a Re Ha air i erate a i ae 1 jeer oy hi Ri aeer nit WE ae “3 ie te wl aitat’ ‘% “egy ME r + Beet Py. . ¥] J * " e Ye Qe { - \ s ‘: - “n tig My - : * — n 2 > “4 : ‘ j ' » ® f "4 a ' } - t 7 - > GT ‘ ; he . crn, : ; y ten oy fey =. . U = . ~ ~e ~ % _ : i : ' - 3 ; ; : : - 7 ’ ’ ’ x < & A \, ‘ BVMAN IIIS © BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. 1874 to 1883. —— MEMBER’S COPY. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, © ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXIV. 4 3 SCALE OF FEET. yao ek eae Che Crosses in and around Burn _ GODLY LANE CROSS. REAPS CROSS. MOUNT CROSS. TAILOR’S CROSS. 7. THE EMMOTT CROSS. THE WHALLEY GROSSES. wale. Mh ag Wa & | | | | S$ im and around Burnley. SCALE OF FEET be { Yn all GODLY LANE CROSS. The Crosse BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. , TRANSACTIONS. VOL: I. 1874 to 1883. MEMBER’S COPY. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. _ MDCCCLXXXIV, ea Burnlep Literary & Scientific Club. = eS ESTABLISHED 1878. ied President: HENRY HOULDING. Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumweut, M.D., J.P. J. W. Annineson, L.R.C.P. J. LanerreLD Warp, M.A. Frep. J. Grant. W. A. Wanpineron. ALFRED STRANGE. Treasurer :—JAS. KAY. Committee: W. Lewis Granr. J. Moncxman, D.Sc. B. Sagar. Jas. Lancaster. P. EK. Roserts. Frep. H. Hut. Secretary: J. MACKENZIE, M.D, 68, Bank Parade, Burnley. . ‘oetaro8 (ai4aH, » a, ( ie i ee > - 2 . e / . ‘ainabizegl-aoi¥ ao -.. ge Pe gree sl <2) 2 hic ie \ 9. 1 L pees? Wet Lan sd Pek AT ata creda Bs i ae , ? -> gee) & nes + ; a 2) soremmga ll A 8 ’ d i >, ROT LETC. Gar maf. ee 1 OTN . |, “ a | . ‘« = ma) + , / ee, ehh eed a oe aa eK ol? ) ¢ os : Co ° : Foattirarne Is, ha a ; ' - ie Lt ww a 3 - i * en naMsh, > a ¥. bay \ mae at ea ot aera ik iy omnt INTRODUCTORY REPORT. a In presenting for the first time in the history of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club a record of its work, it will be appropriate that some general remarks be made respecting the foundation of the Club, its progress and present position. That ten years should have been allowed to pass without there having been secured in some permanent form a systematic account of the doings of the Club, must to those really in- terested in the Club’s welfare, be considered a mis- fortune. Generally speaking, the regular chronicling of the transactions of Societies like ours is regarded as a necessary part of their work, and as a justification of their existence. Any publication therefore which shall aim at recording the proceedings in some con- nected form, must be welcomed by the members as a distinct gain to the Club, and a valuable addition to its usefulness. The difficulties, and it might be added, the impossibilities, attending any attempt after the lapse of a decade to compile a history which should not only be complete in its catalogue of events, but should present a brief account of the papers read, excursions made, and the manifold work accomplished, will be readily recognized. Indeed, were only the materials which are available, to be made use of, great labour would necessarily be involved, and the result would be a book far too voluminous and costly to render its publication expedient. It is therefore pro- posed in the first issue to do little more than insert a list of the members and officers of the Club from its commencement; recite the contents of the syllabuses which from time to time have been put forth; and 6 furnish brief statistics respecting the finances of the Club. —___ LIST OF HONORARY MEMBERS, Year of PAST AND PRESENT. Election. 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1875 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 1880 1881 Rev. Edw. Boden, M.A., Clitheroe. Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. Jas. Kerr, L.8.A.L., Crawshawbooth. Thos. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., Manchester. Rev. Geo. Rowe, M.A., York. Rev. J. S. Doxey, Whalley. William Naylor, Whalley. Philip Gilbert Hamerton. W. B. Bryan, C.E., London. F. J. Faraday, F.8.8., F.L.8., Manchester. C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.8., Huddersfield. Edwin Waugh, Manchester. J. H. Nodal, Manchester. Samuel Laycock, Blackpool. R. BR. Bealey. W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S., Blackburn: D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S. Joseph Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. Alf. H. Mason. F.C.§., Liverpool. H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D., Chester. Jno. Edw. Price, F.S.A., F.R.S8.L., London. Chas. Rowley, Jun., Manchester. Jas. Croston, F'.8.A., Prestbury. 18 LIST OF ORDINARY MEMBERS, PAST AND PRESENT. Present Members are distinguished by an Asterisk. Year of Election. 1874 Allen, Rev. W. H. 1874 *Anningson, J. W., L.R.C. 1874 es Thirkill, M.R. 1874 Appleby, John, Senr. 1874 ” ” 1877 *Arnold, James, Cuerden Terrace. 1876 Ashworth, Rev. W. 1878 Astley, J. W. 1878 Atkinson, W. H. 1878 PA Wm. 1880 9 Isaiah. 1881 Adamson, John. 1881 Astwood, George, Junr. 1881 *Aspinall, Wm., Todmorden Road. 1882 Ambler, R. 1879 Astin, Andrew. 1880 Astin, Arthur. 1878 Bristow, L. V., B.A. 1874 *Bailey, Chas., Manchester Road. 1877 Baldwin, A. 1877 Barker, John. 1875 *Baron, John, Manchester Road. 1878 * ,, Arthur, if 1878 Bell, Benj. 1874 * ,, Thos., Nicholas Street. 1877 *Berry, Jas., Palatine Square. 1875 J ohn. 1874 Bibby, Jas. 1874 Birkett, John, 1877 Bolton, Wm. 1879 Fe Thos. 1878 Bond, W. E. 1874 Booth, Wm. 1876 Boyden, Rev. W. 1877 Bracewell, W. 1874 *Bradley, John, St. James’s Street. 1874 Briggs, B. W., J.P. USI (se coh Hy., M. D., Bank Parade. 1874 Brims, James, M. D. 1874 *Brumwell, J.C., M.D., J.P., Hargreaves Street 1877-82 *Buleock, B., Ormerod Street. P., Yorkshire Street. G.P. “19 1874-82 *Bulcock, Jas., Manchester Road 1876 1878 1878 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1878 1879 1879 Butterfield, John. Boyden, Thos. Boyden, Alfred. Bryan, W. B., C.E. *Burns, John, L.R.C.8., Fulledge House. Burton, C. Bottomley, J. W. Bannister, William. ny “Butterworth, J ohn, Junr., Brooklands Road. Buck, Williamson. 1878-83 *Broxup, J.G., Gannow House. 1879 1879 1879 1879 1880 1880 1878 1881 1881 1882 1882 1882 1882 1882 1883 1883 1877 1876 1876 1879 1874 1875 * 1874 1874 * 1876 1874 1875 1881 1875 1874 1879 1875 1874 1878 Birley, Arthur. Brown, John, M.A., M.D.. &e. *Bell, Robert, Nelson Square. Blakey, James. *Birnie, Joseph, Post Office. Brotherton, George. Berry, Benj. Brown, Wm. Bell, J. C. Buleock, John, Junr. *Burrows, Thos, Padiham Road, *Blezard, Walton, Rosegrove. Bellingham, A. N. *Barlow, J. A., Padiham Road. *Booth, James, Manchester and Co. Bank. *Broxup, John, Gannow House. Carr, Thomas. Chaffer, Benjamin. Charles, Rd. = F. W. *Clement, Leonard, Nelson. *Colbran, W. H., Brown Hill. a Jas., St. James's Street. a J.8., J.P., Park House, 36 Luke. * 3 Wum., Wood Nook. ¥ Jas. ® ig John, Spring Hill. *Cook, Samuel, Nelson Square. Coultate, W. M., F.R.C.S., J.P. 33 Arthur W. *Cowgill, B. H., Manchester Road. Creeke, A. B. Creeke, A. B., Junr, 1877 1878 1878 1874 1874 1874 1874 1879 1879 1880 1881 1881 1881 1882 1882 1883 1874 1878 1874 1874 1874 1877 1875 1874 1877 1876 1874 1874 1879 1878 1874 1874 1879 1880 1881 1881 * 1874 1679 1882 1882 1883 1877 1874 1877 1881 1877 1874 20 *Crook, Thos., Palatine Square. Cowell, Wm. *Qunningham, J. M., Manchester Road. Crawshaw, Ed., Crosbie, Rev. H. A., M.A. Cronkshaw, John. Granbrook, Rev. J. *Orabtree, Robert, Brooklands Road. i Jas. Coulston, James. *Chadwick Benj., Clifton Street. Calverley, Lewis. Chaffer, F. J. *Calvert, A. E., Towneley Villa. *Crook, Campbell, Rose Hill Road. *Corder, Ed. Manchester Road Station. «Dean, Thos., M.D., Manchester Road. ” Hy. Denbigh, A. G. Duckett, Alfred. » sames. *Duckworth, Joshua, Manchester Road. Dugdale, Adam, J. P. . Theophilus. », Stephen. jie NV » . Jonas. *Dunkerley, Elias, St. James’s Street. * Pep Elijah W., PY, Dibbin, H. F. Doxey, Rev. J. 5. Duerden, James. Dent, John P. » Wm. “Dickinson, Alfred, Rose Cottage. * ‘ W. R., Manchester Road. Dean, C..W. Dawson, G. A. “Dall, T. N., Shakspeare Terrace. Easton, W. aiRastwood, Hy., St James's Street. 3 Geo. 5 Rd. *Eeroyd, John, Lomeshaye. Edmondson, Bernard. 21 1876 «Edmondson, Thos., Fern Hill. 1881 * 5 Stephen, Nicholas Street. 1881 55 H. W. 1876 Edwards, J. V. 1874-81 Emmett, Jas. 1880 Emmison, James. 1879 *Evans, L.C., Brighton Villa, Nelson. 1874 Farrar, Cornelius. 1883 *Fletcher, John, M.R.C.S. 1883 *Finn, Rev. A. H., Stoneyholme. 1874 Fielden, John J. 1874 Flack, W. H. D. 1880 sei Ws Ge de 1876 F. W. C. 1874 *Fletcher, Sam., St. James’s Street. 1874 Foden, 7: iE: 1877 * ,, C.M., Sefton Terrace. 1875 *Folds, Jas., Tun., Fair View Road. 1874 * ,, Obadiah, Brunshaw House. 1877 *Frankland, Geo., Bull Street. 1879 Fisher, Fred. 1874 Fotherby, C.T. 1878 Freeland, F. A. S., B.A. 1878 Fox, R. 1877 * ,, Chas., Nicholas Street. 1878 Francis, Chas. 1878 Fingland, J. 1877 Gaukrodger, Chas. 1874 *Gill, Geo., Woodleigh. AST4 =; 535. Di 1878 ,, Rev. Geo. 1874 Grant, W. M. 1874 * ,, F.J., Bank Parade. dT Pai Gl We Lewis, St. Matthew’s Street. 1875 * ,, James, Manchester Road. 1878 » John H. 1882 * ,, A. K., Palatine Square. 1876 Grave, Geo. 1874 *Gray, N. P., Healey Grove 1879 *Gray. Rev, R. D. H., M.A., Briercliffe Vicarage 1877 Grey, T. BR. 1874 *Greenwood, Jas., Cumberland Place. 1874 Grimshaw, John, J.P. 1874 Gulland, Sergeant-Major. 1878 Goode, F. B. 1878 Giblin, T. 1878 Gillooly, T. 22 1878 Giles, Rev. R. H., B.A. 1879 Greaves, W. C. 1880 *Greenhalgh, John, Junr., Rectory Road. 1877 Gregory, W. G. 1882 *Granger, H. B., Craven Bank. 1876 Garside, W. F. 1874 Hall, Spencer T., M.D.Ci., M.A., Ph.D., Tu. 1875 Halstead, Alfred. 1875 Hargreaves, Hy. 1876 * 3 Jas., Palatine Square. 1875°* 4 W. Carey, Banktfield Villa. 1877 Joshua. 1877 Harker, Edward. ; 1877 *Harrison, James, Carlton Road. 1875 Hartley, Francis. 1876 ‘5 James. 1876 +5 John. 1877 Heaton, Thos. 1877 *Hesketh, Jas., St. James’s Street. 1875 Hey, Alfred. 1874 ,, Horace. 1875 *Higgin, Cain, Rectory Road. 1877-83 *Hirst, Fred W. Carlton. Road. STA = . Ls Ag iGolne. 1877 *Hitchin, Robert, St. James’s Street. 1877 Hocking, Rev. Silas. 1874 *Hoghton, Thomas, Carlton Road. 1874 «Holden, Ralph, Brooklands. 1875 * Samuel. 1874 *Horn, J. 8., Palatine Square. 1874 Houlding, EK. Junr. 1874 * - Hy., Byerden Terrace. 1875 Howard, G. M. 1877 rf Wm. BR. 1878 bs Wilkins R. 1874 *Howarth, John, J.P., Spring Bank. 1874 Howarth, Wm. 1877 “Hudson, Samuel, St. James’s Street. 1874 Hurtley, R. J. ‘ 1874-80 *Horner, W C., Manchester Road. 1874-81 *Hodgkinson, W. A. T., Craven Bank 1874 Holmes, Marmaduke. 1874 Hopwood, Jas. 1874-83 *Holden, Thos., Hargreaves Street. 1874 Hough, Jos., M.A., F.R.A.S. 1874 Hargreaves, Benj. 1878-81 *Hargreaves, Thos., Church Street. 28 1878 *Haregreaves, A. F., F.C.S., Colne Road. 1875 Hartley, 8. 1878 *Hartley, Job W., Westgate. 1880 *Hartley, Edmund, Padiham Road. 1878 Hartley, Wilkinson. 1878 Hirst, Thomas. 1878 *Hill, F. H., Fair View Road. 1879 Holden, Thos. 1879 Holroyd, Joseph. 1878 *Holgate, Thos., Gas Works. 1878 Holgate, Jas. 1881 *Holgate, Albert, St. James’s Street. 1878 *Horner, Thos., Rectory Road. 1878 *Harrison, John, Bridge Street. 1878 Heaton, John. 1878 *Haslam, Tom, Carlton Road. 1879 Harrison, Robert. 1882 *Harrison, J. Dilworth., Sunny Bank. 1879 Hodgson, F. 1879 *Haslam, W. H., Lark Hill. 1880 *Hardman, Albert E., Osborne Terrace. 1880 *Holyoake, Wm., Workhouse. 1881 Hindle, Wm. 1881 Haslam, Robert. 1881 Heap, Hy. 1879 *Hey, Colin, Lark Hill. 1882 «Halstead, Edmund, Junction Street. 1882 *Horrocks, Thos. M.R.C.V.S. 1883 *Harwood, Sep., M.B., Wilfield House. 1883 *Hedge, Alfred, Healey Villa. 1883 *Holdsworth, Wm., Accrington Road. 1878 Heyhurst, J.P. 1875 Ingham, Rd. 1878 Ideson, J.J. 1874. *Jackson, Thos., Hargreaves Street. 1877 i Hartley. 1878 » ~ Luke. 1880 * ,, John, Parker Lane. 1878 Kirk, Hugh, -- | 24 1880 Knowles, T. H. 1881 1874 1874 * 1875 1877 1877 1878 1879 1874 1878 1874 1874 1874 1875 1879 * 1877 Kellet, Robert. “Lancaster, Alfred, Manchester Road. és James, Palatine Square. % Wu., Junr., Carlton Road. Law, Henry. Lawson, Sam. *Lawson, §., L.F.P.G., Brierfield. Lawson, J. W. *Leather, 8. P., Gas Works. x ” .P. ” Lister, Thomas. Lomas, Thomas Hy. Wm *Lupton, J. T., Manchester Road. . Arthur, Manchester Road. 5 John 1874-82 * 99 Wm. ” 1874 1878 1874 1878 1876 1881 1876 1879 1879 1883 1874 1876 1874 1874 1874 1874 1877 1874 1874 1874 1878 1878 1878 1877 1878 1880 1880 * 1880 1881 Lord, Ed. Lynch, EK. W. Lee, Ed. ” We » W. Austin. * Richard, Parker Lane ” * 4, Ed., Parker Lane. Leach, John G. *Leyland, Rev. T. *Lloyd, T., Grammar School. Maclure, Rev. H.C, M.A. MacNamara, J., L.R.O.P. Massey, John, J.P. gx, One E. 8. *Metealfe, C., Palatine Square. *Monckman, Jas., D.Sc., Palatine Square. *Moore, Benj., Palatine Square. », John. Morris, Dan, B.A., F.G.S. Marsden, Wm. Marriott, Rev. C. Moss, Rev. R. Waddy. Marquis, J. T. *Mossop, Wm., Bank Parade. McKay, James. *Mackenzie, James, M.D., Bank Parade. Marle, Robt. *Midgley, Tom, Rectory Road. 1882 1881 . 1882 1879 1878 1876 1874 1874 1877 1880 1874 1878 1879 1874 1875 1874 1874 1874 1874 1875 1878 1877 1881 1874 1874 1882 25 *Midgley, C. W., Fair View Road. *Myers, Fred, St. James’s Street. *Mellor, T., Hargreaves Street. Mitchell, R. Murgatroyd, Robert. Martin, J. H. *Nelson, Richard, St. James’s Street. *Nowell, Thos., Healey Grange. ss was » saml. F, *Nutter, Hy., Manchester Road. Nutter, Chas. Norton, Hy. Oldman, Geo. *Ogden, Geo., Thorn Hotel. *Ogle, A., Albion Terrace. galt, Ate *O’Sullivan, D. A., B.A., L.R.C.P., Westgate. Palmer, W. J. Parkinson, Milton W. Parkinson, Wm. *Parsons, John, L.R.C.8., Westgate. *Parsons, Chas., Grimshawe Street. Pickup, Peter, F.G.S. pe Maine * ,, Peter, Bridge End. 1875-79 *Polding, Jas. B., Nicholas Street. 1874 1874 Pollard, Ed. Pollard, Geo. F. 1874-78 *Popplewell, Alfred, Craven Bank. 1874 1874 1874 1876 1874 1874 1874 1877 1878 1878 1878 1878 1878 1882 1882 1881 1879 *Preston, Hy., Manchester Road. * ee Phos? we 1» de *Pritchard, Thos., Worsthorne. Parker, Rey. Canon, M.A. Phillips, J. W. Pickard, Alf. Proctor, John *Procter, Rd., Westgate. Priestley, J. *Pickles, Joseph, Allen St. Pattison, Rev. J. B. Pickles, Jas. *Pomfret, Thos., Olive Mount. Palmer, Hy. Parker, R. H. Proctor, Rd. 1874 1874 1874 1874 1877 1874 1878 1882 * 1874 1874 1880 1879 1880 1874 1874 1874 1879 1878 1881 1874 1874 1874 1874 26 Race, Joseph. *Ratcliffe, Abm., St. James’s Street. oe David, Carlton Road. *Raweliffe, Jas., H., Manchester Road. fs Thos. H. - John are A Jas., Oak Mount. Re Geo. B., Godly Street. *Rawlinson, Joshua, Oak Bank. Read, W. T. », Geo. », Ashworth. » Jas. Hd. Riley, Holden. *Roberts, P. E., St. James’s Street Roberts, Hy., M. A. *Roberts, Thos., Bank Parade. Roberts, Harry. Roberts, T. H. Robinson, Rey. H. H., M.A. * Wa dP. Reynolds, Rey. T. Rhodes, T. 1874-78 Rigby, Geo. 1874 1879 1875 1882 1874 1874 1874 1877 1878 1874 1874 Reid, Rev. J. Rycroft, John. Riley, C. E. * ,, Thos., Manchester Road. *Sagar, Benj., Thorn Hill. Se reOr gy). Weal * , Wm., Sunny Bank. » John, A. ») elijah, Scott, J. H., J.P. 1874-79 *Scowby, Francis, Craven Bank. 1874 1874 1876 1878 1878 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1878 *Sharrocks, John, Bank Hall Terrace. Shepley, Thos. Shipley, John H. Shipley, Wm. Shipley, J. B. Simpson, Thos. * Slater, Christopher, Manchester Road. Smallpage, Alf. * Samuel. Af James. $i Isaiah. 27 1875 *Smith, Cicero, Cornholme. 1874 » John H, 1874 fs ee LS BIB 1874 ee Ps 1874 » William. 1880 » John. 1881 * ,, Denis, St. James’s Street. 1881 a5 eae, Be 1882 * ,, David, Berry Street. 1879 » Frank. 1881 Ed. 1874 Spencer, T. B. 1876 Standing, Jas. 1874 Stamer, Rev. H., B.A. 1874 Steer, Chas. 1875 Stephens, Rev. H. J., B.A. 1874 *Stonehouse, Chas., Piccadilly Road. 1881 * x Wm., Piccadilly Road. 1876 *Storey, Geo., Brunshawe. 1874 *Strange, Alfred, Craven Lodge. 1875 «Sutcliffe, Alfred, L.R.C.P., Trinity House. 1874 ¢ Chas. 1874 * ,, Geo., J.P., Oak Hill. 1874 . Wm. 1876 *_,, John, Manchester Road. 1874 3 Joseph. 1874 sn J. Stansfield. S880 Fe R. T., Nicholas Street. 1881 * _,, Ed., Holme View. 1879 P Fred C. 1879 Chas. 1883 * Jas., Bull Hotel. 1878 Shaw, John. 1878 Stansfield, John, Junr. 1879 Stuttard, Martin. 1879 3 Thos. 1879 *Shepherd, Walter, Carlton Road. 1878 Stephenson, J. 1878 Sharples, Joseph. 1874 Southern, Philip. 1874 Stroyan, Rev. John. 1874 Southern, Walter. 1879 Steel, W. F. 1879 Stuttard, Sampson. 1880 *Shaweross, John T., Nicholas Street. 1881 *Shaw, Smith, St. James’s Street. 1878 Spackman, Chas. 1879 1877 1876 1877 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 * 1878 1882 1876 1876 1875 1878 1878 1879 1877 1879 1881 28 Scaife, Cyrus. *Taylor, Thos., Colne Road. Pe Thos. 7 John. Temple, Robt. *Thompson, James, Cuerden Street. a John. i John. * if Jas. W., Oak Bank. y, Wm. 3 y Thos. * % James, St. James’s Street. Thomas, Rd. *Thorp, Thos., Manchester Road. Tunstill, W. Junr. Turner, Hy. Pe Rev. T. A., B.A. 'Towler, Geo. *Thornton, John, Craven Bank. Tattersall, A. W. 1878-81 *Thornber, Thos., St. Matthew's Street. 1882 1882 1874 1876 1874 1877 1877 1874 1874 1874 1878 1879 1881 1877 1874 1881 1877 1877 1874 1874 * 1876 1878 1881 1879 1877 *Tunstill, Hy., Oak Mount. *Titmus, H. V., Rectory Road. Uttley, Hiram, J.P. Varley, Hy. *Waddington, Jas. A., Thorn Hill. “4 J.C. >; Thos. * m3 Wnm., Thorn Hill. s ‘s W. A., Carlton Road. - W. 4H. * re G. C., Albert Terrace. 3 Thos. * i J.C., Thorn Hill. Walmsley, Josias. * is George, Highfield Terrace. * 3 Thos., Coke Street. Walsh, Fred. *Ward, J. Langfield, M.A., Grammar School. » Hy. » H.T., Pickup Terrace. Waterhouse, Joseph. *Watson, Richard, Hargreaves Street. *Watson, A. A., L.R.C.S. Colne Road. Watson, Thomas Watson, Matthew. 1874 1877 1877 1876 1875- 1880 1874 1877 1874 1874 1874 1876 1878 1881 1876 1877 1876 1874 1878 1877 1876 1874 1879 1879 1883 1874 1874 1876 1874 1874 1880 1878 1881 1878 1879 1876 1878 1878 1882 1875 1875 1878 29 Watson, Thos. » Thos., Junr. Westerby, Rev. W. M. Weston, W.A. Whitehead, Virgil. 3 Jas. ” W. = eS W. Rennie, Carr Road, Nelson. *Whitney, Thos., Healey Villa. *Whittaker, jor enna Colne Road. - i Jno., Junr., Carr Road, Nelson. Ps Wn. e Sagar. _ L. Albert. *Whitaker, J. H., Wilfield Terrace Whittingham, Wm. Witham, Frank. *Witham, Wm., Carlton Road *Whitham, Lawrence, Albion Street. *Wilks, Maurice, St. Matthew’s Street. Windle, John. Wood, Jas. Wood, Jas. Wood, Wm. *Wood, Martin, Westgate. Waring, Jacob. Willis, T , M.R.C.S. Willis, T. Wm., B.A. Wilkinson, T. T., F.R.A.S. Williams, John. Williams, Wm. Waterson, R. W. Waterson, Jno. W. Wilson, Rev. W. H., B.A. Wilson, William. Walters, Rev. G. F. Walton, Robert. Walton Robert. West, John. Yarwood, W. Yates, Thos. Yates, William. 80 LIST OF MEETINGS. TEN YEARS.—1874 To 1888. The Committee regret that they are unable to give reports of many of the papers that have been read. Some of the papers enumerated in this List are reprinted in this volume, and it is contemplated to introduce digests of others in succeeding vol- umes. As a great number of the papers have been reported at length in the local newspapers, the present reproduction of the Syllabuses will, at least, serve to facilitate reference to them. 1874. Jan. 6—Presidential Address, W. M. Coultate, F.R.C.S., J.P. ,, 13—Paper, ‘‘ Chaucer”’ (afterwards published by the Club)— H. Houlding. ,, 20—Numismatic Soirée, with a paper on History of Coins, &e.—Director, Rev. J. 8. Doxey, (Jas. Kerr, L.8.A.L. assisted). ,, 27—Paper, ‘‘The Philosophy of Recreation” (afterwards published)—J. C. Brumwell, M.D, Feb. 3—Botanical Soirée, with a paper on the Local Flora— H. Houlding. ,, 10—Paper, ‘‘ Observations on the Lancashire Dialect ””— T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. », 17—Photographie Soirée—Directors, W. B. Bryan and W. A. Waddington. ,, 24—Paper, ‘The duties of the State towards the private Citizen ”—W. Robinson, J.P. Mar. 3—Natural Curiosity Soirée--Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. ,, 10—Paper, ‘ Origin of Copyholds ’—T. Nowell. ,, 17—Geological Soirée—Director, George Rigby. ,, 24—Paper, *‘ The Microscope ’”’—S. P. Leather. ,, 31—Microscopic Soirée—Director, 5. P. Leather. April 7,—Annual Meeting. ,, 21—Discussion, ‘‘ The prohibition of the Liquor Traffic :— is it just and politic?” answered affirmatively— T. H. Smith. May 5—Paper, ‘The relation of Living Beings to Inorganic Matter ’—J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P. 5, 19—Bibliographic Soirée—Director, Rev. J. 5. Doxey, (Lieut.-Col. Fishwick, F' 5.A., assisted.) June 2—Discussion, ‘“‘ The Gulf Stream ”—T. Dean, M.D. ,, 30—Numismatic Soirée, ‘‘ Saxon Coins ’’—Director, Major Creeke. July 28—Portrait Soirée—Director, W. Collinge, with paper on ‘‘ Portraiture’ by J. C. Brumwell, M.D. 31 Aug.11—Diseussion, ‘‘The principle of the Greatest Good ”’— T. B. Spencer. Sep.29—Paper, “The theory of Evolution’—Rey. H H. Robinson, M.A. Oct. 6—Microscopic Soirée—Director, R. M. Holmes. ,, 18—Paper, ‘The Historical aspect of the Transit of Venus ’—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. 9» 9» —Paper, ‘‘The Mathematical aspect of the Transit of Venus ’—J. Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. ,, 20—Discussion, ‘“‘Is Phrenology true?’’ answered nega- tively—J. C. Brumwell, M D. », 27—Paper, ‘“‘ ‘The History of Mesmerism’’ Spencer T. Hall, M.D.Ci., M.A., Ph.D.Tu. Nov. 3—Ornithological Soiree, with paper on ‘‘ The Haunts and Habits of various British Buirds’’—Director, T. Rhodes. », 1O—Paper, “The AXsthetics of Large Towns” — Rev. HK. C. Maclure, M.A. », 17—Paper, ‘“‘ The History of the Poor Law” —H. Utley, J.P. », 24Soirée, ‘Textile Fabrics—Cotton’’ — Director, A. Ogle. Dec. 1—Paper, “Iron, from the Ore to the Metal ’’—J. Kerr, L.8.A.L. », 8—Paper, ‘‘On local aids for promoting the Culture of Art, Science, and Literature ’’—Rey. John Stroyan. », 15—Discussion, ‘‘ Taxation ’’—B. Moore. », 22—Paper, ‘‘Carbon and Carbonic Acid, their forms, properties and uses” (Illustrated by experiments)-— L. Clement. », 29—Literary and Musical Soirée—Directors, H. Houlding and T. Nowell. 1875. af Jan. 5—Paper, ‘‘ Variety essential to beauty’’—Rev. George Rowe, M.A. », 12—Photographic Soiree—Director, J. Howarth, J.P. 5, 14—Dinner. », 17—Paper, “Sanitary Legislation and Science’’—W. B. : Bryan, C.H. », 24—Paper, ‘“‘On Atmosphere ”—T. Dean, M. D. Feb. 2—Ceramic Soirée—Director, Rev. J. S. Doxey. », 9—Paper, “ The study of Biography ”"—Rev. W. H. Allen. », 16—Paper, ‘‘ The Life and Labours of Jeremiah Horrocks, with an account of the late Transit of Venus” written by the late T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., and read by the Secretary. 32 Feb, 23—Literary Soirée, ‘‘ Modern Humour ’—Selections were read by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., from Thomas Hood ; T. Nowell, from Bret Harte; and T. Rhodes, from Oliver Wendell Holmes. Mar. 2—Paper, ‘‘ Some remarks on the history of certain Fossil Genera ’’—Rey. J. Cranbrook, B.A. ,, 9—Paper, ‘Life and Works of Albert Diirer ’—Lieut. Col. Henry Fishwick, F.8.A. ,, 16—Artistic Soirée, ‘‘ Water Colour Drawings” with Paper on the History of Water Colour Painting— Director, W. J. Palmer. ,, 23—Paper, “A decimal system of Money, Weights and Measures ’—J. 8. Horn. ,, 30 -—Paper, “‘ Cicero ’’—D. A. O’Sullivan, B.A., L.R.C.P. Aprl. 6—Anuual Meeting. ,, 20—Discussion, ‘“* The Smoke Question *—J. C. Brumwell, M.D. May 4—Paper, ‘“ Cremation ’—P. KE. Roberts. Jun. 15 —Cryptogamic Soiree—Director, H. Houlding. July 13—Geological Soiree—Director, J. Kerr, L.S.A.L. Aug. 10—Paper, ‘‘ Milk and its Adulterations ”’—Kd. Crawshaw. Sept. 7—Paper, ‘‘ Recent Explorations in Palestine,” illustrated —J. Howarth, J.P. ,, 21—Paper, ‘* The Chemistry of Coal Gas” (with HExperi- ments) —S. P. Leather. Oct 5—Microscopic Soirée, ‘‘ The Anatomy and Physiology of a Butterfly ’’—Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. ,, 12—Paper, ‘‘ Parliamentary Representation in the Saxon Period ’’—Major Creeke. », 19—Paper, “The Anatomy of the Brain” — Thirkill Anningson, M.R.C.P. ,, 26—Paper, ‘Edmund Spenser”—H. Houlding, (after- wards published). Nov. 2—Readings from “‘ English Literature ”—by Members. », 9—Paper, “Lead Mining in the districts of Stansfield, Cliviger, and Rossendale ’’-—-James Kerr, L.8.A L. ,, 16—Paper, ‘“ Oliver Goldsmith ’—Fred. J. Grant. 23—Discussion, ‘Can England maintain her Commercial Supremacy ?”” — answered affirmatively, James 2 Greenwood, ,, 30—Paper, ‘Insects in relation to Plants”—D. Morris, B.A., P.G.8. Dec. 7—Paper, ‘‘ Dickens’s place in Literature ’’—Rev. H. H. Robinson, M.A. 14—Exhibition of Mechanical Models—Director, Alfred Lancaster. ,», 21—Paper, ‘ Vivisection ’’—Alfred Strange. 33 Dec. 28—Musical Soirée—Director, Thos. Nowell, who also read a Paper on ‘“ Haydn, and his Compositions, ” and several pieces by this composer were rendered. 1876. : Jan. 4—Paper, ‘“ Popular Satirists’’-— Rey. H. J. Stephens, B.A », 11—Entomological Soirée—Director, H. T. Ward. », 18—Paper, ‘“‘The Condition of the Negroes ”—Rev. Geo. Rowe, M.A. », 25—Paper, ‘‘ Numismatology as a source of History’ oe Ed. Boden, M.A. a 28—Conversazione (see subsequent notice). Feb. 8—Paper, ‘‘ Molecular Motion” —J. Hough, M.A, F.R.A.S. », 15—Microscopic Soirée—Director, R. M. Thaknes. ,, 22—Paper, ‘‘ Lord Byron’’—Spencer T. Hall, M.D., Ci., MALS Ph, Di Tn: - 29-—Readings from ‘‘ English Literature ’’—by Members. Mar. 7—Paper, ‘“ Colour ’’—'l'. Dean, M.D. ,, 14—Paper, ‘“‘ The Rise and Pr ogress of pareniey "—Joshua Rawlinson. », 21—Artistic Soirée, ‘“‘ Chromolithographs’’—Directpr, W. A. Waddington. », 28—Paper, “ High Pressure Steam in the Steam Engine ” —James Wood. April 4— Annual Meeting. », 11—Paper, ‘“ Opium and the Opium Trade’ ne ee Burton. », 183—Paper, ‘“ Reflex Nervous Action; Are Animals Auto- mata ?””—J. W. Anningson, L. R. GP: », 25—Literary Evening— Readings by T. B. Spencer, and F. J. Grant. Sep. 12—Microscopic and Micro-Photographie Soirée—Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. », 19—Paper; “ The History of Newspapers ' "—Jas. Grant. », 26—Paper, ‘ William Shakspeare ”—H. Houlding. Oct. 3—Paper, “Idylls of the King ”—H. T. Gill. », 10—Paper, “ Capillary Attraction ”"—J. Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. », 17—Artistic Soirée, “ Oil Paintings ’ "—B. Sagar. - », 24—Paper, ‘ Poets,—their mission ’— Rev. G. F. Walters. ,, 31—Discussion, “ Have the People of Lancashire dete- riorated "physically 2” —Answered : negatively, Jas. Greenwood. Nov. 7—Paper, “‘ Thomas Carlyle ’ ’—Alfred Halstead. », 14—Paper, “ Glacial Action ’’—D. Morris, F.G.S. », 21—Numismatic Soirée—Director, Major Creeke, 34 Nov. 28—Readings from Laneashire Poets, by Members—Director, H. Nutter. Dec. 5—Paper, ‘‘ Karly Engineering ’—J. V. Edwards. ,, 12—Paper, ‘‘ Samuel Johnson ’’—F. J. Grant. », 19—Diseussion, ‘‘On the Conduct of Debate’’—T. B. Spencer. ,, 26—Musieal Soirée—Director, T. Nowell. 1877. Jan, 2—Paper, ‘‘The Economical Combustion of Gas ’’—S. P. Leather. » 9—Paper, ‘“‘A gossip on the Queen’s English’”—Rey. W. Boyden. 5, 16—Discussion, ‘The Depreciation of Silver ’’—Joshua Rawlinson. ,, 28—Paper, ‘‘ Robert Burns,’ illustrated by selections of vocal music—Hy. Nutter. ,, 24—Conversazione (see subsequent notice). ,, 30—Paper, “ Jean Paul Richter ’’—J. C. Brumwell, M.D. Feb. 6—Soirée, ‘‘ Photographs’’—W. Sutcliffe. ,, 13—Paper, ‘‘ Popular Diarists’’—Rev. H. J. Stephens, B.A. ,, 20—Readings by Members. ,, 27—Discussion, ‘‘ Vaccination ’’—T. H. Smith. Mar. 6—Paper, ‘‘ The chief sources of the English Language ” —W. Robinson. J.P. ,, 183—Paper, ‘‘ Lancashire in the time of Elizabeth,’’—Col. Fishwick, F.S.A. ,, 20—Soirée, “Scientific Instruments ’’—J. W. Anningson, L.BR.C.P. J », 27—Paper, ‘“‘ Art in the Manufacturing Districts ’’—P. G. Hamerton, (read by the Secretary). April 3—Annual Meeting. ,, 10—Discussion, “ Spiritualism ’’—T. B. Spencer. », 17—Paper, ‘The Influence of the Drama’’—Rey. E. C. Maclure, M.A. ,, 24—Readings, ‘‘ Lancashire Authors’’—by Members; Mr. Edwin Waugh was present and read some of his prose writings. », 27—Public Lecture on ‘‘Spectrum Analysis’ by Prof. Roscoe, in the Mechanics’ Institution. Sep. 4—Paper, ‘“‘ The Antiquities of the Ribchester District ’— W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S. », 11—Scientific Exhibition—conducted by Messrs. Armstrong and Mottershead, of Manchester. », 18—Paper, ‘‘ Scientific Toys : Sound’””—J. Monckman, B.Sc. », 25-—Paper, ‘‘ The Correlation of Force ’’—-J. W. Anningson. L.R.C.P. 35 Oct. 2—Paper, “Mozart” (with vocal and instrumental selec- tions)—John Sharrocks. ,, 9—Paper, ‘‘ Mining and Mineralogy ’—Rev. 8. Hocking. ,, 16—Paper, ‘“‘ John Milton "—Henry Houlding. ,, 23—Discussion, ‘‘ The Wages Question ’—Benj. Moore. ,, B0—Soirée, “ Autographs ’’—Rev. W. Boyden. Nov. 7—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘Life in the Earliest Ages of the Earth ’—Prof. Williamson. (The Gilchrist Lectures were held in the Mechanics’ Institution.) ,, 14—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘The Energies within the Earth: Mountain making ’’—Prof. Duncan. ,, 21--Gilchrist Lecture, ‘The Energies within the Earth: Volcanoes ”’—Prof. Duncan. ,, 27—Discussion on the foregoing Lectures, introduced by Dr. Brumwell. ; ,, 23—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘Land Animals of the Coal Period ” —Prof. Miall. Dec. 4—Discussion on the previous Lecture. ». 5—Gilchrist Lecture, “‘Sound, with special reference to the Telephone ”—Prof. Core. ,, 11—Discussion on the previous Lecture. ,, 12—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘The Gulf Stream: what it does, and what it does not ’—Dr. Carpenter. ,, 18—Discussion on the previous Lecture, introduced by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P. 1878. Jan. S—Paper, ‘“ Ventilation: its importance to health ”"—W. H. Colbran. ,, 15—Paper, ‘* Alexander Pope”—F. J. Grant. ,, 22—Speeches and Readings on miscellaneous topics. ,, 29—Paper, ‘“‘ Inquiries into the Knowledge of Prehistoric Man "—F. J. Faraday, F.S.S. Feb. 5—Discussion, ‘‘ Prehistoric Man”—introduced by J. C. Brumwell, M.D. ,, 12—Discussion, ‘‘ Variations of Climate’—J. Monckman, B.Sc. ,, 19—Paper, “The Knights of Aristophanes” —J.L.Ward, M.A. ,», 26—Paper, ‘‘ Our Saxon Forefathers ’—Rev. W. Boyden. ,, 28—-Conversazione (see subsequent-notice). Mar. 5—Paper, ‘“‘ Winds”—J. S. Horn. ,, 12—Paper, “ Rainfall: its importance and peculiarities ” —Jas. Greenwood. ,, 19.—Paper, “Lancashire in Fiction: the Story of the County, as told by the Novelists ”—J. H. Nodal. ,, 26—Artistic Soirée, “‘ Japanese Art’”—W. A. Waddington. April 2—Annual Meeting. 36 Apr. 9—Paper, “‘ Geographical Names ”—W. Lewis Grant. ,, 16—Paper, ‘Salt and Salt Mines ’”’—Jas. Kerr, L.8.A.L. ,, 23—Literary Soirée, ‘ Lancashire Authors ”—Hy. Nutter. Sept. 8—Scientific Soiree—Telephone, Microphone, and Phono- eraph—Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. ,, 10—Paper,‘‘Telegraphy,”’(illustrated)--Jas. Monckman, B.Sc. », 17—Paper, ‘*‘ Modern Materialism ’’—Reyv. W. M. Westerby. ,, 24—Readings in Shakspeare—H. Houlding. Oct. 1—Paper, ‘Air and Water,—their Sanitary Uses and Abuses ”—W. H. Colbran. », 8 —Paper, ‘The Fate of Aboriginal Races”’--J.L. Ward, M.A. » 9—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘Corals and’ Coral Islands ’— Professor Duncan. (The Gilchrist Lectures were held in the Mechanics’ Institution.) 5, 15—Scientifie Soirée, ‘‘ Inorganic Chemistry ’’—Director, H. T. Ward. ,, 22——Discussion on previous Gilchrist Lecture. Introduced by J. Monckman, B. Se. », 28—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘‘ Our earliest Ancestors in Britain ”’ —Professor Dawkins. », 29—Paper, ‘“ The Antigone of Sophocles ’’—Rev. R. H. Giles, B.A. Noy. 5—Discussion on previous Gilchrist Lecture. Introduced by J. C. Brumwell, M.D. » 6—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘‘ The Sun,’—Mr. Proctor. », 12—Musical Soirée (held in the Mechanics’ Institution)— Director, N. P. Gray. ,, 19—Discussion on previous Gilchrist Lecture. Introduced by Rev. W. M. Westerby. ,, 20—Gilchrist Lecture, ‘‘The Sun’s Distance from the Earth ’’—Professor Core. 5, 26—Paper, ‘‘Gas-Tar and its products ’’—Leonard Clement. Dec. 8—Discussion on previous Gilchrist Lecture. Introduced by J. L. Ward, M.A. : », 4 —Gilchrist Lecture, ‘‘Insectivorous Plants and Plant Digestion ’*— Professor Williamson. »» 10—Paper, ‘‘ The Talmud ”—Rev. H. H. Robinson, M.A. 5, 17—Discussion on previous Gilchrist Lecture. Introduced by 'T. Nowell. », 18—Galchrist Lecture, ‘‘A Piece of Limestone ’—Dr. Carpenter. 1879. Jan. 7—Readings in English Literature by Rev. W. Boyden, H. Houlding, and T. B. Spencer. » 14—Paper, ‘‘ Disinfectants and Antiseptics ’’--A. H. Mason, ¥F.C.8. 37 Jan. 21—Discussion, ‘‘ Over-production aud Bad Trade ’’— Joshua Rawlinson. », 28—Paper, ‘Erasmus Darwin,—the father of Chas. Darwin and his Theory ’—Spencer T. Hall, M.D., Ci., M.A., tr ee Po. Feb. 5 & 6—Conversazione. (see subsequent notice). », 11—Paper, ‘‘ John Ruskin ’’—Bb. Sagar. » 18—Paper, “The Antiquity and General Use of Bells” —Rev. T. A. Turner, B.A. », 25—Discussion, ‘‘ Tobacco: is its consumption injurious to health ?”—P. E. Roberts. Mar. 4—Paper, ‘‘The Mind of Fishes’—F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.S.S. », 11—Artistic Soirée, ‘ Cruikshank ’’—Alfred Strange. », 18—Paper, ‘‘ Physiognomy ’’—Geo. Gill, Jun. », 25—Paper, ‘‘ Witchcraft in North East Lancashire ’—W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S. April 1—Annual Meeting. », 8—Discussion, “ Vegetarianism: will its adoption benefit the human race ?”’—T. B. Spencer. », 15—Paper, ‘“‘ The Founders of the Church in Britain in the Second Century ’*—Rev. R. Waddy Moss. », 22—Paper, ‘‘ The Manufacture and Properties of Gunpow- der and other Explosives’ —A. F. Hargreaves, F.C.S. », 29—Literary and Musical Soirée. Directors, J. L. Ward, M.A. and B. Chaffer. (Held in the Mechanics’ Institution), Seps. 2—Paper, ‘‘ The Physiology of Temper’’—J. C. Brumwell, M.D », 9--Paper, “Recollections of Old Burnley’? — Richard Charles. », 16—Paper, ‘“‘ The Dietetic Use of Aleohol’—J. W. Anning- son, L.R.C.P. (This paper was published by the author). », 13—Discussion, ‘Is life the cause of Physical Organisation?” answered affirmatively by the Rev. W. M. Westerby. 5, 80—Paper, ‘“ Thomas Moore ”—F. J. Grant. Oct. 7—Readings by Members—Divector, B. Sagar. », 14—Paper, ‘‘ Etymology of some local names in Rossendale and district ’—J. Kerr, L.S.A.L. », 21—‘ Notes of a Ramble through Yorkshire ”—J. V. Edwards. ,, 28—Musical Soirée—(held in the Mechanics’ Institution)— Director, C. M. Foden. Noy. 4—Paper, ‘“‘ African Exploration ’’—AIf. Lancaster. », 11—Paper, ‘‘ The Recent History of the Cotton Trade ’’— F. J. Faraday, F.L.S., F.8.S. 38 Nov. 18—Paper, “‘ St. Chrysostom and his times ”—Rev. R. D. H. Gray, M.A. ,, 25—Discussion, “Is Africa likely to become a Second India Commercially ?”’ answered in the negative— J. Greenwood. Dec. 2—Paper, ‘‘ Some Hypotheses of Science teviewed ’—F. H. Hill. ,, 9—Paper, “ English Cathedrals” (Ilustrated)—T. Bell. ,,11—Public Lecture on ‘ Charles Dickens,” delivered in the Mechanics’ Institution, by Professor Ward, L.L.D., of Manchester. ,, 16—Paper, ‘‘ Lancashire in the time of Charles II ’’—Col. Fishwick, F.S.A. 1880. Jan. 6—‘“ Readings from English Poets ’—Henry Houlding. ,, 18—Paper, ‘‘ Studies from the English Language ’—John H. Grant. ,, 20—Paper, ‘‘ Notes on a visit to St. Petersburgh and Moscow ”—H. Ward, ,, 27—Paper, ‘ Physical Culture ’—W. H. Colbran. Feb. 4 and 5—Conversazione (see subsequent notice) ,, 10—Paper, ‘‘ Peasant Proprietorship”—J. 8. Horn. ,, 24—Paper, ‘‘ Sketches of the Principal Cities in Central Europe ’—W. Robinson, J.P. Mar. 2—‘Scientific Sonée, “ Light’”’—John P. Leather. », 9—Readings by Members. ,, 16—Discussion, ‘‘ How far are we benefited by our Colonies.” —C. Bailey. Apl. 6—Annual Meeting. ,, 18—Paper, ‘‘ An Introduction to the study of Shells and Shellfish ’—H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D. The Lecture was illustrated by diagrams and a valuable collection of shells. ,, 20—Paper, ‘The later Life of St. Augustine of Canter- bury ’’—Rey. R. Waddy Moss. ,, 27—Dramatie Soirée—(held in the Mechanics’ Insti- tution)— Director, J. LL. Ward, M.A. Sept 21—Paper, ‘‘ The Towneley Miracles and Mysteries ’’—Jas McKay. (Lord Norreys lent a valuable Illumi- nated Manuscript for inspection by the Members.) 28—Paper “‘ Gautama, the Buddha ’’—Rev. T. Leyland. Oct. 5—Scientific Soirée, ‘The Chemistry of Calico Printing ”»— A. F. Hargreaves, F.C.S. 12 —Paper, ‘‘ The Sources of Original Materials for a His- tory of Burnley ’—W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S. 19—Discussion, ‘‘ Capital Punishment ’’—B. Moore. ” 2) 39 Oct. 26—Paper, ‘‘Some of Faraday’s Researches in Electricity ”’ —J.Monckman, B. Se. (illustrated by Experiments.) Nov. 2—Paper, ‘‘ Historical Aspect of the English Cathedrals ’’— J. Grant. », 16—Short Papers, ‘“‘ Robert Browning ’’—B. Sagar. “ Emmott Hall ’’—A. Strange. », 28—Paper, ‘ Venice” —W. A. Waddington. (illustrated by Photographs, Paintings, Mosaics, Venetian Glass, &c.) », 30—Paper, “‘ Dietetic Reform ’’—F’. Hodgson. Dec. 7—Paper, “Our Sports and Pastimes, their origin and survival "—J. E. Price, F.8.A., F.R.S.L. (read by the Secretary.) »» 14 —Musical Soirée—(held in the Mechanics’ Institution )— Director, B. Whitaker. 1881. Jan. 4——Readings by Members—Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. », 11—Paper, ‘‘ The Falls of Niagara: have they worked out the Channel in which the River flows between Niagara and Queenstown ?’’—Rey. Geo. Rowe, M.A. », 18—Paper, ‘“‘ Sydney Smith’”—F. J. Grant. », 25—Paper, “ A Trip to Norway ’’—Alf. Lancaster. Feb. 2, 8, 4—Conversazione (see subsequent notice). ,, 8 Readings from Shakspeare—H. Houlding. », 15—Paper, ‘‘ Structural Botany ’’—M. Wilks. ,, 22—Paper, ‘ The Burnley Grammar School Library ”’ (after- wards published by the Club)—J. L. Ward, M A. Mar. 1—Discussion, ‘‘ Is Animal Food necessary to keep up our full strength?” answered affirmatively by J. C. Brum- well, M.D. », 9--Paper, ‘Science Two Hundred years ago’’—C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S. ,, 15—Short papers, ‘‘ The Sonnet ’’—B. Sagar. “Glaciers ’—Jas. Lancaster. ,, 22—Paper, “The Chemistry of War” (illustrated by experiments)—R. Marle. », 29—Paper, “ Early Christian Missions in Northumbria ”— Rey. R. Waddy Moss. April 5—Annual Meeting. », 15—Paper, ‘‘ English Surnames ’’—W. Lewis Grant. ,, 19—Dramatic Soirée—Director, R. T. Sutcliffe. Sep. 27—Paper, ‘“‘ Life in Lancashire in the Tudor Reigns ’’— Jas. Croston, F.S.A. Oct. 4—Paper, ‘The Lower forms of Animal and Vegetable Life ”»— John P. Leather. »» 11—Discussion, ‘Croll’s Climate and Time,” defended by John A. Sagar. 40 Oct. 18—Paper, ‘‘ The Moon’’—J. B, Shipley. Illustrated by means of the Lantern. 25-——Paper, ‘“‘The Crosses in and around Burnley ’’— J. A. Waddington. - Nov. 1—Short Papers, ‘‘ Faure’s Electrical Condenser ’’—. J. Moneckman, D. Se. «The Effect of Climate upon the National Character,”’ R. Marle. », 8—Paper, ‘‘ Mahomet ”—Reyv. T. Leyland. ,, 15—Paper, ‘“‘ Vivisection ’’—J. Mackenzie, M.B. ,, 22—Paper ‘“ A ramble in and around Cairo’”— W. Laneaster, Junr. », 29—Scientific Soirée, ‘The Structure of Coal’’—B. Holgate, F.G.S. (Mr. Holgate read a paper and illustrated his remarks by the exhibition of Micros- copic objects, and the Lantern.) | Dec. 6—Paper, ‘“* Ornamental Art ’—Thos. Preston. (illus- trated by a collection of Casts, Curtains, Wall Papers, Photographs, Drawings, &c.) », 18—Literary and Musical Soiree—Director, Hy. Nutter. ” 1882. Jan. 3—Paper, ‘“ Edwards, the Scotch Naturalist ’— P. E. Roberts. ,, LO—Paper, ‘‘ Moliére ”»—Jules Merchier, B.A. 17—Paper, ‘‘ Philip Gilbert Hamerton, Author and Artist’’-- J. McKay. (read by the Secretary), illustrated by reproductions of Hamerton’s Paintings, and copies of his works. ,, 24—Paper, ‘‘ Some considerations on the Policy of the Fair Trade League ’’—W. Rennie Whitehead. Feb. 2 and 8—Conversazione—(see subsequent notice.) », ~7—Paper, “A Summer holiday on the Rhine’’—J. Rawlinson. (read by A. Strange.) 14—Paper, ‘‘ The Decline and Fall of the British Empire” Alfred Halstead. 21—Soirée, ‘‘ Photographic Transparencies ’’—John Butter- worth. 23—Lecture, ‘‘ The Pre-glacial Contours and Post-glacial Denudations of Lancashire’’—C. EK. De Rance, E.G S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., of H.M’s Geological Survey. Mar. 7—Short Papers, ‘‘ A Visit to Gibraltar ’’—W. Witham. “Charles Churchill ’—F. J. Grant. 14—Paper, ‘“‘A Tour in the Tyrol ’—Jas. W. Thompson. 21—Paper, ‘‘ Madrigals ”’—J. Sharrocks. A Choir rendered a selection of Madrigals in illustration of the Paper. ” 97 9 41 Mar. 28—Paper, ‘‘ Smoke Combustion ’—Alf. Lancaster, April 4—Annual Meeting. », 26—Dramatic Soirée.—Director, J. L. Ward, M.A. Sept.26—Readings in Poetry and Criticism—H. Houlding. Oct. 3—Short Papers, ‘Our Geological Excursions ’—J. Monckman, D.Sc. ‘“‘ Moths and Butterflies”—G. B. Raweliffe. Illustrated by a large number of British Specimens. : », 10—Paper, ‘‘ James Boswell”—F. J. Grant. ,, 17—‘* The efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors’—Thos. Holgate. (Published in the Journal of Gas Lighting, &c., and reprinted therefrom). ,, 24—Paper, ‘“Carlyle’s place in History’—F. H. Hill. Nov. 1—Paper, ‘‘The Southampton Meeting of the British Association ’’—J. Brown, M.A., M.D. » 7—Paper, ‘Rambles in Devonshire”—J. C. Brumwell, M.D. ,» 14—Paper, ‘‘Caves and their Contents”— J. Rhodes (Accrington). Mr. Rhodes also exhibited a large number of flint implements and bones that had been found in Caves.” », 21—Paper, ‘‘ Richard Brinsley Sheridan’”—R. T. Sutcliffe. », 28—Short Anonymous Contributions. Dec. 12—Musical Soirée—Director, Jas. A. Waddington. Mr. Waddington read a paper on ‘The Sonata,” and selections of vocal and instrumental music were given to illustrate the subject. 1883. Jan. 9 Paper, ‘‘ La Fontaine, the French Fabulist: his humour and philosophy ’’—Jules Merchier, B.A. », 16—Readings by Members—Director, W. Thompson, Jun. ,, 23—Discussion, “The proposed Manchester Ship Canal: should Lancashire Towns support it ?’”’—Answered affirmatively by J. Dilworth Harrison. ,, 830—Paper, ‘‘ Belgium: its Arts and Antiquities ’’—T. Bell, (illustrated by the Lantern). Feb. 6—Soirée, “The Violin ”—G. Crompton. A number of valuable Violins were exhibited and commented on. A Quartette Party gave selections of music. », 148—Paper, “ Burns: the Man and the Poet” -- A. Halstead. ,, 20—Paper, ‘‘ Perfumes”—A. H. Mason, F.C.S.; illustrated by experiments and by the exhibition of various articles used in the manufacture of perfumes. 5, 27—Microscopic Soirée, ‘ Insects ’’—Directors, H. T. Ward and J. P. Leather. Mar. 6—Paper, ‘“ Ideal Commonwealths ”"—J, L. Ward, M.A, 42 Mar.18—Paper, ‘‘ Charles Lamb ”—J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P ,, 20—Paper, “ Vaccination” —J. Mackenzie, M.D. », 27—Readings by Members. April 8—Annual Meeting. ,, 10—Paper, ‘‘ Ancient America’”— W. A. Waddington, (illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 17—Dramatie Soiée—Director, J. T. Shaweross. Sep. 25—Paper, ‘‘ Vagrancy: will drastic treatment best diminish it ?’”’—John Whittaker. Oct. 2—Readings, select and original, with Critical remarks— H. Houlding. », 9—Paper, ‘ Sketching,” (with illustrations)—J. Kay. », 16—Paper, ‘ Anglo-Saxon Land Tenure ’’—H. Bulcock. ,, 28—Anonymous ‘Papers. ,, 3U—Diseussion, ‘‘ The Channel Tunnel ’’—F. J. Grant. Nov. 6—Paper, ‘The Old Walls on the Western slopes of Pendle: their History, Associations, and Present Condition,” illustrated by Photographs, Engrayvings, Sketches, &¢.—A. Strange. 13-—Paper,.‘‘ The Analysis of Water,” (with experiments)— A. F. Hargreaves, F.C.S. », 20—Paper, ‘‘Some American Poets,” (with Readings and Recitations)—G. B. Rawelitfe. 5, 27—Paper, ‘‘Microscopic Pond Life, ’’ illustrated by means of the Oxy-Hydrogen Microscope—A. C. Bowdler, F.LC., &¢. and J. D. Geddes, (Blackburn). Dec. 4—Report of the Towneley M.S.S. Committee—J. L. Ward, M.A., F. J. Grant, A. Strange. ,», 11—Paper, ‘‘ History and development of Paper-making, (illustrated by a large number of exhibits) Jas. Lancaster. ,, 18—Mnusical Soiree—Director, A. Popplewell. 43 LIST OF CONVERSAZIONES. >h ALL OF THEM HAVE BEEN HELD IN THE MECHANICS’ INSTITUTION. 1876.—January 28th. Address by the President, Alderman Coultate, F.R.C.S., J.P, The Exhibits comprised objects of interest in Natural History, Art, Antiquities, &c.—Director, W. A. Wad- dington. Photographic and Microscopic objects were displayed on a Screen, by means of an Oxy-Hydrogen Microscope. Director, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. A Spelling Bee was conducted under the direction of D. A. O'Sullivan, B.A., L.R.C.P. The Music was under the direction of N. P. Gray. 1877.— January 24th. Address by the President, Alderman Coultate, F.R.C.S., J.P. The Exhibits included a collection of Arctic Relics and Curiosities, (lent by an Officer of the late Polar Expedi- tion), which were described by F. J. Faraday, Esq., F.8.S., F L.8., of Manchester. There were also exhibited a collection of Microscopes, Polariscopes, &c., Water Colour Drawings, Photographs, Art-Needlework, Books, &e.—Director, W. A. Waddington. A Series of Scientific Experiments on Electricity, Light and Sound, were given by Mr. Binyon, of Owen’s College, Manchester. An Entertainment was given, which con- sisted of Readings by H. Houlding, and T. B. Spencer, and selections of Music by Messrs. Ford and Booth’s Band, 1878.—February 28th. Address by the President, W. M. Coultate, F.R.C.S., J.P. Screntiric Deparrment :—Directors, J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P., J. Monckman, B Se. Art Dzparrment :—Directors, B. Sagar, W. Sutcliffe. A Series of Scientific Experiments were given by Mr. Bimyon, of Owen’s College, Manchester. A Scioptic Exhibition was given under the management of W. Sutcliffe. The Exhibits comprised specimens of Natural History objects: Scientific Apparatus, a collection of Oil Paint- ings, Etchings and Photographs, &c. 44 A Literary and Musical Entertainment was held, which consisted of Readings by Hy. Houlding, and J. L. Ward, M.A.; Songs by Messrs Michael Ingham, and J. Sutcliffe; Glees by a Glee Party, under the leadership of J. Sharrocks, and selections by a Band. 1879.—February 5th and 6th. Address by the President, W. M. Coultate, F.R.C.S., J.P. Screntiric Deparrment :—Lecture by Dr. Carnelley, of Owen’s College, Manchester, on ‘‘ The Three States of Matter,” illustrated by a number of Experiments. There was also a Microscopical Exhibition, and a collection of Air Pumps, Induction Coils, &e. Hdison’s Electric Pen was exhibited, and also an instrument for taking Micro-Photographs. Wm. Sutcliffe, conducted a Scioptic Exhibition. Messrs. Laird Bros. exhibited Models and Plans of Steamships. Specimens in Botanical Anatomy were exhibited and ex- plained by Mrs Hodgkins, MF N, and A.§., Manchester, Geological and Botanical Specimens were displayed. Art Department :—Lecture by F. J. Faraday, Esq., F.S.S., F.L.8., Manchester, on ‘ Karly Art Work,” illustrated by examples. A Series of Water Colour Drawings by R. P. Spiers, F.R.I.B.A., was exhibited. There was also a collection of Decorative Cartoons, Autotypes, &¢. Specimens of Oriental Draperies, Embroideries, Enamels, Lacquer- Ware, &c., were displayed. On the Second Evening there was an Kntertainment, which consisted of Songs by Miss Pollard; Readings by Messrs. J. Langtield Ward, M.A., T. B. Spencer, and W. Chaffer ; and performances by Messrs. Ford and Booth’s Band. The Entertainment was followed by a Dance. 1880.—February 4th and Sth. Address by the President, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. Screntiric Derparrment :—Telephonic and Electrical Appliances were exhibited and explained by H. T. Ward. A Model of the Little Geyser was displayed by F. M. Gill. A Collection of Variegated Leaves was sent by the South- port Winter Gardens Co. Cases of Stone Instruments (Spear Heads, Arrow Heads, &e.), from England, Denmark, and North America; ex- hibited by Mr. R. D. Darbishire, of Manchester. 45 Maps, Charts, Photographs, &c , sent by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund; under the Directorship of A. Strange. Art Department :—Director, B. Sagar. The numerous Paintings exhibited were by A. W. Bayes, F. J. Shields, J. Aumonier, Jos. Knight, Alfred Parsons, Gilbert Munger, Ford Madox Brown, Van der Voort, ‘Tom Griffiths, J. D. Watson, Mettling, 8. F. Mills, Arthur Hill, C. A. Storey, Mark Fisher, Miss S. Anderson. Messrs. Lamb and Co., of Manchester, contributed speci- mens of Modern House Furniture, Draperies, &c. There were also exhibited specimens of Linthorpe and Lambeth Ware, and Indian Metal Work. A number of valuable illustrated volumes were also con- tributed. GenerRAL Exuretrs :—Mr. G. C. Yates, F.S.A., of Man- chester, exhibited a collection of Zulu Curiosities. Model of the First Steam Hammer made, lent by Messrs. Nasmyth Wilson and Co., of Manchester. Selection of Gilt and Silver Epergnes and Fruit Stands, exhibited by H. T. Ward. Cases of Swedish and Norwegian Peasant Jewellery, lent by Mr. R. D. Darbishire, of Manchester. Books of Photographs, lent by T. Brassey, Esq., M.P., of Battle, nr. Hastings. The General Decorations and Furniture required were sup- plied by R. Harrison and Son. A Concert was given during the Evening in which Miss Tasker, of Accrington, and Mr. W. Lister, of Blackpool, gave anumber of Songs. The Orchestral Union rendered a selection of Music, under the Conductorship of Mr. F. Myers. On the Second Evening there was a Dance. 1881.—February 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. Address by the President, J. C. Brumwell, M.D. Screntiric Department :—Directors, J. Monckman, B.Sc., Saml. P. Leather, John P. Leather. Lecture on ‘“‘ The Structure of Coal” by B. Holgate, Esq., ¥F.G.S., of Leeds. Lecture on ‘‘ The Living Objects under the Microscope ”’ by J. P. Leather. Lecture on “The Manufacture of Coal Gas” by Thos. Holgate. The exhibits consisted of a number of Micros- copes, shewing chiefly living objects; Specimens illus- trating the Structure and Formation of Coal, lent by 46 8. P. Leather and L. Clement; Mineralogical Specimens by W. Hill, of Skipton; the Principal articles of the Pharmacopeia, by A. H. Mason, F.C.S., of Liverpool. Art Department :—Director, W. A. Waddington. There were displayed Water Colour Drawings, by C. Catter- mole, lent by Mr. Walmsley, of Blackburn, and Mr. Lightbound, of Weaste; by Elias Bancroft, lent by the Artist; by J. F. Shields, lent by Mr. C. Rowley. Other exhibits were as follows :— Photographs of the Old Halls of Lancashire were exhibited by Messrs. Sims and Co., Manchester. Studies for Decorations of Wall Panels, &c. A Series of Cartoons for Stained Glass, &c., Decorative Cartoons, illustrating the ‘‘ Canterbury Tales,” the work of Lewis F. Day, Thos. Cutler, W. H. Lonsdale, and H. J. Burrow, all of London. Specimens of Tapestry Painting, Painting on China, Plaques, Stained Glass, &e., and a collection of Modern Pottery, contributed by Mr. 8. Howe, of Manchester. Messrs. Elkington and Co., of Manchester, exhibited a Magnificent collection of Art Metal work. Antiquities Drpartment :—Director, A. Strange. There were exhibited a number of Antiquities from Brows- holme Hall, lent by Captain Parker, J.P. These com- prised Ancient Tapestry, Antique Oak Furniture, Ancient Armour and Weapons, Tankards, &e. Lord Norreys contributed the Whalley Abbey Vestments; and T. H. Whitaker, Esq., J.P., a collection of Roman Relics. GENERAL [}xHIBITS :— Dr. Balmain’s Luminous Paint. The Kinegraph or Curve Writer: A Sikh Chief's Helmet, Water Carriers and Carved Klephants’ Tusks from the Congo River, Cases of Brazilian Beetles and Butterflies. Curtains and other Draperies along with Oak Furniture were supplied by W. and J. §. Collinge. Mr. Cruickshank gave selections of Music on the Pianoforte. On the Second day, when the exhibits were again open for inspection, Mr. H. Lonsdale presided at the Pianoforte. On the Third day there was a Dance. 1882.— February 2nd and 3rd. Address by the President, J. C. Brumwell, M.D., J.P. Address by J. Monckman, D.Sc., on “ Recent Advances in Electrical Science, and the Instruments exhibited.” Address by B. Sagar, on ‘‘ The Paintings and other works exhibited.”’ 47 Screntiric DEPARTMENT :— A Microscopical Exhibition was held under the Directorship of §. P. Leather, J. P. Leather, and J. B. Shipley. The exhibits consisted mainly of Insects. The Liverpool Geological Association contributed numerous Geological and Mineralogical specimens. There were also exhibited a case of Polished Precious Stones, lent by Mr. Thompson, Liverpool ; Griscom’s Electro Motor, under the Management of A. Lancaster. Mr. Tunks, of Accrington, shewed the process of Electro- Plating. Arr Department :—Directors, B. Sagar, and Jas. Kay. Oil Paintings by W. H. Knight, Solomon, R. Hannah, H. 8. Marks, R.A., Erskine Nicol, R.S.A., A.R.A.; and Water Colour Drawings by Holman Hunt, David Cox, and Nicholson ; were exhibited by Messrs. HE. Quaile, Liver- pool, Walter Haworth, Manchester, and Jas. Kay. Amongst the other exhibits were a Series of Studies in Pencil and Water Colours, lent by Mrs. Marle, Engravings, volumes of Deuchar’s Etchings, a number of Autotypes from the London Autotype Co. J. Butterworth, Jun., lent Photographs of Scottish Scenery, and exhibited Photographic Transparencies. Messrs. Walker & Co., of Liverpool, exhibited Webb’s Dia- chromatized and Inlaid Woods, for floors, walls, &¢., and Papyrotile for decorative purposes. Messrs. Craven, Dunnill & Co., of Iron Bridge, Shropshire, exhibited Slabs of Ceramic Mosaic Tiles. Messrs. Bennett Brothers, Liverpool, lent a large collection of Hand-painted Tiles, Girondoles, Barbontine Vases, &c., and Messrs. G. Hudson & Sons a collection of Brass Ware. GENERAL E\xHIBITs :— Illuminated M.S. in Spanish, dated 1578, lent by Lieut-Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. Curiosities from West Africa, lent by J. Thompson, Liverpool. Specimens of English Printed Calicoes, contributed by P. EK. Roberts. The English Tapestries and General Decorations were sup- plied by Geo. Hudson and Sons. A Selection of Music was rendered by Mr. Ford’s Band. On the Second Day there was a Dance. Sear RO 48 EXCURSIONS, 1874-1883. 1874. Junel6—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘ Skipton Castle and the Lords of Skipton,”—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. ‘‘ Bolton Abbey and Barden Tower’—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. ‘The Botany of the Neighbourhood of Bolton Woods ” —H. Houlding ,, 18—Excursion to Bolton Woods. July 14—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘‘ Objects of Interest on the Downham Route to Pendle ’’—T. T. Wilkin- son, F.R.A.S. “The Geology of East Lancashire’’—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. ‘‘The Flora of Pendle District ”—H. Houlding. ,, 18—Excursion to Pendle Hill. Aug.23—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘‘ The Natural and Local History of Malham and Goredale”—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.8., and H. Houlding. ,, 27—Excursion to Malham and Goredale. Sep. 8—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘‘ Whalley Abbey and the Churches of Whalley and Mitton’—T. T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S. “The Flora of the Whalley Neighbourhood ’’—H. Houlding. ,, 19—Excursion to Whalley and Mitton.” 1875. June 1—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘“‘ The Botany of the Clapham District ’"—J. Hough, B.A., F.R.A.S. “The Geology of the Clapham District ’’—D. Morris, BAL; Gls ,, 8—Excursion to Clapham and Neighbourhood. ,, 29—Papers preparatory to Excursion, “ The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Hoghton Tower” — D. Morris, BAT, EG2b: «The Botany of the Neighbourhood of Hoghton Tower” —H. Houlding. “The History and Architecture of Hoghton Tower ”’— W. A. Waddington. July 3—Excursion to Hoghton Tower. ,, 27—Papers preparatory to Excursion, ‘“‘ The Antiquities of Gisburn, Bolton, and Sawley.”’ ‘‘The Natural History of the District.” ,, 29—Excursion to Gisburn, Bolton-by-Bowland, and Sawley.” 49 Aug.24—Papers preparatory to Exeursion, ‘‘The Natural and Loeal History of Hardcastle Crags.” ,, 28—Excursion to Hardcastle Crags and Hebden Valley. 1876. May 22—Stoneyhurst College. Junel3—Paper preparatory to Excursion, ‘‘ The Geology and Botany of the Malham and Settle District,’ with remarks on the Victoria Cave—D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S. ,, 22—Malham, Gordale, and Settle. Aug.16 and 17—Brimham — Rocks, Fountains Abbey, Ripon, Knaresbro’, &c. 1877. July 26—Upper Wharfedale, Grasswood, Kilnsey Crag, and Arncliffe. (A Paper was read by D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S., prepara- tory to this Excursion.) 1878. Aug. 5—Kirkby Lonsdale, Casterton Woods, Underley Hall, &e. 1879. May 24—Ribchester and Stydd — Director, W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S. June19—Chester. July 19—Roman Remains in Briercliffe and Extwistle—Director, L. Clement. Aug. 4—Whitewell and District. Sept. 6—Portsmouth and District—Director, J. Monckman, B.Sc. 1880. May 29—Great Harwood, Whalley, and Gisburn. Junel9—Hlslack, Gargrave, and EKshton Hall. July 21 and 22—Alton Towers and Dovedale. Aug.19—Ilkley and Bolton Woods. 1881. May 28—Chipping and Parlick Pike. June29 and 30—Stratford-on-Avon, Warwick, Leamington, Kenil- worth, and Coventry. July 25— Appleby, Penrith, and Lowther Castle. Aug.20—Samlesbury and Walton. — Oct. 29—Proposed Site of Corporation Waterworks in the Thurs- den Valley. 50 1882. May 20—Hebden Valley, Hardcastle Crags, and Heptonstall. June 27, 28, and 29—Teesdale. July 26 and 27— Grange, Cartmel, and Furness Abbey. Aug.26—Rivington Pike and Liverpool Waterworks. 1883. May 26—Hoghton Tower. June 19, 20, and 21—Oxford and Blenheim. Aug. 25—The Halls on the Western Slope of Pendle. — SECTIONAL EXCURSIONS. The Committee, having decided to make an effort to estab- lish two Sections——the ‘‘ Art and Antiquities ’’ Section, and the ‘Field Naturalists ’’ Section,—a circular setting forth the views of the Committee, and laying stress upon the educational value of a thorough working of the scheme proposed, was issued to the members on April 28rd, 1880. Asa result of this action, about 30 members joined each of the Sections. A number of excursions have been made yearly since that date, principally in connection with the “Art and Antiquities ’’ Section, but in many cases, the attendances have been unsatisfactory. It is highly desirable that the Geological and Botanical features of the district, as well as the places of Architectural and Archeological interest should be carefully studied, and by means of Sections their systematic investigation can be carried out. It is hoped, therefore, that the facilities which it is intended to offer during the ensuing summer, for the prosecution of work in the method indicated, will be more generally utilized, and the Committee’s endeavours more satisfactorily supported. The following is a list of the Sectional Excursions that have been made :— ART AND ANTIQUITIES SECTION : — 1880. May 22—Emmott Hall and Wycollar. 1881. May 21—Whalley Abbey and Church.—Director, W. A. Wad- dington. (Hach member was provided with an Archi- tectural Chart which had been previously explained by W. A. Waddington.) June 11—Bareroft Hall. July 9—Wycollar. 51 Sept. 3—Towneley Hall. 1882. June 3—Sawley Abbey. Aug. 12—Mellor and Site of Roman Camp— Director, W, A. Abram. Sept. 9.—Old Halls in Pendle Forest. FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION :— 1880. June 12—Hlslack and District. 1882. The following series of Geological Excursions—Director, J. Monckman, D.Sc. June 9—Mitre Street and Manchester Road. », 10O—Portsmouth. », 16—Pheasantford, &c. », 17—Portsmouth. Aug. 10—Healey Height and Old Road to Bacup. », 17—Burnley Lane and Marsden Height. », 19—Barden Lane and Pendle Bottom. », 24—Towneley Park. Sept. 23—The Rock Basins. The following Excursions were for Members of both Sections— 1883. June 16—Gorple. Aug. 11—Thornton, Raygill and Lothersdale— Director, J. Monckman. D.Se. Sept. 1—The Heights of Read, Jeppe Knave Grave and Roman Camp at Portfield. 2 EEE PHILOLOGICAL SECTION. A Sub-Committee has been formed for the purpose of inquiring into the origin and meaning of words that are peculiar to this district. Members are requested to assist in this object, by sending such words as they know of, or that come under their notice hereafter, to Mr. Ward at the Grammar School. If pos- sible it would be desirable to communicate at the same time :— 1st, The meaning of the word. 2nd, Its origin, if known. 3rd, The locality in which it is used, and 4th, An illustrative sentence wherein the word is employed, 52, SUMMARY OF TREASURERS’ ACCOUNTS. January 1st, 1874, tro Marcn 31st, 1875. *Balance in hand March 31st, 1875, £63 10s. 11d. Year Enpinc Marcu 31st, 1876. “Balance in hand March 31st, 1876, £99 19s. 9d. Yrar Enpinc Marcu 31st, 1877. Sse. £ s. od Balance brought forward 99 19 9 | Payments ............ 17610 7 Members’ Subscriptions 116 0 0 Balance in hand ...... 114 9 2 Other Receipts ......++ 75 0 0 | £290 19 9 £290 19 9 Year Enpina Marcu 31st, 1878. © asad £8. a Balance broughtforward 114 9 2 | Payments ,.,.....+--. 193 6 5 Members’ Subscriptions 117 15 0 Balance in hand ...... 114 1 6 Other Receipts........ (hye 8) £307 7 11 £307 711 Year Enpine Marcu 31st, 1879. se wade £ gs. d Balance brought forward1l4 1 6 Payments ............ 204 3 7 Members’ Subscriptions 137 0 0 | Balance in hand .....- 9617 0 Other Receipts ........ 49 19 1 £301 0 7 £301 0 7 Nine Montrus Enpine Decemper 31st, 1879. oN rh. dels £4 Balance brought forward 96 17 0 157 16 O Members’ Subscriptions 11 0 0 Balance in hand ...... 11 19 9 Other Receipts ........ 6118 9 £169 15 9 | £169 15 9 *Particulars for this year carnot be supplied. 53 Year Enpinc DrcemBEr 31sr, 1880. Sse edeun | £ 5s. @. Balance brought forward 1119 9 | Payments .....,...... 253 9 O Members’ Subscriptions 132 5 0 | Other Receipts ........ 101 5 6 Balance due to Treasurer 718 9 £253 9 O £253 9 O Year Enpine DecempBer 31st, 1881. LMS Be £ os. d. Members’ Subscriptions 131 10 0 Balance brought forward 718 9 Other Receipts ........ L287: 90 Payments ......++++.-- 257 19 3 Balance due to Treasurer 6 1 O £265 18 0 £265 18 0 Year Enpinc DecemsBer 31st, 1882. £ os. d. fie. ds Members’ Subscriptions 121 0 0 Balance brought forward 6 1 0 Other Receipts........ 47 14 8 Payments. 2s.. somes + 171 3 11 Balance dueto Treasurer 810 3 £177 4 11 £177 4 11 The large balances in hand shewn by the earlier statements are accounted for by the fact that the receipts include the mem- bers’ subscriptions for a whole year, that is, from January 1st to December 31st; or nine months beyond the date to which the expenses are included. Each of the Statements from 1879 is for the year ending December 31st, which is the year for which the subscriptions are paid. It may also be observed that in the year 1882 the nett bal- ances only of the Excursions are given, and not the gross Receipts and Expenditure, accounting therefore for the diminished totals for that year. ie LIBRARY. The Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows :— Vol. 1.—1878.—*“ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys,” 1649 to 1655. » 2.—1879.—* An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1545 to 1620. »» 98.—1880.—* Lancashire Inquisitions,” now existing in the ‘Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period Part I, 1 to 11, James I, 54 Vol. 4.—1881.—* An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1621 to 1650. », 5.—1881.— Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1636. ,, 6.—1882.—‘ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certificates,” 1600 to 1678. 55 7.—1882.—*‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. », 8.—1882.—‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part II. Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Vol. xxxiii., 1880-1. Reports and Proceedings of the following Societies :— Manchester Field Naturalists and Archeologists’ Society, 1860 (the year of its formation), to 1879, (1871 excepted.) Manchester Scientific Students’ Association, (Established 1861), 1878 and 1879. Chester Society of Natural Science, (Established 1872), 1878-9, 1879-80, 1880-81. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society, (Kstablished 1822), 1878, 1879. Liverpool Geological Association, (Established 1880), 1880-81, 1881-82. A Synopsis of the British Mosses, by Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th, to 26th, 1883. Catalogue of the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 1888, (containing prices realized,) [The following were purchased for the Club, at the Sale of the Towneley M.8.8., June, 1883. ] Baptisms and Anniversaries, &c., 1705. Manuscript, evidently the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley, on the Vigil of St. John the Baptist, 1705. John Towneley’s Diary, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library. Manuscript. John Towneley’s Account Book, 1601-8. The following papers have been read before the Club :— *«« Geoffrey Chaucer,” by Henry Houlding, read January 138th, 1874. *«¢ The Philosophy of Recreation,” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874, 65 *«¢ Rdmund Spenser,” by Henry Houlding, read October 26th, 1875. “The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,” by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P., read September 16th, 1879. *«The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. *“‘ Science Two Hundred Years Ago,” by C. P. Hobkirk., F.L.5., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,” by Thomas Holgate, read October 17th, 1882. Those marked * may be purchased, price 6d. each. Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June 1st, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, July 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. “Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,” by Edward T. Bellhouse, a paper read before the Man- chester Statistical Society, April 13th, 1881. Photographs may be obtained of the Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, 1881. Old Houses in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May, 1881. Price 1s. and 2s., according to size. {It has been found impossible, in conformity with the scope of this publication, to give in extenso any one of the late Mr. Wilkinson’s contribu- tions to the Club, but from his Paper on the Lancashire Dialect, now in the Chetham Library, Manchester, a few selections have been made, which, it is hoped, will in some degree indicate the extent of his researches, and the careful method of his compilations, besides affording the Club a means of proceeding to further investigations in an interesting subject. ] ON THE LANCASHIRE DIALECT: MorE ESPECIALLY AS RELATING TO Buackspurn Hunprep, py T. T. Wizxinson, F.R.A.S. [After tracing the waves and wavelets of immigrants which in turn have overspread Lancashire, and left memorials in the nomenclature of the district, Mr Wilkinson gives lists of words used in conversation which we have received from these. First come the Keltic :] KELTIC. Boggart..... A aisiechRths TAROT DOS UUs cate eset wees... DWE, bwgan BEL sis syhleetenatectere Etre noe SHAN TUM «Sites eels: aN otters bar ABS Vat; | eraveleiers ove, oic.s's's aie ne eee oo) CWIC Distinctive names of Places are common ; ANGLO-SAXON. RUN Via ras aesat ie bia. aie ata wales Se CAMP Ae lelaaicicials ore. ie» aan ont burg Huncote.....es0+++++++. COt, house....... es, siaveieh elas .. cote Clifton... .... 000.00. Cliff, house on ..... winie oietelevelaere ths ton Dunham...... By A A hill, mound .......... ceepeeeee dun EKamot, Emmott........ water mouth...............,ea-mut Padiham..... crete te apstarcle home of Paddi....... sisialwierolae le Lemay MiaSDULY a5 '.5 5 ciee dee epee ANOSS CAMP. o.200 0006s + ++..M008 Ormerod.....seeeeeeee Orme’s-clearing ........... oe. Loyd Stubbylee...... dejasiefeteia/sisTOOUY=ICC occ s onli eons soot stub Towneley.........006 house on the ley...........5. oo. tun The list might evidently be enlarged to a considerable extent, but the above may suffice for illustration. The Frisic element, indicating the presence of settlers from Friesland, is also distinetly represented in our ordinary speech. This tribe was closely allied to that of the Angles, but their lan- guage differed dialectically. We constantly use the following words derived from this source, and many others will be found in our glossaries ; OLD FRISIC. Fettle. Me. erage eee es GO TOPAIE 10.00 ccee ccc enone oflbla Gloppened. ca cvertirie; «)sicite eMALALTOC Miche sfe'e SOOM RODUOTEE ‘ glupa Brame ahs oa Be POU cial eleipiclvicissie slslviwistelsivy a SULID 58 OLD FRISIC. Haver-cake,...0. essences oat-cake ..... Se APPEAR D C haver Weeebircter nrc» eterevetoxeiounienenere PAL CLYRALGL ET tetstatois ieicleyers oe veess WEL Werken........ ....to gurgle, to choke..............querken Wye-cawve....... Fin geicee | HHO Gillis a noooenemooonee quie-cuw The Danish element is largely infused into our dialect. This is naturally to be expected, since the Danes occupied most, and sometimes all, of what is now Lancashire, as a portion of their kivgdom of Northumbria, from the eighth to nearly the close of the tenth century. The test-words adduced by Taylor in his “Words and Places” are not wanting. Thus we find the « Byre, ov Bye, Laws of Briercliffe”; and among the ancient endowments of Burnley Church we have ‘two little garths (closes of land) near the Brig of Brun.” Mr. Taylor was mis- taken when he said that ‘‘thorpe”’ did * not occur in Lancashire,” for we have Gawthorpe, near Padiham, the seat of Sir J. P. Kay-Shuttleworth, Bart. ‘ Toft” is constantly found in deeds for the transfer of land :—‘‘ beck”. for ‘‘ brook” is not un- common ;—and “dale” is found in Rossendale, Ribblesdale, and elsewhere. Of purely Danish words, or with few exceptions, we may instance :— DANISH. BAGO) reenter: Site cio: HOMOULLG saya ae cat nan ny an a Dy eee CRI MWe loysyejeualotaisyale to be without food ......... .....clemme Glapp-Dreads cite sa oeeieie Gham oatiGakesi...c,0)5,0,0:5+,00.9 klappe-brod Clateher scene sented: a brood of chickens ............+-klekke Cogken. . sceunenns knob of a horse’s shoe..... soap ees SOREN Dab x. Ware's ae rete AROS a patting blow..... b sieieietiiommceraste ROG DSO forerarerctelnronrerercatetnders to sprinkle ..... ITO RA ae ae dugge (Cilio eouagcurcan codes shorter..... aperer a siieba otolator erates gienvie Gab Yates eraser forts 2; FOOLISH PELSOM ss cyretele sic eis ss: eisiveieiese gabb WHETINOGK. os presislen crates soft, pliable’... .c0. o's sae oe red@Hclikes Fee MICRO? 6 sore: Pare) SLOW TC Ne orale) SCOTIA a mle ihete LIES MPH OT: odes va ohare eect toe LAAs ALCL Cutt feraron stone ewraystetey atetNan arene lider {bf agqsnonadocdn st dx IDET Ts oci'sies\ctare eee é oie Retae latde Galva. cnvislsveaestssiae easily upset........... thar teier . kegle LGM Omanode pabac Got TaeClOSCUMEEG 61c1e)< a (svaistesorsleVele tolerets neve Skellardispaieverstselsioleeles out of square......... isieisleyenet skela Sih Onmincecencicec re to turn up the nose ..........0+++.S5N0e But there is also conclusive evidence that a large body of Northmen, or Norwegians, either accompanied the Danish in- yaders, or followed them at intervals, and settled in the country. The Norse element is consequently both widespread and abun- dant in our dialect. Thus we have in common use :— NORSE. BY AES sh iecuntie atti tide impudence ......+.+++0++0++. DYESS IBTUSK ie ees canipuena satire rough, lively .........+. «ape DLUSKE Ol ait AONE Ae ret caterers a pat of dung....... Ae atioiaia croton RERUN ID) osm oea oe ..-.: @ pool of water .........0+ tee dup 1DT Ie .0 Bee og er wdiareuaretieynias fintileGy A ua AoC DROOGOC i sevens egg Ltn A SPREE Bret OTT arrteieete to remove ..... seas ow crn stele dlle On Gay carnte ave eroisinral sxe .. @ PASSABE, OPENING ..seveveseeeeee GAP (On oe nade BORO oe OEE @ TORG sss Listele wise cveishacs: aioe CAVGSy Galerie tater et cc. as cs a Pablo ese yo eee Sea eee akc gavl Gramertnt Snssit oS ceese cs a districhi 7a 2.6 ats etleealetos. « grein ERO Wpesielsisiste sists, acat oto ovat = y Hill’... Va ayediee SM ohanacoheiese ieee aug KO Pele reeiee ete tala fates & projecting Tock... s.i..008%+0- knipr IDPS Sera See ogrtae acheap: Ob StONeS ©. seein ceetdeee ie hlad TATE PG a ece hee 3 soo. ssheather shy. tosses ee corer athene ling IMPaTp Bd as nioje'e. oielereye's to chew briskly .......... ....mumpa NED he. 205k a ab Bacwars BuhCar, a TOCK 25.5 oe « Raaeeee ce knab Pike. ......2.+5...-. & peak, a mound ....... pple di asie piaka ROKG cas acne oa Seen wales asmall sack ....... er siaaxeta ee ticles poki Petets3 ese Raei hones a hole in astone ....... nonokagh pottr Baketgtat 2 sates. 3. LOVING jourmey. i ih vatins ase bee relk TRAVE sic. 0'sxe B ittehinisye) oie cA CONDEAM cia cicce.m occenae Sieg eersase clas VOSS bie rers eave a ajic y siete ie oro to wrestle... 2... sss 3 ossias s FUSIe SCAT cleyecee low nie dake sss a steep craggy rock..... re ....Sker ECE Ais cis aateys wie saree AEG Aim. 5 eye laorame eevee cree sigg SHIVe sniatec LOMP EEE TOUS LY Se eicin weiciies erste pelle Danish pille After giving these lists of words, the author turns to the changes in pronunciation of vowels and consonants, &c., of which the following may be given as a selection : -— (3) dis dropped before /, as can’le for candle. d becomes th and vice versa, as murther, farder, for murder, farther. (4) dd changes into th, as ladder, lather. (5) ea becomes ey, as meyl for meal. ea and ce become e short, as chep for cheap. (6) ie becomes ee, as dee for die. (8) no final g is sounded, runnin’ for running. (10) o becomes oo, as foo-ok for folk. oi becomes w, as puzzen for poison. 