belonging
to all nations and to all ages. Not to lodge every new
difcovery in this common ftore, is to fquander away riches
which we held only in truft, and in which the moft di-
ftant generations have an intereft. This is criminally de-
priving humanity of a bleffing which is intended for the
good of fociety.

The foregoing refledions induce me to publifh the
following fa£t. Monfieur Verge, fenior furgeon of the
artillery, lodged next door to me, and came into my room
with the entrails of a partridge which he hadjuft opened,
and Ihewed me two hearts attached to one lung by blood
veflels. I requefted him to go immediately to the chev.
de Chaftellux, knowing that the phenomenon would be
interefting to him. But wifhing firft to ftep home, and
not being able with one hand to open the padlock which
fattened his door, he put down the faucer which contained
the entrails; his dog who had followed, fuppofing it was
a mefsfor himfelf, foon emptied the faucer.

The chevalier de Chaftellux called on me an hour after-
wards to fee a. male opoflum, of which I fpoke to him on

account

Offrons lui done tous ceux que nous rencontrons, c'eft groffir la maffe des connoiffances humai-
nes, et enrichir le magazin le plus precitrux a rhomme, magazin qui appartient/ toutes les na-
tions et a tous les fiecles. Ne pas rapporter a ce depot commun les faits nouveaux que Ton de-
couvre, c'eft perdre des richeites dont on etoit depofitaire, et fur lefquelles les generations les
plus reculees avoient des droits. C'eft fc rendre coupable envers I'humanite, en la fruftrant
d*un bien dont on lui etoit comptable.

Ce font ces reflexions qui m'engagent a rendre publique le fait fuivant.

Le Sieur Verge, chirurgien major de I'artiUerie, loge a cote de chez moi, entra il y a quel-
ques jours dans ma chambrCj tenant dans fes mains les entrailles d'une perdrix qu'ii venoit
d'ouvrir, et m'y fit remarquer deux coeurs qui tenoient a un meme poumon par des vaiifeaux
fanguins. Je le priai d'aller fur le champ les faire voir a Mr. le Chevr. de Chaftellux, que je
favois que ce phenomene interefleroit. Mais ayant voulu auparavant rentrer chez lui, et ne
pouvant d'une main ouvrir le cadenat qui ferme fa porte, il pofa a terre la foucoupe fur la
quelle etoient ces entrailles. Son chien, qui I'avoit fuivi, crut que c'etoit pour lui, et tut
hientot vide la foucoupe. Mr. le Chevr. de Chaftellux vint une heure apres chez moi, voir un
opoiium male, dont je lui avois parle a caufe de la Cngularite des organes de la generation de

332 PARTRIDGE with two HEARTS.

account of the fingularity of his organs of generation'',
I mentioned to him the two hearts, he could not compre-
hend me. I fent to afk of the fenior furgeon why he did
not do what I requefted of him ; he came and related
the accident of the faucer. The chevalier de Chaftellux
judged there was no other way of repairing the lofs but by
a certificate, ftating what we had feen; but every thing
confpired againft the defire the chevalier de Chaftellux
and I had to perpetuate the phenomenon ; the dog had de-
prived us of the monument; the mafter refufed us his
certificate, faying, one cannot be too circumfpedt in affirm-
ing a fadl which we ought not to judge of from external
appearances ; but to be convinced that that which appeared
to us as two hearts were really fo, they ought to have been
diffeded, &c. One cannot too much applaud the fcruples
of Mr. Verge ; but regarding as much my veracity as Mr.
Verge his, I am not afraid to hazard an exadt relation of
what I have feen, without alteration or exaggeration. I
faw, then, two flefhy fubftances of a brown violet colour,
of an oblong form, thicker at one end than the other, nearly
round taken tranfverfely. Thefe two fubftances refembled

each

cet anlmalf. Je lui parlai des deus coeurs; il ne fcut ceqiie je lu! voulois dire: J'envoyai de-
mandcr au chinirgcon major pourquoi il n'avoit pas execute ce que je lui avoit dit ; il vint nous
racontcr I'accident de la foucoupc. Mr. le Chevr. de Chaftellux jugca qu'l n'y avoit pas
d'autre moycn de rcparer cette perte, que par un proces verbal, qui coiillata ce que nous avions
vu. Mais tout confpiroit tontre le defir que Mr. Ic Chevr. de Chaftellux et moi avions de
perpctuer le fouvcnir de ce phenomene: Le chicn nous a prive du monument ; Ic maitre nous

rcfufe fon atteftation, &{-a\\., (ju'en m ptut etrc trap cinonffeU a affirmcr un fail ; quil nt fttui pat
juger fur da uppiircncti cslciiei'rj ; que pour ctr< ajfur>- quf cc qui nous a paru des coeur s fujfent reellement
des coeurs^ qu il eut fdllu Us avoir ouverts^ \^t. On ne pcut qu'aplaudir aux ftntimcnts qui rendent
M. Verge fi fcrupulcux. Mais en me piquant d'autant de vcracitc que M. Verge, je ne
crains point de la compromettre en rendant exaiflement ce que j'ai vu, fans alteration et fans
cxagcration. Or j'ai vii deux corps charnus d*un violet brun, de forme mi peu oblongue,
plus gros par un bout que par Tautre, uii peu plus convcxe d'un cote que de I'autrc, a peu
prcs roiids confidcrcs tranfverfalement. Ces deux corps etoient abfulument femblables Tun a

I'autre

(b) It has nothing external except the two tefticles placed under the belly ; the male and the
female have but one orifice placed under the tail, which ferves them to void their excrements,
their urine, and iirobably for generation. It is not known whether a penis conies out of this
orifice, or whether there is nothing but an opening of the two orifices in the aCl of copulation.

■|* // n\i cTexterieur que deux tejiicules placees fous le 'ventre^ le male et la femelU n ont qu un triftc9
place fous la queue qui leur fcrt a viiler tes excrements, tes urines, et probahletneut a la gineration. Oh
ignore ft par ee cloaqut It male fort unt verge ^ vu s*il lie fe fait quun abQUihimtnt del dtuit oriftet l«n
lit la tcpulativn.

PARTRIDGE with two HEARTS. -3^

each other exadly in fize, form and colour. From their
thicker ends came out feveral veffels, among them I ob-
ferved one to each of the bodies pretty large and paler
than the reft ; a part of this veffel was fattened to the
lungs in fuch a manner, that by taking hold of only the
lungs, thefe two bodies in queftion were both fufpended at
the fame diftance from the lungs. In placing thefe vifcera
on the hand in fuch a manner that the refembling fides of
thefe two bodies faced each other, the veffels which were
fufpended appeared uniformly difpofed, which makes me
imagine that the two bodies were uniformly difpofed in
the body of the animal". However, the above obfervati-*
ons being frefh in my memory, I ordered the entrails of
four dozen of partridges of the fame fpecies'', juft taken
out, to be brought me; and I found in each a body like
the double body which had been found in the bird of Mr.
Verge, having fimilar veffels, fome of which were paler
than others, adhering in the fame manner to the lungs,
and this body was certainly a heart or my partridges had
none. I neverthelefs leave every one at liberty to judge
U u which

Vautre, en volume, en forme, et en couleur ; dc leur ^os bout fortoient plufieurs vaifTeaux,
parmi lefquels j'en remarquai un a chacun de ces corps, afsez gros et de couleur plus pale que
les autrcs'; une partie de ces vaiffeaux tenoient au poumon, de maniere que faifilTant feule-
ment le poumon, les deux corps dont il s'agit y reftoient fufpcndus tous deux a la meme dif-
tance du poumon. En arrangeant ces vifceres fur la main, de maniere que les cotes femblableS
de ces deux corps fe regardalTent, les vaiffeaux qui y tenoient fe trouvoient fimetriquement
difpofcs; ce qui me fait juger que ces deux corps devoient fe trouverdans i'animal fimetrique-
ment places'*. Enfin ayant encore la memoire fraicbe des obfervations fufdites, je me fis ap-
porter les entrailles de quatre douzaines de perdrix de la meme efpecef que Ton venoit de vi-
der, et j'ai vii qu'il fe trouvoit dans chacune un corps en tout femblable a celui qui s'etoit
trouve double dans la perdrix de M. Verge, ayant de paceils vaiffeaux, dont un plus pale que
les autres, tenant de la meme maniere au poumon, et ce corps etoit certainement un coeur,
ou mes perdrix n'en avoient pas. Je laiffe maintcnant chacun libre de juger lequel paroit !e
plus vraifemblable, qu'une perdrix cut deux coEurs, ou qu'il ne s'en trouva pas un feul dans

quarante

* 7' prefume quih occupoient les deux colJl Ju thorax, et que les veines Je I'un s' anaf.omcfiiertt auK
art res de f autre et rectproquem'cnt.

(c) I prefume that they occupied the two fides of the thorax, and that the veins of the one
anaftamofed with the arteries of the other, and vice verfa.

f Elle eji un peu plus petite que celle qu'on appelle en France perdrix de pajfage ou raquette, eltefe
percbe de meme.

(d) It appears rather fmallt-r than that which, in France, is called perdrix de paffage, or
raquette ; they fit on a tree in the fame manner.

334 PARTRIDGE with two HEARTS.

■which was the moft probable, that one partridge had two
hearts, or that forty-eight had none at all. It may indeed
be objeded, that the firft might have a true and a falfe
one. Mr. Voltaire, who believes that nature amufes her-
felf in making concha veneris, might alfo believe that fhe
diverted herfelf in imitating two hearts. I fhould there-
fore be as circumfpe6t as Mr. Verge, and not affirm foon-
er than him that his partridge had two hearts, for I may
be miftaken. I am, however, infinitely more certain of it
than that it had but one.

D'ABOVILLE.
Williamfburgh, Feb. 15, 1782.

I the fubfcriber, fenior furgeon of the regiment of Aux-
onne, and of the artillerymen of the king's army in Ame-
rica, do declare, that the loth of this month, having taken
out the entrails of the body of a partridge, there appeared to
me two hearts. However, during the Ihort time that I had
to infpe£t them, I was fo aftonifhed with fo furprizing a
phenomenon, that I fear my eyes may have deceived me,
and I dare not to affirm what I believe I faw. I went im-
mediately to a. merchant, who lodged next door to me, to
fhow him this miracle, and alfo to Mr. Aboville. The lat-
ter has juft read to me the account he has written of this
phenomenon as it appeared to him. I hereby certify that

I faw

quarcnte huit pertlrix. Il reftera a dire que la premiere ponvoit en avoir un vrai ct un faiiy^
M. dc Voltaire, qui croyoit que la nature s'aniufc a imitcrdes conqua veneris, auroit pu croire
qu'ellc s'amufc aulTi a contrefaire des coeurs; je ferai done aufli circonlpeiil que M. Verge, et-
n'aflirmerai pas plus que lui que fa perdrix avoit deux cceurs, car je pourrois me tromperfc
i'en fuis cepeudaut infiiiiment plus certain que je ne le fuis de n'en avoir qu'un.

A Willianifburg en Virginie, le 15 Fev. 1782.
(Sigue) d'Aboville.

JE fouffignc, chirurgien major du regiment d'Auxonne, et de Tequipage d'artilleric dc Tap*-
mec du roi en Amerique ; declare, que le dix de cc mois ayant retire les entrailles du corp*
d'une perdrix, il me parut qu'il s'y trouvoit deux cocurs. Mais pendant le pcu de temps que
j'ai pu les eonfiderer, j'etois teliement ebloui d'un phenomene aufli furprcnant, qucjc crainr
que mes ycux ne m*ayent trompe, et n'ofe aiFirmer ce que je crois avoir vti. Je fus fur le
<hamp montrcr ccttc merveille a un marchand qui loge a cote de chcz moi, ct a M. d'Abo—
TJJlc; ce dernier vient de me lire I'cxpofe qu'il a ecrit dc ce phenomene, tel qu'il s'eft pre-

li:ntc

PARTRIDGE with two HEARTS. ^;^^

I faw nothing contrary to the obfervatioris contained in
this account. ,

Wiliiamfburgh, Feb. 15, 1 782. VERGE.

I the fubfcriber, merchant at Williamfburgh, refiding
next door to Mr. Verge, fenior furgeon of artillery, do
certify that the loth of this month, this furgeon came to
fhew me the entrails of a partridge, and pointed out to
me two hearts very diftin£t, adhering by their blood-vef-
fels to the fame lung. I moreover certify that Mr. Abo-
ville has read me the account he has given thereof, and
that 1 find nothing in it contrary to what I faw.

THOMAS BENTLEY.

Williamfburgh, Feb. 18, 1782.

fente a fes yeux. Je certifie n'avoir rien obferve qui ne foit conforme aux obfervations con-
tcnues dans cet expofe.

A Williamfburg, le l8Fev. 1782.
(Signi) Verge.

Je foufligne marchand demeurant a Williamfburg a cote de chez M. Verge, chirurgien
major de Tartillerie, certifie, que le dix de ce mois ce chirurgien vint me montrer les cntrailles
d'une perdrix, et qu'il m'y fit remarquer deux coeurs, bien diftinifts, tenans tous Ics deux par
leurs vaiffeaux fanguins, a mi meme poumon. Je certifie en outre que M. d'Aboville vient
de me lire Texpofe qu'il en a fait, et que je n'y ai rien trouve que de conforme a ce que
j'avois vu.

A Williamfburg, le 18 Fev. 1782.
(Signe) Thomas Bentley.

N° XL.

Conjefiureifioncerning Wind and Water-Spouts., Tornados
and Hurricanes. Communicated by Dr. John Perkins,
of Bojion., to John Morgan, M. D. of Philadelphiay
Profeffor of the Theory and FraSlice of Phyftc; and
F. R. S. London^ ^c.

w

ITH refpe(St to water- fpouts what I am about to

confider is whether water afcends or defcends in

U u a thefe

2:^6 CONJECTURES concernincx

thefe bodies? A queftion which it is reafonable to think
fhould be determined by fads, and the nature of things;,
and concerning which, if we wifli to attain to any certain-
ty, we muft be careful not to be milled by fuch appear-
ances and imaginations, as have hitherto commanded the
general belief.

Agreeable to this method of inquiry, I fliall in the firft
place produce the oblervations of three or four perfons,
in whom I can confide for fimplicity and honefty of in-r
tention.

The firft is that of captain Melling, formerly of Bofton,
who informed me that in a voyage from our Weft-India
iflands, in the month of Auguft, in a warm day juft at
evening, a fpout fell clofe by the vcflel, and in two or three
feconds of time came acrofs the ftern where he then was»
A flood of water, as he expreifed it, poured upon him and
almoft beat him down, fo that he was obliged to lay hold
of what was neareft to him, to prevent being wafhed
overboard, which in his fright he was apprehenfive of.
But the fpout immediately pafled off^ with a roaring noife
into the fea. I afked him if he tafted the water ? Tafte it
faid he ! I could not help tafting it, it ran into my mouth,"
nofe, eyes and ears. Was it then frefh or i'alt ? as frelh>
faid he, as ever I tafted Ipring water in my life.

The next account I ha^was from captain John Wake-
field, alfo of Bofton, which was, that being juft within the
ftraits of Gibraltar, a fpout fell clofe by his fliip with a great
roaring which he heard as he was fetting in the cabbin, the
men upon deck immediately crying out for hima. to come
up, which he inftantly did, and faw it travening away
before the fliip, fo near that he plainly faw the water de-
fcend. His men allured him that it did fo from the be-
ginning. He told mc the wind was very fmall during
the operation of it.

Captain John Howland, of the fimc town, told me
that in paffing the calm latitudes, a fpout fell fo near that

he

^

WIND AND WATER-SPOUTS, Sec. 337

he evidently faw the water defcend, very contrary to his
former opinion concerning thefe bodies.
. Mr. Samuel Spring, of the fame town, told me that in
a voyage from India, in palling the ftraits of Malacca, a'
fpout fell by eftimation about fifty yards from their fhip;
the appearance of which was that of a column of water;
or rather a ftream of almoft contiguous drops, from the
cloud down into the fea, making a great froth in the
place like water falling among rocks, as he expreffed it.
He faid it was extremely plain that the water defcended.
One of the fhip's crew wao with him when he gave me
this account, and confirmed it.

Many other accounts I have had from thofe who have
feen fpouts, but fo indeterminate as not to be worth much
notice ; I therefore content myfelf with the above, which
fpeak for themfelves.

In the next place I Ihall make a few remarks on Mr.
Stuart's figures of fpouts, which he took in the Mediter-
ranean, as they are to be feen in the philofophical tranf-
aftions of London, Le Motte's abridgement ; particularly
on the pointing to the place of fpattering in the water,
and the great roar that attends the operation of a large
fpout ; the bufh about the foot or bafe of a great fpout;
the break or partition in the trunk of it at the top of the
bufh; and the pillar-like apMarance within the bufh.

