oe Bistestaty be aides ot Sas a = “Pes BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. | TRANSACTIONS. | V@© Le hve 1886. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXVII. i] BURNLEY LITERARY AND. SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. VOL. IV. 1886. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEVF. MDCCCLXXXVII. Burnley Literary and Scientific Club. ee ad ESTABLISHED 1878. << President: de. AN ee EB Dr WA RD. MA. Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumwetu, M.D., J.P. J. W. Annineson, L.R.C.P. F. J. Grant. ALFRED. STRANGE. B. Sacar. ALFRED LANCASTER. JAS. KAY, J.P. Treasurer: Committee: James LANCASTER. Bo, ion. H. Butcock. J. ArtHur WADDINGTON. G. B. Rawcuirre. A. K. Tovey, D.Sc. Secretary: W. LEWIS GRANT, 12, Grimshawe Street, Burnley. Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule 5 RULES. That the Society be named the “ Burney Literary AND ScrentiFic Cvs.” That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrange- ments be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary members. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be prepara- tory to the Excursions. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings of each meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting. Candidates for membership to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next; a majority of three-fourths of the members present being required to secure the election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club: four to form a quorum. Such officers to be chosen by Ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. Rule 8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rules id: Rule 12. Rule 13. 6 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discus- sion. No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the Chairman. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Secretary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of management. Hach member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend,* but no person so introduced, shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings, unless invited by the’ Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare any meeting “ Special’ and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meeting as they shall think proper. That an annual Subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary members, and any person whose subscription isin arrear for three months shall cease to be a mem- ber of the Club. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Committee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a Special Meeting; in both cases a fortnight’s Notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. * No gentleman residing within the parliamentary borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission, INTRODUCTORY REPORT. The Volume of Transactions for the year 1886 is now presented to the members. In addition to notices of the papers given during the year, there are accounts of two papers which were read prior to the publication of the yearly record of proceedings. These are ‘ Ktymology of some Local Names in Rossendale and District,” by James Kerr, L.S.A.L. ; and ‘‘ Ancient America,” by W. Angelo Waddington. At the end of the year 1885 there were 202 ‘ members. During the year 1886 the Club has lost 18 members by death, removals and resignations; but there has been an accession of 20 new members, thereby increasing the membership list to 204. There have been held 25 meetings. At the ordinary meetings the average attendance has been 33 members, 12 friends, or a total of 45. These figures shew a slight improvement on the previous year’s record. Three Excursions took place in the Summer months. The pleasure of the visit to Ribchester was enhanced by the presence of Mr. W. A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.8., of Blackburn, who described the salient points of interest in the antiquities of the ancient Roman Encampment. A half-day’s excursion was made to Gargraye, and the Grounds of Eshton Hall. The visit to Gawthorpe Hall provided a pleasant afternoon’s enjoyment for a numerous party. The numbers attending the Excursions were respec- tively 13, 7, and 36. It may be observed that the programme for the year did not embrace any excursion involving long journeys, or covering more than half- 8 a-day. ‘The experience of recent years with respect to the more important Excursions was such as to deter your Committee from making arrangements for a two or three days’ tour. Several events which have occurred during the year call for some allusion in the Report. At the Inaugural Meeting in January, the Club was honoured by the presence of the Rev. 8. J. Perry, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., of Stonyhurst, the well-known Astronomer. The subject of his learned discourse was one which enabled the lecturer to display his thorough knowledge of the latest discoveries and theories of astronomical science. By means of lantern views the many parts of the lecture were admirably illustrated. Your Committee must here express the indebted- ness of the Club to Mr. John Butterworth, Junr., J.P., for the readiness with which he has placed his lantern and his services at their disposal, whenever it has been desired to add this entertaining method of elucidation. A second Shakespearian Recital by 8. Brandram, Esq., M.A., was given in the early part of the year, when “As you like it,” ‘‘the sweetest and happiest of all Shakespeare’s comedies” was rendered with the remarkable rhetorical and dramatic power which has won for the reciter such a high reputation. At the initial meeting of the Autumn Session the newly-elected President, Mr. J. Langfield Ward, M.A., delivered an address entitled ‘‘The ancient Epic and Drama as reproduced in English Poetry.” A lengthened report of the address is to be found in the volume. A deeply interesting contribution to local history was furnished by one of the Club’s Honorary members, Mr. W. A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.S. The subject—“ A Review of the Evidence on the suggested relation of the Poet Spenser to the Clan of Spensers in the Burnley District ’—was handled in a clear and exhaustive manner, and besides containing a valuable summary 9 of the results of the labours of others in their inquiries into Spenser’s connection with the vicinity of Burnley, the paper was enriched by much original matter, the fruit of Mr. Abram’s own researches, and then formally made known for the ‘first time. Your Com- mittee are happy to embody in this volume an extended report of the lecture. The labours of Mr. Tattersall J. Wilkinson in archeological science, should not pass unnoticed. His persevering and successful examination of the ancient remains which lie so thickly scattered on the moor- lands of Extwistle and the neighbourhood, has resulted in directing greater attention to the subject of pre- historic memorials. In consideration of his useful investigations in this department, the members elected him an Honorary Member of the Club. The Com- mittee hope to be able to assist in plans for further explorations in such places as are likely to yield advantageous results. The financial position of the Society shews further improvement. For the first time in many years, there is a balance of funds to the credit of the Club. The Annual Statement of Accounts will be found herein. The use of the Council Chamber continues to be accorded: and your Committee again put on record their recognition of the kindness which prompts the Mayor and Corporation in permitting the members to hold their meetings in that room. In conclusion, the Committee express the hope that salutary results may continue to attend the Society’s career, and that it may serve in a more thorough and extended manner to compass the objects for which it was founded. Jan. 10 SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1886. 12—Lecture, ‘‘Our Present Knowledge of the Planetary World,” illustrated by the Lantern—Rey. 8. J. Perry, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 19—Paper, ‘ Matthew Arnold :—an Exposition of his lead- ing views, with a note on his Poems,” J. H. Nodal. 26—Paper, ‘‘Lifeboats—Past and Present, (illustrated) J. KE. Stafford, A.M.I.C.E. 2—Paper, ‘‘ The Three Sisters of Haworth,” F. J. Grant. 9—Paper, “Combustion,” illustrated by Experiments,— J. Monckman, D.Sc. 10—Dance.—Mechanics’ Institution. 16—Discussion, “ Proportional Representation,’ introduced by B. Moore. 23—Paper, ‘The Drama of To-day ”’—J. O. S. Thursby, JP: 2—Paper, ‘‘ Cambridge Life.’—J. Langfield Ward, M.A. 9—Recital, “‘ As you like it,” (Mechanics’ Institution,) S. Brandram, M.A. 16—Paper, ‘‘ Local Government, as it at present exists in England and Wales,’—J. 8. Horn. 23—Reviews of Books. 30—Paper, ‘‘ John Hunter, his Life and Work,’—J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P. 6—Annual Meeting. 18—Paper, ‘“‘ A Chat about Heraldry,” (illustrated) —Alfred Strange. 11 SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER, 1886, . 28—Paper, “ The Ancient Epic and Drama as reproduced in English Poetry—The President, J.L. Ward, M.A. 5—Paper, “ Italy,” (illustrated) Wm. Thompson. 19—Paper, “ Visit to the Dead Cities of the Zuyder Zee, Friesland, and the Stone Monuments in the Dren- the,” illustrated by the ‘Lantern—J. C. Brumwell, M.D., J.P. 26—Paper, ‘ Animal Parasitism ”—A. Ei. Tovey, D.Sc. _ 2--Recital, Shakespeare’s ‘‘ Othello ”—J. G. Fleming. 9—Paper, ‘‘How to read a Map,” (illustrated)—H. 5S. Wilkinson, M.A. 16—Paper, “ Florida” —H. W. Parkinson. 23—Paper, “A Review of the Evidence on the suggested relation of the Poet Spenser to the Clan of Spensers in the Burnley District’”—W. A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.S. 30—Paper, “ Social Lights and Shadows ’’_Rey. W. Willey. 7—Paper, ‘“ Pre-Historic Remains in the neighbourhood of Burnley ’’—W. A. Waddington. 10—Dinner. OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE PLANETARY WORLD. By the Rev. S.J. PERRY, FRS., PRLAS. January 12th, 1886. The lecture opened by a few words on the Sun as Ruler of the Planetary World, the lecturer showing, by aid of photo- graphs projected on the screen, the actual state of the solar surface, and of the atmospheres surrounding it. The size of the Sun was then compared with that of the planets, before passing on to a brief consideration of Kepler’s empirical laws of planetary motion, and of their later confirmation by Newton. The elliptic motion and the varying velocity of a planet in its orbit were deduced from the law of universal gravitation; and then the relative distances of the chief planets from the Sun were shewn in different ways, in order to gain the clearest notion of the ex- tent of our solar system. The separate planets were next taken in their order, starting from the sun. The intermercurial planet, whose orbit was cal- culated by Le Verrier from the perturbations of the node of mercury, and which was possibly observed by Prof. Watson and Mr. Swift during the total eclipse of 1878, was lightly touched upon, as Vulean’s existence still requires confirmation. The drawings of Mercury and Venus by Schroeter, and the spots observed by Bianchini, with the phases as illustrated by De- launay and Newcomb, completed the review of the inferior planets ; the hypothetical planet Neith being disposed of by the theory of P. Thirion, who fully accounts for its appearances by ice-crystals in the upper atmosphere. The Earth with its seasons, and some of Nasmyth’s magnifi- cent lunar sketches, led the way to the study of the superior planets. The advantages of certain oppositions of Mars were made evident from the position of the orbits of the Earth and of Mars, and the drawings by Secchi, Green, and Knobel were exhibited on the screen. These different series shew first the two poles together in the same picture, and then North and South poles separately, giving an excellent notion of the snow-clad portions ; finally, the two hemispheres, as drawn by Newcomb, sum up our knowledge of the outlines of seas and continents. The dis- covery of the two small satellites of Mars by Asaph Hall was vt eee oe ee 18 noticed as the completion of the verification of Kepler's predic- tion to Galileo, and attention was called to the extraordinary nature of the orbits of these two moons. The explanation of Bode’s, or rather Titius’ law led naturally to a description of the search for the missing planet, and to the history of the discovery of the Planetoids, from the first found by Piazzi at Palermo, to the two-hundred-and-fifty-third added by the indefatigable Palisa. Formerly there were only seven known planets, now more than seven are yearly added to the list. The distribution of the orbits of the Planetoids, and some of the effects of their minute size, were briefly enumerated, before the orbit of Jupiter was mentioned in connexion with Reemer’s discovery of the velocity of light. This suggested a remark on the distance of the fixed stars, as this distance is estimated in terms of the time required for their light to reach us; for if all the stars could be annihilated at this moment, we should remain unaware of the fact, in the case of most of them, during our whole life, continuing to measure their relative positions with as much exactness as if they were still in existence. The known changes on the surface of Jupiter were then illus- trated by the drawings of Delarue and Nissten, and by Denning’s sketches of the great red spot ; and this was followed by an ex- planation of the phenomena of Jupiter's satellites. The phases of Saturn’s rings, their divisions and changes, so admirably drawn by Delarue, Trouvelot, and others, were next described ; and after a few words about the eight moons, also predicted by Kepler, a detailed account was given of the discovery of Uranus by Sir W. Herschel, and of Neptune by Adams and Le Verrier. Lassel’s additions to the worlds of the three outer planets were not forgotten, and the lecture was brought to a close by .a des- cription of the search, as yet unsuccessful, for the ultra-Neptunian planet. The lantern was manipulated by Mr. J. Butterworth, J.P. MATTHEW ARNOLD: AN EXPOSITION OF HIS LEADING VIEWS, WITH A NOTE ON HIS POEMS. By JOHN H. NODAL. January 19th, 1886. Mr. Matthew Arnold, the eldest son of Dr. Thomas Arnold, the famous head-master of Rugby, was born in 1822; was educated at Rugby and Oxford; and in 1851 was appointed one 14 of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools. He has been sent twice to the continent by the Government to enquire into and report upon the state of education in France and Germany. In 1849 he published, anonymously, his first book, The Strayed Reveller, and other Poems; in 1852, appeared Empedocles on Etna, and other Poems ; and in 1858, Poems, the first work to which his name was attached. Since then his poems have been frequently issued, with additions and in several forms. His prose works include Essays in Criticism, 1865; On Translating Homer, 1861; On the Study of Celtic Literature, 1867; Culture and Anarchy, 1869; St. Paul and Protestantism, 1870; Literature and Dogma, 1873; and Lectures in America, 1884. Mr. Arnold was Professor of Poetry at Oxford from 1857 to 1869. As Mr. Arnold’s writings have ranged over many themes, it is impossible to specify all his leading views, but something may be said to show the spirit in which he works. He sets himself forth rather as an enquirer and student than a teacher or apostle —a searcher who tries to approach Truth on one side after another without violence or self-will, convinced that it is only thus ‘‘mortals may hope to gain any vision of the mysterious Goddess, whom we shall never see except in outline, and only thus even in outline.’ Accordingly he has never been able, he says, “to hit it off happily with the logicians. They imagine truth something to be manufactured, I as something to be found; they something to be proved, I as something to be seen.” Partly as a consequence of this attitude he is a censor as well as a student and enquirer. He is acensor of our literature, our modes of thought and life, our social customs, our methods of education, and of our theology. He thinks the mental range of the English people is narrow; that their besetting fault, much pandered to by public speakers, newspapers, and Lord Macaulays, is an overweening satisfaction with their position and achievements; that their narrowness is an enemy to their advancement in all that is worth living for and striving after ; and that it has its origin in a deficiency of culture. Culture is not, as Mr. John Bright defined it, ‘a smattering of the two dead languages of Greek and Latin.” In Mr. Arnold’s acceptation and use of the word, Culture has its origin in the love of per- fection; it is a study of perfection. It moves by the force, not merely or primarily of the scientific passion for pure knowledge, but also of the moral and social passion for doing good. The finely tempered man, the man of Culture, is he who tends to sweetness and light; the coarsely tempered man, the man of narrow mind and inaccessible to ideas is a Philistine. Mr, Arnold holds that the true rule which Criticism should follow is disinterestedness. It should allow a free play of the mind on all subjects that it touches, and seek to discover and to know the 15 best that is known and thought in the world. He claims a high place for Letters or Literature, that is, the side which engages our feelings and imagination, as against the pretensions of Theology which is in favour of dogma, and of Science which is the side that engages our faculty of exact knowledge. Mr. Arnold thinks the theologians of the day are wrong because they present religious things in a scientific instead of a literary way. If there is any- thing with which metaphysics have nothing to do, and where a plain man ought to find himself at home, it is religion. The object of religion is conduct; and conduct is the simplest thing in the world. That is to say, it is the simplest thing so far as understanding it is concerned: as-regards doing, it is the hardest thing inthe world. Theologians with their dogmas and abstruse speculations have little influence upon conduct, and fail to aid and spread righteousness. Like most thinkers and philosophers, Mr. Arnold’s writings are variations on a few leading ideas. For over forty years he has held up a high idea to his fellow-country- men; and as he said at Ipswich, in an address to a working-men’s college in 1880, ‘: we are always the better, all of us, for having aimed high, for having striven to see and to know things as they really are, for having set ourselves to walk in the light of that knowledge, to help forward great designs, and todo good. ‘Con- sider whereunto ye are born! Ye were not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge.’ ”’ To pass from Matthew Arnold, the prose writer, and, to some extent, the controversialist, to Matthew Arnold, the poet, is a great change. If the prose and poetry were published with- out the author’s name, a reader might be fairly excused if he attributed them to two different authors. The prose lives in an atmosphere of eager vitality and strenuousness ; the poems have an air of reflective repose, of melancholy, and of undisturbable calm. It is difficult to fix Mr. Arnold’s relative or actual position asa poet. An accomplished writer in the Atheneum, reviewing the latest issue of his collected Poems, said, ‘‘ One reads them for the fiftieth time, and for the fiftieth time one feels inclined to esteem their author for the chief of living poets.”” None buta very devoted Arnoldian would tie himself down to such a decision. For certain great qualities of art and inspiration, however, Mr. Arnold stands alone amongst living poets. But his range is limited, and he sounds few of the notes in the gamut of human life. More perhaps than any other English poet he is the poet of precision. He has affinities with Gray, who paints with the same lucid touch, but with less richness of impression, and less originality. Gray is full of beauty, but his pictures are rather conventional. Mr. Arnold sees vividly, and rarely paints a lovely scene without some phrase which adds to one’s knowledge of its charm. Take, for example, the fine stanzas in Thyrsis on the 16 curious fact that the Cuckoo leaves us just as the glories of the year are beginning—stanzas which, apart from their dominating idea, are full of richly-painted and exquisite bits of observation. So, some tempestuous morn in early June, When the year’s primal burst of bloom is o’er, Before the roses and the longest day-- When garden walks and all the grassy floor With blossoms, red and white, of fallen May And chestnut flowers are strewn— So have I heard the cuckoo’s parting cry, From the wet field, through the vert garden trees, Come, with the yolleying rain and tossing breeze: The bloom is gone, and with the bloom go I! Too quick despairer, wherefore wilt thou go? Soon will the high Midsummer pomps come on, Soon will the musk carnations break and smell, Soon shall we have gold-dusted snapdragon, Sweet-william with his homely cottage smell, And stocks in fragrant blow ; Roses that down the alleys shine afar, And open, jasmine-muffled lattices, And groups under the dreaming garden trees, And the full moon, and the white evening star. On the whole, however, Mr. Arnold strays seldom into the region of external nature. When not concerned with narrative, he is in the main contemplative or introspective, He is severely restrained even when dealing with impassioned themes. Perhaps his nearest affinity is with Wordsworth. He has not Words- worth’s rapture or his sublimity; but, on the other hand, he has a greater richness and subtlety of intellect, sees life ina more varied way, and has a narrative power which with Wordsworth was non-existent. He reflects, in his poetry, some of the subtlest phases of the thought of the age; and his verse is largely weighted with melancholy. ‘ But now,” he cries—and the ery seems to be heard through most of his poems— But now the past is out of date, The future not yet born, And who can be alone elate, While the world lies forlorn ? In another poem he speaks of one whom a thirst Ardent, unquenchable, fires, Not with the world to be spent, Not without aim to go round In an eddy of purposeless dust. Strange that in‘his prose Mr. Arnold should show himself in one of these aspects, ardent and unquenchable; and that in his poetry he stands between two faiths, ‘‘one dead, the other powerless to be born,” and broods with unavailing sadness over the dim riddle of the painful earth! To the thinker of the ob. « cer, CR. Ades bene be . ae 17 future there will perhaps be no more perplexing, and yet no more fascinating, figure among the eminent men of the nine- teenth century, than the dual-minded poet and man of letters, some of whose characteristics have here been imperfectly and inadequately indicated. LIFEBOATS—PAST AND PRESENT. By J. E. STAFFORD, A.M.LO.E. January 26th, 1886. Mr. Stafford gave a detailed history of lifeboats, naming the various inventors, and describing the special and salient qualities of their lifeboats. Stress was laid upon the qualities necessary, such as great lateral stability, speed against heavy seas, ready discharge of water, self-righting capability, strength, and space for the storage of passengers. The various encouragements afforded to inventors, and the endeavours of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution to secure a boat combining the requisite qualities were recorded ; and Mr. Stafford referred to a number of experiments and casualties which had served the useful pur- pose of perfecting the construction of the boats. Statistics of the work of the noble Institution which has been instrumental in saving so many lives upon our coasts were given, and Mr. Stafford’s paper led to practical results in contributions from those present to the Society’s funds. The understanding of the structure of lifeboats was rendered easy by the exhibition of a number of capitally prepared diagrams. THE THREE SISTERS OF HAWORTH. By FRED. J. GRANT. February 2nd, 1886. When it is remembered that Haworth is only twelve miles from Burnley, and that the little stream which flows at the foot of the hill on which Haworth stands takes its rise from the hill which greets the people of Burnley as they look where the rising sun peeps over their own Boulsworth, and when the fact is re- called that the last visit the eldest of the sisters ever paid was made to the hospitable mansion of Gawthorpe, and that in going there, and returning thence, she would pass through the streets of the town, sufficient reason has been adduced for the selection 18 of Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Bronté as the subject of a paper to be read before the Literary Club of Burnley. Many associa- tions cluster round the border hills of Lancashire and Yorkshire. These are the ‘‘ wasteful hills” of Spenser. Wordsworth places the scene of some of his finest writings hard by. The moors on the boundary were the favourite resort of P. G. Hamerton, and the eastern slope of the hills inspired much of the beauty of the writings of Charlotte and Emily Bronté. We should cherish all such remembrances. The places wherefrom great souls have gone away and taken leave of this dull earth—nay the very work- shops whereat these souls when in the flesh have toiled —become ‘fanes and altars where the world may worship.” Standing in the vale of Avoca whose charms he had so often sung, Tom Moore could not help looking on the scene with a degree of pride, almost of ownership, feeling that his “‘ property in it might per- haps be as durable as its waters.’ And so Haworth has become the possession of the Bronté family. The Church with its old- fashioned pews with their name plates informing all whom it con- cerned that Susan Sugden had 5} seats in one, and Jonas Smith 63 seats in another, has been replaced by a handsome structure. In many respects the village remains the same as in the days of the Three Sisters. The cultivated American when making a tour of Britain rarely fails to visit the resting place of Charlotte Bronté, on his way from Stratford-on-avon to Grasmere and Abbotsford. Many of the characteristics of the district are similar to those of fifty years ago. Time was when it was considered wicked for a woman to write a novel. It was conceded that in common life a woman had keener insight into character than a man possessed. But that she should write a book containing under the guise of fiction, the record of events and conversations she had seen or heard, was a crime only excelled in its enormity by the dreadful female, who went a step farther and imagined a world of her own, peopling that world with the creatures of her own fancy. Writing in 1843, Macaulay said that the novels we owed to women, formed no small part of the literary glory of our country, and that there was no class of work more honourably distinguished by fine observation, grace, delicate wit, and pure moral feeling. Since that date the list of female novelists had been enriched by the names of Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot, and Charlotte and Emily Bronté. Charlotte’s history in many respects is singularly like the authoress of ‘‘ Mansfield Park.” Jane Austen came of a family of whom all the members were noteworthy, and the authorship of her fictions was such a profound secret that not until after her death did the public learn that ‘* Pride and Prejudice ” and her other works were the productions of the daughter of a country ery a 19° clergyman. Still greater was the similarity between Charlotte and Fanny Burney. There were many points of resemblance and some of contrast between Charlotte Bronté and Mrs. Browning. Swinburne had remarked that Charlotte and_her sister Emily with Mrs. Browning make up “the perfect trinity for England of highest female fame.” One of the servants, Nancy Garr, who accompanied the Bronté family when they left Thornton (near Bradford) for Haworth, in 1820 was living at the time the paper was read. She had given the essayist some interesting facts relating to the family history. Mrs. Gaskell, in her anxiety to increase the renown of Charlotte, quite unnecessarily detracts from the fame of her sisters. She admits that she ‘“‘ had not a pleasant impression of Emily.” It is quite clear that she never fully recognised the greatness of the mind that produced “ Wuthering Heights.” In the same way Miss Robinson in her sketch of Emily, exalts her heroine at the expense of Charlotte. The value of Miss Robinson’s judgment may be estimated by her statement, more than once repeated, that ‘ Villette’ was Currer Bell’s masterpiece. Perhaps these one-sided criticisms may be accounted for—they may certainly be excused—by the fact that in each case the writer belonged to the sex which is admitted to be deficient in the science of pro- portion. Who praises Lesbia’s form and feature need not of necessity call her sister awkward creature. Hach of the sisters had her own peculiar gifts and a distinct individuality; lke the three spires of some fair cathedral, each has her special beauty and grace, and the whole make up a wondrous trio. The moors around Haworth exercised a great influence on the minds of the sisters and proved ‘‘ meet nurse for a poetic child.” They loved the moors and drank from their weird loneliness infinite delights. ‘To many Burnley folk these moors are entirely unknown, while others are as unobservant of their beauties as the Rev. Peter Malone in “Shirley.” Emily especially loved the moors. When away from them she pined for their sweet frag- rance. That is a touching story of Charlotte’s going on the moors the day before Emily’s death—it was in Christmas week— and searching every glen and hollow to find a sprig of heather to place on the pillow of her fading sister. In what spirit Emily was prepared to meet death, may be gathered from certain lines afterwards found in her desk :— “No coward soul is mine, ‘“‘ No trembler in the world’s storm troubled sphere ; ‘“‘T see heaven’s glories shine “ And faith shines equal, arming me from fear. Surely this was such a song as that spoken of in eloquent prose by one of our greatest poets :—'‘the song of evening and rest from trouble, and prayer in sorrow and hope in death—the song 20 of the watcher by twilight on the cliff—full of mystery and mourning and fear and faith—the unspeakably sweet song of the daisy that smiles at coming winter, the star that smiles at coming night, the soul that smiles at coming death.”’ Great efforts have been made to identify the various places named in the Bronté novels, and in some instances these attempts have been successful. Extreme accuracy of detail in these matters was of subordinate value in a novel. The mill in “Shirley ” where Robert Moore confronted with so much bold- ness the twelve men who came to protest against the employment of machinery in place of hand-labour is still to be seen. Any reader of that book visiting the millyard will recall the dream of Robert Moore at the close of the story: ‘I can line yonder barren Hollow with lines of cottages . . . the copse shall be firewood ere five years elapse, the beautiful wild ravine shall be a smooth descent . . . the rough pebbly track shall be an even, firm, broad, black, sooty road, bedded with the cinders from my mill, and my mill shall fill its present yard. I will pour the waters of Pactolus through the valley.” Roe Head, where Charlotte was sent to school, was within walking distance of this mill. The tales of the riots of 1812 were often repeated to the school-girls, and they made an indelible impression on the mind of the little girl from Haworth. She left school in 1832. Seventeen years afterwards she founded her story of ‘“ Shirley” on the incidents of 1812. Her account of the Luddite riots given in this novel is historically true. In historical novels— those that purport to reproduce some incident in the life of a nation or of a particular individual—the representation of facts should be strictly correct. The imaginative part of the book— the dialogues, the soliloquies, the plot—may be left to the play of the fancy, but the historical part should be true to fact. In some conspicuous instances this principle has been carefully adhered to. And the result has been that oftentimes when in search of fact we go to fiction. Some of the characters in the Bronté novels were drawn from actual life, others were clearly the offspring of the writer’s imagination, and were at once the production and the proof of genius. There are many marks of similarity running through the novels written by the three sisters. When ‘‘Jane Eyre” was published, there was a general unanimity amongst the reviewers that the work was a genuine autobiography. ‘To a certain extent the critics were right. Hach of Charlotte’s novels was in reality “a double romance—there was one meaning for the world, but a hidden meaning was present to the writer’s mind.” Many of the most effective scenes in the novels are reproductions of actual events in the author’s life, Piss Fy wat: ee thoes tert oe ade ee SAO AAIE KONA AS Fo 7 ae 21 In all her troubles—and they were many and of varied nature —Charlotte had one source of comfort and solace in the scenery round about her home. Her last long walk—about four months before her death—was across the moors to a waterfall three miles from Haworth. ‘The moors,” she says in a letter written September 1854, ‘‘ are in all their glory, I never saw them fuller of purple bloom.” ‘Evil tongues” she had to endure—the tongues of those ethereal and polite souls who would ‘“ die of a rose in aromatic pain”; ‘‘ rash judgments’’ on her works and herself—coarseness of language,”’ ‘‘laxity of tone,” ‘‘ horrid taste”’ ‘« sheer rudeness,” these were some of the terms applied to “‘ Jane Hyre ” by the reviewers ; ‘‘ the sneers of selfish men,” jealous of the fame of one of the opposite sex ; ‘‘ greetings where no kind- ness was ””’—at home, where she was for months so indignant at the vices of her brother that she dare not trust herself to speak to him, and where for weeks she had to endure the reproaches of her father, for listening favourably to a proposal of marriage from his curate; ‘‘ the dreary intercourse of daily life,’ in a village where none except her sister was her equal in talent, and where of those who heard of her fame few could enter into the reason of it :—all these ‘* did not prevail against her.” And through the years of her life Nature fulfilled all that Wordsworth said she could do, z.e., ‘‘inform the mind that is within her, impress with quietness and beauty, and feed with lofty thoughts.” Thus was she inspired to ‘“‘murmur near the running brooks a music sweeter than their own,” and to shew ‘‘ how divine a thing a woman may be made.” Charlotte’s books may be placed in the hands of the purest minded maiden. She will stand a favourable comparison with the Ouidas and Miss Braddans of to-day. Although the fame of the Bronté sisters may be said to be waning here in England, their works live on in a sort of Indian summer in the great con- tinent across the Atlantic. As a poet Emily stands much higher than either of her sisters. Much of the literary work of the world has been done by invalids. Each of the three sisters bore in her constitution the seeds of disease that led to early death. Criticism is disarmed, the severities of judgment sink subdued in the sanctity of com- passion. The Three Sisters of Haworth illumined the sombre hills of the border and the dark shadows of the cloughs and glens with an orient light all their own, and the members of the Burnley Literary Club add their sincere tribute to the fame of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. 22 COMBUSTION. By J. MONCKMAN, D.Sc., February 9th, 1886. Ignition and combustion have very nearly the same meaning. The former, however, is used to signify the state of being red hot, or hotter than that, without any chemical change taking place in the composition of the body. The latter always means producing heat, and generally light, by changing the constitution of the snbstance. This change is generally produced by the elements of the combustible body uniting with some other element or elements, commonly called the supporter of com- bustion. All our ordinary combustibles contain carbon, most of them hydrogen also, and the gas supporting combustion is the oxygen of the air which unites with these elements, forming new com- pounds. Carbon (C) forms carbonic di-oxide, or carbonic acid as it is commonly called (CO,), or carbonic oxide (CO), and the hydrogen forms water (H,0). If the supply of oxygen is sufficient, one atom of C, weighing 12, unites with two atoms of O, weighing 16 each, forming 44 of CO, When the oxygen is deficient, one atom of carbon unites with one of oxygen, producing carbonic oxide. This gas is combustible, and if not burnt, there is a certain loss of heat. This is not the only cause of loss when the supply of air is too small. The heat, acting on the coal, drives off some of the volatile gases, or rather expels hydrogen combined with carbon, in the form of gas, which causes a greater loss than the other. This may be presented in the following way. A unit of heat is defined as that quantity which will raise 1b. of water from 0° CG. to 1° GC. 12lbs. of carbon fully burnt will raise about 97,000lbs. of water 1° C., or produce 97,000 units of heat. When, however, they are burnt to CO only instead of to CO,, 29,000 units of heat are evolved, showing a loss of 68,000 units, or more than two-thirds the heat is lost. When compounds of carbon and hydrogen are produced the loss is very great, since every pound of hydrogen should produce 384,000 units, or more than four times as much as one pound of carbon. On the other hand, if too much air be passed through the fire, the nitrogen of the air, which takes no part in the chemical changes, absorbs heat to raise itself to the temperature of the furnace. Part of this is restored, but a considerable quantity is carried up the chimney. When, owing to small size of boiler or other causes, the fires are urged too much and the temperature raised above 2471° C., the carbon forms carbonic oxide only (CO). This may be seen in our smelting furnaces, where formerly the combustible gases given off were allowed to burn at the top 23 of the furnace, producing no useful effect. Now, these gases are carried away in pipes to the boiler, and it is found that one furnace will give sufficient gas to heat the boilers necessary for driving all the machinery connected with it. The lecture was illustrated by a series of interesting experi- ments, and the debate which followed elicited further information on the topic so ably dealt with by Dr. Monckman. DISCUSSION : PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION. Introduced by B. MOORE. February 16th, 1886. Mr. Moore, after describing in detail the system of Proportional Representation as advocated by Sir John Lubbock, said, I object to this new system of voting, first, because of want of clearness. The average voter in this country requires a method of voting which is very simple and soon done. It this is not the case, you defeat the object of Proportional Representation at the outset, because a very large number of persons would either spoil their papers or they would not pay that due regard to preferences, which is the very first object sought. Besides that, I do not think that the average voter is in a position so to analyse the difference between two candidates as to enable him to determine which ought to be number one and which ought to be number two. Another evil of this kind of representation would be that it would destroy the responsibility of members to any given con- stituency, and also distinct and definite representation. To whom for instance would a member be responsible, except to himself, who was sent to Parliament with 5000 votes from 600 con- stituencies. How could he know when he was representing the views of the great majority of his constituents, or, on the other hand, what control would they have in any respect over his action in Parliament ? The great object sought to be attained by the advocacy of this theory is the due representation of minorities, and I hold that you obtain this sufficiently near by the present system. If one constituency where there is a large Conservative minority returns a Liberal, another constituency with a large Liberal minority returns a Conservative. If the county of Yorkshire returns a large majority of Liberals, the county of Essex returns a large “majority of Conservatives, and thus the views of the Conservative electors are no doubt represented by the Conservative members 24 in their own divisions and in other divisions. So long as party lines are so distinct as they have been for many years in this country, the present system, in my opinion, is satisfactory. Briefly then I object to Proportional Representation : Because it embodies the plurality member system. Because it includes the minority principle in an objectionable form. Because it makes less effective the representative system, by removing the member from immediate responsibility to his constituents. Because there is no evidence whatever that the people desire it, and this is pre-eminently a question for the people. Because it is so complicated that the people could not understand it, and it would, in my opinion, lead to great confusion and possible error, if not something worse in the counting of votes. And, lastly, because it is utterly foreign to our manner of exercising the franchise during the last half century, and no change so great _ should be made without overwhelming necessity being shown, and the strongest desire on the part of the people expressed. Mr. G. B. Rawcrirre, who did not pledge himself to the par- ticular system described by Mr. Moore, but argued on the lines of Mr. Hare’s system, as advocated by John Stuart Mill and others, said, that Proportional Representation did not mean the representation of minorities as such, but that it was a system in- vented to enable minorities scattered throughout the country to work together so as to secure their fair share of representation, neither more nor less. By this means every shade of social and political opinion would obtain its true reflection in the House of Commons. For instance, at the General election of 1880, there were 3,077,489 electors in the United Kingdom; there were then 652 members of the House of Commons; dividing the number of electors by the number of members, you have 4720 electors to each member. Proportional Representation simply meant that it should be necessary for each candidate to obtain that number of votes, (not from any particular town, but from the whole kingdom) before he could be considered elected. Those candidates who failed to obtain that number of votes represented the minority of the people, and were not entitled to sit. Those who did obtain the requisite number, represented the majority, and were entitled to sit, and to rule the minority. The present system, improperly called the ‘‘majority system,” often defeated its own ends. In the General Election of 1874, there were some 244,000 more Liberal votes recorded in the United Kingdom than Conservative votes, and yet a Conservative government was sent to power, with a large majority of Con- servative members. The majority of the electors were of one political colour, and the majority of the elected another. The majority elected the minority, and the minority elected the 25 majority. To prove that the same evils are perpetuated under the new system, Mr. Rawcliffe quoted similar results in the last General Election at Leeds, Liverpool, Sheffield, Manchester, and other large towns, which are divided into equal electoral districts. Mr. F. J. Granr said the matter resolved itself into two questions, viz :—Were there irregularities under the present sys- tem, and would Proportional Representation effectually remove them if such existed? As examples of the anomalies of the present system, he instanced Wales, where 98,593 Liberal votes returned 22 candidates, and 67,593 Conservative votes sent three members. The proper proportion would have been 15 Liberals to 10 Tories. In the western and south-western districts of Scotland (containing more than half the entire population of that country) the Conservative vote at the last election was 45 per cent., and would thus be entitled to 21 members, whereas the actual result was only eight. He could not admit that the Liberals of Essex were represented by the Liberal members for Yorkshire, or that the Conservatives of Yorkshire were repre- sented by the Tory members for Essex ; there was very little community of interest between the two counties. Mr. W. L. Grant thought that in the long run competent statesmen were sure to find constituencies to represent. The common sense of the people was against a complex and mystify- ing system of voting. The proposed schemes were of more perfect symmetry but of less simplicity than the old system. Mr. Warp said that the present system, though clumsy, yet ensured the representation of minorities. Hven the three-cor- nered constituency had many advantages. The best example of proportional representation was the University vote, which en- abled constituents scattered over the whole kingdom to elect the man of their choice. Was it practicable to extend that system to embrace all England ? In summing up the discussion, the Cuarrman (Mr. B. Sagar) showed that there was much to be said on both sides. He thought as intelligence advanced the people would get nearer some form of Proportional Representation. THE DRAMA OF TO-DAY. By J. O. 8. THURSBY, J.P. February 23rd, 1886. Mr. Thursby contrasted the position of the actor in former times, when he was defined by Act of Parliament as ‘‘a rogue and vagabond,” with his position to-day—féted, courted and wealthy. The stage ought to be a means of innocent enjoyment ; 26 it should appeal to the intellect, and should help to encourage all that is best and highest from the authors and poets of its people. Three causes had helped on the course of stage art—improvement of scenery, dresses, and stage accessories; development in the actor’s art ; and increase in the rewards of success both for man- agers and actors. Many artistic conceptions and much historical research were embodied in the drama of to-day. The immediate duty of encouragement to the player was nearer than that due to other artists. Schools for dramatic art had been established, but had invariably proved failures. The real school for the stage was the stage itself. The system formerly in vogue—-that of stock companies—was more likely to produce capable actors than the present system, which sends companies on tours extending over two or three years, the actors playing the same piece every night. No good would follow from the establishment of a National Theatre ; subsidised plays would do but little for the welfare of the drama. While the receipts at theatres were much higher ~ now than in former times, the expenses were likewise largely increased ; large salaries had to be paid to leading actors and act- resses, and the perfection of scenery and detail at which the best managers aim could only be accomplished by lavish expenditure of capital. The fees to authors of established reputation are now of great value. True dramatic instinct is very rare, yet without it the author with the noblest ideas and the most beautiful form of expression will write a play fit for the study perhaps, but unfit for the stage. The plays of Tennyson, Byron, and Browning were full of intrinsic beauties, and breathed the poetry of passion, but, with one or two exceptions, they had met with scant recog- nition from the theatre going public. The performances last week in the London theatres might be thus classified :—Poetic drama, one; comedy, one; melodrama, four; farcical comedy, seven; comic opera, two; burlesque, three; pantomime, one. The single comedy now on the list is an adaptation from the French. There is no English author now-a-days who can write comedies like ‘‘ The Rivals,’ or ‘‘ The School for Scandal.” The most popular form of the drama of to-day was farcical comedy. Burlesque was on the decline, the reason probably being that the authors of to-day do not write in the same witty and elegant style as their predecessors of the class of Planché, Frank Talfourd, and William Brough. Mr. Thursby then named the chief dramatists of to-day, and gave his opinion on their merits and their faults. Tennyson, Wills, Gilbert, H. J. Byron, James Albery, G. R. Sims, H. A. Jones, A. W. Pinero, and others were thus passed in review. The tone the stage was to take in the future depended on the tone and taste of the public. There was every hope that the tide was setting in favour of what was good and wholesome, high and noble; such development everyone would do well heartily to encourage. | f, 27 CAMBRIDGE LIFE. By J. LANGFIELD WARD, M.A. March 2nd, 1886. The object of the paper was to show what is the ordinary life of the graduates and undergraduates, what are their privileges and what their duties, and what laws and customs are peculiar to the community; to set forth the relations between the different members of the University and different members of the same College; to describe the officials, their work and emoluments, the amusements and occupations of the temporary residents of the University town; and to state such facts and curiosities as may occur to the writer as being likely to give interest to the audience. Books containing this kind of information are “ Verdant Green,” “Tom Brown at Oxford,” ‘Julian Horne,” and ‘‘ The Cambridge Freshman :”’ but of all the books that can be named, none gives such a complete picture, and contains so much in so little as ‘«‘ Sketches from Cambridge by a Don.” Some good skits were written by the Rt. Hon. G. O. Trevelyan, such as “ Horace at Athens” and “ Pepys’ Diary at Cambridge.’ Quotations from the latter were read. Another readable book is ‘‘ On the Cam,” by Everett, an American. First, to treat of our Government: notice the distinct pur- poses of the University and the Colleges: the former has to deal with the teaching and examining for degrees, while each College has the care of its own students and their preparation for degrees. The University teaching power rests in the Professors, the Col- lege teachers are denominated Lecturers. At the head of the University is the Chancellor. At the present time the office is held by an illustrious son of Cambridge, one who has taken nearly the very best degree that ever was taken, the Duke of Devonshire. He was second wrangler and eighth in the Classical Tripos of 1829, and has been Chancellor for 25 years. The High Steward has to hold courts to try cases of felony among members, The Vice Chancellor is one of the Heads of the 17 Colleges, and is elected for one year: it is by him that the degree is conferred, he acting as the substitute of the Chancellor. The Public Orator isa species of Secretary for the Senate, and has to be eloquent in Latin when a degree is conferred upon any man of exceptional merit. Two Esquire Bedells are ornamental appendages: they precede the Vice Chancellor, and from carrying maces as badges of their office, they are irreverently called ‘‘ silver pokers.”’ The Proctors are a useful and important pair: they are officials with whom some members of the community are constantly coming in awkward contact: it is their task to see to the behaviour of the young people, and ‘‘to maintain public morals.’ As the shades 28 of night are falling fast, they issue forth from their colleges to take their walks abroad, exacting 6/8 from all undergraduates found walking without their academical dress, and exercise authority in various other ways. Occasionally a youth will make a run for it, and, in anticipation of this, the proctor has two men with him, popularly known as bull dogs: the chase begins, and there are few sights more interesting than a keen race between the active undergraduate and the proctor’s myrmidons: youth and strength, and health are pitted against numbers, and superior acquaintance with the locality. Such are the University officers: now to discuss the arrange- ments of a college, for it is with the college that the man’s life is most intimately connected. His acquaintance with the Uni- versity is limited to his entrance, an examination or two, and his degree. There are 17 colleges in Cambridge scattered over the town: each has its two or three courts, dining hall, chapel, and library. Few have enough room to accommodate all their mem- bers, and some men have accordingly to live in lodgings near the college by a system of rotation, every man has the opportunity sometime during his career of getting rooms in college. The Government is as follows; at the top is the Head: in most cases at Cambridge merely ornamental, but it depends on the man himself whether the Headship shall be a sinecure or not. It is a post by no means to be despised: the Headship of Trinity is a magnificent position, and in all cases a good house, a satisfactory income, pleasant society, access to all University advantages, probably some shooting and fishing on college property in the vicinity : such advantages are not to be lightly esteemed. After the Head come the Fellows, varying in number at the different Colleges from 60 to 10: the election to a vacancy depends upon the place a man takes in the University or College examinations: they are held on various conditions at the different colleges. The Fellows have the management of the colleges: they form a kind of Committee for arrranging the affairs and managing the landed property, and the annual proceeds are divided amongst them. The offices to be divided among the resident Dons are those of Treasurer, to keep the accounts; of Bursar, to pay the ordinary College expenditure ; of Tutor, to act as the means of communi- cation with parents, and to be an adviser and superintendent of the students; of Dean, to serve as chaplain at the daily services ; and of Lecturers, to teach the men. The scholars of a college are generally undergraduates, but are distinguished from the ordinary students by receiving some emolument from the funds. Two classes exist in some colleges but are gradually being ex- tinguished, the Fellow Commoners, and‘the Sizars. The paper went on to describe the routine of a day at college, the chapel in the morning, the lecturers, referring here at some 4 oi alee pares - ae J 29 length to Mr. Beatson, late Classical Lecturer at Pembroke, and the work in a man’s own rooms. Notice was here taken of the private instruction obtained at Cambridge, and mention made of Routh, the great mathematical ‘“‘ coach,” and Hamblin Smith, the equally distinguished “ Poll Coach.” ‘This description of a Poll Coach was extracted from ‘‘ Sketches from Cambridge.” He has to deal with human beings who are less restless and more doggedly indifferent than boys, with a trust and reverence which is really touching they implicitly abandon all charge of their own thoughts, and surrender their minds to him as passive vessels to be pumped into. ‘I'hey only hope that he will pump in as little as possible, in order that they may discharge it the more readily. To do such a duty thoroughly well demands two qualifications: a perfect temper and a qualified omniscience : a man’s knowledge, that is, must extend over the whole field of University require- ments, but need never penetrate below the surface. In his room you find mechanical propositions written in the fewest possible words, lists of the early heretics and their tenets, a short account of the Reformation, a statement of the four causes which render the division of labour desirable, and the three causes of the economical disadvantages of slavery, pet translations of classical fragments of ‘‘ tips,” with marks against noted pitfalls, a short history of the German tribes, besides various other information. The morning time of the student being accounted for, the disposal of the afternoon is now to be described, and the different forms of recreation, boating, athletics, cricket, and pedestrianism to be alluded to. The evenings are devoted by the non-reading set to conviviality, by the reading men to additional work: on the Saturday evening even these last unbend, and the most studious revel in strawberry jam and whist. Each college has a debating society, which enables its men to get rid of their effervescence, but it is seldom that anything is discussed seriously: the great debating society is the Union, and there the speakers and mem- bers mean business: many men of distinction have won their first reputation as orators by their essays in eloquence at this Society; and have learnt self-reliance, and by addressing a merciless audience have had much of the conceit of youth driven out of them at an opportune time. On the Sundays no work is done: this is the great day for the breakfast parties. In the after- noon the University sermon is preached: and allusion was made to the distinguished men who appeared in the University pulpit from 1867 to 1871, and especial note was made of four sermons preached by the present Bishop of Manchester, about whom the reader had written a paragraph in his diary. An observation was made about the dinner in hall; the arrangement requires the dons to occupy an elevated table at the end of the room, and the men to be seated lower down: at the 30 fellows’ end is the combination room, consecrated to the drinking of a glass or two of port before chapel. The dinner is plain for both dons and undergraduates, though it must not be imagined that the picture in the Illustrated of the Prince of Wales’ son looking hungrily at a mustard pot gives a correct idea of our fare. The custom of fines was mentioned, and from the account of dinner a transition was made to the boat-races, and the ‘‘ bumping” was described: here were introduced the annual May races, the college scratch fours, and the pleasant sight of what the irreverent called ‘‘the Ancient Mariners:” some dons who wish to reduce their bulk get exercise and appetite, and see what is going on along the river, join together, and paddle down in an eight-oar occasionally. A quotation from an edict issued by the University authorities in 1869 was given in order to show some of the faults, counted as grievous ones: the list included ‘‘ gaming transactions, dealings with money-lenders, pigeon-shooting, steeple-chasing, tandem-driving, &c.” This was followed by a brief summary of peculiarities of the hangers-on of the University, the relations of the members of a college to one another, and the animosities of different colleges, and the description ended with an account of Degree Days, and especially of a day when the Archbishop of Syra was made LL.D. Degree-day being the end of the career of the ordinary student, the description of it was a suitable termination for an essay which aimed at nothing beyond repro- ducing the peculiarities of Cambridge Life. LOCAL GOVERNMENT, AS IT AT PRESENT EXISTS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. By J. 8S. HORN. March 16th, 1886. Mr. Horn said, at the outset, that his paper did not propose to deal with Local Government elsewhere than in England and Wales, and explained that the areas for the purposes of Local Government were the parish, the union, the municipal borough, the county, and the sanitary district. THE PARISH. For most purposes of local government the term ‘ parish ” meant the poor-law parish, a place for which a separate poor-rate was, or could be made, or for which a separate overseer was or could be appointed. Every part of England was now comprised in some poor-law parish, of which there were 15,000. The parish 31 bore no definite relation to any other administrative area, except the union, and it might be situated partly in one county and partly in another ; partly, as in the case of Habergham-Kaves, in a county and partly in a borough ; partly, as in the case of Marsden, within the jurisdiction of a Local Board, and partly without. Parishes were very unequal in extent and population. In this Union, Wheatley Carr, with a population of 39 and a rateable value of £425, was represented on the Board of Guard- ians by one member, whereas Habergham Eaves, with a popula- tion of 35,085 and a rateable value of £132,000, had only a representation of four. As an administrative unit the parish was not now of much importance. The essential organisation of the parish consisted of the vestry and the overseers. Vestries were either common or select, and the usual definition of a common vestry was “‘ the ratepayers of the parish in vestry assembled.” Every ratepayer, whether resident or non-resident, was entitled to vote. Select vestries were created by an Act commonly known as Hobhouse's Act. The functions of the vestry consisted mainly in managing the parish property, and charities if there were any, and in adopting and working certain permissive Acts. It might put into force the provisions of the Free Libraries’ Act, also provide for lighting by adopting the provisions of the Lighting and Watching Act (1833). It might decide that a new burial ground was required, and appoint a Burial Board. The principal officers of the civil parish were ‘‘ Overseers of the Poor.’’ When the civil parish was also an ecclesiastical parish the church- wardens were ex-officio overseers. The overseers were unpaid, but the vestry could elect an assistant to perform any or the whole of the duties of the overseers. The duties of the overseers in respect to poor relief had been transferred to the Guardians, but in cases of immediate urgency they still had power to order relief to be given. It was the duty of the overseers to make out and publish various lists of voters for Parliamentary and Munici- palelections. Their main function, however, was the making and levying of the poor-rate. Many expenses not connected with the relief of the poor were by statute directed to be discharged out of the poor-rate, and other rates might be collected with the poor- rate as it they formed a part of it. THE UNION. For poor law purposes primarily, but incidently for other purposes, England was divided into Unions. The Union might be defined as the area under the jurisdiction of a Board of Guardians. For the most part it consisted, as its name implied, of an aggregation of Poor-law parishes; but the constitution of a Union might be conferred on a single parish if the population warranted it. There were 649 unions, of which 25 were single parishes. The Unions were very unequal in size and population, 32 often very irregular, and their boundaries never intersected those of the poor law parish, but they were laid down without reference to any other area of local government. Our present poor law system dated from 1601, but our present mode of administering it dated from the creation of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. In the country generally, apart from the metropolis, the Guardi- ans consisted of two classes, elective and ex-officio, the Justices of the Peace resident within the area of the Union being the ex-officio Guardians. The number of elective Guardians was determined by the Local Government Board. In the election of Guardians the system of plural voting prevailed, and a person might have from one to six votes according to his property qualification. A resident owner might vote both as owner and ratepayer, the effect of which was that with sufficient property qualification he might have twelve votes. Inthe Burnley Union many of the Guardians devoted one day a week and even more to the faithful discharge of their duties. Having described the system of voting for Guardians he said that in some respects it was more convenient than the ballot, and cheaper. The objection against the system, however, was the ease with which the voting papers could be tampered with. A Select Committee of 1878 had reported that it was shown that the abuse and inconvenience of the voting paper system as at present carried on were very grave. The primary function of Guardians was the administration of poor relief. very poor person who was unable to support himself had a right to relief. On two questions the Guardians had to exercise an important discretion. They had to decide whether out-door relief should be given or the workhouse test applied. As regarded this question the poor-law was very unequally administered in different Unions. In the Preston Union with a population of 129,155 persons, £62 was disbursed in out-relief during last week ; whilst in the Burnley Union with a population of 118,391, £184 was disbursed during the same week. The other question was when out-door relief was granted whether it should be given in money or in kind. The latter mode had many advantages. The vaiue of relief might be recovered from persons liable to maintain the persons relieved. About £1,100 a year was recovered in this Union. Speaking of the Casual Act of 1882 he said since its being put into force in Burnley the number of vagrants relieved had been reduced from about 450 to about 80 per week. An important function lately thrown upon the Guardians through the senseless repeal of the 25th clause of the Education Act was that of paying the school fees for children whose parents were strangely termed non-paupers. Last year the Guardians of the Burnley Union expended £360 in that manner. The cost of the poor-relief was now chargeable on the common fund of the Union. This fund was formed by Ry ens ee eens 33 contributions from the several parishes within the Union in pro- portion to their rateable valuable as determined by the valuation list. Though the Guardians were primarily the Poor-Law authority several matters unconnected with poor relief had recently been entrusted to their management. In rural districts where there was no School Board, a committee of the Guardians constituted a School Attendance Committee. In the Burnley Union such a committee enforced the attendance of 12,700 children, at a cost of about £280. Then there was the Rural Sanitary Authority, the enforcement of the Vaccination Acts, and other duties appertaining to Guardians. THE MUNICIPAL BOROUGH. The great majority of towns in England had no legal existence or recognition. A certain number of favoured towns were incorporated, and had a legal existence under the Municipal Cor- porations Act. The latter provided for the creation by charter of new municipalities. The Committee of the Privy Council was em- powered to settle a scheme for absorbing into proposed new corporations existing local authorities. This concentration of petty local authorities into one central authority on the creation of a new borough, was perhaps one main reason why so few charters were applied for. The existing authorities objected to being extinguished. At the present day municipal government was of one type, and the mechanism by which its operations were carried on was practically the same in every borough. The boundaries of municipal boroughs were on no defined principle. Where a town, not a city, was governed by the Corporations Act, the corporation of the place consisted of mayor, aldermen and burgesses. If it had a cathedral and bishop it was entitled to be called a city. The qualifications and appointment of coun- cillors, aldermen and the mayor were described. The functions of the Town Council, were legislative as well as administrative. The Act empowered them “to make such bye-laws as to them seem meet for the good rule and government of the Borough.” A large number of Boroughs had special Acts under which their Councils were intrusted with special powers to carry out particu- lar works of local utility, such as water or gas supply. The ordinary functions of the Council consisted in the management of the Corporate property, the maintenance of a proper police force, the regulation of markets and burial grounds, the levying of rates, and when necessary, the raising of loans. In the absence of special local Acts it was the duty of the Council to see that the town was properly paved, lighted, cleansed and sup- plied with gas and water. In most boroughs the Council had all the powers and duties of an ordinary Urban Sanitary Authority under the Public Health Acts. Again, in a borough where there is no School Board, the Council had to elect from its own m,,,,- 34 bers a School Attendance Committee to enforce the provisions of the Elementary Education Aci. Borough finance naturally fell under the three heads of expenditure, loans and accounts. All rents, profits and receipts from corporate property go to a fund called the Borough Fund, out of which all the ordinary expendi- ture of the Corporation was primarily to be made. If the fund was insufficient the Council must from time to time order a rate to be made in the borough to make up the deficiency. Where expenditure was incurred on works of utility of a more or less permanent character, the necessary funds were usually raised by loans repayable by instalments charged on the rates. In this borough great success had attended the creation and issue of Corporation Stock, whereby a considerable saving had been effected. The accounts of most local authorities were now audi- ted by the Local Government Board, but boroughs were exempt from this jurisdiction. As regarded boroughs the controlling power of the Central Government was purely negative. It could disallow certain things, such as parting with corporate property on the creation of loans on the security of the rates; but there its power of interference begun and ended. In all other matters a municipality enjoyed within the limits of the law, an unfettered liberty of action. THE COUNTY. For certain administrative purposes England was divided into counties. In addition to the counties properly so-called, there were 18 towns called ‘‘ counties of cities,” and ‘‘ counties of towns ” which for many purposes had themselves the organisation of a county. The area of the county had no relation to any other local Government area except the obsolete hundred. Every county proper was divided into petty sessional divisions. These divisions were made for convenience in the administration of justice. The organisation of an ordinary county consisted of the following persons and bodies :—(1) A Lord Lieutenant appointed by Commission, who represented the Crown for military purposes, who appointed deputy-lieutenants, and also recommended persons for the Commission of the Peace. (2) A Custos Rotulorum— keeper of the records—usually the same person as the Lord Lieutenant. (8) A Sheriff, annually selected by the Crown, who was the principal representative of the Crown in the execution of the law. (4) Justices, whose duties were partly judicial and partly administrative. (5) A Clerk of the Peace appointed by the custos rotulorum as his deputy, but removable by the Justices. (6) A County Treasurer, Surveyor, and other officers. The pur- poses of the county organisation were of two kinds, viz :—(a) Imperial purposes, the more important of which were the main- tenance of the Queen’s peace, the militia, the local administration 35 of justice and parliamentary representation ; (b) local Govern- ment purposes, the more important of which were the county bridges and main roads, shire halls and other county buildings, police, asylums, licensing, the Weights and Measures and other like Acts, and the control by way of appeal or otherwise, under various Acts, of minor local authorities. The ordinary expendi- ture of the county was defrayed principally out of a county rate, supplemented by contributions for certain purposes from the Treasury. ‘The county rate was an assessment made by the County Justices, not on individual properties, but on the several parishes in the county, and precepts for the amount required from a parish were sent to the Guardians of the Union in which the parish was included. The Justices were not bound by the poor-rate valuation, and there were, therefore, at least three different valuations in every county, viz., one for Imperial pur- poses, a second for county purposes, a third for the poor-rate, and in boroughs there might be another valuation differing from the foregoing if the Council so determined. Having named the principal purposes, the expenses of which were charged on the county rate, he said those who ery out so loudly for the establish- ment of County Boards would do well to count the cost of their proposal. In the county of Lancaster the county rate amounted to about 62d. in the £, and was administered by men of sound judgment and strict integrity. SANITARY DISTRICTS. For sanitary purposes, using the term in its widest sense, the whole of England, with the exception of the Metropolis, was divided into Sanitary Districts. A Sanitary District was either rural or urban. The boundaries of the Poor Law Unions were the boundaries of the Rural Sanitary Authority. The Urban Sanitary Districts were carved out of the Rural Districts accord- ing to the exigencies of population. The Urban Sanitary Authority might be either the Town Council of a municipal borough, the Improvement Commissioners of an Improvement Act District, or a Local Board. Every part of a Union that was not included in one of the urban districts was under the sanitary jurisdiction of the Guardians. Thus every house was under either an urban or a rural sanitary authority. Systematic sanitary legislation in England had had but a short history ; in fact, it might be said to begin with the Public Health Act of 1848. The reason was not far to seek. In the first place owing to the pressure of population and the rapid growth of large towns, sanitary legislation had of late years become much more urgent; and in the second place, sanitary . science was yet in its infancy. The Public Health legislation of the last few years had almost stamped out typhus fever and com- pulsory vaccination had scotched, though it had not killed small- 36 pox. Under recent sanitary legislation the general health of the population had improved and the expectation of life had per- ceptibly increased. The typical urban sanitary authority was the Local Board, the constitution and functions of which were ex- plained. The provisions of the Act with respect to Local Board districts might be summed up by saying that it was made the duty of every householder to keep his house and premises whole- some and clean, while it was the duty of the Board to see that he did so. The powers of sanitary authorities for dealing with infectious diseases were not so large as they ought to be, and those they had were not sufficiently used. There ought to be systematic provision for the notification of infectious disease. The Local Board had power to construct and maintain hospitals. An attempt had been made by some of the more enlightened local authorities of the Burnley Union to provide hospital accom- modation for cases of infectious diseases. He then defined the powers of the Local Board in providing public walks and re- creation grounds, establishing markets, supplying gas and water, disposing of sewage, &c. THE RURAL SANITARY AUTHORITY. The Rural Sanitary District consisted of all that part of the area of a Union which was not included in any urban district. Speaking broadly, a rural authority had much the same powers as an urban authority in respect of sewage and drainage, water supply and the inspection and abatement of nuisances. It had not the powers of an urban authority respecting lighting, high- ways, streets, public baths or recreation grounds. The Local Government Board might however confer on a Rural Sanitary Authority all or any of the powers of an urban authority. The system of taxation was that each parish was a separate con- tributory place chargeable with its own special expenses, for example, water supply or other local work. CONSIDERATIONS FOR AMENDMENT. Discussing the subject of an amendment of local government, Mr. Horn asked why our legislators should have so artfully varied the time of