60 (11) /is sounded in would, should. (18) sh becomes s, as sall for shall, especially about Colne. (14) ¢ becomes d at the end of many words, nod for not. (16) possessive cases are missing; Tom brother for Tom’s brother. (18) ow becomes huz; she is hoo; it never becomes its ; ‘look at it legs.” (Mr. Wilkinson concluded his paper with a list of dialectic words used by Chaucer and Spenser, and said that at least 121 in Chaucer, and 97 in Spenser, are still in daily use in this portion of our country, although not one of them is to be found in any modern dictionary. | THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF BURNLEY. A paper read by JOSHUA RAWLINSON, March 14th, 1876. Although no doubt can be entertained of the antiquity of Burnley, there are few records in history to make the place known tothe world. Dr. Whitaker says the basis of the present town was unquestionably a Roman settlement, and the existence of the ancient cross in Godly-lane, erected to commemorate the preach- ing of Paulinus, one of the Augustine monks, between A.D. 625 and 631 is strong presumptive evidence that even at that early period a not inconsiderable population was gathered together in this neighbourhood. The proximity of the neighbouring hamlet of Towneley must have lent some importance to the place, and the history of Burn- ley is constantly connected with the Towneley family. The villa of Towneley was granted by Roger de Lacy to Geoffrey Towneley about the year 1200, and as Dr. Whitaker says “he became the progenitor of a flourishing family yet subsisting after a lapse of six centuries, legitimate descendants and representatives at once of the ancient Deans of Whalley and Lords of Blackburnshire.” Many ancient families of gentle birth were early located in these parts. As far back as the 24th year of Henry VIII, we find the following names to an indenture for rebuilding the north and south aisles of Burnley Church, viz. :—-Sir Jno. Townley, Knight, John Townley, Esq., Richard Townley, of Royle, Symon Haydocke, of Heasandforth, Hugh Habergham of Habergham, Nicholas Shuttleworth, of Gawthorpe, John Parker, of Extwistle, Richd. Whitaker, of Holme, and Robert Barcroft, of Barcroft. It is perhaps worthy of mention here that the sum stipulated to be paid for the execution of this contract was £60, but instead of the north and south the north and middle aisles were actually rebuilt, and it was not until 1789 that the south aisle was rebuilt at a cost of more than £1000. Nearly the same work might have been performed, and was actually contracted for at the price of £30, in the reign of Henry IIT. In the 27th year of Henry VIII., 1536, the farms or rents of the parish are stated ai £12 6s. 2d. In the reign of Elizabeth there were residing in the im- mediate neighbourhood of Burnley twelve principal families, one of them of knightly rank, (the Towneleys), and the rest in the condition of gentry, all resident in their own houses, and occupying 62 considerable portions of their own estates. All the houses but one remain to this day, some of them in their original state, but three of them are let to tenants, viz.: Barcroft, Extwistle, and Heasand- forth ; Habergham Hall has been pulled down; the others are occupied by their respective owners or by families connected with them, viz.: Towneley, Bank Hall, Gawthorpe, Holme, Ormerod, Royle, and Rowley. The Manor of Ightenhill became vested in the Crown as parcel of the Duchy of Lancaster, and was subsequently granted by Charles II. to General Monk, then raised to the dignity of Duke of Albemarle from whom it has passed to the present Lord, the Duke of Buecleuch. I have been favoured with a perusal of the original grant from a copy in the possession of Robert Handsley, Esq., J.P., and in the fulsome jargon of the time it recites as follows :— “The King to all to whom &c. greeting. Whereas the sweetest fruit which we perceive of our highest power consists in the increased opportunity of doing good, and it is most just that those who have outshone others in virtue and fidelity towards us should likewise be illuminated before others by the most bountiful rays of royal munificence and favour. And our most beloved and most faithful cousin, and Councillor George Duke of Albemarle has so deserved of us that in promoting and daily increasing him we seem rather to consult our own honour than to be able worthily to reward him inasmuch as when our cause—after our exile of so many years, and a tyranny meantime grown up and confirmed by the worst acts of bad men for so long a time—had become altogether desperate, had not the singular providence of God and the divine virtue of one man stood in the way, he with wonderful fortune and prudence having seized the turn of events with a small force, brought everlasting triumph from Scotland to London, and having in a short time brought all the nation into his power without bloodshed or condition, all men’s affections being ready with the applause of this present age and to the won- der of posterity he brought us back to our kingdom and restored our kingdom to us. We therefore that we may surround such a man with greater riches and splendour, and that we may give him opportunity of living more wealthily and richly as is meet for him and for his king, and that we may show that these benefits which we cannot repay are nevertheless acceptable to and never to be forgotten by us. Know ye that we of our especial grace and of our certain knowledge and mere motion have given and granted and by these presents for us our heirs and successors do give and grant to the aforesaid George, Duke of Albemarle, his heirs and assigns all that our Castle, Honor, and Lordship of Clitheroe, with their rights, members, and appurtenances in our counties of Lancaster and York, or either of them parcel of the possessions > 68 of our ancient Duchy of Lancaster; and all that our Manor of Ightenhull with its rights, members, and appurtenances in our county of Lancaster; and all our messuages, mills, farms, lands, tenements, mines of coals and hereditaments whatsoever in the county aforesaid parcel of that Manor; and all the rents as well —of the fee as of the customary tenants of the same manor, and all other rents and yearly payments for tle same manors, farms, tenements, hereditaments, and other the premises aforesaid, or any of them or any part or parcel thereof, or for any licences, liberties, commodities, or profits whatsoever heretofore given or granted, or in future within that manor to be had and enjoyed to us our heirs and successors, reserved or payable with their appurtenances, and the appurtenances of each of them. Which same Manor of Ightenhull and other the premises last aforesaid by the particulars thereof to and are estimated to be of the yearly value of one hundred and twenty-six pounds and five shillings per annum.” The same grant gives many other Manors, as also the offices of Master Forester of Blackburnshire, Collector of Blackburnshire, of the Wapentake, of Blackburn, and of the Master Forester of Bowland. ; The Merrie Monarch had certainly little or no idea of the vast revenue which would be enjoyed by the representative of his faithful cousin and councillor—General Monk—by virtue of this grant, in the reign of Her Gracious Majesty, Queen Victoria. But the antiquity of the town is, perhaps, most abundantly proved by the history and records of the Parish Church. It is not my purpose to attempt to give, within the limits of this paper, any historical account of the Parish Church ; but it is impossible to treat of the rise and progress of Burnley, without touching upon some of the many changes and vicissitudes, undergone by the mother church of the chapelry, in the stirring and changeful times which have elapsed since a chapel-of-ease was opened on the banks of the river Brun, more than eight hundred years ago. The existence of the Parochial Church can be traced back to the reign of Henry I. In the Church were four chantries: first, the Rood Altar; second, the Altar of St. Peter, or the High Altar, the officiating priest of which was, properly, the incumbent of the Church; third, the Altar of St. Mary, and fourth, the Altar of St. Anthony. Referring to this order of things, Dr. Whitaker states that Burnley, though but a chapelry, resembled a little college of priests, and had no less than four altars well endowed. At the dissolution of the Chantries, in the reign of Edward VI, the whole of these endowments were taken away; but it being certified to the commissioners, that the Chapel of Burnley was a chapel-of-ease far distant from the Church, and, therefore, very necessary to be continued, for diverse services, and for admini- 64 stration of Sacraments, it was therefore decreed, that John Aspden, the incumbent, should serve there, and should have for his wages the sum of £4 8s. 11d. The inhabitants, in the year 1589, preferred a petition to the Chancellor and Council of the duchy, praying them to have consideration and care, that some godly minister and preacher might be had and provided for their better instruction; and they promised to make up the stipend of the minister to 20 marks yearly, at the least. This continued till the year 1683, when Robert Hartley, the minister, certified to the Commissioners, that the inhabitants of the Chapelry had not, for many years past, paid their sum of £8 17s. 9d., to make up the said 20 marks; whereupon, the Commissioners decreed that the sum should be paid in the following proportions :— £s. d Habergham-Haves ........sseseeeers 2 4 3 IBurnleyiy civic sreevelslave’s sir ci siinie els eleteretels eis 112 5 CEVA GOTH s cinisicieioisvals/ofelavatelo riolinielsier pleieletels 244 Breancliite ein tele cleiievele sinicloleleisle!diaielsiviete 216 9 Total, .osveecese £817 9 This, says Whitaker, may be considered as the basis of the present endowment. Another source of income was the Easter roll, and a third, a number of successive benefactions, of which, perhaps, the most notable is one of £400 from Edmund Towneley, Rector of Slaidburn ; to which the governors of Queen Anne’s bounty added £400. With these two sums, the estate of Bankhouse was purchased from the devisees of Henry Halsted. For this con- sideration also, the advowson was conveyed by all proper parties to the said Edmund Towneley, as a benefactor. To the great and rapid increase of the town of Burnley may be attributed the vast increase of the income attached to the in- cumbency of St. Peter’s. The amount of the present income is not known to the public, but it is reported to be a very large sum, and no comment on the rise and progress of Burnley is more forcible than a comparison of the income of £4 8s. 11d. decreed to John Aspden, incumbent, and the ample revenue now en- joyed by his successor, in the person of the Rev. Canon Parker. In the 22nd year of the reign of Kdward I., Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, obtained a charter for a market every Tuesday, at his manor house of Burnley, as also on the eve, day, and morrow after the feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul. It is not known how these fairs were altered, but in the early part of the present century there were six fairs yearly, which were held on March 6th, Easter Eve, May the 9th and 13th, July the 10th, and October 11th. There was also a market held every Monday, and an annual wool fair held on the second Thursday in July, and a horse fair on the third Thursday in October. 65 In 1811, the Townships of Burnley, Habergham-Eaves, and Worsthorn contained 53 families, or about 270 inhabitants, and by an inquisition held at Blackburn, June 25th, 1650, it was found that the families had increased to 300. This would give a population of about 1500 inhabitants. The population of Burnley within the limits of the present borough has been esti- mated by the Census Commissioners as s follows : — DBO T eecsie cree 4840 ify Rae GGa9 eee os ee increase, 1799, or 37 per cent. HOOT eelaele nett OUR is faceleeres 5 3429, or 52 - WBS resend cele NBO 4 oe ecize wed? 2136, or 21 - GAS eos cme UTD 20 5 6 wee cng tie + 5316, or 43 - USB cic cre ctu says 24745... cece ee re 7225, or 41 i BG. oc aici BESO. fusicisic's ee ne 9636, or 38 - HOV LE Sben Teck AQSES). Shaiec ests 6477, or 19 The present population of the eons may be estimated at 47,000, showing an increase for the last five years of 6,142, or at the rate of 30 per cent for ten years, so as to make the com- parison uniform with the table given above. The total increase of population from 1801 to 1876, a period of 75 years, is 42,160, or 871 per cent. The rise and progress of the trade of Burnley is essentially identified with the rise of the cotton trade. The Peels came here in the early history of the cotton trade. They established cotton spinning, weaving, and printing at Bridge-end and at Lowerhouse. While mentioning Lowerhouse, we cannot help remarking on the singular success attained by the owners of those works. From the families connected with them haye sprung a Prime Minister of England, in the person of the late Sir Robert Peel; two High Sheriffs, in the persons of Mr. James Dugdale and Mr. John Dugdale, who have served this office in the counties of Warwickshire and Montgomeryshire respectively ; and one member of Parliament, in the person of the late lamen- ted Mr. Richard Shaw. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which was opened for traffic in 1801, gave a great impetus to the trade of the town. The first steam engine was erected at Bridge-end, in a mill belonging to the Peels, which was burnt down in 1798. In 1824, cotton had obtained a complete ascendancy as the staple trade. Formerly the manufactures of Burnley were confined en- tirely to woollens, but at this period only one fulling mill re-— mained as a memorial of the ancient staple, and that ceased to work in 1825. At this time 25 firms were engaged in the cotton trade; the number of spindles in motion was about 60,000, besides a number of Jenny spindles. The quantity of yarn spun weekly was about 80,000lbs., chiefly from 20’s to 40’s. There were from 25,000 to 30,000 pieces of calico manufactured per week in the town and immediate neighbourhood. There was also a considerable manufactory of coarse woollens, belonging to 66 Messrs. Joseph Massey and Co. The quantity of worsted yarn spun was over 7,200lbs. weekly. The transit was by means of canal and road. Five coaches were plying to Burnley: one from Leeds to Preston, through Burnley, known as the Invincible ; three coaches went to Manchester, and one to Skipton. An ad- vertisement of the time gives a notice that the Leeds Union Co. have a regular set of vessels sail daily (except 'Tuesday) to Foul- ridge, Gargrave, Skipton, Kildwick, Bingley, and Leeds; and a fly-boat daily to the above places (except Tuesday). They also conveyed goods to Liverpool, through Enfield, Blackburn and Wigan. The land carriers went to Manchester every Monday and Thursday, returning Wednesday and Saturday. Between the 19th June, 1822, and the 19th May, 1824, a period of one year and 11 months only, no fewer than 416 new houses had been erected in Burnley. This state of prosperity was however rudely stopped by the failure of Holgate’s bank, which took place in 1824 or 1825. This catastrophe was a great blow to the trade and prosperity of the town and several of the manu- facturers, and many shop-keepers were brought to ruin by this event. It is related in the life of Samuel Hick, the Wes- leyan village blacksmith, that he resided here for about three months during this period of general distress. He relates that one circumstance which affected him almost more than any other which came under his observation, was the case of a poor child whom he saw sitting and satisfying the cravings of hunger by devouring some grains which had been brought from a brew- house. When Hick had parted with all the money he had brought with him to Burnley, he cast about for further means. He asked some friends whether something could not be done by way of public subscription. He was answered that the manufacturers were equally distressed with the persons they employed, but he was informed that there was one gentleman in the neighbourhood of great opulence, who was capable of imparting seasonable and adequate relief, but as he was a member of the Roman Catholic Church, he might not be quite accessible to persons making Protestant appeals. Sammy, as he was called, was unable to induce anyone to accompany him, so mounting his horse he found his way to Towneley Hall. He had an interview with the late Mr. Peregrine Towneley, to whom he related his tale of woe. The owner of Towneley was touched with the simplicity of the village blacksmith, and being convinced of his integrity of pur- pose he fell in with his views. The result was that a public subscription was started which Mr. Towneley headed with a gift of £150. This relief was dispensed to the poor, and I have often heard old inhabitants speak of this hard year as the “‘ dole” time. In the year 1853, within the limits of the present Municipal Borough, there were 52 firms engaged in the cotton trade, and 67 they had running about 404,000 spindles, and 9,400 looms. In 1866, just ten years ago, Burnley had just recovered or was just recovering from the more immediate effects of the Cotton Famine, and about 80 firms were engaged in the cotton trade. ‘The number of spindles running was about 650,000, and of looms about 21,000. At the present time the number of firms is about 100, and the total number of spindles is as nearly as can be ascertained 882,000, and of looms 26,500. The per centage of increase is therefore as follows :— Per Per Spindles. cent. Looms. cent. Increase of 1866 on 1853 146,000 36 11,600 123 fe 1876 on 1853 478,000 218 17,100 182 ce 1876 on 1866 232,000 36 5,500 26 I now come to deal with the question put by our worthy president to the meeting of the Club on the 23rd November last. *s‘ The President wished to put it to the gentlemen present, many of whom were so largely engaged in the staple commodity. Had Burnley attained its maximum in cotton manufactures? Was it going to develope still further or decline? He was officially connected with many of the mills in the town, and the reason he put his questions was this, that within the last ten years one new mill had been built in Burnley, and probably a few additions had been made, but he could name twelve mills that were now standing which were running ten years ago.” The figures I have already given showing an increase during the last ten years of 232,000 spindles and 5,500 looms at work within the Borough, the increase being after the rate of 386 and 26 per cent. respectively are, I venture to submit, a triumphant answer to the question pat by the president. The large increase in the population of the Borough as well as the number of oceupied houses are all strong confirmations of the same fact. But I have taken the 12 mills mentioned by the President, and the total capacity of the whole represents 86,852 spindles and 1,149 looms only. In looking over the names of firms engaged in the cotton trade at the various periods named, one cannot help being im- pressed with the precarious and shifting character of the cotton trade. Of all the firms in existence in 1824, only 52 years ago, not one exists at the present time, and in four instances only are the descendants of the cotton spinners and manufacturers of that time now engaged in the same trade as their forefathers. The frightful ravages in the ranks of spinners and manufacturers caused by the American Civil War are painfully apparent on comparing the names on the lists for 1853 and 1876. Of the *The late Dr. Coultate who was certifying surgeon under the Factory Acts made the statement here given. 68 100 firms now in existence four only were constituted in the same manner as they are at present in 1853, and 12 only are connected with the trade of that period by partnership or by inheritance. It is a remarkable and significant fact that of the 100 fms now engaged in the cotton trade, 84 had no connection of any kind with the staple trade of the town 28 years ago. I hope our President will now take a more hopeful view of the Cotton Trade, and in order the further to convince him and other sceptics that we are not quite going to the dogs, I may men- tion that there are at present in course of erection three weaving sheds which will accommodate over 1400 looms, or 250 more than have disappeared in the celebrated 12 mills mentioned by him. I may perhaps be allowed to point out that although room for 16,000 looms is let off to tenants, as far as I am aware there is not room to let for a single loom at the present time. One of the other great trades of the town is the coal trade, and the output in Burnley and the immediate neighbourhood is about 16,000 tons of coal weekly. I am informed on the very highest authority that this output can be maintained, from dis- coveries already made, for the next 500 years. Weneed therefore be under no apprehension of a coal famine from any scarcity of the black diamonds for our time at least. The Iron Trade has been long established here, but it is now almost entirely confined to loom making, in which 7 firms are engaged. Burnley produces weekly about 300 looms, a greater number than is produced in any other town in the world. In fact Burnley is a centre for this industry, and the export of looms to foreign countries is becoming a great trade. In speaking of the rise and progress of Burnley I feel com- pelled to mention as one considerable element in it, the progress of the various economical and industrial movements which have done so much to further the prosperity of the town. Probably the oldest institution of this nature is the Savings’ Bank, which was established in 1828. In 1852 there were 1,427 depositors, and the amount deposited was £40,026 19s. 103d. The next in point of date is the Burnley Building Society, which was established in 1850. The number of members in Burnley at the end of 1875 was 2,585, and the number of Burnley in- vestors was 5,214, with the enormous sum of £343,352 19s. 1d. to their credit. I must now bring before you the Co-operative and Joint Stock Companies, the great movement of the time, which is destined to carry on and complete the great work of the social and material improvement of the people inaugurated by the wonderful inven- tions and by the wise legislation of the 19th century. There is one Co-operative store with branches, and there are nine joint stock companies, the shares of which are bought and sold in the 69 market. The following summary shows the position of these 10 concerns :— No. of Shareholders..........e0000: 1,892. Nomunali@ april teeth a sins a xisior «5 a0\gre eeies mete £266,115 MHMSCTEPOM bya Mlen a = March 25...... 1849 302 2342 688 3332 a ay eiteine 1860 138 839 no return 967 4 septa s 1870 442 4263 7962 12667 Sept. 29...... 1875 425 2963 20 3408 The enormous increase in the number of vagrants in 1870 is very noticeable. The policy adopted by the Board of Guardians, by which vagrancy has been practically stamped out of this 71 district is worthy of much more consideration and discussion than the limits of this paper will permit. In 1819 the first Act of Parliament was passed for regulating the government of the town. The old Police circle of three- quarters of a mile was determined, and the Local Government was vested in a Board of 16 Commissioners, who were em- powered to watch, light, cleanse, pave and otherwise regulate the town. The meetings of the Board were held at the Bull Inn, and it is related that each Commissioner was entitled to two six- penny glasses at the expense of the town. This custom, it is said, always ensured a regular attendance. The late Mr. Anthony Buck was appointed Clerk to the Commissioners in 1822, and he resigned the office in 1828. as he himself relates principally from the difficulty he experienced in carrying out the provisions of the Act against defaulters in payment of Police Rates, breaches of the regulations of the streets, as to stallage and other matters which the Magistrates at that time acting for Burnley, did not cordially co-operate to enforce, and he was further induced to resign in consequence of the remonstrance of the Gas Company, who were then contractors for lighting the town, and they became apprehensive, if no rates were obtained, they would be in danger of losing their gas income from lighting the town. He further relates that when he was appointed Clerk to the Commissioners, in 1822, nothing had been done under the Act, either to pave, sewer, or light the town, except laying a rate for payment of the expenses of obtaining the Act, although a period of nearly three years had already elapsed. In 1846 another Act was passed, by which the number of Commissioners was increased to 60. In addition to the confirm- ation of the previous powers for governing the town, the Com- missioners were empowered to purchase the Burnley Waterworks, which had been established in 1819, under the provisions of an Act of Parliament passed in that year. Another Act giving further powers for governing and regu- lating the town, and giving powers to purchase the Gasworks, &c. was obtained in 1854. A Charter of Incorporation was obtained in 1861, and the powers and duties of the Improvement Commissioners were transferred to the Town Council. The Cor- poration purchased and obtained possession of the property and undertaking of the Burnley Market Co. in 1866. . The Corporation procured an Act of Parliament in 1871 conso- lidating all their Acts, extending the boundaries of the borough, and giving them further powers for governing and regulating the town. The various undertakings of the Burnley Corporation have had a most important influence on the progress of the town, and an examination of their financial results cannot fail to be interest- ing to my present audience. 72 In connection with these undertakings, the career of the Burnley Gas Light Company is most interesting. This Company was established in January, 1823, with a subscribed capital of £4,500, in 450 shares of £10 each. Works were erected, and the town was first lighted with gas in February or March, 1824. The Company obtained an Act in 1826, by which they were in- corporated, and their capital increased to £7,200, in 600 shares of £12 each. They obtained the sum of 3,800 on mortgage of their works in 1845. The first dividend was paid 1827. The Company supplied the public lamps ata charge (for the first 18 years) of £2 15s. per lamp. In 1842 the price was reduced to £2 12s. 6d.; in 1849, to £2 7s. 6d.; and in 1858, to £2 4s., at which price it remained till the works were relinquished to the Commissioners. The price of gas charged to the consumers was as follows :— per 1,000 ft. 10s. Od. DSZA GOP USL ie atette wre Wo vhetsietdienW afelntes e's (dis. from 5 to 40 p.c.) 1842 to 1844 a. reccevescenee cecsenes 8s. 4d. to 5s. Od. (according to consumption.) CY Beers onotaouscdowaio oolicDemogaew 6s. Od. DBAG erate ateveloseict ainuatelefesehateteteleheyoroyet Tere 6s. Od. to 5s. Od. (according to consumption.) 1847, tO 1849). £3, crete .shrwusts 2 oinyerepeloynm's 6s. Od. to 4s. 6d. 1850 to 1852... oc ce sec eve nsas ee 5s. Od. to 4s. Od. SSS T(Tanuary) tics aslaels teres 4s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. 1853 (July) to 1854 (Oct.) .......... 3s. Od. UGE (OE) Var ssencosoanobon oneoae 3s. 6d. The price of coal in 1854 was 8s.10d. per ton; the same quality is now charged 15s.5d perton. The financial result of the company must have been very satisfactory to the shareholders. From the time they obtained the Act in 1827, to the dissolution of the company in 1855—a period of 28 years—they received in divi- dends on each £12 share the sum of £87 2s. 6d., or an average dividend of £1 6s. 6d. being equal to about 11 per cent. per annum. In addition to this handsome dividend, the shareholders received back in payment of each £12 share the sum of £36 10s. The investment accordingly returned the total sum of £73 12s. 6d. for each £12 invested. The result of the purchase of this undertaking by the Im- provement Commissioners has been eminently profitable and advantageous to the town. The works were taken over on the 1st January, Lae 1855, the sum paid for the purchase being.... 30183 0 3 The sum expended in extensions since that time Mas Deen ss ccteactcassgs state ckse chorsteveapeta(ure) cols 50239 7 7 The total gross cost of the works being........ 80422 7 7 The sum deducted from profits on account of depreciation is .....+. a ietolete eo lece suesevereteret iver teks 25822 16 0 73 Making the present cost of the works in the books of the Corporation, at 30th June, 1876.. 54599 11 7 The amount of accumulated profit during the 214 years up to 30th June, 1876, is 34503 8 11 Sinkancehund yok) seis iaciase sisi ss 614 14 1—35118 3 And the amount paid over by the Gas Committee to other departments, in aid of Rates,is...... 16782 15 Showing the total profit earned by the works 1) INS, Goer as bhoe GoOce OOO REE arcs 51900 18 Leaving a balance to the debit of the works of.. 2698 13 on wo © —an amount which will probably be extinguished during the present year. The average profits of the Gas undertaking for the ten years ended June 30th, 1875, have been as follows :— Average interest paid ..... Batioudar eniapta Vayore eta ner OOL Profits) 2... sas TOSS ROO NODES. « Hoe BAG OOO s 1Ce 34,145 Sinking Fund.......... Neferevaveraters aketen pts otenia st Ole 10)34,759—3476 The annual average profit being............. eiarebtieiiatats 4980 The annual average depreciation allowed is............ 1632 And the average amount spent in repairs is..........5. 882 Total deducted from Sans annually, for depreciation ATUGAE DEITIES 2 he's colt vovouciannies aistieg Sie) 8 Slais ial eyeteye), 9.008; 830.0 14 During the whole of the period since the works were taken over by the town, the price charged for gas has been exceptionally low, and the advantage reaped in this respect has been very con- siderable. I have no hesitation in saying that the commercial value of the undertaking is very much in excess of the cost at which it stands in the books of the Corporation. This excellent result is owing, in a great measure, to the enlightened adminis- tration of the Committee, of which the President of this club is the chairman and ruling spirit. I have not been able to obtain so complete an account of the Burnley Waterworks as I have laid before you of the gasworks. The Burnley Waterworks Company was established by an Act of Parliament passed in 1819 (59 Geo. III.), and the whole of their undertaking was purchased by the Improvement Commissioners under the provisions of the Burnley Improvement Act, 1846, for the sum of £11,500. The total gross outlay on the works to 30th sy aa June, 1875, since their purchase is ........-- 78243 11 11 Making the present gross outlay .............. 88743 11 11 The depreciation deducted from profits is ...... 10441 14 8 Leaving their present cost at........eeseeeeees 78301 17 3 The net profit earned by the Waterworks is— surplUS .......005 iolnteld aletv a'ae'a SOL Aspe Opell Sinking UN | < leicie; vas sie ssieisse« sieie 1457 3 1—10671 13 0 Leaving a balance to the debit of the works of.. 67630 4 3 74 The average profits of the Waterworks for the 10 years ended June 80th, 1875, are as follows :— Averagelinterest PaiG\sasjesicieiemictaticle sisicielclo ee selene viet £2893 10 years’ profit.......+e+2+. 7879 Sinking Fund .............. 1457 10)9336 933 Total average Profit .....cceserccecsccee res eree cece £3826 The amount allowed for depreciation during the six years ended 30th June, 1874, is £4378, or an average of £728 per annum. The Burnley Market Company was formed in 1829 with a capital of about £3,000, in £10 shares. This was formed into a limited company. in 1864, and when the undertaking was sold to the Corporation and the company finally wound up, I am informed that the shareholders were paid off with five times their original investment. The financial result of the purchase of the Market by the town’s authorities is very unsatisfactory. Ceased. The total sum paid June 30th, 1866 ..... weeee 22569 17 12 months later an additional sum was spent in property, &c., amounting tO ...... see eee ee 18911 6 8 Making the cost to June 30th, 1867.......0..0. 41481 3 11 The additional outlay to June 30th, 1875,is.... 15405 5 4 And the present cost of the property amounts to 56886 9 3 To this sum must be added the total loss on this department since the undertaking was pur- chased, amounting to..... avetayiierguarelatiantcors civinexe 10395 3 11 The present sums to the debit of the markets being therefore .........0esseevees doavesor 67281 13 2 The average annual profit of this undertaking is as follows :— Average interest ..... Spelastals wyotin 2000 Less average deficiency.......... 1200 £1300 In order to arrive ata fair view of the financial Annual Profit position of the Burnley Corporation, I venture to place before you the following figures. Iam quite certain that the commercial value of the three great undertakings —the Waterworks, Gasworks, and Markets—is much in excess of the value reckoned in this table. The cost of the intercepting sewers, and pitching the rivers, is not added in the assets. LIABILITIES. £ sy dk To Mortgage Loans............ 217181 19 4 ,, Loans under public Works Act...........-.. 25986 138 4—243168 12 8 y, Sundry Creditors...ssseessceees Sdosgcod 3996 13 2 », Gas Consumers’ Deposits ...... s\sveratelelereie'e 1549 0 0 The total liabilities being,......... 248714 5 10 75 ASSETS. In books of Corporation. Depreciation Fund deducted from costs. By Waterworks .....ceeeeeeeeeees seceeesees 78301 17 3 AIGHEWOEKSE ES Eee ts aceressss Ceeaseathnse Gtooo Le. f » Market .......... Bais clotaliciatciske:c < elcishajaie veto DO SOON oun s SRIGETIOTOLY/ eo tcclle wie cee cviesto vice 6 ecis oveeeeen 440008 G », Property for street Improvements .......... 10654 12 8 », Unapportioned Expenditure.............6 1 ,, Estimated value of Property ...... 7 », Book debts and uncollected Rates .......... 2 », Balance in Treasurer’s hand ...........0.. 3 », Cost of intercepting sewers .. 21365 19 0 », Pitching River ......... wees 2751 14 1 », Stocks on hand .......... apiyagae tenia cistw nce en Oo 259432 17 5 Liabilities ....... Hhesenewe 248714 5 10 SiR LUT ayn two snenis Soecooe 10718 11 7 I have attempted in a very imperfect manner to tell you something of the Rise and Progress of the town in which we live. Writing in 1800 the late Dr. Whitaker expresses his fears for the future of the ancient parish of Whalley in language of the most extraordinary kind. Much more than the worst fears ever pictured to the morbid imagination of the learned antiquarian has been realized in the rapid extension of the dreaded manu- factures, but whether with the result he anticipated I will leave others to answer. Speaking of the ancient families in the parish of Whalley, he says :--‘“‘ Those opulent houses, whose property is not to be traced to a feudal origin, have been generally raised by the profession of the law. Some indeed have grown to conse- quence by habits of economy and gradual accumulation. Buta new principle is now introduced, which threatens gradually to absorb the whole property of the district within its own vortex. I mean the principle of manufactures aided by the discoveries lately made in the two dangerous sciences of chemistry and mechanics. The operation of this principle is accompanied with another effect, of which it is impossible to speak, but in the lan- guage at once of sorrow and indignation. Indeed it can only be considered as so much pure unmixed evil, moral, medical, religious and political. In great manufactories, human cor- ruption, accumulated in large masses, seems to undergo a kind of fermentation, which sublimes it to a degree of malignity not to be exceeded out of hell.” Sef LANCASHIRE IN FICTION: THE STORY OF THE COUNTY AS TOLD BY THE NOVELISTS. Mr. J. H. NODAL, who read this Paper, March 19th, 1878, supplied the following Biographical Note :— FIRST PERIOD: To tar Enp or tue Firrenenta Century. Traditions of Lancashire. By John Roby. Published in 1829 and 1831. SECOND PERIOD: Henry Eicurs to James First: A.D. 1530 to 1620. i. Dissolution of the Monasteries. Prologue to Ainsworth’s Lancashire Witches. ii. Persecution of the Roman Catholics, A.D. 1605. First Book of Ainsworth’s Guy Faux. ili. Trial and Execution of the Pendle Forest Witches, and King James’s Visit to Lancashire. Ainsworth’s Lan- cashire Witches. (Founded upon Potts’s Discoverie of Witches and Nicholas Assheton of Downham’s Journal in the Chetham Society’s Publications.) THIRD PERIOD: Tae Crvm War (First Part, 1642-1646). Ainsworth’s Leaguer of Lathom. (No fiction founded on the later portion of the war.) FOURTH PERIOD: Tue Jacozire REepeuions. i. The Rising in 1715. Ainsworth’s Preston Fight. ii. The Rising in1745. Ainsworth’s Manchester Rebels. Sir Walter Scott in Waverley, chap. 57, just touches upon Prince Charles Edward’s Invasion of Lancashire. 7 FIFTH PERIOD: Tue Rise oF THE Corron, Coan, anD Iron Inpustries : 1730 to 1830. i. Manchester from 1790 to 1825. Mrs. Linneus Banks’s Manchester Man. ~ ii. Lancashire about 1820—1830. Mrs. Gaskell’s Mary Barton. iii. Miss Martineau’s Manchester Strike. iv. Social Life and Manners in Lancashire about the time of the Napoleonic Wars. Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth’s Ribblesdale: or Lancashire Sixty Years Ago. Mr. Philip G. Hamerton’s Wenderholme. There is no novel founded on the earlier incidents of the Cotton Industry, but there is a drama by Mr. Tom Taylor, based on Arkwright’s career, and entitled Arkwright’s Wife. ROMAN REMAINS IN MARSDEN, BRIER- CLIFFE AND EXTWISTLE. An Excursion was made on Saturday, July 19th, 1879, under the leadership of Mr. Clement for the object of visiting the Roman Remains, which are scattered throughout Marsden, Brierclifie and Extwistle. The evidences of Roman and sub- sequent occupations on the range of hills between Colne and Burnley, are so numerous and important as to have elicited from more than one writer on the subject, the opinion that they are unequalled in any part of the kingdom. Beyond the interest attaching to the examination of these antiquities, the Excursion offered the attractions of a country ramble. Notwithstanding the unpropitious state of the weather at the time of leaving Burnley, there was a goodly muster of members determined to explore the places enumerated in the circular and marked on the sketch map which had been issued. Contrary to the original intention to proceed from Nelson, through the grounds of Marsden Hall, to Caster Cliff, the first object to be visited, Colne was made the starting point, and some distance was thereby saved. From Colne the ascent of the steep road by which Caster Cliff is reached was made. This important Station, ‘‘ whose name is full of Roman life,’ is situated on the Roman Road between Colne (Colunio) and Slack, near Huddersfield (Cambodunum) and at the junction of this with the vicinal way from Ribchester (Rigo- dunum) to Ilkley (Alicana). The intrenchments form a paral- lelogram, measuring about 550 feet long by 520 feet broad, but the walls appear to have enclosed an area of about 380 feet in length by 840 in breadth. The Camp has been protected on the south-west front by a deep gully, and also by a double vallum and fosse, which are still entire about the whole crest of the mound. There remain half-buried beneath the soil the stones which formed the fortification, presenting mostly an appearance of having been subject to great heat. Opinions were advanced to account for this appearance, and also for the presence of several circular holes in the summit of the mound. These may at one time have been roofed in for the shelter of the occupiers of the Camp, and probably in these the cooking operations were per- formed. In clear weather the view from this ancient stronghold 79 is of a very extensive character, and from its commanding position the place has evidently been the key of this portion of Lancashire in the hands of the Romans. The party next proceeded by the Roman Road to Shelfield, where, on the summit of a hill, is an unsightly granite structure, called Walton’s Monument, erected by the late R. T. Wroe Walton, Esq., of Marsden Hall, in 1835. Regaining the roadway, the course followed passes Ring Stones Hill, where formerly stood a large circle of stones. Before reaching Cold Well Inn, some 15 yards of what was probably the original Roman Road is seen. The Road then traverses the valley in which the proposed Nelson Reservoir is to be constructed, the formations on the hill sides here indicating the previous existence of the primitive lime-washing appliances. Ata short distance beyond is Broad Bank. On this elevation, which overlooks the romantic Thursden Valley, with the heights of Boulsworth in the distance, are the remains of a circular intrench- ment, measuring about 150 feet in diameter, which, though not so sharply defined as those of the Caster Cliff fortification, are nevertheless clearly traceable. From here, the party descended towards Thursden Brook, and halted at Stephen Hey Farm. A divergence was here made from the rouie at first contemplated, and, leaving Monk Hall on the right, the brook—now somewhat swollen with the rains—was crossed, and the precipitous sides of Park Wood were climbed. On emerging from the wood, and struggling through the brushy grass, saturated with heavy downpour, the summit on the east side, in Jerusalem Pasture, was gained. Here were found the remains of an ancient enclosure of considerable dimensions ; while on the culminating point on Delph Hill, which is 1,249 feet above sea-level, there is a small circle of stones, 7 in number, the diameter of the circle being about 14 feet. The members had the satisfaction of restoring one of these relics of antiquity to its original position in the group. It was from this tumulus that Mr. Spencer, of Halifax, some years ago exhumed an earthenware urn. This valuable relic came, subsequently, into the hands of R. T. Parker, Esq., the owner of the land in the neighbourhood, and through the ignorant carelessness of a servant it was broken, and the frag- ments were lost. A portion of an urn discovered at not a great distance from here, and which had been pronounced as of ancient British manufacture, may be seen in the reading room of the Literary Institution. The ornamental work is of a very rude description, and, in the opinion of Mr. Wilkinson, does not -- appear to have been formed by any iustrument less primitive than the point of a stick. A direct line was then taken to Twist Hill, which overlooks Rogerham and the Swinden Valley, and on which are the remains of a square camp known as Twist Castle. “The meaning of the-name and its supposed connection with the 80 word Extwistle formed matter for controversy. EHuach side of the encampment measures about 150 feet in length within the trenches; the remains of the fosse and vallum are very distinct, and spaces still remain for the Pretorian and Decuman Gates. The remains of a smaller enclosure, measuring about 60 feet square, exist at the south-east corner. Ata short distance is a circular tumulus about 45 feet in diameter. The party next passed across the Swinden Valley, which contains the reservoirs of the Burnley Corporation, and noticed the remains of Ring Stones Camp, on Slipper Hill. These are very similar in char- acter to those on Twist Hill. The Camp is oblong in form, measuring 200 feet by 160 feet, with a small enclosure adjoining, 50 feet square. The fosse appears to have been 20 feet in breadth, and the vallum is considerably above the general surface. The remains of a beacon and tumulus are situated on the crest of the hill at a short distance. The late Mr. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S., says in his paper on the Battle of Brunanburgh, that “there is a tradition which is still prevalent in Worsthorn, to the effect that the Danes constructed these defences, that a great battle was fought on the moor, and that five kings were buried under the mounds.” This statement is used in support of the claims of Saxifield as the probable site of the great conflict, when the Saxons under Athelstan completely defeated the Danes, Picts and Scots, A.D. 938, and when, according to the ‘‘ Saxon Chronicle,” ‘‘ Five kings lay on that battle field, In bloom of youth, pierced through with swords.” The slopes of Saxifield are seen from the commanding positions which Twist Castle and Ring Stones Camp occupy. And now was brought to a termination the survey of this interesting line of fortifications. The mode of construction of some of the camps and their situation, stamp them as of Roman origin, while the abundance of Saxon and Danish names in the locality, certainly attest the presence of the Saxons and Danes in these parts, who in turn would occupy the fortresses erected by the Romans, as well as construct new entrenchments. Con- sidering the magnitude and position of these strongholds, they must have secured for their masters control over large and important districts. It is, therefore, not at all improbable, that in the neighbourhood of these mountain fastnesses sanguinary engagements have been fought, as the several races which successively invaded our shores, established themselves in our island, from the conquest of Imperial Rome to the incursions of the fierce sea-kings of Norway and Denmark. After partaking of a substantial tea at the Rogerham Gate Inn, a brief visit was paid to Extwistle Hall, where, by the kindness of the occupants, the party was privileged to view the interior of the fine old hall, formerly the residence of the Parker “81 family. The oak panelling was removed a few years ago by R. T. Parker, Esq., and is now at Astley Hall, near Chorley ; there remain, however, several remnants of ceiling ornamentation and other decorative work. Some of the party, on the return to Roggerham, made a hurried examination of what is left of the Nogworth Cross, and then joining the remaining members, returned home by conveyance—-reaching Burnley shortly after nine. SOURCES OF ORIGINAL MATERIALS FOR A HISTORY OF BURNLEY. This was the title of a paper read by W. A. ABRAM, F.R.H.S., of Blackburn, October 12th, 1880. In his introductory observations, the lecturer pointed out that although useful historical accounts of the Burnley district were con- tained in the later extended editions of Whitaker's ‘‘ History of Whalley,” and Baines’s ‘‘ History of Lancashire,” and the late Mr. T. 'T. Wilkinson’s “ History of Burnley Church ” was an excellent contribution to that branch of local history, yet nothing lke a complete history of the town and chapelry existed in permanent book-form ; and he suggested that such a comprehensive separate History of Burnley was a desideratum, which the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club might with propriety take the initia- tive in supplying. After referring to the branches of archzology and ecclesiastical history, Mr. Abram proceeded to notice seria- tim the various principal sources of information concerning the descents of local estates and families. We extract the following paragraphs from this portion of the lecture, which for the most part apply equally to the documentary materials available for the history of other Lancashire parishes or districts. 1. Subsidy Rolls—What are known to antiquaries as the Subsidy Rolls are lists inseribed upon long narrow rolls of parch- ment, kept at the Public Record Office in London, of all assess- ments made upon Counties, Hundreds, &c., for contributions to the subsidies granted to the King or Queen from time to time. The Subsidies were the ancient system of public taxation in England for the support of the monarchy and the government. The records of the assessments for these Subsidies which are yet preserved extend over a period, roundly, of some three centuries from the reigns of the Plantagenets to that of Charles the Second. Under each parish and township they contain the names of each inhabitant taxed to the Subsidy, either on his lands or on his goods. They therefore supply the names of every householder in a locality of any account or propertied-qualification at the time 83 of the levying of the Subsidy; and as these Subsidies were de- manded for the Crown at frequent intervals, there will be found upon the Subsidy Rolls the names of the whole of what we should now style the respectable townsmen of Burnley and the contiguous townships, in nearly every generation, from the four- teenth century to the middle of the seventeenth. If we bear in mind that the parish registers do not go back beyond the reign of Elizabeth (with few exceptions), the interest of these simple entries on the Subsidy Rolls of names of landowners and other householding inhabitants nowhere else recorded will be recognised. A selection of the entries on some of these Rolls of tenants of Burnley, Habergham Eaves, Towneley, Briercliffe and Cliviger would be usefully inserted in a History of Burnley, such as I hope some day to see produced. ‘They are accessible without charge at the Record Office, and are not particularly difficult to read. None of the lists relating to this district has yet been printed. 2. Proceedings in the Duchy Cowrts.—I need hardly tell you that law-suits have been common incidents of local social life ever since English property-law was reduced to system, and Courts established for its definition and dispensation. The official records of suits in the Courts of the Duchy of Lancaster from an early period are in preservation. They have all (excep- ting the modern records), now been transferred from their former place of custody at Lancaster Castle to the Public Record Office in London. Some thousands of these accounts haye been classi- fied and bound in volumes, and a calendar or catalogue of them has been printed, which contains the names of plaintiffs and defendants, and a short statement of the matter in dispute in each cause. The later batches of these records of the Chancery Court of Lancaster sent to London have not yet been analysed and calendared, and until that is done their contents will not be so readily made use of as those of an earlier consignment; but in the Report of the Keeper of the Public Records, issued in 1874, there is a list of the volumes of these documents, dating from temp. Henry VII. to 1611 in one vol., and from 1612 to 1853 in some hundreds of volumes and bundles. They consist of Bills, Answers, Interrogatories, Depositions, and Examinations : Decrees, Orders, &¢. There are also the Prothonotary’s Records from the time of John of Gaunt to William the Fourth, consis- ting of records of Fines, Final Concords, Enrolments of Fines, Plea Rolls, &e. Then there are the Assize Rolls, from the reign of Henry VI. to that of Victoria, and other series of legal records of procedures in the Duchy Courts. I have dipped into two or three of the uncatalogued volumes of these records, of the Stuart period, and I can state that they contain numerous records of suits by litigants from these parts of the County Palatine, some 84 of which at least would be interesting enough to repay the trouble of searching out and extracting. In the collection of similar records which were in the Record Office before, and have been calendared, I have noted some scores of calendar headings re- lating to disputes about lands, coal mines, corn mills, &c., in the Burnley district. 3. Inquisitions Post-Mortem.—A class of the Duchy Re- cords which composers of Lancashire family history find of the greatest assistance are the Inquisitions Post-Mortem, the pur- pose of which at the time they were held may be briefly ex- plained. Under the ancient feudal system of English land tenure, freeholders held their lands directly of the King as chief lord. In Lancashire many estates were thus held of the King as parcel of the great fee of the Duchy of Lancaster. As a con- sequence of this, whenever a freeholder died without natural heirs, his estates reverted to the Crown, and if his son, or other heir was a minor at the time of the father’s death he remained in the wardship of the King until he came of age. Hence the necessity for an enquiry, held directly after the death of a free- holder, as to the fact and date of his death, the situation, deserip- tion, and acreage of his lands, the number of his messuages, mills, &c.; the nature of any incumbrance upon the estate ; the name, age, and relationship of the next heir to the deceased, and other cognate matters. These inquisitions were held by the King’s Escheator, generally at the nearest town to the estate of the deceased tenant, who took the necessary proofs upon the oaths of a jury constituted of neighbouring gentry and yeomen. The report or record of the Inquisition was inscribed by the clerk of the Escheator upon a skin or skins of parchment, and was de- posited for security and future reference if needed in the archives of the Duchy. This system of tenure and the enquiries it en- tailed came to an end at the Restoration in 1660. The docu- ments known as Inquisitions post-mortem are now in the Public Record Office, London. There are about 8600 of them; and others are believed to have been lost. Occasionally copies of In- quisitions of which no official writing is in the public depository are found amongst the older title-deeds of local estates The recently-formed Record Society for Lancashire and Cheshire has just issued as one of its earliest volumes « selection of between 2C0 and 800 of the Inquisitions relating to Laucashire estates, reduced from the contracted Latin of the originals to full abstracts in English. The Record Society will print hereafter other volumes of these documents. I myself have abstracted about 150° of them from the originals at the Record Office during the preparation of my History of Blackburn Parish Two or three generations back, when Whitaker wrote his histories, these records of Inquisitions were as good as buried, no calendar of 85 them having been printed until 1823. They were therefore at that time rarely, if ever, utilised by historians But no Lan- cashire parish history which did not incorporate the pith of the information of the Duchy Inquisitions would now-a-days pass muster at the hands of competent critics of such books. I note that in the collection of Inquisitions in the Record Office there are about fifty Inquisitions which relate to estates and their ancient possessors in the Burnley district, of which five or six are printed in the volume of the Record Society issued a few days since. 4. Cowrt Rolls of Clitheroe Castle—The records of the Manor of Ightenhill and other members of the great fee of Clitheroe Castle in the custody of the Steward of the Honor of Clitheroe at Clitheroe Castle furnish somewhat similar particulars respecting the Copyhold estates and their succession of tenants, as the Escheator’s after-death Inquisitions do about the freehold estates and their tenants; but the Cowt Rolls, in which all the copyholds are entered, are a perfect series, containing an account of all the facts and conditions of each copyholding tenancy for several centuries to the present date, whilst the Inquisitions are but a fragmentary mass of records, ending nearly 240 years ago. A great proportion of the landsin the Burnley district are copyhold ; and therefore for the purpose of elucidating their ownership it would be necessary to seek for access to the records at Clitheroe Castle. The present Steward of the Honor, Arthur I. Robinson, Esq., is himself so much interested in local historical research and illustration, that I have little doubt he would grant all reasonable privileges of special reference to the Court Rolls to competent persons engaged upon a History of Burnley. I have seen a number of copies of surrenders, &c., into this court connected with the Whitakers of Healey and one or two other local families, and have had some experience of their service in the composition of sketches of families which held lands in copyhold. Evidence to very many facts which cannot be elsewhere derived is yielded by these copies of Court Roll which constitute the title- deeds of the copyholders ; and the records of Clitheroe Honor and its members, of which the local demesne of Ightenhill Park is one of the most important, must not be overlooked as a substantial portion of the raw material for local history when it comes to be worthily written. 5. Private Deeds and Family Papers—The old charters and title-deeds of estates and papers of sundry descriptions relating to past transactions in family annals, which are in private hands remain an undefined quantity in the local annalist’s preliminary survey of his materials; for no one knows how much of curious lore bearing upon the state of communities at distant periods and upon domestic affairs, lies unregarded in the recesses of old family 86 chests, until some inquisitive antiquary, bent upon bringing to light the hidden things of darkness, sets to work in any neigh- bourhood hunting out these kinds of materials. I cannot, therefore, pretend to tell you what stores of private documents and manuscripts you have at this instant stowed away in the darkest corners of closets in old houses, or in the deed-rooms of conveyancing lawyers in Burnley and its vicinity; but I am quite sure there is a great deal of such musty yet far from worth- less documentary stuff in Burnley as there has been found in other parishes; and the History of Burnley which we are supposing is going to be written before long, will when it appears, contain, if undertaken and carried through on a proper system, an assem- blage of new items rifled from those old family papers and parch- ments of whose bare existence nobody at present knows but the possessors, and even they are but faintly conscious and never think that they will some day be wanted to help some industrious chronicler to clear up doubtful points in the passage of estates or to supply missing links in family descents. 6. Wills at Chester, &c—Few documents exemplifying personal and family history are more matterful than old wills. Copies of wills are frequently found amongst family papers ; but apart from those which may be thus met with, county and parish historians are now, in their determination to be thorough, accus- tomed to be at the trouble of procuring from the official deposi- tory for this part of England, the Probate Court at Chester, copies of wills of persons of note. Tacilities for the use of wills in local historiography are now afforded in this and other counties, by the learned societies instituted for the publication of original documents and materials for history. The Chetham Society of Lancashire has printed three volumes of Lancashire Wills and Inventories from the copies made by the late Rey. Mr. Piccope, and contained in the Piccope W.S.S. in the Chetham Library. The Record Society for Lancashire and Cheshire will issue about the end of this year two volumes containing complete lists of all the Wills and Letters of Administration made and granted from 1545 to 1660, preserved in the Chester Probate Court. These lists will contain the names of a number of persons who lived in the Burnley district with the date of their respective Wills, and by means of this printed Index any wills that it is necessary to make copies or extracts from, can be re- ferred to without loss of time in searching. In some minor cases even the simple date of a will thus supplied in a published index may answer the historian’s purpose. J may add that the wills printed in extenso by the Chetham Society include several interes- ting ones of personages of note who belonged to old Burnley families. 7. The Christopher Towneley M.S.S. at Towneley Hall—But 87 all the sources of original materials for your local history, in the branch of descents of estates and families, which I have hitherto enumerated, are, I venture to assert, exceeded in richness and value by one remarkable collection which is preserved near by— I refer to the great collection of what are known as the Towneley M.S.S. in general, and the collections of Christopher Towneley the antiquary, in particular, which are kept in a splendid series of bound volumes of manuscripts in the Muniment Room of Towneley Hall. If these collections had been public instead of private property, they would have been most of them printed bodily long ago with avidity by interested antiquaries in the series of. works of learned societies like the Chetham Society. As it is, they stand in stately rows at Towneley Hall all but totally useless, because antiquaries and authors who know by report of their treasures, shrink from asking for the permission to go to Towneley Hall to examine them. I assisted Dr. Grosart of Blackburn, to edit and annotate two of the most interesting Manuscripts in the Towneley Collection,—the one the series of English Jacobite Ballads, and the other the three-century old M.S. record of the Disbursements in charities of the fortune of Robert Nowell, Esq., under the direction of his Will, by his brother Dean Alexander Nowell and his half-brother John Towneley, Esq. But we are at present more concerned with the collections of transcripts of ancient documents made by ChristopherTowneley, Esq., during forty years or more previous to his death in 1674. He was a younger son of Richard Towneley, Esq., and was born at Towneley Hall, in January, 16038. It was his passion to get hold of any kind of old docu- ments, public or private, and to transcribe them in his Manu- script Books. Sixty folio volumes of his transcripts are at Towneley. When at Towneley looking at the other manuscripts used, I spent an hour on two occasions glancing through several of these volumes of Christopher Towneley’s M.§.8., and I assure you that materials most useful, and curious items tempting the searcher interested in county and local history to stop and make note of, abounded on every page of the volumes I handled. Without a lengthened inspection of each volume in this exten- sive collection, it is impossible to give an idea of their varied contents. They include copies of ancient charters, abstracts of later title deeds, sketch pedigrees, personal notes of contem- poraries, wills, letters, official documents and returns, rentals, assessments, inquisitions, notes of monumental inscriptions in churches, trickings of arms displayed in the interiors of old halls, copies of heraldic visitation entries, estate accounts, and other papers which I cannot just now bethink me of the purport of. It may be assumed with safety that a more than ordinary propor- tion of the materials piled up by this laborious transcriber refer 88 to matters connected with the Burnley district. Christopher Towneley was himself a Burnley man. He was familiar with all the gentry of his period around these parts, and many of them lent him their deeds and papers to copy. I draw the attention of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, thus especially to the manuscript treasures of Towneley Hall, because it seems to me that the likeliest chance for the utilisation of these excellent materials, or a portion of them, would be for an application to be made on behalf of this Club, by a deputation from its Committee, to Lord Norreys, the present master of Towneley, for permission to copy, for historical and literary purposes, such portions of certain volumes of the Towneley M.S.S. as more directly concern the district. Lord Norreys has taken such an active interest in the town of Burnley since he came to reside at Towneley, that I presume to feel confident his lordship would, if suitably approached, not hesitate to give permission for a freer access to these Manuscripts by trustworthy persons nominated by an influ- ential Club like this to make extracts for eventual use in a new History of Burnley, than any strangers would be warranted in soliciting. I cannot imagine it possible that such a singular collection of ancient evidences lying within a couple of miles from where we are assembled, should continue closed against the associated literary men of Burnley, if they should deem it ne- cessary to apply to the noble possessor for liberty of access to them. Mr. Abram concluded with some remarks upon the Topo- graphy and Architectural Antiquities of Burnley, and upon the modern history, commercial, social, &c., suggesting ways in which the Club collectively or by interested individual members might accumulate and preserve materials which would be ready for use by the future historian of the district. 89 THE CROSSES IN AND AROUND BURNLEY. A paper read by J. ARTHUR WADDINGTON, October 25th, 1881. Of the memorials of the olden times, coming under the generic designation of crosses, comparatively few now remain in a fair state of preservation in our own district, and numbers of them have disappeared altogether. But few of these relics if left unmolested would have succumbed to the ravages of time, and we must therefore attribute their annihilation, in nearly every instance, to the thoughtlessness the ignorance, or the wilful destructiveness of man. Many of the crosses were removed before the commencement of the present century, but in far too many instances it has been found that those which were standing within the memory of the present generation have been destroyed with a ruthless Vandalism which cannot be too strongly condemned. It must be a source of regret to all lovers of antiquities that these landmarks in our past history should have been broken down, and that no trace of their form or characteristics should have been left to us, and the consideration of these facts suggested the desirability of recording the present condition of those crosses which have escaped destruction, and tracing as faras possible their past history. This, then, along with some few generalremarks upon the subject of crosses, is the object and intention of the present paper. Rough drawings have been prepared of some of these monuments, from which it is believed that the mem- bers will be able to get a clearer idea of the character of the remains, than from the most minute verbal descriptions.* It may perhaps be well to state at this point to what extent of country the title of the paper is intended to apply. If a line be drawn from Burnley to Whalley on the west, and Todmorden on the south-east, with one exception the crosses lie to the north of that line, and with two exceptions the county boundary will form our limit in the other directions. *These diagrams have been reproduced by photolithography, and being drawn in each case to the same scale, the relative proportions of the crosses will be determined at a glance. 90 Since the time of the Roman Emperor Constantine the cross has been publicly used as an emblem of Christianity. The early Christian Missionaries had crosses carried in advance of their bands and erected them at the spot where it was their wont to preach to the heathen population. It was also their custom to mark the Druidical temples and other pagan erections with the sign of the cross, and thus sanctify and dedicate them to the worship of the true God. During the middle ages thousands of these crosses were erected throughout the length and breadth of the land in different situations and for different purposes, some of which are set forth in the following quotation from a writer in ‘‘ Notes and Queries ’’ :—‘* Wherever the gospel was first spread, a pious care caused crosses to be erected as standards, around which the faithful might assemble the more conveniently to hear the divine truths inculeated, and by degrees these symbols were fixed in every place of public resort. Every town had its cross at which engagements, whether of a religious or of a worldly interest, were entered into. Every churchyard had one whereon to rest the bodies of the deceased, from which the preacher gave his lessons upon the mutability of life. At the turning of every road was placed a cross for the twofold purpose of rest for the bearers of the pious defunct, and for reminding travellers of the Saviour who died for their salvation. The boundaries of every parish were distinguished by crosses, at which, during the ancient perambulations, the people alternately prayed and regaled them- selves. Crosses, in short, were multiplied by every means which the ingenuity of man could invent, and people were thus kept in constant remembrance, both at home and on their journeys, as well as in every transaction of their lives, of the foundation of the Christian faith.” Although the writer of that paragraph, in my opinion, attributes a too universal distribution to these memorials, still they were no doubt so numerous that we can form little conception now of the extent to which they were at one time spread throughout the country. Specimens of nearly every variety will be found within our own district, and it is intended to treat each class in turn, first giving a few general introductory remarks, and afterwards describing our local examples. THE ‘‘ GODLY LANE’’ CROSS, BURNLEY, AND THE WHALLEY CROSSES. It is proposed first to consider the Godly Lane Cross, and along with it the crosses in the churchyard at Whalley, for there can be little doubt that they had a common origin, as may be inferred from their similarity in outline, and they have been so classed by almost all writers upon the subject. They may with- out much doubt be ascribed to the early missionary enterprizes of the 7th century; but in order to obtain a clearer idea of their origin it will be well to take a rapid glance at the progress of 91 Christianity in this country subsequent to the withdrawal of the Roman legions about A.D. 418. We have very satisfactory evidence that a British church existed previous to that time. Upon the departure of the Roman troops the country was subject to the incursions of the Saxons, and a great wave of paganism again overwhelmed the land. The British were driven to the western parts of the island, and no attempt was made by them to preach Christianity to the Saxon invaders. This work was left for the mission sent by Gregory from Rome in 597. Augus- tine, with a band of some 40 monks, landed in Kent during the reign of Ethelbert, who, having married a Christian princess, was inclined to look with favour upon the new doctrines which Augustine taught. Within the year following the arrival of Augustine more than ten thousand persons renounced their idolatry and embraced the Christian Faith. History informs us how Paulinus, one of the associates of Augustine, accompanied Ethelburga, the daughter of Ethelbert, to Northumbria on her marriage with Edwin, the sovereign of that district; how the king himself was baptised, and Christianity declared the accepted faith by the decree of the national Witan ; how Paulinus was subsequently consecrated Archbishop of York, and how he occupied himself in missionary labours in various parts of the kingdom up to the time of Edwin's death, in 688, at the battle of Heathfield. The generally received theory with regard to the Crosses at Burnley and Whalley is that they were erected to commemorate the visit of Paulinus to this district upon one of his missionary excursions, and that he then introduced Christianity into this part of the country. Dr. Whitaker in his History of Whalley refers to this, and his statements may be here briefly reviewed. He speaks first of an account which is preserved to us entitled ** De Statu Blagborneshire.” This ancient manuscript states that Augustine (who at the wish of the King Ethelbert preached in England and taught the Christian faith), came to Whalley, and that in the Churchyard certain stone Crosses were erected and called by the people the ‘‘ Crosses of the blessed Augustine,” and were known by that name up to the time at which he wrote. Now it is almost certain that Augustine was never in this part of the country at all, and Dr. Whitaker then goes on to shew that the writer of this account must have erred in attributing to Augustine, what he (Dr. Whitaker) considered to be the work of Paulinus. This theory is also accepted by Harland and Wilkinson in their ‘‘ Legends and Traditions of Lancashire,” and has been repeated in almost every instance in which the matter has been referred to by other writers. The evidence set forth by Dr. Whitaker of the presence of Paulinus in this district can scarcely 92 be considered conclusive. The first argument ‘‘ That Paulinus generally chose the banks of large rivers as the scene of his ministrations, in order that his converts might receive the ordinance of baptism, and that Whalley stands near to the con- fluence of the Ribble, the Calder and the Hodder”’ is certainly, taken upon its own merits, of little value. We arenext told ‘that there is a cross at Dewsbury, which is said to have borne the inscription ‘Paulinus hic predicavit et celebravit,’ and that this cross re- sembled those at Burnley and Whalley.”” Now the existence of this inscription may well be doubted, the best and perhaps the only authority on the point being the following passage from his ‘* Britannia” written by Camden about the end of the sixteenth century. ‘‘ For I have been informed that there was once a cross here, with this inscription ‘ Paulinus hic predicavit et celebravit,’ (that is, Paulinus here preached and celebrated.) Of this cross nothing now remains, either in sight or by tradition, but that this Paulinus was the first Archbishop of York about A.D. 626, we are assured by the concurring evidence of our his- torians.” It appears then that even in Camden’s time the in- scription had disappeared, but presuming that the inscription once existed, the remains of what is supposed to be the original cross which have lately been discovered, are of such a frag- mentary nature that no deductions of a satisfactory character can be made to confirm the theory of the similarity of form with those at Burnley and Whalley. In fact all inferences to be drawn from the general contour and ornamentation of these crosses seem to point in quite another direction. Be- yond this, as pointed out by the Rev. R. Waddy Moss in a paper read before this club, ‘“‘ Though there is no more difficult task in early English history than that of determining the exact boundaries of the various kingdoms, Deira does not appear in Edwin’s reign, to have extended farther westwards than the range of hills that now separate Lancashire and Yorkshire. Forthe battle of Chester did not result in the permanent addition of Cheshire and Lan- cashire to Northumbria, but those counties seem to have been quickly recovered by the British. Still further if Paulinus had ever attempted to cross the western limits of Deira, he would have found a people to whom he would be doubly unwelcome. For whilst his connection with Edwin would ensure him perhaps a careful treatment, it would certainly be a treatment of avoid- ance and suspicion, and as a member of the Augustinian mission, the enmity of the British clergy would naturally pursue him, hinder his success, and drive him quickly back to minister to an Anglo-Saxon population.” It seems necessary then to find some more satisfactory explanation of the circumstances under which, these crosses were erected. In the ‘‘ De Stutw Blagborneshire ”’ there is probably a nucleus of truth which can be accepted, 93 namely, that the crosses commemorate the introduction of Christianity into this district, and though we concur with Dr. Whitaker in his non-acceptance of the statement relating to Augustine, still it has been shewn that the hypothesis with regard to Paulinus is scarcely tenable, and we must seek some other solution of the difficulty. It will be remembered that the British were driven by the Saxon invasion to the western parts of the island, and their Church having become allied with the Ivish and Scotch Churches, the three were spoken of collectively as the Celtic Church. This Church had several points of difference with the Mission of Augustine, one of which was the time for observing Easter, in which they adhered to the Alexan- drian rule, and another was the method of wearing the hair. (In these matters the Celtic fraternity display their connection with the Kastern Church. The Eastern clergy were accustomed to shave the entire front of the head, leaving the hinder part untouched. The Italians shaved their heads according to the tonsure of St. Peter, which consisted of a circle of hair round the shorn head.) The Celtic Church was eventually fused in the Italian but not without a long struggle. At the time we are now speaking of, the Celtic held aloof from the Italian Chuch. The head quarters of the Celtic Church were at Iona. ‘In the year 565, says Dr. Hook, Columba crossed from Ireland in a boat made of ox-hides and fixed his residence in the little island of Hy. Here he was surrounded by men of learning who, while seeking the edification and sanctification of their own souls, never forgot the command of the great Captain of their Salvation to preach the gospel to every creature, and from an assemblage of lowly structures, formed of rough hewn wood, thatched with reeds, a monastery arose. In this retreat the Holy Scriptures were diligently studied and books were multiplied by transcrip- tion. They conducted their mission not only by sending out preachers from their own body, but by placing similar fraternities in different parts of the country, thus providing for their convents a continued supply of the means of instruction and grace.” The sanctity of Iona has been immortalized in that sentence of Dr. Johnson's, ‘“‘ We are now treading that illustrious island which was once the luminary of the Caledonian regions. That man is little to be envied whose patriotism will not gain force on the plains of Marathon, or whose piety will not grow warmer among the ruins of Iona.’’ To the efforts of the Celtic missionaries is due the evangeli- zation of the whole of the north-western parts of this island, and the theory that the crosses at Burnley and Whalley commemorate the visits and labours of these devout men is much more to be eredited than the one which attributes them to Paulinus. The 94 former idea receives much confirmation from the character of the ornament upon these crosses. The chief characteristic of the ornament of Celtic nations is an abundance of scrolls and knot- work, most curiously and intricately interwoven. This is found not only upon their manuscripts, some of which are preserved to the present day, but also upon the stone monuments which are so numerous in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the Isle of Man. A comparison of some of these with the Whalley crosses will reveal a most striking resemblance, not only in out- line but also in the detail of the sculptured ornament. Two crosses now in existence in Pembrokeshire, one at Carew and the other at Nevern, are very similar. The Godly Lane cross is similar in outline to those at Whalley, and if originally ‘‘ bounded by simple fillets,” as stated by Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, would have a close resemblance to one which has recently been dug up at Cheadle. The Burnley cross has been removed by the owners of the estate, from its site in the plantation in Godly Lane, where it was threatened with destruc- tion, in consequence of the building operations in its immediate neighbourhood, and now stands in a position where it can be seen to advantage by the passers by, and where it is hoped that it will be no longer subject to that rough usage which has reduced it to its present state of dilapidation. It is supposed by some that this cross originally stood in the churchyard, and it was observed, when it was removed to its present position, that the cross was let into the basestone in a very rude way, (and also that the portion inserted into the base seemed so much weathered as to lead to the con- clusion that it had been for some considerable time exposed,) indicating that some unskilful persons had let it into its present base at a period subsequent to its original construction. The crosses at Whalley have also been subject to vicissitudes of a similar character, and although it is generally supposed that there were but three crosses at Whalley, there are remains of no less than five. The heads upon two of those now standing certainly formed no part of the original. All the crosses were broken in several places and although sufficient is left of them to enable a restoration of their general features to be made, still, as will be seen from the drawings, not one is complete. THE MARKET CROSSES. These crosses were erected in almost every town and village in the centre of the place of public resort; round them the markets were held and from their steps public announcements were made, in fact they served as a place of meeting upon every variety of occasion. The Rev. Dr. Milner in his History of Winchester states that ‘‘ The general intent of Market Crosses was to excite public 95 homage to the Christian religion, and to inspire men with a sense of morality and piety amidst the ordinary transactions of life.” Fosbroke in his Encyclopedia of Antiquities says—‘As crosses were in every place designed to check a worldly spirit, these, (that is, market crosses), were intended to inculcate upright intentions and fairness of dealing.” The thought that there was no longer a necessity for these ‘‘ gentle reminders” in our days of ad- vanced civilization would be some compensation for the disappear- ance and demolition of these interesting memorials, but it is to be feared the need for them is just as great in the 19th as it was in the 13th century. They generally consisted of a flight of three or more steps surmounted by a large base above which rose a tall shaft, capped with a cross. In many instances however they assumed much larger proportions and as at Malmsbury, Chichester, Salisbury, &c., were sufficiently com- modious to shelter a considerable number of persons. Round some of these crosses is entwined a wreath of associations which render their history of the greatest interest to all who care to rescue from oblivion the annals of an almost forgotten past. BURNLEY MARKET CROSS. The original Market cross of Burnley which has now found a resting place behind the Crimean Guns, stood as you are aware along with the stocks, in the open space opposite the gates of St. Peter's Church.