Firft I fhall endeavour to give fome idea of the nature
and caufe of the pointing by the external and apparent
means that nature ufes in the produ<3:ion of a fpout; for
as to thfijintimate operations of nature our faculties can-
not reacn them. Two or three obfervations I fuppofe
will readily be granted, and fhorten my work.
iA Qne is that thofe places where the lower region of air
is drawn away on one or both fides, either by the heat of
neighbouring continents, or in the calm latitudes, from
which it paffes away into, and for the fupply of the equa-
torial

K:

338 CONJECTURES concerning

torlal expence, are likely to be the places moft liable to
fpouts.

In the next place lexpedt it will be granted that the air is
much colder in the upper regions, and of confequence fpe-
cifically heavier than that near the furface, by which
when there are little or no differing motions of the air,
(i. e. winds) in or about the region of the clouds, particular
fpots of air and vapour in the cloud, may be difpofed to
defcend, and, when fo, will take very aptly a particular
channel downwards, Thefe things being granted what is
of a like kind will readily be fo difpofed too, as when the
atmofphere is full of vapours condenfing into clouds, this
condenfation may be quicker in one place than in another,
which by the acquired cold will become more weighty
and prefs moft in a particular point. Thus it may defcend
through the more rarified and yielding fubjacent region, the
firft drops piercing and making a channel may facilitate the
defcent of the vapour, till it puts on what Stuart calls a
fword-like appearance. The agitation caufed by defcend-
ing will accelerate condenfation, which together with the
drops paffing through the vapour in this channel, may at
every ftop in the paffage be wafting the vapour, by taking
it up into lefler mafles of water till it ends in a point,
which it will in this cafe naturally do, becaufe the fwifteft
motion down is in the cente^^f the pointing body.

Such a fpout may increafeTo as to form mafles of wa-
ter, the fubftance of the cloud, all obftacles removed, paf-
fing down in greater abundance, and ftill more fwiftly
condenfing; or it may prefently ceafe when it has but juft
appeared, or inftead of this, make, as it were, fevferal at-
tempts for completing a fpout, the vapour teat advancing
and retiring alternately, but which finally fail, without <
producing effeil. Thus it has done, as it feems, whea
the cloud has not had fufficient fupplies for it to fucceed
in a complete and opaque fpout. Such are the appear-
ances of Mr. Stuart's figures, &c. The obliquity of the

pointing

WIND AKD WATER-SPOUTS, &c. 339

pointing is owing to the courfe of the air, as the bend is
to two different ones at different heights.

The next thing propofed to be confidered, was the
great roar that attends a complete fpout while it lafts; and
it is the fame as that in cataradls or falls of water from
great eminencies. This kind of roar could not exift in any
■way of afcent, being very different from that of a whirl-
wind, which is no other than that of any other ftrong wind.

Mr. Stuart's figures of the great fpouts are drawn with
the appearance of a bufh round their bafes : The cafe is
fuch, that great falls of waters muft make a proportion-
able fpray ; fo that the appearance is natural, and indeed ,
a neceffary confequence. It rifes up from the foot of the
fpout and falls back in a parabolic manner into the fea.
As was faid of the roar juft now, fo it may be faid of this,
that it could not have exifted in any conceivable way of
afcent ; while on the contrary it is perfectly agreeable to
nature on the principle of defcent. It continues the whole
time of a large fpout, increafing and diminifhing as that
does.

The appearance of a break or partition in the trunk of
the fpout, at the top of the bufh, is a very curious phe-
nomenon : It is not real but apparent, and could not have
-happened without the bufh ; it being caufed by a refrac-
tion of rays from the drops that conftitute the top of the
bufh; whence a divergency and fo much lofs of vifion.

In great fpouts there is alfo a pillar-like appearance, be-
ing a part of the trunk within the bufh, and by another
refra£lion through the fide of the bufh ; by which it ap-
pears much bigger than it is, and limited in altitude by
the break. The three lafl: are agreeable to the laws of
optics ; and all the five particulars being attendants on the
greater or the fmaller fpouts, are to me undeniable evi-
dences of the univerfal defcent of waters in thefe bodies.
I pafs from Mr. Stuart's figures to that of Mr. Maine,
which is not lefs curious.

Mr.

34© C0NJECT\JRES concerning

Mr. Maine, in the fame phllofophical tranfadions, lias
given us the figure of a fpout that fell at Topfliam, near
Exeter. He has depi£led it in the a£t of ftriking a boat as
it pafled a creek ; from the bottom of which he has drawn
a rebound of the whole body of the fpout proje£ted from
it to a large diftance ; evidently proving the defcent : And
which, while he is arguing for the afcent, it would have
much become him to have accounted for, and to have fhown
how it agreed with the dodrine of afcent. The fpout
proceeding pafled on to the land, and brake off the limbs
of a tree, beat the thatch off of a houfe, and did perhaps
various other damage ; but we hear nothing of its carry-
ing up any of the light fubftances and dropping them at
great diftances, far from any environs of the place, which
it would moft certainly have done had there been a whirl-
wind, or any fupernal fudion employed in the operation.

The fupernal fuftion which fome have mentioned I
fuppofe I may pafs over without more than the bare
mention of it, but whirlwinds we know there are fre-
quently, and fome of confiderable ftrength ; fo that it be-
ing the general opinion that fpouts are formed by them,
it may not be amifs to examine a little what force they
may reafonably be allowed to have, and the limits of it.

Their genuine caufe, fuppofmg them to be natural pro-
duQions, is no other than the afcent of the heated and
confcquently lighter air, at the furface, into, or through
the colder and confequently heavier regions of the atmof-
phere above ; And in proportion to the diff"erent degrees
of heat in one of thele, and cold in the other, may the
ftrength of thefe be, but no more.

Dr. Arbuthnot, in his treatife on the air, tells us, that
the rarification of the air in the hotteft day in fummer
renders it but one-tenth lighter than that of the coldeft in
winter, or in words to this purpofe, if 1 remember right,
for I have not his book by me. Suppofing then the up-
per region the fame at all times as the lower one in win-
ter

WIND AND WATER-SPOUTS, &c. 341

ter when a whirlwind happens, it cannot have any great-
er force than the weight of one-tenth of the atmofphere,
and confidering the refiftance to its rifing which it muft en-
counter, and the friction by the way, not fo much ; by which
the ftrength may not be equal to three feet of water. It is
undoubtedly nine parts in ten too weak to make a vacuum,
and having a column of water two miles high to fupport,
befides the additional neceflity of ftill more force to drive
it fwiftly up, would require an atmofphere two thoufand
times more weighty than ours to raife water to the clouds.

Mr. Stuart fays he faw the water afcend in the heart of
a fpout; which feems to have been an unlucky expreffion.
The bodies of large fpouts are too grofs and opaque for
any one to fee to the center of them ; and no one has ever
pretended to have feen water afcend in the fmall ones.
His imagination therefore muft have been too ftrong for
any one to confide in, fo far as was he prejudiced ; and
at leaft one of his views was to prove the afcent ; which,
had he underftood nature in a tolerable degree, he would
have renounced.

That there is a gyrating appearance in the great fpouts,
feems to have been matter of obfervation ; nor is there any
improbability in the thing. As air paffing up in whirl-
winds, fo water, or air, paffing down may gyrate; and no
doubt it does. The cafe is, that fome have imagined the
gyration to have been upwards : but the appearance of gyra-
tion up or down may eafily deceive, as any one may be
convinced by obferving the fwift turning of artificial
fcrews, in which the direction will appear as the perfon is
difpofed to fancy it.

We are told the Chinefe failors anfwer to the queftion,
what are you afraid of in fpouts, is, that they may break
in their decks. Which fhows they take them to be de-
fcents ; and their knowledge is from obfervation and ex-
perience.

I conclude with one fhort remark, viz. That to be-
lieve -water afcends in thefe bodies, to the region of the
X X clouds.

342 CONJECTURES concerning

clouds, is virtually to admit of real and eflential miracle,
without fufficient proof; and contrary to every idea we
can form, of a divinely wife intention.

Tornados and hurricanes I take to be of the fame gene-
ral nature, although differing in fome circumftances and
appearances.

By the term tornado, or wind-fpout, I mean a violent
wind which has been obferved in thefe northern colonies
a few times fince they were difcovered and fettled by our
people. But perhaps no part of the terraqeous globe is en-
tirely free from fomething of the like kind, as the atmof-
phere is every where liable to fimilar commotions.

The Spanifh term of tornado, feems to have been chiefly
ufed for a violent florm at fea, of larger extent than what
I am about to explain, which is of a more contracted na-
ture, and confined to a narrow fphere of adion ; fo that
it requires a particular and fignificant name, fuch as wind-
Ipout, till a more fuitable one is found for it.

Defcription of one. It begins of a fudden ; more or
lefs of clouds having been drawn together, a fpout of wind
coming from it ftrikes the ground in a round fpot of a few
rods or perches diameter, with a prone direction, in the
courfe of the wind of the day, and proceeds thus half a
mile or a mile. The pronenefs of its defcent makes it re-
bound from the earth, throwing fuch things as are move-
able before it, but fome fideways from it. A vapour, mift
or rain defcends with it, by which the path of it is mark-
ed and wet.

I fhall produce the inftance of that at Lercefter, a towa
about fifty miles from Bofton, a few years fince, which
being more violent than ufual, may give fome idea of the
thing.

It happened in the month of July, on a hot day about
four o'clock p. M. A few clouds having gathered wefi:-
ward and coming over head, a fudden motion of their
running together in a point being obferved, immediately
a fpout of wind ftruck the ground at the weftern end of a

houfe

WIND AND WATER-SPOUTS, &c. 343

houfe, and inftantly carried it away, with a negro fellow
in it, who was afterwards found dead in the path of it.
Two men and a woman, by the breach of the floor, fell
into the cellar ; one man was driven forceably up into the
chimney-corner, Thefe were preferved, though much
bruifed ; they were wet with a vapour or mift, as were the
remains of the floor and the whole path of the fpout.

This wind raifed boards, timbers, &c. and carried them,
before it. A joifl: was found on one end driven near three
feet into the ground. I imagine the fpout took it in its
elevated ftate and drove it forceably down. By what I
can learn of its procedure, it continued but three or four
feconds of time in a place, pafling along with the celerity
of a middling wind, conflantly declining in fl:rength till
it ceafed.

There feems to have been fuch a gufl; as this at cape
Cod, about forty years ago, of which I received an ac-
count from two men who lived in the neighbourhood of
the place. It came on of a fudden, and was fo violent that
it threw down a young woman who happened to be in the
way of it; flie was forced to lay hold on the buflies which
happened to be within her reach, to prevent her being carri-
ed away by it. It pafled a pond of water, and the people
wondered it did not fuck up the water, as they conceived it
to be a water-fpout, but it did not. The young woman
was however wet with the vapour that accompanied it.

Of Hurricanes^ particularly thofe of the Wefl-lndia I/lands*

To account fatisfa£torily for thefe convulfions of our
atmofphere, requires a greater number and more circum-
Itantial obfervations than we are at prefent furnilhed with;
fo that all that can at prefent be faid of their origin and
caufes mufl; be very conjectural. However, fince an at-
tempt to explain them may give occafion to further and
more exadl obfervatic^ns, I fhall proceed to offer my pre-
fent thoughts concering them.

X X 2 I believe

J44 COJECTURES concerning

I believe thofe of the Weft-India iflands to be owing to
fome oGcafional obftrudion In the ufual and natural pro-
cedure ot the equatorial trade. This I conjedlure from
the more than ufual preceding calms. In the natural courfe
of thi-s trade the air rifes up in the line and paffes off to-
wards the poles, and, in the more contraded degrees of the
greater latitudes, proves the courfe of their weftcrn trades :-
So that could this afcent be prevented through the whole
circle of that zone, there would be no more wefterly winds
in thefe latitudes than any others.

Over violent rains and cold naturally tend to check the
afcent of air out of this circle, .rather making it defcend.
And as there are annual rains in the equator over againft
thofe iflands, and in fome years more than others, it is eafy
. to conceive fuch an effed, and the confequences. Great
clouds and over-much vapour generate cold and weight,
while at the fame time the rains are beating down the air ;
and as thefe prevent the rifing of the air out of the line,
fo they hinder its ufual progrefs to it from the tropics on
both fides. Thus calms niuft take place ; by w^hich the
natives ufed to predid approaching hurricanes, without
underftanding the reafon of the thing.

Much of cahiis in the inter-tropical climates caufe ra-
rifadions, and afcents of air into the upper regions, inftead
of its being carried to the line to be difpofed of in the
grand circulation of the atmofphere; this will be the cafe
more efpecially among the iflands, which increafe the heat
of the atmofphere. Then by thefe afcents there will be ac-
cumulations of air above, which becoming cold in the high-
er regions will acquire a greater fpecific weight, and be dif-
pofed to defcend on the hrft giving way of the more rari-
fied and yielding fubjacent region ; and this will be the
cafe when there happens not to be fufficient motions of
air in the middle region to keep fmooth and even the ftra-
tums of the more and the lefs rarified regions ; and fo
prevent particular portions and places from bending down-
wards i

WIND AND WATER-SPOUTS, &c. 345

wards ; and it is this alone that does prevent it. By a
failure in this, a defcent once begun, the coniequences
cannot be prevented: The heavy quantity above will con-
tinue to defcend till all the upper cold regions are exone-
rated to many hundreds of miles round ; and all their
contents fliifted into the place of the raritied and lighter
air below.

Such are my ideas of the caufes and operations of a
hurricane in thofe climates. I have only to add here, that
the rains in thefe violent ftorms are, as I think, a ftrong
confirmation of the dodtrine of defcent; as they are in that
kind of hurricane called by failors the Ox's Eye, on the
coaft of Guinea; and the like happens under various names
in different parts of our globe. Even the wind in our
thunder-gufts is from defcent ; the air in the cloud being
rendered denfe and weighty, defcends, and flows in the di-
rection of the wind of the time, and with the more vio-
lence, by the warm air at the furface giving way to it.
Thefe are fometimes ffrong, but feldom attended with
danger or damage.

What objedions may be raifed againfl: thefe opinions,
fliall be candidly attended to ; in the mean time there is
one objedtion that muft be obviated, the argument being
fomewhat interefted in it. It is as follows.

Having expreffed my opinion that hurricanes and tor-
nados or wind fpouts have the fame general nature, while
we fee a great difparity in their magnitude and procedure j
fome explanation feems neceffary to prevent miflakes ; I
think a little confideration of the place, climate, and cir-
cumffances may remove the difficulty.

The earth is an oblate fpheroid, its diameter many miles
greater at the equator than at the poles, caufed by its di-
urnal centrifugal force. If this then has fo great an elfed:
on terraqueous matter, it cannot have lels on our air, but
if any diflerence, rather more ; efpecially if we confider,
that the atmofphere makes a larger diameter, and yet re-
volves

346 CONJECTURES concerning

volves in the fame time, fo that its centrifugal force muft
be proportionably greater. The diurnal motion of the
earth tends to throw a vaft furplus of air on the equator,
by which there is probably more air between the tropics
than on the reft of the globe. But this is a matter of con-
jedlure not to be perceived by any fort of preflure any more
than by the barometer, for reaibns obvious to thofe con-
verfant in the nature and efFe£t of the feveral principles.
However it might not be amifs to obferve whether there
be any difference in the height of the mercury before any
of thefe ftorms. But to return.

Although the air in the intert-ropical latitudes is in the
general lighter than in the remote ones, yet when the
upper air has obtained a paflage downward, it being vaft
in quantity, and occupying great fpace, it will be long in
accelerating and paffing down. The paflage is long, fo
that it will gain a great deal of the force we find it has by
the length of defcent. Neither will the middle region be
difpofed to fliut up without a brifk wind in it, before the
whole, even to remote regions, is difcharged through the
large hiatus, as before mentioned and now repeated, to
account for the duration and extent of thefe otherwife
wonderful winds, with fuch unrelenting violence.

Far diff^erent is the cafe of the high latitude tornados in
their clrcumftances and their manner, although agreeing
in their general nature. The centrifugal force here has
extremely little effed, unlefs to caft the atmofphere to-
ward the equator inftead of raifing or increafing its quan-
tity over any given place on either fide. Befides there
is the attradion of the fun, moon, and all the other pla-
nets for ever within the tropics attradting the atmofphere
that way and leflening the height of the high latitude at-
mofphere, which therefore may be fuppofed not a fourth
ib high from the furface as that.

Since then the atmofphere is vaftly lefs in height, and
alio much Icfs in quantity than toward the line, the defcents

mult

WIND AND WATER-SPOUTS, &c. 347

muft naturally be very different. Here are no accumula-
tions aloft. The quantity ready for a difcharge downward
is vaftly lefs, and the paffage narrow and contradled ; and
by the almofl: conftant motions of air, were there more
fupplies it would foon fhut up. Befides there is little apt-
nefs to flow from furrounding regions by reafon of the
fmallnefs of their depth, &c. And yet fo great is the fpe-
cific weight of what defcends, that the firft affault has been
known to equal the greateft violence of the proper hurri-
canes in their moft powerful moments.

N° XLI.