election for town councils, local boards, and highway boards? Or why should the same rating give the same man one degree of power when he assists at the election of a burial board, and another degree of power when he helps to choose a board of guardians? Or why should the members of a burial board retire by thirds each year, while those of a school board retire altogether every third year? Why, again, should the same person give a cumulative vote at the election of a school board, and a single vote at the election of a town council? Why should that stake in the country which entitles him to sit ae 87 upon a local board not entitle him to sit upon a board of guard- ians? The chaos which at present existed in these matters had arisen through legislation for local affairs having proceeded by piecemeal, creating special districts and authorities for special purposes, instead of establishing units for general purposes of local government, with one consolidated authority in each unit. The result might be illustrated as follows: An inhabitant of Burnley lived in a four-fold area for purposes of local govern- ment, namely, in the borough, in a parish, in a union, and in a county. None of these were conterminous with any of the others. He was governed by a five-fold authority—the Council, the Vestry, the School Board, the Guardians, and the County Quarter Sessions. He was subject to a borough rate, a poor rate, and a county rate. Again, whether in the borough, the local board district, or in the rural parish, the inhabitant was or might be subject to a number of separate debts charged on the different areas which happened to include his house. It was said, and it seemed to be beyond question, that by reason of the defects which had been described the machinery of local govern- ment worked with waste and difficulty, and without its proper effect; that some of the most capable men were deterred from taking their proper part in it; that by reason of the unfairness of taxation private interests were unnecessarily aroused against public improvements, and that local indebtedness was so broken up and was incurred under so divided a responsibility that its growth, which could only be checked locally, was not known locally and could not be effectively resisted even if it were known. The statement of those defects in itself implied a statement of the direction in which amendment should proceed. So far as might be, local affairs ought to be administered in simple areas or ageregations of simple areas, without crossing or interlacing. The unit of area should be the same for all local purposes and larger areas should be as far as possible aggregations of that unit. So far as might be, the local affairs of each area or ageregate of areas ought to be administered by one body for that area or aggregate. So far as might be, the rates should be unified in each area and the debt of each area should be ascer- tained and consolidated. And the areas ought to be made of a convenient size and the incidence of expenses ought to be made as equitable as possible. In devising a plan for securing these advantages certain limiting conditions had to be taken into account. Firstly, the least possible disturbance of existing arrangements and the greatest degree of utilization of existing institutions, which were compatible with securing the main objects, were not only desirable but necessary. Secondly, in determining what kind of area ought to be chosen as the unit for local government, it must be borne in mind that the class or 38 body of purposes which were called ‘sanitary purposes ’’ were at present and were likely for a long time to continue to be the dominant purposes of local government; and if those purposes could be best administered in areas of certain dimensions, it would probably be necessary to adopt such areas so far as might be for other purposes of local government. Bearing these con- siderations in mind, the question to be answered first was, what primary area or unit should be adopted. As regarded the larger boroughs, and the larger local board districts no radical change of areas was to be thought of. As regarded rural places, the choice appeared to be between the parish, .the union, or the rural sanitary district. Considerations in favour of the parish were (1) that it was in most cases an ancient institution invested with a considerable amount cf valuable local sentiment, and (2) that the parish comparatively seldom overlapped the county boundary, and had already been generally used as the foundation of Unions and Petty Sessional divisions. On the other hand, there were several considerations against accumulating upon the parish all the weight of primary local administration. The great inequality in population would necessitate an amount of grouping in the case of smaller parishes and of sub-division in the case of larger ones, which would go tar to destroy the value of the first ot the considerations in its favour; and a further disturbance of the existing parish would have to be made in those numerous cases where the parish was cut by the boundary of a borough or other urban district. The vestries must be generally re-organ- ised, and new officers appointed. The existing organisations of unions and highway boards would have to be dissolved. And there were some purposes for which experience had con- clusively shown a much larger area than the ordinary parish area to be necessary. Nor would it be generally possible to obtain from a population limited as that of the ordinary parish, a sufficient number of persons qualified and willing to administer the local affairs. The other alternative seemed to be the Union or such part of it as not being included in any urban area formed the existing Rural Sanitary district. As regarded the Unions, the chief disadvantages were that more than a quarter of them cut the county boundaries, that they seldom coincided with boroughs or Local Board districts, or with highway districts. On the other hand, the Unions started with this not incon- siderable presumption in their favour, that they had been formed within the last forty years, deliberately for the purpose of local administration. They had the advantages of an existing repre- sentative constitution, which could be easily modified so far as might be necessary ; and they were accustomed to central control and audit. Lastly, Parliament had, to a certain extent, commit- ted itself to their adoption by adding to their original functions 89 of poor relief, the important functions of the Rural Sanitary Authority, and in the absence of School Boards, large powers with reference to elementary education. These considerations appeared to warrant the acceptance of the Union or Rural Sani- tary district as the basis of Rural Local Government. The mere simplification of areas and rates and the consolidation of powers, might be expected to have of themselves a favourable effect upon the governing bodies. If in each district, whether Urban or Rural, one body acting either as a whole or by committees was made the authority for the purposes of the sanitary laws, the roads, licensing and elementary education, the importance and interest of office in such a body would be greatly enhanced, and this would of itself go far to secure that the work would be well done. Assuming the constitution of districts and of primary authorities to be simplified, the necessary conditions would exist for the constitution of County Boards. The proposals which had been made before Parliament for the establishment of such boards had been based on two distinct grounds. One ground had been the demand of the ratepayers that the county business as it now existed should be administered no longer by a body entirely nominated by the Crown, but should be administered by a body in which the ratepayers should be directly represented. The other ground had been that it was desirable to create bodies intermedi- ate between the primary local authorities and the executive government, with powers for dealing with matters in which the various local authorities within a county had common or conflicting interests, and desirable also to transfer to such a body acting with local knowledge and representing the various local interests, some portion of the work of control or supervision exercised by the Local Government Board, and, per- haps, even some portion of the functions of Parliament in relation to local legislation. The County Justices in the past had done their work so well that it might perhaps be sufficient to associate with them when sitting in special or quarter sessions for admin- istrative business, a certain number of elected guardians and representatives of town councils and local boards. If a county board was to exist more than in name, it seemed clear that it must take over the entire administrative work of the Quarter Sessions. One of the greatest difficulties in the way of an im- provement of local government areas was the question of relief of the poor. The subject might, however, be solved as follows, taking the Burnley Union as an example: The Union would be divided into the Borough of Burnley and a number of urban and rural boards, and representatives from each of these authorities would constitute a united board for the purpose of dealing with all questions relating to the relief of the poor. In conclusion, Mr. Horn observed that, as the local authorities were strength- 40 ened and the impediments to their good working removed, the necessity for interference by the Central Authority would be diminished. An interesting discussion followed, and in replying to the observations made, Mr. Horn sketched out his ideas of the main lines on which a future system of County Government should be constructed. He was certain that under the present method they had economy and freedom from jobbery. Printed particulars relating to the various authorities, scale of voting, tenure of office, &c., drawn up by Mr. Horn, had been provided for members. REVIEWS OF BOOKS. March 28rd, 1886. TENNYSON’S “TIRESIAS AND OTHER POEMS.” (1.) By FRED. H. HILL. If Alfred—Lord Tennyson had given us no other evidence than that contained in this little volume, we have sufficient to discern the master hand of a true artist and a great poet, and a fitting final triumph of the promise of his early years. Taken in its widest sense, Poetry means that combination of natural aptitudes which gives birth to artistic creations. It places a poet before certain aspects of life as if he were looking at them through a magnifying glass. Absolute darkness is hateful to us because it is the utter negation of light and life. Full sunlight also by bringing everything into evidence acts as a check, but twilight is poetic, because it gives us the opportunity to fill up and complete at will,—objects which are half buried in shade. Our soul at such a moment is able to spread its wings, to float from object to object divining, creating, and reconstruct- ing the scene according to its own poetic fancy. Yet a poet whose meaning is obscure, and hard to understand, does not give the necessary stimulus to our sensibilities. On the other hand should he say everything, describe with complacent care and completeness every object, every detail, and leave us nothing to find out for ourselves, we become fatigued and worried and throw down the book. That Lord Tennyson in these new poems has fulfilled these and other necessary conditions of a great poet and a true artist would not be difficult to shew. That he possesses the imagina- tion to create, along with the fancy to embellish; the power to articulate with the sympathy which conveys is evident through- 41 out; an obscurity which is simply artistic in its suggestiveness, while possessing a comprehensiveness including all possibilities within which the mind may spend itself. Such a book—the greater part written during the last two or three years by a poet over seventy years of age becomes a marvel of literature. Tiresias possesses special attraction because of its charming subject. We get here not only the story of Thebes in danger—tfrom the wars with the seven Argires—and the self sacrifice of her noble son Menaceus to save her, but a suggested picture of the entire wide spreading myth of ‘“ Tiresias”’ who was an infallible oracle to all Greece; and who addressing the hero “ shows cause’’ for the sacrifice. After relating how he, the Seer, was struck blind by Pallas Athené for having unwittingly come upon her while at her bath, and how from this misfortune came the gift of second sight, “Tiresias”’ tells Menaceus that nothing can save Thebes but his own self sacrifice. ** My son ‘No sound is breathed so potent to coerce, And to conciliate, as their names who dare For that sweet motherland which gave them birth Nobly to do, nobly to die. Their names, Graven on memorial columns, are a song Heard in the future; few, but more than wall And rampart, their examples reach a hand Far thro’ all years, and everywhere they meet And kindle generous purpose, and the strength To mould it into action pure as theirs.’’ “ Thou ‘Rejoicing that the sun, the moon, the stars Lend no such light apn the poe of men As one great deed.” 2 And now comes the thrilling moment when with strangely few touches a great poet only can perfect his picture. Menaceus must die or Thebes must perish! How will he meet an appeal like this? What answer can he make to noble words which will fail of their object unless they persuade the listener to his own self slaughter. This is not a moment for words, but the poet by sheer knowledge of his art proves himself equal to the task before him. : “ This useless hand! I felt one warm tear fall upon it, Gone! He will achieve his greatness.”’ Thus we see the portrait of the man who can save Thebes is painted by a tear! The Ancient Saye is by far the most powerful poem in the volume. ‘A poem,” says Swinbourne, ‘is great when it deals 42 greatly with great emotions; spiritual, so far as it exalts the spirit with the senses and above them to the very summit of vision and delight.” Thus it is with this poem, one indeed to be read with the sunlight of the author’s imagination reflected upon ours. It is a sort of running dialogue between a poet who catches the tran- sient gleam of beauty as it passes and who cannot believe in any deep or permanent creature life beneath that transient gleam, and a Sage who tries to persuade him that a deeper insight shows mortal things to be mere symbols of eternal and immortal realities. The doubtful poet expresses himself thus— ‘‘ How far thro’ all the bloom and brake That nightingale is heard ? What power but the birds could make This music in the bird? How Summer bright are yonder skies, And earth as fair in hue! And vet what sign of ought that lies Behind the green and blue? But man to-day is fancy’s fool As man hath ever been. The nameless power, or powers, that rule Was never heard or seen.” The Sage’s reply is in Lord Tennyson’s best and weightiest manner :— “Tf thou would’st hear the Nameless, and wilt dive Into the temple cave of thine own self, There brooding by the central altar, thou May’st haply learn the Nameless hath a voice, By which thou wilt abide, if thou be wise, As if thou knewest, tho’, thou canst not know; For Knowledge is the swallow on the lake That sees and stirs the surface shadow there But never yet hath dipt into the Abysm, The Abysm of all Abysms, beneath, within The blue of sky and sea, the green of earth And in the million-millionth of a grain Which cleft and cleft again for evermore And ever vanishing never vanishes, To me, my son, more mystic than myself, Or even than the Nameless is to me.” The depth and subtle comprehensiveness of this poem may be taken as a fitting answer to ‘In Memoriam’’—that sunless gulf of doubt—that miracle of grief—where the wail of sorrow reaches its highest pitch. Years have rolled by—the intensity of the sorrow is lessened, and what is Tennyson’s answer now ? It is that the want of human knowledge is so great when con- fronted by the Absolute, that enquiries by the finite into the Infinite are utterly futile; consequently doubt must be. Doubt is necessary because of the disparity of knowledge, “ for nothing worthy proving can be proven or disproven ;” therefore, “cleave | 43 ever to the summer side of doubt, and cling to faith beyond the forms of faith.” The doubtful poet interjects *“‘ And since—from when this earth began The nameless never came Among us, never spake with man And never named the name.”’ The Sage replies ‘Thou can’st not prove the Nameless, O my son, Nor can’st thou prove the world thou movest in, Thou can’st not prove that thou art spirit alone, Nor can’st thou prove that thou art body alone, Nor can’st thou prove that thou art immortal, no, Nor yet that thou art mortal—nay my son, Thou cans’t not prove that I, who speak with thee Am not thyself in converse with thyself ; For nothing worthy proving can be proven Nor yet disproven; wherefore thou be wise, Cleave ever to the summer side of doubt, And cling to faith beyond the forms of faith! ” The poem closes with an eloquent expression of resignation to fate’s awards—that deep recognition of the duty of universal benevolence, of self dominance, and of faith in the principle of goodness at the heart of nature. (2.) By FRED. J. GRANT. The volume is dedicated to Browning. Thus are linked to- gether two poets whose names are destined to live to remote ages. Different in thought, in mode of expression, in style of subject, they are alike rich in the truest poetical instincts, both interpret the spirit of the age, and both offer to this generation the spectacle of an old age which the muse has not ceased to visit and inspire. In the clever use of single words and the repetition of simple phrases is found one great secret of the charm of the Laureate’s writings. In the stanza on Virgil, . Tennyson has, perhaps unconsciously, described his own poetry: —‘‘all the charm of all the muses often flowering in a lonely word.” The spirit of poesy is the same in all ages—the spirit finely touched to fine issues, the prophetic note of a glorious future trembling in its voice. ‘The federation of our colonies was shadowed forth in ‘‘ Hands all round,” first published over twenty years ago. The preponderance of local feeling which many have supposed to be one of the characteristics of the re- formed parliament is thus rebuked :— > “To both our Houses, may they see ‘* Beyond the borough and the shire.” The lines on the charge of the Heavy Brigade at Balaclava were not likely to want admirers in the town where he lived to whom tt Lord Raglan addressed the memorable words ‘Well done, Scarlett.”” Tennyson’s battle pieces are inferior to the martial odes of Campbell. ‘Balin and Balan’’ were intended to form an introduction to “Merlin and Vivien” of the poet’s earlier work the ‘‘Idylls of the King.” ‘The romances gathering round the Knights of the Round Table still retain their fascination for the Laureate. The perpetual reappearance of that group of legends is most remarkable. In no case have they been presented with a completeness or depth of thought equal to the productions of Tennyson. The ‘age of chivalry is gone,” but the Laureate by the mysterious magic of his music and the sweet voice of his song has done much to restore in England the memory of the ancient British Knights with their lofty ideal and the respect that ideal inculeated for woman. Love and war are the two great subjects on which our poets have loved to dwell. In nearly all the 26 compositions in the volume the vision of death appears. This characteristic of the work is somewhat in sympathy with a passage in one of the last of Bacon’s Essays, where he shews that although prosperity is the distinguishing blessing of the Old Testament, yet even there ‘‘if you listen to David’s harp you shall hear as many hearse-like airs as carols.” In these poems the element of human reference is very noticeable. Skill in the mystery of difficult dialects was shewn in two of the poems. A Dublin paper was constrained to admit that Tennyson in “To-morrow” had displayed an almost perfect acquaintance with the Irish peasant dialect of English. The ‘ Spinster’s sweet-arts,”’ written in the North Lincolnshire dialect will rank as one of his most successful character sketches. It is a quaint concert, full of turns of richest humour. The author's faculty of describing nature is conspicuous throughout the book. The lyric ‘Early Spring” is a good example of this. There are many similarities of thought and diction between the new volume and Tennyson’s earlier works. Evidently ‘the crescent promise of the poet’s spirit hath not set, ancient founts of inspiration well thro’ all his fancy yet.” ‘The publication of the volume is not likely to add to or diminish the author's fame. The work shews the comprehensiveness of the Laureate's talents, and proves that the “sunset of life gives him mystical lore.’ Take Tennyson either in his earlier or later poems, and in any of his varying moods; you may indulge in the luxury of melancholy, may linger in a delicious regret for the past, or weave fine visions of the future. And still will sound through all, the words in the dialogue between the poet and Irene :— “The man remains, and whatsoe’er He wrought of good or brave Will mould him thro’ the cycle year That dawns behind the grave,” 45 JOHN HUNTER, HIS LIFE AND WORK. By J. W. ANNINGSON, L.R.C.P. March 80th, 1886. John Hunter was a great surgeon and anatomist who lived in the middle and latter part of the 18th century. No single man of the present day fills a similar position, for he must be regarded as Sir James Paget and Professor Huxley in combination—equal to the former as surgeon, and excelling the latter as philosophical anatomist. Of him Professor Owen says, “throughout his works we meet with general propositions in comparative anatomy, the like of which exist not in the writings of any of his contem- poraries or predecessors, save in those of Aristotle.” He was born at Long Calderwood, Lanarkshire, in February, 1728. Dr. Anningson touched upon the earlier part of his career, and then said that when he returned from Portugal, where he had been acting as Army Surgeon, he settled in London, adding to his income by giving lectures on surgery and practical anatomy. He was embarrassed and awkward as a Lecturer, and his ex- pressions for explaining his new views about disease were often so obscure as almost to be unintelligible. Occasionally he would say, *‘ You had better not write that observation down, for very likely I shall think differently next year.’’ In the investigation of scientific matters he took nothing for granted or second-hand. He worked out everything for himself although he might have heard about them in his brother’s lectures or from men whom he employed to read for him. This meant a busy, fully occupied life, so we find that Sir Astley Cooper—who with Abernethy and Clive was among the number of his pupils—says, ‘“‘ Mr. Hunter was, as Lavater said, a man who thought for himself, but he was more; he was the most industrious man that ever lived. He worked from six in the morning till twelve at night and some- times later. He would stand over the most minute object for three or four hours before breakfast, dissecting and exploring it. His vast museum—afterwards bought by the nation and now in charge of the College of Surgeons—is a proof of what industry can accomplish, for it contains matter for seven years investiga- tion.” Soon after his return he built a house at Earl’s Court, Brompton, where he kept a large number of animals under con- stant observation. Several anecdotes are told of his fearless mastery over animals. His familiarity with them almost cost him his life. He had however wonderful presence of mind in dealing with them. In 1767 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and soon formed a conversation party among his friends, who went to a coffee house to discuss matters after the formal meetings were over. In 1773 Hunter brought out in his course of surgical lectures many opinions peculiar to himself, 46 which excited much discussion. He was also awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society for his original researches in comparative anatomy, and about the same time he engaged an assistant named Cliff specially to work at his museum, which he designed to make illustrative of the whole animal series. ‘T'o show how his active mind turned all matters to good account it may be mentioned that in 1767 he ruptured the tendon achillis while dancing; this is the great tendon of the leg attached to the back of the heel. This accident led him to investigate the mode of repair of injured teadons. In 1783 he purchased a house in Leicester-square, where he removed and built a spacious museum costing £3,000. He was then at his best, full of energy both of body and mind, and in the next five years published many of his most important works. At this time also, assisted by Jenner, the discoverer of vaccination, he investigated the question of colour blindness. In July 1785 he made some ex- periments which led to one of the greatest improvements in surgery, and which more than any other will ever be associated with Hunter’s name; in fact it is now universally spoken of as the Hunterian operation for aneurism. It was the result of a splendid train of inductive reasoning, and illustrated how his mind amid all its investigations and speculation was intent upon practical ends. The experiments in the first instance were under- taken to determine the nature of the growth and casting off of the antlers of the deer. The antlers are confined to the male, and are deciduous, appearing at the end of each spring and falling in the autumn. During their growth, which is marvellously quick— the antlers of a full-grown stag being produced in ten weeks— there is a much greater supply of blood to the head, the vessels carrying it being greatly enlarged. At first the horns are soft, highly sensitive, and covered with a delicate hairy integument, called the velvet, which has many blood vessels. On attaining their full growth a ring of bone forms around the base of each horn and cuts off the blood; the velvet then shrivels and peels off, leaving the antlers ready to be used as weapons of war. In the autumn they are cast, to be reproduced in the following spring. The experiment Hunter made was to tie on a buck with a half-grown antler one of the carotid arteries. These arteries carry most of the blood going to the head. He found that the immediate effect was that the velvet became cold, and he debated with himself as to what could be the final effects. Would the horn be prematurely cast off, or would its growth only be so retarded that it would be retained much beyond the ordinary period? In a week or two, he had the animal examined again, and was greatly surprised to find that the velvet was quite warm, and that the antler was growing at about its natural rate. The question then suggested itself, had his operation been complete ? rsa ae ae 47 —had he succeeded in cutting off the greater part of the blood supply ? To determine this he had the buck killed, and made a dissection, when he found that the carotid artery was occluded, but that the anastomoses had enlarged to such an extent as to efficiently take up its work. The term anastomoses is used by anatomists to indicate the comparatively minute cross-branches which the larger arteries send from one to the other. He thus made it evident that, as he phrased it, ‘‘ under the stimulus of necessity, the small vessels could enlarge rapidly, so as to take the duty of the larger.” Hunter went on to make use of his newly acquired knowledge. In the December following he had in St. George’s Hospital a patient suffermg from popliteal aneu- rism—that is an aneurism situated in the bend behind the knee joint. An aneurism is a dilatation and a weakening of a large artery, which if left to itself usually ends in rupture of the blood vessel, or in mortification of the limb, both of which result in death. Upto John Hunter's time the only successful treatment had been either to amputate the limb or to cut into the aneurism and tie the vessel above and below, both very hazardous opera- tions. It oceurred to him, thinking over his antler experiment, why should not the artery be tied at a healthy point where the wound would speedily heal, and why should not a man’s anasto- mosing vessels dilate to keep up the circulation and growth of the limb? Carrying out the idea, he tied the artery in the middle of the thigh where it runs clear away from the diseased part. A few hours after the operation the leg was found to be rather higher in temperature than normally, and in six weeks the patient was able to leave the hospital cured, and with a sound limb. This surgical operation alone has saved hundreds of lives, and as Assalini, an Italian who first saw it performed, testifies, ‘‘ excited the greatest wonder, and awakened the atten- tion of all the surgeons in Europe.” About this time also he began to suffer from angina pectoris, a kind of spasm of the heart —attacks of which disease came on after any violent mental or bodily exercise. This gradually increased and on October 16th, 1798, proved fatal at St. George’s Hospital. His remains were in- terred in St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, when in March, 1854, chiefly through the instrumentality of Mr. Frank Buckland, they were re- moved to Abbot Islip’s Chapel in Westminster Abbey close to the resting place of Ben Jonson. After Hunter’s death, and in accord- ance with his will, his museum was offered to the nation. It con- tained over 13,000 specimens, and had cost him at least £70,000. When Pitt, then Prime Minister, was asked to purchase it, he exclaimed ‘‘ What! buy preparations! Why I have not money enough to purchase gun-powder,” so the matter stood over for some six years when Parliament voted £15,000 for the purpose. It was handed over to the care of the College of Surgeons in 48 trust for the national benefit. It is open to the public on certain days of the week, and a series of twenty-four lectures are annually delivered on comparative anatomy, illustrated by the preparations in the museum. The paper then alluded to Hunter’s disposition, habits, and the results of his life’s work. The men of his own day—-his colleagues and fellow workers— respected him as a master in anatomy and as a safe operator, but few grasped the leading idea of his biological work, and they looked on his researches among the lower forms of life as idle curiosity. What would they now think when this branch of science is carried on so very much further by the powerful modern microscopes. Even Sir Joseph Banks, P.R.S., in 1798 expressed his opinion that the museum ‘“‘was not an object of importance to the general study of natural history, or indeed to any branch of science except that of medicine.” So uncheered by contem- porary approbation or encouragement he worked on, establishing principles which have ever since been the foundation of zoologi- cal science, and especially of that branch of it called medicine. His speculations concerning the mystery of life he summed up as follows: ‘‘ Mere composition of matter does not give life, for a dead body has all the composition it ever had; life is a property we do not understand, we can only see the necessary steps lead- ing towards it.’ Among the matters which he touched upon was that of fossils, of which he made a classification on lines similar to those on which he had arranged living animals. From their nature and mode of distribution he concluded that there had been many and long-continued variations in the level of the land, and also in climate. It does not distinctly appear that he ever fairly grasped Darwin’s doctrine of the origin of species from variation. He had a glimmering of it, for we find him writing, «Tf we were to take a series of animals from the most impertect to the most perfect, we should probably find an imperfect animal corresponding to some stage of the most perfect.” Such then was the aim and work of the illustrious man who was the first to arrange the facts of comparative anatomy in a scientific man- ner, and who was the founder of the vastly improved art of surgery of the present day. A CHAT ABOUT HERALDRY. By ALFRED STRANGE, April 18th, 1886. In order to keep up the ‘spirit’ of the title of this Paper a syllabus was placed in the hands of the Members in which it was indicated that the present “chat” on ‘“ Heraldry’’ would vs * See So ‘ 49 be a chat “Introductory,” ‘‘ Historical,” ‘‘ Descriptive,” ‘“ Illus- trative,” and ‘“ Valedictory.”’ The subject was treated under three heads :— 1st—As to its origin and history. 2nd—The method by which it was reduced to a science, and 3rdly—An attempt was made to show how it might be useful, and worthy of the attention of that Club. After a brief introduction in which the writer hoped that at the close of his chat, Heraldry, although regarded as an obsolete study now, would be found a subject worthy of notice, the ‘“‘ Historical” side was introduced, ‘‘ Fabulous Heraldry” being first touched upon in relation to what might be termed ‘‘ Celest- ial,’ ‘‘ Patriarchal,” and ‘ Classival Heraldry.” All Terrestrial History begins with Eden, and remote heraldric retrospect should commence there, although its primitive deni- zens did not possess ‘‘cotes”’ at all; but there is an old 15th century book, known as the ‘“ Boke of S. Albans,” said to have been written by one Dame Verners, a strong-minded woman of her time, who, in quaint language solemnly declares that there existed ‘“‘Cote Armouris” in heaven. She saith “that there were 5 Orderis of Aungelis and now there stands but 4. Such are panoplied in “Cote Armouris’’ of Knowledge, encrowned full large with precious stones,” and then she goes on to tell of Lucifer the lost celestial noble who by fell transgression forfeited his place and sullied his armour. He left behind him the ‘“Gentills of the angels,”’ while he, chief of the celestial churls, found fitting place in hell! Respecting ‘“‘ Patriarchal”? Heraldry the paper went on to say ‘that the playful imagination of the quaint old Armourists of 250 years ago, induced others to enter the same arena. The example is contagious. Sir John Fenn seriously deduces the use of furs in Heraldry from the coats of skins made by the Creator for Adam and Eve after the fall. Rather a mistake this says Lower, ‘as coats of arms are marks of honour, but these have been generally understood to be badges of disgrace. There is much excuse for these ardent armourists after all, especially when as in the case of Patriarchal story in the Hebrew Script- ures the very texts seem to suggest pictorial emblems of tinctured symbol, and bristle with blazon. It is clear that some of these old Heraldrists, Guillim, and Morgan, and Fenn and others, were Bible readers, or we should not find them taking pains to associate the lives of Hebrew characters with the glow- ing trophies of their art. In alluding to “Classical” Heraldry students were reminded that in very ancient times warriors bore figures on their shields. Homer describes that of Agamemnon ornamented with the 50 Gorgon; Virgil says that the son of Hercules bore his father’s Hydra, while in the Greek Dramatists there are plenty of allusions which bear affinity to Heraldry. Reviewing the period of Medieval Heraldry and its introduction into England 1000 years ago from Germany, the gradual growth of the science was then spoken of. Continental Standards used in faction fight and feud were forerunners of the art. The dis- tinguishing Banner, Pennon and Banneret borne aloft at the head of contending combatants were necessary for securing the identity of the warriors who, ensconced in armour could not be otherwise known to friend or foe. It was not easy to recognise the most intimate acquaintance clothed from top to toe in metallic costume. Therefore the banner on which appeared the broidered device was essential. From banner’ to ‘shield’ was a very easy step, and helped to secure individual identification. The shield was a personal item of armour and borne by all fighting men, the Banner or Ensign, might, in the heat of conflict get separated from the Knight and his faithful companions, and then identity was imperilled. Hence arose the necessity for mounted cote or shield. This led to*the adoption of both, and so we get a stage nearer our science. Crusading times gave a mighty impulse to Heraldry, and it was married to Chivalry on the plains of Palestine. The symbol on the banners bore relation to the doughty deeds performed, and the record of illustrious achievements could be read in the blazon. Granted for faithful service and conspicuous prowess by grateful Commander and admiring King, the deft fingers of loyal ladies embroidered devices under which fathers and sons, brothers and lovers fought the proud Saracen, and when after conflict the travel-stained warrior returned to his island home, the pennons borne in war elicited the highest admiration for daring valour and military exploit. Reverently were they carried to sacred shrine and growing abbey, and a superstitious reverence not unmixed with religious homage unconsciously stole over the minds of worshippers as they gazed on the cherished trophy of sacred fight. No wonder that the owners of the Banners became influential and great, or that all the chief militaires adopted arms. At the time of Edward the First Cotes were worn over the armour and the ornamentation corresponded with the banner and shield, and subsequently with seals temp. Henry III, in whose reign the earliest roll of Arms extant, was prepared. This is still preserved in the College of Arms, and contains upwards of 200 “ cotes” properly emblazoned and described. It is prob- able that about this date the advancement of civilization had eradually the effect of reducing Heraldry to a system. This was but the elaboration of the elementary idea of one Henry the Fowler temp. 920, who applied Heraldry to tournaments, and a i ad 51 distinguished the combatants by mantles or livery, and narrow pieces of stuff of various colors, from which perhaps originated the pale, bend, &c., to be afterwards referred to. The French subsequently took up the idea and became the promoters of the art. In Henry III's time the hereditary principal of Heraldry comes into prominence, but it was reserved for a later English sovereign still, to foster and develope it. Richard II presided over the Augustan era of its history, for in his day England blossomed into a most gorgeous blazon, and prettily picturesque must the quaint old gable-roofed plantagenet towns have looxed in the days of pageantry and triumph. The parti-coloured cotes of knights and squires and caparisoned steeds, the variegated pen- nons on lance and banner pole,—-the larger banner borne nearer the commander—the emblazoned shields of warriors on horse and foot would make a ‘‘fayre and goodlie show” in summer sun and sheen, of which we in these prosier and less poetical days can have only a feeble idea. But Heraldric symbol and emblem were not: confined alone to gay and gallant cavalier, sacred fane and domestic hall had their ornamental escutcheons, the walls, roofs and pavements were crowded with the tinctured memorials of illustrious achievements. No wonder it had its influence on the age. The sight of the recognised token of a valourous chivalry stirred up the blood in medieval British veins, and helped to foster a not ignoble patriotism which lent a powerful aid to the formation of that national character which has led the Englishman never to know when he is beaten, and planted firmly in his breast that indomit- able pluck and enthusiasm that has carried the grand old flag to victory in every part of the globe, building up and consolidating an empire on which the sun never sets, the glorious heritage of all her sons, and the admiration and envy of the world! Richard IIT instituted the College of Arms, and the history of Blazon during succeeding reigns may be said to be that of the college. The descriptive portion of the paper dealt with the ‘‘ Escutch- eon,” its meaning, points and shape. ‘The Field,” its tinctures and markings, ‘ Divisions’ ‘Ordinaries’ ‘Crosses’ and ‘Charges,’ and entered into a full Definition of Principal Ordinaries, such as the ‘“‘ Chief,” ‘‘ Bend,” ‘‘ Fess,” ‘‘ Bar,” ‘‘ Chevron,” “ Dim- inutives,” ‘‘ Distinctions of Houses,” &c., while the illustrative section was explanative of the symbolical meaning of the em- blazoned “ cotes’’ read in the light of the tinctures and heraldric charges of the field. The heraldric colors are red, blue, green, purple, black, orange, and murrey, techninally called in the language of Blazon—gules, azure, vert, purpure, sable, tenne, and sanguine, such tinctures could be borne by gentlemen to the 52 rank of Baronet, those above them from Barons up to Dukes adopting precious stones corresponding to the colors enumerated, while more exalted personages leave things terrestrial and soar- ing to the celestial, impressed the planets for their colors and glisten in the efulgence of the heavenly bodies. A detailed description of many of the ordinaries led to attention being called in the paper to the splendid variety of crosses used in Blazon. There were at least 385 varieties, while many achievements borrowed their charges from the skies. The sun often occurs in the full blaze of orient splendour, anon luna hangs out her resplendent lamp. ‘The reasons for such symbols will readily suggest themselves. The crescent comes from the Saracen and was borne on christian shields because it was at one time the privilege of the vanquisher to transfer the emblem of the vanquished to his own cote. But not alone do the sideral heavens furnish full contingent to the science, the lower heavens where the elements hold sway, are laid under the law of armorial exaction. Hence we find ‘flames of fire,” ‘ thunderbolts,”’ ‘‘clouds” and rainbows.’ Next comes the animals, in long and arklike procession: Fabulous, hideous, mythological, hybrid, natural, wild and domestic, all are represented, and each hold pointed allusion to the bearer of the cote. The scene again changes and down the Heraldric vista come birds on the wing, hopping, vulning, crowing—to take up their places in tbe field of variegated tincture and array. Fishes too are borne in Arms, the finny tribes of ocean, lake, and river are laid under quest; am- phibious reptiles, insects are grouped with their representatives, and toads, adders, tortoises, scorpions, snails, grasshoppers, spiders, ants, and gadflies. It is singular, says Lower “ that such despised and noxious creatures should have been adopted as marks of honor.” And last in the animal kingdom as last in creation, but most excellent and noblest of all, man is enrolled to share in the honour, and take his place in heraldric glory and courtly show. But the tale is not yet complete. The whole arcana of created glory shares the privilege of heraldric appropriation. The celestial kingdom stands not alone. The vegetable world offers its verdant decoration in many a blazon, floral, horticultural, and arboricultural. The cereals too, in produce agricultural. A word or two on the Language of Heraldry should not be considered out of place in dealing with the subject from a popular point of view. Of the many examples of escutcheons connected with familiar local names a few were selected for illustration and were read as follows : Holden—Houlding. “ He beareth sable a fess between two chevrons ermine, betwixt the chevron in chief and the fesse a covered cup or.” A very natural enquiry would be what does this pompous language mean ? An heraldric student would answer—the tinctures, ordinaries and charges 53 are full of significance. The colors first show that the original bearer of the cote was below the rank of a peer. Its sombre and sable shade speaks of constancy, elevated doctrine and sorrow for loss of friends, the silver with which it is mounted indicates fame, the fess is a girdle of honour, the chevrons symbolise the foundation of families and the form- ation of houses, and the cup conveys the idea of generous hospitality or sacerdotal association. The family blazon of 2Mard attracts attention by the brightness of its display. ‘‘ He beareth ermine on two bars gules, three mantles or,” which may thus be interpreted. The ermine in the field is a type of honourable excellence, and the dual bar a token of estimation (Guillim) the gules on the silvery ermine stands for vigilance in service, while the apparently legless martlets are an instructive emblem, and when used as a ‘difference ’’ in the shield of a younger son of the house is intended to put them in mind “‘to trust to their wings of virtue and merit to raise themselves, and not to their legges having but little land to put their feet upon.” In this quaint way does Guillim slightly hint at the law of primogeniture which secures all the landed property and ancestral homes to the eldest son, while the younger ones are left out in the cold. Here followeth the blazon of Grant. “He beareth gules, a chevron engrailed, ermine between three eastern crowns, or,’ which mean- eth the gules and or a nature which betokeneth strength and boldness with hardness and desire to conquer. The three eastern crowns may bear allusion to ancestral crusading conflict, while the engrailed chevron speaks of the founding of houses and, generally considered, —to use the words of David,—“ a good quiverful.”’ Sable and silver in the Waddington cote are of similar import to the grouping of the Holden arms, the martlets and chevron being already described. The handsome surtout of the honourable clan of Zaucasters the Herald thus proclaims. Argent two bars gules, on a canton of the second two lions gardant, or. The make up predicates a watchful and faithful service by a warrior esteemed by his chief, there is honest boldness, the cantoned lion associates the blazon with regal greatness, the animal itself typifying strength and courage. Here followeth the blazon of Ray and it revealeth this armoury— “ Argent ona bend engrailed azure, between two griffins’ heads, erased, gules, an annulet between two crescents or,’’ may be thus translated— Courtesy and discretion are attributes of the bearer of this escutcheon. The original bearer had seen service on the tented field. He was animated by bold fearlessness, and the insignia were the reward of doughty deeds. The Scandinavian family name of agar or Segar is thus tricked by the Herald. ‘Or, a chevron between three mullets azure.” The field portrays elevation of mind but though also significant of riches, it points to a desire to hoard. The mullets are parts of a spur, and suggest service in Eastern fight, in that region where the Magi saw the wondrous star. Hill. “He beareth gules, two bars ermine in chief, a lion passant argent.” Powerful, with a confident perseverance, his banner floats over a nature which hastens to revenge a base deed born of envy, and who doubly girding himself for the task, will as the “passant’’ Lion reveals ‘‘pass on” to do it with a regal courage and dignity. @olbran. “He beareth azure, three levels or.” Leigh saith, that when blue and gold come into association there is a tendency “ to keep what we get.’’ If the bearer of this cote had this tendency then from the appearance of the levels as the charges, it may perhaps be taken as in- dicating that he did his “level best” to do so. But be this as it may azure is a loyal color, full of patriotism sincerity, and honesty, which the ‘‘level”’ is also a type of. 54 @ovey, “He beareth or, two bars and in chief three fleur de lys sable.” Here we read again constancy, firmness in friendship, devotion, unalterable imperishable love. The nature of the bearer of these arms would be one of undying affection, and would stick ‘closer than a brother.” The triple fleur-de-lys is a floral charge said to represent the lily. a Aloyy. “He beareth paly of eight or and argent.” At first sight these bearings look like a piece cut out of a tennis coat or football jersey, and it is significant that the striped patterns chosen by athletes of the 19th century bears resemblance to the fabrics of the mantles worn at jousts and tournaments in the days of chivalry. The united colors tell the tale of lofty inspiration and intellect, and signified when called into combination victory over all infidels, Turks, and Saracens. He who wore this blazon might expect to be fortunate in undertakings and score good “ points ”’ in life. Mlackemsie. “He beareth azure a buck’s head caboozed or, within a bordure embattled argent;’? and this is the blazon shown:— Simplicity combined with piety, intense satisfaction in the possession of wealth, ardent in devotion, and most faithful in love, the bordure signifies a step or degree (not a medical degree) and symbolises ambition to progress steadily in a course of cautious enterprise. The stag in heraldric charges is used sometimes as an emblem of beauty, but in the armoury before us as it is in the centre of the shield it may be regarded as fondness for the chase. Auninason. ‘He beareth sable, three scaling ladders bendwise argent.” The combination is suggestive of favour, and the charge an illustration of successful assault. Powerful in physique (no pun intended) conspicuous valour at a siege is symbolised, but this is not all, the ladder is a token of aspiration, proclaims an intention to make an effort to rise by steady and progressive steps, and plodding perseverance. The tinctures are of modest bearing, and breathe a spirit of sincerity and genuine sorrow for the loss of friends. Brummell, “He beareth party per pale ermine and azure three Griffins segreant, countercharged, one and two.” The ordinaries denote a Knight whom his King could trust, and the combination of tincture and fur indicates that this trust came from a loyal vigilance and zeal for the safety of his King. The Segreant ‘Griffins’? proclaim readiness and willingness for instant service in cheerful obedience to royal command. Having dealt with the subject of the right to bear arms, the equivocal character of many pedigrees, with a passing allusion to Mr. P. G. Hamerton’s contribution to the science, the paper concluded by referring to the very imperfect way in which only the fringe of the subject had been dealt with, affirming that in Heraldry there was much to interest the student of History, Archeology, and Genealogy. These three sciences were pre-eminently associ- ated with literature, and therefore the subject was worthy of an introduction to the Club. In connection with the earliest Society of Antiquarians established in this country, A.D. 1658, it was so highly appreciated as to be specially singled out as a study to be be pursued in connection with the object which the learned “ Schollers Students of Antiquity,” as they called themselves, had in view, and quaint references are made to it in their “ constitu- tion and lawes.”’ In Antiquarian and County Archeological Societies of later date the same example is pursued, and the SY Ve Soe y weeny ye es Ge LAA OTe tee ee ee i hak aie ae 55 information from the middle of the 17th century downwards that has been collected and tabulated, have become important documents. Special service has been done by these searchers among dry and dusty parchments, especially with regard to medieval history. The record of these stirring times is simply a record of blazon, and were it not for the story of the shields, there would be little else for the writer to draw his materials from, documentary data being so scarce. So sculptured shields on spandril and tomb, and ceiling, on pavement and window come to give their helping hand to compile the story of the national progress. In this connection Hamerton says ‘‘ Genealogy holds the lamp to Heraldry.’ The artist who would place on canvas the record of his country’s achievements must not ignore the existence and claims of the subject, and no architect would find a gothic creation of his brain complete, without summoning to his aid a tribute from the art. The archeologist is assisted by its study in penetrating the mysteries of the past, and through the cobwebs and dusty accumulation of the ages identifies remains by armorial sculpture on the tomb, and the moralist finds food for profound reflection in the study of Heraldry, as it is full of sug- gestive thoughts which may convey useful lessons and counsel. But whatever the Herald or Genealogist may do they cannot pre- vent the decay of families or their extinction. This is inevitable, and the moral is that this probationary term is best employed in weaving the virtuous fabric of a worthy coat, one, which though not embroidered on banner, nor inscribed on scroll, will ever remain painted on the memories of men, surrounded by the halo of an upright life. The illustrations comprised about 200 emblazoned shields descriptive of the science.of Heraldry, together with a number of painted escutcheons representing local names......... These were prepared by the Misses Strange, Contributions towards the exhibits were also generously made by Col. Thursby, J.P., (through Mr. F. J. Grant,) Mr. J. Langfield Ward, M.A., President of the Club; Mr. Thos, Preston, Mr. Lupton, Mr. W. Waddington. Mr. 8. P. Leather, and the Exors. of Mr. Edward Jeffery Strange of Tunbridge Wells. The exhibits remained on viewin the Council Chamber on the following Gay. THE ANCIENT EPIC AND DRAMA AS RE- PRODUCED IN ENGLISH POETRY. By the President—J. LANGFIELD WARD, M.A. September 28th, 1886. After a short comparison of the importance of Greek, of Roman, and of Hebrew literature, the subject was thus begun :—there are two or three different ways of dealing with my subject, each of which presents some advantages: I might take ancient literature, and giving an historical glance show how each author’s writings 56 are reproduced among us or how they have affected our composi- tions; or I might take Mnglish literature, and beginning with the earliest period, examine to what extent each period has been indebted to its acquaintance with ancient classics; or I might, and I shall prefer this course, divide my subject into its two de- partments, epic and dramatic, and see how much each depart- ment owes to its prototype in antiquity. In what way are we to know that an English poet has followed an ancient poet as his model ? What are to be our tests ? We may say that it 1s some similarity of subject combined with similarity of treatment or style which we must look for when we wish to ascertain whether an English work has been indebted to an ancient one for its inception, but there may be imitations in minuter particulars, such as in the use of peculiar expressions, strange and irregular arrangement of words, literal translations of idioms, and so forth. With these limitations and precautions we can enter more boldly upon the consideration of our subject. The first class of writings I shall take is one about which we need have no doubt: in translations of ancient authors the indebtedness is admitted : we have several successful attempts to reproduce in English the leading works of antiquity, and we have many unsuccessful attempts : in the case of the successful valuable accessions to our literature have been made: the translation has really become an English classic, as much as if the poem had been an original composition: and by a multiplicative process, we are in some instances indebted to one ancient work for several English works which may be really cherished as modern classics. From the famous poems of Homer we have derived several translations which have each of them admirers, which all have varied excel- lences, and which may yet be improved upon by translations still to come. ‘There are difficulties in translation as there are in other things: one class of translators rigidly adheres to the text, leaves no word of the original unrepresented in the reproduction, refuses to amplify or expand, scarcely ventures to alter the form of ex- pression; the other class desires to set forth the spirit of the original, to clothe the ancient in a modern vesture, does not shrink from a paraphrase when a passage seems difficult to re- produce tastefully, enlarges, contracts, according to the temper and feeling of the translator. Between these two classes there are intermediate grades, one man inclining more to the first class or the literal one, another leaning to the second or free one. And each of these grades has its admirers, so that it is impossible for any one to say that any translation is the most perfect: he can only express his own feelings on the matter. Now some would perhaps be inclined to say that the literal method was the legitimate method, that in exhibiting an ancient work to a modern reader no freedom of expansion or contraction was allow- 57 able: the original author’s words must find their equivalents in the translation: it seems a plausible argument, but the method is unworkable: sometimes for instance a single word of the original would require three or four words to represent it; many expressions can only be rendered by a corresponding English idiom and will not admit of being literally translated: contraction here becomes essential, otherwise the spirit, and movement, and ‘‘swing’’ we may venture to call it, of our author would be missed; the ornamental word must be replaced not by its exact equivalent but by one of a similar character. Again the exigences of rhyme and the propriety of rhythm require accommodating : some tenderness has to be shown to the difficulties that these introduce. To illustrate these remarks the reader took a passage from Homer, and gave the renderings of the passage by Pope and the late Lord Derby. Among the translations which readily occur to me, and which are sufficiently representative of that branch of our Literature, are those of Homer by Chapman, Pope, and Lord Derby. I have said something already of the compar- ative merits of these two last-named: the first is considered to portray the fire of the original more successfully than the others, his metre is more fitted for the Homeric rhythm than either the neat couplet of Pope or the iambic line of Lord Derby. Virgil has been translated by Dryden, and his Aineid by Conington and Morris: also the second and fourth books of the Mneid were rendered into English blank verse by the Earl of Surrey in Henry the Highth’s reign, this being the first instance of the employ- ment of blank verse in our literature. We still want readable poetical translations of the Greek plays, for none that I know of can be said to occupy such a position in our literature as to be reckoned a classic. Browning has translated one play at least, but the translation is so much more difficult to comprehend than the original, that the number of readers who can gather from the perusal what the original was like must be limited. Frere’s translation of the plays of Aristophanes is satisfactory, and gives a good idea of the vigour of the Greek comedian. There is room in several departments for ability in portraying in English dress the thoughts and expressions of the ancients to display itself. Leaving the department of translations, we come now to that of imitations or adaptations, and in accordance with the intention I expressed some time back, I shall take the two different classes of poetry in order. The highest form of poetry is the Epic, and the poems which are generally considered to exhibit epic poetry in its perfection are those which were first composed, and are known by the names of the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer. Whether these were originally complete poems, or whether they were a collection of poems put together by an energetic compiler, 58 we need not stay to discuss: the result at all events is the standard for all epics, and therefore the poem, which every-one who has aimed at this highest species of excellence in poetry, has taken for his model. The series of actions upon which the early poet or poets, known by the name of Homer, have founded the poem is the fighting about Troy: this was an event of supreme import- ance to the nations of Greece: it was an attempt to combine the different tribes in their little country to united action: it was a first contest of Europe against Asia; it recalled in its story the traditions of the leading families of Greece, for the sovereigns of each petty state could find in their ancestry one who fought under Agamemnon on the plains of windy Troy. So to the Greek nothing was so suitable for an epic or heroic poem as this Trojan war, and with one special phase of it the Iliad deals: it recounts the disasters occasioned by disunion among the Grecian chieftains and how reconciliation brought about success: the invocation of the poem *‘ Achilles’ wrath, to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumber’d, heavenly goddess, sing,”’ is the keynote of the whole, and while the story is the story of an action, important in its causes and effects, the mode in which it is told, the stateliness of style, the vigorous movement, the variety of incident, the simplicity of language, the delineation of character, the management of rhythm, all combine to make a perfect picture of what an epic should be. The Odyssey is a fitting sequel to the Iliad: here the story is of the final wanderings of Ulysses, a hero among the warriors about Troy, who having offended the gods, is condemned to be kept away from his native island: for ten years he has wandered, and at last his return is decided upon, and the man who has seen the cities of many nations, and known their manners, after suffering shipwreck, and after being miraculously preserved, arrives at his palace, and dispossesses those who had occupied his estates. Though partaking more of the nature of a romance than the first poem does, it cannot be denied that the name of epic must be assigned to this; in all qualities, except the importance of the action, it is fitly to be compared with the Iliad, and the moral is as excellent. The Tliad is the lesson or warning to states, the Odyssey is the lesson to the individual, that impiety meets with punishment, that repentance is acceptable, and that ‘he that endureth to the end the same shall be saved.”’ It gives the most charming pictures of home life in those distant ages and far-off climes, ‘‘love poetry of the heart and of the hearth, and the beauties of every-day human life.” Such are the two chief poems of antiquity which are given to our epic poets for imitation. The Latin poem, to which these two give the inspiration, is the Aineid, or the adventures of Aineas: reversing the procedure of the Greek poems, the 59 wanderings come first, and the fighting comes last: here too, the subject is one of stirring interest to a Roman, relating as it does to the origin of his race and famous city; the struggles of his ancestor ‘“‘in the doubtful war, before he won The Latidn realm, and built the destin’d town;”’ the establishment of his people in their newly-won land, and the origin of the line “‘ From whence the race of Alban fathers come, and the long glories of majestic Rome.” Now we have to see what use our English poets have made of these, how they have transplanted the three epics of antiquity and made them revive in a foreign soil, how they have adapted to a subject of their own choosing that mode of treating a great series of actions which the old poet has used, how the embellish- ment of the ancient poems is brought into conformity with modern usages, and how peculiarities and mannerisms are successfully wrought into the fabric of the English poem. That epic poem which occupies the leading place in our literature, a poem which perhaps is more an object of eulogy than study, but which has power in it sufficient to stamp its author as one of our foremost, is the Paradise Lost. It, like the Iliad, has a companion, the Paradise Regained, but I think I may say that the popularity of the two is by no means equal: the number of those who have read a Book of the latter, which the author con- sidered the superior work, is only a small percentage of the number of those who have read a Book of the former. Probably the reason for the neglect is the preponderance of dialogue over incident, which removes the poem somewhat from the epic to the dramatic in its style; but there are in it certain passages which have a true Homeric ring about them, such as that which describes the sumptuous banquet prepared for the temptation, and that in which the splendour of the imperial city, Rome, is delineated: these passages, though overloaded with allusions and cloying through the excessive learning displayed, are full of pictures such as Homer would love to throw before the minds of his hearers, full of poetical ornament, and full of the swiftness and terseness of Homeric eloquence. It is in the Paradise Lost, however, that the structure of the epic, as devised by Homer, is most faithfully preserved. There the majestic action is plainly set forth, and worked through its details to its completion in the loss of Eden. If Homer chose a subject which was likely to interest his countrymen and, by depicting to the men of his day the glories of their ancestors, to encourage them to equal deeds of valour, surely Milton might hope, in a deeply religious age, such as he had found himself in during his earlier life, to raise the thoughts of men to their higher interests, by selecting as his theme the sublime story of ‘man’s first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death 60 into the world, and all our woe.” For the full Homeric force, we must look more particularly to the first two Books: all is life and energy there: the language is vigorous, each word, and every sentence full of strength. But besides resemblance in general effect between Homer's and Milton’s work, the latter imitates the former in details; to take one instance, his similes are followed out like Homer’s to the completion of the picture, beyond the actual resemblance. Such expressions as ‘‘the ridges of grim war,’ “hyacinthine locks,” descriptive of Adam, ‘his tongue dropt manna,” and so on, are expressions which recall Homer: so do such ideas as that of the Supreme Power during a combat hanging forth his scales to decide to which party the victory shall turn ; ‘< In these he put two weights, The sequel each of parting and of fight; The latter quick upflew, and kicked the beam.” Thoroughly Homeric and Virgilian. But I must not stay so long over one poet that little time is left to the others. If I were asked what Jater author shows in his poems the closest approach to the style of Homer, I should answer Tennyson. Though his Idylls of the King cannot be reckoned an epic, because of their disconnection, yet one can fancy that the mind which devised them was capable of moulding these stories into as beautiful a story as the episodes of Homer conspire to frame. ‘l'ennyson shows the clearness of the ancient poet in his forcible passages : the reader’s mind is not called away by peculiarities and striking inversions from the narrative and the action. Possibly, like Milton, Tennyson had some vision of making King Arthur's story into an epic: the first portion published, his Morte d’Arthur, now incorporated in the Idylls, has a prologue which seems to indicate his meditations. With what an impetuous rush it opens ‘So all day long the noise of battle roll’d Among the mountains by the winter sea ; Until King Arthur’s table, man by man, Had fallen in Lyonnesse about their Lord, King Arthur.” and with what vigour is told the whole story of the passing of Arthur, the hurling away of his brand Excalibur, the appearance of the three queens with crowns of gold, and the parting from Sir Bedivere, the last of all his knights. Here are the bones and muscles of a heroic poem, and we must regret that our laureate did not feel in himself the divine impulse to make his name resound through ages as an undoubted epic poet: he has written epic poetry, but not an epic poem. Now I have dwelt long upon the epic and its transference into English: next I shall speak of a kind of poetry, which stands in close relationship to it, and is next in importance : the epic and the dramatic may be termed brother and sister —— oe * a —_- 61 in poetic art: what the epic tells in a straightforward, nar- rative form, varied by speeches of actors, the dramatic tells entirely by speeches. Though the drama flourished so marvellously in Athens, and such numerous specimens have come down to us, yet the aid it has given to us has been comparatively small. The rules with which it was fettered by ancient authority or by the love of uniformity, prevented it from being acceptable to our dramatists. We formed our own drama, thoroughly independent of what Greece or Rome could show us for examples, and through this independence it has come about that in dramatic works rest the pride and chief glory of our literature. What a nation can do for itself, without relying on external aid, it generally does best. In the drama, at least until the present time when complaints of borrowing from the French are rife, we have been least indebted, and have achieved accordingly the best results. But it might have been otherwise. In the great educational revival of the Tudor period, the ancient authors were brought forward for imitation, and among others the plays of the Athenian poets, and more partic- ularly those of the Roman Seneca, were taken as models. The best known early instance of this attempt to transplant is Gorboduc, or Ferrex and Porrex, a play written by Lord Buck- hurst, a statesman of some eminence in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. It was acted in 1561; its chief points of resem- blance to the ancient drama are 1stly—the introduction of the chorus, a body of men who take no part in the action, but help by narrating events intermediate between the scenes, and moral- izing on the conduct of the personages on the stage; 2ndly— the limited number of actors on the stage at one time; and 8rdly —the delaying of the action by too much philosophy. The story reminds us of one of the favorite themes of antiquity, the contest of two brothers for the throne: Ferrex and Porrex, two characters from our mythical British history, correspond to Hteocles and Polynices of Theban story: the brothers are both killed, as were the two in the Greek play. There are some passages which would bear quoting, but my purpose is not to show the beauties of the English play, but in what way it has borrowed from ancient authors. Plays like this might be scholarly enough, but were not likely to be popular, and the dawn of that period which gave us the plays of Shakspere, Jonson, Marlowe, and their comedies, was necessarily the signal for the withdrawal from the stage of all plays which chose to abide by old-fashioned restrictions. But Milton has shown us another example, better known than the one I have referred to; his Samson Agonistes is written in strict conformity with classical usage: here is the chorus again with its irregular versification, commenting on all that is shown on the stage; never are more than two speakers on the stage at once; and as the author him- 62 self points out in an introduction ‘the circumscription of time, wherein the whole drama begins and ends, is according to ancient rule, and best example, within the space of twenty-four hours.” The result is a play which, however successful as an attempt to show the characteristics of an ancient play, appears too stiff and formal for our stage; but Milton says he never intended it for the stage: it was for the study, and by its suitability to the study it must be judged. It is an action which is not to be acted, a play not to be played. Of the poets after Milton none is so deserving of notice, in respect to the matter we are discussing, as Shelley. Besides his rather diffuse translation of the Cyclops of Euripides, he pro- duced on the model of the Perse a drama entitled ‘“ Hellas,” referring to the attempts of the Greeks to regain their freedom. In the play of Auschylus, the victory of the ancient Greeks over the vast armies and fleets of the Persians is celebrated in triumphant war-song; in Shelley’s “ Hellas” there is the ex- pression of hope for a similar success of modern Greeks over the Turks. At the time the play was written the decision of the contest was in suspense; but the calamities announced by the messengers, and the prognostications of the dire results which were likely to follow, give an excellent representation of the power with which Aischylus describes the total destruction of the Persian fleet, and the unutterable hardships suffered in the retreat. Objection would no doubt be taken to one matter in which he has imitated the ancients: he gives to the messengers and subordinate actors the same exalted style of speech as to the principal speakers. Where the first object of Tragedy was to represent all with dignity, as was the custom at Athens, it became necessary to use the same style of language for whatever classes of characters were conversing; but our English fashion is correctly to represent the style of speech of the class to which the spokesman belongs, and high-toned poetical language for unpoetical messengers seems to us much out of place. In another drama of Shelley’s, the ‘‘ Prometheus Unbound,” we have a sequel to the Prometheus of Aischylus. The Greek play recounts the chaining of the hero to a rock for having in- fringed the rights of highest Zeus: he foretells the ultimate overthrow of his oppressor, and the English poet continues the story of his deliverance. From the torments of ‘“ Heaven’s winged hound ”’ and “‘ the tempest-walking Furies” the Titan is delivered by the victory of Demogorgon over Jupiter. Shelley does not fetter his powers by attempting to transfer to his writings the images, the sentiments, and the expressions, of his original. He grasps with firmness the mode of treating his subject, he flings before himself, as clearly as Auschylus would, the picture of the struggling hero, and he glories in the freedom achieved ee ae 2 re 63 after patient endurance as if the victory were his own. In words that recall the lines of the old poet, Shelley describes the benefits Prometheus conferred on men: the hero of the tragedy had done great things for men, whereof they rejoiced: he had been a pioneer in discovery; he had instructed mortals in the use of fire and taught them the beginnings of science. So Shelley depicts him in Act IT, sec. 4, line 87—94. The points I have selected in these two plays of Shelley for their resemblance to the Greek originals might be repeated if I took a modern play I have now in my mind. There is a strong resemblance between the genius of Shelley and that of Swin- burne ; with vivid imagination and impetuosity of language they combine the stateliness for a dialogue to be carried out on the model of an Athenian dialogue, and the lyrical skill required for reproducing the songs of the chorus, whose aid was so needful on the Greek stage. The play I am thinking of is the Erectheus, a story from olden times, treated by the poet much after the fashion that an Athenian tragedian would have presented it to the critical assemblage before whom he contended. It is not my intention to do more than allude to this play. I have taken two of the divisions, the two of chief importance in literature, the first of which is handed to us in complete shape: it comes to us, fully formed, as a temple or noble edifice, with outer walls strong and enduring, and with inner decorations amply adorned: he who would write an epic has to take Homer as his model; he who deviates from Homer deviates from the purity and accuracy of true epic poetry; the new architect must build the walls after the fashion that his predecessor has taught him; and the adorn- ments and the grace with which he meditates embellishing his work must not be out of accord with the decorations of the pro- totype. In the drama there is more scope for originality: there is an ancieut drama, and we pride ourselves on a modern drama, which is formed almost entirely