* This cross is of considerable antiquity, as may be gathered from a statement of its re-erection, which occurs in an account roll of the 23rd year of Edward I. ‘‘ Et de ixs jd in i Cruce de novo faciendo et erigendo in Merkato de Brunley.” In 22 Edward I. [1293-4] Henry de Lacey, Earl of Lincoln, obtained a charter for a market every Tuesday, at his Manor of Burnley, as also a fair yearly, on the eve-day and morrow of the feast of the Apostles Peter and Paul. We are carried back by this statement to the end of the 13th century. We have no re- cords of remarkable incidents which have taken place at this cross, but some few years ago a curious transaction was carried out here. A woman rejoicing in the soubriquet of ‘‘ Padiham Mall” was sold here by her husband. As we were informed a few weeks ago the highest bid was but 8d. This kind of thing was apparently rather common a few years back, for we read of a similar sale at the Colne market cross at the fair of 1814. In this case however the bidding was more spirited, as the good lady fetched some few pounds. In 1520, what is known as the Foldys Cross was erected, and this was subsequently used as the Market Cross. It occupied a position now taken up by the path to the south door of the *A Photograph of this cross taken previous to its removal has been published by the Club. 96 Parish Church. It bore the incription, ‘Orate pro anima Johannis Foldys, capellani qui istam crucem fieri fecit, Anno Domini MCCCCCXX.” It may cause some little surprise to find an ecclesiastic erecting a market cross, but a quotation from Thoresby’s ‘‘ Ducatus Leodiensis’’ will throw some light upon this point. In speaking of the village of Kepstorn, he says, ‘This place also belonged to the said abbey (Kirkstall). The derivation of the word points to the fact that it is ‘‘ vendendi locus,” and that such not only belonged to religious houses but were often celebrated in the very churchyards is notoriously known, and in many places (par- ticularly at Burnley in Lancashire) I have seen crosses yet standing in the churchyards with as many steps round for the convenience of the sellers of provisions as any modern market places.” At Blackburn we find a somewhat similar instance, for we are told that John Paslew, Abbot of Whalley in 1535, re- erected the market cross of that town, which bore the following inscription, ‘‘ Fac me cruce custodire congerei gratia, quando corpus morietur, fac ut anime donetur Paradisi gloria.”* Ifit be remembered that the churchyard was not enclosed until 1754, and the above facts are borne in mind, the apparent anomaly will become less remarkable. The octagonal base and the head (placed upon a rough stone shaft) now stand upon the lawn behind Towneley Hall, whither they were removed in 1789. The cross previous to its removal to Towneley had _ been much maltreated. ‘It was destroyed,” says Dr. Whitaker, “by a drunken rabble, hired for the purpose a few years ago, (this was written in 1801,) the last instance probably of Puritanical fury, for. such it was, which has been directed against the ornaments of an English Church.” ‘But this,” says Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, in his history of the Parish Church of Burnley, “requires a little modification. The pillar itself had been considerably defaced by the wanton damage com- mitted by the crowds who daily congregated on the steps pre- viously to the enclosure of the yard, and its final destruction is reported upon trustworthy evidence, to have been accomplished by a drunken barbarian who, for a certain wager agreed, as a proof of courage, to level it to the ground.” Under whatever circumstances the mutilation of this cross may have taken place, it is very desirable that it should be restored, not only to its original position in the churchyard, but also to that dignity of form which led to its being characterized as ‘stately,’ ‘tall, and shapely,’ by persons who had the privilege of seeing it in all its former beauty. Dr. Kerr informs me that Habergham-Haves had also its market or “‘ butter” cross, and this cross stood in a field, still known as Cross Field, a few hundred yards to the rear of the Bull and * So printed in the paper from which I have taken it. 97 Butcher Inn. A large square block of stone, with the square sinking into which the shaft was inserted, still remains in a prominent position at the place named. COLNE MARKET CROSS. This cross formerly stood in the main street of Colne, between Windy Bank and Colne Lane, from which position it was removed on the 25th of November, 1822, being considered an obstruction. It was composed of the usual steps upon which: were a base and long octagonal pillar or shaft, perhaps 3 yards high, surmounted by a corona or crown. This corona was also octagonal with an embattled top, ornamented with flowers, and four initial letters carved in the stone. Two of the letters were T and R., the third was illegible, and the fourth broken. Portions of the remains may still be seen about the church. A curious instance of the use to which a cross may be putas a place of meeting, will be found in the following notice issued by the incumbent of Colne, on the first visit of John Wesley to that town in 1748 :—“ Notice is hereby given that if any man be mindful to enlist in his Majesty’s service under the command of the Rey. Mr. George White, Commander in Chief, and John Bannister, Lieutenant General of his Majesty’s forces for the defence of the Church of England, and the support of the manu- factory of Colne, both of which are now in danger, let him re- pair to the drumhead at the cross, where each man shall have a pint of ale in advance, and all other proper encouragement.” In former times it was one of the duties of the Wardens of Colne Church to exercise a supervision of the butter sold at the Market cross, and if any unfair dealing was discovered, the goods of the delinquent which were found to be under weight were distributed amongst the poor. It was also not unusual for a prisoner to be whipped at the cross at the termination of his imprisonment at_ Preston. I am indebted for the foregoing remarks upon the Colne cross to Mr. James Carr’s ‘‘ Annals of Colne.” WAYSIDE CROSSES. We have next to consider the Wayside cross, of which there were numerous specimens at one time to be seen, but few of- which have escaped the Vandalism which has been so rife within the last century. In one of the earliest English printed books, from the press of the father of English ‘Typography, Wynken de Worde, being a work entitled, “ Dives et: Pauper,” printed at~ Westminster in 1496, the purpose of the roadside cross of the period is defined thus :—<‘ For this reason ben ye crosses by ye way, that when folk passynge see the crosses, they sholde thynke on Hym that deyed on the crosse, and worshyppe Hym above all things.” Mr. Abram in a valuable paper written some ten years ago on the subject of the. crosses of the Blackburu Hun- 98 dred, from which I have received much assistance, says, referring to the above paragraph: “This devotional motive was, however, combined with objects of practical utility, of which perhaps the chief was this, that the steps of the pedes- tals of these wayside crosses afforded a befitting resting place for the bier of the dead, and for the bearers of it, as they laboriously bore the corpse to some distant burial place, in an age when churchyards were many miles apart, when roads were all but impassable in the winter season, and when hearses and other vehicles for the conveyance of the dead had not come into vogue. Among those of our fellow countrymen who adhere to the Roman Catholic communion the traditional use of these crosses is preserved, and we are informed that funeral processions of members of that church are invariably halted before the ruins of the ancient wayside cross, to which the mourners kneel or make reverence.” ‘This custom of praying at the wayside cross is alluded to by Shakespeare in the Merchant of Venice, Act V. Sc. L— “ Stephano is my name and I bring word My mistress will before the break of day Be here at Belmont; she doth stray about By holy crosses, where she kneels and prays For happy wedlock hours.” The most remarkable series of crosses belonging to this class were those erected by Edward I., and generally known as the ‘Eleanor Crosses.”’ Queen Eleanor died at Hardby, in Nottinghamshire, and her remains were conveyed to London, twelve days being occupied in the transit, and at each place where the body rested for a night, the King who accompanied the cortege, caused a memorial cross to be built. These crosses were very elaborate in character, and were amongst the finest architectural structures of the period. Of the twelve originally built but three now remain, namely, those at Geddington, North- ampton, and Waltham. - Tartor’s Cross.—The first local example of the wayside cross we shall notice is generally known and is marked upon the 6-inch Ordnance Map as ‘‘Tailor’s Cross.’’ Many are the tra- ditions which have been handed down regarding this cross, and there is some difficulty in coming to a satisfactory conclusion as to the ‘“*why and wherefore” of its existence. There is a tradition mentioned in the ‘‘ Annals of Colne,” ‘“‘ That Cromwell’s army being in the neighbourhood, and extremely short of clothiers, made a raid upon and captured all the tailors they could find, Amongst the captured was a Royalist, who vowed he would never soil his fingers by making clothes for the rebels; so the rough soldiers without more ado shot the obstinate and loyal- hearted: tailor, at a spot about two hundred yards from Kirk 99 bridge, and placed over his remains a rude stone with scissors carved upon it, as a warning to his brother “snips.” The markings upon the stone, as will be seen in the illustration, bear some faint resemblance to a pair of scissors, but not sufficient to lead us to give full credence to this story. ‘Tailors’ Cross” has been supposed by some to be a corruption of ‘‘ Templar’s Cross,” but we are afraid that none of these theories are more worthy of acceptance than is the suggestion of a farmer who lived near the spot, that ‘it might a bin a sun-dial.’’ What the real object of its erection has been, we are at a loss to say, and must be con- tent for the present to place it amongst the class of wayside crosses. It stands on the roadside near Colne, in a little meadow on the eastern side of the Foulridge reservoir. A cross very similar in character exists in the parish of St. Buryan’s in Cornwall. THE EMMOTT cRoss.—In the grounds of Emmott Hall just within the boundary wall, there stands a cross with tall octagonal shaft, crowned with a cap of the same shape, upon four sides of which are certain letters half obliterated, but sup- posed by Dr. Whitaker to have been the monogram IHS. and the omega. In his paper on the residence, ‘“ giving to the cross its name,’ Mr. Strange thus speaks of this “mysterious relic,” :—‘‘ Among a copse of trees skirting the road to Wycollar, it stands there still, growing green with age,and unnoticed by those who in the quiet humdrum of Lancashire pastoral experience trudge by indifferently, as they pursue their daily round of bucolic life and labour. To my thinking it is a wayside cross, and perchance in days gone by it was used in that capacity, the sight of it affording comfort and consolation to the weary, footsore pilgrim, who had to face the dangerous bleak escarpment of the Boulsworth range, on his way to the smiling valleys of Yorkshire and the south.” COMBE HILL cross.—About a mile and a half from Wycollar on the road to Howarth, just before arriving at the new Keighley reser- voir, may be seen the base stone and what may possibly have been part of the upright shaft of Combe HillorCam Hilleross. This was no doubta wayside cross, but beyond that it appears to have another useful office to fill. In my opinion this and other crosses such as Widdop, Reaps, Duke’s cross, &c., have served in the capacity of guideposts to the traveller, (overtaken in a mist, or by the swiftly lowering shades of night), who might be traversing these lonely roads, which a century ago must have been indeed difficult. to trace. ‘ This opinion was confirmed by a conversation I had with an old man who was mending the roads in the vicinity of Nogworth cross. Amongst other things, when asked if he had heard what was the object of these crosses, he said that “« Joonas Lee said as they were put up 250 yer sin, for guideposts for’t pack 100 horses, between Halifax and Brunshaw,” adding as if to give more weight to the authority, he had quoted: ‘‘An he wur a farlarned chap wur Joonas,—he wur a preycher.” The crosses referred to are all placed in a prominent position, upon rising ground, the intention being, I presume, that they might be the more clearly outlined against the horizon, and answer the same purposes as the cairns which are placed at the summit of the passes in the mountainous districts of Westmore- land and Cumberland. Still further light is thrown upon this point by a passage in the diary of Ralph Thoresby, the antiquary: in the autumn of 1702, he visited his friends Charles and Richard Towneley, of Towneley. He writes Sep. 1.—-‘* We rode about 5 miles over the hills in Keighley parish till we entered Lan- cashire. Upon the height of the mountain stands Camil cross, which we left upon the right designing for Burnley ; but after we had left the lime kilns below, and ascended a steep and danger- ous precipice, the road dwindled away upon a huge boggy mountain, where we wandered in sight of a distant house to which we could find no road. At length through the enclosures having come at one, we were surprised to find that tho’ a large house and substantial people, (bringing usa large silver tankard of ale), yet had no horse road to the market town: but pulling down part of a dry wall, we passed through his, and his neighbour's grounds till we recovered a blind lane, and rode through a con- tinued thicket, several times passing a beck, till at length we met amore open road.’ This description of the state of the roads around Wycollar Hall, for such, doubtless was the ‘ large house’ referred to, would certainly indicate that some guide was re- quired to enable the strauger to thread his way across these desolate wilds. ‘This want would be met to a certain extent by the crosses referred to. Wipvor Cross stood upon the rising ground just on the Lancashire side of the county boundary, on the road through the Thursden valley to Hebden Bridge; and Thursden cross stood near the old inn, now pulled down, which was situated on the same road. Both these have fallen a prey to the repairer of highways. The Widdop cross lay for some years by the roadside after having been rescued from the degrading office of covering a drain on the roadside, by Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson, to whom I am indebted for many valuable notes upon the antiquities of this district, with which he is thoroughly acquainted. The base stone of-Nogworth cross may still be seen in a lane near the public house at Rogerham gate. The socket hole is underneath, the stone having been turned over to make room for the carts to pass to the Monk Hall Quarries. This cross is supposed to have been erected by the Abbot of Kirkstall, 101 who sometimes visited Monk Hall, as that house belonged to the Monastery. THE CROSSES ON THE LONG CAUSEWAY. Along the line of the Roman road running from Mereclough towards Hebden Bridge, (which is generally spoken of as the Long Causeway), there are marked upon the 6-inch Ordnance map, the sites of no less than five crosses, Stump cross, Robin cross, Maiden cross, Duke’s cross, and Stiperden cross. How the rough unhewn blocks of grit which correspond in some cases with the names just mentioned, came to receive the title of crosses is diffi- cult to account for, for they neither bear upon their surface an inscribed cross nor are they cruciform in outline. Srumpe Cross stands just above Mereclough, near to the entrance of the field which was supposed to contain pre-historic mounds and which was visited by the club some few years ago. A little further on in a hollow, and at the meeting of two other roads with the Long Causeway, we find the site of Robin cross. The stone has long ago disappeared. Mawen Cross is about a mile south-east of this point, being built into the boundary wall a little beyond the entrance to the colliery. As in the case of Stump cross this is a plain slab of millstone grit, but connected with it is a legend which gives it some interest. For this tradition I am indebted to Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson. Hehad it from his grandfather who was born in 1766, who had it from his grandfather who lived shortly after the affair took place. I give it in his own words :— ‘During the time of the great rebellion this was the tryst- ing-place of a young shepherd with his lady love. Often did they meet to pledge their simple vows at this lonely place, until one day a messenger came from Towneley to collect as many young men as he could get to swell the ranks of Rupert when he passed through this part to join the Royal forces at York, a march which ended with the disastrous fight at Marston Moor, on whose bloody sod lay stretched the chivalrous Towneley, and a many of his followers, including this young man, the victims of a tyrannical and ambitious king. For many a long year after this tragical event the poor demented maiden would repair to this hallowed spot, repeating with a sorrowful voice his promise to return.” We next come to Duxr’s Cross.—The name is a little curious, and it may be that it has some connection with the fact, that as Dr. Whitaker says, ‘“‘ This bleak and comfortless road was the line which the Lacies and Plantagenets were condemned to pursue in their progresses from Pontefract to Clitheroe and Lancaster.” 102 SrrperDEN Cross is marked upon the 6-inch Ordnance map, at the corner where the new road turns off towards the toll gate ; this cross has disappeared. About a mile south east of the cross last mentioned, with- in a few yards of one of the bye roads, there stands a cross of which a sketch is given, which is generally known as Stiperden or Mount cross. Nothing is known of its history, and beyond placing it in the general class of wayside crosses, I am unable to elucidate the object of its erection. Standing lonely upon Heptonstall Moor is Rears Cross. The arms have been broken away, giving it an appearance which may have suggested its local appellation ‘‘The Long Stoop.” Sufficient however remains to show what the cross was originally, and in the drawing are the arms indicated. All that I could learn from the ‘intelligent natives” was to the effect that it answered the purpose of a guide post to Rastric Greave, a farm house, quite out of the ordinary track, nestling amongst the valleys to the east of Black Hambledon. Wiswett Cross.—No trace of the original cross now remains. The base stone, into which has been inserted a modern cross of a plain Latin type, stands near the entrance to Wiswell Hall, the seat of the Paslews, and it is possible that this cross may have some connection with John Paslew, the last Abbot of Whalley, though nothing on this point is definitely known. The survey of the crosses within the district proposed at the commencement of this paper is now completed. In but few cases can we arrive at really satisfactory conclusions as to their history, many of them being so enveloped in the mystery of un- certain tradition as to render their extrication almost impossible. But still no one who has not taken up the study of some kindred subject can have any idea what interesting facts can be obtained from sources apparently the most unpromising. From such sources day by day additional facts will be accumulated, throw- ing light upon many points previously involved in doubt and uncertainty, and the present paper can, at the best, be looked upon only as a compilation of the facts and opinions on the subject which are at present available. Further study would without doubt modify many of the views here expressed, and it is with the hope that they will be thus regarded that I bring them forward. Not that there is any desire to avoid criticism but rather to invite it, to the end that the truth upon these matters may if possible be reached. If by this imperfect attempt to elucidate the history of our local examples of crosses. an additional interest be given to these remains, and I should, in however small a degree, be the means of leading others to a study of them, I shall feel that the paper has not been written in vain. No more interesting 108 subject could be found, connected as it is so closely with the introduction and progress of Christianity in this kingdom. These hoary monuments that round us stand Uprear their heads, as if to teach the men Of later times, that e’en as through the past Their faith in one great Omnipresent God And one great Sacrifice, has shaped the lives And destinies of men—so shall that faith, Through ages yet to come, lead on to light Till earth and things of earth have ceased to be. pee ie ey Ee OL —————_—>—_— List OF OFFICERS ...000.0scecce cesses Ricievotrclcialtie: ahccevetstaisieierere INTRODUCTORY REPORT .......+0.. hate Muisvatderrete’s orders palelecs ‘anc ARTES) Weteete weiietnebdetersicisivle|«e/a\elaa/urnlal ciate c\/s's)6 SOG OOREORNN COOL List oF Orricers, Past AND PRESENT ....0;sccceeeeceeucees List oF Honorary MrempBers, Past AND PRESENT ......+..005 List or OrpinARY Mempers, Past AND PRESENT ........00-- List or Mretines.—1874 To 1883. ...,..-.cccsscerssccececs List or ConVERSAZIONES.—1874 To 1883. ....... nap apare ie) eimelore List or Excurstons.—1874 ro 1883. ......... cate Mrs routers SECTIONAL EXCURSIONS .....0ccccecce sseaees Dialeatenia aes Sauate PHTLOLOGICAT: MSECLION «c-e:cq.0.0:0 0.0 06 oilers, % rs0%0 SAnbeodwcor cee ING COUNTS ay:p. ove os ecaielalero sels cvalei='e eiiecele ei arate «ive leiviie!s:ayele|ciinve sien WGTHEGABN Dc caialeielevelenejsters stars ieyaieter d=) otars ens Nersrae eraysiensate sieniete aee PapERs :— On Tue Lancasutre Dranect: more especially as relating to the Blackburn Hundred* ......c0.seeee cece cecene (by T, T. Wilkinson, F.R.A.S.) Tur Risk AND PRoGRESS OF BURNLEY ........ 0200005 : (by Joshua Rawlinson.) LaNcASHIRE IN Fiction, (A Synopsis oF PaPER)...... sales (by J. H. Nodal.) Excursion To Roman Remains IN MaArspEN, BRIERCLIFFE AND HIRT WISIN asileneisisin tei0/9) see ce mlelweiihiers «i vise nih ieieere (Director, L. Clement.) Sources oF OrictnaAL Marertats For A Hisrory oF TBSP ADS 4.5, 570,30 COGENE ONC OAUSBOOOROIOCSET ats : (by W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S.) Tur CROSSES IN AND AROUND BURNLEY ...........20008 (by J. Arthur Waddington.) * Read February 10th, 1874. Re [é) 3 Ze) ON OF PAGE. 78 82 HOO} catiele as OG eh Trent 7 J yea ety IPs a] ia) Pia} BURNLEY RICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. ee th eon |. > BURGHOPE, & STRANGE, -- ? JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY, — el MDCCCLXXXV. ry a 5 DEG 21 BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. VOLE. HH. 1884. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXV. Burnley Literary and Scientific Club. ESTABLISHED 18738. ns President: HENRY HOULDING. Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumwetu, M.D., J.P. J. W. Awnnineson, L.R.C.P. J. Lanerrmetp Warp, M.A. Frep. J. Grant. W. A. Wanvineron. ALFRED STRANGE. Treasurer :—JAS. KAY, J.P. Committee: James LANCASTER. H. Buucocx. B. Sacar. PP. Be Bias. W. H. Coxsran. J. ArtHuR WADDINGTON. Secretary: W. LEWIS GRANT, 12, Grimshawe Street, Burnley. wane ali | MOSeUN 5 ‘DEC. 21 NA au AL, HIST sree Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule RULES. That the Society be named the ‘‘ Burntey Literary AND Screntiric Cuvs.” That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrange- menis be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary members. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be prepara- tory to the Excursions. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings of each meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting. Candidates for membership to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next; a majority of three-fourths of the members present being required to secure the election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club ; four to form a quorum. Such officers to be chosen by Ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. Rule 8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rule 11. Rule 12. Rule 13. 6 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discus- sion. No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the Chairman. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Secretary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of management. Each member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend,* but no person so introduced, shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings, unless invited by the Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare any meeting “‘Special”’ and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meeting as they shall think proper. That an annual Subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary members, and any person whose subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be a mem- ber of the Club. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Committee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a Special Meeting; in both cases a fortnight’s Notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. * No gentleman residing within the parliamentary borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission. INTRODUCTORY REPORT. In fulfilment of the purpose expressed in the Introductory Report of the Volume of Transactions issued last year, the Committee now present to the members, Transactions—Volume II., which contains a record of the Club’s proceedings during the year 1884. Seeing that notice of ten years’ work was comprised in Volume I., the matter and arrangement were exceptional, as more than half of the book was of necessity occupied by mere schedules of names of members and events. Volume II. may be considered as presenting the normal form, and that in which succeeding issues will appear. In this book will be found reports of all the papers read and excursions made during the year, and in accordance with an intimation conveyed in the first publication that digests of papers read in previous years, might appear in subsequent volumes, there is _ added an account of the papers on the Towneley Manuscripts purchased by the Club, read December 4th, 1883. During the year the Club has lost 3 members by death and 26 by removal from the town, or resignation ; but there has been an accession of 29 members, thereby maintaining the number of the previous year, namely 210. The average attendance at the ordinary meetings during the year has been 34 members, 13 friends, or a total of 47, which is the highest average for the five years during which statistics of attendance have been kept. In the years 1880 and 1881 the average attendances were 40 (34 and 6) and 39 (32 and 7) 8 respectively. The number of members is now about 60 or 70 less than in those years, but it is gratifying to observe that this contraction of the membership list has not been accompanied by a reduction in the attendance. Considered in relation to the dimensions of the Society, the attendance, cannot yet, however, be regarded as satisfactory. On several occasions the audience has not been com- mensurate with the importance of the subject intro- duced. It is hoped that more of the members, actuated by a deep concern for the welfare of the Club, will endeavour to be present at the weekly meetings, and so contribute to a further augmentation of the figures of attendance. Reference must here be made to the Excursions organized for the summer months. The Committee cannot speak in congratulatory language upon the support accorded to this portion of the year’s pro- gramme, for, of the three General Excursions decided upon, the principal one, namely, that to Richmond and Wensleydale, had to be abandoned on account of the few names sent in; whilst only 14 attended the visit to Preston and Penwortham, and 10 the excursion to York and Selby. Of the four Sectional Excursions for which arrangements were made, one was given up, and seven, seven, and ten were the numbers of the respective parties in the other three cases. It is to be regretted that the facilities offered both in respect of the General and Sectional Excursions have not been more widely made use of, and the unfavourable nature of the results, in comparison with those fur- nished by previous years, will compel a careful consideration of plans for future work. In consequence of removal from the town, Dr. Monckman has been obliged to sever his active con- nection with the Club. During the seven years of his association with the society Dr. Monckman rendered valuable service. For nearly the whole of this period ; = ; 9 he held office, and his solicitude for the prosperity of the Club was manifested by frequent contributions in various branches of science, and willing assistance in the conduct of Excursions. Recognizing his kindly and diverse labours, the members, on the recommenda- tion of the Committee unanimously elected him an Honorary Member. The year has been marked by an important event which demands some allusion here. To celebrate the tenth anniversary of the formation of the Club, a Dinner was held in the Mechanics’ Institution in January. It was somewhat remarkable that the number of those present was exactly the same as on the occasion of the Inaugural Dinner held in January, 1874. The speakers rejoiced in the success which had accompanied the Society throughout its career, and referred in sanguine terms to the prospects shadowed forth of future usefulness. An account of the proceedings will be found in the pages of this volume. Another occasion of a gratifying nature must also recelve notice in this Report. The Autumnal Session was inaugurated hy an address from Mr. George Milner, President of the Manchester Literary Club, on “The Relation of Literature to Painting.” Your Committee are glad to present the members with a lengthy report of this Address, which was so profound in its treatment of the subject, poetical in its language, and effective in its delivery. Allusion was made in the last Report to the absence of a Conversazioné from the programme for 1883, and the probable omission of a similar event in 1884. The members will recollect the great expense attending these events, an expense for which the small annual subscription of members was inadequate to provide. Though it will be generally admitted that the Conversazioné played an appropriate part in the work of the Club, yet justification of its 10 continued abandonment will be found not only in the plea of cost, but in the fact that the members now receive annually the printed Transactions of the Society. Your Committee feel assured of their approval of the policy which substitutes the furnishing of a systematic record of proceedings, thereby securing definiteness and permanency for the work of the Club. Your Committee also wish to signify their appre- ciation of the kindness of the Corporation in permitting the use of the Council Chamber for the meetings of the members during so long a period. The room is well suited for the purpose, and the possession of it has undoubtedly conduced to the pleasant and prosperous working of the Society. In conclusion, your Committee trust that the close of the year 1885 may find the interest in the Club not only maintained but deepened, so that its prosperity may afford an agreeable retrospect and serve as an indication of its public usefulness. — Ee Jan. 11 SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1884. 8—Paper, ‘“‘A Few Tests of National Progress ’—Sir Ughtred J. Kay-Shuttleworth, Bart. 15—Paper, ‘‘ Notes on Southern California’’—W. E. Kay. 22—Paper, ‘‘ Kashmir, the Highway of Central Asia”—Rey. J. S. Doxey. 29—Dinner, Mechanics’ Institution. 30—Dance, do. do. 5—Paper, ‘‘ Mountaineering in Norway,’ — W. Cecil Slingsby. 12—Paper, “The Frogs of Aristophanes,” J. Langfield Ward, M.A. 19—Paper, ‘‘ State of England in Past Geological Ages’’— J. Monckman, D.Sc. 26—Paper, ‘The Wild Animals of Great Britain” —Frank Nicholson. 4—Soirée, ‘‘ Lithography ”—James Grant. 11—Readings by Members—Director, W. Lewis Grant. 18—Paper, ‘“‘ A Modern Epic ””—Rey. A. H. Finn. 25—Discussion, ‘‘EKvolution’”—Introduced by H. Nutter. 1—Annual Meeting. 29—Dramatic Soirée, Mechanics’ Institution—Director, T. Midgley. SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER, 1884. 30—Address, ‘‘The Relation of Literature to Painting ”— Geo. Milner. ; 7—Paper, ‘“‘ Corals ’’—A. E. Tovey, D.Sc. 14—Paper, “Stray Notes on the Ancient and Modern History of East Lancashire” —Tattersall Wilkinson. 21—Paper, ‘“‘ Art Museums, considered as a Means of Education ’”—Rev. W. 8S. Caiger. 28—Paper, ‘‘ The Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb to Speak ’—S. Lawson, L.F.P.G. 4—Short Anonymous Contributions. 11—Paper, ‘‘ Hoghton Tower ’’—Rev. J. Shortt, M.A. 18—Paper, ‘‘ Dramatic Works of Bulwer Lytton”—R. T. Sutcliffe. 25—Discussion, ‘‘ The Development of Africa in its Rela- tion to British Commerce ’—Introduced by W. Lewis Grant. 2—Soirée, ‘‘ House Decoration ’’—T. Preston. 9—Paper, ‘“‘Canada, and the Montreal Meeting of the British Association ’’—J. Brown, M.A., M.D. 16—Musical Soiree—Director, F. Myers. JANUARY 29th, 1884. A Dinner, in commemoration of the tenth year of the » Club’s existence, was held in the Mechanics’ Institution on January 29th, at which sixty-two members sat down. In the absence of Mr. H. Houlding, Dr. Brumwell, J.P., presided, and was supported on the right and left by the Mayor (Alderman Baron, J.P.), and the Officers of the Club, the croupier chairs being occupied by Messrs. W. A. Waddington, and A. Strange. During the progress of the dinner, and between the subsequent speeches, selections on the pianoforte weze played by Mr. F. Myers, and Mr. G. B. Rawcliffe recited. After the loyal toasts had been proposed by the Chairman, Mr. F. J. Grant gave the toast “‘The Burnley Literary and Scientific Club.” What objects, he asked, were more worthy of attention than those of Science and Literature. Science increased their pleasures and diminished their sufferings. Literature gave them the best thoughts of the best men in all ages, and was a study which would please when ambition had ceased to charm, and enrich when fortune had refused to smile. To a large extent, the intentions of the founders of the Club had been carried ont. The Club had been productive of great good in bringing together men opposed in religion and politics, and providing opportunity for interchange of thought on subjects of general interest. The labours of the Club in the realm of science and literature were dwelt upon. History, philosophy, painting, music, the drama, and science in its many branches had found worthy interpreters amongst the members. Much attention had been given to the literature of Britain, a literature so rich in precious truth and precious fiction; a literature which had exercised an influence wider than that of our commerce, and mightier than that of our arms, and which was one of the brightest, purest, and most durable of all the glories of England. Mr. Grant then referred to the services of past officers, and said that for Mr. Houlding, their President, they wished a long and mellow eyentide that the night should linger to disturb. In concluding a speech which abounded in metaphor and graceful quotation, Mr. Grant spoke with confidence of the future of the Club, and he exhorted those who had not taken any part in the proceedings of the Club to quit the enervating atmosphere of idleness for the purer air and brighter skies of art, literature, science, and philosophy. 13 In responding to the toast, Dr. Brumwell, J.P., referred to the gratifying success the Club had achieved, and said that in a great measure this was due to the unwearied exertions of their first Secretary (Mr. W. A. Waddington), and to the sage counsel and practical help of Dr. Coultate, and Aldermen Wilkinson and Robinson. In touching upon the future of the Club, he said that they would have to take into consideration whether it would not be desirable to establish premises, so that the Club might have a.“ local habitation,” as well as a name. Mr. Henry Nutter here sang an original song dealing with _ the Syllabus and Officers of the Club. Mr. Joshua Rawlinson, in proposing the ‘‘ Town and Trade of Burnley,” gave many interesting facts concerning the history and progress of the town. Amongst other things, he pointed out that Burnley had during the present century never failed to double its population every twenty-five years, and on two occasions at least had done so in twenty years. No other Lancashire town could present a record of progress comparable with that of Burnley and Oldham. He also stated the curious and instructive fact that of fifty-eight firms engaged in the cotton trade in 1854, only ten were at present in existence, and in only five cases was the same business being conducted by their successors on the same premises as in 1854. Of 103 firms now engaged in the trade, 93 were new since 1854. By these facts he showed how precarious and uncertain was the staple trade of the town. Other interesting statistics were given, and Mr. Rawlinson concluded by hoping that the peculiar _ advantages the town possessed would be utilized, and that the _ town would continue to grow in numbers, wealth, and prosperity. ; The Mayor, in responding to the sentiment, deprecated _ taking too gloomy a view of the present depressed condition of trade. During the thirty years he had been engaged in business he had frequently heard the wail that the country was going to ruin. When, however, the increased total value of imports and exports, the diminution of pauperism, and the increase in the business of the Post Office Savings Bank, were taken into consideration, they would find that the general prosperity steadily progressed. In proposing the health of the Officers of the Club, Dr. O'Sullivan complimented those gentlemen on the energy they had displayed, and expressed the gratitude of the members for tie efficient manner in which they had performed their duties. Mr. James Kay replied, and spoke of the energy dis- played by the Secretary (Dr. Mackenzie) and the fact that they were about to publish yearly a volume of ‘“ Transactions.” The officers desired to uphold the high character of the Society, and promote in every way its well-being. 14 The toast of ‘Literature’’ was proposed by Mr. J. L. Ward, M.A., who referred to the great services rendered to the cause of literature by Mr. H. Houlding and Mr. F. J. Grant. One great advantage of the study of literature was that it brought into pleasant friendship many persons who would otherwise be separated by the barrier of religious or political antagonism. To this toast Mr. B. Sagar responded. After commenting on the immense influence of the great writers in the making of England, he remarked that he was afraid many had lost all interest in anything which did not immediately tend to direct mercenary gain, and he would implore the members not to lose sight of the fact that there were many things in this world besides things measurably liquid or measurably solid. He welcomed as an incentive to higher literary work the publication of the Club’s proceedings, and said they were bound to feel honoured in having as their President a literary man whom-they all revered, and as including amongst their members one so eminent in the field of art-literature as Mr. Philip Gilbert Hamerton. Mr. Councillor P. E. Roberts next gave the toast of “Science,” and, in the course of his remarks, dwelt upon the teachings of science. Science, he maintained, was immutable, while art might alter its standard of excellence, and literature might change the tone of its morals. Dr. Monckman, in responding, claimed for theoretical scientists that they had accomplished great things, and rendered much aid in the advancement of trade and commerce. The toast of ‘* Art” was proposed by Mr. W. Lewis Grant. He protested against the unnatural wresting of art from its proper signification, and commented upon the distinet develop- ment in the various phases of art in this country of late years. In the application of art to industry, striking progress had been made; many influences unknown in former times were at work, giving an impetus to artistic progress. Their Club had done much to foster a love of the arts, and it must be remembered that in advancing the cause of true art they were engaged in useful work, for the arts added lustre to life, and softened, elevated, and ennobled the condition of man. To this toast Mr. W. A. Waddington replied. He believed that what was known as the esthetic movement had exerted a deteriorating influence upon true art progress, and in a succinct manner he pointed out what he considered were the essentials of true art. The claims of art upon the attention of the Club could not be too strongly urged. After a few complimentary toasts, the proceedings ter- minated. 15 A FEW TESTS OF NATIONAL PROGRESS. By SIR U. J. KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, Bart ; January 8th, 1884. The opening lecture of the Session of 1884 was delivered by Sir Ughtred Kay-Shuttleworth, who chose as his subject “A Few Tests of National Progress.” Dr. Brumwell, J.P., presided. After some complimentary remarks on the services the Literary and Scientific Club has rendered during the ten years of its existence, the lecturer proceeded as follows: ‘In seeking for a fitting subject with which to open the second decade of your existence, I had but little hesitation in deciding that no subject could be more appropriate than a comparison between the present and the past of our people, and that such comparison should be national rather than local in its scope, and should not be confined within too narrow limits, but should take account, as far as materials permit, of the last half- century or so of national progress. Plentiful as are the materials from which a writer on national and scientific progress can to-day draw his facts and statements, I feel myself in two respects somewhat strictly limited—1st, as to the dimensions within which a paper of this character before the present audience should be confined ; 2nd, I impose upon myself a very rigid rule as to the avoidance of topics and allusions of a party character, even where economical, and, therefore, to some extent, political questions have to be touched. To decide whether the views of the Pessimist or those of the Optimist on the condition of the English people were to be accepted, it would be necessary _to examine the facts and figures. At the head of the Commercial Department of the Board of Trade we have a very able public servant, Mr. Robert Giffen, who for many years has superintended the issue of the most valuable Government Statistics, including the Statistical Abstracts for the United Kingdom. As President of the Statistical Society for 1883, he has recently read an address on ‘The Progress of the Working Classes in the last Half-century,’ which—being a review of official statistics—is full of reliable facts throwing light on our present subject. His first subject of inquiry is a comparison of the earnings of the masses f the people fifty years ago and now; he considers, secondly, the prices then and now of the chief articles which they consume; ——_" 16 and, lastly, the question whether the working classes have gained, in proportion with other classes, by the development of material wealth during the last fifty years. Although data do not exist for comparing the aggregate earnings of the working classes to-day with those of fifty years ago, and although forms of work have changed, and the same names represent different sorts of work now, still it is possible to compare what appear to be the average wages of large groups of the working classes, and if the changes all prove to be in the same direction, or nearly so, then we may infer that probably the changes which absence of data alone prevents us from tracing are not in the opposite direction. From the ‘ Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom,’ and from Mr. Porter’s record of wages commenced at the Board of Trade about fifty years ago (see his work ‘ Progress of the Nation’) we see that wherever a comparison is possible there is an enormous appareit rise in money wages, ranging from 20-and in most cases from 50 to 100 per cent., and in three cases to more than 100 per cent. (the mean of the percentages of increase being 70 per cent.) The wages of carpenters have risen at Manchester 42 per cent.; at Glasgow, 85; bricklayers, 50 and 80; masons, 24 and 69; Staffordshire miners, 50; weavers at Bradford, 150; spinners (children) at Bradford, 160; and so on. Of seamen Mr. Giffen says that while there has been an improvement in their food and lodging, their money wages have increased by from 25 to 70 percent. As regards the agricultural labourers, the increase in their wages has been general in Great Britain and Ireland (see the reports of the recent Royal Agri- cultural Commission.) Sir James Caird, in his ‘ Landed Interest,’ estimated it at 60 per cent. within the last forty years. To these facts, as to the increase of workpeople’s money wages, must be added one word to notice the accompanying relief in the shortened hours for which they now labour. Mr. Giffen estimates the general shortening of the hcurs of labour at very nearly 20 per cent. In the textile, engineering, and house-building trades he says that the workman gets from 50 to 100 per cent. more money for 20 per cent. less time. I say ‘ less time,’ not less work, because in many cases, doubtless, as much, or nearly as much, work is done in the shorter as in the longer hours. Be that as it may, the shortened hours are a gain to the workman, which must not be overlooked in an estimate of progress. Mr. Giffen’s second point for consideration is the prices fifty years ago and now of the chief articles which the people consume. And he begins by showing that, though the value of gold was depreciated after the Australian and Cali- fornian gold discoveries, its appreciation during the last twenty years has made prices much what they were before that time ; so that the sovereign goes as far as it did forty or fifty years ago; aa * nix 17 while there are many things in the market at a low price which could not then have been bought at all. Does it follow that prices being equal, and wages 50 to 100 per cent. better, the working man’s means are really improved to that extent ? Certainly,—unless the prices of the special articles for which his money goes have not followed the average of prices, but have become higher. If, indeed, on the whole, the articles he buys cost less now than forty or fifty years ago, his position is even more than 50 to 100 per cent. better. And this Mr. Giffen proceeds to prove. He takes first wheat, the staff of life. Not only has the average price per quarter during the last year been 10s. lower than between 1837 and 1846 (48s. 9d. instead of 58s. 7d.), but before the repeal of the corn laws the extremes of price were so great that the price of bread fluctuated in a way which, to quote Mr. Giffen, ‘implied sheer starvation. Periodic starvation was, in fact, the condition of the masses of working men throughout the kingdom fifty years ago.’ In 18386 the price touched 36s.; on the other hand, in 1838, 1839, 1840, and and 1841, it touched 78s. 4d., 81s. 6d., 72s. 10d., and 76s. 1d., (double the price of the lowest year, and nearly double the average of the decade.) In 1847 it rose to 102s. 5d., or three times the lowest price of the period. (Still further back there were the following average prices for a whole year: For 1810, 106s, 5d.; for 1812, 126s. 6d.; for 1813, 109s. 9d.; for 1817, - 96s. 11d.) In the last twenty years, on the other hand, the highest prices touched have been 70s. 5d. in 1867, and 74s. 7d. in 1868. In the last ten years 70s. has not been touched, the nearest point being 68s. 9d. in 1877; and the highest average for any year was in 1873, viz., 58s. 8d. (only about 10s. above the average forthe whole ten years.) This steady low price has, of course, been ‘ an immense boon to the masses, and especially to the poorest.’ Mr. Giffen adds that the rise of wages would have enabled the people to contend better than formerly with fluctuations in the price of bread; but they have not had the fluctuations to contend with. Other articles are cheaper besides that which is of most importance, especially when wages are low, viz., bread. The present price of imported raw sugar 21s. 9d. per cwt., may be contrasted with a price (including duty) of 68s. 8d. in 1839-40. Cotton cloth, which cost 53d. per yard then, costs 34d. now. Meat, no doubt, has increased in price, but fifty years ago, it could not be afforded by working people, even at its lower price. ‘ They had little more concern with its price,’ remarks Mr. Giffen, ‘than with the price of diamonds.’ The price of the kind of meat within the reach of their means, viz., bacon, has not increased much. There remains the question of house rent. This may be a serious item of expendi- ture in large towns, and Mr. Giffen seems disposed to admit “¥8 that rent now may be in the ratio of five to two to what it was fifty years ago; but the houses are, as a rule, far better, and the higher house rent represents generally a very different and much better return for that item of expenditure. During the last forty years the share of the cost of government which falls upon the working man has been lightened. Yet for that lighter cost, for those lessened taxes, he obtains much more benefit. Much more of the Government is beneficial to him ; for instance, the Post Office vote, and sanitary, educational, and other local expenditure, both from taxes and rates. The question remains: Have these changes been followed by an actual improvement in the condition and wealth of the masses of the people? What about the birth and death rates? Myr. Humphreys has com- pared the death-rate from 1876 to 1880 with rates from 1838 to 1854, and the result is that the death-rate is so much reduced that the mean duration of life is longer by two years in the case of males, and by three and a half years in the case of women. Mr. Giffen’s next evidence of the actual improvement in the condition of the people consists of statistics, showing the enormous increase per head of the population of the imported articles which the masses consume. Another convincing evidence of progress is afforded by the increase of number of depositors in Savings Banks, from 420,000 in 1831 to 4,140,000 in 1881; the amount of deposits has increased from £13,719,000 to £80,334,000. The Industrial ‘and Provident Co-operative Societies give evidence to the same effect. The decline of pauperism is another link in the chain of evidence. MHalf-a-century ago, with half the population, the poor-relief burden was the same. The number of paupers in receipt of relief in 1849 in the United Kingdom was 1,676,000 ; in 1881 it was 1,015,000; England showmg a decrease of 181,000, Scotland 20,000, and Ireland 520,000. The average attendance at aided schools in 1851 was 271,000, in 1881 it was 8,273,000. Diminution in serious crime has accompanied the improved condition of education of the people. Respecting the temperance of the people, much less that is satisfactory can be reported. In certain classes fifty years have witnessed a complete and hopeful revolution in social opinion and habits as regards intemperance. But in the working classes there has been a close connection between high wages and excess in liquor. The tide seems at length, however, to be turning. The decreased consumption of spirits, wine, and beer since 1875-6 may be measured by the loss of more than five millions sterling to the revenue, a loss almost equal to 3d. in the pound of income tax (see Budget of Mr. Childers, 5th April, 1883.) We have thus established the following points :—1. The great gain in the last half-century in the earnings of the masses. 2. The favourable change, on the whole, in the prices of their 19 chief articles of consumption. 38. The greater benefits the State gives the working people in return for diminished taxes. 4. The actual improvement in the condition and wealth of the people as tested—(a) by the birth and death rates ; (b) by the vast increase in the number of articles needed by the people; (c) by their savings and investments; (d) by the decline of pauperism; (ec) by the spread of education ; (f) by the diminution in adult and juvenile crime. Mr. Giffen, in the address from which I have drawn so largely for statistics, elaborately discusses yet another point, on which I have not left myself time and space to give you more than his conclusions. ‘Have the working classes gained in proportion with others by the development of material wealth during the last fifty years?’ To this question, after examining the statistics of probates and of the income tax he replies that ‘‘the increase of working-class income in the ageregate is greater than that of any other class, being 160 per cent., while the return to capital and to what are called the capitalist classes . . . has only increased about 100 per cent., although capital itself had increased over 150 per cent. At the same time the capitalist classes themselves have greatly increased in number, so that the amount of capital possessed among them per head can hardly have increased at all. On the other hand, as the masses of the nation—taking the United Kingdom altogether—have only increased about 380 per cent. since 1843, when these income tax figures begin, while their ageregate incomes have increased 160 per cent., it is explained how these incomes have gained, individually, about 100 per cent., as against hardly any increase at all in the incomes of what are called the capitalist classes on the average. The lecturer passed on to refer to the strides of scientific discovery and invention during the last half-century, the revelation of the chemical composition of the sun, of nebule, and of many fixed stars, the investigation of the physical condition of the sun, the calculation of the velocity of light, photography, artificial light- ing, the electric telegraph, the electric light, the telephone, microphone, and phonograph, and the use of electricity as a motive power. Railways themselves are a work of the last fifty-three years. Steamboats—which first crossed the Atlantic in 1838—have developed from the paddle to the screw, and from the simple to the compound engine, while iron has replaced wood, and steel in its turn iron. Our British shipping not - only increases, but increases relatively to that of the rest of the world. Mechanical science has made other great strides, includ- ing the use of the hot blast in smelting, and of Siemens’ regenerative furnace, and Nasmyth’s steam “hammer, and Whit- worth’s fluid compression of steel. Subsoil drainage, the mowing Machine, and the steam plough, and other uses of the steam 20 engine have effected almost a revolution in agriculture. The evidences of progress— scientific, physical, material, and national —progress, above all, in the condition and welfare of the masses of our people are simply overwhelming. From the progress of knowledge, discovery, and invention, let us be taught this lesson : how little we know, and how much we have yet to learn. And let the progress of our nation and our people in the past be an incentive to us all to renewed efforts, that our progress may be continuous and enduring.” In the discussion that followed Mr. Nowell referred to the advances which the country had made in dealing with the cri- minal laws during the last fifty years—Mr. Rawlinson discussed the question whether the supposed decline of wages that had been going on in every trade since 1873 had been a real decline, or whether it was merely a readjustment, as he thought it was, to a very large extent, of the altered conditions of prices and of gold. As regards temperance, when the figures were placed before them they found that although there had been a consider- able increase in the consumption of intoxicating liquors, that did not at all prove that there had been an increase in drunkenness, for there had been at the same time a very great decrease in serious crimes.—Dr. Mackenzie spoke of the condi- tion of the agricultural labourers in Scotland, and Councillor Lancaster urged that one great factor in producing the advance- ment, the free trade policy, had been ignored.—Mr. F. Grant believed that the prosperity of England was not due so much to legislation as to the energy and determination of its people; if Government would let commerce pursue its own course unfettered, set itself to maintain peace, to encourage industry, to reduce the price of law, and to defend life and property, the people would do the rest.—Mr. Strange spoke of the removal of the taxes on knowledge and the development of the press, and gave as one test of progress the capacity to obtain credit. — Mr. John Whittaker (Nelson), Mr. J. Kay, Mr. Nutter, and Mr. A. Halstead also took part in the discussion.—Sir Ughtred Kay- Shuttleworth, in reply, chiefly dwelt upon the condition of the poor in the worst parts of London, and offered evidence that although that condition was not satisfactory, still it had been improved. With regard to statistics of crime, produced by friends of the temperance movement, dissection was needed, as all sorts of new offences were created, and prosecutions were instituted under Acts which had no representatives in the past. eS. 21 NOTES ON SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. By W. E. KAY, January 15th, 1884. In the regrettable absence through illness of the author, the paper was read by Mr. James Kay. The paper commenced by remarking that perhaps California was best known to-day in connection with its gold mining. Many people who were attracted during the great rushes in the year 1818, in time finding their occupation gone, had then to turn their attention to the cultivation of the soil. This had the effect of opening out the country, and now that its capabilities for the production of grain and fruits was being better known, numbers of settlers were leaving the Prairie States where the terrible tornadoes and blasting winter storms formed such a contrast to the genial climate of Southern California. Santa Barbara, 300 miles south of San Francisco, was the most favoured as a winter resort. It was on the sea-coast, and was sheltered from the north and east by the Sierra Madre mountains. It had some capital hotels, good stores, beautiful walks and drives, interesting old ruins, and the most lovely country and coast scenery to be found anywhere. It was easily reached by boat from either San Pedro or San Francisco, or by coach from Newhall, the nearest station on the Southern Pacific Railroad. Allusion was made to the walnut orchards, and the rapidity of growth of some trees. A blue gum tree (Eucalyptus Globulus) of only six years’ growth had been cut down in Mr. Kay’s presence and found to be 60 feet long and 18 inches in diameter. Great strides had been made in the careful and scientific culture of fruits. Observations on olive, lemon, and lime cultivation, and the manufacture of olive oil, were made; and Mr. Kay depicted the beautiful sight afforded by orange groves when the round, shapely, and dark foliaged trees were covered with a profusion of bright yellow oranges. Some trees would produce 2,000 oranges annually. The vine flourished well in Southern California. In the lovely valley of Montecito, a few miles from Santa Barbara, there was still to be seen one of the oldest grape vines in the State. There was a pretty legend in connection with it. It was said that the slip from which this now immense vine had grown was given to a young Spanish girl by her lover when she was leaving sunny Spain for this distant land. Her first care was to plant this token of love, and, so the legend runs, she watered it with her tears. A portion of the stem of this vine was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition held at Philadelphia in 1878. Pumpkins of enormous dimensions were sometimes grown. Within one which was exhibited at a fair at Santa Barbara, and which had 22 been hollowed out, were nestled the two infant children of the exhibitor. The pepper tree was beautiful in its foliage, flowers, and fruit, and afforded grateful shade. Touching upon the climate, Mr. Kay remarked that during the five months of his stay at various places in Southern California they had five days with some rain, six days on which rain fell almost continuously, and perhaps four days when there was some fog, which cleared at mid-day. On two days there was a hot, unpleasant desert wind. As for the rest of the time, the sun shone from a cloudless sky, the heat being tempered by a pleasant sea-breeze, making the air most delightful. California may be reached by several routes, the season of the year determining which to adopt. The distance from New York to Santa Barbara is about 3,500 miles, and the cost of a railway ticket, including sleeping berth, drawing room, and meals, is 200 to 220 dollars. The time occupied on the trip is seven to eight days. KASHMIR, the Highway of Central Asia. by REV. J. 8. DOXEY, January 22nd, 1884. A hearty welcome was accorded Mr. Doxey, inasmuch as in the earlier days of the Club he had afforded great assistance to it, and also on account of his return from his missionary labours in North India, In introducing the subject, Mr. Doxey dwelt upon the magnitude and vital importance of our Indian Empire, commenting upon the widespread ignorance which exists in this country in relation to India, its people, wants, and resources. He then turned his attention to the trade of the country of Kashmir, and pointed out the natural features of the country and its situation in relation to the provinces in Central Asia and their great trading centres. Of the Vale of Kashmir, Moore, in his celebrated poem, ‘‘ Lalla Rookh,”’ had referred to it as a spot of unsurpassing loveliness. It was surprising that though the poet had never visited Kashmir his description was remarkably accurate. The Persians said of this lovely valley, ‘‘ Kashmir without an equal, Kashmir equal to Paradise.”” It was hemmed in by the gigantic peaks of the Himalaya range, towering up 25,000 feet in height, and the vale might be likened to a gem set amidst barren grandeur. ‘The routes to Kashmir from Central Asia were then described. Hach of them presented many difficulties, and to an invading army would offer most serious obstacles. He described the difficulties which would attend the progress of, say, a Russian army in proposing to invade India through Kashmir. The roads reaching Kashmir from India were much better, and one of these was open all the year round, 3 23 the others crossing the passes at considerable elevation, and only being traversed during the summer months. The history and political relations of the country were next described, Mr. Doxey expressing regret that Kashmir was not an integral part of the Queen’s dominions. The Maharajah was, to a large extent, independent of the British Government, but in matters of trade had opened negotiations with us to a good purpose. The people were much crushed down by oppression and taxes, and though the Kashmirs were a fine race of men physically, yet they were mean and cowardly, the result probably of their having been in a sort of abject slavery for so many ages. It had been said that never had nature in such beauty looked upon men in such misery. The customs and dress of the people were pourtrayed, and matters relating to their religion and occupation were dwelt upon, and sundry anecdotes were related illustrating the different points in the paper. MOUNTAINEERING IN NORWAY. By W. CECIL SLINGSBY, February 5th, 1884. Mr. Slingsby introduced his subject by a reference to the character of Norwegian scenery, the comparative neglect of the mountains, the lack of efficient guides, and the false opinion that prevails among the tourists who have visited the country that there are no peaks there such as the Swiss mountains present, ‘As my name has,” said he, “ been perhaps more associated with Skagastélstind than with any other mountain in Norway, I will give you a brief outline of its history and its first ascent. This mountain, for very many years, was looked upon as being the culminating point of Scandinavia, and, indeed, of Northern Europe, and was shown to me as such. Recently, Galdhoéppigen, and two or three other peaks, have been found to be a trifle higher, though not nearly so fine mountains. Skagastélstind is the highest and the sharpest of a group of glorious aiguilles which form the Horungtinder range, near the head of the Sogne Fjord.” After detailing his previous reconnaissances and approaches to the mountain, Mr. Slingsby proceeded to the account of the ascent. ** On the evening of July 20th, 1876, my friend, Herr Mohn, who is a most enthusiastic mountaineer, a reindeer hunter called Knut Lykken, in some respects a first-rate man, and I, reached the seter or summer cheese-making farm of Vormelid, at the bottom of the Utla gorge. We had done some good work that day, and had made the first ascent of a very fine mountain, upon 24 which Mohn, had set his heart’s affections years before. It was our fourth maiden peak in five days’ time. My great day was to come on the next, or not at all, as Knut, whom we looked upon as being quite essential in order to be successful, could only give us one day more of his services, and as we apprehended some very heavy work on the glacier, a third man really would be necessary. After brewing chocolate, and making a good meal of seeter produce, we drew nearer to the fire, in the wooden shoes which we had borrowed, then threw on some more birch logs, hung up our wet things to dry, and were as happy as bees in honeysuckle. I tried to impress upon my comrades the truth of the old proverb, ‘‘ Karly to bed, early to rise,’ but it was of no avail, they were too comfortable. Yet another log on the fire to dry the stockings (dry already), yet another song, yet another pipe, and, hang it all, yet another glass of toddy, and late to bed was the order. As the ascent of Skagastélstind was made from Vormelid, I must say, in passing—though time is pressing— something about its surroundings. The gorge of the Utla, which I have already mentioned, affords during a course of twenty-five miles, some of the wildest scenery of its kind in Norway. It joins an arm of the great Sogne Fjord at Aardal. Its great individuality arises from its narrowness and depth. The pre- cipices rise on each side nearly perpendicularly from the river, in many places to a height varying from 1,200 to nearly 3,000 feet. The river, for six or seven miles, between Vetti and Vormelid, forms almost the only bottom of the gorge so effectually that between these two places there is no communicating path. This length two Norrmen and I tried to force in the winter of 1880 when the river was frozen up, but though we spent two whole days of twelve hours each, and had to pass one night in a cave, we failed; and though we worked like trolds, and my com- panions were the best Norsk climbers I have seen, we were eventually forced over the mountains. Vormelid is about twenty miles up the gorge from the fjord, and, in order to reach it, one must cross the mountains to the higher portion of Utladal, and descend to it by a weird mountain path. On Friday morning we heard the two merry, bright-eyed seter girls—Live and Oliva—calling the cattle with their musical cattle cries, and then milking them, about 8 a.m. I was soon out of my sheep- skin covered bed—and, in passing, I may say it is easier to get up from a rough bed than a soft one—but could not, as I anti- cipated, get my comrades away, well-breakfasted, until after seven o’clock—a very late hour at which to set out on a totally new expedition, and a great disappointment to me, as Knut was to leave us next day. Vormelid is only some 1,800 feet above sea level, and as Skagastélstind is about 8,000 feet, there would be a pretty long ascent to make, besides which we should have ¥ 4 : 25 to cross and to descend from a high rocky spur before we could reach the actual base of the mountain, which meant a long day at least. The morning was decidedly unpromising; all the neighbouring heights were enshrouded with the densest-looking clouds. Knut said, ‘You cannot climb anything to-day.’ I replied that possibly at that very instant the whole of the higher Horungtinder were proudly holding their heads, quite clear, far above the clouds, and glistening in the morning sun; that the mists were ouly affecting the lower and insignificant mountains, and that we should climb above them. My aneroid had gone up too. I have frequently known this condition of affairs in both Norway and Switzerland. On one occasion, in 1879, several of us mountaineers were staying at The Riffel Hotel. One morning, five separate parties set off at about two a.m. for different expe- ditions. Zermatt, far below, was invisible, the clouds stuck tenaciously to the valley, and the mountaineers there, who had looked out early, turned into bed again, and were fearfully jealous of us at The Riffel, who had all been successful. To resume, Knut was tired as well, owing to a succession of uncomfortable nights. But go we must, I engaging to carry both my own rope and one of Knut’s. We were soon on our way, at first through rich, though late, pasture land, beautified by groves of silvery birch and pines. Amongst the rocks we found many big plants of the Angelica archangelica, each of which,. however, had its top eaten off by the bears, whose fod spor was plainly visible where there was soft earth near the plants. A steep zig-zagging cattle path led us_ beside the Maradal Fos, a fine cataract, into Maradal, a short valley headed by a magnificent glacier, out of which rise the Titanic walls of the Styggedalstind, upon whose snowy crest we had been the previous day. ‘The top of the mountain actually overhangs the glacier, and we had heaved over many immense rocks into the abyss below, and, when a break in the clouds allowed of it, we accurately timed the aerial flight of the rocks from the ledge -at the top, over which we simply just dropped them, until they struck the ice some distance from the base of the rock, and ‘found repeatedly the time to be 94 seconds. The actual calcula- tion for 93 seconds gives 1,440 feet, but I knock off the odd 40 feet in order to avoid exaggeration, and to allow for the time occupied by light in travelling. We judged by sight alone; one of us was held by the legs, and so leaned over the edge and watched the fall. I have been on much higher precipices—on the Weisshorn, for instance, but never on one so high which was actually overhanging. Two other mighty obelisks—the Mara- dalstinder—both ledgeless and herbless, spring from out of this glacier, yet unascended, and two fine passes, not made as yet, invite the adventurer. Another fine peak was climbed last year 26 by a Danish friend of mine. At the top of the Fos, and just above the birch tree, where the dwarf willows begin to grow, we stopped, nominally to admire the view, but in reality to rest a little. Truly it was a fair picture to look upon. The peaceful- looking seeter, with the cattle and goats browsing around it in greenest pastures, the foaming river Utla below, here a tem- pestuous rapid, there a deep pool; then, beyond the river, cliff piled upon cliff, terrace upon terrace, where, until some rude avalanche shall come down and sweep them away, grow the sombre-hued pines and graceful silvery birches, which blended in most harmonious colours with the purest emerald of the mosses, the greyish blue, and now and then brown rocks, or others as black as darkest winter’s night, which again formed a strong contrast to the snows above, the clouds, and milk-white cataracts. Of sunshine there was but little. Forward up the valley, clouds still reigned supreme, and left much for our lively imagination to picture. After walking a mile up the valley, we turned aside to the left, crossed a ridge, and then descended 814 feet into a tiny valley, where we could see nothing, and consequently steered very carefully, and erected diminutive cairns on prominent rocks to guide us on our return, We had yet a second ridge 3,276 feet above Vormelid to cross before gaining Midt Maradal. Whilst climbing this ridge, or mountain buttress as it is, the weather was decidedly unpromising; we could see nothing. Mohn and I had frequently noticed that the higher Horungtinder, after being enveloped in thick clouds for nearly a whole day, very often shine out with double beauty late in the afternoon or evening, and we told Knut that such would be the case now, but we thought otherwise. On nearing the top of the ridge we discovered that the higher we got the lighter were the clouds, so I ran forward, and when on the top—glorious sight! There before me was the sharply serrated aréte of the Dyrhougstinder, which form in the west of the valley a black colossal, nearly perpendicular wall, 8,000 feet high. The top portion of this wall only was visible, and the contrast it showed to the clouds below was wonderful. I shouted out to Mohn and Knut who soon came up. Shortly after we saw the bottom of Midt Maradal, 1,500 feet below us; then the clouds swept up the valley and all was obscured for a few minutes. After that a glorious, perfectly inaccessible- looking peak, a continuation of our ridge, appeared. ‘Is that Skagastélstind ?’ we all exclaimed; we could only see the top, and the clouds lent it such additional grandeur that we had no proper conception of its height, or of its relative position. It disappeared from our view as quickly as it had come; and presently a truly noble aiguille appeared—a never-to-be-forgotten sight. Further doubt was impossible, and the former, Mohn rightly said, was only one of the Maradalstinder. Another peak 27 then appeared between the two, and for a while each seemed to be floating in the clouds. Our excitement and anxiety, as may be easily expected, were intense. The marvellous panoramic changes caused by the drifting of the cloudy curtains are far beyond my descriptive powers, though I remember much of them now. After a gaze of wonder and bewilderment, during which the guardian clouds were all dissipated and our work stood unfettered before us, we began scrambling at noonday down the rugged crags into Midt Maradal. Then we had about a mile to walk over horrible débris, and at one o'clock we reached the glacier, Midt Maradals bre, at the actual base of the mountain, and 4,896 feet from the top. Here we lunched and planned the ascent. The guiding was all left to me, as the mountain was considered my speciality, though I, of course, consulted the others. Skagastélstind heads the valley, and rises majestically a good 3,000 feet N.E. out of the well-crevassed glacier I have just mentioned, from which side it certainly is inaccessible. On the right hand is another small but steep glacier—the Skagas- télstinds bre—which does not join the valley in the ordinary sensible way, but, like the Matterhorn glacier, it ends abruptly at the top of a vertical cliff 60 or 70 feet high, over which the stream from the glacier makes a wild waterfall into the snow. It was this glacier that I had seen the year before, and taken to be a small snow couloir, and our way must lead up there; but how? I proposed to Knut that we should cross over the lower portion of the great glacier which overlapped the junction of the stream from the little glacier with the valley itself, and that then we should climb up a gully, which seemed to lead on to our intended glacier, in fact it was our only choice. In looking upwards, we saw a narrow belt of black rocks at the head of the glacier, 1,104 feet from the top of the mountain. This belt separates the glacier from a steep snow slope above. Here we . apprehended some difficulty, and Knut said, ‘ De kan ikke komme frem der,’ (You cannot get forward there), and the snow above is much too steep. I replied, which was perfectly true, that it was the only way where there was the least chance, and that we must try it. Mohn also backed me, as he and I, having both seen the mountain from the North, thought that there was not the least possibility of mounting it on that side, whilst Knut, who had never been near it before, was inclined to think ‘“ our best as bad.” The snow slope leads up at a very steep angle to a col or skar rather more than 500 feet from the top, though from the base we could not see how far the snow slope reached up the mountain, a projecting crag hiding it, but we rather expected an aréte from the col or a couloir to form our high road to the summit. We had no difficulty in crossing the lower glacier, and we soon got up the gully, and on a great spur which 28 separates the two glaciers. Here great caution was requisite, as the rocks were very slippery, and there were many loose stones. We presently reached a steep slope, which we had to cross— where we saw before us—footsteps! Crusoe’s surprise at finding footprints in the sand could not have much exceeded ours. On a closer inspection we found that they were the fresh tracks of a bear. What Bruin could have been doing up there, out of the way of all vegetation, we could not divine, but there were his traces, quite recent. Perhaps he too was on a tour of explora- tion, or possibly we had frightened him on the previous day. He had proceeded in the direction we were taking, and in descending to our glacier a few minutes later we found his track again; he seemed to understand the crevasses like a man of experience, and had picked out his intricate way most cleverly, steering across to an aréte of the Maradalstinder. Of course we put on the rope, I leading, then Mohn, whilst Knut brought up the rear. After proceeding a few hundred yards we came to an interesting place where a jutting crag contracted a glacier, and thus caused its pent-up masses to be heaped up indiscriminately, and form what are usually termed séracs. We had no difficulty here, and but little step-cutting. Seeing an avalanche fall far up the mountain on the right of the glacier, we kept somewhat to the left, quite under Skagastolstind, which towered proudly 3,000 feet above us —an awful precipice, but from which there seemed to be hardly any débris fallen on to the glacier—a good sign for us. Near the top of the glacier a bergschrund spread nearly across ; the width there would be perhaps 500 yards. In some places it looked a fearfully hungry open-jawed monster, 20 to 25 feet wide, and awfully deep. As there were no snow bridges in the centre, we followed it to the western cliff where the snowy wall had collapsed and partially choked up the crevasse. Here we made sure of crossing. In the best place, however, there was a wall of névé 12 feet high above the snow in the crevasse. I twice cut my way up the wall, but could not get over on the top, as the snow, at that late hour of the day, was too soft for my ice- axe to hold in, and I twice fell down, in my fruitless endeavours, on to the soft snow, the second time my feet passing through and revealing uncanny depths below, but as my companions were well anchored above, there was no danger. I tried again, but to no purpose, so after our little excitement we retraced our steps, and eventually found a substantial bridge on the eastern side. We soon reached the black belt of rock, which we found as difficult to climb as we expected. The glacier is certainly very interesting in the condition we found it, and with ordinary care there can be no danger, because the crevasses are all apparent—nothing is hidden. When we got to the rocks, still 1,114 feet from the summit, Mohn said he felt tired, as, owing 29 to his having worn boots, innocent of spikes or nails, as Norrmen generally do, he had slipped about a great deal on the snow and ice, and he wished to rest. Isaid that we could not afford the time, as it was nearly 5 p.m., and the great ‘tug of war’ was yet to come on, and even the long Norsk days do not last for an indefinite period at the end of July. I untied myself and soon reached the steep snow slope, which was nearly 600 feet high. Being partially frozen, it required very great care, and an ice- axe was a sine qua non. I rather feared the descent of this part if it were to get frozen, as the angle was very great, and a fall not to be thought of. Where the rocks were feasible I preferred them, and left the snow until the rocks were too steep to climb. At nearly 6 p.m. I reached the top of the col or skar, and then took a look around. On the opposite side to that which I had ascended, instead of couloirs and glaciers, close at hand there was an almost vertical precipice of certainly more than 3,000 feet in height. At its base was a weird mountain tarn into which a huge glacier (the sister to Midt Maradals bre) projected, and, as might be expected, large masses of ice had broken off and were floating about as little icebergs. Beyond it rose in terrific pre- cipices the northern aréte of the Dyrhougstinder, a continuation of the black wall referred to before. Looking towards the true Skagastélstind, 518 feet higher, I felt that I was beaten after all and my dream at an end, as it is difficult to imagine any mountain presenting a more impracticable appearance than is shown at first sight by this peak from the top of the ‘“ skar.” It stands up from the narrow ridge, an oblong-looking tower of gabbro. On the right is the awful precipice above the lake, and on the left it springs from the glacier nearly perpendicularly, and with no ledges at all. There seemed to be no proper aréte to connect it with the skar, but merely a narrow face, mostly consisting of smoothly polished and almost vertical slabs of rock. The first 150 or 200 feet seemed to be the worst, and I thought that if those could be surmounted the top might be gained, but I honestly did not think there was the slightest possibility of doing it. Of course there was no couloir; the rocks were much too steep to admit of snow stopping there. Behind me was another peak some 300 feet up, which seemed fairly easy. I thought ‘ Well! that’s better than none,” and I might climb it before my companions came, and then we could consult further about the great peak. I had just set off-to do this, when I saw them close to me at the top of the snow slope. ‘What do you think of it, Mohn?’ He said, ‘‘ Well, I suppose that we can now only say that it is perfectly impossible.’ ‘ We have not yet proved it to be so; I will not give it up without a try, will you come?’ ‘No.’ ‘Knut, will you?’ ‘No, I shall not risk my life there.’ ‘I will at least try, though I do 30 not think I can manage it.’ Fortunately I felt perfectly fresh and not in the least tired. I recommended Mohn to climb the other peak (then unascended.) He said, ‘ Aut Caesar, aut nihil.’ I then left them, and passed under a snow cornice which over- hung the northern precipice, and reached the rocky wall in a very short time. Now, farewell to snow, that great aider of mountain ascents, and 500 feet of rock. I found a small buttress projecting from the face of the rock; it formed a corner. Up there I must go, or nowhere else; of choice there was none. But still, when viewed closely, it looked more hopeful. I soon found that the rocks were firm; the ledges, though so tiny, were secure; the strata of the rock inclined the right way, downward, from the out face towards the centre of the mountain. Better than all, I was quite cool, and in perfect training. Still, no trifling must be done here. After being hidden by the snow cornice from my friends, I came into view again, and was eagerly watched by my well-wishers. I soon got into a difficulty in a corner, and but for a ledge no broader than my hand, from which I had to knock away the ice, should thus early have been defeated, as without the aid of this foothold the mountain would indeed be inaccessible. My friends saw me at this place, and vainly tried to call me back, but with the aid of my well tried ice-axe, I surmounted the difficulty. I shall avoid going into details about this and other places, as if I were to attempt to describe them I should undoubtedly be accused either of exaggeration or perhaps of foolhardiness by persons unaccustomed to Alpine work, when at the same time I might be guilty of neither. Suffice it to say that it was an exceedingly tough piece of work. I had to use my hands the whole distance, and my ice-axe often. Three times I was all but stopped, but this was my especial and much longed-for mountain. I reached, in sight of Mohn, what from afar we had judged to be the top. I raised a cheer, which was renewed from below, when I found that there was a mdge—a knife-edge affair—perhaps sixty yards long, and that the highest point was evidently that at the further end. There are three peaklets and a notch in the ridge, which latter again almost stopped me. For the first time, I had to trust to an over- hanging and rather loose rocky ledge. I tried it well, then hauled myself up to terra firma, and in a few strides, a little above half an hour after leaving my friends, I found myself on the unsullied crown of the peerless Skagastélstind, a rocky table four feet by three, elevated five or six feet above the southern end of the ridge. As to the view, which was perfectly free from clouds, it would be futile for me to attempt to describe it at length, excepting the more immediate surroundings, except to say that on every hand some of the wildest crags, aiguilles, 31 and glaciers in ‘Gamle Norge’ looked their very wildest. On one hand our luncheon place, 4,396 feet below, seemed a stone throw off, on ancther hand below an almost vertical precipice 3,000 feet in height was a portion of the glacier we had ascended. On another, some 4,000 feet down, lay the weird mountain tarn with its icy flotilla, and above it the glacier and the terrible cliffs I have before alluded to. Forests and meadows here and there relieved the scene of most of its terrible characteristics, and the exquisite colouring for which Norway is so deservedly famous appeared in all its richness and variety. But in such a place, alone, out of sight of every living creature, one of the greatest wishes of my heart granted to me, it will be easily understood, when I say that a feeling of silent worship and adoration was more suitable than to jot down memoranda in my note book. I did make a few notes it is true, but the scene was too overwhelming for them. After a drink of cold tea and a cold collation of goat’s milk cheese, a crust of rye bread, and a few prunes, I set to work to build a cairn, and as the top was so marvellously sound I could find very few stones, so only made it two or three feet high. I put a pocket handkerchief under one of the stones, which I afterwards saw in the distance through a telescope. By my aneroid I ascertained the height to be 6,199 feet above Vormelid. At 6-53, after picking up a few little stones and some reindeer moss, I left the top in warm and golden sunshine and found the descent to the ‘ skar’ not good— the less said about it the better. I was very thankful to join my friends at 7-45, when I was most heartily congratulated upon my success. The snow-slope was now hard frozen and our warm gloves a necessity, but we passed it very well and were soon over the belt of rock and on the glacier, where we had some good glissades. At 9 o'clock we reached our former luncheon place, and I shall never forget Mohn’s kindness in sharing with me his last bit of cheese and bread, as mine had been finished long before. A simple gift indeed, but nevertheless a great act of self-denial, appreciable only by those who know the real value of a crust when nothing else is to be had. We found the 1,500 feet which we had to ascend on our return very fatiguing. Iwas the freshest, but my success, perhaps, sustained my animal vigour. From the top of the great ridge, which we reached in the twilight at 11 p.m., we had a most sublime view of sharp peaks still tinted with the gold of the setting sun. Jupiter shone brightly just over the crest of Stélsnaastind, which is a most beautiful mountain above the Vetti’s Fos, and which ought to be often climbed, but, so far, is not. The snow was crisp and hard, and sparkled brilliantly. After getting into Maradal it grew much darker than it was on the ridges, and each one had several falls over the junipers and dwarf birches, but we arrived 32 at the seter all right a little after one a.m., where we found the elder girl still awaiting us. She soon got us a roaring fire of birch logs, made us coffee and Liebig, and did all in her power to make us comfortable. Then we slept the sleep of the weary till the sun was high in the heavens. Such was the first ascent of what is usually called the noblest mountain in Norway, and for many years had been considered impracticable. Others will try and have tried the mountain, and will sueceed, but it will never become a fashionable mountain—the last bit is too bad for that. I for one should never have attempted, alone, rocks such as those upon any other mountain, but it was the particular one upon which I had centred my energies, and those 508 feet which I climbed in solitude, I shall now always look back upon with a feeling of veneration, as they formed an event in my life which can neyer be forgotten, and although I have climbed more of the higher Norsk mountains than any other person, yet the ascent of none can leave such a vivid impression in my mind as this.” Mr. Slingsby then spoke of the attacks made on the mountain in 1820, by Keilhau and Boeck, and in 1821 by Naumann, the ascent by a Norwegian in 1880, and the death of Ténsberg in 1881, and concluded as follows:—“I fear that much of my paper will fail to be understood, and that the sport of mountaineering, which is the finest sport in the world, may be considered as a dangerous pastime. It is not so at all to those who understand their business, and who do not neglect certain well-known precautions ; but if it be undertaken by thoughtless and inexperienced men, without good guides to watch their every footstep, it is an extremely dangerous one. Though I say to all mountain lovers, ‘Be up and be doing,’ I say to all, ‘ Do nothing rashly, pay due reverence to the rope where needed, as you value your life, and as you think of your friends at home. Be bold if boldness is required, but be boldest of all in your determination to turn back if you think the work foolhardy, or yourself not quite equal to the task, even if you are within twenty feet of the wished-for goal.’ It often requires more real courage—real moral courage— to turn back than to go on. Courage and obstinacy are not synonymous terms. This is no excuse for idleness and lack of common pluck. I merely want to impress upon my hearers the necessity of exercising constant care, prudence, and, above all, patience. Mountains claim our respect as well as our love and admiration, and are not to be treated lightly, else they may take vengeance, as they have done in past years. There is much new work yet to be done in Norway, and I hope that a good share of it will fall to the lot of Englishmen, but if so they must not waste time; our Norsk brothers are waking up from their lethargy ; the spirit of the Vikings, though sometimes dormant, 33 still exists in the breasts of their descendants, and is not, as many have suggested, all used up yet. No, I am proud to believe that many of our own finest qualities ave heirlooms bequeathed to us by our ancient Norsk ancestry. In bringing my paper to a close, though I am well aware that mountaineer- ing no longer requires the apologies and arguments of its votaries to defend its very existence as a sport, as was requisite only a few years ago, I will merely say, as a mountaineer, I firmly believe that the sport of mountaineering is better calculated than any other to bring out the best and highest qualities, to make a mere person into a true man in the highest sense of the word, to make him sound in limbs and lungs, to stimulate the growth of muscular fibre, and to implant in his breast the maxims of patience, unselfishness, sympathy, endurance, sobriety, courage, true heroism, and, above all, true love and veneration for the great Creator of all.” A number of drawings were exhibited to assist the hearers in following the description of the mountains and the direction and character of the ascents. ‘“THE FROGS” OF ARISTOPHANES. By J. LANGFIELD WAED, M.4A., February 12th, 1884. It is now 2,288 years since the citizens of Athens flocked to their Dionysiac Theatre to witness, criticise, and adjudicate on the play by Aristophanes, entitled “‘ The Frogs.” Their decision was favourable, and it received the first prize and was repeated, owing, as the reporter of the time says, to the excellence of the political advice tendered in a particular part. It has not been honoured by a representation in recent years amid all these revivals of the ancient drama. There have been shown in the last two or three years the ‘‘ Ajax’”’ of Sophocles, the ‘‘ Electra” of Euripides, and the ‘‘Agamemnon” of Aischylus, but the greatest interest has, no doubt, been excited by the reproduction _ of the “‘ Birds” at Cambridge; these plays are fairly repre- "sentative of the genius of their respective authors. It must be borne in mind that while the tragedies may be brought very near _ their prototypes at Athens, may affect a spectator now much as they would affect one at their first performance, may in short be considered as permanent; in comedy, on the other hand, there is much that is evanescent ; the jokes, excellent somany thousand years ago, are getting stale now; we do not understand as an _ Athenian would the personalities, attacks on rivals, Attic slang, or the brilliancy of the parodies, but still we can enjoy the burlesque of the story and laugh with those who laughed at the 7 ; . 34 troubles of the hero-god Dionysus and the ready wit of his slave, Xanthias. This is the plot—the festive Dionysus, god by profession, identified with the Bacchus of the Greeks and Romans, patron of the drama, having the theatre dedicated to him, is disconsolate at the recent loss of Sophocles and Euripides. Believing that no good dramatists remain in the realms above, he bids his servant Xanthias saddle the ass and prepare the portmanteau, for they are bound for the regions below to fetch back the beloved Euri- pides. Arraying himself in the dress and brandishing the weapon of Hercules, he is directed to the Stygian pool, is ferried over by Charon, and hears the croaking of the frogs, which give the title to the play. Arrived on the other side, the pair meet with ludicrous adventures—sometimes the deity’s disguise brings him into trouble, as Hercules, whom he personates, is wanted by the police on a charge of petty larceny ; sometimes an acquaintance of Hercules offers him a luxurious meal, of which offer he cannot at the time avail himself. In difficulty and despondency he reflects with satisfaction that his slave Xanthias can be forced to assume the disguise, and will doubtless be glad to be beaten in place of his dear master; the servant must take the lion’s skin till danger is past. Then the pair, after a violent altercation with head-constable Auacus, who finds himself puzzled to know which is really the god and which the slave, and decides by beating them till one cries out, arrive at their destination, the halls of Pluto ; the noise of a quarrel in this low neighbourhood is heard; it turns out to be a dispute between Aischylus and Kuripides as to which is the worthier of occupying the throne assigned to the tragic poets. Among his other qualifications, Dionysus sets up for a dramatic critic ; his aid is invoked, and he has to decide between the two aspirants. He promises that the successful one shall be restored to the place of honour in his theatre above at Athens, and as the Athenian audience would expect from the well-known dislike that Aristophanes entertained for Euripides, the contest ends in favour of Aischylus. The play was exhibited to influence the domestic and foreign policy of Athens; there are several allusions to the opinions of the author on the mode of managing the government; the play was shown ata critical time of Athenian history ; six months before the Athenians were rejoicing in an important naval victory ; eight months afterwards their fleet was destroyed, and they were suffering famine ; six months later still they were forced to sign an ignominious peace, and had to destroy their long walls of fortification, and give up all their foreign possessions. Aristophanes also used the play as a means for attacking Euripides ; he is as fierce in his attack as he was in the Achar- nians, shown 20 years before. He believed the tragedian wished 35 to overthrow the city’s worship and its respect for divine authority, but he took a strange course to counteract the tragedian’s in- fluence ; his representation of Dionysus was not likely to raise the god in the respect of the audience. ‘We can summarize the position in the words of Mitchell —‘‘ To bring the mighty dead before his countrymen, as the living offered no attractions for that purpose,—to contrast past and present dramatic schools in the persons of Aischylus and Euripides,—to dispel prejudices and misconceptions, and to settle finally in the minds of his countrymen where in such productions they might look not only for the soundest intellectual enjoyment, but also for the best guides in political and religious knowledge, were evidently among the primary objects which gave birth to the comedy known to us by the title of the Frogs.” The lecturer then read several scenes of the play, the descent into Hades, the meeting with Hercules, and the advice received from him, the bargaining with the corpse, the dispute with Charon, and the crossing of the Styx, the terror of Dionysus after the passage, the abusive language of Aacus, the kind invitation from Persephone, and the assault by the two innkeepers. Some portions of the dispute between Aischylus and Euripides were also given, and the concluding part of the trial, where Dionysus, unwilling to offend either aspirant, offers to take the one who can give the best advice to the state. Now there was living at this time a distinguished Athenian, who had been banished for supposed complicity in mutilating the public statues of Hermes, who had deserted to his country’s enemies, and had aided them in their attacks on Athens, who had then joined his countrymen and won several victories, and sailing to the port of Athens had been welcomed with enthusiasm and appointed commander-in-chief: but in two years his popularity waned, and he was dismissed ; unsteadiness of character had hindered his success, but his opponents were forced to confess that there was no cleverer man at that time than Alcibiades. ‘First, then,” says the god, ‘“‘ what opinion do you hold about Alcibiades, for our city is in straits?” ‘* What does the city think ?” asks Pluto. “Tt longs for him, but hates him, yet wishes to have him: but let us hear what you two poets think.” Euripides—I hate a statesman, summoned by his state, Who’s slow to aid, but swift in doing harm, Who helps himself, but leaves his land forlorn. Dionysus—Good ; but, Aischylus, what do you think ? &schylus—Let not the city rear a lion’s whelp, But if ’tis reared, ’tis best to humour it. Dionysus—Good for both, its hard to decide, for that sentiment is wise, and this other wise. I must choose the one who takes my fancy. Euripides—Remember, you swore by the Gods to take me hence, choose your friends. 36 Then Dionysus, availing himself of a line of Euripides against which criticism was often directed—‘ my tongue has sworn, my mind remains unsworn’’—says ‘‘my tongue has sworn, but Zaschylus I choose.” So amid the sound of hymns and festal songs, by the light of torches, Adschylus is conducted up, and leaves strict injunctions that Sophocles is to take his place, and not suffer that rascally falsehood-monger and low trickster to sit there. Dionysus was satisfied: he had recovered one of his devotees ; the glory of the Athenian drama, if his wishes were destined to be accomplished, would be renewed. The yearning for a clever poet was no more to trouble him. But hopes are blighted, and mortals are doomed to disappointment, and so was this vagabond immortal; tragedy could not be revived. The seventy years were accomplished in which the far-famed birth-place of the arts was to rise to its eminence, and as suddenly fall; the long warfare through which the city had struggled with wondrous self-reliance was drawing to its close, and with the fall of the power of Athens fell her supremacy in the pursuits which still make her famous among men. She, ‘“‘ whose eyes had first in man’s flashed lightning liberty, whose tongue had first said freedom,’ was to lie prostrate at the feet of merciless conquerors ; she who claimed ‘‘ the crown of all songs sung, of all deeds done the full flower for all time, ’’ was to be no more heard in the councils of Greece. But it redounds to the honour of Athens, and points out better than anything else, how extraordinary was the outburst of excellence in all arts, in knowledge and wisdom, and in expression of feeling by eloquence and poetry, that the blow inflicted on these in the little Athenian state by the battle in the Dardanelles, September, 405 B.c., was a blow to all culture as it then existed in the world. No state rose to take her place: these arts flourished though her pride of dominion was taken away, and no one came forward to contest her pre-eminence, far though it fell below its previous height. Tragedy was dead or crushed down, and was not destined to renew its life like a Phoenix or to receive vivifying force like an Anteus, till in a little War- wickshire market town nearly 2,000 years after a claimant should arise, who, if anyone could, might contest the throne of honour in the halls of Pluto with the father of the drama. England is proud of her Shakespere, and the line of lesser tragedians who follow him at an interval; foreign nations boast of authors whom in some respects they venture to compare with our highest ; but we have 300 years to travel over, a country far exceeding in magnitude the state of Athens, and a population of freemen which during those 800 years has been from 50 to 200 times as large as hers, and yet ‘that city which on the Adgean sea stands, built nobly” produced three men of the first rank and 4 td J 37 many of the second rank in 70 years. In dramatic art nothing in so short a time can be shown to equal the performances of the three tragedians whose names J have dealt with this evening. ENGLAND DURING GEOLOGICAL AGES. By J. MONCKMAN, D.Sc., February 19th, 1884. Where was the land? This question necessitates the ex- planation of the methods used to tell the ages of hills. If we find that while some beds are raised with the mountain and lie upon it, we conclude that the mountain cannot be older than the beds raised, and if we find that other strata lie level at the foot of the hill, the mountain must have been raised to its present position before the horizontal beds were deposited. In the Alps we see the pliocene level, but the older beds bent into the shape of the hills; hence we say that the Alps have been partly raised since the eocene and before the pliocene ages. Sometimes -we find the same thing with the addition that the beds change in composition. The limestone is thick and pure in Derbyshire, less so in Lancashire and Yorkshire, and becoming mixed with shore dirt northwards and southwards. Not only so, but at one point when a pit was sunk for coal, instead of coal there was found a hard slate rock, and on the surface of it rounded pebbles revealing the action of water, probably sea water, and showing it to have been the old shore. When we apply this to the Cambrian rocks we are uncertain. I do not know that there is information enough at hand to enable us to decide, but yet we may get some idea. We find that the beds that come to the surface in North Wales, Shropshire, Leicester, Bohemia, and also Skiddaw, Nor- way and Sweden, and in America, New York State and Valley of Mississippi, there appears to be a tendency of sandstone and shale north, and limestone south, as though the land were northward. There are but two points of land surface in Britain now exposed which could have been land at that time. The Silurian period was one of great upheavals, when the very foundations of the land rocked and shook by reason of the mighty forces striving to burst forth in living streams to the surface of the earth. Volcanoes on land belched forth their showers of ashes and stones, darkening the face of the sun, whilst sheets of fiery lava flowed down the sides of the mountains. Nor was the sea at rest. From unseen vents enormous quantities of volcanic materials issued, forming layer after layer on the bottom of the ocean, over which the steady deposition of mud and sand continued as usual. Could we have taken post on the top of venerable Skiddaw, we 38 might have seen just where Keswick now stands a scene which can be described best in the language of Professor Judd, as he speaks of Vesuvius: ‘‘ During the eruption the bottom of the crater was entirely broken up, and the sides of the mountain rent by fissures in all directions. So numerous were these fissures and cracks, that liquid matter appeared to be oozing from every part of its surface. The mountain appeared to be sweating fire. From the crater enormous volumes of steam rushed out with a prodigious roaring sound, yet those on the mountain could per- ceive that it was produced by a succession of explosions. Each of these explosions was followed by the formation of a great globe of vapour, which, rising into the atmosphere, swelled the bulk of the vast cloud overhanging the mountain. Each of these explo- sive upward rushes of steam carried along with it a considerable quantity of solid fragments, some of which rose to the height of four miles, while at these points lava or molten rock issued in such quantities as to form great fiery floods, which rushed down the sides of the mountain and flowed to a considerable distance beyond its base.’’ During the earlier part of this period the conditions of sea and land were, as described before, shallowish sea and land northward, deeper sea in Devonshire, and southward. But it was an age of change. Now up, now down, and we find that it rose to the surface, and during I know not what length of time, was exposed to the denuding agents, sea water, rivers, rain, and perhaps snow and frost. After this the beds in South Wales and South Scotland again went down, leaving land in North Scotland and Devonshire. This central portion again rose gently and slowly, and judging by fossils, &c., it is stated to have formed first an estuary of a large river, then fresh water, and lastly land plants appear. Here ends what is termed by geologists the long sea-period. As might be expected during an age of intense volcanic activity, there were continual changes of level in the land. The land in Devonshire gradually sank until corals and other sea animals and plants were able to live, while north- wards there is every indication of a shore deposit, probably in large fresh water lakes. The Devonian or old red sandstone really belongs partly to the Silurian and partly to the Carboni- ferous, and each is conformable with the one to whieh it belongs. The volcanoes were more active than before in Scotland ; strata of lava and ashes occur from the bottom to the top of the series. They stretch along the hills for sixty miles, and form a great portion of the Sidlaw, Ochiel, and southern flank of the Grampian Hills. In the Pentland Hill they form a thickness of 5,000 feet. They also occur in Ireland, and their presence in Cornwall is shown by bands of ash and vesicular greenstone. There was land in Scotland, in Wales, through the centre of England, and across under London. The upper beds contain traces of tree n “ite + e Ts. * 39 ferns, gigantic club mosses, horse tails, and other plants which show a much warmer climate. Some people explain this by supposing that the earth’s axis has changed, some by the change in distribution of sea and land, others by the change in eccen- tricity of the earth’s orbit and the precession of the equinoxes. Others again say that the sun is a variable star, like many other stars in the heavens. I know of no explanation which is not surrounded with apparently insuperable difficulties. The activity of the volcanoes was on the increase. We find them in Cornwall and South Devon. In Derbyshire three beds of toadstone, form- ing an average thickness of 60 to 70 feet, tell the tale of fire and devastation at that time. But when we come to Scotland we might imagine ourselves in the Lipari Isles, or in Ischia, or on the slopes of Etna, where in one small island—the island of Ischia—is no less than 20 small craters, and in the Liparis over that number, whilst on the sides of Ktna are altogether 200 of these secondary cones. Take your stand on Arthur's seat, examine it, and you will find that it is the stem of a volcano or consolidated rock, which once bubbled and boiled at an intense white heat. Around you are other minor stumps. In Fife and Lothian are innumerable little rents whose lava flows thinned out from 100 feet to nothing in the distance of one mile. The great mountain has been washed away and only the centre rock left, but around this are the little side cones which have escaped the action of the water. In North Ayrshire the same kind of thing occurs and in Ireland. If we measure the distance, we shall find Naples to Lipari about 100 miles, Lipari to Etna 25 miles, almost in a line. In Scotland, we find the distances not very unlike, west to east about 50, and into Ireland 150, almost in a line, and to increase the similarity, the district was a shallow inland sea. To reproduce the scene we have but to read a description of the eruptions of modern Stromboli and its fellows, and imagine that the writer, instead of being on the mainland of Italy, was standing on the land formed by the Grampians during the coal period. In the Permean period considerable changes of surface took place, but the only points that I wish to mention are the rise of the Mendip Hills, and a ridge stretching across Yorkshire, east to west, probably including Ingleborough, Whern- ‘side, and Penyghent, and probably Pendle Hill, during the first stage of their development. The next point was the rise of the Pennine range by a great anticlinal bend running north and south. During the whole secondary period the volcanoes were at rest, and few mountains were formed at any part of the earth’s surface. The Yorkshire Wolds were formed during this age. The Tertiary period requires a little notice before closing. During this most recent period of geology nearly all the cele- brated mountains of the earth have been raised—Alps, Himalaya, 40 Apennines, Pyrenees, Carpathians, all belong to one or other of the tertiary ages. The plants and animals become more like those now living as the primary formations are the ages of brachiopods, the secondary the age of reptiles, then the last is the age of mammalia. In the second or Miocene age the volcanic forces again burst out with terrible energy. In the islands of Mull and Skye are the remains of two large volcanoes rising to a height of 8,000 feet in some places. The tops liave been denuded away. The diameters at the bases are about 30 miles, and the heights, when in their undenuded state, was, one 10,000 to 12,000 feet, the other 14,000 to 15,000 feet. In the north of Treland the sheets of volcanic strata form beds 500 to 600 feet thick, and 1,200 square miles in area. The Giant’s Causeway and Fingal’s Cave belong to this period. The line of volcanic action was north through the Hebrides to Iceland. Innumerable trap dykes (or walls of igneous rock) running with an east and west trend have cut through all the formations up to and includ- ing the chalk and cross faults of every size that come in their way. Sometimes they go for 200 miles in almost a straight line, turning neither to the right nor left, but breaking through all rocks alike. The members will remember one of these dykes which we saw in Teesdale during the society’s excursion. These also were of the miocene age. All these volcanoes are now dor- mant, yet now and again we have a slight shake, reminding us that we live upon the line of volcanic action. At each end of the line furious eruptions are constantly taking place—Iceland and Sicily probably acting as safety valves and allowing the forces to spend themselves, and keeping us free. Thus for years untold, England has been without any eruption, and with very little of the shaking which accompanies volcanic action. What guarantee, however, have we that they will not again break out ? I say the guarantee given by occasional trembling of the earth, or the water at Buxton, Bath, and other places rising to the surface heated by the lingering fire. The guarantee also that the knowledge that the distance in time from us to the eruptions of Mull and Skye, is but as yesterday compared with the time of quietude between the tertiary and primary periods, and that after even that long rest the fires burst forth, and that we are still living in the tertiary period, perhaps the most terrible of all the voleanic periods of our island’s history. ee eee pe al we ee a 41 THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. By FRANCIS NICHOLSON, F.Z.S., February 26th, 1884. This was a popular or non-scientific lecture on the wild terrestrial animals of the British Isles, omitting the Bats, Seals, Whales and Dolphins. The habits of the various animals were dwelt upon, and many curious facts were given illustrating their cunning and artfulness. The lecturer related several anecdotes about the difficulties of snaring wild animals, and the amount of careful and studied observation that was required before anyone could hope to be successful in the most difficult and interesting art of trapping. The whole thing was often nothing more or less than a match between the dexterity and superior knowledge of the trapper and the sagacity and noticing powers of the animal. History furnished us with particulars of many larger and more ferocious species, that were common in former times, such as the wild Boar and the Wolf, which had, however, long ago become extinct. Such animals as these would never be allowed to become numerous in any country where the population was so dense, and though England was becoming in most parts very thickly peopled, we may fairly conclude that no species of wild animal now existing in Great Britain and Iveland was likely to become extinct at any early period. SOIREE.—LITHOGRAPHY. Director: JAMES GRANT. March 4th, 1884. The substance of Mr. Grant’s remarks was as follows :— Lithography is one of the branches of the great and ancient art of Printing. Printing may be said to include any method which in its essence is “the production of a copy by pressure.” Stamping upon wax or other soft material, coining of money, graving upon stone or metal are all methods of printing. The best known process of printing is that from blocks or type, known as Letterpress Printing. By this method are produced nearly all our books and all our newspapers. The youngest branch of the Art is Lithography. By it, many of the most elaborate forms of work are produced, as a greater freedom is allowed to the artist, who is not restricted to the use of types of wood or metal, inflex- ible in design and limited im number. Any design, however intricate, which can be drawn by the artist, can be reproduced by 42 this beautiful process, and a great number of copies produced from the original drawing. The invention of Lithography is one of the wonderful things which have resulted from accident, Senefelder of Munich, an author in poor circumstances, being unable to pay for the print- ing of his books, tried to invent a substitute for letterpress printing. He found after repeated experiments that a composition of soap, wax, and lamp black formed a good ink for writing on soft stone. One day whilst practising, his mother desired him to take an account of some linen which she was about to send to be washed. Having no paper at hand, he wrote the account on a stone with his composition ink, intending to copy it at his leisure. Afterwards, when he was about to efface the writing, the thought occurred to him that he might obtain impressions from it; and having bitten away the stone with acid for about the one- hundreth part of an inch to elevate the writing, he found that he could charge the lines with ink and take impressions from them. The principle of Lithography was thus discovered, though some years elapsed before the art became recognized as a definite printing process. The first specimens of lithographic printing were the words and notes of some songs printed for a bandmaster in the German army in 1796. The Stones used in the process are found mainly in the politic formation on the banks of the Danube and Iser in Bavaria ; they are usually cream or grey in colour; in composition they are limestone: and they are capable of receiving a very smooth polish. A drawing is made on the prepared stone with lithographic ink—or a transfer from an engraved plate or a design traced on paper, may be put upon the stone. The design, reversed, adheres to the stone. The stone is kept damp and its surface is rolled over with another special ink. Both of the inks are greasy in composition, and while the printing ink does not adhere to the damp stone (grease and water being repellent forces) it takes hold of the greasy lines or drawing upon the stone and remains on the surface thereof. A sheet of paper is now laid upon the stone and subjected to a heavy pressure. An impression of the drawing—again reversed so that it is now right side up—is left upon the paper. (This was exemplified by the use of a Litho- graphic press Mr. Grant had in the room. Drawings were made upon paper by several members, transferred to stone, and impressions therefrom printed during the course of the Soirée.) In colour printing, chromo-lithography, what is called a key- stone is prepared and from it are made ready a number of other stones, each adapted for receiving a particular colour or tint, a separate stone for each separate colour. The sheets to be im- printed are impressed upon the various stones in regular order, 43 and after a number of printings, varying with the tints and shades required in the picture to be produced, a perfect work is the result. Good copies of oil and water-colour paintings may thus be obtained. Accuracy is required in the “ registering ” or fixing of the sheets and skill, in regulating the working of the colours. As one colour succeeds another on the paper, the picture gradu- ally assumes its finished shape. (This was illustrated by specimens of colour-printing lent by Messrs. Taylor Bros. of Leeds.) Around the room were placed many specimens of lithographic work, in various phases of execution. Some particularly fine work was sent by Messrs. Blades, Hast & Blades, and Messrs. Unwin Bros. of London. READINGS BY MEMBERS. March 11th, 1884. Director; W. LEWIS GRANT. Mr. Alderman Greenwood was prevented by the state of his health from giving the paper allotted to this Evening, ‘ Our Trade past, present, and future.” ‘‘ Readings by Members ” was substituted. The following Programme was gone through :—W. L. Grant : «Lawn Tennis, Limited” (4. A. Dowty). Song: ‘To Anthea” (Hatton) §. Harwood, M.B. R. T. Sutcliffe: ‘‘The Women of Mumbles’ Head” (Clement Scott). T. Lloyd: ‘Internal Communication—An Unfortunate Inventor’ (Max Adeler). Pianoforte Solo: Melody: (Stephen Heller) ‘ L’appassionata”’ (Bennett) Miss Simpson. W. L. Grant: “ Absalom” (Nathaniel P. Willis). A. Lancaster: ‘‘ The Revenge” (Tennyson). Song: “Nevermore” (Zito Mattei) 8. Harwood, M.B._R. T. Sutcliffe: «The Story of a Picture’? (B.H.) J.L.Ward, M.A.: ‘ Horatio Sparkins’’ (Dickens). Pianoforte Solo: ‘“ Elf-Land Gavotte” (Barnett) Miss Simpson. ‘*A MODERN EPIC.” By the Rev. A. H. FINN, March 18th, 1884. The epic, said the lecturer, is to literature what history is to prose. Indeed the epic usually deals with historical or traditional subjects, or with fiction in the historical form. Hence arises the special form and character of epic poetry. Its narrative and realistic nature requires that the subject treated of should be of 44 sufficient importance and dignity, and that the style should be of a corresponding solidity and severity. The dignity of the subject matter in turn requires that it should be dealt with in a fulness of detail which entails considerable length, and the severity of the style is best associated with the blank or historic metre, which usually disdains the meretricious ornaments of rhyme and stanza, rarely descends even to the aid of alliteration, and almost wholly depends for effect on the solemn and stately flow of its rhythm. It is these characteristics which cause the epic to be ranked amongst the highest flights of poetic genius. To select and appreciate a topic of sufficient grandeur to be worthy of such treatment—to grasp it in the widest aspect and master its minutest details, to preserve the sense of proportion, the perspec- tive, the ‘‘chiaroscuro” of the design throughout never unduly magnifying any of the minor, or dwarfing any of the main incidents to develope the profound thoughts which must cluster round such a narrative; all this requires a mind of no ordinary powers. No less does it need a master of language, skilled in all the resources of poetic art, and deeply imbued with the music of words, to clothe such thoughts and such narratives with fitting parts of speech, so using the limited form and style at his disposal, that in spite of great length its simplicity shall never degenerate into wearisome monotony. ‘«« Yesterday, to-day, and for ever,” a poem in twelve books, by Edward Henry Bickersteth, M.A., is a composition which claims, by its form and subject matter, if not by its title, to be considered an epic. It fulfils the mechanical conditions of form and magnitude, comprising altogether more than 10,000 lines. Its style is lofty, and the topic is not inadequate, being an attempt to unveil the mysteries both of bygone ages and of those to come. As the title indicates, its subject is the records of time, past, present, and future. Whether the author’s ambition has exceeded his powers—whether he has produced as a work worthy to rank with or near the great masterpieces of epic poetry—whether it will render his name famous in the days to come, are questions I have not ventured to discuss. ‘There must be decidedly a higher and more authoritive tribune than even that before which I have the honour of appearing. Not even the unanimous verdict of contem- porary opinion can finally determine sucha career. An appeal lies to the judgment of posterity, and only a ‘‘ plebiscitum ” of successive generation, can confer the coveted dignity of a ‘“ great poet.’ This decision, like that of an ecclesiastical council, only becomes final when it has been accepted ‘‘always in all places, and by all.” For works of art like lofty mountains require distance, not to lend ‘‘enchantment to the view,” but to enable one to estimate aright their true grandeur. Commencing where narratives usually end, the first book : q 45 of the poem is occupied with the death of the narrator (who is termed the ‘‘seer”) and with his descent into Hades. The second describes his new abode ‘“‘The Paradise of the blessed dead,” with which is contrasted the prison of the lost in the third book. The next five books are a retrospect, being a history of the past from the earliest ages, related to the seer by his guardian angel. These deal with the creation of ‘‘Angels and Men,” their fall, the empire of darkness, the redemption, and the history of the Church militant. The ninth book under the title of the ‘‘ Bridal of the Lamb,” sets forth the completion of the Christian Church in its union with Christ. Then come descriptions of the Millennial Sabbath and the Last Judgment; the twelfth and last book being devoted to an account of the ‘‘ Many Mansions”’ prepared for the blessed, and of the final conquest at the end. Thus the poem traces the course of time from the very commencement to the point where it merges in eternity. Mr. Finn gave a number of extracts illustrating the various powers of the poet and the story he tells, and after bringing the outline of the poem before his audience, he passed various criticisms upon it. He pointed out that the rhythm was not always perfect—that awkward elisions are of frequent occurrence—that there is occasionally a tendency towards pathos, and in spite of occasional roughness, the style has a music of its own. The language is often particularly happy, as for instance when to the description of an angel is added, ‘‘ The very sight was melody,” or where it is said of Judas Iscariot— The light Was torment, and alone he staggered forth, Into the darkness on his dark intent. Altogether, a work exhibiting so much learning, such large and original thought, such freshness and felicity of metaphor, such metaphysical subtlety, and above all. so great a power of idealisation is well worthy of attention, and may not improbably secure a high place in the literature of the nineteenth century, and at the least vindicate its claim to be considered a ‘‘ modern epic.” EVOLUTION. By HENRY NUTTER, March 25th, 1884. The lecturer traced the development of this planet from a gaseous condition to a state of liquid. He explained the Nebular Theory; the changes which were brought about by radiation, condensation, gravitation, and molecular attraction; the lumin- osity of the earth, and the cooling down of its surface; the long 46 period of darkness, the battle with fire and water, the twilight, the formation of granite, the process of disintegration. He next spoke of the formation of the first sedimentary rocks, the first universal boiling ocean, the primitive hills and valleys, the shape of the earth, its diurnal and centripetal motions, and the inclina- tion of the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit. Then followed a reference to the dawn of life in the cooler parts of the Laurentian ocean, and the first known fossil form in the Hozoon Canadense, found by Dawson near the St. Lawrence. An enorm- ous time elapsed from the appearance of the Kozoon to the other foraminifera and plant-like animals, the Zoophites, the Oldhamia, Lingula, fucoids, worms, shrimp-like Hymenocarus, and on to the Trilobite in the Cambrian formation. From the EHozoon in the Laurentian to the top of the Cambrian there were no fewer than 972 distinct species of lowly and gradually improving forms of animal life, from the sponge-like creature to the Trilobite. Some of these forms have been continued to this day with slight and others with great variation from the old stock. Thousands have perished and been supplanted by superior forms. The Lingula and Nautilus still survive. Those animals which have adapted themselves to surrounding conditions, or been in a position to resist certain destructive influences, have survived and developed, while others which have been unfit, or have been subject to greater physical changes in the early history of these rocks by upheavals and sudden subsidences, have been unable to survive. This fact remains clear to all, that from the first of these ancient fossiliferous rocks which contain fossils only of the lowest types, there is a gradual improvement of form and develop- ment in each succeeding leaf of the book of rocks. This growing and transitional diversity of improving type is conspicuous to the mind of the most ardent opponent of Darwinism. We now ascend to the Silurian formation which lies upon the upper Cambrian slates. The fauna which flourished in the Silurian Ocean was a continuation of pre-existing forms with a rich variety of superior types and species. Here we are introduced to the kingdom of Molusks, from the simplest form to the highest developed Cephalopod. In the upper Silurian we arrive at the first simple vertebrate form, the present supposed representa- tive being the Amphioxis or Lancelot, and a doubtful form of fish called the Pteraspis. Great varieties of Molusks and Crustaceans are found in these waters, yet there is no proof of life on land excepting low forms of vegetation. Great changes were taking place in the sea. Swarming varieties of Crustaceans and Cepha- lopods and also Graphtolites had arrived at their climax and were giving place to relatives of a higher order. The development of the vertebrate continued during the upper Silurian, and in a remarkable degree in the lower portion of the Old Red Sandstone. 47 These Devonian rocks contain fossils of the remarkable creatures found by the illustrious Hugh Miller—the Cocostehs, Ptericuthys, and Cephalaspis—evident relatives and successors of the Pteraspis in the upper Silurian. Passing through the mountain limestone and coal beds with their ever-increasing variety of fish and reptiles, and before the end of the coal period, the marine insects and univalve crustaceans crept out of the waters, and finding the atmosphere not so much charged with carbon, were followed by marine beetles and scorpions, and also batrachian reptiles. Their former gills in time disappear; air sacks are substituted in the process of their development for their future terrestrial existence. After these creatures have emerged from their ocean depths there follows a continuous procession of loathsome marine reptiles, whose ancient water-breathing apparatus is slowly evolving into air respiratory organs, through a persistence on their part to ereep out on the sides of the rivers and oceans, till they find it more inconvenient to respire through their primitive gills than by the aid of their newly acquired organs of respiration. Foot- prints of these animals were found in the rocks long before the fossils of the creatures themselves. Here is a good illustration of Longfellow— And departing leave behind them Footprints on the sands of time. The next rocks, termed the Permian or the New Red Sandstone, contain representatives of the batrachian and lizards of the coal period, yet this reptilian kingdom is possessed of superior vertebra, and better teeth and limbs. We now close with the Paleozoic time and enter upon the Mesozoic (middle age), the Triasic, Jurasic, and Cretaceous formations. We come in contact with flying Lizards, Bats and Vampires, Pteradactyl, &c., the her- bivorous, Dinosaniss, and lLabyrinthodents, Crocodiles, &c. Higher still we arriye at bird-lke lizards, the Iguanodon, Hadrosaurus, and Magalosaurus. There are also lizard-like birds with beaks and peculiar wings, the Hesperornis, Odon- topteryx, and the Archeopteryx. Also we come to the Ornithorincus, the predecessor of the hairy Marsupial, or pouched animal, the link that connects the egg-laying or oviperous animal with the true Mammalia. Here we approach the most interesting part of the process of evolution. Previously life had been generated by the dividing of cells; egg-laying and implacental forms only; and now lastly, the process which culminates in bringing the young into the world alive, the Mammalia. During _ these changes on land many wonderful cases of reptilian develop- . j ; ment had taken place in the sea, the scaley Saurians, the Plesiosaurus, Ichthyosaurus, and the Elasmosaurus, the last monster being no less than 50 feet in length. The vegetable kingdom had during these great intervals been gradually evolving 48 into superior forms and structure. The next rocks above, called the Tertiary, bring us near the surface. The deposition of these rocks took place during great changes in the animal kingdom. The gradual development of the Mammalia in the ascending scale brings us through various stages to the lowest organized Monkey or Lemur. These animals differ from the Monkey (or Simiada) in several particulars, one of which is the undeveloped finger nail. This four-handed creature had on its two hind hands (or feet) four fairly developed fingers with proper nails, but the first finger in each hand had still remaining the claw of a bird. Higher still we arrive at the better developed Monkey, with proper feet and hands; and further on in the scale we come to the highly developed tailess Apes, the Gibbon, the Orang-Outang, the Chimpanzee, and Gorilla. These Anthropoids or Quad- rumana approach nearest to Man in the ascending development of the animal kingdom, and according to the highest authorities have doubtless diverged from the same stem or stock from which Bimana or Man originated. Mr. Nutter observed in conclusion that he had hurriedly ascended through 130,000 feet of rock formation, and glanced briefly at the continuous stream of improving and transitional forms of animal life therein contaimed in fossil state. In the lowest rocks we find no trace of highly organized forms. But on ascending we are continually reminded of the varying and branching tendency of each species; the increasing varieties, &c. One strong reason for a belief in the Theory of Evolution is derived from the fact of the persistency of each type in clinging to all improving forms of structure, and the tendency to throw off, or allow to become useless, or even to perish, any organ of the body that is rendered unserviceable by a change of habit or conditions. Although thousands of species and varieties have perished in the earth’s history and Jeft no perfect fossil form, yet there is sufficient evidence to all who have carefully examined the book of rocks to prove tnat from the first simple cell at the dawn of life up to the highest ape, and onward to the most intelligent man or the most beautiful woman of the Caucasian race, there has been a gradual improvement in form and structure and also of intelligence. The great gulf between the highest Ape and the lowest uncivilized barbarian is often urged as a valid reason against the Theory of Evolution. A careful and unbiased consideration of this part of the question I presume will lead anyone into a more favourable opinion of the theory. Huxley states that ‘‘ Man in all parts of his organiza- tion differs less from the highest Apes than these do from the lowest members of the same group.” From a close scrutiny of the writings of Darwin, Hackel, Huxley, Marsh, Wilson, Galton, and even Mivart and Dawson, Mr. Nutter said he was satisfied that the continuous and increasing stream of life, in ever chang- EE Ss hl lee ee — — ————KGme eee. h Uc 49 ing characters and improving forms of developmental structures, from the first simple cell mentioned in this paper to the highest and most beautiful type of the modern highly civilized European was the result of Evolution and not of special creation. Although the rocks have not been one millionth part geologically examined, yet there is ample evidence that the changes in the fauna and flora of the earth have been continually taking place throughout the myriads of ages in the past. That these changes have been brought about by altered conditions, by natural selection, or the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence, by sexual selection, and lastly by methodical selection, there can be little doubt. Although changes are generally slow and imperceptible, yet after a great lapse of time and ever changing conditions varieties of different species will diverge and change in form and feature, until the said varieties are so different from each other that they may be classed as distinct species. The wonderful and incorruptible fossil monuments of the fauna and flora of all ages in the past history of life in this world are a clear and unmistake- able record of one ever changing and ascending process of Evolution. Darwin states on the last page in his “ Origin of Species’ that ‘There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one, and that whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been and are being evolved.”’ During the lecture evidence was advanced in favour of the Theory from the fact of the appearance of a numaber of rudiment- ary organs in the lower animals and in man. There was also touched upon the questions of Affinities and Genealogy, secondary characters, variation, the imperfection of the Geological record, &e. The paper gave rise to a warm and lengthy debate, in which many members joined, Dr. Monckman taking the lead in opposi- tion to the theories advanced by Mr. Nutter. DRAMATIC SOIREE. Director, T. MIDGLEY. April 29th, 1884. This soirée was held in the Mechanics’ Institution, the follow- ing being the Pieces performed :— “¢ Our Birtrerest For,” a One Act Drama, by G. C. Herbert. General Von Rosenberg, a Prussian Commander............... J. W. Houlden. 50 Henri de la Fére, an Officer in the French Army.......00...00 T. Midgley. Blanche d’ Evran, his Cousin ............ 0.0008 Miss M. Slater. Scene—Chiateau de la Fére. ‘¢Wrak Woman,” an Original Comedy in Three Acts, by H. J. Byron. Doctor Fleming, a London Physician ...... A, B. Hardman. Captain Ginger, of the Bungleshire Buffs ...... T’. Midgley. Arthur Medwyn, a Young Farmer.............. J. W. Houlden. Tootal; a) Provineial Swell: vscisseveceedees Aveee Charles Fox. Frederick Fanshawe..........0.ssceceseeee seoveseeed. Redmond. Edwards, in Mani Servant. co.i. vases coud tiedewectiin J. Fletcher. Helen Gaythorne Cousins “ue Miss M. Slater. Lilian Gaythorne oaeeetrt sn Miss A. Lea. Mrs. Gunn, a Distant Relative.................. Miss M. Flynn. Scene : Act I.—Eixterior of Country House. Scene: Acts I. and I11.—Drawing Room in the House. Mr. I’. Myers’s Band supplied the Music. THE RELATION OF LITERATURE TO PAINTING. By GEORGE MILNER, President of the Manchester Literary Club ; Also Address by the President, HENRY HOULDING, September 30th, 1884. On introducing Mr. Milner, Mr. Houlding said ;—Burnley has risen within the memory of living persons from something like a country village to a town of seventy thousand inhabitants, with, it is said, more factory chimneys than any other town in the world. Hitherto it has not been remarkable for its artistic or literary associations, but rather for the absence of these. Its local art treasures cannot be collected, for they have yet to be produced, its local poets are unknown to fame, its local historians are waiting for the local history to ‘‘make itself.” A stranger coming to a town of seventy thousand inhabitants, and an unequalled number of factory chimneys, might haply enquire for our art gallery, our theatre, our atheneum, our representatives of letters and philosophy, or for the quiet places of resort where those meet who love the high and beautiful things which uplift humanity above the dead level of material necessities and material ideas, into regions mild of calm and serene air; and he might enquire in vain. Literature, art, philosophy, these are 51 high names, and they have made cities famous, and villages into holy places, but they have hardly yet made for themselves a “local habitation and a name” on the banks of our not altogether unknown Brun. It has been whispered that Spenser came to Hurstwood or to “ Spensers” in Pendle Forest in his youth, pursued ‘“ by solemn vision and bright silver dream”; and some of us believe the whisper still. We have had a Hamerton who could find here no resting place, no permanent home for his aspiring soul. ‘‘ War off the spectral glaciers shone ! ” From Rylstone Fell Wordsworth saw Pendle, with its lonely cloud, and recorded the fact in his ‘*‘ WhiteDoe,’”’ and Charlotte Bronté visited Gawthorpe, coming over the moors from Haworth. These names touch our factory chimneys as with a gleam of romance, and well-nigh exhaust our high literary associations. And now we shall have another association to mention along with these, for to-night the president of the Manchester Literary Club comes on a friendly visit to our Literary and Scientific Club, to talk to us on some of the high and beautiful things connected with literature and painting, Visits of this kind have been in Burnley hitherto, like those of the celestials, few and far between. Let us hope that one of the good things our society will accom- plish will be the bringing amongst us more frequently these messengers of light from the great centres of light. We dwell in darkness, we are “moving about in worlds not realized,’’ yet we of this association at least have turned our faces to the light, and welcome the torch-bearer who comes from afar. Manchester has a literary and artistic history of its own. It has riches of its own, and rare privileges to which we only as yet aspire. Men like Mr. Milner, who bring to us good things from lordly treasuries of art and poetry, are pure benefactors, and must never hope to receive anything in return from us in the same kind. We have yet to build our Palace of Art. We have yet a great many things to do before we can lay the first stone. We are in a pos- ition to receive, but not to give, and are likely to be in that position for some time tocome. But we may be content, knowing that it is good also to receive, and according to our capacities and opportunities, to enjoy, ‘ the things that others understand.” Mr. Milner then said:—The subject of the relationship which exists between Literature and Painting is beset with difficulties and hedged about with much controversy. Readers of Lessing’s Laokoon and of Sir Joshua Reynolds’s Discourses will _know to what it is that Iam alluding. On this point there have _ always been two distinct schools of criticism, the one contending for sharp definitions and accurate lines of distinction between the various arts, and the other being more or less inclined to merge differences and to discover analogies. A writer in the Quarterly 52 Review, discussing ‘ The Progress of Taste,” re-opens the vexed question. He thinks there is at the present time a tendency to disregard the fundamental difference which exists between one form of art and another. He objects to Mr. Comyns Carr praising Keats for having composed like a painter; and when he is considering a passage in which Mr. Ruskin says— We should calla man a great painter only as he excelled in precision and force in the lunguage of lines, and a great versifier as he excelled in precision or force in the language of words. A great poet would thus bea term strictly, and in precisely the same sense, applicable to both, if warranted by the character of the images or thoughts which each in their respective languages conveyed — he asks: ‘Is there anything like that analogy between the language of poetry and painting which Mr, Ruskin suggests ?” And, further, he considers this tendency to be only one of many symptoms of revolt against the law of nature; and in a passage which is amusing in its plaintiveness, he regrets that traditiéns are cast off and beaten paths abandoned. ‘‘ Poetry,” he says, as though his moral sense had been offended by an incestuous union, ‘seeks support from philosophy or painting; painting shows a tendency to abuse the natural affinities existing between itself and music; while music, discarding melody, strives to usurp the functions of the poetic drama.” Now, I am not going to set myself against the weight of tradition. I am willing to admit, nay, 1 am even anxious to acknowledge, that the several arts have their own proper limit- ations; but I am more inclined to dwell upon the analogies which seem to exist among them, than to emphasize the points of difference. In pursuing this course I shall confine myself to the arts of literature and painting. I avoid that very misleading phrase, “literature and art,” because such an expression presupposes that literature is not an art; and my object is to consider that literature and that only which, whether expressed in prose or in verse, can show for itself a fair claim, by its motive and by its form, to take rank as one of the most perfect of the arts. Assuming therefore, that literature equally with painting may be regarded as a fine art, I proceed to offer some observations upon a few of those points which show how nearly the two pursuits are related, and how largely the same principles apply to each. First, then, I insist that they have the same primary motive ; and that this motive is to give pleasure—pleasure of the highest kind. Other considerations may have their due weight in the mind of the artist; and it may even be contended that the pleasure of which I speak is in itself a moral force; but it is none the less essential pleasure which must first be sought. The artist who writes and the artist who paints have alike to aim at increasing the total sense of enjoyment, and of heightening, if 53 one may so speak, the mental and spiritual pulse. The moment this high office is forgotten—high, though despised by some—the moment you become indifferent as to whether your work will please or not; or, worse still, the moment you permit yourself to become primarily and visibly didactic, at that moment your _ work as a pure artist is at an end. You have nothing to do _ withteaching. In your school, paradoxical as it may seem, men learn, indeed, but they are not taught. You have nothing to do with morals, per se; and yet it is quite true that you may make for those who come under your influence a moral atmosphere pure as the heavens above, or an immoral atmosphere debasing as the pit of hell. If this consideration were kept steadily before us, both picture and poem would often be very different in character from - what they now are. We should instinctively shun the present- ation of what is mean, deformed, or repulsive; and, quite as naturally, we should take the highest pleasure in setting forth those things which are ‘‘lovely and of good report.’’ This does not mean that we are not to appeal to the tragic sense. Sorrow, alike in its simplest and its grandest forms; the tenderest and most melting pity; terror even, are all within the artistic range; but loathing and unmitigated horror are radically and by their own nature inadmissible. The work of a certain contem- porary school of French painters would illustrate this point. The _ subjects which these men choose are outside the pale of art; and neither thoroughness of scholastic training, nor the most won- derful technical skill, will avail to save their productions from ultimate reprobation. In literature the same thing holds, and modern instances are by no means wanting. We all know the poets with regard to whom fecundity of fancy, and a very cataract of words, and melody which is only too abundant and too obvious, will not be found sufficient to outweigh the intrinsical and primary defect which attaches to some of their poems in consequence of the subjects themselves being outside the proper domain of art. For final arbitrament on this point we are seldom wrong if ‘we go to Shakspere. One might offer without rashness to construct out of his works alone, and guided alone by his practice and example, a complete canon upon the subject of the limitations of art, which should be as applicable to the purpose of the painter as it would be to that of the poet. Contrast his work with that of his contemporaries, and you will soon perceive how delicate and unerring was the instrument of his artistic apprehension. To him, indeed, it was given to try every spirit whether it was good or evil. His genius was in his hand as a divining rod, which told him unfailingly where his steps might safely tend, d where they must be promptly withdrawn. Considering him an artist only, we see how much the broad sanity and clear a 54 healthiness of his mind had to do with keeping him from the pitfalls into which others stumbled and fell. We know how superb a poet was Christopher Marlowe ; and for his ‘‘ mighty line” we have nothing but homage; but, as a pure artist how far he comes below Shakspere. The latter would scarcely have permitted himself to write such a passage as this : Now Faustus let thine eyes with horror stare Into that vast perpetual torture-house : There are the furies tossing damned souls On burning forks ; there bodies boil in lead; There are live quarters broiling on the coals That ne’er can die. These lines are to be condemned because, so far as they are not ludicrous, the feeling which they awaken is one of those which I have held to be inadmissible in art—the feeling of unmitigated horror. No wise artist would attempt the delineation of such a scene. And yet if, on the other hand, we want an instance—a typical instance—of entirely legitimate art —art as perfect in con- ception as in expression, we have only to turn over the pages of that same drama from which I have just quoted—the Faustus of Marlowe—and we come upon this divine speech : Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships, And burnt the topmost towers of Ilium ? Sweet Helen make me immortal with a kiss— O, thou art fairer than the evening air, Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars ; Brighter art thou than flaming Jupiter, When he appeared to hapless Semele ; More lovely than the monarch of the sky In wanton Arethusa’s azur’d arms. I suppose it will be admitted that we have had no more consummate artist among modern poets than Samuel Taylor Coleridge. In saying this we are thinking of the quality of his work rather than of its quantity. It was his speciality, perhaps, that while he had the power, with the best, to do the best and highest work, he had also that which some of them lacked—the power to tell why he had done it. Study of him, therefore, is profitable both to painter and to poet. Note the splendid pictorial character of the Ancient Mariner ; and observe how a single vivid phrase gives life and vigour to what might otherwise have been a dead presentment :— The bride hath paced into the hall, Red as a rose is she; Nodding their heads before her goes The merry minstrelsy. “Nodding their heads’’—those are the words which give the breath of life to the picture. As an instance of artistic grasp and 55 perfect presentation of appropriate subject take the following :— Like one that on a lonesome road Doth walk in fear and dread, And having once turned round, walks on And turns no more his head ; Because he knows a frightful fiend Doth close behind him tread. It was not for this purpose, however, that I have referred to Coleridge. I wished, rather, to show how perfect was his con- ception of the limitations of art; and how he shrank from the deliberate delineation of that which was simply repulsive or horrible. If you wish to see this, get the first draft of The Ancient Mariner—that which made its appearance along with the famous Lyrical Ballads of Wordsworth, and then compare it with a later and revised edition of the same poem. Such comparison is always of service to the student of art. The poet’s changes may be vexatious, and are frequently wrong ; but none the less we shall find them—right or wrong—full of suggestive guidance. You will remember that wonderfully imaginative picture in the Third Part of The Ancient Mariner, where, without wind or tide, there comes forward that phantom ship on which Death, and Life-in- Death—vaguely awful pair—are casting dice. The woman, Death’s mate, Life-in-Death, is described :— Her lips were red, her looks were free, Her locks were yellow as gold; Her skin was as white as leprosy ; The Night-mare Life-in-Death was she, Who thicks men’s blood with cold. That is fearful enough ; it goes quite far enough ; but it is legiti- mate, and within the bounds of art. In the earlier edition, however—I use that of 1802—Death himself is also described in two stanzas, both of which are omitted in the later editions. And why? Because his fine artistic sense forbade the poet to retain that which in the fervour of conception he had allowed to pass. I quote the lines in order to show what it was that he considered inadmissible : His bones were black with many a crack, All black and bare, I ween ; Jet-black and bare, save where with rust Of mouldy damps and charnel crust, They were patched with purple and green. ‘th aoe A gust of wind sterte up behind And whistled thro’ his bones ; Thro’ the hole of his eyes and the hole of his mouth Half whistles and half groans. _ These black and mouldy bones, and these holes of eye and mouth are simply horrible, and must therefore be omitted. It is a preg- ant instance of the clear judgment and the self-controlling reticence of true art. 56 To communicate pleasure, therefore, pleasure of the highest sort, is the object of all art whether in literature or painting. When an artist finds himself considering, as primary, some other object than this, his condition is usually more or less morbid, and he should seek for a diagnosis of his disease. The greatest offenders in this direction are generally the imperfectly developed artists, or the men whose aspirations are out of proportion with their powers. Work of this kind is often noble in its motive, but it is none the less mistaken. This doctrine of the sufficiency of pleasure as the object of art needs to be insisted upon with the reader and the connoisseur no less than with the artist. The reader is apt to say, ‘‘ What does it all come to?” He begs for a little moral ; and the connoisseur, unable to content himself with simple beauty, craves for what he calls, perhaps, ‘“‘ High art.” These are weak brethren. The manna of beauty, even if it fall from heaven, is not sufficient for them: they lust after the flesh- pots of Egypt. ‘‘ What does it alicome to?” Well, you can only answer—‘ It comes to what you see ; if that is not enough, there is no help for you.” The intimate relation of literature and painting is still further seen if we enquire how far, in each kind, the temperament of the artist is the same. To me they seem to be almost identical. All art, says Mr. John A. Symonds, consists in presentation. The generalization is a large one. but I believe it to be essentially correct. The work of the painter, then, is to present. Literature in its highest form does the same thing. Before you can present you must receive ; and accordingly we find that the painter and the poet are, before all things, receptive—omnuivorous of impres- sions, tremblingly responsive, tenaciously retentive. This is one side only. This is the essential side, for without it the very beginnings of art are impossible; and yet it is the side which implies weakness. The other aspect of the artistic temperament is one of power. It is that which broods, quickens, fertilizes, and ultimately, in the fulness of strength, produces. The first of these gives us the artist in posse ; only when the second is added do we get the artist in esse. It is the necessary combination of these two in high degree which makes the rarity of the great artist. It is the necessary presence in one frail tabernacle of these apparently opposing spirits which gives to the process of artistic creation its wearing and exhaustive character. The poets sown by Nature, of whom we read in the familiar passage of The Hxcursion— Men endowed with highest gifts, The vision and the faculty divine, Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse— are not so much the men who, as Wordsworth put it, are silent Through lack Of culture and the inspiring aid of books ; 57 they are rather those who possess the first of the qualifications of which I have been speaking, but who are wanting in the second. And it is just the same with regard to painters. And not only is the power and the temperament the same, the material and the field of work also are largely identical, although the mode of treatment may widely differ. It is, of course, to Nature that both the painter and the poet must go, and to her must be made the last appeal. And this leads me to insist upon the importance which must be given, in both these arts, to the faculty of observation. It is a truism to say that few people ever really think. The number of those who really observe is quite as small. The greatest writers and the greatest painters are those who have possessed this faculty of observation, with that of reten- tion, in the highest degree. They know everything ; nothing escapes them ; nothing is forgotten ; and when the true artist seems to be working most broadly, and to be dealing only with the most general aspect of things, his work exercises power over us because, behind this apparent insufficiency, there is the most minute and accurate knowledge of details. The truth of Nature is at the basis of all good work. I have already alluded to Coleridge and to his knowledge of the laws of literature. Whatever we may think of his philosophy in general, his literary philosophy is seldom at fault. In the Biographia Literaria there is a passage in which he lays down the two cardinal points of poetry. These are, he says :— ‘“ The power of exciting the sympathy of a reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature and the power of giving the interest of novelty by the modifying colours of imagination. The sudden charm which accidents of light and shade, which moonlight or sunset diffused over a known and familiar landscape, appeared to represent the practicability of combining both. These are the poetry of nature.” I think you will perceive at once that these cardinal points are as applicable to painting as they are to literature. Itis of the first, however—adherence to the truth of nature—that we are at present speaking. And what do we mean by adherence to the truth of nature? Thisis at once a difficult and a crucial point ; and it is one on which we should speak plainly or not at all. It is not enough to say, ‘‘ You must copy nature, unhesitatingly, carefully, faithfully.” We know howmisleading such advice may become; and how hard and poor may be the product resulting from such a style of work. The most devout copying is not in itself art-work ; the most cunning transcription will not suffice. To copy and to transcribe are essential; but the true quality of art is only given by making the ideal supreme. The truth is that Nature in relation to the artist holds a position singular and unique. She is at once the mistress and the servant; the source of the mind’s inspiration, and the humble material wpon which the mind imperiously works. IfI try to put this paradoxical matter into 58 shape for my own guidance I arrive at the following conclusion : The artist does not copy nature except for instruction ; but by loving, unwearied, unceasing observation, he gradually sets up in the mind a certain ideal—which is Nature’s and also his own— by which he is guided. He does not copy, therefore, but he works in the spirit of this ideal, and by reference to it he knows when he is falling into error no less than when he is eminently true. In time the highest and the best in nature, the loftiest moods and the most perfect harmonies that he is capable of comprehending or assimilating, come to be something by which he even helps or corrects the lower manifestations. It is mere fanaticism when men hold that for art purposes every indis- criminate aspect of nature is right and good. While speaking of truti to nature, I wish to add two things : First, how careful we should be in our judgments to distinguish inadequacy of representation or of treatment from absolute error. I am never inclined to complain because a work is slight; but only because it is false, perverse, or idle—false, when from igno- rance it conforms to no standard, either material or ideal ; perverse, when it persistently sins against knowledge ; idle, when it is habitually below the level of the artist’s known power. And, second, I wish to urge a more accurate and thorough study of nature upon those who venture to criticise the art either of the poet or the painter. Nothing is more disheartening to the artist than the uncertainty, the wilfulness, the uninformed audacity of Criticism. Here is universal nature, a region where all things are Protean and subtle ; where the impossible is that which is for ever happening ; where no two shapes are alike; where effects are legion, and developments infinite. Yet it is here that your critic will dogmatize and condemn upon the slightest and most casual study. I think I am justified in saying that both the critic and the painter in this matter should learn of the poet. From two men especially the lesson may be got—William Cowper and William Wordsworth. Opinion will always be divided as to how much of what is valuable these have taught, or may hereafter be able to teach us; but this one thing is indisputable—they have shown us better than any others in what spirit Nature should be approached, after what manner she should be studied, and with what kind of unswerving faithfulness she should be served. And the secret of their power as teachers in this regard will be found in the fact that their love for Nature—a rare thing, indeed—was entirely without affectation, and their devotion to her wholly without hypocrisy. If we would really understand that which is the ground of art we must have the same affection for Nature which Cowper expressed when he said—‘‘ Oh! I could spend whole days and nights in gazing upon a lovely prospect! My eyes drink the rivers as they flow.”” We must understand with NN S| ‘aggre 59 Wordsworth what is meant by the Reverend watching of each still report That Nature utters from her rural shrine; we must learn with him To look on Nature with a humble heart, Self-questioned where it does not understand, And with a superstitious eye of love; and to commune with the glorious universe must continue through life, with us as it did with him— The first and virgin passion of a soul. The most important relation, however, between literature and painting arises under the head of the imagination ; and of this I propose briefly to speak. It may be granted thatin all art expression is the first essential; and no part of the artistic gift is more largely native than this. When the poet and the painter are born it is this which is born with them—power of language, the expression of literature; power of outline and colour, the expression of painting. But if expression be the earliest factor in art and absolutely essential, imagination is incomparably the greatest. Granted expression, with an artistically receptive tem- perament, and a certain kind of artistic work is possible, even without imagination. The highest and best work, however, is never reached, or even entered upon at all, unless the artist has been endowed with this—the most bountiful gift of all those which the Muses have it in them to bestow. And, it must be added, with imagination the smallest and most circumscribed productions become valuable. It will be worth while, therefore, to ask what it is that we mean by imagination ? and further, perhaps, how it differs from what we call fancy? These two words are used so loosely, and in so many senses, and with such overlapping confusion, that it is no wonder our ideas with regard to them should often be of the vaguest character. Many a student of literature and of painting, I should suppose, must have sought in vain for a dis- tinct and cohesive definition. At the root of much error on this subject there lies the way in which we use the words “ real’’ and “unreal.” We make the “real,” in common phrase, to be the antithesis of the “ideal.” Itis no such thing. We make the ‘unreal’ to be synonymous with what we are pleased to call the “imaginative”. It is no such thing. To say that a thing is “merely imaginative” is our way of condemning it. The true antithesis is this—the ideal and the material. Unreality has no necessary connection with either. The material is real: the ideal is certainly not less so. And now, let us ask: what is it to exercise the imagination ? For clearness’ sake the answer had better be given by successive statements. It is, of course, first and primarily, to make an image in the mind. But it is more than this—it is to embody in a 60 harmonious whole the mind’s fragmentary conceptions. Further, tt is to create out of simple elements a new existence, which, when created, shall be essentially veal and true. And, yet further still—it is to do all this with emotion, and with the conscious purpose of giving pleasure—asthetic pleasure arising from a sense of beauty. The imagination, therefore, takes what has been accumulated ; and then selects, rejects, controls, arranges, harmonizes ; and, finally, creates. Although the power of the imagination is seen as much in what it refuses as in what it accepts, its domain is one of synthesis rather than analysis. Its action, it may be added, is intimately connected with that of sympathy. The imaginative artist has the power of going out of himself, both emotionally and intellectually ; and this is probably the reason why works of the highest art are seldom produced except under conditions which afford sympathy towards the artist. That which he gives he asks for in return. One of the finest symbols of the imaginative process, as I understand it, is given us in the Mosaic story of the Creation :— «“ And God said, let us make man in our image, after our like- ness. . . . And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul.” Here is the express work of the | imagination. The Supreme is set before us as a maker—the ancient name given to the poet. Something is made, and it is made in an image. The image is that of the Maker himself— exactly the process of art. The thing made is out of the dust of the earth. This represents to us the humble material—nature, which is the true basis of the artist’s work. Finally, the Maker’s own breath of life is needed before we can have a living soul, precisely what occurs in art: it is the artist’s own life, and that only which can ever make his work to live. The magnificent eulogy which Shakspere pronounced upon that first creation is pretty much what we have to say over the greatest works of art: “« What a piece of work is a man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculty! in form and moving how express and admir- able! in action how like an angel! in apprehension how like a god.” Such, I believe, is the Imagination when rightly defined ; and its office in painting is entirely the same as in literature. When the poem or the painting fails, it is usually because the artist has lacked this faculty, and consequently has been unable to see at one time both the individual and the general—unable to keep his mind grasping the whole while he laboured upon a part. It will be seen, therefore, that in our judgment the imagination is not merely, as is often supposed, an idle or vagrant function of the mind, fluttering aimlessly from thought to thought, or dealing only with fantastic unrealities ; but rather that it is, on amet Sane Oe 4 61 the contrary, a function which, equally with that of the man of science, loves before all things—fitness, order, harmony. And now let me ask : what do we mean by the fancy, and how does it differ in art from the imagination? Often enough it is used for the imagination simply, or for a lower kind of imagina- tion. Some writers seem to regard it as the imaginative faculty dealing with what they call fantastic or unreal things. I should, however, define it as that which sets forth separate or fragment- ary images in opposition to images combined and harmonious. It is quick, nimble, casual ; while the imagination is deliberative and reflective in its operations. It is also the faculty which seizes upon the similitudes and likenesses of things, and on this side it approaches to wit. Finally, while the imagination is essentially constructive, the fancy is decorative; the first deals with essentials, the second with embellishments. In that delightful little book of meditative devotion, for the issue of which we have to thank our friend Mr. John E. Bailey, there is a quaint passage about meditation and contemplation of which we are reminded by this comparison of the imagination and the fancy : For Meditation considers her objects piece by piece ; but Contemplation sums them all together and sees, as in a gross, all the several beauties of Meditation’s objects. Meditation is with a man as he that smells the violet, the rose, the jessamine, and the orange flowers dividually. (My meditations of the Lord are sweet of themselves, saith David.) But Contemplation is a water compounded of them all. The way in which the imagination and the fancy work in painting as in literature, would be well seen by a study of such a masterpiece as that inimitable lyric of Shelley’s, the Ode To a Skylark. We should probably first discover that the genesis of such a piece of art would lie in some instantaneous impulse from within ; or in some flashing hint from without. I believe that all the highest work of painter or of poet does so begin. It is not built as a tower; or woven as a web: it starts from a central germ, and round that it grows and gathers by the force of its first intention. We should see, in the study of this poem, that it was the imagination which formed the image of a bird, which yet is not a bird, but an unbodied spirit of joy; which developed this conception, and determined how far it should be carried; which decided what was and what was uot in harmony with it; and which regulated the force of the initial emotion. But itis the fancy, working in subservience to the imagination, which gives us the successive and fragmentary similitudes which we have, for instance, in the following stanzas :— Like a high-born maiden In a palace tower, Soothing her love-laden Soul in secret hour. With music sweet as love, which overflows her bower: 62 Like a glow worm golden In a dell of dew, Scattering unbeholden Its aérial hue Among the flowers and grass, which screen it from the view: Like the rose embowered In its own green leaves, By warm winds deflowered, Till the scent it gives Makes faint with too much sweet these heavy-winged thieves. Sound of vernal showers On the twinkling grass, Rain-awakened flowers All that ever was Joyous and clear and fresh,{thy music doth surpass. Such is the work of the fancy. Butit was the higher faculty which conceived and harmonized the idea of setting up, as against the joyous and unreflecting bird, the image of a man tragically bearing his load of sorrow and of knowledge: We look before and after, And pine for what is not; Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught ; Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. Better than all measures Of delightful sound, Better than all treasures That in books are found, Thy skill to poet were, thou scorner of the ground! Teach me half the gladness That thy brain must know, Such harmonious madness From my lips would flow. The world would listen then, as I am listening now. I have quoted only those stanzas of this poem which, as it seemed to me, would help us to understand the distinct and yet the nearly allied work of the imagination and the fancy. The whole poem, however, would be found fruitful in teaching both to the painter and the poet, and cannot be too carefully studied by either. The limits of this address forbid that I should pursue the subject further. Otherwise there are many other relations existing between the arts of literature and painting to which our consideration might be given. It would be profitable for instance, to enquire how far that quality which we call style is identical in its nature, and how far also, in the two cases, it is the one thing which, although apparently not of the essence of the work is absolutely essential to survival and to the exercise of permanent power over mankind. In another branch of the subject it would have been pleasant to dwell upon the painters who have given their best work to the illustration and embodiment of the poets eee ee ee i a 63 imaginings; and to have seen how many of the very finest passages in our literature have been given to the description and elucidation of the painters’ art. We might have gone over the roll of painters who have sung and of poets who have painted, but all this must be omitted. I have, however, I hope, succeeded in making a little clearer the real limits and aims of the two sister arts—each noble in itself and helpful to the general culture of human life and the amelioration of its somewhat hard conditions. CORALS. By A. E. TOVEY, D.Sc. October 7th, 1884. Corals are formed by animals, called polyps, the most important of which are nearly identical in structure with our common sea anemones. The polyps are more or less cylindrical in shape, one end of the cylinder being closed, and generally fixed; the other end being free, having a anil i its centre, and being fringed with one or more circle of tentacles. The mouth leads into a sac, which opens below into the general body-cavity. This body-cavity is divided into compartments by partitions mesenteries) which radiate from the wall of the sac to that of the body. The body-cavity is continued into the tentacles, which are generally perforated at their extremities. The body wall is composed of three layers: the exterior layer, or ectoderm, which is continued over the oral surface, and lines the gastric sac, being formed of somewhat cylindrical cells interspersed with cells supposed to be tactile, and with other cells containing introverted threads, used in the capture of its prey, hence -ealled thread-cells; a middle layer, or mesoderm, consisting of longitudinal and transverse layers of contractile fibres, by which the movements of the polyp are effected; and a layer, called the endoderm, which lines the body-cavity, consisting of nutritive and reproductive cells. The polyps increase by budding; by fission, i.e., a large polyp dividing longitudinally into two; and by sexual reproduction, when the ovum gives rise to a free swimming ciliated oval embryo, which developes mouth, -mesenteries, gastric sac, &c. The coral is a calcareous skeleton which makes its first appearance as a radiating series of plates in the mesoderm of the base of the polyp; a calcareous ring is then developed exterior to the plates, which finally coalesce with it. As the polyp grows in length, the coral also increases in length, and as the exterior ring is generally the furthest advanced part of the coral, a sort of cup or calycle is formed at 64 its growing end. As the polyp divides or buds, fresh coral tubes are also developed. The various specimens which were shown (kindly lent by the Blackburn Museum and by Mr. F. H. Hill) illustrated how the form of the coral depended on the size of the individual polyps, and their mode of fission or budding. Reef building polyps Hourish only in seas whose temperature is never less than 680 Fahr. nor at greater depths than about 26 fathoms. Yet reefs of corals exist springing from the bottom’ of an ocean 1000 fathoms below the surface. This was shewn to be owing to the subsidence of the ocean bed; and the condition of the reef, whether fringing reef, barrier reef or atoll, depends on the amount of subsidence which the ocean bed on which the reef is resting has undergone. ‘The structure of the sclerobasic red coral and of the hydrocoralline was swiftly glanced at, as time would not allow a fuller description. Dr. Tovey also touched upon*the interesting question of the rate of growth of corals, and also of their commercial value. For the elucidation of the lecture drawings in various colored chalks were produced on the blackboard by the lecturer. STRAY NOTES ON THE ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY OF EAST LANCASHIRE. By TATTERSALL WILKINSON. October 14th, 1884. BURWAINS. This pretty, sequestered manorial house stands on the side of a deep clough, which runs up from Catlow Bottoms. It com- mands delightful views both up and down the Walverden Valley, while the heathery crown of old Boulsworth, forms a charming apex to the eastern horizon. From an inscription over the porch, it appears that this house was built by John Briercliffe, in 1642, two years previous to the battle of Marston Moor. at a time when England was convulsed in the deadly throes of a civil war. It seems that the De Briercliffes held lands in Briercliffe in the 14th century. There can be no doubt that this ancient family was located here immediately after the conquest, and derived their name from the township. The Briercliffes continued to reside here up to the beginning of the 18th century, when Burwains finally passed into the possession of the Robertshaws, of Cold- weather House, who are the present owners. Prior to 1642, when the present structure was erected, there existed an old building, and when the new hall was finished, John Briereliffe had the original inscription of the old house placed over the 65 entrance of the porch. In consequence of some misapprehension on the part of the late Mr. John Robertshaw, he had it taken down and destroyed. During a visit to the Burwains a short time ago, I found in the north-west angle of the mansion a small room that had formerly been a Roman Catholic chapel; the mouldings on the ceiling, and niches on the walls, with their antique Norman arched pattern, together with the two family erests of the Briercliffes and Parkers on each side of the mantel- piece, are ina remarkable state of preservation. The original fireplace built in the style of the sixteenth century, is walled up, and a modern one supplies its place. At the end of the dining room opposite the fireplace is a large oak frame, well filled with fine specimens of old English pewter plates and dishes, some bearing the date 1709. On the landing at the top of the stairs there isa fine oak cist, richly carved on the frames and round the panels, and bearing the following inscription :—‘‘ M.S., 1666.” This cist was the property of Margaret Briercliffe, granddaughter of John Briercliffe, afterwards the wife of William Sagar, the founder of Catlow Hall. The inscription over the door of the latter mansion is, ‘“ William Sagar and Margaret his wife, July 24, 1666.” It appears from a number of old documents placed at my disposal by Mrs. Robertshaw, that frequent marriages have taken place between the Sagars of Catlow Hall and the Robert- shaws. I also found one among the number bearing date 1663, in which Richard Tattersall, of the Ridge and Hurstwood (an ancestor of the Tattersalls of Hyde Park Corner, London), gives a receipt to his brother-in-law, William Sagar, of Catlow, for the sum of £80, being the balance of his wife’s dowry, and absolves him from all further responsibility from the beginning of the world up to the above date. During the troubles that occurred in the middle ages, when every township supplied its quota of men-at-arms, the weapons were generally stored at a convenient central depot. It appears that Burwains was the repository for Briercliffe, and some of these primitive weapons, in the shape of rusty rapiers and flint firelocks, are to be seen there at the present day. In an old building formerly used as a coach-house, with harness-room above, I was informed that the Baptists held their meetings in the latter place over a century ago, prior to the building of the old chapel at the east side of Haggate. : AN OLD QUAKER BURIAL GROUND. Crossing the glen, thickly planted with oak, sycamore, and orchard trees, are the Quaker burial ground, and the quaint old house, with its rough grit corners and chimney, a model of rural - comfort and beauty. A plain low room on the ground floor is ointed out as the meeting house. Opposite the old house the its of ‘‘God’s acre” are indicated by a low wall on the north 66 and east, while a deep ditch, interspersed with several fine trees, marks the west and southern border. Several gravestones without inscriptions cover the resting places of the silent dead. One contains the following inscription :—‘ Here lyeth the body of Elizabeth, the wife of John Vipont, 1681.” The name is not familiar to the district, although I have been informed that several Viponts live in the neighbourhood of Colne. The view from this charming spot is beautiful beyond description. Cat- low Water meanders prettily down the woody vale toward Pendle Water, while the ‘‘ Forest” with its smiling farmsteads—a truly English scene—backed by old Pendle, bars the view westward. ’ ‘“NEW HOUSE”’ IN BRIERCLIFFE. From an inscription on a grit slab over the door of this farmhouse, which reads as follows, we learn that ‘‘ Robert Parker and Jane his wife, Robert and Henry their sons, built this house, May 2nd, 1672.” A postscript at the bottom, probably written by Robert, their son, says :—‘‘O Thou of mighty most blessed and them that made this cot. R.P., 1672.’ Over a door in another part of the building is written ‘‘ Robert Parker and Grace his wife, 1677.’ The Robert Parker first mentioned was the grandson of Robert Parker, of Extwistle, who married Jane Haydock, daughter of Evan Haydock, Heasandford (Pheasantford), who died December, 1597. THE CAMP AT THORNTON-IN-CRAVEN. During the civil wars the strong castle at Skipton was held by a powerful garrison for the king, under the command of Sir John Malory. It was besieged by the soldiers of the Common- wealth under General Lambert, who was born at Carleton, and was the son of a private gentleman. ‘The siege commenced in December, 1642, and continued until December, 1645. During its continuation strong garrisons were formed at Thornton and Gisburne by the Cromwellians, for the purpose of providing forage for the troops at Skipton, and also to keep down the Royalist gentry who were very numerous in Kast Lancashire. The Roundheads made frequent raids through this neighbourhood for the purpose of levying contributions on the money and property of the Royalists. Mr. Parker, of Browsholme, after having been repeatedly plundered by both parties, like a wise man sought and obtained a letter of protection from both parties, of which the following are copies :— For the Col. and Lieu.-Col. within Craven, these Noble Gentlemen. I could desire to move you in behalfe of Mr. Ed. Parker, of Broosome, that you would be pleased to take notice of his house, and give orders to the officiers and soldiers of your regiments that they plunder not, nor violently take away, any of his goods, without your privities; for truly the proneness 67 of souldiers sometimes to commit some insolencies w’out comand from their supiors is the cause of my writing this time; hoping, hereby, through your care, to prevent a further evill, in all thankfulness, I shall acknowledge (besides the great obligation you putt on Mr. Parker,) myselfe to bee, your much obliged, Ric. SHurrnewortH. Gawthrop, 13 Feb., 1644. The following is a protection from the Royalists :— These are to intreat all officiers and souldieres of the Scottish armie, and to require all officiers and souldieres of the English armie under my command that they forbeare to tale or trouble the p’son of Edward Parker, of Browsholme, Esqr., or to plunder his goods, or anie other or damage to doe unto him in his estate, Tuo. Tyupzstry. This 8th day of August, 1648. The Roundheads made a raid into Briercliffe and Extwistle, for the purpose of plundering the supporters of the Royal cause. A party sacked High Halstead, near Swindean, taking all they could lay their hands on, and ultimately driving away ten oxen and twe other beasts to the value of £45. The noise and tumult made by the marauders was heard across the valley from Extwistle by Mr. Parker, who immediately drove all the cattle within reach into the thickets of Ronclehurst Wood ; also hiding away most of the valuables in the hall. On finding themselves checkmated they attempted to fire the place, but having to decamp hastily very little damage was done. On the 25th day of May, 1644, Prince Rupert entered Lancashire by way of Stockport, with an army of 8,000 men, destined for the relief of Lathom House. Rigby, who commanded the besiegers, immediately retired to Bolton with a force of 2,000 soldiers. The storming of the latter place soon followed, after which the Royalists poured across the hills into Burnley valley on the way to join the King’s forces at York a few days previous to the battle of Marston Moor, where the star of the Royal Stuarts destiny set for ever. Breaking up into small detachments for the purpose of foraging on the line of route, they commenced to plunder indiscriminately both friend and foe. A party of 200 made their appearance in Worsthorne on the eve of a summer’s afternoon, where they blackmailed the farmers’ larders of all the edibles and drinkables they could lay their hands on, the officers living at free quarters at an old public- house, which was demolished during the early part of the last century. It was called ‘‘Cross House,”’ hence the name of the locality Cross House Green. The house is gone, but a portion of the garden fence exists at the present time. The following morning they seized and drove the cattle out of the fields along the line of march. Passing the farm house at Bottin, one of them entered the place and took possession of a panful of potatoes. At High Halstead two horses were unyoked and taken out of two carts, and a herd of cattle was taken possession of. The despoiled farmers, incensed by the cruel treatment they had received, armed themselves with all kinds of rude weapons, and hung on the rear of the invaders, bent upon rescuing some of their cattle. On 68 arriving at Cockden Water, a few soldiers remained straggling behind, and the pursuers taking a short eut by Ormerod Bridge, overtook them in the hollow opposite to the barn belonging to Miss Halstead. Here a fierce struggle took place, in which the troops had the advantage, leaving two farmers and several soldiers dead. The names of the farmers were Peter Hitchon, of Worsthorne, and Barnard Smith, of Hurstwood. Their names are recorded in the register of the Parish Church at Burnley. WINDLE HOUSE. This old house stands on an eminence to the east of Black House Lane, in the Township of Briercliffe. The family from whom the name is derived is of ancient date, but none of its members seem to have taken any important part in the history of the district. I find in a copy of the Towneley manuscripts kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. W. Waddington, that John, the son of Wm. Winhall, conveyed to John, son of Gilbert de la Leigh, all the lands he held in Worsthorne for the sum of one penny. This deed is dated 13811. The descendants of the Winhalls, under the name of Windle, still exist, some of them in humble circumstances, in Burnley and the neighbourhood. THE SPENSER FAMILY. It is not my intention to deal fully with the history of this East Lancashire family. I hope to have a special paper at some future time on that subject. I may say that I coincide with the opinion of Dr. Grossart with reference to the connections of the great poet with this part of the north. THE SITE OF MONK HALL. This ancient house, together with the land adjoining, amounting to a caracute (100 acres) was in the possession of the Abbot and monks of Newbo, near Lincoln, temp. Henry III, and it was afterwards granted to the monks of St. Mary’s, at Kirkstall Abbey, near Leeds, by Henry, Duke of Lancaster (Birch’s MSS.) from whom the name of ‘‘ Monk Hall”’ is derived. In a croft abutting upon the road adjoiming the modern Monk Hall, remains of the original foundations may still be traced. The main structure seems to have been in the form of a square, with outbuildings attached. An old building in the immediate vicinity, with antique mullioned windows and capacious fireplace, has in all probability been an appurtenance to the old hall. In those days the land to the west would be an open moor. An old road commences here, passing by Nogworth Cross over Extwistle Hill, and by way of Ronclehurst to another cross of a similar description near Hebrew Hall Bar, Burnley Road. It stood built into the fence wall on the spot where a modern shop was erected by Mr. Holt, of Lee Green. The. plinth was broken, and all traces are now lost. ee fe hohe eee 69 REMINISCENCES OF WORSTHORNE. Cock fighting and bull baiting were carried on here until a very recent date. I have a keen remembrance of the last bull bait that took place. The bull belonged to Jim Anson, and was chained to a stake near the present church gates. The game consisted of tying the bull with a tether of some fifteen yards in length to a strong stake driven into the ground. All being ready, a bull dog was loosed on the infuriated animal. As soon as the dog pinned the bull by the nose, its master had to seize it by one of the forelegs, and if the twain could manage to hold firm for three minutes the dog was declared the victor, if not, vice versa. On this occasion old Nick O’ Ellis’s, with his dog “ Crib,’ was declared the victor. The brutal game of cock fighting generally took place at the bottom of the moor during the middle of the last century. ‘‘ Mains” were fought on Sundays. This savage practice was much followed by men of the higher circles of society as well as those of the lower degree. Up to 1830, these battles were very frequent, and a number of local gentry attended. The game was often delayed until the arrival of old Jimmy Roberts, cotton manufacturer, of Burnley, who came riding on a bay pony. He was born in 1779, and died in 18380. THE FIGHTING COCKS AT MERECLOUGH. The cockpit was on the Green, facing the old hostelry. A celebrated battle was fought here for a great stake between Ormerod’s Butterfly, and Towneley’s Cesar. During the fight Cesar knocked Butterfly down, and the bystanders thought it was all over with the latter. Ormerod, of Ormerod House, the owner of the bird, thought the same, and hurriedly left the field, but he had not gone far before he heard a great shout, which induced him to return. During his absence Butterfly had risen again and killed Cesar on the spot. In commemoration of this event the inn was named the Fighting Cocks, and that name it bears to this day. On the sign was the following verse :— For heaps of gold and silver we do fight ; Death comes at every blow if it hits right, Towneley’s great Cesar doth bleeding lie; Killed by Ormerod’s gallant Butterfly. HALSTEAD COTE. _ On the eastern verge of the farm at High Halstead, and. opposite the bank of the great reservoir in Swindean valley, in a section of a fence wall, are a number of stones whose well developed form show evident signs of the masons’ handiwork. They extend some 12 or 14 yards in length. They are the only remains of an old one-story cottage which remained standing up to about a century ago. It went by the name of “ Halstead’s Cot,” and the place where it stood still retains the old title of 70 ‘‘ Halstead Cote Nook.” Situated on the borders of a solitary moor, the Jacobite leaders chose this lonely spot for the rendez- vous a short time previous to the rebellion of 1745. The rising of 1715 had proved disastrous to many of the old nobility who flocked to the standard of the Royal Stuart. Some had to fly the country, while others expiated their devotion to this unlucky family on the scaffold. The Earl of Derwentwater, Lord Ken- mure, and a host of others suffered at the hands of the execu- tioner. The gallows at Garstang, Preston, Liverpool, Lancaster and Tyburn, were employed in the execution of men of lower degree. Two men from the neighbourhood of Burnley were among the lot. Stephen Sagar from Dineley was hanged at Wigan on the eleventh of February, 1716. The other name I have forgotten. In the beginning of 1745 the hopes of the Stuarts again rose in the ascendant. Great numbers of the old Roman Catholic gentry looked anxiously forward to the landing of their darling prince. Francis Towneley, a brave and chivalrous young gentle- man, had been a long time a resident in France, and a frequent visitor to the mimic court held at St. Germains, where the head of the House of Stuart resided. Strongly attached to the religion of his ancestors he entered into the enterprise with all the ardour of youthful enthusiasm, and secretly collecting a number of men, principally tenants on the Towneley and other Roman Catholic gentlemen’s estates, they frequently met in the lonely cot at Halstead Cote Nook for the purpose of drilling and pre- paring for the coming struggle. At length the time arrived. The news that the Prince had landed spread lke wildfire among his confederates in Lancashire. With 200 men Towneley joined the standard of his prince at Manchester, amid the ringing of the church bells and the martial tones of the bagpipes playing, “The king shall have his own again.” I shall not dwell upon the disastrous undertaking which ended in the wholesale butchery on Culloden Moor, and the hanging, drawing, and quartering on Kennington Common. Mr. Wilkinson afterwards informed the audience that he had heard the story of secret drilling at Halstead’s Cote from the lips of his grandfather, who was born in 1766. He had it from his father, who was one of the company who regularly assembled at that spot to prepare for the rising in favour of the Pretender. THE STOCKS AT WORSTHORNE, This ancient relic of Saxon times stood in full working order in the centre of Worsthorne up to a recent period, a terror to those incorrigible gamblers and drunkards who chanced to cross the path of the village constable or churchwarden for the time being. I remember three being sat in ‘‘doleful dumps” in the ‘71 stocks at one time for gambling. Their names were Cheetham, Cracker, and Stitch. You must excuse these names being given in the vernacular. I have known the time when, if you asked for a person by his proper name you would probably not have found him. sh The paper was interspersed by humorous anecdotes. The curious Wapentake Law received notice, and a story in con- nection with an attempted enforcement at Worsthorne was graphically told. An episode in connection with the Stocks in the same village, in which figured Old Jim o’th Halstead, the village constable, was also related, as well as one concerning a former master and dame of the ancient manorial house of Burwains. Mr. Wilkinson concluded his paper with a few details of the ancient and important family of Parkers of Extwistle. An old manuscript—a deed of agreement bearing date Feb. 13th, 1634 —was exhibited, and was examined with much interest. Amongst those who took part in the conversation which ensued was Mr. Richard Charles, who entertained the audience by giving his recollections of persons, places and events in the early years of his long life. One incident which he narrated we reproduce. After observing that his father was born in 1773, and his grandfather in 1745, and that his grandfather who bore the name of Sagar, lived at Fenny Fold, in Hapton—Mr. Charles said that he had been told by his grandmother, whose birthplace was Fenny Fold, that in the “ fatal 45,” a small party of the Pretender’s followers left the main body who were proceeding towards Manchester with Prince Charles Edward, and came on a foraging incursion into the Hapton district. They drove the eattle away from her father’s farm, and the country-folk were so alarmed that they killed their poultry and hid them. Her father took the meal which was in the house, and placing it in a bag, secreted it in a sewer. Evening coming on, the good dame wept for apprehension as to how supper should be provided.: Just then, however, there came lowing home a cow which had escaped the marauders’ hands. The animal was peculiar in its habits, and would never associate with the rest of the herd; and as it had been grazing apart in a plantation, it had avoided becoming the prey of the soldiery. The anxiety of the mother then gave place to joy and gratitude for the cow furnished the milk, which along with the meal produced from its hiding-place, enabled them to enjoy their customary repast. ak Peres ssa 72 ART MUSEUMS, CONSIDERED AS A MEANS OF EDUCATION. By Rev. W. S. CAIGER. October 21st, 1884. Mr. Caiger remarked that mankind had other needs than could be satisfied by bread alone. Though utility rather than beauty must remain as the first object to be attained among practical men, yet there was a wide-spread conviction that there were other wants in human nature if it had to be healthy. There were times when deep longings after enlightenment and beauty filled the mind; and such employment as the study of what was excellent in art provided largely for the satisfying of these emotions. Without art and the remains of art, history could not be adequately realized. Her glorious secrets could be appreciated in such undying works as could be seen in the British Museum and the National Gallery. The inspection and study of good examples of ancient art directly affected technical work of all kinds, and instances were afforded in recent years of improve- ments resulting from displays of valuable ancient collections of art products. They did not wish meaningless design to be added to technical skill, but they desired that the work of the artisan should be sound in character and have tasteful decorations. For some time past there had been a gradual growth in art culture which had permeated all classes of the community. Not only had the improvement been noticeable in the homes of the cultured classes, but it had been reflected in the cottages of the labouring classes. It did not require the eloquence of John Ruskin to point out how mean was the life of the artisan in his usual surround- ings, presenting a monotony unbroken by new thoughts or emotions. There had been, and were being, attempts made, and not always futile, to invest the life of the operative and artisan with a certain beauty. In most men, even among the most ignorant, there was a sense and appreciation of beauty. Mr. Caiger said that to him that appreciation was specially manifested on the occasion of the holding of the Exhibition in St. Jude’s School, Whitechapel, London, a few years ago. The Rey. 8. A. Barnett, with the assistance of some friends, instituted this Exhibition, and by lectures and description of the objects, imparted an educational and refining element to the influence of the Exhibition. Without asserting that art education was a universal panacea, yet. much could be done by art museums for the elevation of the people. They taught the Divine lesson of discontent with what was ugly in their homes, and turned their minds into the world of beauty and thought. Much was wanting in their large manufacturing towns. The ideal of municipal life : 73 to which they should look forward was that in which not only utility but beauty was considered. He suggested that collections of local examples might be made as a means of initiating a series of exhibitions, which might subsequently result in some per- manent work. THE METHOD OF TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB TO SPEAK. By S. LAWSON, L.F.P.G. October 28th, 1884. Dr. Lawson said : There are only about two cases of dumb people except from deafness. Children are dumb because they are deaf and have never heard any one speak. They have no idea that they can create sound, or that hearing people communicate with one another by certain sounds called words, to which is attached a definite meaning that is commonly understood, and by which they convey thoughts, actions, intentions and so on. If deaf mutes can be informed that they can speak and are instructed how to speak, they will speak as well as hearing people, except that from not being able to hear their own voices they do not know how to modulate and inflex it, and they speak somewhat in a monotone. They can, however, be made to communicate by speech and read the face and lips by sight when spoken to, and hence become social members of society instead of little more than animals. — Deaf mutes have been taught whatis called the “Sign” system, dactylology, or the French system of ‘talking ”’ on their fingers. Tt has been called the French system because it was systematised ‘by a Frenchman named Abbé de la Spée, but I think the sign or silent system is enough to prevent its adoption when we know that deaf mutes can be taught to speak. There is another system which consists of the silent and speech system combined, but it is found practically impossible to combine the two, as children that are to be taught to speak must not be allowed to use signs. The first instance on record of a deaf mute being made to speak was when John Bishop, of Beverley, trained a dumb boy, who used to come for alms, to speak. It was then looked upon as a miracle, but it was only a scientific fact, or rather discovery. Since then various countries have energetically undertaken the oral system of educating deaf mutes. , Probably the first to practically undertake the task were the ‘Spaniards, and next the Germans, where the oral system was 74 developeda long way towards its present state of comparative perfec- tion by a Samuel Heinicke, who opened aschool in 1778, in Leipsic. This system is a great improvement upon the others, because the so called dumb ones can be made or taught to produce sounds by which they can be understood by anyone, and so use the organs with which nature has supplied them. All the powers of the mind avd body are thus brought into action, and these unfor- tunate ones are placed in the natural position of hearing people instead of a position of almost perfect isolation. There is a still further advantage of the oral system, for in order to teach it the whole physical system of the body is developed, as they are taught by various healthy gymnastic exercises, which tend so much to prevent disease. The first requirement for deaf mutes is to teach them good behaviour, then large imitations such as sitting down, rising up, &e. After this, finer imitation is taught, such as lifting the arms, moving the body, motions of the tongue, &e. Then follow the lessons how to breathe, by deep, superficial, quick and slow respirations, letting them fill what is called the air bag again and again ; you then let them blow a feather or light ball suspended by a string, showing them what breath is and how it can be used and controlled. They are instructed to blow over the hand placed on a level with the lips, and you also blow over theirs with different degrees of velocity and volume, carefully observing that they see exactly the motions of the lips and the force used to propel the air and how it can be restrained by withholding it, letting the pupil’s hand be on the teacher’s chest at the time to feel the movements. Next the motions of the tongue must be taught, taking care that the pupil is placed in such a position that he can see the motion of the teacher’s tongue. Voice must then be got, and it is to be remembered that voice is nothing more than air passed through the vocal cords into the mouth and then vibrated by the tongue, cheeks, lips, &c., in such a manner as to produce a musical note; to get this the pupil must be tickled, or any other method may be adopted to excite him to make a noise; when he makes a noise one hand must be placed under the teacher's throat and the other under his own, so that he may feel the vibrations of the vocal cords and the motions of the larynx ; the teacher will get him to imitate the same in his own throat. After having got voice the articulations are taught. Let the hand be placed against the teacher’s lips, and let him feel the force and volume of the air passing over it. Certain signs are used to show the value of a letter as 4 in father, a as in paid, 4 as in far. Then are taught those letters requiring little breath, as f sounded phonetically, then the 17 vowels; then yoeal and non-vocal are combined both initially and finally, and ——— 75 then the alphabet. Afterwards the names of objects around are taught, the instructor touching the article mentioned and writing the name down, &c. Then nouns must be taught singly, and combined with the articles ‘‘a” and “the.” Simple interroga- tives follow such as ‘‘ what ?”’ and ‘‘ who ?” In teaching verbs the pupil performs the action, and their reason and language become developed, and deaf mutes become equal to hearing children in society, except in the power of hearing. Sight becomes so quickened that they can follow almost any conversation from observing the motion of the lips and face. Seeing that such results can be obtained I think it is the duty of the State to step in and give help to these helpless ones, equally with the blind and the idiots. Almost all could be trained to provide for their own existence, and most of them would doubtless become intelligent citizens. SHORT ANONYMOUS CONTRIBUTIONS. NOVEMBER 4th, 1884. 1.—‘ BY THE way.” The paper styled ‘“‘ By the Way” was a protest against the modern word-twisting abortions intendedfor puns. The simple pun, z.e., the making use of a genuine English word in a double sense, as found in the writings of Tom Hood, might be excused for having at one time passed for wit, but that kind of joking had surely had its day. By way of warning, and as an illustration of the demoralizing effects of this species of humour, the author submitted an original sketch, entitled ‘‘ The un-nappy history of Thomas Beaver.’’ This production was in rhyme, and every stanza contained specimens of the pun. 2.—‘* PRONUNCIATION.” The second paper opened by saying that ‘There are ‘few things more distressing to the cultivated ear than bad pronunciation; a false note in music is not more jarring to the susceptibilities, or more destructive of the celestial harmonies in the mind of a musician, than is an inaccurate vowel sound or other mispronunciation, spoken in the hearing of one who loves his native tongue, and takes a proper English pride in its sweetness and melody. How many lofty thoughts clothed in most eloquent language, how many great moral lessons and spiritual truths have perished and crumbled to dust at their birth, through some ludicrous or silly effect of sound attributable 76 only to the ignorance or affectation of the speaker.’’ The wretched elocution and silly pronunciation of certain actors was held up to ridicule, and the affectation and lisping drawl of some of the clergy were severely criticised. As speech is the glory and privilege of man, being not only the great dividing line between man and the animal world, but exalting himself far above it, conferrmg upon him indeed a kind of immortality; so a pure and correct enunciation of that speech becomes not only his duty, but should be his pride and glory also ; exalting him above those of his fellows who neglect it, and giving his words a power and value over and above the mere meaning of the words themselves. It would be difficult to say how much of the appreciation accorded to Mr. George Milner’s address to the Club at the opening of the session was due—on the one hand—to his subject, and his fine literary treatment of it; and how much was due—on the other hand—to his eraceful utterance and pure and distinct pronunciation. A correct habit of pronunciation should be sought after and acquired by all. It does not require a musical voice, but by its aid the most harsh and disagreeable voice may triumph over the sweetest and most resonant. Articulation, i.e., the full, distinct and correct sounding of . every syllabie in a word; and accentuation, i.e., laying the accent on the proper syllable of the word, constitute the primary features of good pronunciation. The correct articulation of the vowel sounds is especially important, giving breadth and dignity to the speech, and forming the best safeguard against every kind of provincialism and cockneyism, as the case may be; for while the provincials pervert the vowel sounds by substituting O’s for A’s, &c., making a greater mouthful of the word ; the cockneys either chop them off short, or convert them into a listless drawl. Instances were then given of false prounciations heard at some of the meetings of the Club. The last phase of false pronunciation noticed was that arising from vulgar affectation. What motive could induce “ bred and born Lancashire men” to adopt an effeminacy of speech belong- ing essentially to the Dundrearys of the South ? “‘ Failings that are due to local influences acting upon us daily, we can excuse ; an occasional dropping of H’s, or even of crowding them in where they are not wanted, is especially a Lancashire man’s privilege; indeed a man of sympathetic dis- position coming daily in contact with illiterate people, can hardly avoid this little weakness, however careful he may desire to be ; but for all the rest, I say ‘ Reform it altogether.’ ”’ re Ae mS oe he ee aa ll al al eRe Hoe OY 77 3.—“ CARLYLE AND HIS OPINIONS ON PUBLIC MEN.” The man who spoke of his countrymen as 24 millions, mostly fools, had little difficulty in setting down startling epithets for his most striking contemporaries. Of all public men in Great Britain—Peel excepted—Carlyle thought little better than he did of O'Connell whom he called *‘ chief quack of the world” and ‘a lying scoundrel.” He considered Mr. Roebuck an ‘acrid sandy barren character, dissonant speaking, dogmatic, trivial, with a singular exasperation,—restlessness as of diseased vanity written over his face when you came near it.” He liked Lord Beaconsfield better than Mr. Gladstone on the express ground that Mr. Disraeli being a sham, knew it, and would not trouble his head to be anything else; while Mr. Gladstone, being a sham, did not know it, and was sincere in his insinceri- ties. Mr. Disraeli could see facts; he bore no malice; if he was without any lofty virtue, he affected no virtuous airs. Carlyle considered Mr. Gladstone as ‘‘ the representative of the multitu- dinous cants of the age—religious, social, political, literary ; the cant actually seemed true to him, he believed it all, and was prepared to act on it; again ‘‘Gladstone appears to me one of the contemptiblest men I ever looked on.’ And these opinions are the result of mighty ken, of marvellous genius! But the verdict of history and justice may possibly be on the “side of the fools,’ who not without justification, with a view of the “eternal facts,’ placed in the hands of each for a season the guidance of the affairs of this mighty nation, believing both to be possessed of ‘‘ some virtue.” Gladstone and Disraeli are men whom we ourselves know. Do we not all admit that both these men were lovers of their country, benefactors to their fellows, possessors of some modicum of the ‘‘virtue’’ of truth? Let us take Carlyle’s advice, “‘ Be just and fear not.’’ And if we find that his opinion is not con- formable with the ‘‘ facts and verities”’ of these great men as we know them, will it be an illogical position to take up if we refuse to accept his dogmatic opinions on other men whom we have not known personally, but whose works are their witness ? We turn away with pain from the fierce invectives Carlyle has poured on the fair memories of cherished names like those of Charles Lamb, De Quincey, and Wordsworth. Even if we admit that these strictures were not meant for the public ear, and that little meaning should be attributed to such language, we cannot but take note of its wholesale application, which no amount of dyspepsia, poverty, or difficulties can excuse; and we are forced to the conclusion that although he possessed great knowledge, he lacked wisdom,—his opinions when weighed in _ the balances being found wanting. A man who gave such rein sche, sortee 78 to his intellectual ill-temper can hardly be a trusty guide in matters of the highest import. In the study of Carlyle we should keep in mind the principle of ‘ discretionary extraction,” taking the kernel, but leaving the husks. For a just estimate of Carlyle’s character and worth to the world we must go to his published works. We shall there see that he found two or three great subjects well suited to his unique genius, but he judged men and human society from a narrow point of view. By the denunciations of every thing around found in his later writings, he lost nearly all practical influence over the mind of a people whose conscience his earlier books had done much to quicken and stimulate. When his sub- ject was in the main delineative, as in his ‘‘ French Revolution,” “¢ Cromwell,” and ‘“ Frederick the Great,’”’ he was in his element and consequently successful; and on these subjects his guidance may be accepted, not merely for his transcendent ability, but for his painstaking care in elucidating the smallest details and most obscure facts. But in politics, as he preferred to do battle with the isolated particular rather than embrace in his view a sequence of events, he disqualified himself from taking a comprehensive survey of men and things. In religious matters, Carlyle failed to guide the English people. He did not believe in historical Christianity. The Church he looked upon as an institution which accumulated formulas, paralysed effort and imposed error. He had no creation of his own to offer in place of the Church. He praised a religious spirit, yet spoke of Newman (because he was a Roman Catholic) as ‘‘not having so mach intellect asa rabbit,’ and of Keble (because he wrote religious poems) as ‘a little ape called Keble of the Christian Year.”’ Imagination, Carlyle possessed, and by its aid lighted up special points and scenes in the world’s history with marvellous force. But he judged the world by its superficial babble, and never seemed to remember that there were any “ silent actions” of which he could not form a judgment, because they had never been brought to his knowledge. 4,—*“* A TAX ON BACHELORS.” Referring to therumour that the French Government intended to impose a tax on Bachelors, the author, ina humorous manner, reckoned up the comparative advantages and disadvantages of thus dealing separately with a despised portion of the community. The tax was considered in its influence upon the revenue, and also in its impulsive effect towards matrimony. 79 5.—‘' TREE CULTIVATION.” Tree planting has almost ceased to be a branch of British Agriculture. In the time of the Plantagenets the forests of England were almost impenetrable. Evidence of the extent of the woodlands known under the several terms of ‘‘ forest,” “chase,” “park,” and ‘ warren” is afforded by the numerous names of officers connected with those tracts, which have become firmly embedded in our list of surnames. To plant for future generations is what Washington Irving calls ‘‘ heroic culture.’ From a commercial point of view timber planting could be made profitable in many parts of our Island. Plantations formed in Scotland 40 years ago are not only an ornament to the scenery of the Highlands, but are yielding a revenue equal to that of the finest arable land in the country, where the ground previously was not worth one shilling an acre. We pay £20,000,000 per annum for timber and forest products imported from abroad. Timber has never decreased in value ; indeed to day the cost is 300 per cent. more than it was 60 years ago. In the backwoods of Canada and the United States there is often wholesale destruction of timber, owing to the recklessness of the hunters or settlers. The ravages caused by forest fires have been enormous. The regions thus denuded suffer in various other ways, for forests have an important influence on climate, on rainfall, on river-courses, and on fish in forest-bordered streams and lakes. Strenuous efforts are being made to re-afforest denuded areas by public or private means. In some continental countries the regulation of forests is the business of a department of the State. Trees ought to be planted in the squares and thorough- fares of our cities... In manufacturing towns there is need for something to diminish the dulness of our streets and the cheerlessness of our surroundings. Burnley, with its population of 60,000, is not adequately supplied with those accessories of advanced civilization which give brightness, dignity, and com- pleteness to our social life. Is it not desirable to obtain a fuller diffusion of ‘‘ sweetness and light ?”’ Plant life is refreshing to the eye, giving an inward pleasant emotion ; it is refreshing to the sense of smell—exhaling odours in which we delight. There are trees which are adapted for town growth, and are patient of town smoke. The subject is worthy the attention of the Cor- poration of Burnley ; for though they could not hope to produce stately avenues and construct ornamented boulevards, yet they could give us something beautiful, which would stimulate our energies, and minister to our happiness. 80 6,—‘' A FEW STRAY THOUGHTS ABOUT PENDLE HILL.” The influences of nature’s wear and tear, silently but surely, are making themselves felt on Pendle Hill. It is the parent of many an oozy spring, that gushing from the hill make up the rivers that circulate at its base. All these streams although starting from points widely divergent, are eventually united in the Ribble. The springs are slowly reducing the bulk of Pendle. It is not the mountain it was centuries ago. Professor Dawkins states that at some era of its history Pendle had lost from its summit 18,960 feet of rock. For long ages the hill was subject to change through external forces, principally from the sea, ice, and frost. But lately internal forces have worked the changes. It was the internal forces that altered the original shape of Pendle. For many centuries the big mountain sucked in the rain and mist, held in its pools the water which gradually accumulated in its recesses, until, unable to contain it longer, the mountain ‘‘ burst,” and the yawning chasm of Ogden Clough was formed. The amount of earth removed by this catastrophe amounted to nearly one eighth of the whole area of the ill. Whether the eruptions of Pendle have been characterized by a certain amount of regularity must be left to conjecture. In addition to Ogden Clough, there are Brast Clough, Ratten Clough, and Churn Clough, as well as smaller fissures. The enquiry arises when will the hour be ripe for another eruption from this stately hill ? A “burst’’ must inevitably come. The last recorded eruption of a serious kind was in 1679, when the hollow of Brast Clough was carved. It is believed that the eruption mentioned by the Antiquary Camden took place about 200 years before that of Brast Clough. Are we to expect that at the expiration of another two centuries the hill will once more be rent asunder ? 7.—‘‘ THE REPORTERS.” This was a satirical paper dealing with the newspaper reporter in the ideal and in reality. Reference was made to many very amusing mistakes in the local newspapers. HOGHTON TOWER. By the Rev. J. SHORTT, M.A., Vicar of Hoghton, November 11th, 1884. Mr. Shortt began by describing the geological formation of the hill on which Hoghton Tower stands. It forms part of the Pendle Range. If all the beds of rock that enter into the com- position of that range were entire, it would lie on the flank of a huge mountain. It is bounded on the east by a remarkable sive rocks. This insignificant stream was able to effect this owing to beds of shale and softer rocks lying between more solid ones, just as for the same reason at present the falls of Niagara are continually retreating and the gorge lengthening. The lecturer speculated on the origin of the name, and after alluding to the historical interest attaching to local names, pronounced his opinion that Hoghton was equivalent to Hill-town. He had seen it written in 138 different ways: a neighbouring township, Withnell, had 45, and Samlesbury 31 different spell- ings. The Hoghton family had owned the place for 800 years. It was descended from a daughter of one of William the Con- queror’s soldiers. Her son was Adam lord of Hocton, and the family have retained possession of the property up to the present time. Not much is known of its early history, but we find that Richard Hoghton in 1809 married a supposed lineal descendant of Godiva, and Leofric, Earl of Mercia. The Hoghtons, it would appear, had owned a great tract of land near Liverpool from 1809 to the time of Charles I. Many of them have been sheriffs of the county, and members of Parliament. One of the family, Sir Richard, married the heiress of Sir Thomas Ashton, and we find him possessed of land in 47 different townships in Laneashire, besides property in Cheshire. This Sir Richard was married three times, and had eighteen children. He seems to have been economical with the names he gave to his children, as two of them were called Thomas, three of them Richard, and three of his daughters Elizabeth. This kind of thing was not by any means uncommon in those days, and it often makes it very difficult to unravel pedigrees in particular families. When _ this gentleman died he was succeeded by his eldest son, Thomas, ; who built the tower. The Hoghtons had probably lived at Lea, 81 gorge cut by the river Darwen in post-glacial times out of mas- 3 ; | Se Wes _ where there still stands an old mansion. = At the time Queen Elizabeth was upon the throne, a great _ change was taking place in architecture and building in the country. Before time they had been mainly fortresses, pictur- esque in appearance, but very uncomfortable, deficient in venti- lation, light, and drainage. But when the country got more settled there sprang up the more comfortable habitations of Elizabeth’s time. Thomas Hoghton had great difficulty with his masons. We find that Bernard Towneley, his master mason, was seduced away from his work, and Thomas complained to the Chancellor of the Duchy. The truant mason returned, and the building was finished in 1565. Thomas Hoghton did not con- form to the ordinances of Queen Elizabeth, and he died on the continent at Liége, where his will was found not many years ago by the late Sir Henry de Hoghton. He left an only daughter Jane, from whom are descended the Earls of Crawford and 82 Balcarres. His brother Alexander succeeded to the Hoghton estates. He left these to his half-brother, who came to an untimely end in a dispute about some cattle. He was killed on the night of November 20th, 1589, in a fray with Thomas Langton, Baron of Newton, a kinsman of his own. Lord Derby, the lord-lieutenant of the country, was directed to make an enquiry into the turmoil, but he found so many were implicated in the dispute, and the laws were so very severe, that it would appear he deemed it best to let the matter rest. Restitution was, how- ever, made to the Hoghton family. Walton-le-Dale was given as compensation for the murder of Thomas, and although no deeds exist showing their title, that manor belongs to the Hogh- tons to this day. Sir Richard Hoghton next on the roll, paid £1,000 to King James for the dignity of a baronetcy. He had been knighted before by the Earl of Essex in Ireland. He invited the King, on his return from Scotland to London, to visit Hoghton Tower. This was in 1617. The king occupied himself with hunting in the ancient deer park, one of the oldest in the king- dom. So careful were the proprietors of the estate to preserve game for the chase, that it is said in a part of Hoghton Park the trees were so thick that the sun’s rays could not reach the ground. The famous dun-coloured cattle, the old English breed, were kept here, similar to those that existed in later years at Gisburn. The crest of the Hoghtons is a white bull, and their supporters are two animals of the same kind. On the second day of his visit, the king visited the alum mines, close to the park wall. The site of these mines is very picturesque, and worth seeing. The next day was Sunday, and a grand dinner was prepared for his Majesty. The list of the eatables prepared for the delectation of the king for dinner and supper was read, and it contained all the choicest joints and viands that could be procured. The well- known story that the king knighted the loin of beef here lacks confirmation. The term ‘‘sirloin” was certainly known long before. It was used in the time of King Henry VI. Troublous times were now coming upon the land. Sir Gilbert Hoghton had succeeded to the estates, and he was a personal friend of King Charles I. In the troubles of the civil war in the early part of the 17th century, when the land was divided into two great camps, the Hoghtons sided with the king; but in this district the Starkies of Huntroyd, the Shuttleworths of Gawthorpe, and the Ashtons supported the claims of the Parliamentarians. When the war broke out Preston was stormed by the Parliamentarian forces. Sir Gilbert escaped. Two hundred men in charge of Captain Starkie, of Huntroyd, were directed to take Hoghton Tower. The tower was defended by a garrison of 40 or 50 musketeers i 83 who had one cannon. The troops assembled in front of the tower and summoned the garrison to surrender. Time was given for consideration and the garrison of the tower capitulated. Captain Starkie and his men marched in, but soon after they had got inside the building a great explosion of powder took place, and Captain Starkie and a number of his men were killed. The explosion was attributed by some to treachery, and by others to the carelessness of the troopers in lighting their pipes. Some time after, a strange adventure befel the Royalist levies assembled at Whalley under Lord Derby. They had been successful in their expedition; but a number of shouters from Padiham caused such a fearful noise that Lord Derby, Sir Gilbert Hoghton and 1700 men fled in a panic down the valley of the Ribble ; Lord Derby not drawing rein till he got to Peuwortham. The ‘‘ shouters from Padiham ’’ numbered 90. The son of Sir Gilbert (Richard) was a staunch supporter of Oliver Cromwell. He was one of the members of the Long Parliament, and he also occupied a seat in the Barebones Par- liament. He was a Presbyterian, and in his time was fought the bloody battle at Preston, when Cromwell, commanding troops to the number of 8,000, defeated the Duke of Hamilton, who had three times as many soldiers under his command, killing 3,000 Royalists and taking 10,000 men prisoners. The battle raged over three days, and the loss of the Parliamentarian troops was not more than 100. This took place in 1648. The next pos- sessor of the Hoghton estates (Charles) was in Parliament in four different reigns. He was succeeded by Sir Henry Hoghton, who commanded the Lancashire Militia in the year 1715, fighting against the adherents of the Pretender. A contest took place in the streets of Preston, which were barricaded, the chief barricade being in Church Street. The lecturer said he had recently had. the pleasure of procuring for the Preston Museum a medal which was struck in honour of this battle. His successor, Sir Henry, took great interest in the then new invention of calico printing, and even pulled down part of the tower to build a factory. The brother of the present owner began to restore the tower some years ago. The process of reparation has been very extensive. The rock upon which the building stands is of a friable nature, and it has been found necessary to underpin the walls in various places. Over £50,000 has been spent upon the work of restoration by the late and the present baronet. Sir Charles, who is the 10th baronet, and second upon the roll of baronets in the United Kingdom, is nobly following up the work begun by his brother. He is an exceedingly kind-hearted man, and he maintains the reputation which the Hoghtons have long held, of being good landlords. The lecturer concluded by characterising the place, and 84 family connected with it, as typically representative of English history; and even of world-history. Its surface furnished traces of mighty events in past epochs of the globe; and its name, its ownership, and its buildings marked important oscurrences in the life of the English nation. BULWER LYTTON’S DRAMATIC WORKS. By R. T. SUTCLIFFE. November 18th, 1884. Mr. Sutcliffe commenced by enumerating the works of the author, which number only seven, viz., ‘‘ The Duchesse de la Valliére,” ‘‘ Not so bad as we seem,”’ ‘‘ Rightful Heir,” ‘‘ Darnley,” “‘ Lady of Lyons,” ‘ Richelieu,” and.‘‘ Money.” The latter three he designated plays, and gave the following definition of the prefix, that it is neither comedy nor tragedy, but a cut between the two; more serious than the one, not so sombre as the other, yet a judicious mixture of the two ; in fact, a dramatic salad, in the flavour of which neither the oil nor the vinegar has an undue preponderance. The denouement is sure to be happy ; no matter the storms and tempests, the rocks ahead, the sea of troubles upon which the hero and heroine may be tossed, they are sure to come safe to port. The first work brought under notice was the “‘ Duchesse de la Valliére,”’ which was produced at Covent Garden in 1887. Mr. Sutcliffe gave a sketch of the plot of the play, and wound up with a reading of the scene between Louis XIV. and the Monk Bragelone. The ‘“ Lady of Lyons’ was the next play taken in hand, and the Times criticism of that period was read, from which it appeared the leading paper of the day made a dead set at the piece. It was first produced on the 15th February, 1888, at the Covent Garden Theatre, under Mr. Macready. Mr. Sutcliffe gave a very careful description of the plot of this popular play, and illustrated it by two scenes which he recited, taking all the characters in the same. The scenes selected were the garden scene in the second act, where Claude Melnotte describes his imaginary home on the Lake of Como, and the other one that heartrending scene in his own home, where he has taken Pauline in fulfilment of his oath to Beauseant, and where he puts forth in such eloquence his apology and defence for his conduct. The reader then went on to criticise the characters of the play, and said that Claude and Pauline had an equal chance with their audience, as their parts were evenly balanced. The play ‘“ Not so bad as we seem,”’ was next briefly noticed and Mr. Sutcliffe _ 85 passed on to the comedy “ Money,”’ which is founded on that old truism— Tis a very good world we live in, To lend or to spend or to give in, But to beg or to borrow or get a man’s own, Tis the very worst world that ever was known. In describing the plot of this comedy, the will of the eccentric old uncle was read. The play isa true picture of human nature, and points out very strongly that a man is judged by the depth of his pocket more than by his brains. ‘‘ Darnley” and-‘‘ Right- ful Heir’’ were next shortly criticised, and the paper concluded with a detailed sketch of the well-known play ‘“‘ Richelieu,’’ which was produced at Covent Garden, on the 7th March, 1839, under Macready. Macready threw his whole soul and energy into the work, and author and actor met frequently to discuss the piece as it grew act by act, an arrangement which has always proved beneficial to both, and been the means of producing the best plays. Like our own Wolsey, Richelieu is a familiar picture, there is a fascination about him or his name and it is admirably suited to the dramatist. With regard to Richelieu’s character there is a diversity of opinion, some have thought him cold and ambitious, having only the welfare of France at heart when his own interests were concerned, but our author gives us a Richelieu who is warm-hearted, unselfish, with a love of country paramount over all. By turns the old man is grand, nay {terrible, then full of sly humour with the keen appreciation of a joke. The réle is one of the most favourite characters for tragedians, and they have scope to display their histrionic powers. It is a very difficult part to play, and requires immense study of character to give it with anything like the force and power required. He may or may not have been the man the author has set before us ; no matter, we have a character that is strongly dramatic, full of great opportunities for the actor, especially if he be comedian as well as tragedian. ‘There are those ever-shifting changes from the feebleness of old age to indomitable will and power, the pride and pomp of state, the downfall, and the _ restoration. What situation can be grander or produce a greater theatrical effect than the sudden appearance of Richelieu after his reported death, and also again when he is brought into the presence of _ His Majesty in the last seene—when he is in a dying condition, _having resigned his ministry. See how keenly he watches the embarrassment of the King and the new Minister; and then, when as it were crushed and fallen, comes the renewal of his power and vigour as he grasps the conspirators’ despatch, the possession of which foils his enemies and reinstates him in power. Also in the Garden of the Louvre, when he towers up in his weakness and launches the awful curse of Rome at those who 86 seek to take Julie to His Majesty, is the Cardinal superb. Let the actor only rise to the occasion and the dramatic effect is complete. The audience know it is in store for them, and they sit hushed with ’bated breath’ until the last word of that sentence is uttered. The speech might almost have been an anti-climax, had not the author with consummate skill reserved the powerful lines which end the scene, where Richelieu denounces Baradas. Mr. Sutcliffe recited several short passages from the play and the second scene in Act I., where Du Mauprat is brought before the Cardinal. DISCUSSION: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AFRICA IN ITS RELATION TO BRITISH COMMERCE. Introduced by W. L. GRANT. November 25th, 1884. Mr. James Lancaster had undertaken to open the discussion but illness prevented him from fulfilling the engagement. After remarking that Mr. Lancaster had taken special interest in all commercial questions relating to Africa, and that he had made himself acquainted with the results of recent explorations and obtained valuable data for the purpose of the intended paper, Mr. Grant referred to the fact that exactly five years before from that day Mr. Alderman Greenwood had initiated a discussion on the kindred question ‘‘ Is Africa likely to become a Second India commercially?” Mr. Grant then said that the recent discoveries of Stanley, the intrepid traveller, had once again brought the ‘‘dark continent’’ into prominence. Attention was more par- ticularly concentrated on the Congo basin, as Stanley’s last labours had been to unravel the mysteries of the district traversed by that remarkable river, to map out the great basin, and bring it ‘within the fold of the civilized world.” Trade generally was depressed, fresh markets for our productions were urgently re- quired, and the statements therefore that Africa presented the possibilities of imparting fresh life to our languishing industries, and provided new opportunities of profitable enterprise deserved the most careful consideration. After briefly touching upon the immense advance of late years in our knowledge of Africa, Mr. Grant said the first question to consider was that of its area and population. Mr. Stanley estimated that the area was 18,000,000 square miles, of which some 10,000,000 were not yet within the scope of industrial interchange. The portion capable of cultiva- tion he conjectured would be 8,000,000 square miles. The population he estimated at 286,000,000, of which numbey 87 176,000,000 occupied areas not yet reached by the trader. As to the means of communication, so as to make the markets accessible, there were gigantic rivers, which presented consider- able lengths available for navigation. The introduction of railways at the points of obstruction would be necessary. The Congo was navigable from its mouth for a distance of 110 miles ; by the construction of 250 miles of railway, as far as Stanley Pool, access would be obtained to 1,060 miles of the Congo, and still higher up there was a further navigable length of 1,100 miles. This vast river had a basin of 1,300,000 square miles, with a population of 40,000,000. It was a mile wide, 1,700 miles by river from the sea, and at its mouth it was seven miles broad, with a depth of 1,312 feet. The lakes formed natural highways for commerce, and the Congo gave 30,000 square miles of lakes. Concerning the requirements of the people Mr. Grant al- luded to Mr. Stanley’s statements before the Manchester Chamber of Commerce. Though they would admit that England’s man- ufactures would be highly acceptable to the swarthy customers in these climes ; yet the main question for inquiry was, What had Africa to offer us in return? To this question Mr. Stanley replied by stating that the lands of Equatorial Africa were of “matchless fertility ;” there were infinite spaces fit for thrifty and industrious colonists. The Congo district would yield ivory, palm-oil, gums, rubber, orchilla-weed, dye-stuffs. Other parts of Africa produced rice, cotton, grain, coffee. Along a length of 280 miles at the mouth of the Congo there was trade done now to the value of £2,800,000 a year. Mr. Grant asked if Stanley’s oft-repeated rose-coloured statements as to the value of Africa to European trade, were corroborated by the researches of other modern travellers. The difficulties presented by the character of the natives, and the question of their readiness to become amenable to civilizing influences were briefly examined; and Mr. Grant concluded by expressing his gratification that the proposed Anglo-Portuguese treaty had broken down; and trusted that absolute freedom of _nayigation and commerce would be secured for the splendid waterway afforded by the Congo. L Mr. William Lancaster, Junr., thought Mr. Stanley’s state- ments were too highly coloured. In opposition to them he quoted the opinion of Mr. Joseph Thompson, who was sent out by the Geographical Society. His evidence on the mineral resources of the country was valuable on account of his attain- ments as a geologist. He found that minerals did not exist to any great amount in Central Africa; and ivory was becoming _ 80 scarce that the trade in that article was almost extinguished. Mr. Lancaster also laid stress on the serious river difficulties on _ account of the numerous cataracts, the arduous and costly nature \ 88 of porterage, and the deadly character of the climate. Myr. Alderman Greenwood said that he was inclined to take even a more gloomy view of the commercial future of Africa than when he brought the question before the Club five years ago. He considered Mr. Stanley’s recent utterances in Manchester as enormous exaggerations; and his calculations as to the quantity of cotton cloth which would be required by the natives were opposed to our experience of the trade with the more settled communities in India. The Board of Trade returns shewed that our exports to Africa had been stationary for the last ten years ; and that fact was important, inasmuch as we were already acquainted with the more civilized people of the continent. India and the South American Republies were the only countries where there had been an expansion in the cotton trade during the last decade. The outlook as regards Africa was after investiga- tion somewhat depressing. Mr. James Kay, J.P., argued that if the portions not yet opened up could maintain a population of 176 millions, it was only reasonable to suppose that the people could produce sufficient to sustain an equal number elsewhere. The produc- tions were abundant: the length of navigable rivers very great ; and he trusted that Mr. Stanley’s sanguine expectations might be realized. After remarks from Messrs. W. Thompson, R. Nelson, W. Witham, and F. H. Hill, Mr. Joshua Rawlinson said that the primary difficulty was the absence of civilization, and until progress had been made in directing the natives in the ways of civilization, the suggested development of Africa could not suc- ceed. They must recollect that the lines upon which trade was conducted were the exchange of manufactured goods for agricul- tural products. He failed to see where, with the exception of Egypt, it was likely that agriculture would be so carried on as to enable produce to be exported to any important extent. The question of the development of India was of immensely more moment to Lancashire industries than the development of Africa. He did not anticipate that Africa would afford any sensible relief to commerce during the present generation. Mr. Grant made a few comments on topics which had arisen in the course of the debate, and the meeting then concluded. 