The ivhole Procefs of the Silk-Worm.) from the Egg to the
Cocon ; communicated to Dr. John Morgan, Phyjici-
aii at Philadelphia^ in tivo Letters from Mejfrs Hare
and Skinnf.r, Silk Merchants in London^ July 27,
1774, and February 24, 1775.

^^^\}fj TT is fome time fince we were honored with your
\_ efteemed letter of 27th September laft. We
fhould not have delayed fo long acknowledging its receipt,
if it had been in our power to have fent you before this
time the manufcript you will receive herewith ; but it is
only lately we have been able to procure it from one of
the firft houfes in Italy. It contains an exa£t account of
the Italian moft improved method of making raw filk.
We flatter ourfelves it may prove of fome fervice to your
new eftabllflied manufactory, for whofe ufe folely we fent
for it to Italy.

The large quantity of raw filk that continually arrives
from China every year, being moftly of a round or large
fize, will a good deal interfere with the fale of yours,

provided

348 Of the SILK-WORM.

provided you make it of the fame ; therefore we by all
means recommend your reeling yours of the finenefs of
five to fix cocons, no coarfer at any rate if avoidable.
And we further beg leave to recommend your giving or-
ders to your workmen to be extremely careful in aflbrtlng
the filk, obferving that all that is put into one parcel be
exadly, if poffible, of the fame finenefs ; for if it is not,
it will very much prejudice its fale; a negled in this par-
ticular is complained of in all the filk that has hitherto
been received from America. If the filk, which was very
good in itfelf that we received from Georgia, had been
properly aflbrted, we certainly fhould have fold it i/6 or
if. per Ih. better than we did. If you reel your filk fine
the China filk rather promotes its fale than otherwife, as
it is neceflary to have fine filk to work up with that of
China.

We fhall at all times be very ready to communicate
to you any intelligence in our power.
We are, with refpedt.
Sir,

Your moft obedient fervants,

HARE & SKINNER.

Chap. I. Of the Silk-Worm.

THE perfon who purpofes raifing a quantity of filk-
worms, and preferving good eggs, muft begin a year be-
fore hr.nd. He muft choofe a certain number of good
cocons, or filk cods, the fuperficies of which, he flightly
pierces with a needle and thread and firings them by
fcores ; which done, he hangs them up in a convenient
room, this being the moft proper pofition for them. Af-
ter the moths or butterflies contained in the cocon, have
eaten their way through their natural inclofure, (which is
generally about four days after the cocon is finiflied*) you

may

• It happens fomclinu-s tlie Imttc-vfiy is lonpcr before its birth, i. c. from 15 to JO day. it"
the wcuther is chilly, 'i'hey ggiicrally come out in llic morning.

Of the SILK-WORM. 345

'Onay place them on a linen cloth difpofed vertically, as
againft a wall, or on a line, &c. where they couple and
•are joined during twenty-four hours. This over, the fe-
male lays her eggs during other twenty-four hours; after
■which fhe dies, as does the male ; this their fecond life, if
I may be permitted the term, is only of forty-eight hours
duration. When the eggs are new laid, they are about
the bignefs of a common pin's head, and of a ftraw co-
lour ; by degrees they become black, affume more folidity,
lofing at the fame time part of their bulk.

When they are arrived at this point, you mufl: feparate
them from the cloth ; to efFe£t which, you muft dip them
into a large pan filled with one half water and the other
half wine, rather more than lukewarm ; when your cloth
has foaked in this liquor a little while, you may feparate
them from the cloth with a filver fpoon and dry them in
a funny place, and take them away when they begin to
be whitifli.

When you have thus detached your eggs, you muft
keep them till the next year in a cool damp place to pre-
ferve them from hatching during the great heat, which
would ruin the projeft.

On the arrival of the fpring, you muft obferve when
the mulberry tree begins to put forth its leaves, which
muft be your fignal to expofe your eggs in a very warm
place, that they may all hatch at once, otherwife they
■would only hatch by little and little, and in proportion as
each individual would be arrived at the point of its natu-
ral maturity. In which cafe the pains required to fepa-
rate their different claffes would be exceffive, not to fay
impoffible. To hatch your eggs you muft carry them
about you nine or ten days, keeping them in your bofom,
or other parts near the body ; in the night you may put
them between the matrafles of the bed. You may like-
wife hatch them by the heat of an oven, but this method
as dangerous, becaufe you may poflibly burn the worm
Y y contained

S5^ Of the SILK-WORlVr.

contained in the egg, and thereby deftroy all your future'
hopes.

II. The worm is entirely black at its birth, and is about
as long as an ant. He is rolled up in the egg, which
otherwife could not contain him. He preferves this black
colour eight or nine days. After your worms are hatched
you muft put them on wicker {helves, which are covered
firil; with paper and afterwards with a bed of the youngeil
and moft tender mulberry leaves; you may place feveral
ranges of them in the fame chamber, one above another,
provided you leave at leaft a foot and a half between each,
range ; that the fcaffolding be in the middle of the room,,
and that your wicker fhelves be not too broad, but juft fo
as to reach on each fide conveniently to the middle. By
degrees the worm grows and requires more room. It muft
be your care to thin them, and keep thofe of the fame fize
as near as you can on one row; for which reafon you muft
always leave fome fhelves vacant for that purpofe.

The worm continues feeding during eight days after'
its birth, at the end of which he has three lines in length
or the fourth part of an inch. He is then attacked with
his firft ficknels, which confifts in a kind of lethargic fleep
for three days together, during which fpace he changes
his fkin, ftill preferving the fame bulk.

This fleep being over, he begins to eat again during
five days, at which term he is grown to the fize of feven
lines in length, after which follows a fecond ficknefs*, in
every refpedl: like the former. He then feeds during other
five days, and is now about nine lines in length, when
he is attacked with his third ficknefs; which over, he con*-
tinues to eat again five days more, which are followed by
his fourth ficknefs, at which time he is arrived at his full
growth, i. e. about fourteen lines in length and two in
diameter..

He

• You mild nhft rvc that thcit; (icltncnis arc much longer, and laft fcven or eight days whca
the wtuthcr is cold.

Of the SILK-WORM. 351

He then feeds during five days with a moft voracious
appetite; after which he dildains his food, becomes tranf-
parent a Uttle on the yellow caft, and leaves his filky
•traces on the leaves where he pafles; thefe figns denote
that he is ready to begin his cocon.

You muftthen furnifh him with little bufhes of heath,
broom or other like twigs, flicking the bundles upright
in rows between the fhelves, and forcing them a little that
they may not fall ; he remains ftill two days to climb up
the twigs, and fettle himfelf on a good place, after which
he begins to lay the foundation of his lodge, and is five
days in fpinning his cocon. He remains generally about
the fpace of forty-feven days.

III. You muft keep your worms in a dry place, fhelter-
ed and fhut up clofe, provided it be not too hot. If the
weather be cold you muft make a fmall fire. When you
furnifh them with leaves, take great care that they be
thoroughly dry and ftrew them lightly over your worms.
You muft obferve to take away their dung very frequent-
ly. When the worms are ready to mount (in order to
fpin) if the weather be ftifling hot attended with thunder,
you will fee them in a langulfhin^ condition; your care
jnuft then be to revive them, which is eff^edted thus.

Take a few eggs and onions and fry them in a pan
•with fome ftale hog's lard, the ranker the better, and
make pancake; which done, carry it fmoaking hot into
the room where they are kept, and go round the chamber
with it. You will be fur prized to fee how the fmell revives
them, excites thofe to eat who have not dbne feeding, and
makes the others that are ready to fpin, climb up the twigs.

Thefe little creatures require a great deal of care in the
management; one or other muft attend them day and
night; you muft be very dexterous and gentle in handling
them ; and, as I may fay, the whole fuccefs depends on the
care you obferve and pains you take in rearing them.

The worms cannot fufi^er ftrong fmells, fuch as tobacco
Y y 2 and .

352 Of THii SILK-WORM.

and the like, for which reafon you muft avoid offending:
their delicate organs.

In many parts of Italy, amongft others Romagna and
La Marche of Ancona, they have two filk racoltas, or har-
vefts. They keep the eggs in very cool places, and when,
the mulberry tree begins to bud again (for during the ra-
eolta it is ftripped of its leaves for food for the worms)
they expofe their eggs to hatch. Sometimes they give
role leaves to the young worms, when there are no young
mulberry leaves. The cocons of this fecond racolta are
rather inferior to thofe of the firft. The filk worm is ge-
nerally fourteen lines in length and two in diameter and
fix and two-fevenths in circumference. He is either of
a milk or pearl colour or blackifh: thefe laft are the beft.
His body is divided into feven rings, to each of which are
joined two very fhort feet. He has a fmall point like a
thorn, exadly above the anus. The fubftance which
forms the filk, is in their ftomach, which is very long;
wound up as it were on two fpindles and iurrounded
with a gum, commonly yellow, fometimes white, not often
greenifh. When the worm fpins his cocon, he winds off
a thread from each of his fpindles, and joins them, after-
wards, by means of two hooks which are placed in his.
mouth; fo that the cocon is compofed of a double thread.
Having opened a filk worm you may take out the fpin-
dles which are folded up in three plaits, and on ilretching
them out and drawing each extremity, you may extend
them to near two ells in length. If you then fcrape the
thread fo ftretched out with your nail, you will fcratch off
the gum, which is very much like bees-wax, and performs
the iame office to the lilk it covers, as a gold leaf docs to the
ingot of filver it furrounds, when drawn out by the wire-
drawer ; the filk then remains of a pearl colour. This
thread which is extremely llrong and even is about the
thickncfs of a middling pin.

Three things very remarkable in this infect, arc,

I. They

Of the SILK-WORM. ^^-^^

r. They defcribe a femicircle in eating,

2. Their excrement has perfedly the form of a mul-
berry.

3. They have no fex before their metamorphofis.

Chap. II. Of the Cocons.

I. IT is almoft a general rule to wait fix or feven days
after all the cocons feem to be formed, before you take
them off the boughs in order to give the worms time to
bring them to perfedion. It is then proper from that time
to give fome air to the room in which you have kept them,
in order to difTipale a confiderable dampnefs which the
worms exhale on their mounting, (when they have not
been well fed and kept, for when they have been proper-
ly nurfed this dampnefs is not to be found) and which is
of great detriment to the cocons, either by rotting them,
rendering them foft, or covering them with fpots.

The cocons may be divided into two general claffes, the
white and the yellow, in the yellow you meet with all the
fhades from a bright yellow diminifhing at laft to white,
fome few are of a pale green. We reckon nine forts of
cocons, viz.

1 . The good cocons are thofe which are brought to their
perfedtion, ftrong and little, and not at all fpotted.

2. The pointed cocons are thofe, one of whofe extre-
mities rifes up in a point. After having afforded a little
filk, the point, which is the weaker part, breaks or tears,
and it is impoffible to continue winding that cocon any
longer, becaufe when the thread comes round to the hole
it is of confequence broke.

3. The cocalons are a little bigger than the other, yet
they do hot contain more filk, becaufe the contexture is
not fo ftrong. In winding they are to be feparated from
the reft, becaufe they require to be wound in cooler water,
otherwife they furze out in winding.

4. The

354 C>F THE SILK-WORM.

4. The dupions, or douple cocons, are fo called becaufc
they contain fometlmes two and foinetimes three worms,
who have jointly formed one fingle cocon. They inter-
lace their threads, for which reafon they are to be kept
afunderfrom the reft; they make the filk we call dupions.

5. The foufflons are cocons very imperfedl, whofe con-
texture is loofe, fometimes to that degree that they are
tranfparent, and bear the fame proportion to the others,
as a gauze to a fattin. Thefe cannot be wound.

6. The perforated cocons are fo called, becaufe they have
a hole at one end, for which reafon they alfo cannot be
wound.

7. The calcined cocons are thofe whofe worm, after the
formation of the cocon, is attacked with a ficknefs which
fometimes petrifies it, and at others reduces it to a fine
white powder, without in the leaft endamaging the filk ;
on the contrary, thefe cocons produce more filk than the
others, becaufe the worm is confiderably lighter. They
are to be diftinguiflied by the noife the petrified worm
makes when you fhake the cocon. In Piedmont they fell
for half as much again as the others. It is very rare to
fee a parcel of 2^ lb. of them at a time : 6T,lb. of thefe
cocons have produced i lb. i oz. of fine filk of five to fix
cocons.

8. The good choquette confifls in thofe cocons whofe
■worm dies, before he has brought it to its perfedion.
They are to be known by the worms fticking to one fide
of the cocon, which is eafily to be perceived when on
Ihaking it you do not hear the chryfalis rattle. Thefe
cocons are of as fine filk as the others, hut they are to be
•wound feparately becaufe they are fubjcft to furze out, and
the filk has not fo bright a colour, neither is it fo ftrong
and nervous.

9. The bad choquette is compnfed of defedive cocons,
fpotted or rotten. They vvlnd many of thefe cocons to-
gether. It makes a very foul bad qualified filk of a black-
iih colour. II. To

Of the SILK-WORM. 3^5

H. Toknow whether a coconbegood or not you muft ob-
ferve if it be firm and found, or not, if it has a fine grain,
and if the two ends are round and ftrong. The cocons
of a bright yellow yield more filk than the others, becaufe
they contain a greater quantity of gum; but the advan-
tage accrues to the winder only, becaufe all this gum is
loll in the dying. For which reafon^ as well as for cer-
tain colours they take better, the pale filks are preferredj,
becaufe having lefs gum they lofe lefs in boiling.

In the number of cocons that are bought, there ought
to be neither foufflons, nor perforated cocons; becaufe
the feller is obliged to keep them apart and to fell them
as fuch; notwithftanding which, you may always reckon
on half profit of thefe forts that remain with the others,
and if to thefe you add the dupions and choquette, you
may calculate them at ten per cent.

The cocons of the mountains are better than thofe of
the plain ; there is a greater quantity of white amongft
them. 'Tis true they are not fo large as thofe of the plain,
but the worm, at the fame time, is proportionably lefs.
The reafon of which is, that the air of the mountains be-
ing {harper, the worm labours with greater vigour. They
fucceed, likewife, better in the dry plains than in the damp
and marfhy parts, becaufe the leaf is more nourifliing.
Hive or fix days after the cocon has been detached from
the branches, it is your bufinefs to prevent the birth of
the worm, who would, otherwife, pierce through the fhell,
and thereby render the cocon ufelefs. To prevent which
you muff put your cocons In long fhallow bafkets, and
fill them up within an inch of the top. You then cover
them \\ ith paper and a wrapper over that, Thefe bafkets
are to be difpofed in an oven, whofe heat is as near as can
be that of an oven from which the bread is juft drawn
after being baked- After your cocons have remained
therein near an hour, you muft draw them out, and to fee
wliether all the worms are dead, draw out a dupion from

the-

355 Of the SILK-WORM.

the middle of your bafket and open It, if the worm "be
dead, you may conclude all the reft are fo ; becaufe the
contexture of the dupion being ftronger than that of the
other cocons, it is confequently lefs eafy to be penetrated
by the heat. You muft obferve to take it from the middle
of the ba{ket, becaufe in that part the heat is leaft percep-
tible ; after you have drawn your bafkets from the oven,
you muft firft cover each of them with a woolen blanket
or rug, leaving the wrapper befides, and then you pile
them one on the other. If your baking has fucceeded,
your woolen cover will be all over wet with a kind of dew,
the thicknefs of your little finger. If there be lefs, it is
a fign your cocons have been too much or too little baked.
If too much baked, the worm being over dried, cannot
tranfpire a humour he no longer contains, and your co-
con is then burnt. If not enough baked, the worm has
not been fufficiently penetrated by the heat to diftil the
liquor he contains, and in that cafe is not dead.

You muft let your bafkets ftand thus covered five or fix
hours if poflible, in order to keep in the heat, as this makes
an end of ftitiing thofe worms, which might have avoid-
ed the firft impreflion of the fire.

You are likewife to take great care to let your cocons
ftand in the oven the time that is neceffary ; for if they
do not ftand long enough your worm is only ftunned for
a time and will afterwards be revived. If on the other
hand, you leave them too long in the oven you burn'
them, many inftances of thefe two cafes are frequently to
be met with.

It is a good fign when you fee fome of the butterflies
fpring out from among the cocons which have been baked,
becaufe you may be certain they are not burnt. For if
you would kill them all to the laft worm you would burn
many cocons, which might be more expofed to the heat
than that particular worm.

III. When

Of the silk- worm, 357

. TIT. When you put your cocons into the oven, you muft
Tae very careful in picking out all the fpotted ones, other-
wife they communicate their fpots by the great perfpirati-
on occafioned in them by the heat. If you have a parcel
of ftrong and another of weak cocons, and you can only
■wind a part of them frefh (i. e. without baking) give the
preference to the weak cocons, and bake your ftrong ones,
becaufe the latter, containing more gum, fupport the
baking much better and fufFer lefs than the weak ones.

As faft as the cocons you buy are brought in, put them
in bafkets and expofe them to the fun, if it fliines, in cafe
your oven be full, in order at leaft to ftun the worm and
prevent his working to pierce his cocon during that time.

It is very proper likewife that they be a little in the air
before you put them in the oven ; becaufe the peafants
bring them in bafkets heaped one on the other, ^^hich
heats them and renders them extremely foft, but the air
brings them to their proper tone again.

Sometimes the peafants fell you the cocons ready baked
when they have been obliged to keep them fometime. It
is eafy to know them, becaufe the worms when baked,
being dry, make a louder noife on rattling them than when
they are frefh.

When your cocons are fully baked, and have flood long
enough, you muft fpread them half a foot thick on broad
ozier fhelves, which are diftributed into as many ftories
as the height of the room will admit of, two or three feet
diftant one from the other; taking care to turn them every
day, and to change their places, for otherwife there are
many inconveniencies that would arife from fuch a negledt.
They would become mouldy and the moths would eat
them. Befides this, it is abfolutely neceffary in order to
feparate the fpotted cocons, or the bad choquette, which
■would fpread to all the cocons that are near them, and
muft be wound immediately to prevent their damaging
any further,

Z z The

35? Of the SILK-WORM.

The building where you fpread your cocons is called
the Coconiere, and confifts of one or more large rooms, in
•which are diftributed as many ranges as you can conve-
niently place, taking care that the fupporters touch nei-
ther the roof nor the wall, becaufe if there were any rats in
the Coconiere they would come down the poles, and de-
ftroy the cocons, they being very greedy of the worm con-
tained in them.

A middling cocon has about thirteen lines in its great-
er diameter, by eight lines the leffer diameter, fome are
larger, fome are fmaller; but this is the general fize.
The dupion has generally fifteen lines great diameter by
nine lefler diameter.

The cocon is compofed of feveral ftrata or furfaces ap-
plied one on the other; notwithftanding they all commu-
nicate, otherwife it would be impoffible to wind them off.
It is an eafy matter to take off one or more of thefe fur-
faces, the uppermoft of which is coarfer, lefs gummed,
and higher coloured than the undermoft. Finally, thefe
furfaces are compofed of a fine fort of faliva, whofc tex-
ture has a tolerable refemblance to the thin fkin you find
joined to the infide of a hen's egg.

The cocons produce a thread of a very unequal length,
you may meet fome that yield twelve hundred ells, whilft
others will fcarcely afford two hundred ells. In general
you may calculate the produdion of a cocon, from five
hundred to fix hundred ells in length.

IV. The worm or chryfalis, as he is inclofed in his co-
con is fhrunk up into himfelf, fo that it is but half as
long in his primitive ftate, but it is^ on the contrary as
thick again.

He is of a cinnamon colour, and full of liquor, rather
clear, which forms the feed in the males, and the eggs
in the females. Though he feems to be infenfible in
that ftate, yet you may perceive he is nut wholly fo, for
on piercing him with a pin flightly, you will fee him

move,^

Of the SILK-WORM. 359

move, and we make ufe of thefc experiments to fee if
they have been killed in the oven.

The worm dries the older it grows, fo that the fame
quantity, or the fame number of cocons decreafes daily in
weight. The cocons which enclofe the male butterfly
have more filk at the extremities, than thofe which con-
tain the females; but it is very difficult to perceive this
difference, the mofl fkilful connoiffeurs will miftake at
leaft twenty in a hundred.

When the worm wants to break his way through, he
pierces the cocon, firft wetting it a little in order to gnaw
it the more eafily ; he has then only to flrip off his upper
coat, under which he has another quite white, with wings.

When he comes out, his wings, which at firfl appear
very fmall, open and difplay themfelves by little and lit-
tle, and are entirely at liberty in an hour or two. As
foon as born he feeks a female, and one would fay he is
born again merely to propagate his fpecies, for he expires
a very little time after having performed his function.

Chap. III. Of Cocons Roy aU Perforated Cocons-, and
Soufflons.

THE royal cocons are thofe which you have kept for
feed. The worm makes a hole in them for his palfage,
fo that they cannot be wound, and are in the fame clafs
with the perforated cocons.

Neither can the fouffions be wound, becaufe their thread
being the produce of a weak, fick worm, it has not the
gum it ought to contain. Befides they cannot be wound
off, their thread being interlaced and entangled.

The ufes you may make of thefe cocons are the follow-
ing ; and firft for the

Soufflons ; you mufl let them boil for about half an

hour in common water, after which you muft dry them.

When they are quite dry you muft threfh them on the

Z z 2 floor

360 Of the SILK-WORM.

floor with a flail, to bring out the worm, which is reducedi
to allies by the fire and air. Afterwards you put them-
on a diftaff and open them ; to effedt which you muft take
them by the two ends and ftretch them out at arms length,,
you may then faften them on your diilafF.

2. The perforated cocons ; you muft obferve the fame
method as for the foufflons, except that you muft let them
boil three-quarters inftead of half an hour, becaufe they
contain a gi eater quantity of gum.

3. The cocons royal. As it is natural to fuppofe you
keep the flower of your cocons for feed ; they are fuller
of gum than the others, for which reafon you muft let
them boil an hour; after which you muft not threfti them
as the former, becaufe they contain no worm, neither is
it neceflary to ftay till they are quite dry before you fpin
them ; on the contrary, they open more eafily when damp.
The produce of thefe three forts of cocons, when worked,
makes what we C7i\\jieui-et.

After you have boiled the cocons and threfhed them
•well, to lliake out the worm they contain, you may card
them inftead of opening them as above, you will then
make a much more beautiful fleuret, and of a brighter
colour, but it will at the fame time come confiderably
dearer, becaufe ot the wafte in carding. A good fpinfter
performs a very reafonable days work if flie can fpin an
ounce of fleuret.

To fum up the whole, and give you a notion of the va-
lue of thefe three forts of cocons, you may calculate thus.-

If the good cocons are worth one hundred, the perfo-
rated are worth thirty-three one third, the foufflons twen-
ty-five, the royal cocons two hundred and fifty; but if
your royal cocons arc not chofen ones for feed, they are
■worth but two hundred.

The beft fleuret is that which proceeds from the royal
cocons, afterwards that of the perforated cocons uncholen,.
laft of all that of the foufllons.

Chap.

Of the silk-worm. 361.

Chap. IV. Of the Filature^ or Winding from the Worm.-

Although the frefh cocons, that is to fay, thofe that
have not been baked in the oven, yield a brighter filk than
thofe that have, and at the fame time yield better weight,
by reafon of part of their gum which they have not loft
by the fire, yet moft people prefer thofe that are baked, in
order to have a filk more even in its colour; unlefs you
could have a confiderable quantity of frefh cocons, and
time to wind them fo; for otherwife it is undeniable, that
the frefh would be much more advantageous, as well for
the reafon above mentioned as becaufe they are eafier to
wind, not having been dried by the fire.

Before you begin to wind, you muft prepare your co-
cons as follows.

1. In ftripping them of that wafte filk that furrounds
them, and which ferved to faften them to the twigs. This
burr is proper to fluff quilts, or other fuch ufes; you may
likewife fpin it to make ftockings, but they will be coarfe
and ordinary.

2. You muft fort your cocons, feparating them into
different claffes in order to wind them apart. Thefe daf-
fies are,

The good white cocons.

The good cocons of all the other colours.

The dupions.

The cocalons, among which are included the

weak cocons.
The good choquette ; and, laftly,
The bad choquette.
In forting the cocons, you will always find fome per-
forated cocons amongft them, whofe worm is already
born; thofe you muft fet apart for fleuret. As I have de-
fcribed above, you will like wife find fome foufflons, but
very few ; for which reafon you may put them among
the bad choquette, and they run up into wafte.

The

362 Of the SILK-WORM.

The good cocons, as well white as yellow, are the
eafieft to wihd ; thole which require the greateft care and
pains are the cocalons; you muft wind them in cooler wa-
ter than the others, and if you take care to give them to
a good windfter, you will have as good filk from them as
the reft. You muft likewife have careful windfters for the
dupions and choquettes. Thefe two articles require hotter
water than the common cocons.

The good cocons are to be wound in the following man-
ner. Firft choofe an open convenient place for your fila-
ture, the longer the better, if you intend to have many
furnaces and coppers. This building ftiould be high and
open on one fide and walled on the other, as well to fcreea
you from the cold winds and receive the fun, as to give a
free paflTage to the fteam of your bafons or coppers.

Thefe coppers or bafons are to be difpofed (when the
building will admit of it) in a row on each fide of the fi-
lature, as being the moft convenient method of placing
them, for by that means in walking up and down you fee
what every one is about. And thefe bafons fhould be two
and two together, with a chimney between every couple.

Having prepared your reels, (which are turned by hands
and require a quick eye) and your fire being a light one
under every bafon, your windfter muft ftay till the water
is as hot as it can be without boiling. When every thing
is now ready, you throw into your bafons two or three
handsful of cocons, which you gently bruOi over with a
•wifk about fix inches long, cut ftumpy like a broom worn
out : by thefe means the threads of the cocons ftick to the
wifk. You muft difengage thefe threads from the wiik,
and purge them by drawing thefe ends with your finders
till they come off' entirely clean. This operation is call-
ed la Battue.

When the threads are quite clear, you muft pafs four
of them (if you will wind fine filk) through each of the
holes in a thin iron bar that is placed horizontally at the

edge

Of the SILK-WORM. 365

edge of your bafon ; afterwards you twlft the two ends
{which confifl of four cocons each) twenty or twenty-five
times, that the four ends in each thread may the better join
together in croffing one another, and that yo ur filk may be
plump, which otherwife would be flat.

Your windfter muft always have a bowl of cold water
by her, to dip her fingers in, and to fprinkle very often
the faid bar, that the heat may not burn the thread.

Your threads, when thus twifted, go upon two iron
hooks called rampins, which are placed higher, and from^
thence they go upon the reel. Now at one end of the
axis of the reel is a cog-wheel, which catching in the teeth
of the poft-rampin, moves it from the right to the left,
and confequently the thread that is upon it ; fo that your
filk is wound on the reel crofs-ways, and your threads
form two hanks of about four fingers broad.

As often as the cocons you wind are done, or break or
diminifh only, you muft join frefh ones to keep up the
number requifite, or the proportion ; I fay the proportion,
becaufe as the coeons wind off, the thread being finer,
you muft join two cocons half wound to replace a new
one : Thus you may wind three new ones and two half
■wound, and your filk is from four to five cocons.

When you would join a frefli thread, you muft lay one
end on your finger, which you throw lightly on the other
threads that are winding, and it joins them immediately,,
and continues to go up with the reft. You muft not wind
off^ your cocons too bare or to the laft, becaufe when they
are near at an end, the bairre, as we call it, that is the
huik, joins in with the other threads and makes the filk.
foul and gouty.

When you have finiftied your firft parcel, you muft
clean your bafons, taking out all the ftriped worms, as well
as the cocons, on which there is a little filk, which you
firft open and take out the worm and then throw them in-
to a baflcet by you, into which you likewife caft the loofe
filk that comes off in making the battiie.. You.

364 Of the SILK-WORM.

You then proceed, as before, with other two or three
handsful of cocons ; you make a new battue ; you purge
them, and continue to wind the fame number of cocons
or their equivalent, and fo to the end.

As I faid above, your windfter mull always have a bowl
of cold water by her, to fprinkle the bar, to cool her fin-
gers every time fhe dips them in the hot water, and to
pour into her bafon when neceflary, that is, when her wa-
ter begins to boil. You m.uft be very careful to twift your
threads a iufficient number of times, about twenty-five,
otherwife your filk remains flat, inftead of being round
and full; befides when the filk is not well crofTed it never
can be clean, becaufe a gout or nub that comes from a
cocon will pafs through a finall number of thefe twifts,
though a greater will flop it. Your thread then breaks
and you pafs what foulnefs there may be in the middle of
your reel, between the two hanks, which ferves for a head
band to tie them.

You mufl mind your water be juft in a proper degree
of heat. When it is too hot the thread is dead and has
no body ; when it is too cold, the ends which form the
thread do not join well, and form a harfh ill-qualified filk.
You mufl change the water in your bafon four times a
day, for your dupions and choquette, and twice only for
good cocons when you wind fine filk, but if you wind
coarfe filk it is neceflary to change it three or four times.
For if you was not to change the water the filk would
not be fo bright and gloify, becaufe the worm contained
in the cocons foul it very confiderably. You mufl: endea-
vour as much as poflTible to wind with clear water, for if
there are too many worms in it, your filk is covered with
a kind of duft, which attrads the moth and dcftroys
your filk.

You may wind your filk of what fize you pleafe, from
one cocon to a thouland; but it is diflicult to wind more
than thirty in a thread. The nicety, and that in which

confifls

Of the silk-worm. 365

confifts the greateft difficulty, is to wind even, becaufe
as the cocon winds ofF, the end is finer, and you muft
then join other cocons to keep up the fame fize. This
difficulty of keeping the filk always even is fo great, that
{excepting a thread of two cocons, which we call fuch) we
do not fay a filk of three, of four, or of fix cocons, but a
filk of three to four, of four to five, of fix to feven cocons.
If you proceed to a coarfer filk you cannot calculate fo
nicely as to one cocon more or lefs. We fay for example,
from twelve to fifteen, from fifteen to twenty, and fo on.

It is eafy to conceive, that it is more difficult to wind a
coarfe filk even, than a fine one, becaufe it is harder to
keep a great number of cocons always to the fame fize,
than a fmall one.

The dupions which you defign for rondelette, or ordi-
nary fewing filk, are to be wound from fifteen to twenty.
The reft you may wind as coarfe as poffible, i. e. from
forty to fifty : they ferve to cover and fill up in coarfe
ftuff^s, and may like wife be ufed for fome fort of fewing filk.

The good choquette is to be wound according to the
ufes to which you intend to apply it ; however not finer
than from feven to eight. The bad choquette you may
wind from fifteen to twenty cocons.

In winding the good cocons, you will always meet with
fome defective, which will not wind off, or are full of
gouts and nubs. Thefe you muft take out of your bafon
and keep by themfelves. They are called bajfinats. They
are to be wound apart as coarfe as you can. They make a
foul, dirty filk. To have a good filk, you muft wind in
fine weather. If the wind be high it ftiakes your filk,
and prevents its lying fmooth on the reel, forms firings
of threads, which make it very difficult to wind on bob-
bins. If the weather is rainy the filk is damp, and has
not that luftre it ought to have, or which it has when it
dries, as it goes upon the reel. You muft mind not to
hank it when damp, but let it dry on the reel} otherwifeit
■would be furzy.

A a a I have

,366 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

I have now only to fpeak of the wafte that comes from
the battue, and the hufks of the cocons, that have ftill
feme filk upon them, which are thrown into bafkets in
winding, and are what we call tmrefqiies. Thefe you firft
dry in the fun, then threfh, and afterwards card and fpia
them to make fleuret. One hundred and fifty ounces of
good cocons yield about eleven ounces of filk from five to
fix cocons ; if you wind coarfer, fomething more. You
may wind about eleven or twelve ounces of filk from five
to fix cocons in fourteen hours.

The filk which is made of baflinats and bad choquette
ferves to make ftockings and coarfe heavy fluffs, fuch as
fattinades and damaflcs for hangings, &c. &c.

N° XLII.

The Art of making Anatomical Preparations by Corrojton,
By John Morgan, M. D. ProfeJJbr of the Theory and
Pradice of Phyftc in the Uni'verfity of Pennfyl'vaniay
Member of the Royal College of Phyficians at Edinbiirghy
and F. R. S. at London, (^'c.

AS no branch of fclence more certainly leads to an in-
timate acquaintance with the fundtions of the ani-
mal body, (which is the foundation of all rational know-
ledge of the caufes and cure of dileafes) than that of the
ftrudure of the vafcular fyftem, the origin, divifions, dif-
ferent ramifications and numerous inofculations of the
velTels into, and their communication with each other, I
have always thought this field of ufeful information de-
ferved to be cultivated with great induftry and attention.
In effedl it brings us immediately, and in the moft com-
pendious way, to acquire a knowledge of the nature, and
of the motions of the fluids which circulate through them,
of their dilliibution throughout the different parts of the

body.

By CORROSION. 367

body, and of the adion and ufes of the veflels containing,
as well as of the humours contained in them. In parti-
cular, it behoves every pradtitioner of phyfic to ftudy the
vafcular texture and compofition of the vifcera, for upon
their healthful action the continuance of life, free from
difeafe, principally depends; and the more their fundions
are injured, the more dangerous difeafes are thereby ge-
nerated. From a relaxation of them arife atonia and weak-
nefs, and from obftrudtion of them infardions, inflamma-
tions, tumors and fchirri are produced. To an acquaint-
ance with their ftrudlure and anaftomofes, and the fluids
they carry, we mufl: be chiefly indebted for our knowledge
of the doctrines of refolution and fuppuration, and for the
indications that point out to the phyfician by what means
to accomplifli thefe defirable events, according to circum-
ftances.