89 SOIREE. HOUSE DECORATION. Director, T. PRESTON. December 2nd, 1884. The following is a resumé of the paper read on the occasion by Mr. Preston, entitled: ‘‘ Mural Decoration in connection with our Domestic Architecture.” A really perfect form or a beautiful combination of colours instinctively yields us delight and extorts a spontaneous acknow- ledgment of joy, admiration, and often gratitude. Writing recently Mr. P. G. Hamerton says ‘‘we are beginning to under- stand artistic relativity, to feel sesthetic pleasure when it is observed, and eesthetic suffering or discontent when it is violated.” This change has been brought about mainly by the efforts of a few of our leading artists, art critics, and decorators, to disseminate correct views, and furnish decorative examples more in accordance with esthetical requirements,—assisted by the advance of general culture. The best art education is to be found in recourse to approved examples of decoration. Mural painting is a special kind of art, harmonizing perfectly with architecture. Mural decoration was practised in very ancient times; the wall decoration in Egypt, not less than 4,000 years old, shews not merely outline drawing but also painting in colour. The people of Phenicia, and Assyria, of Persia, India, and China were all acquainted with the art of painting, which was always symbolical, and used as an accessory to architecture. Properly to understand the mural decoration of Eng!and it is necessary to consider the wonderful and diversified story of the origin and progress of our domestic architecture. The flimsy alcoves of the ancient Britons were followed by the wattle and clay huts, which in their turn were superseded by the cobwall building with thatched roof. The next advance consisted of covering both sides of the wattled walls with wet clay—much after the style which was in vogue in the _ middle ages to plaster the rude studding which divided the rooms. An example of this plaster composed of reeds with rudely impro- vised mortar daubed over them may be seen in the house next to the White Hart Inn, in Church Street—probably the oldest house in Burnley. The decorative arts in England may be said to have made a start with the advent of the Romans. The more important Romans in Britain had their houses painted and decorated after the manner of those found in such a perfect state at Pompeii. The _ general style of wall decoration consisted of a low dado, above _ which broad pilasters divided the wall into three or four compart- _ ments, the pilasters being united at the top by a frieze; the panels 90 were of a lighter colour, and held paintings of figures and fantastic ornaments. The common painting was executed in water colour, the more elaborate in tempera painting. Mosaic work was cultivated by the Greeks, who taught it to the Romans. Oil Painting was used in mural decoration long before its so-called “ discovery” in 1410. The distemper painting of the Romans has been practised more or less ever since, and is still used for hasty decoration of public buildings. Coming down to the 15th century the wall decoration of the houses of the nobility consisted principally of tapestry. In 1572, Skipton Castle contained eight different tapestries. The walls of more than one rvom at the old Bank House, Burnley, were draped with tapestry, portions of which were in fair preservation in 1858. Painted tapestry has lately been introduced; it is more exact in colouring, and exhibits greater freedom and energy in the painting than ordinary tapestry allows. The rooms in the old mansions of North-East Lancashire were generally low,—there was not much wall space, therefore advantage was taken of the forests of the district, and the apart- ments were often panelled in oak wainscoting throughout,—some were ceiled in oak, and those not panelled throughout had an oak dado running round the room. Gawthorpe Hall is an example of the lavish plaster ornamentation which followed the introduction of Italian plasterers into England. There are interesting specimens of wood carving at Ormerod and Bareroft. Painted and gilded leather hangings, imvented by the Spaniards, were first used in England in the reign of Henry VIII. Some of the apartments at Chatsworth are hung with leather richly embossed with gold. Before the invention of paperhangings, cheap imitations of the costly tapestry, velvet and silk hangings were made of cotton and linen. To froma raised pattern these sometimes received an application of powdered woollen, which, when applied on paper, became known as flock paper. The art of manufacturing paperhangings came from China. The French made several improvements, one of which was the use of rolls of paper instead of pasting the sheets together after the pattern was printed. The trade in French papers in England consists chiefly of decorated centres and borders, and a variety of gorgeous designs. Wall papers are now exported from England to every civilized country. Although the old forms of mural decoration are still used occasionally in England, paperhangings—possessing the advant- ages of being less costly and more easily prepared—are the chief wall decorations of the 19th century. Some papers are now printed with oil colours, and are easily washed ; and successful attempts have been made to produce hygienic wall papers. The newest mural decorative material is Lincrusta Walton, a mixture te i ——— 91 of linseed oil, and wood fibre rolled on a fabric. On this the most delicate ornamented relief is obtained by machinery. Lincrista cannot be torn, it is impervious to damp, it is almost uninjurable, and it is difficult to think that anything more beautiful, useful, and permanent for interior decoration can be in store for us in the future. There was a profuse display of decorations, the principal exhibitors being Messrs. Jeffrey & Co., Scott, Cuthbertson & Co., William Woollams & Co., The Lincrusta Walton Co., William Dean & Co., and Messrs. Preston & Son. Hand-painted designs by Mr. Bottomley, of Leeds, and Mr. W. Henderson, of Burnley, were exhibited. In their inspection of the choice and varied articles, the members were assisted by Mr. Bottomley, Mr. Henderson, and the director of the soirée, Mr. Preston. CANADA AND THE MONTREAL MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. By J. BROWN, M.A., M.D. December 9th, 1884. Dr. Brown pointed out that the Dominion of Canada covered nearly three and a half millions of square miles, being two-fifths of the British possessions throughout the world—a greater area than all the United States and territories. The early European settlements in Canada were alluded to, and the various steps taken by the English, French and Spaniards to colonize the region were traced, the conflicts between the English and French, ending in the downfall of the latter by the gallant victories of Wolfe, being vividly portrayed. The English colonists freed from all fear of their French neighbours now grew confident. England naturally tried to get from her colonies some reimburse- ment for the heavy sums the campaign had cost; soon began the troubles about the Stamp Acts, and within 23 years of the taking of Montreal what might have been the brightest jewel of the British Crown was gone. Benjamin Franklin had laid the foundation of that mighty nation which within one hundred years had numbered its fifty-five millions. The loss was ours, but the gain to the world had probably been great. An account was then given of the English settlements in various parts of Canada, the lecturer stating that seventeen years ago the British North American Act of 1867 was passed creating the Dominion. The Act was passed at the request of Canada, which then con- sisted of the two provinces of Quebec and Ontario, the other provinces accepting the Act as each joined the Dominion, viz., 92 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Hidward’s Island. In 1870 the Dominion bouglit the vast territories of the Hudson Bay Company—the most important step they ever took—and in 1871 British Columbia joined the Dominion, which had thus its boundaries extended from ocean to ocean. This last addition embraced 340,000 square miles, an area equal to Belgium, Holland, Italy and France combined. The most striking features of Canada were its waters and woods, the slope of the land being so gradual that the waterways afforded unusual facilities for transport. A large and important extent of country, namely, from Winnipeg westward to near the Rocky Mountains, was, however, characterized by the absence of wood, and this was the land of promise not only for the Dominion but in some respects for this country as well. The climate in winter, especially towards the eastern portion of the belt, was very severe; but towards the west it became much milder, and in this portion cattle could be kept without artificial shelter on the natural grasses growing in many parts knee deep all over the prairie. The western portions also yielded an unequalled field for the growth of wheat. Many farmers from Ontario were selling their farms and moving westward, and if, as was hoped, it was found practicable to run a line of rail to Port Nelson and to ship wheat thence to this country the development of that region would probably be rapid in the extreme. Incredible as it seemed, those fine lands, within 24 miles of the railway line, were being given away by the Government to every able-bodied male who would occupy and cultivate them—160 acres were given free, while a further like extent might be purchased at the rate of ten shillings an acre. As to the trade of the Dominion the last year’s returns gave a total of imports at £26,000,000 and exports £20,000,000, and close as Canada was to the States, as yet the larger share of trade was with the mother country. Like the great nation on their borders they were attempting to foster their national manufactures at the expense of the bulk of the people by heavy import duties, but the bad effects of this policy now followed for thirteen years had already begun to show themselves. An interesting description of the vast railways and some of the celebrated public buildings in Canada was then given, and Dr. Brown proceeded to speak of the visit of the British Association during the past summer. At Montreal no effort had been spared to make the visit a pleasant one. For the benefit of those who did not know how the British Association meetings are conducted, he stated that they lasted a week. The evenings were occupied by the intro- ductory address of the president, two scientific lectures, and one popular lecture to working-men; the two remaining evenings being devoted to entertainments of a social nature. During the ; . at, 93 day eight different sections met in different rooms, and papers on various subjects were read and discussed. After alluding toa number of celebrities who were with the Association at Montreal, he proceeded to speak of the inaugural and subsequent meetings that were held. Wednesday, he said, was memorable for the admirable address of His Excellency the Marquis of Lansdowne, Governor-General of Canada. This had been followed by the address of the president, Lord Rayleigh, which was a review of many points of scientific interest. On the Thursday the sec- tional meetings had been commenced, and in the section devoted to economic science, Sir Richard Temple had dealt with general statistics of the British Empire. The area directly and indirectly under its control he estimated at ten million square miles, or one-fifth of the habitable globe; the population was about 815 millions, or 33 persons to each square mile; and in England, where the population was densest, there were 485 persons to each square mile. With regard to shipping he had said that, so far as steamers were concerned, the British flag covered as many of those as all other nations put together. One- third of the world’s commerce belonged to the British Empire. The United Kingdom itself did one-third of the banking business of the world. The school statistics given had been very remark- able inasmuch as it had appeared from the same that there were five and a quarter millions of pupils in the United Kingdom with its population of thirty-six millions, and nearly nine millions in the British Empire with its three hundred and five millions of inhabitants. The United States, with a population of fifty-five millions, had ten millions of pupils, at a cost of seventeen millions sterling, By Mr. E. Atkinson, of Boston, a paper had been read showing that, for manufactures, as the cost of produc- tion was lowered, the labourers and not the owners gained the greatest advantage. Rates of wages varied inversely with the cost of production. It had been shown by the gentleman named that the average wage per operative, per year, rose from £35 in 3 1840 to £55 8s. in 1883, an increase of 64 per cent., whilst the profit per yard fell 63 percent. In the Biological Section a most interesting address on deep sea life had been given by Professor Moseley. Deep sea life had been divided into three different groups by the Professor, namely, the Pelagic, the littoral, and the lowest hundred fathom zone. At great depth food was derived from the debris of the littoral and terrestrial fauna, and from that of the Pelagic or surface fauna. It was said to be possible that bacteria, which were the agents of decomposition, could not live under the enormous pressure there would be at great depths. It was also probable that the sense organs of animals living in such strange environments would yield many points of great interest when they came to be examined. The 94 absence of palwozic forms of life in the deep sea fauna had been also alluded to, and it had been suggested, as a probable cause, that terrestrial and littoral life must have existed to an extent before their debris could have supplied food for deep sea life. Another reason was that carbonic acid might have been much more largely present in the deep seas than is now the case. It seemed to Professor Moseley that all modern forms of the littoral fauna were capable of adapting themselves to deep sea life. Littoral fauna might have given rise to the whole terrestrial fauna. In connection with the address on this subject there had been a water weed to which the Professor’s attention had first been drawn by a shoemaker at Oxford. On its stalks were a series of natural bladders from which antenne projected, which guided little fish into the bladders. It had been said that Darwin had experimented with the plant, and had come to the conclusion that the fish were not digested but were decomposed by infusoria and various fungi, and from the decomposed matter the plant absorbed protoplasm. An interesting paper had been read on the rudimentary hind limbs of the whale, by Professor Struthers, of Aberdeen, after alluding to which, as also to other papers on subjects of a somewhat kindred nature, Dr. Brown pro- ceeded to state that at the committee meeting of the Biological Section on the Tuesday, Professor Moseley had read a telegram he had received from Sydney. The scientific correspondent of the Times had written of that telegram: ‘It is doubtful if ever an announcement of greater scientific interest was made at any meeting of the British Association. The telegram was to the effect that the Monotremus, the very lowest form of mammalian life, had been found to lay eggs, and thus by laying eggs, yet suckling their young when hatched, they formed a link between fish, reptiles and amphibians on the one hand, and ordinary mammalia on the other. That forged one more link in the Darwinian chain, and pointed to the probability that all mammals, including man, had descended through the reptiles, and not through the amphibians, as Professor Huxley had been inclined to think. Dr. Brown next referred to some interesting papers that had been given in the engineering and other sections, also to several lectures that had been given by various eminent Professors. Finally he referred to the various sources of attrac- tion there were in which they had had infinite pleasure, to the school system, the privileges of free education, the Universities, the Churches, Prince Edward’s Island, the fire brigades, electricity, and the Jaws in the Dominion as to the sale of intoxicating liquors. It should here be stated that Dr. Brown represented the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club on the occasion of his visit to the Montreal meeting of the British Association. 95 MUSICAL SOIREE. Director, F. MYERS. December 17th, 1884. The programme being somewhat lengthy, Mr. Myers omitted to read his paper on ‘‘ Wagner.” We are enabled, however, to append an abstract of the paper. Richard Wagner was born at Leipsic, May 22nd, 1813. His father, who was of the middle class of society and. aman of some culture, died in the same year. At the age of nine Wagner entered the Areuzschule at Dresden, but was not a successful student, lacking application, and being too divided and desultory in his choice of subjects. His favorite studies were Greek, Latin, Mythology, and Ancient History. He also took lessons on the Pianoforte and played Overtures and other pieces by ear, but he refused to practice and soon his master gave him up as hopeless. He also studied English for the purpose of reading Shakespeare in the original, and at the age of eleven wrote an extraordinary tragedy, ‘‘a kind of compound of Hamlet and King Lear.” Speaking of this in his autobiography written in 1842 he humorously remarks, “the design was grand in the extreme, 42 persons died in the course of the piece, and want of characters compelled me to let most of them re-appear as ghosts.” Later on, however, he turned his attention to musical composition, and at 18 was familiar with the works of Beethoven. At 26 he married an actress, and became conductor of a small operatic troupe at Riga, and shortly afterwards he wrote his first Grand Opera ‘‘ Rienzi,” the subject being taken from Lord Lytton’s novel. Having determined to produce this at the Grand Opera in Paris, he embarked on board a sailing vessel for London. The voyage was a stormy one, and occupied him nearly a month, it was not, however, without its good results, as it supplied him with the inspiration for his second Opera, “The Flying Dutchman.” His journey to Paris proved utterly fruitless, and we find him buffeted on land by the storms of adversity, more terrible even than those he had encountered at sea. Even these, however, _ helped to bring out the stronger qualities of his mind. It was a : J great stride (in what we may now call the Wagnerian direction) _ from ‘ Rienzi’ to ‘‘ The Flying Dutchman,” the former being a historical opera, with fine spectacular effects, but written largely _ on the old lines, whilst the latter aimed at rendering emotional .. accents by purely artistic means. The transition from one to _ the other has been compared to the sense of freedom one feels in ie a ge passing from the scented atmosphere of a crowded opera-house into the bracing air of sea and forest. He abolished the formalities, which in the course of centuries had gathered round the dramatic poem. His operas are no longer 96 a series of separate pieces of music, of airs, duets, and finals, having little reference to the action of the piece, and merely connected together by a dry recitation. His supreme purpose was the attainment of musical expression and dramatic truth, and to accomplish this he ultimately sacrificed the whole apparatus of absolute musical forms. He totally abolished the Aria proper, the whole weight of his musical powers being placed in the dialogue, rising wherever occasion offers to the fervour of musical passion, and always surrounded with a flow of beautiful melody, but never descending to ill-timed sentiment- ality. He did not expel the Aria, etc., through any whim of destructive speculation, but he merely discontinued using these forms as unadapted to the particular thing he wanted to express ; he rejected them also on the ground that they impeded the action of the Drama, in order to afford the singer time to display his power of vocalisation. In its place he substitutes a kind of Recitative, full of dramatic passion, and supported by Orchestral accompaniments of the most varied and ingenious character, producing effects which no other composer has ever either attempted or imagined. Further he systematically and exten- sively introduced what he called ‘‘ Motives’? or ‘ Illustrations’’ for the purpose of musically characterising, foreshadowing, and conjuring up to the minds of hearers, — persons, events, and things. In the “ Nibelung’s Ring” we find the following Motives :— the Primordial Element, the Ring, the Smithy, the Curse, the Sword, Love’s Fetters, Love-longing, Love-greeting, Love, Renunciation, Ride, Love of Travel, the Magic Delusion, the Giants’, Wotan’s Displeasure, Boding of Fate, Slumber, &c. The artistes on the occasion were :—Miss Horner, soprano ; C. A. Smith, tenor; W. Arnold, baritone ; J. W. Clough, baszo ; A. Pollard, violin; the Burnley Orchestral Union, conductor, F. Myers. The following was the Programme performed :— Part First (Selections from Wagner's Works ). March......... ‘* Hail! Bright Abode”’—Tannhauser......... Bann. Song...... ‘* Star of the Evening’—Tannhauser...... Mr. Arnoup. Song... “‘ Lohengrin’s reproof to Elsa’”—Lohengrin...Mr. Smrra. Song...“ A Ship was on the Ocean tossed” —F'lying Dutchman... Miss Horner. Song...... ‘* Daland’s Song’—F lying Dutchman......My. Cuouau. Selection.......:....... ** The Flying Dutchman” ......... .... Ban. Part Second ( Miscellaneous ). TIO! tecsevesss wacecssa-.* Up, quit thy Bower’... 2:csmsteeemees eee Miss Horner, Messrs. Suira anp ARNOLD. Song......... ‘‘ Down in the Deep’’—Hatton.........Mr. Crovex. 97 Violin Solo...... Romance in F—Beethoven...... Mr. A. Potuarp. BPE noo... ‘“« Mountain Lad”—Roeckel............ Miss Horyer. PGATICTE......-..sc0se0 Andante, Minuet and Trio—Fresca ........... Messrs. Potnarp, Dent, HarGREAves, AND Myers. RE ccse a siccx-nvann | Nana —J,,. Hobbs... sn2:.0¢ o-Mr, Smrre, Song...... ..... The Desert’’—L. Emmanuel.........Mr. ARnowp. Duet......... “ Mighty Jove’ (Barber of Seville)—Rossini......... Messrs. SmirH anp CLoueu. 0 “Rob Roy ”—Foster ...... ........ BAND. 98 [SCENE | THE TOWNELEY MANUSCRIPTS: Purchased by the Club—November, 1883. By J. LANGFIELD WARD, M.A. This volume is described in the Catalogue of the Sale as follows—‘‘ John Townley’s Account Book, 1601—1608; Manu- script, instructive as to the prices, at the period, of Cattle, Sheep, Poultry, Game and Agricultural Produce—Near the end is the following receipt ‘‘ Received of Nicholas Bancrofte one of the Executors of John Townley, Esqr., deceased to be disbursed towchinge a sale for Lands in Metheringham and for other uses the some of Tenn Pownds. Augustine Halle.” According to the pedigree, Sir Richard Townley, knighted at Leith, married Frances Wimbyshe of Nocton, about 7 miles from Lincoln; their daughter Mary married a cousin, John Townley, and brought as a dowry an estate at Nocton, for the entries in * this MS. refer principally to matters connected with Nocton. The volume ends in the year of John Townley’s death, 1608. The pedigree describes him as having been persecuted, but this would probably have been during the preceding reign. I infer that he left one of his sons in charge of the property at Nocton, but which he selected it would have been rather difficult to say, had I not found something which proves that the entries are mostly the work of Christopher, who was born in 1570 and died in 1623 at Pendle Hall. This was not the well-known Christopher, ‘“ the indefatigable transcriber,” but an unele of his. I find that Richard, the eldest brother of the second Christopher, was buried at Nocton, but whether the present family is connected at all with the village I have made no endeavours to ascertain. I said that most of the entries I attributed to Christopher Townley: it appears as if several hands had been engaged upon the book at various times, but I infer that one of the sons was the principal, for he speaks of ‘‘ my brother Richard at Townley,” and ‘‘my brother Charles.”” In one place however comes ‘“ the ereat mare that Middleton did give to my master”: implying that the lists of horses and cattle were drawn up by a steward. Page 1 consists of an enumeration of the ‘“‘ horses belonging to the right worshipful John Townley, Esq., and remeninge about Nockton, this 15th day of October, 1601.” At the end of the book is the list for the 1st of February, 1599. They are described separately by names or by distinctive marks as ‘“ the old whyte mare of John Townley, old Specke, a bay called the ——.— Clee 99 stray mare, yonge Demdyke, yonge cracstones, and a yonge bay that trotteth.”’ These with others make a total of 31. In 1599 there were 46, but 22 were sent for a year to Townley. The name of Demdyke is curious, for this horse or rather these horses (for there were old and young Demdyke) were in Lincolnshire, and the name did not come into notoriety in connexion with the Lancashire witch trials till several years after. Next are enumer- ated the store of cattle, 31 draught oxen, 39 milke kyne, bullocks, fat cows, bulls, steers, &c., altogether about 180. These lists are repeated in succeeding pages, with the modifications required for different years, and then begins the account of the sales. The first entry is a sale on Oct. 27, 1601, to Edw. Metcalfe, who as one might gather from his name without the corroborative evidence of the MS., was a butcher, of a branded steer for 48/4 and a red cow for 36/8. We may note in these prices the persistence of the old fashioned sums of 3/4 and 6/8, the half noble and the noble, though the coin was almost entirely out of use. The next month, the self-same butcher of Lincoln pays £6 16s. 8d. for three four-year old fat steers. As regards the prices of other animals, we find that fat wethers realised 8/-, calves 7/4, 8/-, while next May the wethers fetched 10/-, and the fat calves came down to 5/10; six pigs came to 6/-; 2 yoke of fat oxen were sold at Grantham for £24 10s., by Ralph Proudlove and William Witton whereof 6d. given him again, and toll 6d., and spent by them 12d. Rabbits seem to have been relatively more expensive, for 14 dozen of them (18 couple to the dozen) were sold for £3 15s. 6d., which means 24d. each, while some lots fetched even 4d. and 6d. each. There isa difference made between the black and the grey, the former being valued at half as much again as the latter: the cause lay in the money received for the skins. The prices of horses are as one might expect very variable: some idea may be gathered from the following entries—gray nage £4 16s. 8d., nag calied Walker £10 Os. Od., bay nag £6 6s. 8d., the great bay mare £7 Os. 0d., the swallow colt £4 0s. Os., nag called Chirrlemayne £4 0s. 0d., gray 3 year old filly 42/-, filly (her colour black bay) 30/-, &c.: then at one grand effort amare, two fillies and a colt for the apparently reasonable price of £617s.6d. As for poultry we have 16 geese sold for 10/8, that is 8d. each, two turkeys at /22 and /12 respestively; 4 turkey hens went for 5/4 and 2 turkey cocks for 4/-; pigeons were /10 a dozen. Mr. Townley appears to have done a considerable trade in skins, for the entries under this head seem to come on every page; a steer skin sold for 5/8 in 1601, 8/4 in 1602, a bull skin for 20/., and a cow skin for 9/-. The cost of the keep of a young cow for a week was set down in 1601 as /3, but in 1602 the meat ofa stray steer kept for 6 weeks rises to 2/-. Grain of all kinds was very uncertain in price, varying not only from year to year, but 100 also considerably from one part of the year to another. The averages which are given in books are found by adding the prices at Lady Day and at Michaelmas. It being such a changeable commodity, no fair inference, for comparison of its then price with its present price, can be made from the occasional entries in this book: but it is rather remarkable, and shows I should think the addition which cost of carriage made to the price of an article in former times, that while wheat in Lincolnshire was selling at 26/8 the quarter, it cost in the Gawthorpe accounts 2/6 a peck or at the rate of 80/- a quarter. This is actually the price in those accounts through several years, and contrasts unfavourably with the modern prices of 45/- to 50/. Still more remarkable are the variations in the price of wool; from being in 1581 at Gaw- thorpe 20/- or 22/- a tod (of 18 stones) it rose in 16 years to 163/4, and in 1604 it was 97/6. In Lincolnshire in 1603 it was 26/8. These instances are sufficient to show the great differences which existed in the cost of articles according to the place, and how things are completely changed by the improved means of communication. I consider that this book we have before us is valuable for the means it supplies of adding to the evidence of costs in a special part of the country. The question of com- parative prices is one on which there are disputes, and a book that throws some light from original sources on the subject deserves special attention. It is well, too, for every one to have some general ideas at any rate touching this point, for such knowledge is necessary if we wish to point out how the ordinary citizen of the present day stands when contrasted with his representatives 300 years ago in the particulars of wages, and purchasing power of wages. Serious mistakes are made by men who have not enquired into the subject. Froude, in the opening chapter of his history, enters upon a careful cousideration of the position of the labouring classes with regard to means of subsist- ence. I think it is difficult to resist his conclusions, that when the wages of masons, bricklayers, joiners, &c., were 54d. a day, and beef was 3d. a pound, mutton 3d., a chicken a penny, the working-man was, even though wheat might be 6/8 a quarter, able to purchase more commodities than one can now. He was in other words able to buy for a week’s wages, 66lbs. of beef or 44 of mutton, or 83 chickens, or half-a-quarter of wheat. The last he would certainly be able to do now, but I doubt his ability to compass the others. The farm labourer earned less, probably about 40lbs. of beef. I prefer to give the comparison in beef, for that was no doubt the general food in the early Tudor period ;_ but whatever may have been the relative advantage of the working man then, I conceive the case was entirely changed when we come to the period of which our M§. treats. The price of com- modities seems in eyery case to have doubled at the very least ; 101 some articles have risen ata still more rapid rate; wheat is trebled, lambs have trebled ; but while this increase was going on nothing similar was going on in the rate of wages. The master-mason who built Gawthorpe received for his work, what may appear to us a small sum, 30/- a quarter, or about 6d. a day ; with this he would also have provisions. His subordinates had to content themselves with 2d. to 4d. a day and their eatables. Hence it will be seen that wages had not only not increased during the later Tudor period, but had actually decreased. Speaking generally I should say that the prices had about doubled between 1550 and 1600, and I judge it from the following particulars :—Froude says at the former period geese were worth 4d., in our manuscript they are 8d.; fat wethers were 3/4, in our time they were 8/- or 10/- ; fat oxen were 26/8, over £4 with us ; fat calves 3/4, as contrasted with 6/8 or 10/-; but as I have incidentally remarked before, there were some things the price of which had undoubtedly trebled. It would no doubt be inter- esting to inquire whether the Lincolnshire or Lancashire prices for stock were the higher. I have not had time to go thoroughly into the matter, but 1am inclined to say that the Lancashire were a little higher than the Lincolnshire, but it is a conclusion which I cannot confidently affirm. It was probable that Lincolnshire, lying as it did then among the manufacturing counties of England, would have great encouragement for cattle rearing ; Lancashire could not enter into competition because of the additional cost of conveyance. The competition in those days would be confined to one’s own district, and the cost of carriage to an out of the way part hike Lancashire would prevent cheaper commodities coming in to lower the Lancashire prices. The reader then gave a few curious entries in the manuscript, and proceeded: Christopher Towneley began to keep the accounts, if change of writing is a correct guide, about May 1604 ; in 1608, after the death of John Towneley, Christopher and his brother Charles examine the accounts and enter as follows :—The sume of all the foresaide debts owinge by John Towneley of Towneley Esquire my father latelie deceased amounteth unto two hundrethe poundes one shillinge four pence half pennie,” to which statement they put their signatures. On the 7th of May, 1609, the entries of the receipts end; and on the 15th of December, 1620, brother Christopher settles with Charles. It was time to do so. The settling is in Charles’ handwriting. *« My brother Christopher his receipts in all are as appeareth before £1593 2s. whereunto adding £9 7s. 1d. being the remain of his last accompt and £6 7s. found delivered unto him by myself and £17 14s. 4d. being one half year’s rent for Metheringham and unentered in his receipts do make his charge in all £1626. 10s. 5d. 102 His disbursements in all are as will appear by the book of his disbursements £1508 8s. 5d., which deducted out of the fore- said sume of £1626 10s. 4d. do make his remain £118 1s. 11d.— perused by us Christofer Towneley, Charles Towneley. Received the 15th day of December in anno Domini 1620 the sume of fifty nine pounds eleven pence ob (haif penny) being the half of £118. 1s. 11d. found remaining in my brother Christopher his hands, upon his accopts, as will appear herebefore and so due unto me, I say received Per me CHARLES TOWNELEY. Fastened in the volume is a letter from Nicholas Bancrofte to Christopher Towneley at Noctone. Peculiar words are few, rigauld used as a noun and an adjective; quee—a heifer, skins mortes and slaughters ; twinter —an ox or amimal two winters old, drape wethers, fat oxen well stricken with flesh, chawder of lime for chaldron. In conclusion I would just say that the period singularly enough is omitted by Eden in his ‘ State of the Poor ;’’ it looks, according to Harland, as if he was unable to find any accounts from 1602 to 1608 to furnish him with prices, and this manu- script, covering from 1601 to 1608, helps with the Gawthorpe accounts to fill up the chasm which there is in that work. BAPTISMS AND ANNIVERSARIES, &c., 1705 to 1722; WITH TERRIER OF DEMAINE OF MARTHOLME. By F. J. GRANT. The Terrier* was copied in the book in 1667, and is believed to be in the writing of Christopher Towneley. Probably in the 17th century the demesne of Martholme extended from Altham to within a short distance of Whalley. The names of several fields, &e., remain the same as at the time when the Terrier was made. Thirty-eight years after the Terrier was completed, the book was appropriated to the use of the Chaplain at Towneley, who for 16 years utilised its spare pages for the record of his masses, and as a register of the Marriages and Baptisms in the Family Chapel. The priest’s entries divide themselves into three portions. 1. Record of those ‘ christened since I came to Towne- ley.” From March, 1707, to March, 1727, ninety-five children were baptized Many of the names enumerated *Terrier :—“‘ a survey or register of lands.””—Jolnson. 108 are common to this day in the district about Towneley ; e.g.—Eastwood, Dawson, Walker, Halsted, Simpson, Whitehead, Hardgraves, Wittam or Whittam, Crabtree, Shackleton, Ormerod, Marshall, Pickopp, Seager. In two instances the baptismal register is incomplete, only the Christian name being given; possibly the blank may be taken as analogous to the bend sinister on an escutcheon. 2. Record of those ‘‘ married since I came to Towneley.”’ In 22 years, 18 Marriages are registered. In no single instance is the wife’s name given. 3. Statement of the Masses celebrated in the Towneley Chapel from 1 May, 1706, to 31 December, 1722. On Christmas-day in eaci year there were three distinct masses; on all other days except on Good Friday, one mass was said. Occasionally the entry is celebratio pro memet, sometimes pro fratre and sorore, or familia nostra. The families with whom the Towneleys were associated by friendship or connected by marriage were often remembered in the services of the Chapel. Some of the names of those for whom masses were celebrated are of families in the neighbour- hood, others are those of families whose names are familiar to any student of English history. The following are some of the names recorded :—Pudsey, Walmesley, Petre, Houghton, Sher- burn, Haydock, Tarleton, Gerard, Clifton, Molyneux, Farring- ton, Blundell, Vavasour, Hesketh, Talbot, Craven, Anderton, Scarisbrick, Gascoigne, Howard, Fairfax. But, as might be expected, no name occurs so frequently in the Priest’s entries as that of Towneley. Domino Towneley infirmo, or egrotante is followed by Domino Towneley defuncto. On certain days in the Spring—probably Rogation days— mass is celebrated pro frugibus terre, on other days—probably Ember days—pro ordinandis. There are masses for rain, for fair weather, for my flock, for all missionaries, for the conversion of sinners, for the Benefactors of the Foundation, for souls in purgatory. The most interesting part of the Priest’s records is that bearing on the Stuart family and their efforts to regain the Crown of England. The loyalty of the Towneleys to the Stuart dynasty is matter of history. The 10th of June, the birthday of Prince James, never passed unnoticed at Towneley. On that day in each year the mass was pro Rege nostro Jacobo III. Prayers for the Prince are often followed by masses pro summo pontifice, pro conversione Anglia, or pro exaltatione sancte ecclesia. The month of November, 1715, was a time of great anxiety to the friends of the ‘Old Pretender.” The Jacobite forces entered Preston on the 9th and 10th of that month; on the 12th 104 they were attacked by King Geoige’s army. On Sunday the 18th the force under General Carpenter, which had marched down Ribblesdale, joined in the attack on James’s followers, and on the 14th the army of the Pretender surrendered. ‘his was the end of the rebellion known as the °15. Some of the entries in the Chaplain’s book at this period are very pathetic and sug- gestive. Masses were celebrated as under :— November 8, 4, & 12, Rege nostro Jacobo ILI. 18 & 14, Militibus. 4 17, Patientia et resignatione. rf 18, Resignatione. a 19, Rege nostro Jacobo IT]. s 20, Redemptions Captivorum. on 23, Conversione Anglie. a 30, (S. Andrew's day) Scotia. Richard Towneley was one of those taken prisoner at Preston. He was put on his trial, but by exceptional good fortune was acquitted. For his services as Chaplain, the Priest appears from this Memorandum book to have received a salary of £10 per annum. Out of this sum he had to pay for food for his horse. This was the usual salary of a chaplain in the seventeenth century. In addition the chaplain always had his board and a humble bed- room (Macaulay’s History, vol. I.) The stipend of the Towneley priest was not very regularly paid. The paymaster was Mr. Orum—probably the Steward—who, however. in Charles Towne- ley’s time, never made the payment until directly ordered to do so by the head of the house. The stipend was due in April each year. That month was never allowed to pass without mass being said for Mr. Orum. On the 26th of May, 1709, this entry is made in the Mem- orandum Book :—‘‘ Received of Madme: Towneley four pound, due for the two years past upon account Mr. Charles stopped 40 shillings per annum for 2 years.” ‘‘ How far that little candle throws his beams! ‘‘ So shines a good deed in a naughty world.”’ CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY OF JOHN TOWNELEY, 1807; WITH FRAGMENTS OF HIS DIARY. By ALFRED STRANGE. «19 Towneley, (John) Diary 1807 with catalogue of his library, date 19th century.” Such is the title of the work in the catalogue of the sale on 28th of June last: the book became the 105 property of the Club for the sum of 22/-. It is a post 8vo volume of hand-made paper, bound in brown leather, and contains 188 leaves. Of the catalogue portion the greater part is devoted to the Books in the Library of Corney House, Chiswick, and the rest to some of those in Park Street, Westminster. Taking the first- named, we are at once struck with the number of County Histories it contains, and works on general and archeological topography. Next the large assemblage of Continental Works claims attention, many being of ancient date. One of the oldest Historico eccle- siastical works in manuscript goes back to 1254: it purports to be an account of a junior brotherhood existing in the time of Pope Innocent IV: one MS. without title is of 1300, and among the early printed books are ‘“‘The Cordyale Caxton” 1479. “The Dictes and sayings of the Philosophers” 1477—1491 and “ Life of St. Katherine and St. Elizabeth’’ 1486. I may name among the works issued in the 16th century, ‘‘ Scala Perfec- tionis’* (Wynkyn de Worde), Hore B.M.YV. in usum Sarum”’ 1502, ‘‘Mareus Aurelius” 1557. Of publications during the Cromwellian period, there is a great lack. In Bookcase C 7, chiefly occupied by Topographical Books, there is a pleasing mingling of works of opposite characters; Boccaccio is a companion of Palafox’s Devout Exercises; a valuable MS. of Wycliffe’s, written on vellum, rests not far from the work of a charlatan astrologer. Over the Little Parlour Library in Park Street, Westminster, we must not linger : the list of topographical works and tracts arranged alphabetically _ under the heads of their respective counties brings us to what was known as the “Street Parlour Library.” The house in Park Street formed the town house of the family during John Towneley’s lifetime and that of his son Peregrine, but in Charles Towneley’s time it was given up, and the establishment removed to the fashionable quarter Charles Street, Berkeley Square. But the most interesting feature about the MS. to local - enquirers will be the fragments of the diary it contains, recording _ Mr. John Towneley's journey from London to Towneley. He _ set out on July 6th, 1807, and seems to have arranged his arrival _ so as to be in time for the all-important local event, Burnley Fair ; _ thus for July 8th we read “‘ Left Halifax between 7 and 8 o’clock, morn. and arrived at Towneley between 10 and11. Overtook John Barnes near Dr. Whitaker's at the Holme. The weather fine. The Hay crop very abundant, and half got in.”. On the _ following day Mr. Hargreaves of Ormerod House calls at Towneley _ and Mr. Lovat is mentioned as forming one of the evening dinner _ party. Then comes “ 10th July, Towneley—Weather the same: 3 Burnley Fair; viewed the improvements at the Hall Inn, and the _ new buildings—called on Mr. Greenwood, rode a Black galloway * bought of Ed. Lee of Hapton, took a ride through the Horse SN ie Mad ; 106 pasture to the New Hazles and the drains Mr. Lovat has made in the Horse pasture.’ The Hall Inn referred to will be recog- nised as the once Town House of the Towneleys. After viewing the hotel, he re-mounts his sable steed and jogs on to Pallis House, so called from the palisading once surrounding it, to pay his respects to Mr. Greenwood, who it will be remembered, was the donor of a valuable Library to the Church of England Literary Institution. On July 14th a finish of auditing the accounts with Mr. Lovat was made. On the 21st a Mason came from Preston “‘to put up my nephew’s monument in Burnley Church,” and the following day he visited St. Peter’s to see the progress made, on his way to “Carr” to call on Col. Clayton. Notwithstanding continued bad weather Mr. Starkie of Huntroyde does not delay to pay his complimentary visit to Towneley. Neither did Mr Towneley forget good Mr. Rawse whom he went to see on the 28th of the month. The diary from this date to the 16th of August seems little more than a dull meteorological report, and that of the briefest kind. On the 27th of August he gives a dinner party at Towneley to the following guests, all of whose names will be familiar, Mr. and Mrs. Hargreaves, of Bank Top, Mrs. Ormerod and Captain Hargreaves, Mr. Rawse, Mr. and Mrs. Whitaker, junr., and Miss Thoresby. After this entry we have more barometer than memoir. There are from 60 to 70 entries altogether, and out of the whole number there are but 5 in which there is no allusion to the state of the atmosphere. Rainy days of course predominate. Mr. Strange brought his paper to a close with the following remarks— I have only one more observation to make suggested by the Diary, in bringing my remarks to a close. It is this:—that with the sudden accession of John Towneley to the Estate there seemed some probability of a perpetuation of the family name. Through old John Towneley, his son Peregrine, and his grandson there was hope that the genealogical tree would flourish and | expand. When Peregrine came to Towneley on August 16th, 1807, there was every human probability that the ancient family would be still represented in coming years. The Towneleys’ had entered on a new lease of life, and there was now a prospect that they would not be blotted out from the list of the great Commoners of England. Many long years had elapsed since an infant son and heir had played about the galleries of Towneley Hall, and the happy merriment of little Charles as he bestrode the rocking-horse in the ancestral nursery, all unconscious of the victories of future Kettledrums, must have been sweet music in the ears of his father and grandfather. In that light hearted lad was centred the present hopes of the family, and failing him the infant John would be relied on to preserve the pedigree.—But 107 man proposes, a higher than man disposes. Though the law of probabilities were favourable, it was ordained that the Towneleys of Towneley were to pass away, and that after an existence of nearly 10 centuries a family of fame and importance, and loved and respected to the last were in representatives male at least, to vanish from among men. But though the name is lost and the later sons of the race sleep under cold slabs in the North Aisle of Burnley Church, and in the damp soil of the little Chapel Yard at the entrance of the Trough of Bolland, the memory of the Towneleys will ever be cherished in Burnley, not only be- cause they are associated with its earliest history, but more especially because their venerable name casts an historical, literary, and dignified lustre on the annals of this thrifty and industrious town. 108 Sree GENERAL EXCURSIONS. June 12th, 1884: Thursday.—PRESTON AND PENWORTHAM. Septr. 3rd, 1884: Wednesday.—YORK AND SELBY. PRESTON AND PENWORTHAM. June 12th, 1884. Leader, JAMES McK AY, of Preston. The party reached Preston about half-past two. Here they were met by Mr. James McKay, who officiated as conductor for the day. The party immediately proceeded to the County Offices, where Mr. T. R. Jolly courteously showed the visitors through the beautiful range of buildings, pointing out the armorial bearings and mural decorations, by Messrs. Shrigley and Hunt, of London and Lancaster, from the designs of Mr. HK. H. Jewett and Mr. J. Milner Allen, of London. The necessity for giving any detailed account of the historical portraits and pictorial subjects which adorn the walls of this splendid apart- ment was obviated by the presentation to the members of copies, of the exhaustive and able manual written by C. R. Jacson, EKsq., of Barton Hall, for the information of the Lancashire justices on the occasion of its opening. Having ascended to the highest point of the building, from which a magnificent view of Preston was obtaimed, the party left the County Offices, and proceeding along Fishergate, the associations of the thoroughfare and all the buildings along the route—the Baptist Chapel, built in the Byzantine style of architecture ; the Theatre Royal, in the Italian style—were all pointed out to the members ; then the church of St. Wilfrid was inspected by special permission of the Rector, the Rev. Father Dykes, 8.J.. The visitors were put in possession of the history of the church from the time of its opening, on the 4th of June, 1793, to its rebuilding in 1879, from the designs and plans of Mr. Nicholl, of London, and Father Scholes, of St. Mary’s, Preston, at a cost of upwards of £20,000. The beautiful altar, with its Italian marbles, the altar steps, the tabernacle of the high altar, the paintings of the Crucifixion and the Flight into Egypt, and the statue of Our Lady, were all inspected. Leaving this sacred edifice the party made their way through Winckley-square to Dr. Shepherd’s Library and the Cross-street Museum. The charming beauty of the foliage and greensward within the enclosure was the subject of admiration. At Dr. Shepherd's Library, the Rev. J. Shortt, Vicar of Hoghton, and honorary curator of the Cross-street Museum, was awaiting the party, and, with the assistance of the obliging librarian, the eyes of the visitors were feasted with rare a 109 copies of early typography. It would take too much space to enumerate these works, but the books themselves, by their variety, and as examples both of the binders’ and the printers’ art, were intensely interesting. Adjourning to the Cross-street Museum, Mr. Shortt described the choice collections, the Cuer- dale find, and the fossil remains illustrative of the geological character of the neighbourhood, calling for special attention. It is interesting to know that on the strength of the Cuerdale find, Mr. Charles Hardwick, the able historian of Preston, claims for the immediate vicinity of the town of Burnley that it was the scene of that mighty battle of Brunanbuhr, which the late Mr. T. T. Wilkinson argued had taken place on the uplands between Worsthorne, Rogerham, Harle Syke, and Saxifield. Proceeding next to the Town Hall the party were gratified by the appoint- ments of the Free Library, and admired the extent of the library, its management, and happy and appropriate location. Mr. Goulding, the Town Hall keeper, then led the way round the building, and described the windows and various decorations, mural and otherwise, in the different rooms. The party were led into the Mayor’s Parlour, and by the courteous permission of the Right Worshipful the Mayor (J. Forshaw, Esq.) the Corporation regalia were set out for their inspection. It was explained that the building was erected from the designs of the late Sir Gilbert Scott, and ranks among the finest of that great architect's creations. The sculpture and carving were executed by Messrs. Yarmer and Brindley, of London ; and the decorators were Messrs. Clayton and Bell, of London. The building, which cost upwards of £90,000, and was erected by Messrs. Cooper and Tullis, of Preston, was opened in 1867 by H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge. The Corporation regalia includes the silver-headed Mayor's wand ; the halberts, which are by no means indifferent modern representatives of the jfasces and secures of the Romans; the exquisite gold mace, the gift of the 4th Duke of Hamilton, in 1703 ; other two maces; the grace cup, presented in 1615; the Queen Anne’s “loving cup ;’’ the Longworth goblet (1716) ; the Atherton tankard (1722); and the massive silver punch bowl, the gift of the Earl of Derby at the Guild of 1742. The fine Guild Hall was visited, and the party then devoted the brief time at their disposal to the examination of the invaluable collec- tion of Paintings in the Newsham Art Gallery. The Town Clerk had given permission for the party to inspect the oldest charter of the borough and two beautiful charters of the time of Charles i. These historical documents were carefully examined with much interest. Mr. Goulding then accompanied the party to the New Public Hall, a building of very large capacity, and possess- ing a fine organ, the gift of Mr. Dewhirst. After tea at the Station Dining Room, Mr. McKay conducted the party through. 110 the private grounds of the Park Hotel, the party surveying the landscape with unmixed pleasure, for the day was gloriously fine. By way of Miller Park, Ribble Side, and Penwortham Bridge, the visitors were conducted to St. Mary’s Well, and thence to the picturesque avenue lead- ing to the Priory and the church. The party were re- ceived at Penwortham Priory with gracious courtesy, and (in the absence of Lawrence Rawstorne, Esq.,) were led by Mrs. Rawstorne through every apartment in the beautiful mansion which could possibly interest them. The hospitable character of the reception will never be forgotten by those who were privileged to enjoy it. It appears that soon after the Conquest a Benedictine priory or monastic cell was erected here by a fraternity of the monks from Evesham. The vicissitudes of the structure since were detailed, and then the visitors proceeded to the church situated on the summit of a high and woody bank overlooking the valley of the Ribble. The date of the first erection is not known, but a church existed in 1291. The present tower is probably of the 15th century, although the nave and aisles of the church were rebuilt in 1856. Castle Hill was mounted, and the prospect from it would lead one to admit that Penwortham must have been worthy of being, as it was in the olden time, “a royal manor.” This height was in Roman times a camp of observation commanding the pass of the Ribble, and providing means of communication by signal with the other Roman garrisons at Walton and Ribchester. The programme of the day was now brought to a conclusion, and the party made their way to the station and returned home. It must be recorded that Mr. McKay had very considerately prepared and printed a descriptive list of the chief objects of interest in the historic town. The possession of these notes and the book relating to the County Sessions Hall added greatly to the pleasure of the visit, and served as souvenirs of a pleasant day and the kindly reception accorded to the party. YORK AND SELBY. September 3rd, 1884. Leader, W. LEWIS GRANT. There had long been an earnest desire that York should be included in the list of summer day excursions ; and now that the improved train-service had come into operation, a visit to that ancient city could conveniently be made. York was reached about ten o'clock, and the first object which arrested attention was a portion of the City wall. The walls form one of the most striking features of the historic City, and some portions are 111 built upon the foundations of the Roman Wall. They are in good preservation, and throughout a great length afford an agreeable promenade. Oncrossing the celebrated Lendal Bridge, a picturesque view of the river with the quaint structures includ- ing the Guildhall, rising from its waters, is obtained. The Bridge is of iron construction, and was designed by Mr. Page, the architect of Westminster Bridge. It was built at a cost of £35,000, and is richly ornamented with shields and various devices. The celebrated grounds of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society were next entered, and the party proceeded to view the extremely valuable collections therein preserved. At the further end of the tastefully laid out gardens are the beautiful ruins of St. Mary’s Abbey, a Benedictine Monastery. The West front, judging from the portion which remains, must have been very fine. The Hospitium, which is partly of wooden construction, is utilized as an Antiquity Museum. It is a rich storehouse of fragments of the sculptured decorations of the Abbey, and of a singularly fine collection of Roman and other antiquities. York is notably rich in Roman relics ; and of these there are tesselated pavements of beautiful design, a unique collection of coffins, many altars, bricks and tiles, remains of baths and leaden pipes, and numerous specimens of pottery, cinerary urns, glass, ornaments of gold, ivory, jet, &c. An object of special interest is the hair of a Roman lady which was taken out of a stone coffin found in 1875. The hair retains its beautiful auburn colour, and contains two jet pins in their original position. The Museum of the Society is of Grecian architecture, and contains several valuable Roman tablets, pieces of Egyptian sculpture, the mortar of the Infirmary of the Abbey of St. Mary—a choice specimen of mediceval art—and a curious and rare collection of coins. In the Ethnological Room are deposited numerous bone, flint, and stone implements from various countries, samples of British pottery, and bronze implements and weapons, &c. A special feature is the geological collection, and there are skeletons of birds, and the remains of extinct animals. The old Norman arch forming the principal gateway of the Abbey was noticed, as also the remains of the Hospital of St. Leonard, and the Multangular Tower,—an undoubted part of the fortifications of Eboracum. The party then proceeded to the Railway Station, and after dinner went by train to Selby, 14 miles distant. Here they were met by the Rev. — Lister, Curate of the Parish, the Vicar, the Rey. Canon Harper, being unable to accompany the party ; and on reaching the glorious Abbey Church, two of the Church- wardens joined Mr. Lister in order to give information and facilitate the profitable inspection of the venerable edifice. Selby Abbey Church holds a unique position as the one great Bene- 112 dictine Monastery of the North of England surviving as a parochial Church. Sir Gilbert Scott, R.A., who restored the Abbey, said, in his report (1871): ‘‘ The Abbey Church of Selby in some respects stands alone among the magnificent monastic remains of Yorkshire. It may not perhaps be the most splendid of all those noble fabrics, though it ranks amongst the first of them, nor can it boast those accidental and picturesque charms with which nature has clothed the ruined Abbeys, as if to throw a veil over their desolation ; but it possesses the far higher, though less picturesque, advantage of not being a ruin, of retaining with one trifling exception, its entire dimensions, and of being still, as ever, dedicated to the honour and worship of God.” The chief results of the work of restoration were pointed out, the realization of these being assisted by viewing a series of photographs shewing the Church previous to the undertaking. The Norman, Transitional, Karly English, and Geo- metrical styles of architecture, are all characteristically illustrated. The length of the entire Church is 298 feet, the width being 59 feet. There are two richly ornamented doorways which present splendid specimens of the latest and richest Norman. The oldest portion of the Church is the North Transept. The external view of the choir is wonderfully fine; the eastern facade being a noble and magnificent composition. The great east window is one of the grandest in the kingdom. Entering by the western door the fine nave and the extreme length of the Church present a view which is singularly striking. There is not space to notice the salient features of the building; the interesting character of the Triforium and Clerestory; the monuments and quaint inscriptions ; the elaborately decorated choir, &e. It was with regret that the party could not prolong their examination of a Church possessing such a combination of attractions to the antiquarian and archeologist. On returning to York, the visitors passed through the finest of the gateways by which the ramparts are pierced—Micklegate Bar. It was on this gate that the heads of traitors were formerly exposed. The purpose of the party was now to visit the chief glory of the imperial city—the Minster. On the way thither were passed some of the many venerable churches which the city encloses, and many of which enshrine precious memorials of past ages. There was also noticed the quaint picturesqueness of some of the streets, with their half-timbered houses and projecting gables. On approaching the Minster from Duncombe Street the view is supremely impressive. The dignity and massive grandeur of the edifice at once arrest the attention of the visitor, and this special feature is ever present whether the Cathedral be viewed from the exterior or interior. The West Front which is the portion first 113 presented, is in its composition and details an architectural masterpiece. Notice of the history of the Minster, its chief architectural characteristics, its unrivalled windows, and numer- ous monuments to the renowned in Church and State, cannot be given here. There is only space to record that the most note- worthy features and interesting objects appertaining to this stately and triumphant specimen of Gothic architecture were pointed out by one of the vergers. Amongst these objects was the wall in the Crypt which reveals the herring-bone work of the Saxon period, establishing unmistakeably the great age of this, the oldest part of the fabric. Several of the party ascended the great Central Tower, which is 213 feet in height and 65 feet square. From the summit an extensive prospect of the beautiful vale of York was obtained. On departing from the Cathedral the quaint thoroughfare of Stonegate was traversed, and the Guild Hall, erected in 1446, was reached. In this building are several fine stained glass windows, representing historical sub- jects, and sundry curious relics. It was now the pleasure of the visitors to be hospitably entertained by Dr. Hill, at his residence in the suburbs. On the way the building known as Clifford’s Tower was seen. This prominent object was the keep of the fortress erected here by William the Conqueror. The day’s pro- ceedings were pleasantly brought to a close by the generous reception accorded to the party by Dr. Hill. Leaving York at half-past six, Burnley was reached about nine o’clock. 114 SECTIONAL EXCURSIONS. June 7th, 1884: Saturday.—_ALKINCOATES HALL AND THE PARISH CHURCH, COLNE. June 21st,1884: Saturday.—CASTLE CLOUGH AND SITE OF HAPTON TOWER. Aug. 23rd, 1884: Saturday.—BLACKSTONE EDGE AND THE ROMAN ROAD. ALKINCOATES HALL, AND THE PARISH CHURCH, COLNE. June 7th, 1884. Leader, ALFRED STRANGE. By the kindness of T. Mason, Hsq., the present occupier of the Ancient Manor House of Alkincoates, the members of the Art and Antiquity Section were privileged to inspect the Hall. The mansion is the property of Thomas Parker, Esq., of Browsholme, and is prominently situated in a park like enclosure to the west of Colne, overlooking Pendle Forest. It is one of the most interesting specimens of Elizabethan domestic archi- tecture in the neighbourhood, and seems to have been erected about 1560. Its handsome front of five picturesque gables are surmounted by finials of that date, and being of three storeys, the building has a more commanding appearance than the many smaller two-storied contemporary domestic mansions existing in the locality. Between the gables the original massive gurgoyles intervene, but the external front as well as other portions of the Hall have undergone much change during later years. The mullioned and transomed windows in the lower storeys have been removed, and the old, flat, thick, wooden sashes of the Queen Anne epoch introduced. Those in the gables are however in siti. The principal entrance was originally differently placed than it is now, and in a field to the east may be seen the weather-worn stone posts of the old gateway which gave admis- sion to the grounds. These stones are like the house itself found of millstone grit, drawn probably from the quarries to the rear of the Hall. On the lawn in front is a quaint octagonal sundial, which is shewn by a rude inscription on the shaft sup- porting it, to have been put up by one ‘“ Christopher Trueman,” who is described as ‘‘ generosus.”” The name of a John Dyson, (? Diwon) also appears on the pedestal, and as it has also been found on the sundial over the porch of Colne Church, it is con- jectured that he was frequently employed in this class of work at the period when the Alkincoates dial was erected. Scattered about the grounds of Alkincoates are relics of Keclesiastical masonry, alleged to have been brought from Selby, and prominent among the fragments may be seen Karly English, later Gothic, and Norman dog tooth moulding. There are also 115 two fonts of massive character, one of an octagonal shape but without shafts. The interior of the mansion has been altered to suit the requirements of a modern residence. There isa good collection of Klizabethan oak furniture, including mantle-pieces, book-cases, sideboards, chairs, wainscotting, &c., all very elabor- ately carved, removed hither from Browsholme. Respecting the two families of Alkincoates and Browsholme it may be said that the antiquity of the former branch of the Parkers is involved at present in much mystery, no complete pedigree being in existence, and it is not until they become associated with the Parkers of Browsholme, that any regularity is found in their genealogy. That they intermarried with the Blakeys of Blakey Hall, (their immediate neighbours), and the Mereclesdens of Great and Little Marsden—both families of im- portance—is evident. But it is certain that it was not until the seventeenth century, about the year 1608, that any post mortem inquisition was held in connection with the estate. A Bernard Parker died in that year, and it was found by inquiry before the king’s escheator that the estate consisted of 150 acres of land in the township of Colne. Besides this, there was a messuage ; no doubt the present house. It will be noted that this estate was of modest proportions, and perhaps that may be a clue to the fact that although the neighbouring gentry whose names are familiar to us, did in 1574, and at other periods have to con- tribute men and warlike implements for the military service of the country, no trace of the Alkincoates Parkers appears amongst them. Subsequently the members visited Colne Parish Church, the Rector, the Rev. W. Clifford, M.A., kindly conducting the party and pointing out the objects of interest. CASTLE CLOUGH AND SITE OF HAPTON TOWER. June 21st, 1884. Leader, G. B. RAWCLIFFE. This excursion was for the purpose of investigating the neighbourhood of Castle Clough and Hapton Tower, in search of objects of antiquarian, entomological, and botanical interest. The President, Mr. H. Houlding, was one of the party. The party rambled through the exceedingly picturesque and romantic dell called Castle Clough, and noted the variety and luxuriance of the flora, the magnificent growth of the trees and ferns, and the interesting phenomena of insect life, of which every species of plant and tree is the home and “ procreant cradle,” as well as the storehouse of abundant food. Several beetles were bottled, amongst others a very splendid one which, through a pocket lens, 116 “far outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind,” reminding one of the gorgeous heraldry of H. T. M. ‘‘ with gems and golden lustre rich emblazed,” or of Sigismunda’s casket, ‘‘ rich with gems and rough with gold.” The Clough is full of interest for the botanist, affording magnificent specimens of Felix mas, the Lady-fern, and the broad shield-fern. There was a profusion of Stellaria nemorum, rarely seen, save under sylvan shadows, and the Cardamine amara, or Bittercress, was found in flower. A pool almost dry, in one part, presented a complete covering of the Callitriche aquatica. Many of the trees are very tall, and the rocks, fern-clad and oak-crowned, as many of them were, were very grand and imposing. Ascending the eastern slope of the ravine, the party came upon the site of the ancient castle, and traced out the fosse, moat, vallum, or whatever it might be, but found no vestige of masonry. This castle, according to Dr. Whitaker, was the seat of the ancient lords of Hapton, and till the erection of Hapton Tower the occasional residence of the de la Leghs and Towneleys. It must have been a most picturesque object, being seated upon the brink of a massive perpendicular rock with the beautiful wooded glen beneath. After having thoroughly explored the upper part of the clough, the members then ascended the slopes in the direction of Hambledon, to the hill above Tower Brook, on the summit of which stands Hapton Tower, nearly half-a-mile south of the New Barn. This magnificently situated house or fortress was originally surrounded by an extensive park, called Hapton Park, of which Porter’s Gate, above Micklehurst is said to have been one of the entrances or lodges. The first mention of a Manerium et Parcus de Hapton occurs in 1831; but Robert de Lacy, the second, granted to William de Arches the venison caught in Hapton as early as 1095. The great park inclosed in 1515 consisted of 1100 acres. Sir John Towneley, who was born in 1478, is said to have buils Hapton Tower, and it was there he died in 1541. Our excursionists examined with great interest what little remains of Sir John’s Tower, which now forms part of the wall which crosses the highest point of the ridge next to Hambledon. Little appears above ground, except an ancient loop-hole with some heavy masonry around it, but no doubt, remains of considerable interest, lie buried under the accumulated ruins, now overgrown with grass, in which outlines of the ancient building may be traced. Dr. Whitaker mentions a tradition that in 1725 the remains of the tower stood about 6 yards high, and.,were described as a large square building with three round towers on one side. It seems to have been constructed after the pattern of the border fortresses, and may have been intended to serve for defence against the Scots, ‘‘ who frequently came south of Clitheroe or Whalley.” The Tower was the principal residence 117 of the Towneley family, and was not finally deserted till 1667. Right in front lie the great ranges of Whalley, Longridge, and Bleasdale, with Parlick Pike to the left, and Pendle and Bouls- worth to the right, with the great valleys sweeping wide between. What the scene must have been like when the ‘‘ good greenwood” lay in sylvan magnificence around, and ‘the merl and mavis were singing,’ and memories of Robin Hood and his merry men still haunted the shadowy glades, we may imagine. But even to-day the site of the old Tower is well worth a visit for those who like to breathe pure air, and who love the grandeur of a wide prospect and the quiet that is ‘‘ among the lonely hills.” BLACKSTONE EDGE AND THE ROMAN ROAD. August 23rd, 1884. Leader, J. ARTHUR WADDINGTON. Dr. Monckman and Mr. J. Arthur Waddington were appointed leaders, but owing to a delay in the railway service Dr. Monckman unfortunately did not jom the party. However, Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, M.A., of Her Majesty’s Geological Survey, accompanied the members, and contributed very much to the interest of the excursion by the information he afforded respecting the geology of the district. The party proceeded by way of the old turnpike road, past Lydgate and Blackstone Edge Fold to the summit. The highest point of Blackstone Edge is 1551 feet above sea level, yielding in point of altitude to but three hills in our immediate district—Pendle (1831), Boulsworth (1700), and Black Hambledon (1572). During the walk the sharp dip of the beds of Millstone Grit was noticed. The key to the geology of this neighbourhood is to be found, however, in the fault which runs along the western flanks of Blackstone Edge, known as the Great Anticlinal Fault. This displacement of strata, which runs in a direction nearly due north, has been traced from Leek in Staffordshire, at its southern extremity, toa point north of Black ~ Hambledon, a distance of about 50 miles. On its western side the upper beds of the Millstone Grit series are tilted at a high angle, whilst upon crossing the fault we find the Kinder Scout Grit. This, the lowest bed of the series to which it belongs, lies immediately above the Yordale beds, and has a very slight dip towards the east. Sometimes the outcrop of the Kinder Scout Grit forms a bold escarpment as is the case at Blackstone Edge and Black Hambledon. In the former instance the outcrop is marked by ,picturesquely grouped blocks of gritstone. Some of 118 these are of immense size, being weathered into fantastic shapes, and often bearing upon their upper surfaces potholes or rock basins of considerable size. Tle mode of the formation of these potholes has been the subject of much controversy, though the most probable hypothesis appears to be the one which attributes them to the action of the elements upon some slight depression in the surface of the rock. The wind and the rain cause the disintegration of the felspar and coarse-grained quartz of which the rock is composed, and so bring about a gradual enlargement of the hollow. One rock which is most curiously weathered is known as Robin Hood’s Bed. The boundary between Lancashire and Yorkshire runs for some distance along the ridge of Black- stone Edge, which also forms the watershed between the streams that flow east into the German Ocean and west into the Irish Sea. After spending some little time upon the summit, the party turned towards the north, striking the Roman Road which has lately attracted so much attention from antiquaries, upon the eastern slope of the hill. Though now covered with vegetation, the line of the road can be distinctly traced. It is about 14 feet wide, with no special features beyond the central blocks of stone similar to those upon the Long Causeway and elsewhere. The irregularity of the road at this point led to the suggestion that it was of Post Roman date, one of the chief characteristics of Roman Roads being that they led in a direct line from station to station. On the western slopes, however, this directness is very apparent, as the roadway leads straight up the hillside. There are other arguments in favour of the great antiquity claimed for it, though in the space allotted to this notice there is no room for the discussion of them. Near the summit, upon each side of the road, are evidences of rude earthworks or intrenchments. The gradient upon the western slope is generally about 1 in 5, and for nearly half-a-mile the road, though now for the greater part covered with peat and other herbage, presents a most striking appearance. The road has at several points been bared by the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society, and a careful examination of its construction may easily be made. Down the centre are laid massive trough stones, end to end, and about three feet six inches wide. Upon either side there are set stones, very regular, and similar in size to those used for modern pavements. These are protected at the outer edge by curbstones set on edge, the whole forming a compact roadway 16 feet wide. This is flanked by a foss, the earth from which has been thrown up forming banks on each side. The central stones are hollowed to the depth of 34 inches, the sides thereof being somewhat above the general level of the road. Many are the theories brought forward to account for this remarkable feature of the roadway, some of which we enumerate here, no opinion being given as 119 to the probable correctness or otherwise of the suggestions :— (1) That the channel has been worn by the feet of “lime gals’’ or packhorses. (2) That it was intended to act as a drain to carry the water from the road. (3) That it was a track for the guides of the Roman Army, the groove being worn by human feet. (4) That it was to receive the centre wheel of a three- wheeled waggon or trolly. (5) That it was to receive the skidded wheel of a vehicle, the ruts of the other wheel being apparent upon the paved portion of the road. The Rev. J. 8. Doxey, who was one of the party, remarked that in some parts of Derbyshire it is the practise to tilt up a heavily-laden cart, liberating the forepart from the shafts, and letting the tail drag on the ground. He suggested that possibly in this case an adaptation of this primitive kind of drag had fitted the already prepared groove. Here we leave this much disputed question, and whether or not at some future time a definite conclusion is arrived at as to the date of the road, its past history and the object of its central line of stones, it must always be regarded with the greatest interest as a monument of human skill and industry. 