The little progrefs which practical anatomy has hitherto
made in America, and the great confequence it may be of
to the rifing fludents of phyfic and furgery, to employ
more of their attention on this ufeful fubjedt, are my mo-
tives for laying before you this eflay, in hopes through
this channel to ftir them up to profecute it with more zeal
and ardor. This becomes the more neceflary, becaufe,
owing to the late revolution, the fubjeds of North-America
having eftabllflied themfelves into Independent ftates, have
at prefent lefs commerce and lefs intercourfe with the learn-
ed and pollfhed nations of Europe. At leafl: fewer fl.udents
from America have recourfe to them for improvement in
the knowledge of their profefTion than formerly, in as much
as medical fchools and colleges have been founded In feve-
ral of thefe different ftates, fmce the author of this effay
firfl: recommended and aflifted in carrying Into execution
the plan of tranfplanting phyfic, as a fcience, from acrofs
the ocean, by Inftltuting medical fchools on this weftern
fide of the Atlantic*.

A a a 2 Upon

* See his difcourfe on the inftitution of medical fchools in America, delivered at a pub»
lie commencement in the college of Philadelphia, May 1765.

^65 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

Upon our own exertions muft we therefore chiefly de^
pend for building up the medical fabric, ere£ling ufe-
ful temples of the healing arts, and diffufmg the lights
we can kindle through this new world. I know no one
ftep that can be more ufeful to accomplifh this undertak-
ing, than to teach the art of invefligating the ftru<3:ure of
the different parts of the animal body, by injections and
corrofions, and other preparations of wax.

Such is the prefent ftate of anatomy in this country
that there are at prefent but very few, I believe I may fay
no fuch preparations worth mentioning to be met with,
here, that have been made in America. Doctor Chovet>.
now refident in this city has indeed a good colle£lion of
wax preparations, of different parts of the human body,
which he made in his younger days and brought hither
from Europe. But nothing of this kind has hitherto
been pradifed, or it has been fo taught as never to have
been of lading ufe to any that I know of.

Being well acquainted with the general defire that fills
the breafts of my countrymen, to acquire and improve
every kind of fcience that is ufeful, which is properly laid
before them, I truft this attempt will ftir up many to
learn and pracftife thofe leffons which, for their particular,
benefit, I now unfold to them ; nor do I doubt in a little time
butwefhall fee fuch an emulation kindled for improving
on thefe hints, thatall kinds of ufeful preparations will befo
common after a while, as not only to give rife to anato-
mical cabinets and repofitaries for fpecimens of the ani-
mal, vegetable and fofhl kingdoms, as will tend to throw
great light upon philofophy in general, but contribute to lay
afolid and ufeful foundation of natural hiitory in America.

The firfl: rudiments of this art that 1 acquired was
from the two Hunters, known through all Europe for
their fuperior fkill in anatomy, and ading as practical dif-
fe£tor to the celebrated dodors Colignon and Smith, pro-
fefTore of anatomy in the univerfities of Cambridge and Ox-
ford,

By CO R R O S I O N. 369

ford, which I further improved by pradlice at Paris witk
Monf. Siie, to whom I am wholly indebted for my know-
ledge of anatomical preparations in wax.

The kind of preparations of thofe parts of the animal
body which admit of it that I now propofe to explain,
namely by injedlion and corrofion, exceeds in beauty,
nicety and ufefulnefs, that which is commonly called dif-
fe£tion.

In faft, in this latter, we can trace nature but very im-
perfe£tly, becaufe by diffedion, the larger veflels only are
preferved from the knife, and for the moft part all the
fmaller are unavoidably cut away.

On the contrary, in anatomical preparations by corrofi-
on, even the very fmall vefTels may be kept entire, and
we can fee, at a caft of the eye, the courfe and diftributi-
on of all the vafcular fyftem even to the fize of an hair,
called capillary veflels, and thofe too difengaged from the
furrounding parts, which otherwife wholly conceal, or
make them difficult to be perceived. It is impoffible that
with only the afliftance of a diflTediing knife, any perlon
fliould be able to lay open to view all thofe fmaller veflels,
however fkilful and experienced the hand may be that
dire£ts it. The exa.Q. and perfect imitation of nature
which this fort of preparations prefents, the cafe with
which they are made, and their extraordinary beauty and
neatnefs, render a knowledge of this art fo much the
more defirable.

The art of injedling the very fine veflTels of the body
with common injection, was well known to the celebrated
Ruyfch, the moft famous anatomift, in that way, of any
living in Europe in his day; and therefore it has been
fometimes called the Ruyfchian art, but it fell fhort of the
one I no'v undertake to explain, becaufe in his prepara-
tions the minute veflTels only become vifible, fo far as
the fubdance through which they proceed was tranfpa-
lent, but our art extends to the removal of every fur-
rounding.

370 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

rounding fubftance, and leaves them entirely naked and
perfedlly expofed to the eye. I once {hewed a preparati-
on of the veflels of a kidney I had thus executed at Paris,
to a meeting of the French academy of furgery in the year
1 764, who allowed it to be curious and quite new to them.
I think none of the members prefent at that meeting, ex-
cept Monf. Morand, fecretary of that academy, who had
been in England and was acquainted with doftor Hunter,
alledged their having ever feen a fimilar preparation.
At their requeft I prefented a memoir on the fubjedt, and
lince that time Monf. Siie has beftowed one entire feftion
in treating exprefsly upon it, with a polite acknowledge-
ment of his having acquired his knowledge from me, on-
ly with the particularity of naming me as one of the facul-
ty of Edinburgh, without taking any notice of my being
a Pennfylvanian by birth, or native of America, which
have led fome into miftakes concerning the author of that
piece. The reafon may be that Americans before the
revolution, being but little confidered in any other light
than as colonifts, their nation was feldom taken notice of,
and I was introduced to him firft as a graduate of the
univerfity of Edinburgh, and known to him afterwards as
a member of the royal college of phyficians of that place.
Thefe preparations are, fmce that period, become com-
mon in France, and the art is now well known, and cul-
tivated fuccefsfully by Monf. Siie and others; but it was
unknown there till I communicated it, firft at Paris, and
afterward in the fouth of France ; where I had the honour
of explaining it to the illuftrious Monf. Imbert, chancellor
of the univerfity at Montpelier, and to Monf. Bourgelas,
principal of the Ecole veterenaire, or academy eftabliflied
at Lyons for the improvement of the fcience of horfeman-
fhip, juftly celebrated for his very elegant preparations of
the anatomy of horfes, &c. But what gave me equal
plcafure and furprize, was the admiration excited on my

prcfenting

By CORROSION. ;^ji

prefenting only a part of the vafcular preparation of a
kidney by corrofion, (the reft being broke down in a jour-
ney by land of above a thoufand miles) which was ex-
prefled by the celebrated Morgagni, illuftrious profefTor
of anatomy in the univerfity of Padua. He had kept up
a literary correfpondence with Ruyfch when alive, had
been favoured with fpecimens of this great man's prepa-
rations, and declared that in comparifon to the preparation
I gave him, they were " rudis indigejiaque moles." From
this fmall fpecsknen, he faid, " ex ungue leonem," he could
readily comprehend that the ufefalnefs of this kind of
knowledge amongft the learned in anatomy, muft become
great and extenfive.

I mention thefe anecdotes merely to fhow how recent,
or at leaft how confined the knowledge of this ufeful art
then was, being limited, as far as I know, to Great-Bri-
tain only. I fuppofe it to be owing to this circumftance,
viz. that real pradlical anatomifts who have excelled in
their preparations, have too generally kept fecret the me-
thods and arts they employed in making thofe preparati-
ons. For this reafon, much I think is due to the me-
mory of the great Profeflbr Monro, of Edinburgh, who
has publifhed a paper upon the art of making injections.

So far as I can learn, this art cannot be traced farther
back than to the learned Dr. Nichols of London, who for-
merly gave lectures in anatomy both there and at Ox-
ford, and from whom Dr. Hunter acknowledged to his
pupils that he received his firft information. He then de-
lerves to be looked upon as the author and inventor of
this art. When Dr. Nichols declined the bufinefs, Dr.
Hunter and his brother Mr. Hunter, took up the profeffion
of anatomy. Without doubt, thofe unrivalled brothers in
anatomical ikill, made confiderable improvements in the
art of injeding and diifeding animal bodies ; and it is like-
ly improved the compofition of injedlions for corrofion.

My

372 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

My well meant intention of marking the rife and pro-
grefs of this art, and of exciting an emulation in my
countrymen to profecute and improve it, will, I hope, not
only excule but juftify both the matter and length of my
introduction.

Thefe preliminaries being thus fettled, I now proceed
to the main obje£t of this communication. Without ex-
patiating upon the advantages that will attend an accurate
knowledge of this art, for the fake of perfpicuity I {hall
here reftrift myfelf to laying the following obfervations
before you, reduced to general heads, in as few words,
and in as concife a manner as I am able. They may be
ufeful to thofe who wifh to put them in pradtice, and will
perhaps giveoccafion to perfons who are curious in making
experiments in anatomy, to light up fome new difcovery.

T he art of making anatomical preparations by corroli-
on, depends on the following principles.

1. We ought for the matter of injedlion to make ufeof
a fubftance that is pofleffed of a fuitable degree of confift-
ence, and fine enough to penetrate into the minuteft vef-
fels, and which at the fame time has fuch a firmnefs of
texture as not to alter with the changes of the temperature
of the atmofphere, that is, it ought not to be fubjed: to
melt with the fummer's heat, nor to break down from its
brittlenefs on being gently handled in the winter.

2. The colours to be employed for fake of diftinguifh-
ing the different orders of vefTels, whether arterial, venal,
tracheal or others, ought to be of fuch a nature as not to
be changed upon application of the menftruum.

3. We ought to make ufe of a menftruum that is capa-
ble of confuming the mufcular, parenchymatous, cellular
or fatty parts that furround the veflels, without affedting
the fubftance that we ufe for inje-ftion to fill the veifels.

4. Care and addrcfs are neceft'ary in the perfon who
makes the injeclion.

5. Laftly, great attention is requifite in removing the
loofc and corroded parts, and in feparating them from the

injected

By C O R R O S I O N. 373

injected veflels without breaking them down by the force
applied in cleanfing them.

The following direftions will ferve to guide the opera-
tor in thefe different manoeuvres.

The common injedlions are compofed of wax and fuet,
or of wax and oil ; the fuet or oil is made ufe of to foften
the wax, and to give it the neceflary confiftence. We
cannot employ fuch a compofition in our corroded prepa-
rations, being oppofed to the third principle laid down ;
becaufe the menftruum we ufe for deftroying the parts that
furround the veffels, will alfo attack and confume the fat
and animal fubftances which enter into the compofition of
the inje£tion. But we may employ the following compo-
fitions, the goodnefs whereof has been proved by repealed
trials, viz.

First Receipt.

Take of white or the beft yellow wax and purified rofin
each equal parts, e. g. ten or twelve ounces ; melt them to-
gether and add a fufficient quantity of fpirit of turpentine,
to give a due confiftence, that is from fix to eight ounces.

It is advifeable to melt the rofin firft, and ftrain it through
a piece of fine linen ; becaufe, in the ftate it is bought out
of the fhops, it is often mixed with foreign fubfl:ances.

I am of opinion this injedtion will turn out to be finer
than the following, that is, it will penetrate into ftill
fmaller veffels, but it is thought to have the inconvenience
of being more brittle ; fo that after corrofion, the moft
flender of the veffels are more liable to break down in
handling the preparation.

The following is the receipt which the celebrated Meffrs
Hunter of London, have commonly made ufe of. It is
lefs brittle and produces a firmer cohefion of parts, with
nearly the fame confiftence as the former. Befides, it en-
ters very fufficiently into the capillary veffels.
Skcond Receipt.

Take of pure rofin ei^ht ounces, of wax four ounces,

of Venice turpentine a fufficient quantity, that is, about

B b b eleven

374 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

eleven or twelve ounces, to procure a proper confiflencc
to the injection

The method of afcertaining the due confiftence and the
necefl'ary firmnefs of the inje£tion, is by taking up any
quantity of it, whilft melted, with a fmall wooden fpatula,
and then letting it fall drop by drop on the furface of cold
■water. This immediately fpreads and forms into a
thin plate. By rolling it between your thumb and fin-
ger firft moiftened, or in the palm of one hand with the
fingers of the other, both previoufly made wet to prevent
flicking, turn it into the fhape of a cylinder or fmall blood-
vefTel, then throw it into a bafon of cold water, and let it
remain till it is quite cold. If it is then of fuch a confift-
ence as not to yield to a very flight force, when preiTed be-
tween your thumb and finger, and yet fo foft as to be ca-
pable of bending readily without breaking, it has the due
medium of firmnefs and flexibility which is defired. If
it appears to be too foft, a further quantity of wax and
rofin are to be added in the above mentioned proportion,
till It acquires the va ifhed for confiftence. If, on the other
hand, it is too hard, a proportionably larger quantity of
the Venice turpentine is to be added. The fame precau-
tion is to be obferved, if we make ufe of rofin, wax and
fpirit of turpentine, as directed in the firft receipt.

Operators feldom are at the trouble of weighing the
ingredients; they generally judge of the refpeftive weights
and proportions of each by the eye. This method of de-
termining them will anfvver very well for perfons who have
acquired experience; for the different feafon of the year
when the injection is made, and the dift'ercnt confiftence
or purity of the wax and rofin, with other little circum-
ftances which fometimes happen, occafion fome little va-
riation. In general there is not fo great danger of fpoil-
infi- the preparation, by making the compofition a little
foftcr than is required, rather than harder, bccaufe it
grows fome what harder by time, and alfo by fteepi ng

the

By CORROSION. 375

the parts injeded in water, for the fake of wafhing off the
menrtruum that we have made ufe of for performing the
neceffary corrofion.

Thefe injections are well fuited to make corroded pre-
parations of the vifcera, as of the heart, lungs, liver and
kidneys. Yet I doubt not but perfons of ingenuity, who
fhall be at the pains to render themfelves converlant in
the art of injection, by giving attention to every circum-
flance, will acquire further Ikill and may find other fub-
ftances, equally fit for injection without being fo liable to
become brittle, which thofe compofitions I have given
above are, in fome degree, even when made with the ut-
moft care and exaftnefs.

To know whether any fubftance of which a perfon wifh-
es to make a trial for injeftion, will withftand the adion
of the menftruum he means to employ, it is fi.ifficient to
put a piece ot the compofition to be ufed as an injedtion
into a fmall quantity of the menftruum, and let it remain
in it for a week or fortnight; by that means he can judge
of its goodnefs, before be is at the trouble of making, or of
fpoiling an injedtion, as the cafe may happen.

Of the Colours.

The colours we commonly ufe to diftinguifh the differ-
ent orders of veflels are, ift. Vermilion for colouring the
inje£tion for the arteries. 2d. Blue verditure, or what is call-
ed Pruffian blue, for the injedlion to be thrown into the
veins. 3d. For colouring the injections to be thrown into the
ureters and pelvis of the kidneys, and the tracheal veflels
of the lungs, what are called in Englifh king's yellow
and flake white are moftly ufed. A variety of other co-
lours may be employed, but thefe are the principal and
the beft.

We fhould obferve to melt the wax thoroughly over a

flow fire, and the colouring powders fhould be added by

degrees, ftirring them well in at the fapie time, before the

B b b 2 other

376 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

other ingredients are added. This method prevents any
effervefcence, which often happens when there is too great
a fire, or when all the ingredients are mingled together
before the colouring powders are added, efpecially the two
laft. The quantity is judged of by trial.

Of the proper Menstruum.

I now pafs to the third head, viz. to confider what fub-
ftances will anfwer, for confuming all the parts furround-
ing the injedion, and leaving the matter in the veffels
themfelves untouched.

The beft I have yet tried is the concentrated fuming
acid of marine fait, which comes over in the diftillation
employed in the procefs for making glaubers fait; it
fliould not be diluted with water, nor be dulcified, other-
wife it becomes too weak to anfwer the purpofe, or at leaft
the time required for compleating the corrofion is thereby
protra£led beyond what is needful.

The concentrated acids of vitriol and of nitre, are no lefs
powerful to deftroy all the animal fubftance, furroundlng
the injeded vefl'els, but the objedion to which, from feve-
ral trials, they appear to be liable, is that they are fup-
pofed to crifp the veffels ; at leaft the fpirit of fea-falt has
been moft ufed, and concluded to be the leaft exception-
able menftruum for this operation.

Such were the fentiments I communicated, in my me-
moir to the royal academy of furgery at Paris in the year
1764, fince which, Monf. Siie, royal profeflbr of anatomy
in the fchools of furgery, and in the royal academy of
painting and fculpture at Paris, having honoured my com-
munication to the abovementioned academy, with a fec-
tion in his treatife entitled Anthropotomie, chap. 2. fedb
25. from page 70 to page 84 ; after acknowledging that
he received the art of making thofe preparations from me,
thus adds. " Since that time my nephew and 1, having
worked at them a great deal, and with abundant fuc-

ccfs.

Of CORROSION. ^jj

cefs, we have difcovered, that we may change the men-
ftruum, without injuring the preparation at all, and em-
ploy aqua fortis, or the nitrous acid in place of the fu-
ming fpirit of fait; and that aqua fortis is even a more
perfed menftrum, than the fpirit of fait, in as much as
the colour of the injection is thereby lefs changed, and
the fmall veflels better preferved. Befides the difference
of expence is confiderable, as the fpirit of fait is worth
eighteen livres a pint, whilft the aqua fortis cofts at moft
but two livres, and the effe(3: is the fame for quantity. I
have alfo employed the fpirit of nitre for the fame pur-
pofe, with great fuccefs*."

In refpe5l to the fourth Principle'^ namely-, the Addrefs of
the Operator., and ivherein it con/ijis.

He ought to guard againft cutting away or removing,
the cellular and other furrounding parts, before he has
made the injedion. In fa£t, thefe give firmnefs to the
veflels, and prevent their fl:retching unnaturally, or affum-
ing forms contrary to nature, from the impulfe of the in-
jection when drove into them by the hand of the anato-
mift. Thefe fubftances enable them to refifl: the too great
extenfion and yielding to the force applied.

The injefting pipes ought to be proportioned to the fize
of the veflels through which the injection is to be made.

It is proper to foak thofe parts in warm water, which
we are about to inje£t, for a fliorter or longer fpace of time,
as well to wafli them clean, as to carry oft' the blood and
other fluids, and the better to difpofe thofe parts to receive
the injediioa, with which they are to be filled.

The

* Monf. Morgan, Do(5teur en medicine de !a faculte d'Edlnbour^, en a donnc une defcrip-
tion exaifte a 1' Academic royale de la chirurgie, et c'eft dc lui que je tiens I'art de preparer ccs
parties; mais depuis apces y avoir beaucoup travaille, mon neveu et moi, ct y avoir eu beau-
coup de fucces, nous avons deccuvert qu'on pouvoit changer le mcnftrue, fans prejudicier
en rien a la preparation, et employer, au lieu de fel fumant, I'eau forte, qui eft meme un
menftrue plus parfait, que I'cfprit dc fel, puifque la couleur de I'injcdion eft moins changce,
et que Itrs petits vaiffeaux font mieux conferves. D'ailleurs la difference eft encor bien grande
pour la dcpenfe, puifque I'efprit de fclvaut i8 liv la piine, au lieu que I'eau forte ne coute
tout au plus que 2 liv, et que la quantitc eft la mfme pour Tcffet. J'ai employe aufli avec
beaucoup de fucces I'efprit de nitre. Aiithropotouiie, pag. 8j. 84,

37S ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

The fubftance employed for the injedion ought to be
entirely melted over a moderate fire, and be heated to the
exa£t degree that will not permit the cooling of ittoofaft,
upon coming into conta£t with the parts into which it is
impelled, nor ought it to be fo great, on the other hand,
as to burn or crifp the veflels, or prove troubleibme to
the operator in handling the fyringe or pipes, whilft he is
making the injeQion.

The injection fhould be thrown into the part to be pre-
pared, at one uniform impulfe, made (lowly and evenly,
with a fteady hand, and with lb little force as not to endanger
a rupture of the veffels in the foft parts. When the in-
jedlion is finifhed, the pipes fhould be corked or otherwife
clofed, and the parts injedled fhould be fuffered to cool by
degrees. If they are plunged at once into cold water,
before the fubfiance of them has acquired a certain de-
gree of hardnefs and firmnels, a contraction in the elaftic
coats of the veffels may be produced, fufficient to occa-
fion a rupture, efpecially in the capillaries, which will
always be followed by an extravafation of the injected
fubftance.

Having expofed the Injeded parts to the air during an
hour or two, it is proper to commit them to cold water all
night, to cool and to harden them thoroughly. After
taking them out of the containing veffel and abforbing the
water from their furface with a fpunge gently applied,
or fuffering it to run off by draining, they Ihould be puc
into a fufficient quantity of the menftruum to cover the
preparation entirely.

The next confideration is how to make ufe of the men-
ftruum for corroding the parts to be dillolved and remov-
ed from the veffels. For this purpofe the operator Ihould
be furnilTied with a china bowl or a Rone veffel, on which
the menftruum can make no impreffion ; or what will an-
fwer ftill better, a glafs veffel with a mouth fufficiently
large to put in and take out the injeded parts, without any

difficulty.

By CORROSION. 379

difficulty. It would be well to fiirnifh it with a proper
cover to reftrain the acid fumes from efcaping. I have
always ufed a cover of cork lined with wax, into which,
whilft it is in a melted ftate, the inferior fide of the cover
may be dipped ; and this cover mufi: be cut fo as to fit ex-
actly the mouth of the veflel. The great advantage of a
glafs veflel over the others is its tranfparency, whereby
we are able to fee how the corrofion goes on, and to judge
■when it is finifhed. This takes up from fix or feven days
to a fortnight or three weeks, according to the nature of
the part to be prepared, and to the quantity and concen-
tricity of the menftruum employed, in which it ought to
be entirely covered. When the acid is very dilute, it proves
rather antifeptic and a preferver of animal fubftances, than
a corrofive menftruum.

Of d if engaging the Corroded Subjiance.

Fifthly. The laft part of the operation confifts in difen-
gaging the loofened and corroded fubftance from that of
the inje£tion. In this piece of bufinefs we ought to take
the greateft care, if we wifh to avoid breaking down the
beautiful fmall veflTels of the part. With this view the acid
fpirit employed as a menftruum {hould be decanted from
the inje£tion with great caution, whenever the corrofion
of the furrounding fubftance is complete, fo that it no
longer adheres to the veflels. In place of the corroding
menftruum, foak the preparation in fimple water for three
or four days. The loofe fubftance may be removed from
the veflels, by pouring frefli water over the preparation
flowly, and in fmall quantity at a time; or otherwife we
may put the preparation in a veflTel pierced with holes,
like a cullender, and place this in fuch a manner as to
receive a gentle current or ftream of water. If we fliould
place the vefl"el near the nofel of a pump, and under the
droppings or fmalleft ftream which we can procure to fall
from it, the preparation may be thus cleanfed from the
loofe corroded matter with which it is encompaffed.

But

380 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS

But the method I have difcovered, and always pradifed
as the fa,feft and beft, is to make ufe of a fmall fyringe,
the pifton whereof works eafily, with which, whilrt the
preparation is covered three or four inches over with wa-
ter, I fyringe gently, fo as to wafh and clean it entirely
from the corroded fubftance which is but loofely attached
to it. In this manner, ufing proper care, it may be per-
formed perfedly without breaking down any, even the
fineft parts, of the tender veifels.

But if more force than needful is employed, even the
droppings of a pump from a too great height, when the
preparation is taken out of the water, will fometimes break
down the extremities of the fmall veffels, and mar the
beauty of it.

After all thefe diredions have been well executed, the
preparation is to be fufpended for fome time in a fafe place,
till it is dry ; then it is to be fixed on a wooden pedellal,
having a focktt like a candleftick, in which it may be faif-
ened with a little glue or melted wax. 7 hen let it be co-
vered with a tranfparent glal's in form of a globe or bell,
with the mouth downward, to guard it from accidents.
This finilfies the work.

Thefe preparations I'.ive us a mod exad knowltdge of
all the ramifications and anaftomofes of the velKrls, and
often of the junction of the arterial and venal fyftcm, when
the injedion is fine enough, and fo fuccefsfully thrown
from the arterial trunk as to penetrate into the veins and
fill that fyftem of vefiels in the organ prepared, complete-
ly, at one and the fame time. Thus 1 have filled both the
emulgent arterial and venal fyftem of vellcls, in a kidney,
at one coup de main, through a fingle pipe fixed in the
great trunk of the emulgent artery, the correfponding
trunk of the vein being ihut up with a ligature. But it is
more common for the injedion made by the artery to flop
at the extremities of the cvanefcent branches, and to fill
the venal fyllem by a fecond injedion, drove through the
■great trunk of the emulgent vein.

Upon

By CORROSION. 381

Upon the whole, thefe teach us, in the heft manner
poffible, the true and intimate ftrudlure of the vifcera in
general, and of every particular part ; from whence we
may aflert, without fear of any juft cenfure, that prepara-
tions thus executed are exceedingly ufeful, and enrich the
cabinet with choice and beautiful fpecimens of anatomy.

I have only to add that, in order to enable the artift to
fucceed and pufh his difcoveries, it behoves him to learn
the art of preparing the fubjedt by difledlion. This is
a new branch, though intimately connected with the
foregoing : There are few books that teach it ; but one
very excellent treatife on the fubjedt is publifhed in French
by Monf. Slie, already quoted by the title of anthropotomy,
or the art of diffedting, injedting, embalming and preferv-
ing the parts of the human body ; which, as I think it
will greatly contribute to improve anatomy, I have fome
thoughts, at my leifure, to tranflate into Englifh, for the
benefit of the Undents of anatomy, phyfic and furgery in
America.

1 here Juhjo'in the manner of waking Wax 'Preparations by
Monf. Sue.

«'X"TTHEN we have a mind to make any prepara-
W tion of wax, we ought to begin by moulding
the part we wifh to imitate with frefh plaifter of Paris
made very fine, taking care to oil it previous to the appli-
cation of the plaifter.

" When the plaifter laid on the furface of the part Is

cold, remove all the pieces that compofe the mould one

after another, taking care not to break any of them.

C c c After

MANIERE DE FAIRE LES PREPARATIONS EN CIRE.

LORSQU'ONveutfaire quclque preparation en cire, il faut commencer parmouler Ii
partie que Ton veut immiter avec du platre frais et bien fin, ayant I'attention de bien
huiller la partie avant que d'appliquer le platre. Lorfque le platre fera refroidi de deflus la,
partie, alors on otera toutes les pieces qui conipofent le moule, I'uiie apres I'autre, prenant garde

qu'aucune

3g2 ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS'

After leaving them to dry for fome time, they may be
fafely ufed. For this purpofe, melt a fufficient quantity of
virgin wax in a fkillet, over a gentle fire, and colour it ac-
cording to the colour of the part which is to be imitated,
with carmine, or other paint ; or if the piece to be imitated
has feveral parts of different colours, we muft not then co-
lour the whole piece at once, but are to place the colour
required upon each part, after the piece has been melted.

" Whilft the wax melts, prepare the mould, which we
muft be careful to oil well with a little brufh to prevent
flicking ; then join all the pieces of the mould together,
which muft be tied faft with fmall cords or twine ; and
that the air may not pafs through the cracks or joinings-
of the pieces of the mould, place fome clay on the outfide,.
by way of luting.

" The mould being thus prepared, and having taken
care to leave an opening, we pour the wax into the mould-
through it, and then carefully turn the mould every way,
in order that the wax may fpread equally through all the
interior parts, of it until it is cold. If it be found that the
piece is not thick enough, we are to pour on more melted
wax, and turn it as before ; then let the piece cool in the
mould : afterwards, with proper precaution, we are to take
the pieces of the mould apart, one after the other. The
preparation being taken out of the mould entire, we muft
take off the fuperfluous portions of wax which penetrated

the

civ'aucune nc cafTc. On le laiffc fechcr pendant quclque terns. Enfuitcon peut sVn fervir.
Pour cet cffet on fait fondrc dc la cire vicrge dans un poulon a petit feu, et on le colore, iui-
vant la coulcur »ie lapartie qu'on veut rcprefenter, avec du carmin, ou quclque autre coulcur;-"
cu bien, fi la partie a plufieurs parties de couleur diffcrente, alors on ne colore point la piece.
Et- on, met la couleur l\ir chaquc partie apres que la piece a ete fondue. Pendant que la circ
fondc on prepare le moule, qu'on a le foin de bien huillcr avec un pinceau. Enfuite on re-
femble toutes les pieces du moule, qu'on reticnt unies avec des cordcs ou de la ficelle, ct pour
que )a circ ne pane par les fentes ou les jointures des pieces du moule, on y met fur les join-
tures txtericurcment, de la terrc glaifie. Le moule prepare ainfi, et ayant cu I'attention dc
y laiffer une ouverture, on verfe la cire dans le moule, et l"on a le fbin de tourner le moulc
en tout fens, pour que la cire fe repaude egalement par tout I'intericur du moule, jufqucs a cc
qu'cUc foit rafroidie. Si vous jugez que la piece ne foit pas affez cpaiHt', vous rcmcttez dc
iiouvcau dc la cire, et vous fuitcs commc ci deffus. Aprcs quoi on laifTe rafroider la piece
dans Ic moule, ct enfuite on tire avec beaucoup de precaution les pieces du moule. Tunc aprcs
I'autrc. La piece ctaiit tJUitrtmuit Ucpouillce, oo la reparc. C'dl a dire qu'on etc de dcf-

By CORROSION. 38^

the joinings of the pieces of the mould, which being en-
tirely repaired, we then colour the different parts which
compofe the piece with colours fuitable to each part, that
the arteries may be coloured with vermillion ; the veins
with Pruffian blue; the mufcles with carmine; and fo of
the other parts ; ivhich jinijhes the preparation.

*' Note., When we wifli to make the wax lefs brittle, we
muft add fome fpermaceti to it; and fometimes a little of
•the fineft Venice turpentine that can be procured."

ius les portions excedentes de cire qui fc font glifsees entre les jointures des pieces du moule.
La piece etant entierement reparee, on colore les differentes parties qui compofent la piece
avec des couleurs convenabks a chaque partie, en forte que les arteres fcront colorees avec du
vermilion ; et les vcines avec du bleu de Pruffe ; les mufcles avec du carmin ; ainfi des autres.
Nota que quand on veut rendre la cire moins caffante on y adjoute le blanc de baleinc,
^uelque fois aufli un peu de terebentine de Venife, tout ce qu'iJ y a de plus iin.

N° XLIII.

Vf a living Snake in a living Horfe's Eye, and of other
unufual Produ6lions of Animals. By John Morgan,
M.. D. F. R. S. London, Frofejfor of the Theory and
Pra^ice of Phyfic, Philadelphia.

Kead June "¥^7"HETHER there is fuch a thing in nature
5. 1782- y Y as equivocal generation, by which is to be
underftood the produ£tion of any new animal indepen-
dant of a parent ftock of the fame kind, has been a fub-
je£t of controverfy amongft philofophers; fome afferting
the reality of this dodlrine, whilft others, as the celebrat-
ed Harvey and his followers as ftrenuoufly rejed it. The
latter, which is now deemed the orthodox fide of the
queftion, affirm that the young of all are produced from
an egg, furnifhed by the female, and foecundated by a male
animal. From the light thrown upon this fubjedt, by the
deep refearches of Hippocrates, Galen and Ariftotle,
C c c 2 among

3S4 SNAKE IN A HORSE'S EYE.

among the antients; and amongft the moderns by Mal-
phigi, De Graaf, and above all others by the beforementi-
oned renowned Harvey, phyfician to king Charles the
firft of England, (the difcoverer of the true circulation of
the blood) this induction feems to be eftablifhed upon an
induftion of fa£ts and experiments, carrying with them
the force of convi£lion, fo far as that indudlion reaches.

The only room which fome fuppofe there may be for
doubt of the univerfality of the propofition is, that a vari-
ety of animals have been found, at different times, toexift
in the bodies of other animals, and in extraordinary pla-
ces, which neither the difcoverers of thofe animals, nor
others have been able to trace, with clearnefs and certain-
ty, to what mankind, in general, can deem a probable or
fatisfaftory origin. Whether it be owing to an impati-
ence to arrive at fome conclufion, which can ill brook the
difficulties of the inquiry, or to the rarenefs of the cafes
falling under the notice of perfons capable of making a
thorough inveftigation, and the tedious progrefs of expe-
rimental knowledge; or whether it is that we are apt to
fuppofe the fubjetS does not admit of mathematical certain-
ty from the light of philofophy, I know not; but fome
men have had recourfe to the doftrine of equivocal gene-
ration, to account for thofe produdlions, as Ariftotle and
his followers had, in other cafes, to certain occult quali-
ties; a term by which they have endeavoured to conceal
their ignorance of what they could not explain, but were
imwilllng to confefs. Nor are there wanting, in the pre-
fent day, many perfons, who will fooner deny the telHmo-
ny of their fenfes, than allow the exiftcnce of an animal,
produdtion, which they know not how to account for.

This I fuppofe to proceed from a falfe pride, or an appre-
henfion of being deemed credulous in a philofophic and en-
lightened age; and becaufe, in times of ignorance, the
paffions of illiterate men were wrought upon by fiiflions to
believe in prodigies, whereby they were led blindfold, into

opinions

SNAKE IN A HORSE'S EYE. 385

opinions of religion and philofophy, which had no folid
foundation, the race of fceptics I refer to deem it manly
not only to with-hold their aflfent from truths they do
■not underftand, but to difown and difpute the reality of
them. They do not confider that, by fuch condudl, they
endeavour to diveft themfelves and others of their rati-
onal faculties, and of that natural curiofity implanted in
man by his Creator, for the wifefl purpofe, as a guide
for inveftigating fa£ts, in order to lead him to knowledge,
which has given birth to difcoveries of the greatefl im-
portance to mankind.