120 LIBRARY. The Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows :— Vol. I.—1878.—“ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys,” 1649 to 1655. », 2%.—1879.—‘* An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,’’ 1545 to 1620. », 98.—1880.—‘ Lancashire Inquisitions,’’ now existing in the Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period Part I, 1 to 11, James I. », 4.—1881.—“ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1621 to 1650. », 6.—1881.—‘‘ Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1686. », 6.—1882.—“ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certificates,” 1600 to 1678. », 7.—1882.—‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. », 8.—1882.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records, preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part IT. », 9.—1884.—* Rolls of Burgesses at the Guilds Merchant of the Borough of Preston,” 1397 to 1682. », 10.—1884.—*‘ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1457 to 1680. Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Vol. xxxili., 1880-1; Vol. xxxiv., 1881-2. Reports and Proceedings of the following Societies :— Manchester Field Naturalists and Archeologists’ Society, 1860 (the year of its formation), to 1879, (1871 excepted.) Manchester Scientific Students’ Association, (Hstablished 1861), 1878, 1879, 1883. Chester Society of Natural Science, (Hstablished 1872), 1878-9, 1879-80, 1880-81, 1881-2, 1882-3, 1883-4. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society, (Established 1822), 1878, 1879. Liverpool Geological Association, (Established 1880), 1880-81, 1881-2, 1882-3. Liverpool Science Students’ Association, (Hstablished 1881), 1883-4. Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, 1884. A Synopsis of the British Mosses, by Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th to 26th, 1883. 121 Catalogue of the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 1883, (containing prices realized.) Baptisms and Anniversaries, &c., 1705. Manuscript, evidently the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley, on the Vigil of St. John the Baptist, 1705. John Towneley’s Diary, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library. Manuscript. John Towneley’s Account Book, 1601-8. The following papers have been read before the Club :— *s* Geoffrey Chaucer,” by Henry Houlding, read January 13th, 1874. *« The Philosophy of Recreation,” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874. *« Edmund Spenser,” by Henry Houlding, read October 26th, 1875. “The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,’ by J. W. Anningson, L.BR.C.P., read September 16th, 1879. *«The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. ‘* Science Two Hundred Years Ago,” by C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,” by Thomas Holgate, read October 17th, 1882. “ Odours, Perfumes, and Flavours,’’ by Alfred Henry Mason, F,C.8., Liverpool, read February 20th, 1883. Those marked * may be purchased, price 6d. each. Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June Ist, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, July 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. ‘‘Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,” by Edward T. Bellhouse, a paper read before the Man- chester Statistical Society, April 13th, 1881. Photographs may be obtained of the Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, 1881. Old Houses in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May, 1881. Price 1s. and 2s., according to size. Transactions of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, Vol. L., 1883, may be obtained. Price 2s. 6d. 122 ‘royrpny “TITIN AOXOUD ‘goa1109 pUNOoF pus pouLUTEXy L 6 &IlF L 6. SIlF POLL OR pretense rime oot iene see egdmpagy “ € 81 p oes 019 eisie» oes ona eine *) 929 ‘MOISSTUUOA $,10JD9T[OD “ € gL cit tt eouepueyzy pue ‘Sulst}teapy ‘sedeysog * 0 8 st bee eeeeeereeeeeeeeeerers Krau0TyR}g pus ZuyuMg ole 8 ‘''''’ sesuedxg pue ‘gg Aejeumoy, Jo esByoIng « 02 6 ‘''''''' Aqooog prooay erryseyD pue aitysvousy] e 9 ILT ‘1 '' ealyseyp pue earysvouey Jo Ayotoog o104stpyy “* 2 BLT tee ee smOpSAMOR GT “ “ 98. cba ats tenga a cee” paaito sg gomcdyaeieme e Ie Le dai "7 Soeeemaam ns Mars a sess Spaerogey Siegy “ O LL FS Tor gartog oryeurerg To. BL te her en etter sana Nene lees Dat go MOT © 921 Re ty eee (Zagt) epztog [worsnyy pur purest, U0 iT: a) 1 W ecm et cece rete ees r eter eeseseeree sredeg jo avg “ Os COP ek ee es (ZggI) tequeyH [ounoD jo yuay * 0 0 LT cite ttts* 8° seatog oneurerg ye sydreoey “ e 08 a reeeearecceseeeeesees nrpmrog yysnorq couvreg Aq} 0 ¢ 96 se ceecneceeeeccsroreree® SUOMMMOsqnG Slequieyy OT, pos F p 8 ¥ ‘AD “SBSL ‘ISLE 4SqQuis0sq sulpue dea, 94} AO} yuNnoOooY SJwounsess | oY fe ‘ad 128 8 TIL 68s a1~A CoO COO HO 2 oS or) D> Lon! ‘aomIaay “TITD AOWORD ‘o0T109 PUNO} pues poulMeEx Veen ee teeter ee ener eeeeaeeeeeeneees gomereg wiphecvaceceta(enauittal adm s (eFa/ 0 0,6) aunt Giaie) cher one Ete qsoraquy yueg “ Pe ee ee T0109 jo UBOTT “ tereeeececorres srodeg pues sydeisojoyg x ree erereeresseeoncser TOA ‘STOMOBSURTT, jo o[8g 6c Ce a7ILOG o1yBUIBIG “ce “oc treeeeeseessecses ooueg pus reuUIg 78 sydteseyy Ce suo driiosqng Ssrequieyy “c ee ee ee ee ey PIBVALOT FYSNOAG eousleg O], “ce 8 TL G8leF Ge Gre AES mee Sonat da ay ‘MOISSTULMIOD 8§,10}021T0D ‘* 6 L eT "8" ‘om ‘souepueyy ‘SurstytoApy ‘sedeysog “ oe ee Sat eae | pus (‘T [OA ‘suorjovsuery, Surpnjout) ‘suryuitg * 0 9 0 eee San emi rc mebe S aae a ial LOLI Le (oli :h bs Tol Volo pay 73 69 DO "tt" st se8""" soaro0g pauIveTT Jo yoog avax “ 0TtT. teeerese ss Kigt0g PrOda aIIYseYyH pus siryseouTy ‘‘ 9 OLO “ces aIlysey pus aiysvouey jo Ayo1I00G ortoystyy ‘S LB G itt ttere esses ss eeeres guorsunorn “ “ z 8 OT ee ed 66 6c 66 0 ole Ttterrecesereeceseeees(gnat) tgiadeg yo sosuedxq tc OTT Bf “TT **** (FBT paw gggT) ‘segtIog TworsnyY 9 91 LZ COR ie OC ia iia ce ee ny apIOg o1yBUIBIC “ 0 OT oF Ce i i i rr er i ray sous pur rduUIG 6c 9 610 seeeeecees SSUrqooT 99}}IUIMIO) TOF UIOOI ce) oe 0 BI ****** (P88 pus gBgT) ‘equrBYD [foun jo yuey Mg pos F "XD ‘P8SL ‘ISLE 4equie0eq SuIpuds uee,A Oy} 4O} JUNODOY SWouNseod] BY L "2d Year of Election. 1874 1874 1874 1874 1874 1875 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 1880 1881 1884 Those whose names are marked * have been elected during 1884. Transactions, Vol. I. gives the year of election of all the other members. 124 HONORARY MEMBERS, PAST AND PRESENT. Rey. Edw. Boden, M.A., Clitheroe. Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. Jas. Kerr, L.8.A.L., Crawshawbooth. Thos. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., Manchester. Rey. Geo. Rowe, M.A., York. Rey. J. S. Doxey, Whalley. William Naylor, Whalley. Philip Gilbert Hammerton. W. B. Bryan, C.E., London. F. J. Faraday, F.S.8., F.L.8., Manchester. C. P. Hobkirk. F.L.8., Huddersfield. Edwin Waugh, Manchester. J. H. Nodal; Manchester. Samuel Laycock, Blackpool. R. RB. Bealey. W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S., Blackburn. D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S. Joseph Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. Alf. H. Mason, F.C.8., Liverpool. H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D., Chester. Jno. Edw. Price, F.8.A., F.R.S.L., London. Chas. Rowley, Jun., Manchester. Jas. Croston, F.8.A., Prestbury. Jas. Monckman, DSc., Bradford. MEMBERS. Anningson, J. W., L.R.C.P., Yorkshire Street. Bailey, Charles, Manchester Road. Barlow, J. A., 2, Padiham Road. Baron, John, J.P., 107, Manchester Road. Baron, Arthur, 107, Manchester Road. Bell, Thomas, 14, Grimshaw Street. Berry, James, Palatine Square. Birnie, Joseph, Post Office. Blezard, Walton, Rosegrove. *Bolton, Edgar, Bank Hall Terrace. Booth, James, Manchester and County Bank. Bradley, John, St. James’s Street. 125 *Bradshaw, Henry, 88, St. James’s Street. Briggs, Henry, M.D., 68, Bank Parade, *Brown, John, M.A., M.D., 68, Bank Parade. Broxup, J. Greenwood, Gannow House. Broxup, John, Gannow House. Brumwell, J. C., M.D., J.P., Hargreaves Street. Bulcock, James, 105, Manchester Road. Buleock, Henry, 105, Manchester Road. Burrows, Thomas, 37, Padiham Road. Butterworth, John, junr., Brooklands Road. *Caiger, Rev. W.S., B.A., Byerden Terrace. Calvert, A. E., Nelson. ‘ Clement, Leonard, Forest View, Nelson. Colbran, W. H., Bank Parade. *Colbran, John, Bank Parade. Collinge, James, 51, St. James’s Street. Collinge, John, Spring Hill. Collinge, John 8., J.P., Park House. Collinge, William, 110, St. James’s Street. Cooke, Samuel, 5, Carlton Road. Corder, Edward, Manchester Road Station. Cowgill, Bryan H., Manchester Road. Crabtree, Robert, Brooklands Road. Crook, Thomas, 2, Carlton Road. Crook, Campbell, Rose Hill Road. Cunningham, J. M., Manchester Road. Dall, T. Naylor, Nicholas Street. Dean, Thomas, M.D., Manchester Road. Dent, William, Local Board Office, Nelson. Dickinson, Alfred, Rose Cottage. Dickinson, W. R., 20, Manchester Road. *Drew, Alexander, Holme Lodge. Duckworth, Joshua, 6, Manchester Road. Dunkerley, Elias, 82, St. James's Street. Dunkerley, Elijah, 82, St. James’s Street. Eastwood, Henry, 40, St. James’s Street. Edmondson, Stephen, 18, Nicholas Street. Edmondson, Thomas, Fern Hill. Finn, Rev. A. H., Foden, C. M., 4, Sefton Terrace. Folds, James, junr , Fair View Road. Fox, Charles, 12, Nicholas Street. Frankland, George, ‘“‘ Express’’ Office. 126 Gill, George, Woodleigh. Granger, H. Beresford, Craven Bank. *Grant, J. Murray, Lancashire and Yorkshire Bank. Grant, Fredk. J., Bank Parade. Grant, W. Lewis, 22, St. Matthew’s Street. Grant, James, 12, Manchester Road. Grant, Arthur E., 14, Palatine Square. Gray, Nathan P., Manchester and County Bank. Greenwood, James, 138, Manchester Road. Greenhalgh, John, junr., 8, Rectory Road. Grey, Rev. R. D. H., M.A., Briercliffe Vicarage. Halstead, Edmund, 40, Junction Street. Hardman, Albert E., Osborne Terrace. Hargreaves, Andrew F., F.C.S., Standish Street. Hargreaves, Thomas, Church Street. Hargreaves, W. Carey, Colne Road. Harrison, James, 24, Carlton Road. Harrison, J. Dilworth, Sunny Bank. Hartley, Job W., Thorn Hill. Harwood, Septimus, M.B., Wilfield House. Haslam, Tom, Sunny Bank. Haslam, W. H., Lark Hill. Hedges, Alfred, Healey Villa. Hesketh, James, 139, St. James’s Street. Higgin, Cain, 37, Rectory Road. Hill, Fred. H., 21, Fair View Road. Hirst, Fred. W., Promfret Street. Hitchin, Robert, 54, St. James’s Street. Hoghton, Thomas, 1, Carlton Road. *Hoghton, William H., 1, Carlton Road. *Holden, John, Holme View. Holden, Ralph, Brooklands Road. *Holden, Thomas, Chancery Street. Holgate, Albert, 97, St. James's Street. Holgate, Thomas, Gas Works. Holyoake, W., The Workhouse. Horn, J. §., 15, Palatine Square. Horner, Thomas, 58, Rectory Road. Horner, William C., Manchester Road. *Houlden, John Wm., The Cemetery. Houlding, Henry, Oak Mount Terrace. *Howarth, Edmund, 70, Oak Mount Terrace. Howarth, John, J.P., Spring Bank. Hudson, Samuel, Sefton Terrace. Jobling, Arthur, Spring Wood. 127 Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa. Kay, W. E., Brooklands Road. Keighley, George, Woodfield. King, Alfred §., Carlton Road. Lancaster, Alfred, Manchester Road. Lancaster, James, Palatine Square. Lancaster, William, junr., Carlton Road. Lawson, Samuel, L.F.P.G., Brierfield. Leather, Samuel P., Gas Works. Leather, John P., Gas Works. Lee, Richard, Stoneyholme. «Lee, George, Stoneyholme. *Lee, J. L., Stoneyholme. Leyland, Rev. Thomas, Albion Street. Lloyd, Thomas, Grammar School. +Lord, Sylvanus, Colne Road. Lupton, J. T., 28, Manchester Road. Lupton, Arthur, 136, Manchester Road. Lupton, William, Manchester Road. Mackenzie, James, M.D., 68, Bank Parade. Marquis, J. T., Manchester and County Bank, Colne. Mellor, T., Hargreaves Street. Metcalfe, Christopher, Palatine Square. Midgley, Tom, 50, Rectory Road. Monckman, J., D.Sc., Bradford. Moore, Benjamin, ‘‘ Gazette” Office. Mossop, William, Bank Parade. *Mozley, H., Queen’s Gate. Myers, Fred., 64, St. James’s Street. Nelson, Richard, St. James’s Street. Nowell, Thomas, Healey Grange. Nutter, Henry, 96, Manchester Road. Ogden, Geo. C., Thorn Hotel. O'Sullivan, D.A., B.A., L.R.C.P., Westgate. *Parkinson, Milton W., 74, Manchester Road. *Parkinson, A.W., 74, Manchester Road. Parsons, John, L.R.C.S., Westgate. Parsons, Charies, 9, Grimshaw Street. Pickles, Joseph, 34, Allen Street. Pickup, Peter, Bridge End. Polding, James B., Nicholas Street. Popplewell, Alfred, Craven Bank. Preston, Henry, 104, Manchester Road. Preston, Thomas, 92, Manchester Road. Pritchard, Thomas, Worsthorne. 128 Procter, Richard, Oak Mount. *Prudom, William, 48, St. James’s Street. Ratcliffe, Abraham, 142, Manchester Road. *Ratcliffe, J. R., 142, Manchester Road. Ratcliffe, David, 9, Carlton Road. Raweliffe, Geo. B., 4, Forest Street. Raweliffe, James, Oak Mount. Rawcliffe, James H., 65, Manchester Road. Rawlinson, Joshua, Oak Bank. Riley, Thomas, 52, Manchester Road. Roberts, P. E., St. James’s Street. *Roberts, T H., 179, Manchester Road. Roberts, Thomas, Bank Parade. Sagar, Benjamin, Lark Hill. Sagar, William, Westgate. Scowby, Francis, Craven Bank. Shaw, Smith, 11, St. James’s Street. Shaweross, John T., Nicholas Street. *Shuttleworth, Sir Ughtred J. Kay, Gawthorpe. Slater, Christopher, Manchester Road. Smith, Cicero, Cornholme. Smith, Denis, 91, St. James’s Street. Stonehouse, Charles, 17, Manchester Road. Stonehouse, William, 17, Manchester Road. Storey, Geo., Brunshawe. Strange, Alfred, Craven Lodge. Sutcliffe, Alfred, L.R.C.P., Trinity House. Sutcliffe, Edward, Holme View. Sutcliffe, George, J.P., Oak Hill. Sutcliffe, James, Bull Hotel. Sutcliffe, John, Hargreaves Street. *Sutcliffe, John Stansfield, Fir Grove. Sutcliffe, R.T., Nicholas Street. Taylor, Thomas, 110, Colne Road. Thompson, James, 26, Cuerden Street. Thompson, James, St. James’s Street. Thompson, James W., Oak Bank. Thompson, William, Oak Bank. Thornber, Thomas, St. Matthew’s Street. Thornton, John, The Poplars. Thorp, Thomas, Manchester Road. «Tovey, A.E., D.Sc., Stoneyholme Villas. Tunstill, Henry, Oak Mount. Waddington, Geo. C., Albert Terrace. Waddington, William, Thorn Hill. 129 Waddington, W. Angelo, Thorn Hill. Waddington, J. Arthur, Thorn Hill. Waddington, John C., Thorn Hill. *Waddington, James C., 3, Ormerod Street. Walmsley, George, Highfield Terrace. Walmsley, Thomas, Coke Street. *Waring, Joseph, Ashfield Road. Ward, H. T., Palatine Square. Ward, J. Langfield, M.A., Grammar School. Watson, A. A., L.R.C.S., Colne Road. Watson, Richard, Hargreaves Street. Whitaker, James H., Wilfield Terrace. Whittaker, John, junr., Carr Road, Nelson. Whitehead, W. Rennie, Carr Road, Nelson. Whitney, Thomas, Healey Villa. *Wilkinson, Tattersall, Swinden. Wilks, Maurice, 24, St. Matthew’s Street. Witham, William, Todmorden Road. Wood, Martin, Westgate. *Yeadon, John, Stoneyholme. Pave SH MUSEUM 180 APPENDIX. In the course of a discussion arising out of the paper read by Mr. Nutter, on Evolution, (see page 45), in which Mr. Darwin’s name was necessarily introduced; Mr. F. H. Hill said,—that Carlyle considered Prof. Darwin ‘‘a good sort of man and well meaning, but with very little intellect,” and that ‘it was a sad and terrible thing to find nigh a whole generation of men and women professing to be cultivated, looking round in a purblind fashion and finding no God in the Universe, but all things from frogs’ spawn the Gospel of dirt the order of the day.” The authenticity of this statement having been called in question, Mr. Hill wrote to J. A. Froude, Esq.. M.A. The reply, which is given below, was read at the meeting of the Club on the 4th of November, (see page 77), when an anonymous paper on Carlyle was contributed. 5, Onslow Gardens, 8.W., October 30th, 1884. Dear Sir, The passage about which you ask my opinion I believe to be strictly authentic, the substance of it certainly, for I have heard the same opinion from him very often—the language as nearly accurate as can be expected when one man writes down at leisure what another person has said to him. Your faithful Servant, J. A. FROUDE. To Mr. F. H. Him. 131 NAMES OF READERS OF PAPERS AND DIRECTORS OF SOIREES, &e. PAGE Brown, John, M.A., M.D. ...... Canada, and the Montreal Meeting of the British Association. ...... 91 Caiger, Rev. W.S. .........06- Art Museums, considered as a Means of Education. .......0000-++0 72 Doxey, Rev. J. 8. .........0000: Kashmir, the Highway of Central Asia. 22 Minn’ Rey. J. He... sees cana A Modern Epic (‘ Yesterday, To-day, and for Ever.”).............5 43 Grant, Frederick J. ............ A Towneley MS. ................06 102 Grant, W.Tiewis os einess cesses Readings by Members............... 43 The Development of Africa in its Re- lation to British Commerce. .. 86 rant; JAMES)... sae eee ed dees ae Lithographic Soirée. .............. 41 Lis Wedieheeneracasea ne sa mere Notes on Southern California. ...... 21 Lawson, 8.,L.F.P.G. ........-- The Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb to Speak. ............ 73 MUR ee eDins ois efeitos nia ¢ Suave geile nine Dramatic Soirée. .............00000 49 Milner, George ...........0006: The Relation of Literature to Painting. 50 Monckman, J., D.Se............. State of England in Past Geological IA CRY Din tbere sere Ueletete cere 37 Wiyers, Hired... ccc. ccee es cesses Musical Soirée— Paper on Wagner. .. 95 NBRCHOISONG HBS. cscciciee Ne stores s The Wild Animals of the BritishIsles. 41 MNtitiers Henry... sea ve ccae es ve MvOlubtoMe tian devsciveleoiee eisai svleie 45 Preston, Thomas .............. Soirée—House Decoration. Paper on Mural Decoration in connection with Domestic Architecture. .. 89 Shortt, Rev. J., M.A............. Hoghton|Vower: “.5./ss.escecss ces 80 Shuttleworth, Sir U. J. Kay, Bart. A Few Tests of National Progress..... 15 Slingsby, W. Cecil.............. Mountaineering in Norway. ........ 23 Strange, Alfred .......... 0.0005 A Towateley: MIG! 2% <5, ..eis ois scaimieceooyeropere 104 pamuclities Wa Sine ood mck The Dramatic Works of Bulwer Lytton. 84 Mlovey, A. BE. D.Sc... .... con sees Coral Sie te ietarets erevercyauer os taaiaicianonsiase 63 yard: 2-, M.A: act eete ee ‘The Frogs’ of Aristophanes. ........ 33 Adiowneley, MSs": actus ens nete 98 History of Hast Lancashire. .. 64 For Full List of Meetings held during 1884, see Page 11. EXCURSIONS. URESTONTAND“PENWORTHAM |...) ch wile es cis bose oseccececescieceevic 108 BIRT PAN DS SEGB V5.3 5c) 52 nc. + 5 Se Tek tae 110 Auxincoates Hann anp Parish Cuurcu, CoLNE ..........ce.eee cece 114 Castine CuoucH AnD Sire or Hapron TowER..........cceccccececuee 115 ey 132 INDEX. 1 Dy esirues (oy aia O hai (oi 0ieis! Tage AS apa ain ea A el eM te AAGOMES eect big) 2) IE IVGRGS Pays astover'a 7oiftra Token Ve eve MMe Tc Cots afou/o ayancitsis:eicVeele o-ere Si oneceus eta iuele Seveterin: THO IANN UAT: PRP OR Darya aha mepsver = aisvarerrelier Ge eis aesae arateva.e:eiWielbie ciate creep oreTaetetemmang THIST LOW) Mim OINGS 2) Shs ts RIS: Aig Sielatat aie ararietetelsheca le we yele aera Ge ta totele siete opener ere mL DINNER TO CELEBRATE THE 10TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE FORMATION OF PH OUUB/c:0%015 oiaieis,« success) ielsiase e WS wea aw sie aecele aie eine aCe ed SUMMARIES OWMPAPIORG vos ayn:0icio\eyecossiars civiel¥ 6:64 0's sinio:-eiero 0 etereveselel ate Crane meLO® Tue TowNELEY MANUSCRIPTS PURCHASED BY THE CLUB............. 98 GiENERAT PEIXCURSTIONS) dis cieicetevel tales aystere cle 6 07s ale'e 4» aoaeiee ies tet cee OS SECTIONAL! EI CURSIONS! (j claieielerole vie 'eia's ales e'0/0.00.4)018, o/ciereia creo, aje: setereieretmemel Oke: UATBRARY Aw oelicterele tare stesteleitis ololete aia eaters elstave eye aol olerele’ + aeceinseletaeieteyepemmneceO) STATEMENT OF PAGCOUNTS: fificicc ce - 0c s:e.c ois» 00s ¥ 9.0. e.le oa ees oereaiere pmo: List or MremBers—HOoNORARY AND ORDINARY ......eceeeececcccceee L24 APP HINDER: fate) sx gate oneye'iecel vicua eferoieiaieseiess sajeueyelelesovoXers) s.atersis1eseiedn cleie telalet eter aaa A ALPHABETICAL List oF READERS OF PAPERS, XC. ....ce cece secceeeces LOL BURGHOPE & STRANGE, PUBLISHERS, &C., BURNLEY. TRANSACTIONS. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. SS So BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXVI. BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. VOR Til. 1885. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEF. MDCCCLXXXVI, ~ on aed nT : Se 6 y ; J 2 =e a ase “ Loe Bs, + C "| r ae: y 7 Burnley Literary and Scientific Club. i ESTABLISHED 18738. a President: HENRY HOULDING. Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumwewt, M.D., J.P. J. W. Annineson, L.R.C.P. J. LancrreLpD Warp, M.A. F. J. Grant. W. A. Wappineton. ALFRED STRANGE. Treasurer :—JAS. KAY, J.P. Committee: James Lancaster. B. Sacar. F. H. Him. J. ArtHur WabDDINGTON. H. Butcocx. G. B. Rawctuirre. Secretary : W. LEWIS GRANT, 12, Grimshawe Street, Burnley. ‘ Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule RULES. That the Society be named the “ Burniey Lirmrary AND ScrentiIFIC Civs.”’ That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrange- ments be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary members. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be prepara- tory to the Excursions. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings of each meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting. Candidates for membership to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next; a majority of three-fourths of the members psent being required to secure the election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club; four to form a quorum. Such officers to be chosen by Ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. Rule 8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rule 11. Rule 12. Rule 13. 6 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discus- sion. No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the Chairman. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Secretary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of management. Each member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend,* but no person so introduced, shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings, unless invited by the Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare any meeting ‘Special”” and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meeting as they shall think proper. That an annual Subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary members, and any person whose subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be a mem- ber of the Club. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Committee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a Special Meeting; in both cases a fortnight’s Notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. *No gentleman residing within the parliamentary borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission. INTRODUCTORY REPORT. The Third Volume of Transactions is now pre- sented to the members. Besides the record of the papers read and excursions made during the year, there will be found notices at considerable length of three papers of special interest to members of this Society, which were given at times antecedent to the publishing of the Society’s proceedings. These are “Art in the Manufacturing Districts,” by Philip Gilbert Hamerton ; “Life in Lancashire in the Tudor Reigns,” by James Croston, F.S.A.; ‘The Old Halls on the Western Slopes of Pendle: their History, Associations, and Present Condition,” by Alfred Strange. It is the purpose of the Committee to con- tinue in subsequent issues the introduction of reports of other papers which were read in the earlier years of the Club’s history, and of which no detailed account has hitherto been furnished. At the termination of the year 1884, the members numbered 210. During the year 1885 the Club has lost 22 members, one of these being by death, and 14 new members have been elected ; so that the number of members stands now at 202, shewing a decrease of 8. During the year 25 Meetings have been held. The average attendance at the ordinary meetings has been 31 members, 11 friends, or a total of 42. This shews a falling off when compared with the figures of the previous year, which were 54 members, 13 friends ; total 47. Your Committee cannot regard a record of attendance as wholly satisfactory which shews that the average number of members present at the meetings is less than one-sixth of the total number of members enrolled, 8 The programme sketched out for the year included four Summer Excursions; but of these the principal one, that to Cambridge, had to be abandoned on account of the few names sent in. This failure, following on the previous year’s experience in respect of the projected Excursion to Wensleydale and Rich- mond, is a matter for regret. The visit to Stonyhurst Observatory and College was an unqualified success, and the Excursions to Alum Scar and the Heckenhurst and Cant Clough Reservoir Works were also profitable and enjoyable. The parties on these three occasions numbered respectively 49, 11, and 13. No Sectional Excursions have been held, the evidence afforded by the unfavourable results of efforts in this direction in the preceding year, leading your Committee to resolve upon their discontinuance. Reference should be made to several items in the varied programme of the year’s proceedings. Depart- ing from the practice adopted for several years of holding an Amateur Dramatic Soirée in the spring of the year, your Committee arranged for a Recital by S. Brandram, Esq., M.A., of one of Shakespeare’s Plays. The ‘Merchant of Venice” was the piece chosen, and the brilliant rendering of that dramatic poem displayed in a remarkable manner the genius and power of the eminent reciter. The occasion was an intellectual treat of the highest order. An extended notice of the paper read by the President, Mr. Henry Houlding, on the opening of the Autumnal Session, and entitled ‘‘ Local Glimpses : Nature and the Ideal,” is contained in this volume. The Soirée designed to illustrate ‘‘ Burnley, Old and New,” deserves allusion here. The subject exemplified was naturally one which had particular attraction for the members, and it was not therefore surprising, that the gathering was unusually large The collection of objects was valuable and unique 9 and in every feature the occasion was a conspicuous success. The Committee have given a subscription to the newly-formed Manchester Geographical Society. By the donation of Two Guineas, our Club receives copies of the “Journal,” or other publications issued by that excellent society; tickets are also supplied securing admission to its meetings, and our members have also accorded to them the free use of the Society’s Library, 44, Brown Street, Manchester. Your Committee are happy to state that the financial condition of the Society has improved. The Treasurer’s Yearly Statement of Accounts will be found herein. The best thanks of the Club are due to those ladies, and gentlemen not connected with the Club, who have generously rendered assistance during the year by the contributing of papers, the conduct of excursions, or in connection with soirées. In conclusion, your Committee ask for the active and sympathetic help of members in furthering the interests of the Club, so that the high purposes of its foundation may in the future be more effectually accomplished. 10 SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1885. Jan. 183—Lecture, ‘‘ Sun-Spot Phenomena, observed at Stony- hurst College Observatory,’ illustrated by the Lantern—Rey. A. Li. Cortie. », 20—Paper, ‘‘ Notes on Rainfall’’—Rev. R. D. H. Gray, M.A. », 27—Paper, ‘‘ Epigrams”—T. J. Syckelmoore, B.A. Feb. 3—Paper, ‘‘ Holland in the Spring Time,” illustrated by the Lantern—J. C. Brumwell, M.D., J.P. », 10—Recitals—Director, G. B. Raweliffe. », 11—Dance, Mechanics’ Institution. 5, 17—Paper, ‘‘ Who wrote ‘ Shakespeare’ ?’’—Geo. Gill. ,, 24—Paper, “‘ A Chat about the House-Fly’—J. Rhodes. Mar. 38—Paper, ‘“‘Some Aspects of Destructive Distillation ’’— Thos. Holgate. », 1l0—Paper, ‘‘ Sanitary Matters: Past and Present”—T. N. Dall. », 17—Paper; ‘‘ On Browning’s Poems ’”’—B. Sagar. » 24—Recital, ‘The Merchant of Venice’’—-S. Brandrai, M.A. (Mechanies’ Institution.) 381—Reviews of Books. April 7—Annual Meeting. », 14—Paper, “ Christian Names ’’—W. Lewis Grant. SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER 1885. Sep. 29—Paper, ‘‘ Local Glimpses: Nature and the Ideal—The President, Henry Houlding. Oct. 6—Paper, “The Later Geological Vicissitudes of the North-West of England ’’—R. H. Tiddeman, M.A., F.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey. », 18—Paper, “A Trip to the Yellowstone Park’ — J. Mackenzie, M.D. », 20—Paper, ‘‘ A Short History of Banking ’’—J. T. Marquis. », 27—Short Anonymous Contributions. Nov. 3—Paper, ‘The Rebels of 1715, and their Lancashire Friends—Albert Nicholson. », 10—Soirée, ‘ Burnley, Old and New,” illustrated by Photo- graphs, Prints, Books, Maps, &c. », 17—Paper, ‘‘ The Advent of the Franciscans in England ”’ —Rey. W. 8. Caiger. ‘Dec. 8—Paper, ‘Celtic, Roman, and Saxon Footprints in the Pennine Range ’—Tattersall Wilkinson. », 11—Dinner. », 15—Soirée, Elocutionary and Musical—Director, C. Parsons, 11 SUN - SPOT PHENOMENA, OBSERVED AT STONYHURST COLLEGE OBSERVATORY By REV. A. L. CORTIE, January 13th, 1885. The Rev. S. J. Perry, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., had been announced to open the Session by a Lecture on “ The Government Expedi- tion to the South-West Coast of Madagascar to Observe the Transit of Venus.” Unfortunately, however, illness prevented the eminent astronomer from being present, and his place was taken by his assistant at Stonyhurst, the Rev. A. L. Cortie, the resumé of whose admirable address is here given. That there might be spots on the Sun was an idea that was never entertained before the days of Galileo. Jor in the eyes of an ancient astronomer the sun was typical of all that was most immaculate. Large spots were undoubtedly seen from time to time by the naked eye, but their appearance was attri- buted to small planets in transit across the solar disc. The discovery of sun-spots, however, was almost the first triumph of the newly-invented telescope, about the year A.D. 1610, the honour of the discovery being shared by Fabricius, Galileo, and Scheiner. Since their days, and more especially in recent times after the introduction of the spectroscope, the study of the solar surface has occupied the attention of distinguished men of all lauds, and we now see several observatories equipped with all modern appliances, devoted solely to this branch of astronomical _ physics. The Observatory at Stonyhurst has added its quota of results to recent researches upon the sun, and in order the more to fix our ideas, our future remarks will have special reference to the work carried out there. The method of observing the sun, as practised at Stonyhurst, is that of projecting the image formed by the 8-inch equatorial telescope on to a screen attached to the eye-end of the instru- ment. By this method the details of the solar surface can be studied or sketched at leisure; and moreover, by proper adjust- ment of the screen, the actual positions of the spots can be readily calculated. The phenomena observed upon the solar disc are of three kinds—spots, facule, and the network of dark and bright spaces which gives to the image its mottled appearance. The spots are of all shapes and sizes, some of them attaining enormous proportions. In a sun-spot three distinct parts may be distinguished—a less dark outer portion, which is bounded by 12 the bright surface of the sun, and is called the penumbra; a darker interior portion called the umbra; and, finally, in the umbra itself some still darker parts, to which is attached the name of the nucleus. These nuclei were first detected by the keen sight of that eminent observer, the late Rev. Mr. Dawes. The penumbra is traversed by bright streams of matter, which are supposed to indicate the gradual rushing in of the photosphere or visible surface of the sun into the spot, ultimately causing its absorption, and consequent disappearance. Spots are not found all over the sun, but confined to fixed zones extending to about 80° N. and S. of the Equator. The first deduction from the discovery of sun-spots was that of the rotation of the sun upon an axis, the mean rotation being accomplished in 25} days, although the rate varies somewhat with the latitude. A spot apparently advances upon the solar disc from H. to W., and it not unfre- quently happens that the same spot, being carried round by the sun, will reappear for several successive rotations. That most spots are hollows or cavities, and not merely of the nature of scorie floating on the surface, is demonstrated by the manner in which a spot appears and disappears on the EH. and W. limb of the sun respectively. Were the spot a surface phenomenon, we should expect to detect first the right or W. side of the penumbra, then the umbra, and finally the most easterly side of the penumbra. ‘The reverse order would be expected at the W. limb, where the spot disappears. The facts observed are for the most part in contradiction to any such hypothesis. We first see a slight portion, reduced to a mere line by perspective, of the EH. edge of the penumbra, then the umbra, and finally the W. edge of the penumbra, demonstrating that we are looking into a cavity in a spherical surface. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this rule, and the law of foreshortening, as stated by Wilson and others, appears to be neither so general nor so decided as was by them supposed. Among various phenomena connected with sun-spots may be mentioned the double penumbra which some spots exhibit, the repulsion which others appear to exert on one another, the bright ring which is invariably seen between the umbra and penumbra of spots, the red veils sometimes detected over them, especially when they are large, as also the extremely rapid growth with which some spots develope. Finally, in this hurried enumeration of the aspects of sun- spots, we cannot afford to omit what is perhaps the cardinal point in all sun-spot phenomena, connecting them undoubtedly with terrestrial magnetism, and probably also with changes of weather—namely, the secular variation of the spotted area of the sun, the period from maximum to maximum being about eleven years. Such a discovery was the reward of the patient toil of 18 Baron Schwabe, who for forty years never allowed a possible day to pass without a record of the number of spots visible on the sun. The dark spots of the solar surface are invariably accom- panied by facule, which generally present the appearance of long white streaks of matter of a brightness exceeding that of the surrounding photosphere. So far as our observations have been studied, the distribution of facule is identical with that of the spots, though extending to much wider limits N. and 8., owing to their peculiar tendency to spread. Facule have occasionally been seen even in the region of the poles, appearing by them- selves without any accompanying spot of the ordinary type, but the nature of these isolated jets differs from that of facule of the ordinary kind. In general, facule are more easily observed at the limbs of the sun, owing to the contrast which they offer to these apparently darker portions of the disc. They are not, however, confined to the limbs, as under favourable circumstances they can be traced far into the central regions, and a ring of bright facule always surrounds the penumbra of a spot, even at the centre of the sun. The subject of the connection between spots and facule remains up to the present time still undecided. Nevertheless, the observations made at Stonyhurst do not seem to bear out the hitherto generally accepted opinion that facule precede the birth of a solar spot. The order of their appearance is as follows. Around a nascent spot they are very closely packed ; they spread out as the umbra and penumbra increase in size, and still more so when the spot begins to diminish and decay, and oftentimes remain visible for more than a month after the spot has wholly vanished. Frequently a new outburst of spots will take place in the region of this facule, giving rise to the notion that facule precede the birth of spots, while in reality it is only the remains of old spots which have disappeared. Facule are the glowing embers of an old storm, and not the first flickerings of a new one. Examples of this replacing of spots by facule are universal among the Stonyhurst drawings. Before passing on to the discussion of the mottled surface of the sun, we may call attention to some of the more remarkable solar outbursts of spots and facule during the period 1882-4. The great spot of April, 1882, was observed from April 12th to the 25th, and in May from the 10th to the 22nd. Its area on April 20th was 2,080 millionths of the sun’s visible hemisphere, or about 2,8193 millions of square miles. The November spot of the same year, the greatest recorded since 1870, was followed from its birth as a few black dots in October, through its maximum in November, and finally in December. The whole progress of this spot was marked by magnetic storms and dis- 14 plays of Aurora Borealis, which culminated in the great magnetic storm of Novemher 17th, the most intense recorded, and its accompanying magnificent aurora. The area of the spot on this day was a maximum, being 2,417, or nearly 2,7613 millions of square miles. The June spot of 1883 was first seen on the 2nd near the centre of the disc, its length being about one-tenth of the sun’s diameter, or 85,000 miles, and yet not the slightest vestige of it was discernible on May 30th. Another spot was followed during the successive rotations of the sun from October, 1883, to January, 1884. Should the definition be very good, it is observed that the mottled surface of the solar disc is in a state of constant change and commotion. These changes are very minute and rapid, and require a most constant and patient watch to detect them. The magnificent photographs of M. Janssen, of Mendon, had shewn that in parts the mottled surface puts on an appearance of blurring, and Trouvelot, in 1876, called attention to minute evanescent spots which he termed ‘‘ veiled spots.” These veiled spots have been the subject of constant study at Stonyhurst during the last three years, and they have been classified and the manner of their appearance indicated. They are found in every portion of the disc, and are seldom absent for any con- siderable time. A few minutes suffice for their appearance and disappearance, and they are frequently accompanied by facule. In colour, they are of a cold grey tint, and are never well defined. Some are seen as a slight cloud, which rapidly changes its out- lines, becomes fainter, and disappears. A second class are observed first of the form of a round black dot, which becomes diffused into a cloud-like mass, and very soon vanishes. To a third class the name of “ sub-permanent”’ spots has been given, as they seem to be intermediate between spots of the ordinary permanent type and veiled spots. They last sometimes for several days, but are always ill-defined and unlike the ordinary dark pores of the solar surface. Their comparative permanence distinguishes them from the other classes of veiled spots, and their ill defined or misty appearance is the only difference between them and ordinary spots. Moreover, their shape is irregular, and their proportions never equal those assumed at times by other veiled spots. Perhaps they are the last traces of a spot as it sinks into the photosphere, and sometimes the first signs of those that never become perfectly developed. And now, before closing our view of solar phenomena, we may glance at the main outlines of a theory propounded by the Jate Padre Secchi, which explains the chief facts observed. According to this distinguished physicist, the solar spots are the effects of an uprush of matter from the interior of the sun. This matter, consisting of heavy metallic vapours, among which iron, 15 magnesium, sodium, and calcium play a prominent part, is pro- jected into the relatively cooler atmosphere of incandescent hydrogen which envelopes the sun. These masses of vapour absorb the light which comes from the photosphere, and, carried round by the rotation of the sun, appear to the eye of the observer as dense black spots. Again, these vapours are both heavier and hotter than the surrounding hydrogen into which they have been projected. They will accordingly condense and fall by their own weight, and, sinking into the photosphere, will produce in it a cavity filled with a light-absorbing mass. Hence we have the appearance of a hollow recognised in sun-spots. Spots therefore, are but a secondary phenomenon, serving to inform us of the violent crises and upheavals taking place in the interior of the sun. Facule, according to Secchi, are caused by those eruptions which consist of hydrogen alone. Other theories have been proposed by several eminent observers, as, for example, the ‘‘ Cyclonic theory,” of M. Faye. However, as observation, not merely with the telescope, but more especially with the spectroscope, opens out our knowledge of solar phenomena, these theories will, no doubt, have to be modified, and possibly the true explanation of what is observed will be found in a judicious combination of them all. Forty-two photographs were thrown upon the screen, which served fully to illustrate the various points treated of in the lecture. The discussion which followed turned mainly upon the connection between sun-spots and terrestrial phenomena, and the lecturer’s replies to the questions asked may be thus summarised : (1) Sun-spots and terrestrial magnetism. The eleven- year period of sun-spots corresponds to a similar period of magnetic disturbances. Maximum and minimum ranges of the declination magnet (or mariner’s compass), correspond to years of maximum and minimum spots. Great spots are accompanied by magnetic storms ; witness the example of November, 1882. The latter remark is probably true also of auroral displays. (2) Sun-spots and rainfall. That rainfall is greater in maximum than in minimum years of spots has been established for Mauritius, Adelaide, and Brisbane by Dr. Meldrum, and for the Cape and Madras by Mr. Lockyer. (3) Sun-spots and trade. Dr. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics in India, has stated that the years of minimum rainfall and of consequent famines, approach to years of minimum sun- spots. Likewise the curve showing the variation in the price of wheat follows somewhat that of sun-spots. This is, perhaps, 16 all the evidence in favour of Sir W. Herschel’s theory that the influence of sun-spots on rainfall would extend to crops and the fruits of the earth, and hence influence trade. But so many other factors, both political and social, would have to be reckoned with, that to connect the fluctuations of trade with sun-spots seems more fanciful than true. NOTES ON RAINFALL. By the Rev. Rh. D. H. GRAY, M.A., January 20th, 1885. The Paper began, after a few observations on the general interest of the subject to all Englishmen, by dealing with the Art and Science of Weather Forecasts. It alluded to the follies of so-called Prophetic Almanacs, and to the mistaken ideas, still so strangely prevalent, as to the influences of the changes of the Moon upon the Weather; and went on to consider the value of the results of certain local observations, for which, however, it could suggest no scientific explanation. The Forecasts of the Meteorological Office were next considered, and some account given of the arrangements just made by it for fuller reports from America as to the weather of the Atlantic. Proceeding to speak of Rainfall and its measurements, the fact was noticed that at Towneley Hall, Burnley, was commenced the first regular and systematic record of the Fall of Rain, in 1677. That date reminded us of the interest in all kinds of scientific in- vestigation which was then spreading rapidly through the country. The Royal Society had just been started with Dr. Wilkins, Bishop of this Diocese (we were then of course in Chester) as one of its Founders; and among those who were ready to give Lancashire its due place in the new world of science was the Squire of Towneley, who has the honour of heading the long and increasing lists of observers and observations from 1677 to the present time. ‘The growth of these observations was pointed out, and some description given of the zealous and most success- ful work of Mr. G. T. Symons, F.R.S., who was Chief Assistant to the late Admiral Fitzroy, in furthering this branch of Meteor- ological investigation. A full account was given of the Gauges specially recommended by Mr. Symons, and of the rules set forth by him for their due use. Mr. Gray stated that Mr. Symons had visited him at Briercliffe Vicarage, and had set his seal of approval on his (Mr. Gray’s) Meteorological array. The number of stations at which Rainfall was measured, reached 2,000: and in the Burnley district there were 8 gauges, 17 The usefulness of Rainfall observations was next considered, with special reference to their effect upon the calculations of those concerned in the Water Supply of our towns ; and the possible dangers of relying upon Averages were pointed out, both in the case of Waterworks and of Bridges and Embankments, though the striking uniformity of Rainfall through many years was fully acknowledged. Still the deficiency of our Rainfall last year (1884)— [at Briercliffe the Fall was 16 per cent below the average of the writer's five years of observation] —was enough to cause grave anxiety as to our Water-Supply,—and considering that the deficiency at London was more than 30 per cent below the average there, it pointed out the possible results of a proportion- ate deficiency here as indeed serious. After some statistics as to the Rainfall here and in London (the only other place of which the returns had then reached the writer) during 1884, the paper proceeded to give some results of five years’ observations at Briercliffe. The years 1880 and 1881 showed totals the same within half an inch of each other, 46-92 and 46°37. The highest total was in 1882, 56°63 in., which fell on 248 days (!), and the lowest that of 1884, 38°37,—-showing a difference between the extremes of 15-27 in., not much less than the whole of last year’s Fall at London. Statistics were then given to show the average Rainfall over all the districts of England, and with these were compared such records as came to us from the various countries of the world. The average of Rainfall for all England was 31}in., which varied from 20 in. at Lincoln, to 165 in. at the Sty Head Pass, in the Lake District. Some of these averages were London and EKdin- burgh 24, Manchester 36, Briercliffe 45, Keswick 59, Ambleside 78, Coniston 85, Ben Lomond 91, Seathwaite 140. In the year 1882, the Rainfall at the Sty Head Pass reached the enormous quantity of 202-5in. In this connection was observed the vast resources of the Manchester Water Scheme in drawing the sup- ply from the Lake District of Cumberland and Westmoreland : for 1 in. of rain was equal to 101 tons of water over each acre. In Europe the Eastern portions had the smallest rainfall, Astrakhan giving 6, Archangel 14, St. Petersburg 16: against Paris 22, Berlin 23, and Rome 30. Of other places it was said that the registered average at Bombay was 84, at Poonah 23 ; while in one place in Hindostan as high as 610 had been re- gistered in one year. After noticing that the year 1884 was probably so far as London was concerned the dryest on record—the rainfall register- ing only 17 inches—there was an examination of the Registrar General’s Death Rate Returns for 1884, and a comparison of them with the weather of its various months. In conclusion a short notice of the local Barometrical results of the terrible 18 storm of Jan. 26, 1884, when at Aberdeen the mercury fell to the lowest measurement on record in the British Islands, 27°88, was given. At Briercliffe, which is 700 feet above sea-level, the index shewed 27:55; the rushes of the hurricane being accom- panied by quick oscillations of the barometer. The barometrical phenomena on that memorable day were the most remarkable he had ever experienced. Of the members who joined in the debate which followed the reading of the paper was Mr. Alfred Lancaster. He gave the figures obtained by the ‘‘ eminent virtuoso”’ Richard Towneley, who measured the rainfall of this district. The average rainfall for the years 1694 to 1704 was 424 inches; a record which bears a remarkable similarity to the average obtained at the Corporation Rain Gauge at Swinden, for the 16 years, 1868 to 1884, which is 42°7 inches. This closeness of results attests the accuracy of Richard Towneley’s observations. Mr. Lancaster also produced the reports on the rainfall of this district prepared by Professor G. J. Symons, F.R.S., at the request of the Burnley Corporation. These reports which are dated Dec. 1882 and February 1883, were obtained in order to ascertain the rainfall of the Cant Clough Watershed, previous to the construction of the Water Works in that valley. The final conclusion at which Mr. Symons arrived after noting all available returns, testing the various gauges, and examining the localities, was that the ‘true mean of rainfall lies between 46 and 48 inches.” Mr. Symons was also of opinion that the “‘ mean rainfall for the years 1870—9 was very nearly identical with that of the previous fifty years, certainly within two per cent.” The reports contain many interesting and useful statistics, and Mr. Lancaster quoted some of them. Referring to Swinden, the yearly rainfall shews extreme variations, the year 1879 giving but 81-11 in, whilst 1877 shews 58:05 in. The rain-gauge at Clow Bridge reservoir gives an average of as high as 52°35 in. for 13 years, the new station of Robin Hood surpassing this with 538-9 in., and Extwistle Moor registering 52°6 in. EPIGRAMS. By T. J. SYCKELMOORE, B.A.. January 27th, 1885. The Lecturer commenced by quoting several Epigrammatists’ definitions of an Epigram, adopting for the purpose of his lecture Ben Jonson’s description, that an Epigram is :— ‘«‘ Any short poem, chiefly restricted to one idea, and equally adapted to the delineation and expression of every passion incident to human life.”’ 19 After lamenting the neglect of Epigram writing as a special branch of literature, the Lecturer proceeded to review the history of this form of poetry, dealing in turn with the ancient Greeks and Romans, the Medieval Latinists, and the Elizabethan Poets of England. Among the Greeks the Epigram had its origin in the inscriptions placed upon votive offerings which were dedicated to various gods and suspended in the temples. As such inscrip- tions were engraved either on bronze or marble tablets they were necessarily short; soon they were imitated for various purposes of society, e.g. the exchange of presents. The transition from this use of EKpigrams to a more general use was both natural and easy, until eventually the Epigram was in use for every purpose, both grave and gay, for which we can conceive it applicable. After reviewing the history of its origin and the early stages of its transition the Lecturer quoted many specimens of the Greek Hpigram of several classes, viz: votive, historical, funereal, literary, witty and satirical. He dwelt at some length on two historical Kpigrams of great renown, which celebrate the victory at Marathon and the defeat of Leonidas at Thermopyle. The latter is well known from the following translation of W. L. Bowles. “Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, That here obedient to their laws we lie.” In dealing with funereal Epigrams, or Epitaphs, the Lecturer dwelt with great emphasis upon the qualities necessary to con- stitute a good Epigram; he also illustrated the ancient Greek Epigrams by parallel instances from English poets. In this class of Kpigrams several were quoted, written by great poets to celebrate the fame of such men as Sophokles, Plato, Aristophanes ; and as parallels to these, Herrick’s lines on ‘‘ Ben Jonson,” and Dryden’s famous Epigram on ‘‘ John Milton,” which was very severely criticised by the Lecturer. The Roman and Medieval Latin Epigrams were described and illustrations given showing that they were merely imitations of the Greek and little more than literary exercises. The next portion of the lecture dealt with English Epigrams and numerous poems were quoted frou the various collections of Hpigrams published during the Elizabethan period; the works of Sir John Davies, Sir James Harrington and Ben Jonson in particular being laid under contribution. The following Epigram by Ben Jonson deserves quotation. ‘OF LIFE AND DEATH. The ports of death are sins; of life, good deeds Through which our merit leads us to our needs; How wilful blind is he then, that should stray And hath it in his powers, to make his way ! 20 This world death’s region is, the other life’s: And here it should be one of our first strifes, So to front death, as men might judge us past it ; For good men but see death, the wicked taste it. The Lecturer concluded with a short collection of miscella- neous Epigrams, chiefly of modern authorship. HOLLAND IN THE SPRING TIME. By J. C. BRUMWELL, M.D., J.P., February 3rd, 1885. In the ubsence through indisposition of Dr. Brumwell, the paper was read by the Secretary. Describing the advantages of visiting Holland before the heat of summer the author referred to the absence of unhealthy emanations from the canals, the richness of the verdure and the quietness of being out of the ordinary tourist season. The pass- age from Harwich to Rotterdam is also at that time pleasant on account of the smoothness of the sea in the month of May ; and if in addition, the journey be undertaken when the moon is full, the seascapes are most lovely. The points of interest in Rotterdam, Delft, The Hague, and Leyden were referred to, and special men- tion was made of the advantage of making Haarlem the head quarters of a trip to Holland. It is near Amsterdam and has railways and tramways running to Zandvoort and other places of interest in the neighbourhood. It is one of the best preserved cities of old Holland and has a famous cathedral and a still more famous organ. It is worth a special visit in the month of May as then its fields of tulips and hyacinths are in full bloom. The doctor described the picture galleries of the different towns in Holland and its advantages as a place where brain rest may be obtained in the most pleasant manner. The paper was enriched by descriptions of the scenery, which evidenced the doctor’s keen perception of the beautiful in nature; and humorously told stories of sundry incidents in his travels added to the entertaining char- acter of the Lecture. The paper was effectively illustrated by J. Butterworth, Esq., J.P., by means of instantaneous photographs thrown upon a screen. 21 RECITALS. Director, G. B. RAWCLIFFE. February 10th. 1885. A lithographed copy of the Programme, with pictorial illus- trations, most artistically and skilfully executed, by Mr. Rawcliffe, was furnished to the members. PROGRAMME. «© A Race for Life” ......-.:-:++++ Will Carlton.... G. B. Rawcliffe. “Eugene Aram's Dream”? .....- T. Hood, ....++ J. Plant. ee ee 7 pry a Horse Anonymous G. B. Raweliffe. 66 Parrhasius’” .....s.0e--- weerecntes N. P. Willis ... C. Parsons. «The Life-Boat”.......+eseeeee G. R. Sims...... G. B. Raweliffe. ‘‘ Dot leedle Poodle Dog”’ ....-. C. F. Adams ... do. «‘ Shamus O’Brien”’.......+esee0+ J. S. Le Fanu.. J. Plant. “Tn the Signal Box”’ .......++--+ G. RB. Sims.. ... G. B. Rawcliffe. ‘‘ The Indian Warrior’s Defence REE EP Or eee slate J. Plant. ‘ Gone with a Handsomer Man ” Will Carleton... G. B. Raweliffe. « Scott of Harden” .......++-++++ Henry Lloyd... do. WHO WROTE ‘SHAKESPEARE ’? By GEORGE GILL. February 17th, 1885. The title of this paper suggests a doubt as to the author of «“ Shakespeare’s” Works, and while offering arguments in favor of the theory that such Works were the productions of a wiser and far more cultivated genius than William Shakspere of Stratford-upon-Avon, the writer of the paper did not wish to wrong that name, nor to discount his wonderful powers and genius as an actor, for it was really in that capacity, and not as an author or writer of plays that he first attracted attention. The paper dealt with the subject in two parts—first the historical evidence against the Shakesperean theory of author- ship, compared with the Baconian theory; and secondly the internal and other corroborative evidences in support of the ‘Baconian theory. J. Histortcan KvipENcEs. The early life and_ character of Francis Bacon and William Shakspere were found to differ very widely in almost every respect: the one—Bacon, was born in 1561 and enjoyed many 22 early educational advantages—the other, Shakspere, born in 1564 received a comparatively scanty education. Bacon com- pleted his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself at the early age of 16—Shakspere finished his educational career at the free school of his native town. Bacon’s early life was spent in France, and he was afforded an opportunity of travelling in the very provinces in which are laid the scenes of the first part of Henry VI, and this play is the first in chronological order, according to the best authorities. The second part of Henry VI introduces scenes at St. Albans ; and the Battle of St. Albans, referred to in that play, was fought within a mile and a half of Bacon’s home. Shakspere, after leaving school is generally supposed to have joined his father in carrying on business as woolstapler, and was married at the age of eighteen, the first authenticated fact after his baptism. Shortly after his marriage a company of Players visited Stratford-upon-Avon, and Shakspere is supposed to have followed them to London, where he is found to have been em- ployed in a minor capacity about the Theatre. He afterwards became attached to the Lord Chamberlain’s Company of Players and appeared twice before Queen Elizabeth. Francis Bacon meanwhile removed to London to study law, and in 1&87 he helped in the representation of an anonymous play entitled ‘The Tragedy of Arthur,’’ at Gray's Inn, and also in some Masques before the Queen. Francis Bacon had a brother Anthony, who returning from Italy in 1592 found Francis in embarrassed circumstances through borrowing money from a “hard Jew,’’ who cast him into a “ sponging house ” for a bond which still had two months to run. Anthony soon found means to release his brother; and soon after this ‘“‘ The Merchant of Venice”’ appears with ‘Antonio’’ as the good brother, and ** Shylock” as the “hard Jew.” The name ‘“ Antonio” also occurs in other plays—and im ‘ Much-ado about Nothing” we have ** Brother Antony.” The Earl of Southampton, to whom the Poem ‘ Venus and Adonis ”’ is dedicated, was a personal friend of Lord Bacon: the dedication is signed ‘‘ Shakespeare.’’ Bacon afterwards quarrelled with the Earl, and in the subsequent edition of the poem the dedication was omitted. There is no evidence of the Earl's friendship with William Shakspere, and it is scarcely probable that he would have mis-spelt his name in the dedication of the poem. The paper went on to deal at considerable length on various historical facts in the life of Francis Bacon, tracing their con- nections with many of the plays of ‘‘ Shakespeare,” as these were published from time to time. Special note was taken of the fact that in the ‘“ Folio of 1623,’’ which was published eight 23 years after William Shakspere’s death, and contained 36 plays, 18 of these were then printed for the first time, of which number, six at the least had never before been heard of. This ‘“ Folio” has a remarkable title page, with a wood-cut representing Folly laughing and Shaking his spear at Ignorance; and on the opposite page is a stolid common-place portrait of William Shakspere. Here it may be remarked that the Sonnets which were published in 1609 are issued as being by S#axe-Spxare (printed in large capitals}, and the dedication is to “Mr. W. H.,” otherwise William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, Lord Bacon’s staunch friend. Shakspere died in 1616—his will gave particular directions as to the disposal of his personal property and household goods, but there is no mention whatever of any books, papers or writings of any kind; nor is there any word or line during his life or in his will to show his connection with any printer or publisher. Lord Bacon died in 1626, and his will makes special refer- ence to his ‘‘ manuscript compositions,” and to all his ‘‘ papers whatsoever which are either in cabinets, boxes or presses.”’ _ II. Internat anp CorroporativE EvipENcEs. a. Numerous hints contained in the plays and sonnets are more applicable to Bacon’s life than to Shakspere’s. b. Bacon is known to have been a poet of no mean order. He referred to himself as a ‘‘ concealed poet,”—and he wrote sonnets to the Queen and other distinguished persons. ce. The author of the plays displays very considerable knowledge of special subjects, which happen to have been those of Lord Bacon’s special study, and these are used by the Play writer as the basis of many metaphors and similes. For example Bacon was par excellence a law student—the plays abound in legal references and law scenes. Bacon was a botanist, and in his Essay on Gardens he names 30 of the 33 Shake- spearean flowers. Bacon studied the laws of sound and other scientific subjects—which are constantly referred to in the Plays. d. There are several alterations in the different editions of the same play arising out of circumstances which had come under Bacon’s notice during the interim. e. The striking omission in the plays, of rural and country scenes - such as might have been expected from a man of Shak- spere’s experience. ‘There are no scenes of the village green or May-pole; no harvest-home; no scenes of children, or childhood ; no market or fair ; no home scenes or occupation : yet Shakspere was the father of a family, while Bacon mar- ried late in life and was childless, 24 f. Reference was made to Bacon’s private correspondence, and more particularly to his ‘‘ Promus of Formularies,” which has been found to contain many hundreds, if not thousands of references to special phrases and subjects in the plays and sonnets, all of which point to one conclusion, that Bacon wrote ‘‘ Shakespeare.” ‘“Why write I still all one, ever the same, And keep invention in a noted weed, That every word doth almost tell my name, Showing their birth and whence they did proceed.” (Sonnet 76.) A CHAT ABOUT THE HOUSEFLY. By J. RHODES. February 24th, 1885. The female Housefly (Musea domestica) like all other insects, is careful to deposit her eggs upon some substance which will be suitable food for the issuing offspring. Having discovered some putrefying material, she hovers round it and deposits about 80 beautiful little eggs in the space of about a quarter of an hour. In two or three days the maggot or larva hatches out. It is a small worm like creature having a body divided into thirteen segments or rings, the front one or head, being furnished with a pair of hooked jaws and curious globular palpi. 'The second segment bears two rudimentary feet, and on each side of all the segments breathing pores are to be found. The larva is almost constantly eating, and grows at a very rapid rate. In the course of a few days it however assumes the pupa form. This change is effected by the hardening of the outer skin, which becomes so brown and tough as to make the maggot look like a little bright barrel. In this barrel a wonderful transformation takes place, so that in a few days the pretty, graceful well-known housefly bursts forth and spreads her wings in the sunshine. The Housefly has a body divided into three parts; the head, thorax, and abdomen. The Head bears externally the organs of sense and nutrition, viz: the antenne or feelers: the eyes, and the mouth. Internally, it contains the cerebral ganglion and sensory nerves. The Thorax or chest, bears the organs of locomotion, viz: six legs, two wings, and two halteres or poisers. The Abdomen, which bears no external members, is com- posed of several rings, and contains the intestines, respiratory apparatus, the many-chambered heart, and the reproductive organs, ; 25 The Wings are each composed of an upper and lower trans- parent membrane, and between these, tlie blood vessels and respiratory tubes spread out so as to form a comparatively strong network for the support of the extended membranes. The wings are attached to the thorax by very strong muscles and they are capable of making as many as four thousand strokes per second. The Halteres are little stalks immediately behind the wings, having a globular expansion at the ends, and are probably rudimentary wings. The Respiratory apparatus, consists of spiracles and trachex. The spiracles are on the underside of the body, and are really small holes or pores, filled with a spongy fibre which allows the air to filter in, while at the same time cleansing it from all impurities. The trachee are small tubes strengthened with spiral fibre coiled round the inside: they are connected with the spiracles, and ramify to all parts of the body. The Leg consists of five distinct jomts, giving the limb free movement in any direction. The legs of insects are possessed of great power, for instance, while a man can drag about his own weight, the fly can drag thirty times hers. The Foot consists of two movable claws which are used to clean out moats, dirt, &c., which have become entangled in the spiracles; also of two membraneous expansions or pads which probably serve to protect the claws and keep them from being roughened or broken. Around the margin, and on the surface of the pads are innumerable glandular hairs from which a fluid is exuded. These probably act as “‘ suckers” and enable the fly to walk up perpendicular and smooth surfaces. The Tongue is a very beautiful and complicated structure, and consists of three lancets to puncture substances and cause the juices to flow. Then comes the tongue proper, which is an expansion of membrane containing many cross channels or half tubes. These all empty themselves into two larger grooves which join together and run into the eullet. The Antenne are like two little horns protruding from the front part of the head. They consist of apparently three, but really six joints, of which the third is dilated, and much larger than the rest. At its base are three or four cavities closed from the outer air by a delicate skin, while from their lower surface a nerve proceeds to the brain. These are probably organs of hear- ing or smell, for by their means insects communicate with each other, and receive most of their impressions of the outer world. The yes are five in number, three having a simple undivided surface or cornea; two larger ones having a cornea divided into hexagonal facets, four thousand in number. The more minute structure of the eyes is very interesting but cannot be described in detail in this short abstract. The lecture was illustrated by a number of large drawings which had been prepared by Mr. Rhodes. 26 SOME ASPECTS OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. By THOMAS HOLGATE. March 3rd, 1885. Distillation is the term applied to the processes by which substances are separated, or produced and separated, by heat, and collected after condensation. Solid or liquid substances which are readily converted into vapour on the application of - heat are described by chemists as volatile; those which cannot thus be made to assume the gaseous form are said to be non- volatile. The quantity and degree of heat required is dependent upon the degree of volatility of the substance used, and of the products sought to be obtained. The apparatus employed in distillation consists essentially of a retort or still, followed by a cooler or condenser, and by a receiver. The form and arrangement of these three are subject to modification, to meet the special requirements of each case. The substance to be operated upon is placed inside the still or retort, to which heat is applied. The volatile products and educts pass over, and are cooled in long tubes kept cool generally by water or air. The uncondensable bodies (i.e., at the tempera- ture and pressure in the condenser) are collected as gases; and the condensable bodies are received in the liquid state into closed tanks or other suitable vessels. Distillation is, for convenience, divided under two heads— Destructive and Fractional. The special characteristic of the former is the alteration in composition of the body acted upon, with the production of bodies or compounds in the distillate which were not originally present as such. The bodies, or dis- tillates, so evolved are termed products, because they have not only been separated, but formed by the distillation. The special characteristic of fractional distillation is that the bodies which are evolved are merely separated by heat from the less volatile bodies which are left behind. The bodies so obtained in the distillate are therefore termed educts. As an example on a large scale we may instance the fractionation of the natural oils (or petroleum) of America and of Southern Russia. The erude oil, which is of a greenish colour as taken from the earth, is separated into more or less volatile oils by heating in stills, and collecting the distillates separately at various temperatures. Of the two, destructive distillation is the first for considera- tion, because it is by this process that the substances which are afterwards subjected to fractional distillation are usually obtained. This former is the one chosen for consideration in this paper. 27 It is essentially the decomposition of substances, solid or liquid, by heat, in vessels from which the air is excluded, so as to obtain gaseous, liquid, or solid products. Generally the substances used are of organic origin, and the bodies evolved are dependent —(1) upon the nature of the material; (2) upon the degree of heat applied; and (3) upon the nature of the atmosphere within the still and condenser, and upon the extent of the cooling. In regard to the first of the foregoing principles—viz., the nature of the material subjected to heat—it is necessary to point out that the working is affected primarily by the chemical com- position; and, secondarily, by the mechanical condition. The chemical composition of most of the organic substances used in these industries is a modification of woody fibre in which (C,H,,0;),—cellulose—is the essential component. Percentage Compositions of —— la a = Organic Portion - . | Geuniose. of Bituminons {ylgamcanne) Anthracite Carbon .... 44444 ., 73:05 .. 85°81 .. 94:05 Hydrogen .. 6173 .. 1062 .., a85 Ct 3°38 Oxygen .... 49383 .. 1633 .. 834... 2°57 100°000 ~=.- 100°00 .. 100:00 .. 