In anfwer to the cavils of minute philofophers, I would
briefly remark the firft flep to new difcoveries, is an ex-
a£t attention to the phsenomena of nature, unbiafed by
preconceived hypothefes, and that it is as much a mark of
a defedlive underftanding to admit too little for truth, up-
on evidence, as to believe too much from credulity.

I have been led into the above train of obfervations from
a fingular phjenomenon that may be now feen in this city,
and which is worthy the infpetSion of the curious. It is
advertifed in the public newfpapers, viz. the Pennfylvania
Gazette, May 23d, as worthy of the attention and critical
infpedion of all curious perfons, whether philofophers or
phyficians, and particularly the latter, as it may, for what
they know, if properly examined into, throw fome ufeful
light upon the funftions and difeafes of the animal body.

What I refer to is an horfe with a fnake in its eye, to
be feen in Arch-ftreet, between Sixth and Seventh ftreets,
not only poflefled of mere life, but endowed with a very
brifk locomotive faculty. True philofophers will not
treat the alTertion as idle, fiditious or romantic, but fee
and judge for themfelves. V

The writer of this piece has undertaken the prefent talk,
on purpofe to excite every clafs of people to fatisfy them-
felves of the reality of the fa£t, that when recorded in the
very place where all have it in their power to determine its
exiftence, on the teftimony of their own eyefight, they may

not

386 STSIAKE in a HORSE's EYE.

not plead ignorance and unbelief. He profefles, for Kis
own part, to be as little credulous or liable to impofitions,
from accounts of pretended miraculous appearances, as his
neighbours, however learned. Indeed he has ever ftrenu-
oufly oppofed, and thinks he ever fhall, what he deems
empty tales of vifionary fpeculatlfts, bred by weak fancies,
or railed by defigning men, to amufe or deceive the vulgar;
but he admires and reveres the unfearchable wifdom of the
divine archite£t, who framed this fpacious univerfe, teeming
with myriads of animal beings, as well in thofe inftances
■where his defign and footfteps are vifible, as in thofe which
lay more remote from human comprehenfion. Upon the
firft relation of this curious hiftory from others, unacquaint-
ed with the ftru(51:ure of the eye, and therefore more likely
to pafs a wrong judgment; and, till he had an opportu-
nity to examine it himfelf, he believed the appearance to
be fome unufual difeafe, or a Alimentary produdion oa
the cryftalline humour, from a ftroke or inflammation of
the eye, and that a convulfion in the nerves of its coat
might produce an irritation in that organ, and a tremulous
motion, which might impofe upon thofe who, not know-
ing how to account for the appearance, Ihould content
themfelves with calling it a fnake in the eye, merely from
its refemblance, on firft fight, to that animal. But from
the clofeft ocular examination, with unwearied attention,
repeated more than once, he conceives he is not miftaken,
in afierting that there is a real fnake in the eye; which,
from the vivacity and brifknefs of its motion, exceeds that
of any worm, and equals that of any kind of ferpent he
has ever feen.

To fatisfy the public in general, as well thofe who have
now an opportunity of feeing it, as fuch who may happen
never to fee it, I think it will not be amifs to defcribe its
appearance, and to deliver what I have been able to col-
left of its hiftory.

The

SNAKE IN A horse's EYE. 3^87-

The horfe in whofe left eye this extraordinary Infus na-
tur£ is vifible, is of a forrel colour, nine years old ; it be-
tonged to Do£lor Dayton near the lines at Elizabeth-town,
and, I am told, appeared to have no uncommon appear-
ance in either eye, till within a few months ago. The firft
particular circumftance which excited the owner's attenti-
on was, that having lent him to a friend to take a ride in
a chair, although it was not known to be vicious or un-
ruly before, it could not now be kept under any govern-
ment, but ran away with, and dafhed the chair to pieces.-
The right eye ftill continues in a found ftate.
■ Soon after, viz. about ten weeks ago, Mr. Richard
Wells, merchant of this city, a gentleman of probity and
of great philofophic knowledge, being at Elizabeth-town
in company with Dodior Dayton, this gentleman told
him he would Ihew him a curiofity as great perhaps as he
had ever feen, namely, a living fnake in a living horfe's
eye. Mr. Wells then defiring to fee it, upon looking in-
to the eye, difcovered the animal very plainly, in a con-
ftant ferpentine motion, but neceflarily in a fomewhat con-
voluted form, as its length was equal, as nearly as he could
judge, to two diameters and an half of the eye, which could
not meafure lefs than between three and four inches. The'
head and tail, or if you pleafe, the two extremities of the
animal were then vifible, and the horfe's eye ftill retained-
its tranfparency enough to admit feeing the whole of the
fnake diftindly.

The horfe was foon after purchafed by a free negro, on
purpofe to bring to Philadelphia for fhow, in order to
gratify the curiofity of the virtuofi of every clafs, by giv-
ing them an opportunity of feeing and contemplating fo
curious a phenomenon, and of communicating the refult
of their inquiries to the learned, for the information of the
public at large.

At prefent, apparently from the brifk and almoft con-
ftant motion of the animal, which is fomewhat increafed

388 SNAKE in a HORSE's EYE.

in length, fince the infpe£tion at Elizabeth-town, and which
is as thick as a knitting needle, or piece of common twine,
as nearly as can be determined through the intervening
medium, the aqueous and vitreous humours of the eye
are confounded (the fine cellular texture of the latter be-
ing broke down) and tinged with the fofteft part of the
cryftalline, fo as to aflume fomewhat of a white milky ap-
pearance, bordering on the colour of a cataract. The Iris
appears to be greatly dilated, or rather wholly deftroyed.
For the feptum, or partition which feparates the anterior
from thepofterior chambers, in a found eye, niuft be broken
down, as the animal, or, to fpeak like a fceptic, the animal
appearance of a fnake is continually receding into the
fundus and back part, and by times coming forward into
the anterior part of the eye, with a convoluted brifk mo-
tion. I cannot think a fnake of the fame fize moving
brifkly in a tumbler-ful of fair water, or of water dif-
coloured with a tea-fpoonful of milk, would be more
vifible ; but the coats of the eye and humours have now
fomewhat of a milky appearance, or colour of an incipi-
ent cataract.

It may be juftly prefumed, that whatever might be the
ftate of vifion, at firft appearance of this furprifing phse-
nomenon, that eye muft be now blind. 1 he lids are
commonly clofed, probably owing to pain excited in the
eye by fo troublefome a gueft ; but there is no bloodfhot
appearance on the cornea, though the furrounding parts,
namely, the palpebrs, are a little tumid. To get a view
of the eye, the keeper commonly ftrikes the horfe on its back
with an open hand, at which, as if frightened, it opens the
lid of the left, as well as widens the opening of the right
eye, which continues difclofed but a rtiort time ; however
this gives an opportunity for infpedion for five or fix fe-
conds of time together, and the blows muft be repeated
to keep the eye open, when a perfon wiflies to have a
longer time for infpedion.

The

SNAKE IN A HORSE'S EYE. 389

The milky appearance has for fome weeks grown gra-
<3ually more opaque ; from which circumftance it is pro-
bable the difeafe occafioned by the prefence of an extra-
neous body, or unnatural animal irritating the organ,
will gradually produce too great obfcurity to afford that
fatisfadtion in viewing it, which hitherto it has done and
ftill continues to afford.

It has been my wifh, and I have expreffed my opinion
to feveral gentlemen that it would be worth while, to make
up a fum of money and purchafe the horfe for fake of dif-
fering the eye, whilft the animal is yet alive, but no no-
tice has been yet taken of it : Perhaps the owner keeping
it for fhow places too high a value upon it. I have fur-
ther defired, if that purchafe is not made, to have an op-
portunity of taking out the eye and differing it immedi-
ately after death, whenever that event takes place, if it
happens where I am.

The eye has been infpeded by feveral gentlemen of the
faculty, who are afiioniflied, and at a lofs to account for the
appearance on common principles or from known difeafes;
a queftion then naturally arifes in the minds of moft who
have feen or heard of it, viz. If it be a real fnake or other
living animal, how it got there, or whether there are other
inconteftible hiftories to match it, in the annals of medi-
cal hiftory, of animals bred in man or other animals, as
difficult to be accounted for ?

I anfwer. Fads are what I am more concerned to efta-
blifh than fpeculative opinions ; therefore inftead of lead-
inp; to theories that may be idle and groundlefs, I fhall be
fatisfied to refer all who doubt the reality of its being a
fnake in the eye, firft to the hiftory of the Guinea worm,
of which I have had more than one cafe falling under
my own care, and have feen others in the Pennfylva-
nia hofpital, extracted from the leg, feveral yards in
length ; fecondly, to the well known hiftory of a jointed
worm bred in the liver of Mrs Holt, in this city, about
D d d thirty

390 SNAKE in a HORSE's EYE.

thirty years ago, of about twenty inches long and near
three in circumference, recorded in the medical effays of
a Ibciety of phyficians in London. This worm I have
feen ten years after preferved in fpirit, in the anatomical
cabinet of ihe celebrated Dr. William Hunter of that place;
and thirdly, I refer to the hiftory and engraving of one
exadtly fimilar, as large as the life, inferted in the fecond
volume of Edinburgh medical eflays, plate fourth ; and
laftly, to autopfy, by examining the eye of the horfe in
quertion, which will afford ocular demonftration of the fadt.

I fhall add to thefe feme obfervations of that prince of
anatomifts in his day, the famous Ruyfch, who, as Dr,
Haller attefts, from a praftice of diffedlion continued for
near eighty years, with a diligence, fkill and accuracy in
examining into morbid bodies, and the nicenefs of his
diffedlions and of his anatomical injedlions, exceeded all
his cotemporaries ; and in fine, whofe teftimony in thofe
matters was looked upon by Boerhaave and Haller, and by
every medical writer fince, to be as inconteftible authority
as that of any other perfon whatfoever.

In his firft volume, obfervation the i6th, he fays, " daily
experience proves that worms may be generated in all parts
of the body. I ftrangled a dog that was very lively three
hours after being fed, with a view to examine the ladteal
or milk veflels. On opening the belly of it a live worm,,
at leafl: two fpans in length, fkipped out. I could difco—
ver nothing amifs in the omentum, nor any Iblution of
continuity of the parts ; and both the mefentery and in-
tellines were found."

Again he fays, obfervation 54, " I have had room to
doubt whether, as Harvey and his followers affirm, all
animals are produced out of an egg, from worms being
found in the arteries of living horfes; as alfo from worms
fcen in the parenchyma, or the glandular fubftance of the
liver, as it is now called, and alfo in the cyftic dudl and
biliary pores of flaeep, and very often in the gall-bladder.

1 remember

SNAKE IN A HORSE'S EYE. 591

I remember once to have feen them in the human kidneys,
and fuch as are more frequently met with in the kidneys
of dogs. That worms have been fometimes found in the
brain, no body can deny who will be at the trouble of
turning over the writings of authors of high repute."

By what paflages thofe animals or their eggs were in-
fmuated into the interior parts of the body, is not eafy to
determine. It does not feem probable that they could
reach the forementioned places through the pores of the
Ikin or the organs of refpiration; much lefs that their eggs
■were taken in at the mouth, and from thence proceeded
to their refpeftive places ; nor yet is it likely they could
remain entire in the ftomach, where, in the procefs of chy-
lification, there is a remarkable fermentation and breaking
down the parts of the food. Nor can the chyliferous or
ladleal veffels afford a paflage to the eggs in their rout ;
and laftly, no one alledges that he has ever feen exactly
fimilar worms out of the body.

Were I fo difpofed, or did the defign of this paper re-
quire it, I could to thofe obfervations add many extraordi-
nary inftances, of ftrange, rare, and furprizing produdtions
of animals in the human body, from the works of the
celebrated Bartholine, phyfician to the king of Denmark,
and from other grave and learned authors of unexcepti-
onable repute. But here I paufe, to reverence the hand
that framed not only our bodies, but thofe of the meaneft
teptiles, with an exuberance of fkill, which proclaims
that they are not the effedt of chance; and acknowledging
I am loft in wonder, I leave the fuller explanation of the
uncommon produdions, to fome happy genius that. may
arife, if ever it fhould pleafe God to produce fuch an one
into the world, who by tracing out the footfteps of the
Creator, ftiall be able to throw clearer lights than we yet
have, upon thefe abftrufe fubjefts.

>. D d d 2 Some

[ 392 ]

N° XLIV.

Some Account of a motley coloured, or pye Negro Girl and
Mulatto Boy., exhibited before the Society in the Month of
May, ij'i^, for their examination, by Dr. John Mor-
gan, fro7n the Hifiory gi'ven of them by their oivner
Monf Le Vallois, Dent if of the King of France at Gua-
daloupe in the Weji Indies, as folloivs.

ADELAIDE, the little girl now before the fociety, is
aged two years and little more than one month, is
of a clear black colour, verging to brown, except that fhe
has a white fpot bearing fome refemblance to an aigrette;
the point of which is at the root of the nofe, and it rifes
into the hair, above the forehead, of which it occupies
above an inch in width, from, the margin to the fonte-
nelle. In this part the colour of the hair is white, and
it is curly like the hair of negroes in general, and thicker
in that part than on any other part of its head. In the
middle of its forehead and on the aigrette, is a large black
fpot; on the external fide next to the temples, about one
half of each eye-lid, both upper and under, is black, and
the remaining half next to the nofe is white.

The eyes are black and lively, a little to the left and
towards the middle of the chin a white fpot begins, which
is long in proportion to its breadth, but of lefs magnitude
than that of the forehead : It ftretches under the chin to
the upper part of the throat. The neck, the upper and
under part of the chert, the flioulders, the back, loins and
buttocks to the jun£lion with the thighs, and the puden-
dum, are of the colour of her face, but the loins and the
thicker part of the buttocks arc of a deeper black.

The

PYE NEGRO GIRL and MULATTO BOY. 39^,

The arms from the upper and middle part are white»
and interfperfed with black fpots. There are fome fmal-
ler and more numerous about her knees than elfewhere.

Upon the large black fpots there are alfo many fmaller
and blacker which are very glaring. Many of thefe fpots
divide into four, five and fix rays, refembling a ftar, which
are not obferved but by a clofe infpedion, and then they
are very vifible. In feveral parts thofe fpots, being of dif-
ferent fhades, give an exa(ft pi£ture of lunar eclipfes, as
they are commonly reprefented in the books of aftrono-
my. The hands, the middle part of the fore arms, the
inferior and middle parts of the legs and feet are black,
which have a pretty ftriking referablance to gloves and to
bufkins.

The white that prevails over the breaft, and over the
belly, arms and thighs, has a lively appearance. The
flcin is foft, fmooth and Ileek.

Adelaide has fine features; we meet with few negroes of
fo beautiful a form. In her temper fhe is cheerful, gay
and fportful, and as tall as children of her age generally
are, and hath evidently a very delicate temperament, yet
enjoys pretty good health, neither hath flie eyes, nor eats,
nor any particularity in her features, or external confor-
mation, like what miy be feen at the firft infpedlion i:i
thofe who are called white negroes, whofe ikin is altoge^
ther of a dead vi'hite colour, and whofe woolly white hair
and features reiemble thofe of their negro parents.

From this detail we may remark that the alteration of
the natural colour of Adelaide, takes place over the fame
parts of the body, for the mod: part, as over the body of
Maria Sabina, of whom Monf. Butfon gives an account;
and confidering it as a well authenticated fail,, from all
the information that has been received of Adelaide, that
flie had a negro father and negro mother, we are led t^
believe, that the Englifh account under the portrait of
Maria Sabina is exatt, and not aflerted merely for the

fake

394 SOME ACCOUNT OF A

fake of covering the honor of the mother, and of the fo-
clety in which fhe was a flave.

The pyed mulatto boy is named Jean Pierre. He is a
month younger than Adelaide; but from his figure, which
is robuft, he appears to be fix months older. He as well
as Adelaide both belong to Monf. le Vallois. He was born
at Grandterre, Guadaloupe, of a negro wench named Ca-
rolina and of a white man, an European, whofe name I
did not learn.

A certificate which Monf. le Vallois has with him, le-
gally authenticated by Monf, Blin, lieutenant judge, given
from under the hand of Monf. des Effart, king's phyfici-
an, and of Monf Cumin, king's furgeon, at Grandterre,
Guadaloupe, attefts that Adelaide was born at Gros-Iflet
in St. Lucia, that Bridget her mother is a negro of the Ibo
nation, and now reckoned to be about twenty-five years
old, and that her father, whofe name is Raphael, is a ne-
gro of the Mina nation. In this certificate it is farther
declared that the father of Jean Pierre has white fpols
(that is of a deeper white than his natural fkin) of the fame
fhape and in the fame parts of the body as the fon, and
that the mother and one of the brothers of this boy's Eu-
ropean father have like white fpots, and in the fame parts
of the body.