100:00 The results obtained in actual working are, however, modified (as before mentioned) by the mechanical condition. Sometimes the organic matter is associated with argillaceous or aluminic constituents, which render it necessary to very much increase the temperature applied to the retorts. The shale used by the oil manufacturers of Scotland is a good example; the infusible or non-volatile matter absorbing a very large proportion of the heat which is applied. This leads us to consider our second general principle—viz., the effect of temperature. All chemical action has an equivalent or measure in quantity and degree of heat. (Quantity of heat is represented by “ units of heat ;’’ degree, or intensity of heat, is represented by ‘ tem- perature.”’) Chemical combinations of matter give out heat in definite proportions; and the inverse action, or decomposition, requires at least an equal expenditure of heat-energy. So much is this the ease, that it is necessary for the chemist, in every instance, to know the condition of temperature before he can say whether a combination or decomposition will take place in bodies under consideration. At a very high temperature the products from coal or shale are carbon, and much carbonized gas of low illuminating power, with but little liquid distillate. At a low temperature there is much liquid product and little gas, but of high illuminating 28 power. Gesner gives the following results from a ton of New- castle coal :— Distilled at 1200° Fahr. for Gas. (Crh saan doce 6 Man oo onde Oo omeres oc 7450 cub. ft. PLAT or aye mievaalisdtetoe ole east shajetoteveye siefalere « 184 gals. GWIRA shied doom bodondo noe Shoo 1200 lbs. Distilled at 800° Fahr. for Oil. CEs ap gieinte tanta loieievefe Ute eisleintoret= fois 1400 Cub. t. Crnde: OMe etalon cc atreyssissttagetuside is 68 gals. COKE. comes stesieleie ciel oe a) sles ssi ciee 1280 lbs. We must now consider the influence of the atmosphere within the still. The atmosphere is usually one possessing very little or no power of combining with the body undergoing distilla- tion. Generally the operation is conducted so that the atmos- pheric air is excluded, and so that the heated body is in contact only with the products of its own decomposition. It is important that the pressure within the retort should be favourable. This is usually maintained as low as practicable, in order to reduce the time of contact of the valuable products with the hot vessel, by removing them as quickly as possible, and so preserving them from decomposition. Referring to the condensa- tion of the distillates, I may remark that this is to be determined by the temperatures at which these bodies assume the liquid state. The cooling must be sufficient to condense the products required, and still to leave them sufficiently fluid as not to impede the flow through the worm or other part of the cooling apparatus. Haying very briefly touched upon the general principles, let us now take more in detail a few of the most representative ex- amples; and, first, as an example of low-temperature distillation, an account of the process of distilling bituminous shale, for lighting and lubricating oils. To Dr. James Young, of Kelly, Renfrewshire, belongs the credit of founding this industry, which (especially in Scotland) has assumed very large dimensions. About the year 1848, Dr. (now Sir) Lyon Playfair directed the attention of Mr. Young to an oozing of petroleum through the top of a coal-working at Alfreton, in Derbyshire. There being a prospect of success, he commenced to refine and prepare for sale the petroleum here dis- covered. From it he succeeded in extracting a notable quantity of wax (which proved to be mainly paraffin); and he also separated a light oil for burning, and a heavier one for grease-making and lubricating purposes. The quantity of petroleum at command was very limited; and, after two years’ successful working, the supply was exhausted. Mr. Young then sought other sources of these oils (which are mainly hydrocarbons); and in his experi- ments he was guided by the ideas he had conceived relative to 29 the formation of the natural oil. He thought that in the Derby- shire mine the oil had been formed by the coal having been subjected to a gentle heat from beneath, and by the vapours thus formed being cooled by the layer of sandstone above. Following up this idea, he applied a gentle heat to various classes of coal in air-tight vessels; and the result was that he obtained liquid products more or less resembling the natural oil, together with a quantity of permanent gas. During these trials Mr. Young found that he could obtain from each ton of Boghead coal 120 to 130 gallons of crude oil. In 1862 this material was exhausted ; and since then paraftin oil has been almost exclusively obtained from the bituminous shales existing in the coal measures, which yield, on an average, 32 gallons of crude oil per ton. With the Boghead coal, rich in organic matter, 600° to 700° Fahr. was the most advantageous temperature; but with the shales now used in the most improved retorts, about 800° Fahr. is believed to be the best temperature. The improved Henderson retort, which was shown in a diagram, is oblong in cross section and 15 feet long, containing about 18 cwt. of shale. A set of four is placed vertically in each chamber. Below the retorts there is a furnace; and by opening a door at the bottom of each retort, the spent shale drops into it. At first this mass, which contains carbon to the extent of 12 to 14 per cent., appears quite black. The products of combustion are conducted by a flue to the upper part of the oven; and are led off from near the bottom of the retorts, being the part exposed to the least heat. In order to remove these vapours from the regions of higher temperature as they form, and so prevent their decomposition into gaseous products, a large volume of superheated steam is delivered into the upper part of the retort. urther, by prolonging the action of the steam after all the oily matter is extracted, from 20 to 30 per cent. more ammonia is obtained. The hydrogen of the water takes hold of the nitrogen of the shale, forming ammonia; while the oxygen of the steam unites with carbon, eausing partial combustion, and producing carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. ‘The vapours generated are passed through a coil of pipes surrounded by water. ‘Those which are condensed to the liquid state by this means are the oils, together with water, which is charged with ammonia. The vapours remaining uncondensed (amounting to about 2000 cubic feet per ton) are sometimes purified and sold in the neigh- pourhood for illuminating purposes; yielding a light equal to 25 candles. In other cases, these gases are passed up through a tower filled with porous material (such as coke), down which a quantity of heavy paraffin oil is allowed to trickle. This heavy oil absorbs the light hydrocarbons in the gas, thereby reducing the luminosity to approximately }-candle power. In this way about ‘ Od AA Oe a Se ed EE EE EES SS 30 three-fourths of a gallon of a liquid having a specific gravity of 700 to 715 (water being taken as 1000) is obtained; and this, on further treatment in rectification, is divided into gasoline and light naphtha. The non-luminous gases are then passed under the retorts, and consumed in the furnaces as fuel. The sub- stances thus produced by the destructive distillation of shale are afterwards submitted to fractional distillation, and to other chemical treatment. To describe these processes would occupy more time than I have at command; and I shall, therefore, merely summarize the products, giving their special features of commercial or scientific interest. From figures given by Mr. R. H. Brunton, M. Inst. C.K. (to whom the writer is indebted for much information on this subject), it appears that, in the year 1881, the total shale used in Scotland was 1,036,000 tons, yielding— Gasolingye.t dipacn ce 85,000 gals., being 0°25 per cent. Naphthalene craters 1,955,000, 3 Oke 3 Burning oils ........ 11,900,000 _,, » 35°00 A Lubricating oil ...... 4,760,000 __,, », 14:00 fe Girecnwoil iain. oe 85,000, 532 0225; 55 Solid Paraffin........ 3,060,000 __., » 9:00 * Loss on fractionation ; ; of crude oil ...... } 12,155,000 ,, » 85°75 a UMN econ aco 34,000,000 gals. 100-00 Gasoline, the most volatile of the products, can be made of gravities from 640 to 680; but it is only produced in small quanti- ties, as already explained. It is used for adding luminosity to air or other gases, for use where coal gas is not readily obtainable. Naphtha has a gravity ranging from 700 to 760. Its abstrac- tion from the burning oils renders them less inflammable. Some quantity is disposed of as a solvent for caoutchouc and gutta- percha, and as benzoline for sponge lamps; but a large proportion of the production is consumed in the ordinary open-air naphtha lamps. Binion oils are usually separated into four qualities, de- pending on their specific gravities and flashing points, as well as on their colours and odours. Lubricating oils are of gravities ranging from 875 to 890. They have the great defects, as lubricants, of being deficient in body or viscosity. The viscosity of the best qualities of paraffin lubricating oils does not exceed two-fifths that of rape ; while many of the heavier oils are as low as one-fourth. Green oil is obtained from the tarry refuse. It is rich in carbolic acid; and is not yet much used. Paraffin wax, as made, is separated iuto portions of varied fusibility. That of low melting point is used in the manufacture of match-tips; while that of higher melting point is chiefly used ; 81 for candles. Paraffin is a mixture of neutral bodies containing no oxygen, but about 85 per cent. of carbon, and 15 per cent. of hydrogen. Its consituents, as also of the other products of this distillation, are fatty hydrides, with an almost entire absence of ‘‘aromatic hydrides.” This fatty series of hydrocarbons (C,H ., + 2) has for its first member marsh gas (CH,); and con- tains a large number of homologous bodies, some of which are gaseous, some liquid, and some solid, at the ordinary tempera- ture. These bodies form the starting point of a large number of derivatives, which are very different in character from those derived from the ‘‘aromatic hydrides.” The latter can, however, be obtained from the former by suitable actions. The composition of American natural oil, or petroleum, is essentially the same as the artificial or paraffin oils. Russian petroleum contains, in addition to the paraffin series, a considerable portion of ‘‘aromatic hydrocarbons.” Having seen somewhat the working of a low-temperature industry, let us turn to the most important example of high- temperature distillation—viz., the manufacture of illuminating gasfrom coal. The process is conducted very much as follows:— Coal is heated in fire-clay retorts set in a horizontal position, usually in a group of five or seven. The heat is supplied from a furnace, placed in the base of the setting, fed by coke. The temperature maintained in the retorts is usually a bright or orange red, and is 2000° to 2200° Fahr. A compara- tively low heat means a small yield of gas, which is, however, generally of a good quality; and the production of a large quantity of tar, which is of inferior quality, being rich in paraffins but poor in the valuable ‘‘ aromatic compounds.” The following tables show the effect of temperature on the quantity and quality of the gas produced,* as observed by Mr. Lewis T. Wright, F.C.S., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. :— Heat. Cubic Feet Mluminating 5 Per Ton of Coal. Power. (fyeDall red i. a tebtoeeews bows 8,250 3¢ 20°50 (2): Bright-reditSavtee Goecdae dss 9,693 i 17°80 (3) Dull orange .............. 10,821 a6 16°75 (4) Bright orange ...........- 12,006 as 15°60 Analyses of Gases produced. By Volume. No.1. No. 2. No. 4. iydrogen 3.00. seco 38°09"... 43°77 «.. SA8 02 Carbonic oxide ........ S272) See A250h S., s-06 Marsh gas ...:........ AMT2 a . B450, » 22. 30:70 Olehinesy . sas.s0.e:. snes WEB O =o are 5:85) ae 4:51 INTMOP ER). « jors0:5.00 tae 7g Oe 3°40... 2°81 100-00 100-00 100-00 Carbon density of olefines 2°73 .. CA ae 2-62 Hydrogen ,, Pe ee 3°84, ZA Ee ee 5°76 ___* These are taken from a paper, on “The Influence of the Temperature of Dis- tillation on the Composition of Coal Gas,” published in the Jowrnal of Gas Lighting for March 25, 1884 (p. 535). ; NS POON Se re a i PM OS Oe en En Pe, a Se ee Bs eae 82 By a consideration of these tables, together with the one showing the composition of coal (previously given), we may reasonably suppose the following to be the way in which temper- ature affects this distillation :—The effect of the first application of heat to coal is, no doubt, to cause, primarily, the production of carbon di-oxide and water, through the union of the oxygen with a portion of the carbon and hydrogen. The next increase of temperature will, most probably, produce hydrocarbons of the fatty series, especially marsh gas (CH,), hydrides (C,H), . . ), and the olefines (C, H,,). Some of these latter are liquid, and would appear in the tar; while others are gaseous, and possessed of moderate luminosity. At a still higher temperature these compounds of the “ fatty or paraffin series”’ are partly decom- posed into others of the ‘aromatic series,’ with the separation of free hydrogen. Some of these are gaseous at ordinary tem- peratures, and add great luminosity to the gas; others are liquid, and considerably enhance the value of the tar. These are especially benzene and its homologues. If the temperature be still further increased, these last-named valuable compounds are decomposed, with the formation of free hydrogen, free carbon, naphthalene, anthracene, &c. The temperature of the gas, as taken from the retorts, is usually about 130° Fahr. It is cooled by passing through appar- atus termed condensers, where it is freed from the portions which are liquid at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. From this the gas is passed through a series of vessels, termed washers and scrubbers, where the impurities of sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, and carbonic acid are largely abstracted. From these the gas is passed through purifiers, suitably charged, and worked with lime or oxide of iron, which further eliminate the carbonic acid and sulphur compounds contained in it. The gas is now ready for use. The following may be taken as an average specimen of gas made in England :— Chartered Gas Company’s Gas, 1876 ( Dr. Humpidge ). INTLROPEDIS ccc sie. teen eles 3'48—Inert constituent. ELV OV OREN, ci isc cits vquires shove 6 nie 50°59—Heat-giving constituent. Carbon monoxide............ SL PN et 3 Marshes: (CuEl)) goerreieciee es 38°39—Light-giving. Heavy hydrocarbons (C,Hm).. 4:41— ,, * = 7°85 of ethylene (C,H,). Carbon density, 3°56 ........ 100-00 The liquid distillate in gas manufacture consists—(1) of water, charged with ammonia and its compounds ; and (2) of tar. The first is now the principal source of the ammonia used in the arts and in agriculture. It is usual to first convert it into sulphate of ammonia by treatment with sulphuric acid, This 33 sulphate is either used as such, for the purpose of manure, or it is used for the production of other forms of ammonia in the pure state. Of the second, tar is a substance of great theoretical interest and practical importance. The composition of gas tar has not yet been completely in- vestigated ; but it is certain that 80 different bodies are contained in it, and probable that 20 others are present in more or less minute quantities, Of this large number the most important are as follows :— 1. Benzene (C, Hg), toluene (Cg H; [C Hg]), and xylenes (C, H, [C Hs] 2). 2. Commercial phenol, carbolic (C, H; [O H]) and cresylic acids (Cg H, [C H3] O H). 3. Napthalene (C,> Hs). 4. Creosote oils. 5. Anthracene C,, Hy ). These are given in the order of their boiling points, or order of separation by the tar distiller. 1. Benzene is one of the most volatile of the hydrocarbons (liquid at ordinary temperatures) which is contained in gas tar. It was first discovered by the renowned Faraday ; and it is per- haps one of the best examples of what is known as a condensed hydrocarbon, being regarded as the type of this series, known as “aromatic compounds.” It contains a large proportion (by weight) of carbon to hydrogen; and being a liquid, it is con- sequently highly inflammable, and when supplied with air in a proper manner is highly luminous. It is of great commercial importance as the starting point of a vast number of compounds which act as colouring matters. By the action upon it of nitric acid, nitro-benzol is prepared; and from this (by reduction) the famous substance—aniline—is formed. Further, by acting upon this, a large number of highly. important dyes—popularly called aniline dyes—are obtained. 2. Phenol is the scientific name for what is often termed car- bolic acid. The latteris almost always commercially accompanied by its homologue, cresylic acid—more correctly designated cresol. Taking these two together, we may regard them as the most valuable portions of the carbolic oil produced by the tar distiller. By acting on phenol by nitric acid, picric acid is obtained; and from this a number of beautiful dyes are made. Salicylic acid— a valuable acquisition to modern medicine—is also prepared from phenol. 3. Naphthalene (C,,H;) is one of the most stable of the sub- stances produced by the distillation of coal. Until the last few years it was difficult to sell; but by treating it with nitric acid in the same way that benzene was developed, a number of products are formed which bid fair to largely influence the dye trade. 84 4. Creosote oil is a mixture of bodies which have not yet been thoroughly investigated. It is at present used mainly for pickling timber ; but as its composition and properties are more fully in- vestigated, it is expected to increase in commercial importance. 5. Anthracene (C,,H,,) was discovered by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. It was not, however, of much commercial value until 1868, when Graebe and Liebermann found that it could be con- verted into alizarine (C,,H,O,), which is the colouring matter of the madder root. Alizarine was until very recently made from the root of the madder plant, of which the yearly crop was 70,000 tons, at £45 per ton; representing an annual value of £3,150,000. Of this crop, the United Kingdom consumed 23,000 tons, having a value of £1,000,000 sterling. Madder is now only grown in very small quantity indeed ; having been superseded by the more reliable and superior artificial substance, which in 1883 was sold at about 2s. 6d. per pound. Having referred to two industries which have very largely developed, I will now mention two comparatively new ones. which are at present receiving great attention. The first is the recovery of the nitrogen remaining in bituminous shales, after the extraction of the oily matter; and also that from the coke produced in gas manufacture. It is now well known that only a small fraction of the nitrogen contained in these shales and coals used in destructive distillation is, under the ordinary conditions of working, obtained as ammonia. It has, therefore, been the object of several chemists to extract from the solid residues, as far as possible, the nitrogen in combination with hydrogen. Messrs. Young and Beilby have treated spent shale with highly superheated steam ; the result being that the yield of ammonia has increased 180 per cent. They find that with highly carbon- aceous spent shales or other bodies containing a large percentage of carbon, the process is accelerated by the admission of a small proportion of air. In this manner they propose to convert coke into heating gas and ammonia; the heating gas consisting of carbonic oxide and hydrogen, which are the active constituents, and diluted with the nitrogen of the air used in the process. For gas manufacture the present practice obtains about 15 per cent. of the total nitrogen of the coal as ammonia; while about 50 per cent. remains in the coke, and the remaining 35 per cent. is probably liberated as free nitrogen in the gas. Secondly, there are the improved methods of making metal- lurgical coke. Among the many forms of coke-oven recently put forward, I may select the Jameson and Simon-Carvés as perhaps the best. In the former of these two, the principal novelty consists in the altered form of floor given to the ordinary beehive oven; Mr. Jameson inserting a floor which is perforated. The perforations lead into a flue laid from the centre of the floor 35 to a large gas-main running alongside the battery of ovens. The gas produced is exhausted by machinery; and the tar and am- monia are abstracted in the same way as in gas-works. As in ordinary coke-ovens, so in this process—a small proportion of air is drawn into the oven; and thus a partial combustion takes place. The coke produced by this method is very hard and compact, but the tar is of inferior quality; consisting largely of parattins, with only a slight trace of toluene and xylene—no ben- zene, naphthalene, or anthracene. The yield of ammonia is comparatively small, being equal to about 9 lbs. of sulphate per ton of coal used. The Simon-Carvés process is a destructive distillation ; no air being admitted to the oven. In the early forms of this system the temperature was about 2200° Fahr. ; but in the more improved form, with recuperator, a temperature of about 3000° Fahr. Each oven is charged with about 43 tons of coal; forming a mass about 6 feet high by 18 inches thick. The oven is surrounded, sides and bottom, by flues, in which the gas produced by the process is burnt (after purification). By this arrangement the mass of coal is kept for 60 hours at such a temperature that it partially fuses—at any rate in its lower portion; and the weight of the column causes it to consolidate. The products being drawn off at the top, they have in great measure to pass through the incandescent mass, and thus become partly reduced to carbon. This helps to fill up the pores of the coke more than is the case in gas making. This coking process differs from gas manufacture mainly in the employment of a large compact mass. The working results of 25 ovens, used at Messrs. Pease’s works, Crook, near Darlington, are 6°12 gallons of tar, and 27-7 gallons of ammoniacal liquor (6° to 7° good Twaddel) per ton of coal. About 15 per cent. more coke is obtained by this method than by the ordinary beehive oven; and further, the tar produced is of good quality. Mr. Watson Smith, F.LC., F.C.S., states that its gravity is 1200; it is thus somewhat denser than ordinary gas tar. It is rich in anthracene and naphthalene ; but less rich in benzol and phenols. The adoption of these ovens is extending, and it is hoped they will continue to do so; because by their use the smoke and dirt (which are the usual accompaniments of coke-ovens) are utilized, instead of polluting the air and damaging vegetation. A consideration of these samples of industrial applications will enforce the importance of the three influences enunciated at the beginning of the paper, by showing the differences in the products of destructive distillation under various conditions. The subject of the paper was illustrated by specimen products of the manufactures referred to. For those relating to shale dis- tilling the lecturer was indebted to the kindness of Mr. J. Fyfe, of Young’s Paraffin Light Company; and for the use of those 36 relating to the distillations of coal and coal tar, he was under obligation to Mr. 8. P. Leather, Assoc. M. Inst. C.H., of Burnley. [This Lecture, of which an abridgment is here given, was inserted in the Journal of Gas Lighting, dc., and from that has been re-printed in pamphlet form. | SANITARY MATTERS: PAST AND PRESENT. By T. N. DALL. March 10th, 1885. That the question of the protection of the health of the masses of the people crowded into our large towns and thickly populated districts, by the thorough removal and disposal of refuse wastes and sewerage, is a question of the first magnitude, none can deny. More especially is this so in this country where large towns lie so closely together, and the intervening space is so largely peopled, thus rendering the spread of infectious diseases sO easy a matter. If upon no other than economical grounds, it is true economy to spend some little of our earnings in the prosecution of sanitary research. Health is the capital of the labouring man. It is better to give health than alms, for an unsanitary state brings sickness, disease, and mortality, which are followed by pauper- ism, demoralisation and crime. Dr. Johnson says, ‘‘ To preserve health is a moral and religious duty. For health is the basis of all social virtues. We can be useful no longer than we are well.”’ Dr. Dean, the Medical Officer of Health for this town, has the following in his report to the Council of last Wednesday, which illustrates the general carelessness in neglecting to take such measures as will tend to prevent the spread of infectious dis- eases :—‘‘ In the latter end of January a young man took typhoid fever in Milner street. His sister, a young woman, nursed him and attended to the household duties as manager of the house. When he (Dr. Dean) visited the house, the young woman was cutting bread and butter for the family meal. He prophesied that she would give the fever to the rest of the family, unless she ceased to act both as nurse and cook. The young man died and four others of the family were now reported to be suffering from the fever. The young woman was dealing germs with her bread and butter, and did not know it. Where the first principles of fever nursing were so utterly ignored, the sanitary authority can do nothing but wonder why such ignorance continued to exist. There seemed to be no precautions taken to prevent the disease spreading to the rest of the family, and it had spread.” _—ee 37 Tue Past. My remarks under this head must of necessity be short, as the amount of authentic information is so meagre. The measure of attention given to the subject of the public health throughout the world has been various at different periods, and up to a certain point, may be taken as a true indication of the degree of civilisation attained by any nation in the past. Remains of sewage and water works have been discovered in almost every place where explorative excavations have been made, especially in the great cities of Nineveh, Jerusalem, Car- thage and Rome, and in a lesser degree in Herculaneum and Pompeii and other places. Of these cities Rome stands pre-eminent for the magnitude of its works of water supply and drainage. For more than 400 years after the building of the city, the Romans were content with the water supplied by the Tiber, and from wells and springs in and about the city. It was about 300 years B.C. that the first conduit for general water supply of the city was constructed. It was called the ‘‘ Aqua Appia,” and was built by Appius Claudius, and was about ten miles in length. In A.D. 52, in the time of the Emperor Claudius Cesar, Rome was drawing its water sup- ply from nine great aqueducts, the two largest being the Aqua Claudia 58 miles long, and the Anio Nova 62 miles long, the construction of these aqueducts being extremely massive and elaborate. The channels were chiefly of stone and supported upon arches for the greater portion of the distance, some of which were more than 100 feet in height, and were adorned with columns and other ornamentations. Beside having plenty of pure water, we are told that there was also in ancient Rome a sewage system as far back as 600 years B.C., though of its efficacy not much can be said, and its use has now passed into oblivion. The most notable example of ancient sewers was the “Cloaca Maxima,” or main outfall sewer of Rome, built by Tarquinius Priscus, about 600 years B.C. It was constructed on the arch principle, formed without cement, and measured 14 feet wide and 32 feet high, the arch being semi- circular. It is still used and has defied the vicissitudes of over 2,000 years. There were several other large sewers in Rome, but where they lead to is not known. During the many wars and political troubles that followed on the fall of the Roman Empire, public works of all kinds were neglected and allowed to pass into decay, and with renewed poverty and ignorance, sanitary precautions were disregarded and filthy habits prevailed, a state of things which lasted about 1300 years. ‘ A terrible retribution followed this disregard of all natural and sanitary laws; history records the repeated devastation of Europe 38 by epidemics at this time. The great mortality or Black Death which prevailed from A.D. 1347 to 1850, originating in the far east, approached through Asia Minor and Egypt, and ravaged in succession the various countries of Europe, and it may be assumed without any exaggeration, that Europe lost during the Black Death 25,000,000 people or one quarter of its entire population. The construction of impervious, self-cleansing sewers may be dated from the year 1847, those previously built having been most defective in character, being simply underground channels of masonry, through which water was expected to flow, but built without much regard to the laws of hydraulics and with little attempt at making them water-tight. Most remarkable results followed the construction of these modern systems of drainage, as was shewn by reduced death-rates. The following extract from an address of Captain Douglas Galton, at the 5th Congress of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain contains some most important facts.—‘* It may be accepted as certain that in every case where the sewerage of towns has been devised on sound principles, and where the works have been car- ried on under legitimate supervision, a largely reduced death-rate has invariably followed. The records at Newcastle afford evidence of this fact. Munich is the residence of one of the ablest sani- tarians of Europe, Dr. Pettenkofer. His admirable illustrations of the impurities which were accumulated in porous cesspools upon the air of the town, and the death rate of the population form a text-book of sanitary knowledge.” “At Munich, the enteric fever mortality per 1,000,000 of inhabitants for quinquennial periods was as under :— 1854-1859 when there were absolutely no regulations for aaa ; iy er. 24°2 eeping the soil clear .. he ee 1860-1865 when reforms were begun by cementing the 16°8 sides and bottoms of porous cesspits _ 1866-18783 when there was partial sewerage ... ... ... 13°3 1876-1880 when the sewerage was complete ... ... ... 8:7 Reduction of death rate in twenty years... ... .. «. 155 ‘In Hamburg the deaths from enteric fever per 1,000 of total deaths were : From 1888 to 1844 before the commencement of the construction of any sewage works (6 years) . From 1871 to 1880 after the re of the aie : 13°3 works (10 years)... °} 48°5 ee 39 During the time that the works were in progress, viz., from 1872 to 1874, the mortality from enteric fever per 10,000 living was :— In the unsewered districts... ... ... . 40:0 Paste most, parh, SEWered : ied popsics vee Hooch Late tenn aoe 32:0 In the fully sewered... .. 8 26°8 These results illustrate the effect of purifying the air of towns by the rapid abstraction of refuse matter, so as to prevent it re- maining in and upon the ground. The causes which have wrought to effect these most remark- able results are chiefly the construction of more perfect systems of sewage and house-drainage, the gradual and still growing disuse of cesspools and wells, the introduction of more copious water supplies, the more efficient scavenging of towns, and thorough destruction of refuse wastes, and the sanitary inspection of dwellings, coupled with the compulsory reporting of all cases of infectious diseases, and the fumigation (also compulsory) of houses in which infectious diseases have occured, and last, but not least, the purification and utilisation of sewerage, by which means streams are also purified, and all bad vapours and smells prevented from arising and spreading over the towns through which they flow. Such is a brief sketch of sanitary matters up to very recently. Of course while attending to sewerage, much care, thought and money was expended on improvements to water supply, the ventilation of sewers and buildings, &c. I now pass on to notice more particularly the details of the sanitary appliances and systems in use in the present day. Tue Present. I purpose noticing several different systems, first for the removal of sewage ; second, for disposal and utilisation of sewage, and thirdly, the systems for disposal of other refuse wastes not conveyed from the precincts of the town by the sewers, such as garbage, ashes, offal, &e. It may be well to lay down a few general principles upon which the sanitation of towns should be based. 1st. The water supply should be both plentiful and good. 2nd. All excreta! filth and domestic refuse, together with all dangerous matter such as is liable to putrefy, should be removed to some distance from the limits of the large inhabited districts, and there treated in some manner as to render the same harmless before putrefaction can have commenced. 8rd. .Whatever system is adopted great care should be taken to construct its drains or channels to prevent foul and noxious gases percolating through the soil around, or communicating with any house or building which they are intended to serve; no sewage system is complete until all nuisance from sewer gas:-has been prevented. 40 4th. The scavenging of the town should be thorough, a code of good sanitary laws should be enacted and enforced, and an effective sanitary inspection should be maintained. What is sewage? It is commonly understood to mean the foul fluids that are conveyed by sewers, and which vary in their offensive character. For the purposes of this paper I shall take it to mean any substance, liquid or solid, which may be passed into and conveyed away by any of the various systems described. Removaut or SEWAGE. The methods in use for the removal of sewage may be divided under three general heads :-— 1st.—Sewage interception systems, or dry-sewage processes. 2nd.—Pneumatic systems. 3rd.— Water carriage system. Srwace Interception Systems. InTERCEPTION as applied to drainage, &c., means the exclusion of all fecal matters from the sewers, they being used only for the removal of surface water and slops, with or without the admixture of urine. All interception systems partake of the nature of scavenging, as they all contemplate the removal of sewage by manual and team labour. The oldest of these systems is the open privy vault and cess- pool. Although dying out, this system cannot be too strongly condemned, as its avowed intention is the retaining of all solid matters on the premises as long as possible, until they become centres of pollution and infection. The liquid parts escape through the walls and pollute the soil and neighbouring wells, while the foul gases arising from the contents of the cesspool con- taminate the air. I think all will agree with me when I condemn as totally unfit for use the old system of the open cesspool and privy vault. The sooner these are all removed from our towns the better. Of the improvements on the methods of interception, I shall notice two, viz., Ture Par System anp Tue Kartu Croser. Tue Pam System consists of the use of small movable tubs placed beneath the privy seat, and which act as receivers instead of the permanent vault. At its commencement the method with this system was to empty the contents of the pail or tub into a cart sent round for the purpose and replace the tub, but latterly the method is to have two tubs, and when the full one is removed a clean tub is left in its place. The full tub is put into a closed van or cart and conveyed to the sewage works, emptied and cleaned, and is again ready for use. No dry ash or rubbish is allowed to be placed in this tub, but must be put into some other receptacle. 41 At its best the pail system is an offensive method of collecting excreta, &c. The very fact of the foul matter being carted through the streets of any town is in itself a condemnation of the system. Tue Harts Cuoset system may be divided under three heads. lst. Tue Karrsa Crosser Proper. Qnp. Tue AsH Cioset. 38rp. THe CuarcoaL Cuoset. I purpose mentioning the first-named only, as they are all more or less on the same model, the system being the mixture of some deodorizer with the excreta during its storage on the premises. This system may or may not include a movable receptacle or pail. The earth closet was designed and perfected by the Rev. Henry Moule, M.A., vicar of Fordington, Dorset. Dr. Buchanan (in his 12th report as Medical Officer of the Privy Council, in 1869 thus describes the system :—“ It consists in the application, with the greatest procurable detail, of dry earth to fresh human excre- ment, and in the subsequent removal and use of the mixture for agricultural purposes. In so far as detailed application is not made, or the excrement not fresh, or the mixture otherwise dealt with, the dry earth system is departed from. As regards the principle of the earth closet, the evidence as to the powers of dry earth is unequivocal. If about a pound and a half of suitable earth, carefully dried, be thrown over a dejection, all smell from it is forthwith removed ; and if the same quantity be mixed with half a pint of urine, the latter is absorbed. The mixture of earth with stool and urine is not only inoffensive when fresh, but remains so after keeping for two or three months or longer.” To attain the required result, the quality of earth must be considered. Sand and gravel are almost useless in this respect. Chalk is little better. Clay is among the best; well dried it falls to a powder most suited to the requirements of the closet, and contains also great powers of absorption and of preventing offensive change. Loamy surface earth is also good, as is also brick drift earth. Earths which already contain some quantity of organic matter are very suitable. I have endeavoured to explain the three main systems of sew- age interception, viz.: The privy vault, pail system, and earth closet. From a sanitary standpoint I do not consider any of them good, as they all require the excreta to be stored on the premises for longer or shorter periods, as will depend on the scavenger removing it, and the method of such removal employ- ed. Now as sewage begins to putrefy in two or at the most three days, it must be clear to all that an immediate removal is far preferable to any system of storage. Still, as is well-known, there are many houses and even districts where a good sewage 42 interception system would be very beneficial; by good I mean the best, and that in my opinion is the earth closet. From an engineering point of view, sewage interception sys- tems are imperfect, as they do not provide “for the removal of slop water, and urine to a limited extent only; surface water is also unprovided for, and thus it will be seen that a complete complement of pipe sewers is required to remove these waters and liquid wastes, so that the expense to the community is not at all lowered by these systems, and where sewers have been laid down, the use or introduction of any interception system is an extra burden upon the rates of a town, as it entails a yearly outlay in the removal of the contents of the privy vault or pail, whichever may be used. Pneumatic Systems, Those before the public are Tue Lrernur System, Tue Beruer System, and Tue SHonr System. I have never seen any of these systems at work, and can only give a short sketch of each, from knowledge derived from reading on the subjects. My opinion is that any or all of these systems will yet play a conspicuous part in the sanitary dispositions of many districts in both this and other countries, as they are invaluable in such districts where gravitation cannot be made use of as a means of removing both dry and liquid wastes. The most widely known pneumatic system is that of Captain ). T. Liernur, largely used in Holland. in Amsterdam, Leyden, Dordrecht, also in a limited degree in Prague and Hanau. It consists of 1st, the removal through cast iron air tight pipes of all feces, urine, and chamber slops “from dwellings, hospitals, &e., by pneumatic suction, 2nd, the removal by gravity of all slop waters, rain waters and subsoil drainage by means of entirely distinct service of sewers; although this second service of pipes forms an integral part of the general scheme, I can hear of no place where this Liernur’s system is used, having adopted the second service of pipes. By the Liernur system the town is divided into small districts, all the dwellings, &¢., in each district being connected by means of a 5in. cast iron air tight jointed pipe, with a small air tight cast iron reservoir; all the street pipes connected with this reservoir are fitted with a stop cock to control the vacuum. At some convenient place a general collecting station is established, provided with large air tight reservoirs, and connected with the smaller street reservous by means of an upper and lower tier of iron pipes; a steam engine, working an air pump, produces a partial vacuum in the large reservoirs and mains connected with Cer 43 them. The two rows of pipes (before named) have each a sep- arate stop cock. The upper of these passes through the upper part of the street reservoir, and serves to exhaust the air, the lower passing into the interior of the street reservoir and nearly to the bottom and is used to extract the sewage. The operation is as follows:—The air pump maintains a vacuum in the large reservoirs and mains during the whole of the day. Two men patrol the district; coming to a small street reservoir or tank (air tight), they open the lids whereby access is given to the stop cocks which shut off each pipe from the tank. (For distinction call the men Aand B). A fixes his key on the stop connecting the central or vacuum pipe with the tank. B has his key on the stop belonging to one of the street mains leading to the houses. The moment A turns his key, he opens a connection between the central pumping station and the tank, the air in the tank is at once exhausted and a vacuum established, the extent of which is indicated by a small meter. He (A) then shuts the stop, while B opens the stop on the main leading to the buildings, and lets loose the force on this main. The consequence is that the vacuum in the tank is at once reduced by the inrush of the air contained in the house main. This action repeated two or three times brings all fecal matters into the tank, thus clearing the whole district which this tank serves. The fecal matter is at once sucked by the air pump to the central or large reservoir and there dealt with. The Berlier system is still in its experimental stage only, so I do not purpose venturing any remark upon its efficacy. Although placed among the pneumatic systems, the ‘‘ Shone ’ is in reality more of a mixed system, being part water carriage (by gravity) and part pumping by compressed air. It was invented by Mr. Isaac Shone, a mining and civil engineer of Wrexham, Wales. Ié differs from the two other pneumatic systems before named in that a plenum is used instead of a vacuum. In this system the town is divided into districts as before named, but the drainage (which by the way includes all domestic wastes, but not rain water or any surface drainage) falls to the lowest part of such district by gravity. At these points is fixed a pneumatic ejector into which the sewage flows, and from which it is raised by the pressure of compressed air into a system of iron sealed pipes, and by them conveyed to the point of discharge, the compressed air acting in these pipes to the very end of the service. Another method is to raise the sewage into an upper tier of pipes, and through them convey it by gravity to the point of discharge. This, of course, depends on the nature of the topography of the district. The air required to work the ejectors is compressed at a convenient central station by a compressor worked by steam or water power, and supplied to the ejectors through small iron pipes ’ 44 laid through the streets. These ejectors are most unique in their mechanism. I consider this system the best of all the pneumatic systems, as it may be applied to the whole or only a part of the drainage of a town, however large or small; to the wHone where the topography is such as precludes drainage by gravity, or to the PART where partial gravity can be obtained. Water CARRIAGE. On this head not much need be said, as all are familiar with the system. All know the action of the ordinary water closet, flushed at will by the person using it. Connected directly with the main sewers, the contents are at once removed by gravity and immediately conveyed to the discharge point, and there dealt with. Generally the flow of the sewage is quick, as although some sewers may be flat and sluggish, still the majority will be laid on good gradients which will ensure a quick flow throughout the whole of the sewers, thus reducing the amount of gas to a minimum. ‘To guard against the gases arising from the sewers, is a question which occupies the mind of the engineer, and often puts him in great difficulties. It is one of the hardest things to thoroughly ventilate sewers, and to steer clear of all public censure. Now the ventilation of sewers is necessary for two great reasons. 1st, from a general sanitary point of view, and 2nd, to prevent the gases in the sewers being suddenly compressed. This may be caused by any increase in the volume of sewage (as may occur during sudden storms), or by the effect of any rapid rise of temperature in the sewer, as may be caused by the admission of hot water or steam. A very slight degree of pressure is enough to overcome the resistance offered by water-seal traps, which are the usual and best defence against the entrance of sewer gases into our dwellings. For this reason it is wise to be very guarded in allowing hot water or steam to be turned into the sewers of any town. Many plans have been suggested for ventilating sewers, such as the use of furnaces and high chimneys, found quite impracticable, and thus reported on by Mr. W. Haywood, engin- eer to the London City Commissioners of sewers :—‘‘My im- pression is, that there will be exceeding difficulty in doing it at all; but if done, it will be at an enormous yearly expense. The difficulties to be overcome are gigantic. . . . As there are thousands of openings to a sewer, all these openings are continu- ally varying in their condition, and you must bear in mind that supposing the whole district had been so arranged as to give the furnace and flue a sufficient exhaustive power, the mere opening of a water closet, or the enlarging or putting in of a new drain into a sewer, or the making of a hole a foot square, would very much destroy the power of the furnaces, and unless you had a 45 gigantic power, sufficient to guard against all these casualities, the system could only be a failure.” I may just name some of the systems tried, such as ‘ The Archimedean Screw,” steam jets; fans; pipes conveying the sewer gas to the street lamps, it being there consumed ; pipes up the centre or cavity of the walls of buildings carried up to_ the roof; house drains left untrapped and extended above the root ; charcoal ventilation in the streets; and last and most commonly used, open grids on the top of manholes in the streets. All the systems named have been and are now in use with of course partial success. DisposaL AND UTILISATION OF SEWAGE. The commonest practice under this head is to turn all the sew- age into the nearest stream in its crude state, thus killing or stupifying all fish, and so fouling the water as to render it totally unfit for any domestic use. This practice is being rapidly stopped by law, and not before it is needed. Now it may be thought a strange thing, but all this vile and objectionable matter is most valuable. It may be used to izrigate land. For this purpose the sewage is gathered to one main outfall sewer, and so carried down to the sewage farm. Here it is turned on the land through small channels, the fluid, soaking through the ground and entering the subsoil drains, is conveyed by them in a pure state to any stream, where it does no harm. ‘The other great method of utilising sewage is Precrerration. There are upwards of 20 different pro- cesses of precipitating sewage. I will glance at three, viz :— Tue CovEeNTRY, Tue A.B.C, and Tue Lime Process. The Rivers’ Pollution Association, Limited, which was formed in 1877, ‘“‘ does not confine its operation to any particular system for treating sewage, but employs whatever is found to;be most suitable and best adapted to the local circumstances and require- ments of each place.” So says the prospectus; but the process employed at the works of the company at present, is;what 1s known as the ‘‘ Coventry ” process. Itis a chemical precipitation, the chemicals used being crude sulphate of alumina, salts of iron and lime, of course in such proportions as the managers may think fit, the quantity being the company’s secret. The eftluent, which is clear, is turned into any handy stream, the sludge made into cakes and sold for manure. These cakes contain about 50 per cent. of moisture, the manure being sold at 2s.6d. per ton. The demand is not large. The A.B.C. process is the property of the Native Guano Com- pany, and takes its name from the initials of some of the chief 46 ingredients used in precipitation—alum, blood, clay. The whole precipitant is made up about as follows, viz :— Alc as= ae) lo. CUROO pants Bilowde ane 2 Beal 1S Laws laa RG? eas) 2.00 Hea Manganate of Potash . LON es Burnt Ghigo AMT eP CNA 4y Chloride of Sodium oa, Ghee OMS Animal Charcoal.g 7.3.5 15) %; Vegetable Charcoal ... 20 ,, Magnesian Limestone... NN. The animal and vegetable charcoal do not need to be used together, one only will answer all purposes. The animal charcoal, blood, and clay are dissolved together in sufficient liquid (gener- ally sewage) and flow through a small channel which discharges into the sewer a little above the tanks, which are three in number. The alum is dissolved in a separate vat in sufficient liquid (sewage) and discharges (by another channel) into the sewer a few feet below the point of discharge of the first channel. The whole ingredients flow with the sewage through a mixing channel, and discharge into the first of the three tanks, in which the greatest precipitation takes place, on the next or middle and so on into the third tank. The effluent is not filtered, but flows directly into a stream. It is almost colourless, having only a faint yellow tinge, in great contrast to the dark sewage seen on approaching the works. There is no bad smell arising from these works. The sludge is dried, ground, packed in bags, and sold as ‘‘ Native guano,” at 70s. per ton at the works. It is said to possess a high value as a fertiliser. The lime process is the oldest method of purifying sewage by precipitation before the public. It is in use in our own town in its best known form, viz :—General Scott’s process, which is as follows :—‘‘ A small proportion of lime is mixed with sufficient liquid (water or sewage), and is pumped through a small pipe to a point above the tanks, where it enters the sewer and flows with the sewage down what is known as a “salmon ladder; ” in this the lime and sewage are mixed and through it are conveyed to the tanks which are in two sets of three. In these tanks precipitation takes place, the effluent, which is fairly clear, being turned into (in Burnley) the Pendle water. The sludge is pumped into small settling tanks, in which it stands for about seven days (longer in wet weather), it is afterwards passed through a pug- mill, then spread on a large drying floor in cakes. These, when quite dry are placed in a kiln along with about an equal quantity of coke, and are burnt to a clinker, which is ground into cement, and which will bear a tensile strain of from 250 to 350 lbs. to ee ee 47 the square inch after seven days’ immersion in water. The cement is sold for about 35s. per ton at the works. Now of these systems I prefer General Scott's up to a certain point. I would stop the process at the clinker, and use it for forming the under bed of roads, for which it is well adapted. The cement is not worth the trouble of making, as so many superior and as cheap cements are in the market. I prefer this system as the raw material is so thoroughly depdorised and rendered harmless by burning (I should say it is in the kiln about 36 hours), and as a consequence ho after results are to be feared from the material produced, DisposaL OF OTHER RerusE WASTES. The refuse wastes not removed by the sewers include street sweepings, ashpit contents, garbage, &c. Now the oldest and commonest way of dealing with this mass of material is to tip it in some hollow, such as a disused sand pit or quarry to restore the surface of the land, and render it fit for building on ; Fir only as regards the surface, but far from fit as regards the health of all parties dwelling in- houses built on such a founda- tion. Although this practice must be condemned by all, it is still the practice most in use at the present day. Surely we cannot wonder at the many outbreaks of fever and sickness when we think of the kind of material many of our houses (whole streets of them) are built on. Now it may be asked ‘‘ What are we to do with all this mass?” and the question is a most natural one ; something must be done with it. Sir Robert Rawlinson, the Chief Engineer of the Local Government Board, and the great authority on all these matters, says, concerning this refuse—* The only way to remove it is to burn it in as rapid and inoffensive way as possible,”” and such is the growing opinion of all engineers and sanitary authorities. Now to render this matter of burning the solid refuse a possibil- ity. and indeed an easy thing, special furnaces have been invented for the purpose. They are two in number, viz., Healey’s Refuse Destructor, improved by Fryer, and now known as HEALEY AND Fryver’s Parent and the Ber-Hive Desrructor, invented by Mr. ‘Stafford, the present Borough Surveyor of Burnley. Healey and Fryer’s Refuse Destructor, as erected at Burman- tofts, Leeds, is thus described by Mr. Hewson, ‘the Borough Surveyor: ‘It consists of ten compartments or cells (five back to back) formed of brick work, lined with fire bricks, and tied with iron rods; it occupies a space of 36 ft. by 34ft., and 12 ft. in height, and is so arranged that there is one inclined road leading from the adjoining road up toa platform, against and higher than the top of the destructor, on to which the refuse is carted. Each of the cells is capable of destroying six tons of 48 refuse in 24 hours, and consists of a sloping furnace with hearth and fire grate covered in by a reverberatory arch of fire brick, with one opening at the top for the gases to escape into the flue, and a furnace frame and door for the withdrawal of the clinkers. The refuse which is tipped from the platform (before named) on to the top of the cclls is pushed down the incline or throat with a long iron prong, and slides forward on to the sloping hearth, whence, when sufficiently dry, it is helped forward on to the fire bars, where it burns somewhat fiercely, the fire brick arch above named concentrating the radiant heat upon it. The clinker is drawn about every three hours, but this is done without stopping the burning. This clinker is about 25 per cent. of the weight of refuse burnt. The heated gases pass through a multitubular boiler, and form steam which drives a small horizontal engine, which works a couple of mortar mills, in which are ground up the clinkers drawn from the destructor. The mortar thus made sells at 5s. per ton. The Bee Hive Refuse Destructor is built in the form of a dome or hive of fire brick, with an opening on one side through which the gases pass into the flue; at a quarter of the circle right and left of this opening are other two openings, one for the admission of refuse, the other for withdrawing the clinker. The bottom of the feed door is raised about 12 inches above the bottom of the clinker door, so as to allow of the bars sloping down from the one to the other The feed door is on the level of the platform where the refuse is tipped. Under the bars just named is another chamber, also with sloping bars, fixed about 15 inches from the upper bars. On these bars a fire is laid, the heat from which dries the refuse placed on the upper bars, and renders it inflam- mable and open to immediate combustion, which takes place partly on the fire, and partly on the upper or refuse bars. Below the fire chamber is still another chamber, with hollowed floor, in which water is constantly standing, the steam from which prevents the bars being warped by the fierce heat generated in the des- tructor. One of these destructors will burn about 15 tons per 24 hours, or more than twice the quantity that one cell of Healey and Fryer’s will burn with a residue in the form of clinker of only 124 per cent. of weight of refuse burnt. I need scarcely point out that such a saving is a great item in the accounts of any Cor- poration or Sanitary Authority. Now with these two appliances at work, there is no need for any town to complain of being unable to dispose of the contents of ashpits, market refuse, offal, &c. The way is open to every town, and all the trouble and disease arising from the storage o1 these waste matters can be obviated. Such are some of the appliances now in use for cleansing and rendering healthy the towns and villages of this and other lands, 49 and I think after reviewing them, we may safely come to the conclusion, that the state of our country to-day as regards san- itary matters, will bear favourable comparison with any period of the past. I have endeavoured to give briefly an account of these appli- ances, and if I have succeeded in arousing a feeling of the great importance of each person being his own sanitarian, I shall, I think, have answered the end for which I started this paper. I am indebted to Mr. Samuel Gray, City Engineer, Providence, U.S.A., for much valuable information, After the reading of the paper an interesting discussion ensued. Dr. Mackenzie said that sanitary matters in Burnley were in a deplorable condition. The carrying out of the pail system was very seriously neglected, and he was informed that complaints made to the authorities failed to receive prompt attention. He condemned the tipping of refuse at the foundations of houses and controverted Mr. Dall’s statement as to the inefficiency and danger of the irrigation process. This plan, he considered, was both beneficial and remunerative and it was adopted with great success in connection with the city of Edinburgh. Dr. Briggs, J.P., endorsed the previous speaker’s reasons for the complaints he had made, and spoke against the emptying of ashpits during the day. Mr. B. Sagar observed that the careful construction of drains was of the first importance and required vigilant watching. He feared that frequently defective drains were made. He also insisted strongly upon the extension of the water-closet system. In connection with this matter, Mr. Councillor Roberts observed that there was great ignorance amongst the masses of the people as to the proper use of the water-closet. He also stated that the Health Department each year witnessed an improvement in its working. Complaints made to the Nuisance Inspector received daily attention. He thought the pail system was the best, and referred to its adoption in Manchester. The proper carrying out of the system, however, depended partly on the construction of the conveniences. He could not agree with the eulogistic re- marks of Mr. Dall respecting the value of the refuse destructor to which he alluded. After remarks from Mr. James Kay, J.P., who spoke in favour of the trough arrangement in Mills, &., and Mr. James Lancaster, who referred to the success of sewage farms, Mr. W. H. Colbran said he considered the irrigation process for the disposal of sewage asthe best. Cesspools should be abolished at once and water-closets become universal. This, however, would require an immense addition to our water supply, and Mr. Colbran asked if the waste water from slopstones could not be utilised for the purpose. The ash-pits were in most cases constructed too large, and he was of opinion that a small tub, to be emptied weekly, would be sweeter and better. Some 50 observations on the sanitary arrangements in connection with bathrooms, water closets, and slopstones, were made by Mr. G. B. Raweliffe, who also recommended that the division walls between water-closets and ashpits should be nine inches thick. Mr. Dall then replied to the various comments which had been made, in the course of which he advocated, as being extremely desirable, the printing in separate form of a code of good bye- laws for the use of builders. ON BROWNING’S POEMS. By BENJAMIN SAGAR, March 17th, 1885. If Browning as a poet has not invented for himself new sub- jects on which to write, he has at least treated the old ones ready to his hand in a manner very different from all his predecessors. He has stepped out of the ranks of “poet” as ordinarily conceived, and has written works to which the title of ‘“ poetry” is denied by his detractors, but which in the opinion of his admirers contain true poetry of the highest kind. Man is the sole study of Browning :—man, and man’s soul, and all that go to make up ‘“‘ man” in the abstract, or any given concrete man of whom he may be writing. In an essay on Shelley published about 1850, Browning explains his views on objective and subjective poetry. He speaks of the subjective poet as having to do “not with the combination of humanity in action, but with the primal elements of humanity. He digs where he stands, preferring to seek them in his own soul as the nearest reflex of that absolute Mind according to the intuitions of which he desires to perceive and speak.’’ And in issuing, thirteen years later, a revised edition of his ‘‘ Sordello” he says ‘‘my stress lay on the incidents in the development of a soul; little else is worth study; I, at least, always thought so.” Still later —in 1876—he writes ‘‘mine be man’s thoughts, loves, hates.” With these distinct declarations before us we can understand how it is that in most of his works Browning has called before him souls for judgment or for investigation. ‘Take the least man of all mankind, as I; “Look at his head and heart, find how and why “He differs from his fellows utterly.” And we can perceive how persons and things objectionable and repulsive to some of us have an attraction for Browning. Noth- ing human is alien to him, and if critics bring against him the 51 charge that he has touched on subjects outside the pale of art, or has stretched his art beyond artistic limits, I can only protest against the accusation, and remark that the same charge has been laid against Beethoven and Wagner, against Goethe and Carlyle, and will probably always be made against those who persist in thinking for themselves, or who in spite of themselves are ahead of their time. Fora large portion of his life Browning has been in advance of the age. ‘The increasing number of readers and lovers of Browning’s works is due to the scientific spirit which now prevails. He is eminently the psychologic poet of the century. He treats souls quite as analytically with his mental scalpel as the demonstrator in the dissecting room does the body with his; but, with this difference :—that the dissection of the scientist 1s one of analysis,only, while that of Browning is but the initial stage toa most elaborate synthetical estimate of man. The primary difficulty that confronts any one on first taking up one of his works is that it is so entirely different from any other style of poetry with which the reader is acquainted. He is puzzled with it, then he is amazed that such writing should be called poetry. Diligent study is needed before Brown- ing can be fully understood. Let the reader go to Browning with a desire to know him, let his attention be directed to his Lyrics (which are as musical as those of Herrick or of Burns), to his simpler narrative poems, and to his love songs; the student will then no longer repeat the common remark that the poet is unmusical, harsh, ungrammatical, obscure. In Browning may be found intellectual enjoyment of the highest kind, guidance in the most serious questions of life, and consolation in the troubles and difficulties which beset every one. It is hard to realise that we have still with us a poet who in 1832 wrote the poem “ Pauline, a fragment of a confession,” and who fifty-two years afterwards issued the poem “ Ferishtah’s Fancies.”” In ‘‘ Pauline” may be discerned the keenness of vision and acuteness of perception which have developed during the long interval into the double-distilled concentration of ‘‘Ferishtah.” At the time the earlier poem was written Brown- ing was deeply under the influence of Shelley; and to-day there is no greater student or more appreciative worshipper of that transcendent genius. In the preface to the edition of Browning published in 1868, the author has this remark ‘‘ * * my first attempt at poetry always dramatic in principle, and so many utterances of so many imaginary persons not mine.” Although this might be accepted as the shortest possible description of the whole of his poems, the real man—Browning himself—often lurks near the “imaginary person,” so near in fact that we fancy it is the poet himself who speaks. The digression at the end of the third book of “Sordello”’ is a notable instance of 52, this. This poem is a mine of wealth for the student of human nature. If the charge of obscurity made against the poem be examined, it will be found that profundity rather than obscurity is its characteristic. Some of Browning’s dramas are ‘closet plays,’ others were written for the stage, and have been successfully placed on the boards by such actors as Macready, Phelps, and Helen Fancit. More recently his ‘‘ Blot on the Scutcheon’’ has been given in New York with great success. Browning is the most prolific poet since Shakespeare. The variety and extent of his knowledge are remarkable. What Swinburne has aptly named ‘the inexhaustible stores of his perception ” are still more marvellous. He drinks in the living world at every pore. With him, as with all great poets, the matter of the song is the primary object, its music only second- ary. Harshness, if there be any in his works, is to be attributed to that affectation which in the case of a great artist like Browning simply means naturalness. His passion is as intense, noble, and manly as his intellect is profound and subtle ; it is of utter self-sacrifice, self-annihilation, self-vindicated by its irresist- ible intensity, as it is found in “‘ Time’s Revenges,” the ‘‘ Statue and the Bust,” ‘‘In a Balcony,” ‘‘One Way of Love,” and in many other of his works. Never surely was nobler love through life and death than that which inspired in the man the lines to his Wife in ‘‘ Men and Women,” or the fervent invocation to her when dead which open and close the ‘‘ Ring and the Book,’’ and in the Woman the ‘‘ Sonnets from the Portuguese.”’ Browning is one of the few men who with most cordial energy and in- vincible resolution have lived thoroughly throughout the whole of their being to the uttermost verge of all their capacities—in his case truly colossal. He has lived and wrought thoroughly in sense and soul and intellect. He lives at home in all realms of Nature and human nature, of art and literature. Selections illustrating the points in the paper were read from « Pauline,” ‘‘Sordello,” ‘‘ Rabbi ben Ezra,” ‘Xmas Eve,” “‘One Word More,” ‘‘ Evelyn Hope,” ‘“ Ferishtah,” and several other poems. 53 REVIEWS OF BOOKS. March 81st, 1885. «THE GREAT REPUBLIC,” by Sir Lepel H. Griffin, K.C.S I. By JAMES LANCASTER. «The Great Republic” is the title of anew book from the pen of Sir Lepel Griffin. It is mainly a criticism of the American people, American cities and American institutions. The Author im- presses upon us the importance of the study of America, by prophesying that before children now born shall have grown grey there will be but three Great Powers in the civilized world :— the Greater Britain, Russia and the United States. Mr. Griffin makes us aware at the outset what kind of criticism we are to expect from him, and justifies his opinion by telling us that he thoroughly disapproves of the idea that some people have, namely, ‘that it is necessary and desirable that our criticism should be uniformly favourable even though the praise be undeserved,” and adds, ‘‘it becomes of the greatest importance that when failures and blots appear they should be exposed.’’ ‘‘ The importance of this becomes more manifest’ he continues, ‘‘ when we consider that American ideas and American remedies are being recom- mended for almost all our national disorders.” Mr. Griffin has a great fear of our becoming Americanized, and the evident scope and design of the book is to guard us against being deluded by the apparent success of the Great Republic. There is a humorous chapter on the ‘‘ Big Things” of America, the love of which, Mr. Griffin thinks will guide her into fair pastures if kindly assisted by Mr. Matthew Arnold with his “Sweetness and Light.” The lack of the sense of beauty pos- sessed by the Americans is deplored. Proof is instanced that the loveliest scenery is allowed to be spoiled by vulgar advertisers, notifying their respective swindles, together with the statement that the beauty spots of the country are seldom visited by Americans. Tne Author does not agree with Lord Coleridge’s opinion of female beauty in the States, and says it is extremely rare, the average of ordinary good looks being unusually low, and as to the important question of physical health and hardihood, he considers the English man and woman better developed and stronger in every sense. The interesting subjects of Culture, Literature, and Art, and the Administration of Justice are next discussed, and the Author concludes with an interesting chapter on the question of Races, and the Foreign Klement in the States. 54 ‘“ GEORGE ELIOT’S LIFE,” as related in her Letters and Journals: arranged and edited by her Husband, J. W. Cross. By B. SAGAR. In reviewing Mr. Cross’s Work, Mr. B. Sagar spoke of the accuracy of the descriptions of Warwickshire scenery given in George Eliot’s novels. The claim of Liggins to the authorship of the earlier works of the Authoress was investigated and exposed. Interesting accounts of G. H. Lewes and others were given by Mr. Sagar, who spoke in the highest terms of the genius and character of George Eliot. Personal reminiscences of some of the scenes and characters named in the Life were also given by the Reviewer. Essays and Leaves from a Note book by GEORGE ELIOT. By FRED J. GRANT. All were aware that George Eliot possessed in rare degree the creative faculty. The book under review proved that she had also the critical faculty. As Editor of the Westminster Review in 1851 and subsequent years, she had published anonymously several trenchant essays; this was before she was known as a novelist. (‘Scenes of Clerical Life appeared in 1856, ‘* Adam Bede,” three years later.) Of the seven Essays in the book, four were published in the Westminster, one in the Fortnightly, one in Fraser, and one in Blackwood. While engaged on the Westminster Review, George Eliot became acquainted with many of the leading writers of the time :—Carlyle, Dickens, Grote, W. R. Grey, and Herbert Spencer. The last named author was one of the educating influences in the novelist’s life, and it was through him that G. H. Lewes learned to know Marian Evans. The Essays in this book were not reviews of any particular work, they were the expression of George Eliot’s views and feelings on subjects suggested by some Author whose works she had been reading. ‘Thus, she takes the nine volumes of Dr. Cumming’s Sermons, and finding ‘‘nowhere, a spark of rare thought, of lofty sentiment, or pathetic tenderness, nothing but commonplace cleverness,” she glides off into a criticism of evan- gelical teaching as expounded by the Apostle of Crown Court. She reads the ‘‘ History of the Rise of Rationalism” by W. E. H. Lecky, and the same year writes an Essay on the ‘‘ Influence ”’ of Rationalism. A perusal of the works of Heine leads her to write an Kssay on German Wit; the books of Riehl furnish a 55 text for an Essay on the Natural History of German Life. The Authoress had travelled in Germany, and had been quick to perceive and note the habits and peculiarities of the people: “as birds nidify in the Spring, so Germans wash themselves in the Summer; their Waschungstrieb acts strongly at a particular time of the year ;. during all the rest, apparently, a decanter and a sugar-basin or pie-dish are an ample toilette service for them. Sometimes a little touch of history is incidentally introduced :— ‘‘ Peasants who had given their voices stormily for a German Parliament asked afterwards, with a doubtful look, whether it were to consist of infantry or cavalry.”’ The Essays abound in subtle analogies and striking contrasts. The most carefully elaborated contrast is that which closes the Essay on the poet Young, where the wearisome monotony and disconnected verses of the Author of the “ Night Thoughts”’ are contrasted with the easy and graceful melody of the blank verse of Cowper. Occasionally, the Authoress gives her opinion of the great men of this or formerages. Take e.g., her remarks on “ the charming chatty Montaigne,whose sceptical acuteness could arrive at nega- tives without any apparatus of method.” At the close of a clever comparison of Heine with Wordsworth, Tennyson and Goethe, she has this beautiful image :—‘‘ His songs are all music and feeling, they are like birds that not only enchant us with their delicious notes, but nestle against us with their soft breasts, and make us feel the agitated beating of their hearts.’’ George Eliot complains that Lecky while writing a treatise on Rationalism had failed to define it. Here was a grand opportun- ity for our Authoress, a description from her pen of that somewhat equivocal term would have proved interesting and suggestive. But she fails to give the anticipated explanation, and the reader is left to enjoy ‘‘ the liberty of private haziness.” In the Essay on German Life the reader will see a reflection of the delightful English sketches in Adam Bede, and in the Essay on Rationalism there is a forecast of one of the chapters in ‘‘ The Mill on the Floss.”’ The Essays are well worth reading and study. They give us literature and science, poetry and philosophy, history and travel, doubt and devotion. CHRISTIAN NAMES. By. W LEWIS GRANT. April 14th, 1885. Having observed that names are not arbitrary sounds, but have a parentage, and that many words which seem to the naked eye 56 common and ignoble are found, when their origin is adequately investigated, to be of high antiquity and unsuspected dignity, the reader proceeded to note the distinction between the Christian name and Surname. ‘The Christian name denotes the baptismal or individual name, and in comparatively modern times, the Surname came into existence, being the name added to the Christian name, and expressing the person’s relation to a human society. The consideration of the two classes of names. could not be rigidly separated, for the meaning of the Christian name accounts also for a multitude of our Surnames, chiefly of course, those which are patronymic. Referring to the origin of many of our individual names, it was observed that they were given from some circumstances of the birth or from the complexion ; from numbers; from some weapon or jewel: from flowers or animals; from the qualities desired for the child; or they were religious names, dedicating the child, or denoting a time of family or national sorrow. Examples of each were given. Religion has ever been the most potent influence in name-giving. The Church’s Bible and the Church’s Calendar furnished names which became a bond of brotherhood from land to land. Sacred legends were a prolific source ; and the family feeling is a power- ful guide in our nomenclature. The favourite heroes and giant minds of the day have had their influence on the Parish register, and the different periods of our country’s history, as they have been successively marked by chivalry, romance, puritanical fanaticism and eccentricities, the passion for the Latin form, and the taste for fancy, ornamental names :—have each left a distinct impress on our nomenclature. The causes of the changes which names experience, and the practice prior to the Reformation of curtailing the name, and giving pet or diminutive appellations, were next touched upon. The subjugation of England by the Normans resulted in a revolu- tion of our system of names, just as at a later time, a second crisis occurred under the Puritan epoch. The paper then pro- ceeded to classify the origin of names according to their different sources. The following six classes were taken :—Names derived from the Persian, Greek, Lutin, Celtic, Teutonic, and Hebrew. The names from the Persian are few, but to the classical Greeks we are indebted for some of our most beautiful names. The Romans who had a complete system of nomenclature have furnished a large number of names; whilst the wild and impulsive Celts have left but faint indications. To the Teutonic source is attributed the origin of the great mass of Huropean names. Under this head reference was made to the name William. In the age following the Conquest this name decidedly held the supremacy amongst baptismal names; and since that time to the present, 57 the race for popularity has been between William and the Hebrew John. Names of deities and animals, the mythology, romance, and poetry of the Teutons furnished the elements of names. The sacred language —the Hebrew — supplies by far the first names known to us. Detailed notices of the most prevalent of these were given. Certain phases of the remarkable revolution during Puritan times were explained. Names appear- ing in the calendar of saints, or savouring of Pagan ideas were discarded, and the genealogical chapters of Holy Scripture were drawn upon; so that names hitherto seldom or never heard of, became extremely popular. The baptismal names of to-day bear vividly the impress of what has been styled the Hebrew invasion. Allusion was also made to the Puritan custom of giving grace names, and names embodying pious ejaculations, &e. The reader then glanced at a number of other aspects of the subject, such as, the rise and progress of the double Christian name. The adoption of the patronymic as a Christian name: names indicating private predilections: curious combinations of Christian and Surname. The paper spoke of the suggestiveness of the names we possess: and what expressive symbols many of. them are. Our stock of baptismal names was ever receiving additions. National dislikes and prejudices can often be guaged by an examination of the registers of the time, and popular sym- pathies seek for an outlet in baptism. The paper concluded by observing that Christian names were not mere records of dry and unmeaning facts: they were priceless treasure-houses of things new and old. It may be added that the derivation and meaning of the Christian name of every member of the Club were stated in the course of the paper. LOCAL GLIMPSES. NATURE AND THE IDEAL. By the President, HENRY HOULDING. September 29th, 1885. Nature we know—and the Ideal we know, for every man has his ideal, such as it is. But what do we mean by this word— nature? Man is a part of nature, but the word is commonly used as a name for the home, the environment of man. I use it in this sense, but not in this sense alone: I mean by nature what the poet means. We know what nature is to the geologist, to the botanist, to the astronomer, to the man of science—it is the universe. But when we speak of a lover of nature we mean 58 something different. A lover of nature may have very little science and be very little the worse for it. If we go botanising or geologising we are busy and interested in observing certain things we find in nature. The occupation is absorbing, bunt suddenly, at a moment of pause or rest, there flashes upon the mind a sense of something beyond the immediate subjects of interest, some sudden revelation of beauty, or calm, or grandeur, and we feel as if we had been defrauded by the pursuit of the day of something of quite infinite value and loveliness.