However it may be in refped to thofe obfervations con-
cerning the fuppofed refemblance of the white fpots they
may bear about them, to thofe which mark Jean Pierre,
it fuificcs to take notice here, that his body is entirely of
the colour of a mulatto, except that he has from nature a
white aigrette in his forehead like that of Adelaide. The
hair in that part is white mixed with black, which is not
fo in Adelaide. The ftomaclf, and the legs from two inches
above the ancles to the middle of the calf of the legs are
entirely of a beautiful lively white; there is alfo a white
fpot in the upper part of the penis. Over the white parts

of

PYE NEGRO GIRL akd MULATTO BOY. 395

of the legs there is a light white down, longer and thicker
than children commonly have at this age.

Such is the natural hiftory of^thofe two extraordinary
children ; but what caufes have produced thofe furprifing
phasnomena and alteration of the natural colour of their
ikin, are left for others to inveftigate and explain.

Monf. le Vallois relates that the mother of Adelaide,
whilft pregnant with her, was delighted in laying out all
night in the open air, and contemplating the ftars and
planets, and that the great grandmother of Jean Pierre (a
white lady) during the time of her being with child of her
daughter, his grandmother by the father's fide, was fright-
ened on having fome milk fpilled upon her. Whether
this will account for her daughter and grandchildren be-
ing marked in the manner related, and for the fpots ob-
ferved on the mulatto boy defcending to him; or whether
the ftrong impreffion made upon the mother of Adelaide,
by the nightly view of the ftars and planetary fyftem, may
be confidered as the caufe of the very extraordinary ap-
pearances in that girlj every one will determine for them-
felves; there being many who difpute childrens being ever
marked by the fears, longings, or imprefTions made by
mothers on the bodies of their children, at a certain time
of pregnancy ; for which they endeavour to account in
different ways ; whilft others who have known a variety
of children born with different marks on them, (which
have fallen under their particular notice) are equally con-
fident of thofe marks proceeding from the caufes alledged-

Extract

[ 396 1

N" XLV.

ExtraSl of a Letter from Bernard Romans, of Penfa-
coht dated Augujl 20i 1773.

TH E common mariners compafs has always appeared
to accurate obfervers as an imperfe£t inftrument, but
in nothing has it proved to be more defective than in its
ufe in ftorms, the heavieft brafs compafles now in ufe are
by no means to be reUed on in a hollow or high fea.
This is owing to the box hanging in two brafs rings con-
fining it to only two motions, both vertical, and at right
angles with each other, by which confinement of the box
upon any fuccuffion, more efpecially fudden ones, the card
is always put into too much agitation, and before it can
well recover itfelf, another jerk again prevents its pointing
to the pole, nor is it an extraordinary thing to fee the card
unfhipped by the violence of the fhip's pitching.

All thefe inconveniencies are remedied to the full by
giving the box a vertical motion at every degree and mi-
nute of the circle, and to compound thefe motions with a
horizontal one, of the box, as well as of the card. By this
unconfined difpofition of the box the effedls of the jerks
on the card are avoided, and it will always very fteadily
point to the pole. Experience has taught me, that the
card not only is not in the fmalleft degree affedted by the
hollow fea, but even in all the violent fhocks and whirl-
ings the box can receive, the card lies as IHU as it in a
room unafFefted by the lead: motion.

Lately a compafs was invented and made in Holland,
whicli has all thefe motions. It is of the fize of the com-
mon brafs compafies, the bottom of the brafs box inilead
of being like a bowl, mull be raifed into a hollow cone,

like

IMPROVEMENT of the COMPASS. 2>')y

like the bottom of a common glafs bottle ; the vertex of
the cone muft be raifed fo high as to leave but one inch
between the card and the glafs ; the box muft be of the
ordinary depth, and a quantity of lead muft be poured in
the bottom of the box round the bafe of the cone, this fe-
cures it on the ftyle whereon it traverfes.

This ftyle is firmly fixed in the center of a fquare wood-
en box, like the common compafs, except that it requires
a thicker bottom. The ftyle muft be of brafs about fix
inches long, round and of the thicknefs of one-third of
an inch, its head blunt, like the head of a fewing thimble
but of a good polifti ; the ftyle muft ftand perpendicular,
the inner vertex of the cone muft alfo be well poliftied ;
the vertical part of the cone ought to be thick enough to
admit of a well poliftied cavity fufficient to admit a fliort
ftyle proceeding from the center of the card whereon it
traverfes. The compafs I faw was fo conftrudted, but I
fee no reafon why the ftyle might not proceed from the
center of the vertex of the cone, and fo be received by the
card the common way. The needle muft be a magnetic
bar blunt at each end ; the glafs and cover is put on in
the common way.

A compafs of this kind was given by the captain of a
Dutch man of war to Capt. Burnaby of the Zephyr floop ;
this gentleman gave it to me to examine, and was very
profufe in his encomiums thereon, faying that in a very
hard gale, which lafted fome days, there was not a com-
pafs but it of any fervice at all. Indeed to me it appears
to deferve all the praife he gave it. My ftay is fo fhort
here, as not to allow me time to have one made ; but I
intend to have one made for my own ufe, and ftiall off'er
it to the fociety for infpe£tion. I hope that this ufeful
inftrument may become univerfal, as navigation certainly
will be rendered more fafe through its means ; and I fhall
think myfelf highly honoured, if through the channel of
this fociety it becomes public.

E e e Prefents

Prefents made to the American Philofoph'ical Society, Jince
its Renji'ual and Incorporation in 1780, nvith the Names,
of the Donors.

Donors.
1780, Apr. 7. Dr. CoJIe,

Dec. 15. Monf. Chati-
laux,

1 78 1, Jan. 19. Monf.
de MarboiSi

Feb. 1 6. Gen. Sullivan,

Mar. 16. Sam. Adams,
Efq.

1783, Feb. 16. Aflem-
bly of the State of
Peniifyl'vania,

May 2. Mr. J. M' Henry,

Presents.

An analytic, etymologic, and ar-
gumentative treatife on the
accent and pronunciation of
the Englifh language.

His works de la felicite pub-
lique, 2 vol.

A pamphlet in French, containing
an account of, and propofals
for printing a work of great
merit, entitled voyages metal-
lurgiques, &c. Par M. Jars.

Specimens of talc, from a large
body of this foffil, lately dif-
covered in New-Hampfhire.

Copy of a Philofophical difcourfe
delivered before the academy
of arts and fciences at Bofton,
by their prefident James Bow-
doin, Efq.

One hundred and fifty pounds.

A curious fpecimen of petrified
pine.

Sept.

DONATIONS.

1783, Donors.
Sept. 26. Dr. Franklin,

Oa. 17. Mr. John Hy-
acinth de Magellany

Mr. Godfrey^

Abbe de Fontanar

Dec. 5. Mr. VanBerckeh

Monf. de Etiemiey

Presents.
Natural hiftory of the South of
France, by Monf. L'Abbe Sou-
lavie, 1 vols.

A colledtion of Philofophical
trads, &c.

A colle(5tion of prints, reprefent-
ing fome of the principal
events during the late revolu-
tion in America.

Four pamphlets on Philofophical
fubjedls, written by himfelf.

Six volumes of the Tranfadions
of the Batavian Philofophical
Society of Rotterdam.

On a cement impenetrable by
water.

1784, Jan. iS.yix.'John A colle£tlon of fpecimens of the
Feljiedy feveral woods growing in the

ifland of Jamaica.

Febru. 3. Mr. Warder.^ A colledion of animal calculi-.

Mr. Mandrillony Voyageur Americain.

An anfwer to the queftion pro-
pofed by the Academy of Sci-
ences at Lyons, viz. Whether
the difcovery of America has
been advantageous to mankind
or not ? both written by him-
felf.

Feb.

DONATIONS.

1784. Donors.
Feb. 20. SamiielVaugh-
afi, Elquire^

Presents.

A 3^ feet acromatic telefcope,
completely mounted on a ma-
hogany ftand, with rack work
to move it along the meridian,
or parallel to the equator, made
by Mr. Dolland.

A Gunter's fcale improved, for
navigation and aftronomy, by
Mr. John Robertfon, with a
defcription thereof by Mr.
Mountaine.

A magazine microfcope, confift-
ing of a fingle, double, and
folar microfcope.

A burning lens i il inches, with
a fecond lens of 61 inches di-
ameter, completely framed and
mounted on a mahogany turn-
ed cone, with rack work, pil-
lar, pinnionand apparatus for
placing the whole in a proper
fituation.

March 1 9. Dr. Fratiklin, A treatife in French, on the fub-
jeft of air balloons.

Samuel Vaughan, YS<\. A copy in manufcript of Dr.
Prieftley's experiments on
phlogifton, and the feeming
converfion of water into air.

Apr. a. Mr. y.r^w^^««,; Dr. Prieftley's works, complete
in ^T^ volumes.-
Dr. Prieftley's biographical and
hiftorical charts.

Mr. William Parker by
Mr. S, VaugbaUi

April

DONATIONS.

1784. Donors.
April 9. Sa7nuelVaugh-
an, Efq.

April 16. Dv.CoJicy

OQi. 15. Rev. Jeremy
Belknap,

1784, Nov. 12. Dr. M.
Guthet

■19. Chev. d' Ar-

mourst

Dec. 9. Monf. de Mar-
boisy

Presents.

Dr. Price on reverfionary pay-
ments, annuities, &c. 2 vols.

Tranfa£tions of the fociety of
arts, &c. 1783, 17B4.

Trafts publiflied by the fociety
for conftitutional information.

Proceedings at Quebec, 1773.
Lind on difeafes incident to hot

climates.
Plinii fecundi hift. nat.
Antiquitates Romanae.
Rowe's fluxions.
Gregory's practical geometry.
Hamilton on vapours and the

aurora borealis.

Eight copies of his Inaugural o-
ration, delivered in the college
of William & Mary, Virginia.

The firft volume of his hiftory
of New-Hampfhire.

A filver medal in memory of the
Rev. Chriflian Meyer of Hei-
delburg, late a member of this
Society.

A pamphlet In manufcript, on
the fubje£t of animal magne-
tifm, by Dr. P. Hcrvier, of the
Sorbonne.

Report of the commiflioners ap-
pointed by the king of France,
to examine into the merit of
Dr.

DONATIONS.

Donors.

1785, Jan. 22. Mr.
MandnUon^

Mar. 4. Mr. W. Henry ^

Aflembly of the State
of Penn/yl'uania,

Mrs. Pauliy

July 15. Rev. Mr. Muh-
lenberg.,

Dr. Noely

Sept. 27. Yix.T.Redmany

Presf.nts.
Dr. Mefmer's late difcoveries
of animal magnetifm.

An elegant copy of his work en-
titled le fpedateur Americain.

The model of a wheel carriage,
to run againfl; the wind by the
force of the wind alone.

Two very large pieces of chry-
ftal found in Lancafter county.

An exceedingly large tufk and
one of the grinders of fome
unknown fpecies of animals,
brought from the neighbour-
hood of the Ohio.

A lot of ground in the State-
houfefquare, on which to ere£t
a building for the accommo-
dation of the Society.

A horn of the Canada moofe deer
of an extraordinary fize.

A manufcript copy of his Flora
Lancajirienis.

Three volumes of the proceed-
ings of the Royal French A-
cademy.

An elegant ele£trical machine,
with the neceflary apparatus.

Specimens of the Eaft-India man-
ner of writing, on long ftrips
of the leaves of the cocoa nut
tree.

Monf.

DONATIONS.

1785. Donors.
Sept. 27. Monf. C. L.
(THeritier^

Decern. 2. Dr. Hut ton.

Mr. Sam. Vaughatit jun.
Mr. Ed. HuJfeyDelavaU

Arthur Toung, Efq.

Mr. Warvilh

Mr. J. H. de Magellan,

Presents.
A colle£lion of his botanical prints
with their defcription, in Latin.

His large tables of logarithms, &c.
Three pamphlets, containing the

hiftory of the late debates ia

the Royal Society.

Four pamphlets in the German
language, containing new dif-
coveries in chemiftry.

His enquiry into the caufe of the
permanent colours of, opaque
bodies, 8vo.

His annals of agriculture.

His tableau des fciences & arts,

Botanica charadleriftica, by Dr.
Wolf of Dantzick.

A remonftrance ajainft Voltaire,
by Mr. Needham.

Lettre du Pekin, on the Chinefe
language.

Elements of mineralogy, by Ri-
chard Kerwin, Efq.

Medical virtues of digitalis pur-
purea, or fox-glove, by Dr.
Withering of Manchefter.

Twelve copies of his pamphlet
on the glafs apparatus and eu-
diometer, third edition.

Propofals of Mr. Taylor, iot

printing a table of logarithms

and of fines, tangents, &c. to

every fecond of the quadrant.

Mr.

DONATIONS.

1785. Donors.
Sept. 27. Mr. J. H. de

Magellan^

Samuel Vaughaji^ Efq.

Presents.

Count Brahl's account of the go-
ing of Mr. Emery's new chro-
nometer for the pocket, which
fcarce differs twofeconds from
mean time in 24 hours. Price
90 guineas, in a filver cafe.

An account of a new hydroftatic
balance, by Mr. NichoUbn.

Defcriptions of ufeful machines
and models of the fociety (in
London) for the encourage-
ment of arts, manufactures
and commerce, illuftrated with
copper plate defigns, 2 vols,
folio, laft edition.

Memoirs of the American aca-
demy of arts and fciences,
4° 1785-

Dec. 16. Mr. Cha. W.
Peaky

1786, Jan. 20. Mr.//.
MarJhalU

June. Dr. Ed. Waring-,
by Mr. S. Vaugbatiy

An elegant portrait of Do£tor
Franklin.

His book, entitled, an alphabe-
tical arrangement of the foreft
trees, &c. of North-America.

Meditationes algebraicse.
Mifcellanea analytica, de aequa-

tionibus algebraicis, et curva-

rum proprietatibus.
Meditationes analyticse.
Proprietates algebraicum curva-

rum. — All written byhimfelf.

Fff

The

DONATIONS.

The following Donations tuere received through the hands
of Dr. Franklin.

17S6. Donors.
June. Monf. the Count
de Buffon-i

Dr. FothergilU

Lord Stanhope^

Signior Manini.,
Monf. Grivel,

Mr. J. H. de Magellan^

M. Court de Gebelin,
The Author,

Presents.

His colle(£tion of birds, beauti-
fully engraved and coloured.

Supplement al'hiftoire naturelle,
5 tome, 4°.

Illuftratiofyftematisfexualis Lin-
neae, per Johannes Miller.

Robert! Simfon, M. D. opera re-
liqua. 4°.

Le lettere Americane, 3 vols. 1 2°.

L'ifle inconnue, ou memoires du
Chev.des Gaftines, 4 vols. 1 2°.

His colle£tion,dedifFerenstraites
fur des inftruments d'aftrono-
mie, phifique, &c.

Extrait d'une lettre de M. Ma-
gellan fur une pendule de fon
invention.

Defcription d'une machine nou-
velle de dynamique, &c.

Nouvelle conftrudion d'alambic
pour faire toute forte de diftil-
lation en grande, avec le plus
d'economie dans 1 'operation,
et le plus d'avantage dans le
refultat.

Monde primitif compare avec le
monde moderne, i vol. 4°.

Le triomphe du nouveau monde,
reponfes academiques, for-
ma nt

DONATIONS.

1786. Donors.

June. M. Elie de
Beaumonty

Pere Berthier,

Monf. Mefmer^.

Monf. L'Abbe Saju,
Y)t, Ingenhanfsy

Marcus Lemort De-
metignyt

Monf. Gerbieri

Presents.
mant un nouveaii fyfteme de
confederation, fonde fur les
befoins adluels des nations
Ghretiens-commercantes, et a—
dapte a leurs diverfes formes
de gouvernement, 2 vols. 8".

Memoire pour Dame Marie Reine
Petit de la Burthe, Marquife d'An-
glure, concre le Sieur Pierre Petit.

Hiftoire de premiere temps du.
monde, 8vo.

Precis hiftorique de faits relatifs au
magnetifme animal, i vol. 8vo.
fix copies.

Guerifon de la paralyfie par I'elec-
tricite, 8°.

Ingen-Haufz vermifchte fchriften,.
1784, 2 vols. 8vo.

Obfervations fur la conftrudion et
I'ufagedel'eudiometredu M.Fon-
tana, — both written by himfelf.

Tentamen +rxo- shmato- iatpikon
feu confpedus thefiformis de na-
tura animae et corporis, &c. writ--
ten by himfelf..

Lettres et obfervations de M. Ger--
bier, do£teur en medicine, I'un des
medicins de monfieur fervant par
quartier, au fujet de deux nou-
veaux remedes, contre les maladies
fquirrheufes, cancereufes, &c.

Fere

DONATIONS.

1786. Donors. Presents.

June. Pere Beccaria, Delia eledriclta terreftre atmofferi-
ca a cielo fereno, oflervazioni di
Giambatifta Beccaria.

Sundry atbet* books, givni by different per/ons, ivill be men'
tioned in the lift to be publi/hed in the next volume.

END OF THE SECOND- VOLUME.