independently of the ancient, and which we venture to compare with that ancient one. The essay concluded with a few general observations on the subject discussed. ITALY. By WILLIAM THOMPSON. October 5th, 1886. Mr. Thompson observed that he proposed to limit his remarks to cities and scenery of some portion of Italy as we know it to- day, to speak of her paintings and sculpture; and to glance at the ruins of Pompeii. Italy has within recent years made great 64 advancement in commercial prosperity, and in her imperial pos- ition, political importance and religious freedom. ‘The present King appears to be a man of great determination and sound judgment, and his rule is favourable to progress. The people generally are orderly, well-dressed, good looking and intelligent, and full of business energy. The peasant population have the character of being plodding and peaceful. The Italians are a people possessed of high capabilities, and dwell in a land rich in natural advantages. ‘They must, under proper government, take a front rank amongst European nations. Italy is always considered as the land of romance, of poetry and of dreams, the land of infinite charm and delight; and so it is. Would you refer to the dim past and call up visions of ancient glory and might, see her Coliseum and Forum, and look upon the speaking ruins of Pompeii; would you see something of her wealth and past grandeur, visit the rich and gorgeous churches which crowd her cities, abounding in costly mosaics, statuary, paintings, and precious stones; do you wish for scenes of rarest grandeur or surpassing beauty, see the snow ridges between Naples and Rome, or visit the North Italian lakes or the charming vicinage of Naples; do you wish to study art and revel in the masters of sculpture and painting, then wander through her galleries, museums and palaces ; do you want poetry and romance, then see if Venice cannot supply to the full every aspiration. Think of Shakespeare’s Moor and Merchant; look at the famed Rialto and the Bridge of Sighs, gaze at the renowned St. Mark’s, or silently steal along its canals bathed in moonlight, with sweetest music floating o’er its waters whilst a serene still- ness pervades everything, and then say whether Italy is not in truth pre-eminently attractive among the countries of the earth. Mr. Thompson stated that he had omitted Rome from his paper, as that city would furnish material for a whole evening, and that he would confine his attention to Naples, Florence, and Venice. Of Naples he observed that it was a busy and populous com- mercial centre, but it was not architecturally beautiful. The streets were narrow and the buildings crowded. Reference was made to the Museum, the Chiaja with its sea-wall and promenade along the beautiful bay, the Theatre San Carlos, the renowned Horses of Bronze, and the numerous churches. The vivacious Neapolitan was portrayed, and a picture drawn of the experi- ences of tourists at the hands of the ‘‘ vociferating Jehus”’ and others. The lottery business was extensively carried on in Naples, and was under Government patronage. The neighbourhood abounds in picturesque and interesting places, and a visit to Vesuvius was sketched. The view from the mountain was most bewitching, as from it could be seen the Bay with its wide sweep of blue waters and striking headlands, and the islands of Capri 65 and Ischia still and beautiful in the background. Sorrento is a lovely place reached by a most beautiful drive. A reference was also made to Baiz and its wonderful ruins. Pompeii was next described. The city, as now excavated, shews a marvellous state of preservation, and the streets, houses, shops and public build- ings are readily seen and traced. The public baths, Forum, theatre, amphitheatre, and other of its marvellous remains were touched upon, and a quotation from Bulwer Lytton’s “‘ Last Days of Pompeii,” appropriately concluded an entertaining account of the city ‘‘disinterred from its silent tomb.” Speaking of the beautiful situation of Florence, the paper quoted Coleridge, who addressed the fair city thus: ‘* O Florence, with the Tuscan fields and hills, Thy famous Arno, fed with all the rills, Thou brightest star of star bright Italy.” The.paper described her ancient palaces, teeming with priceless treasures of art; the celebrated bridge—Ponte Vecchio, with its burden of jewellers’ shops; the famed drive through woods of great beauty: and others of its characteristics. Venice was next noticed, and Mr. Thompson admitted that the charm and fascination of the spot had not been overdrawn. The centre of Venetian life is the square of St. Mark’s. It is the morning promenade, the afternoon lounge, and the evening ren- dezvous. The fascinating facade of St. Mark’s and the lofty and lovely Campanile, never failed to impress the visitor. After referring to the unique scenes afforded by the Canals, especially when the city is en féte, Mr. Thompson said that he had only been able to touch the mere fringe of his subject. One writer in speaking of his approach to Italy said, that as his ship neared the shores, his heart palpitated with enthusiasm, and that if our century was not so opposed to the manifestation of grand senti- ments he could fall down on his knees on the soiland kissit. It is not to be expected that everyone should feel the same homage and reverence, but we cannot be unmoved by all the grace and beauty of which Italy is possessed. A capital selection of views of places enumerated in the paper, shewn by means of the lantern, followed: and then the members inspected numerous photographs, paintings, and other works of art which, Mr. Thompson had collected, to illustrate the subject. 66 VISIT TO THE DEAD CITIES OF THE ZUYDER ZEE, FRIESLAND, AND THE STONE MONUMENTS OF THE DRENTHE. By J. OC. BRUMWELL, M.D., J.P. October 19th, 1886. Dr. Brumwell observed that the dead cities of which he had to speak were not so far away from the shores of England, nor did they require much digging to get at. They were in North Holland, by the edge of the Zuyder Zee. Formerly they were of great importance, but they were now deserted and decayed. One or two of them presented even now a cheerful appearance : though in most there was thorough stagnation. The Zuyder Zee, which might be called a Dead Sea, had a singular history. At one time it was only a moderate sized lake, supplied by the Amstel and surrounded by dense forests. After explaining the signification of the word ‘‘dam’’—a mound, found in the names of so many Dutch towns, the paper spoke of Brock as a celebrated show city, remarkable for the cleanliness of its streets, and the comfortable character of its houses. A strange sense of loneliness impressed the stranger as he entered Monikendam. The houses of its former merchant princes were empty. It hada magnificent Cathedral, old Town Hall with a pic- turesque Bell Tower: and one of its churches possessed the city’s chief object of interest—a remarkable clock. Edam was a great place for cheese ; and had many fine antiquated buildings. Here the Doctor referred to the characteristics of Dutch landscapes. They were not picturesque; there were no mountains, and but few hedges and lanes. Indeed there was but one type of land- scape, consisting of a long stretch of flat country, intersected by canals of various sizes. In the fields were black and white cows; there were the farmhouses, the church and town surrounded by trees. Along the banks of the canals the storks lazily wandered, and the inevitable windmill completed the scene. There was always one aspect of rural life, and that was according to the pattern sketched. Hoorn was the most interesting of all the cities. The sites of large docks are now filled with mud; and when he was there, a single barge was threading its way into port. The remains of spacious warehouses told of large commerce in days long gone by. Reference was made to the fierce action which took place off Hoorn on Oct. 11th, 1578, and the memorials of the Spanish and Dutch war of that period which the city treasures. The streets presented a most picturesque appearance, because of the variety of ornament in the quaint house fronts, and the endless 67 shape of the gables and fanlights. The city was once ten times as large as it is now, and there are still three cathedrals to adorn it. Then followed a description of the habits of the people, their food and mode of cooking, the love of tobacco and its use by children. An enormous number of persons suffered from spinal disease, and this was doubtless accounted for by the little milk that was consumed, and the indigestible character of the bread given to the children. Alkmaar had a celebrated weekly cheese fair: particulars of which were related. In the park stood a magnificent statue of Liberty. Alkmaar was the first city which threw off the Spanish yoke: and the statue commemorates the signal defeat of the Spaniards which they here experienced, and which proved the turning point in the campaign. The museum with its trophies, the cathedral, and the city gate were all de- seribed in turn. The growth of Amsterdam was undoubtedly one cause of the decay of these cities, though some day they might perhaps regain their ancient prosperity. Agriculture was spreading, exports increasing ; and there was evidence of stir in some of the cities, in the pulling down of old houses, and modern adaptations. Dr. Brumwell then spoke of Friesland, touching briefly upon its principal places Leeuwarden, Sneek, and Gréningen. The chief objects of interest were enumerated, and the results given of observations as to the pursuits, and enjoyments of the inhabitants. Next came the account of the visit to the province of Drenthe and its stone monuments. Drenthe was the Wales of Holland. It contained the remains of the earliest colonists of the country. At Assen, where it was noticeable that while the ornaments of the Friesland peasantry were of silver and gold, in other parts, the people of the Drenthe had no ornaments. There was a museum, full of priceless objects of interest. Many of them were relics of Roman and pre-historic times, obtained from neighbouring remains of antiquity. The paper then explained in detail the situation, and construction of the stone monuments for which the place is renowned. They are collections of huge stones,— dolmens—erected over the remains of famous men of former ages. There have been found beneath them bones, ornaments, and weapons of war. The cost of erecting the monuments must have been great: for the material had to be conveyed long dis- tances. Assen possesses several of these dolmens. They stand side by side, and are carefully kept by the Government, who purchased them. The age of these hoary relics is unknown. They have a title deed of antiquity which Stonehenge has not. Tacitus said that they were considered antiquities in his day. The Dutch say that they are the graves of Huns. Another memorial is known as the Forum, and is a large circular embank- ment, probably used as a place for the celebration of religious 68 rites. From the great number of stone monuments which exist, it is conjectured that the district was the Holy place of some pre- historic people. There were to be found similar remains on the shores of the Mediterranean, and on to India. Some of the hill tribes of India in our day erect similar piles. In coneluding, Dr. Brumwell said though Holland might be uninteresting in its natural features, yet in its history, in the manners and customs of its people, there was very much to interest and edify. Even in such landscapes as Holland pre- sented, there was often a delightful colour brightening up the scene, which was scarcely beaten elsewhere. Another element of pleasure in a visit to Holland was found in the friendly feeling entertained by the Dutch towards Englishmen; and this rendered travelling much more agreeable. An excellent series of lantern views served to illustrate the Lecture, and convey an idea of the features and peculiarities of the Dutch cities and districts named in the paper. ANIMAL PARASITISM. By A. E. TOVEY, D.Sc. October 26th, 1886. All animals are dependent on other animals, in varying degree The amount of dependence of one animal upon another which amounts to parasitism is not quite clear, and whatever definition of a parasite is adopted, the line marked will be somewhat arbitrary. Generally speaking an animal which obtains food and shelter from another without at once destroying the life of its host is called a parasite. As it is evident that all parasites are the descendants of free ancestors, the manner in which they have reached their present habitat, and the way in which they have become acclimatized to their present environment are interesting problems, especially as the surroundings of many parasites would prove immediately fatal to most free animals. Parasites are found in all the tissues and parts of animals from the skin to the marrow. Their presence was anciently accounted for by their being spontaneously generated in the places in which they are found. This explanation is no longer tenable, as in all cases which have been examined, parasites are found to adopt the usual means of reproduction. The eggs or embryos are generally very minute and very numer- ous, they are generally introduced into the body of the host with its food and reach the tissue they wish to inhabit, actively, by boring their way there, or passively, by being carried in the cir- 69 culating fluid. Parasites which have a habitat very different from what they enjoyed in a free state must have gradually arrived at the condition in which they can enjoy it. The more the condition varies from the normal free condition, the more the animal is modified to withstand and profit by that change of condition. The least modified are the ectoparasites who inhabit- ing the outside of animals, are surrounded by the same respiratory medium, and often catch their own prey, vot being parasites to the extent of feeding on their host, although many ectoparasites are mean enough to do that. One Cimex lenticularis, seems to have begun a semi-parasitic life within the last few centuries, its nearest relatives being vegetable feeders. Of endo parasites, parasites inhabiting the inside of their host, some, as Leptodera, are only occasionally parasitic, and as a rule they are recruited from the lower orders of the animal kingdom, these animals being more adaptable to change. The changes an animal which inhabits the interior cavity of another has to undergo when he first enters it from the surrounding medium are numerous—loss of light, change of temperature, and change of chemical com- position and specific gravity in its surrounding medium. These changes are sometimes however undergone by non-parasitic animals; and in the cases of parasites if the animal can once sustain the shock and get acclimatized, the condition is extremely favourable for its growth, and multiplication. It has no longer to avoid enemies, or to seek food, so all reason for exertion being lost, its limbs, and organs of sense, often atrophy, and its whole energy is given to the purely vegetative functions of increasing and multiplying; the result is a considerable retrogression from the free types in all the higher functions. In fact Parasitism is the reverse of the struggle of existence, the sharper the struggle the more vigorous, and energetic do the survivors tend to become, whilst in the too favourable circumstances of the endo parasite the animal tends to become dull, shapeless, and lazy, often scarcely distinguishable from a piece of lifeless jelly. Numerous illustrations of the various points were given, and diagrams lent by the authorities of Owens College, Manchester, were displayed. RECITAL: SHAKESPEARE’S “OTHELLO.” By J. G. FLEMING. November 2nd, 1886. For the convenience of members brief notes on the history of the piece and its production, together with an outline of the tragedy under its five Acts were provided. Mr. Fleming made a good selection of the parts for recital, and very successfully ren- 70 dered them. His delineation of the different characters revealed close study of the work: and the difficult task of giving an intelligent recital of Shakespeare’s ‘‘ Moor of Venice’’ was well fulfilled. HOW TO READ A MAP. By Captain H. SPENSER WIUKINSON, M.A. November 9th, 1886. In introducing the subject of his Lecture Captain Wilkinson observed that their country was very backward in geographical knowledge, and this he attributed largely to the want of good maps. There was a good deal of ignorance respecting the inform- ation contained in a properly constructed map, shewing the requisite features. The maps used by travellers conveyed more instruction than the ordinary reader imagined. The conven- tional signs, that is those representing railroads, &c., should first be understood. It was essential in the practice of Carto- graphy that clear methods be used for representing the undula- tions of the earth’s surface. This was done in two ways, by the effect of light and shade: and by horizontal lines which shewed the difference of elevation. Under the former plan there was the theory of Vertical Illumination, which assumed that flat surfaces are quite white, getting as much light as possible, and that absolute precipices get no light, and are therefore black. The degrees of slope were therefore represented by lines which gave a shade proportionate to the slope. Such maps are almost without exception used for military purposes. They shew how- ever only slope of ground, the height not being ascertainable. Sections can be drawn from carefully prepared maps such as the one-inch Ordnance Survey Map. A section of Pendle Hill was sketched on the board from one of these maps. A map of the Bosphorus, from surveys made by Field Marshal Moltke, in 1836 and 1837 was exhibited, as also a splendid example of engraving of the English Ordnance Survey—the Island of Arran ; both of which were on the principle of vertical illumination as shewn by lines. Other maps were also referred to. and a map of England, one of a series for an atlas being published in France, was described by Capt. Wilkinson as the most beautiful map yet produced. The direction of the slope and its gradations can also be shewn by tints, as exampled in a French map of Metz. These maps serve only to enable a person to form a rough estimate of the surface. The exact height must be given in figures, as it cannot be determined from the map. ‘The method of Oblique 71 Tilumination was then explained. French map-makers assumed that the light came from the left hand top-corner, and inserted the shaded parts accordingly. By such a procedure a beautiful map could be produced, but from it calculations were impracti- cable. Maps could be made which embraced both styles of illumination. In order to make a map by which precise and reliable data could be obtained Contour Lines were necessary. These were explained at length; the lecturer observing that they represented horizontal lines at various levels, such as one might suppose were tide marks. Each was of course an endless line, and they were usualiy made at regular intervals. That such maps admitted of absolute calculation was demonstrated by drawings on the black board. A Swiss map constructed on a scale of 3 inches to the mile, and said to be the most accurate map in the world was referred to as manifesting the principle. Contour maps do not give pictures, and if the lines are cut as they must necessarily be in maps of limited parts of the surface, information is wanting. Shading is now combined with contours, so that the shape of ground is more readily apparent to the eye. By means of contour lines sections can be drawn, slopes can be read off, exact heights can be fixed, and it can be ascertained whether any one point is visible from any other point. Captain Wilkinson had a large and valuable collection of military and other maps to illustrate his lecture, and ample use was made of the black board. In subsequent remarks, Captain Wilkinson said that in the one inch Ordnance Map the contours were not at regular intervals ; and this was undoubtedly an objection. The English Govern- ment had not produced any map less than one inch to the mile. The six Northern counties had been completed on the scale of six inches to a mile. The work was only being slowly prosecuted, and this fact, as well as the dearth of authoritative charts, was due to the meagre amount voted for Survey purposes. FLORIDA. By H. W. PARKINSON. November 16th, 1886. After noting the geographical position of Florida, and making a brief reference to its history, Mr. Parkinson said that the general impression derived from the works issued from the Immigration Bureau at Tallahassee was that Florida was little short of paradise, that it was almost a wilderness of wild flowers, cabbage palms, stately rivers, fertile lands, silver springs and 72 tropical fruits, and that the road to a big competence was assured to every man who had the courage to forsake the exhausted agricultural resources and the overburdened labour market of his own country and turn the virgin sod and cultivate the succulent orange of Florida. Further, the scenery is depicted in a most extravagant style, and statements were made which appeared only intended to entrap the guileless emigrant. Mr. Parkinson then divided his subject into seven parts, and treated successively on the climate and health of Florida, its soil, the value of land, the cultivation of orange and market garden products, its social aspect, general appearance, and some of the results which have attended emigration thereto. The temperature during the day in summer averaged, in the inland towns, 92 degrees in the shade, though the mornings and evenings were always cool. Occasionally frost was experienced. The chief complaints from which residents suffered were chills and fever, ague and swamp fever, and as a rule Englishmen only enjoyed moderate health in the State. The greater part of Florida was nothing but a long, flat sandbank, besprinkled with what was known as ham- mock lands. Most of the land could not, in the opinion of the lecturer, ever be productive. The South is occupied for hundreds of square miles by swamps. Lake Okeechobee was a mournful picture of watery desolation, and the whole of the extreme South was practically uninhabited, and likely to remain so. The value of land was then discussed, and Mr. Parkinson pointed out the care and knowledge that were required in purchasing land in a suitable locality. A considerable part of the paper was naturally devoted to the question of orange cultivation. It required a more absolute knowledge of the country, soil and climate, to start a successful grove than to run a large English farm. The mode of cultivation and the various risks which the planter had to run were pointed out, special mention being made of the dis- astrous work which a single night’s frost might accomplish in an orange grove. It was usually seven to ten years before the orange plant yielded anything like fruit when planted from the seed. In some few cases considerable profits were made from the cultivation of tomatoes, spring beans, cucumbers, &c., but unless the grower places his products in the Northern markets at the proper time, it is likely that he may suffer serious loss. Cotton and Indian corn are cultivated, and some sugar. Mr. Parkinson adverted to the schemes for jdraining and reclaiming the vast body of marshy land which forms the Southern portion, and for the construction of railways through this country; but his opinion was that the enterprises were of an impracticable nature. The atmosphere in those parts is heavy with pestilence and fever-breeding malaria, arising from the rank decayed vege- table deposits of centuries exposed to the direct influence of a 73 semi-tropical sun. The people were noted for thei generous hospitality, and considerable culture was found amongst the better families of the State. The experience, however, which an emigrant from England had to undergo were excessively trying, such a great gulf existing between life in England and life in Florida. Mr. Parkinson graphically depicted the fortune of a newly arrived settler, and would-be orange grower and family ; pointing out how often it arose that, after two or three years, when the fortune had been exhausted, the settler sold out at any price, and returned to his old home. Some remarks upon the fauna of Florida were added, and the beautiful pictures - occasionally afforded by river and forest scenery described, Florida was a suitable place where the rich fugitive from the North could pass a pleasant winter, but it was not the place for men who had been used to lives of ease and comfort, unless they were prepared to renounce both. The English emigrant could take it for granted that if any great bargains were to be had in the shape of valuable lands or partly-matured groves, they would find a native purchaser long before they came under his notice. He believed that with industry and sufficient capital a grove could be made to yield a good return, but there were more failures than successes, on account of the great vicissitudes which attended orange growing. He concluded by saying he had said sufficient to show that emigration to Florida had at least a dark side as well as a bright one. His object had been to divest Florida of some of its artificial flowers, and if he could be the means of indirectly preventing that ill-advised emigration which had so often resulted in suffering and remorse, he was indeed fully repaid. A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE ON THE SUGGESTED RELATION OF THE POET SPENSER TO THE CLAN OF SPENSERS IN THE BURNLEY DISTRICT. By W. A. ABRAM, F.R.H.S., J.P. November 29th, 1886. Mr. Abram said his object was to throw light on the most obscure period of the life of one of our most distinguished poets. It was a subject interesting to the inhabitants of the Burnley district, for if it could be proved that Spenser resided in that part of Lancashire, then that portion of Lancashire would become classic ground, just as Warwickshire is in its connection with 74 Shakespere, Dumfrieshire with Burns, and Westmoreland with Wordsworth. The first person to take up the subject was Mr. F.C. Spenser, of Halifax. He had searched the Burnley Church registers, and found the name of Edmund Spenser very common. In a letter to the Gentleman's Magazine, dated 5th July, 1842, Mr. Spenser published the result of his inquiries. These might be summed up thus :—First, that the poet was remotely connected with the Spencers of Althorp. He stated that he had additional proof of this beyond what he adduced, but, owing probably to his sudden death shortly afterwards, these facts were not forth- coming. Second, that Spenser resided with his relatives in the North of England. There was a tradition in the Travers family - who migrated from Laneashire to Iveland, that Sarah, the sister of the poet (wife of a Travers), came from Lancashire. Third, that it was probable the poet’s father was born at Spenser’s, in Filly Close (near the confluence of the Calder with Pendle Water below Royle.) Myr. F.C. Spenser also drew attention to the fact that the Spensers of Hurstwood invariably spelt their name with an § in the second syllable, whereas the common spelling was with a C. He considered the coincidence of the oft-recurring names of Edmund and Lawrence in the local family of Spensers most important. He also drew attention to the descriptions of the mountain region given in the Shepherd’s Calendar, and to the fact that the Poet’s tomb in Westminster Abbey was erected at the cost of Ann Clifford, of Skipton Castle, a few miles away from Hurstwood. Other writers have followed in the wake of Mr. F. C. Spenser. Professor Craik in 1848 wrote on the sub- ject, and the Rey. W. Gaskell in his lecture on the Lancashire dialect said it was interesting to notice in the Shepherd's Calendar the large number of Lancashire words used. Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, in a communication to the Historic Society, in 1867, enumerated a large number of words and idioms contained in the Calendar which were peculiar to North-Kast Lancashire. He analysed the language, idioms, and descriptions of the hilly country in which the scenes of the Shepherd’s Calendar were laid, and arrived at the conclusion that Spenser must have been familiar with the dialect spoken on these borderlands of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and that the scenery around Cliviger Pass and Pendle Forest was such as Spenser roamed amidst and depicted in his poetry. Mr. Wilkinson in the latter years of his life held it as one of the settled facts of literary biography that Kdmund Spenser lived with his paternal relations at Hurstwood and Filly Close. About a dozen years ago Mr. R. B. Knowles, a Royal Com- missioner on Historical Manuscripts, visited Towneley Hall for the purpose of inspecting the extremely curious and extensive collection of Towneley Manuscripts, and afterwards described them in the fourth report of the Commission. One of them 75 interested him very much; it was a book of the assets and dig- bursements of the trustees of Robert Nowell, Esquire, of the Read Nowells, and here he alighted upon the name of Edmund Spenser, the Prince of Poets of his age. The document shows that while at the Merchant Taylors’ School, in London, Spenser received money for the purchase of black cloth that he might attend the funeral of Robert Nowell, and in April, 1569, he had a gift of money from the Nowell trust on proceeding from school to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. Again in 1570 and 1571 he had other pecuniary gifts from the same source whilst at the univer- sity, and the MS. records gifts out of the trust to no fewer than fourteen members of the clan of Spensers in the Burnley district, one of whom was named Edmund and another Lawrence. It was not surprising, after Mr. I’. C. Spenser’s researches, the confirmatory illustrations of Mr. T. T. Wilkinson as to the poet’s use of the Northern English dialect, and the occurrence of Edmund Spenser’s name as the protege of Dean Nowell, that the supposition that the poet was of a Lancashire family at length became an assumption by writers of biographical notices on Spenser, and of magazine articles on his personal history. Dean Church, writing in 1879, said it seemed likely that the scenery round the home of the Spensers in North-East Lanca- shire gave form and character to the poet’s first considerable work. Dr. Grosart, of Blackburn, had recently published a life of Spenser which it was not too much to say far surpassed all pre- vious memoirs. He had elaborated all the information that could be procured on the subject; had thrown light on many points in dispute, as, for example, the poet’s parentage; and had given new facts concerning Spenser’s last days. He supplies the genealogy of the Spensers of Hurstwood from the middle of the 16th to the end of the 17th century, when Hurstwood passed from the possession of the family. He adopts Mr. Wilkingon’s theory as to the poet’s acquaintance with the Lancashire dialect, and gives instances of several hundred words from ‘“‘ The Faerie Queene,’ and other works of the poet which echo the peculiar sounds of our dialect. Dryden spoke of Spenser as a master of the Northern dialect. Dr. Grosart maintains that the scenery and natural features of this district are in perfect keeping with passages in the Shepherd’s Calendar; it was a land of mountain and moor, the inhabitants were imaginative and superstitious, entirely cut off from the people of the South, and these defiles were supposed to be peopled with witches. There were two fresh bits of evidence which Dr. Grosart had been able to produce. The first was that the printer of Edmund Spenser’s first book was either a Lancashire man born or a member of a Lancashire family—Hugh Singleton, a name derived from the names of two 76 townships near Preston. This Hugh Singleton took an apprentice from Preston the same year that the Shepherd’s Calendar was going through the press. The second and most important item of Dr. Grosart’s additional evidence respecting the poet’s where- abouts after he left the University, was a letter of Gabriel Harvey to his friend Edmund Spenser. Spenser had published certain literary efforts of Harvey’s under the title of ‘“ Devices,’’ which he had never intended should be given to the world. Harvey wrote “To be short, [ would to God that all the ill-favoured copies of my now prostituted ‘ Devices’ were buried a great deal deeper in the centre of the earth than the high altitude of the middle region of the very English Alpes in your shier.’”’ Dr. Grosart regarded this evidence as being conclusive in favour of the Burnley and Pendle district as the home of the Spenser family, though not the actual place of the poet’s birth in consequence of his father’s migration to London. Dr. Grosart thought he dis- cerned in the descriptive passages of the ‘‘ Shepherd’s Calendar ”’ what he called ‘local touches,” wherein scenery, natural char- acteristics and social customs which had existed in these secluded tracts of the country were faithfully depicted. Mr. Abram proceeded to speak of the criticism which Dr. Grosart’s work elicited, and of the prejudice amongst Manchester writers against the suggestion that Spenser had any connection with this district. Burnley or Blackburn seemed to be looked upon as quite outside the sphere of literary culture or production. Could any good thing come out of Nazareth? Could any great poet by any possibility spring from a race of dull, stolid yeomen, vegetating in the wilds of Cliviger and Pendle Forest? If Spenser’s family could only have been connected with the vicinity of Manchester, evidence of his local relationship might have had a much better chance of being sifted and justly dealt with by the superior intelligences of Cottonopolis. Yet Burnley men were conceited enough to think that the district which in that Elizabethan age yielded the most learned and able of the English Protestant champions in the controversy with Rome— Dr. Wm. Whitaker—and Dr. Alexander Nowell, Dean of St. Paul’s, one of the most eminent founders of the National Church, might also give to the world a poet of the first magnitude such as Edmund Spenser was. In the Palatine Note Book, at the end of 1884, was printed a series of papers arising out of Dr. Grosart’s work. Miss Caroline Fishwick had no hesitation in disagreeing with every inference of Dr. Grosart, who answered her very effectually. Mr. Abram also replying to Miss Fishwick had showed the vast number of Lanca- shire dialect words to be found in Spenser’s works, Miss Fishwick refusing to admit any of these except such as happened to be found in the publications of the Dialect Society. Miss Fishwick 17 wrote slightingly of everything not demonstrable by absolute proof; apparently she had never heard of circumstantial evidence. Dr. Grosart perhaps paid more attention to Miss Fishwick than her hasty and ill-considered strictures merited. Miss Fishwick said that by the ‘‘ middle region of our Alps,” Cumberland might be meant, but that county is not connected in any way with the poet. The description of Spenser’s country given by Harvey, “the high hills of our English Alps,” was in keeping with that of the old writers. The monk Richard of Cirencester, states that the first station on the Roman road from Ribchester to York was on the Pennine Alps—the chain of mountains between Lancashire and Yorkshire. Camden, in the Britannia, has a similar expres- sion; and Thoresby, the antiquary, on a visit to Towneley in 1702, spoke of Pendle as ‘one of the most prominent hills of our Appenine.” Dr. Whitaker speaks of the British Appenine between the Mersey and the Bay of Morecambe. It will thus be seen that from the 14th to the 19th century these hills have been called the ‘‘ English Appenine” or ‘‘ Pennine Alps.”” Take the map showing the mountains of the Pennine chain, extending from Derbyshire to Cross Fell, and it will be found that Boulsworth and Pendle are exactly in the middle. When Harvey said middle he meant middle. How could the situation have been more clearly indicated? Here was the settlement of the clan of Spensers, several of them with the same Christian name as well as the same surname as the poet. The name Spenser was just as plentiful here as it was scarce everywhere else on these ranges. Mr. Abram mentioned that two years ago he re-read nearly the whole of Spenser’s poetry in quest of North-country phrases and dialect words, and at the same time kept a look-out for allusions to localities in the North of England where he dwelt, which might afford a hint or clue as to the place of his ancestral habitation. It was rather disappointing that Spenser never wrote about Lancashire, Pendle Forest, Burnley or any other localities likely to have been his youthful haunts. In the fourth book of the Faerie Queene, Spenser writes of the rivers of England; he mentions the Thames, Severn, and other rivers in the south; he names also those in the east and in mid- England; the Tyne, the Tweed, and the Eden are referred to; many rivers in Yorkshire are enumerated, but the name of only one Lancashire river is given -— “« These after came the stony shallow Lone, That to old Loncaster his name doth lend.” Why is there no mention of the Ribble, the Hodder, and the Mersey? It could not be the exigency of rhyme; it must have been that the poet, the courtier of Queen Bess, was ashamed to declare his acquaintance and kinship with tlie uncouth yeomen of the Lancashire wilds. The omission rather suggested a designed 78: avoidance than want of knowledge of the district or inability to weave his phrases so as to bring in Lancashire names. Spenser had his weaknesses, and one was that when he had attained literary eminence and associated with men of distinction on equal terms he was ashamed probably to declare his origin or to let it be known or spoken of in courtly circles that his progenitors were simply yeomen farmers in an out-of-the-way nook of Lan- cashire, whose inhabitants were believed to be particularly un- mannerly and boorish. Having noticed the several ascertained facts respecting the Poet Spenser adduced hitherto by those who are convinced that his family belonged to the local clan of Spensers, in support of that conclusion, Mr. Abram referred as follows to one other matter not yet touched upon by previous investigators, which might be found to have some bearing upon this inquiry:—It has been known in Burnley for some years that a relic of the Spensers of Hurstwood was preserved at Ormerod House. Mr. Angelo Wad- dington mentioned in a note to the last edition of Whitaker's History of Whalley that ‘*a curious carved panel is preserved at Ormerod, containing the arms of ‘ ‘‘ Spenser de Hurstwood.’” I had long wished to see this panel, thinking it might tell us some- thing respecting the status of that family and its relation to other families of Spensers which bore arms. By the favour of Col. Thursby, this heraldic panel is here this evening for inspection. It will be observed that the panel is of good age, and that the elaborate carving of the shield, supporting figure, and enclosing arch is of the character seen on panels of cabinets and other oaken furniture of the seventeenth century. I wish that I could give you the history of the carving, but I do not know it. Pre- sumably it was taken from Spenser’s House at Hurstwood when the house and land passed to the Ormerods, unless it has formed one of a series of carved armorial bearings of local gentry con- nected with the Ormerods made for the ornamentation of a panelled room in the old Hall of Ormerod. The panel is without date, but belongs, I think, to the time of James I, or Charles I. Before it was executed, some member of the Spensers of Hurst- wood must have borne these arms, by grant from Heralds’ College. Edmund Spenser of Hurstwood, son of John, both contemporary with the poet, may have used the arms. He was warden of Burnley Church in 1617 and later, and a man of mark in his time. However that may be, there is the shield of arms of Spensers of Hurstwood to bear its witness. And what is it? Why, that the present arms of Spencers of Althorp in North- amptonshire, and these ancient arms of Spenser of Hurstwood, are nearly identical. Nor is this a thing to be looked for, unless the two families had branched from the same stock. The arms of the nearest family of Spencers—the Spencers of Bramley 79 Grange near Sheffield, were totally different. The arms on this panel are—Quarterly argent and gules, on the 2nd and 3rd quarters a frette or, over all a bend sable, charged with three flewrs-de-lis, argent.”’ The Althorp Spencers’ arms are the same, except that the charge on the bend is three escallops in place of three fleurs- de-lis. On this point of armorial bearings, it is significant that Mr. Longstaffe, a well-known antiquary, prints in the Palatine Note Book, from Glover’s Ordinary of Arms, the registered armorial bearings of eight families of Spencers, not one of which has the least correspondence with these arms of Spensers of Hurstwood and Spencers of Althorp, with one exception, those of Wm. Spencer, gent., who lived near Pickering, in Yorkshire, temp. Elizubeth, which have a partial resemblance. This armorial item helps to explain a circumstance which has been an enigma of the poet’s personality, and a stumbling-block to the acceptance of the idea that he belonged to the Spenser clan in this district. Edmund Spenser has inscribed upon his pages the fact that two daughters of Sir John Spencer of Althorp had allowed him to regard himself as their kinsman; and objectors have asked how the poet could be related both to the Spencers of Althorp and to the Hurstwood family. Spenser dedicated three of his poems to Sir John Spencer’s three daughters, and in these dedications he speaks of ‘name and kindred’s sake,” of ‘‘some private bands of affinitie which it hath pleased your ladyship to acknow- ledge ;*’ and of ‘the noble familie of which I meanest boast myself to be.” Upon this I remark, that if the poet had been clearly and nearly related to Spencers of Althorp, the relation- ship would not have been hinted at so vaguely and indefinitely. Expressions such as I have cited assert but little; at any rate do not point to more than distant and conjectural kinship. I agree with Mr. Longstaffe’s opinion that ‘‘any legitimate relationship of the poet to the Althorp line can, at the best, have only been very remote. His language too is guarded, and perhaps does not amount to much more than the questionable certificates of unproved relationship in order to prove a dubious pedigree or to justify a differenced coat.’’ ‘A differenced coat’’—well, we have still to find out whether Spenser bore as his arms a ‘“‘ differ- enced coat” from those of Spencer of Althorp, but in this panel from Ormerod you have indubitable proof that the Hurstwood Spensers did bear such a “differenced coat,” obtained, we will suppose, by virtue of their claim to have descended from a remote common ancestor. The fair deduction is that Edmund Spenser and the Hurstwood Spensers stood on the same footing of tradi- tional distant relationship to the Spencers of Althorp. So far the objection melts away. But there is another allusion of the poet to his ancestral location which has mystified what should have been plain. In his Prothalamiwm Spenser speaks in one stanza 80 of **merry London” as his ‘“ most kindly nurse,” that ‘to him gave his life’s first native source,’ and adds— “Though from another place I take my name, A house of ancient fame.” This couplet has by some commentators been considered to mean that Spenser was a direct descendant of a ‘‘ house of ancient fame,” and that his name was derived from the “ place” which was the ancient seat of that famous house. A little thought may satisfy us that this is not the right reading. Spenser took a poet’s liberty with words, and for his convenience in versifying stated something which was not fact or even sense. His name could not be derived both from a place and from a family; but ‘* house of ancient fame” must here apply to a family, not a place. The surname ‘‘Spenser” is not a place-name, but denotes an office, and in its unclipped original form was “ Dispensator,”’ a steward. ‘De Spenser” is absurd, because the prefix ‘‘ de” suggests locality. On the panel you read ‘“ Spenser de Hurst- wood,” not ‘* De Spenser de Hurstwood.” Dismiss then the idea that Spenser in writing ‘‘from another place I take my name”’ referred to any place whatever. His name was that of a ‘‘ house of ancient fame ’’—a race of old renown. What house ? Spencers of Althorp, some say. Not so. Whatever they may be now, 800 years since that family was certainly not ‘‘ of ancient fame.” John Spencer of Althorp, who was knighted, was the first of his branch of any importance. Even he is spoken of by an old writer as an obscure upstart, who by scheming got his daughters wedded to men of title. Spenser, I hold, was not thinking of a set of Spencers who a couple of generations earlier were but small gentry in Warwickshire, but of the great old baronial house of the Despensers who flourished centuries before, one of the last of whom was Hugh Despenser the younger, the erstwhile powerful favourite of Edward the Second, The great Despensers of the Edwardian age were connected with Yorkshire, and, to say the least, the Hurstwood Spensers, obscure as they are, were as likely to have come of that stock as the Wormleighton and Althorp Spencers. Mr. Longstaff thinks, as I do, that the quoted lines probably “allude to a supposed descent from the Despensers.” The first of the ‘‘ Le Spensers” settled at Hurstwood was very likely a retainer of the De Lacys of Pontefract and Clitheroe, who received from his lord the Hurstwood freehold as the reward of his good service, and, if so, he probably came out of Yorkshire. Final- ly, let me adduce something which may go far to clinch this part of the argument. The Spencers of Althorp claimed descent from the Barons Despensers. The Poet Spenser alleged that he took his name from that ancient house of fame. The arms of Spenser of Hurstwood were those of Spencer of Althorp with an heraldic difference. The other fact I have to add is that the arms of the 81 original ennobled house le Despenser were—Quarterly, argent and gules, in the 2nd and 8rd quarters a fret vr, over all a hend sable. Thus both the Hurstwood and Althorp Spensers’ arms were just those of the great Barons Despenser, with each a difference to denote distinct branches. The Hurstwood Spensers had not copied the arms of the Althorp branch, but had gone to the original source, and had been authorised to bear a ‘differenced coat’ from that of their assumed ancestors, the Despensers, the veritable ‘“‘ house of ancient fame” of the Poet’s oft-misread lines. Summing up the data submitted and examined, Mr. Abram in closing said that ‘“‘the main points in the inquiry respecting the family connections of the Poet Spenser which had been estab- lished and remained unconfuted are the following:—1. That Edmund Spenser as a lad at Merchant Taylors’ School, and as a scholar at Cambridge, received several gratuities from the Bene- faction of Robert Nowell, at the hands of the Trustees, Dean Nowell and John Towneley, «all three of them natives of this district, who also gave money to hundreds of persons in North- East Lancashire, including a number of Spensers. 2. That Spenser, on leaving his University, went to live with relatives in the North of England, staying with them a year or more; that this place of abode was a region of high hills and wooded glens ; that it was situated ‘‘in the middle region of the English Alps,” answering to the Pennine range, the “backbone of England,” the watershed of Lancashire, Yorkshire and one side of Westmoreland ; and that his friend Gabriel Harvey wrote of the country in which these mountains were as Spenser’s shire. 3. That there existed at that time (1577) a clan of Spensers inhabiting several homesteads in the very midst of the Pennine Alps of England; that amongst them the names of Edmund and Lawrence, borne by the poet, his son and two or three descend- ants, were remarkably common. That the best of these local families of Spensers were of the rank of lesser gentry, cultivating their own freehold ; bearing arms; and that they spelt their sur- name as the poet did, Spenser, not Spencer. 4. That the first poem published by Spenser—the Shepherd’s Calendar—written during his sojourn in this northern region, was an allegory grounded upon pastoral life amid rugged, gloomy, wood-skirted moorlands ; that it was written in provincial Knglish—the lan- guage of the country-folk—and contains a vast number of dialect words, which, though archaic in some instances, bear a general resemblance as close, and closer, to the modern folk-speech of the farmers and peasantry of North-East Lancashire than to that of any other district of England, or even of Lancashire; and that his later works contain some hundreds of such words. 5. That not merely the physical features and scenery of this region but its social characteristics in the 16th century, notably the super. 82 stitions of the natives, the belief in witchcraft, charms, spells, omens and the like, are strikingly imaged in some of the colloquies of the Shepherd’s Calendar. 6. That the printer selected to print the Shepherd’s Calendar, a poem so full of dialect-phrases and words that a south-country printer would have been puzzled with the MS., was a Lancashire man—Hugh Singleton—who had settled in London, and who took an apprentice from Preston, in this county, in the year of its publication. 7. That the Poet Spenser was encouraged by the ladies of the family of Sir John Spencer, of Althorp, to avow ‘‘ some bands of affinity’ with that house, though no near kinship was either claimed or ever made out; that the Poet boasted to have derived his name from ‘“‘a house of ancient fame;’’ in accordance with this, that the Spensers of Hurstwood (whom we have various grounds for believing were nearly related to the Poet) and the Spencers of Althorp alike bore the arms of the ancient house of the Barons Despenser, in each case with an heraldic difference indicating distinct younger branches, surviving the extinction of the chief line. That these facts at once explain Spenser’s ambiguous allusions to his family traditions, and reconcile them with the supposition that the Spensers of Hurstwood and Pendle Forest were his nearest kith and kin.” During the evening, Mr. Abram exhibited some exceedingly precious documentary relics of the poet’s family after his untimely death, which Dr. Grosart (who is editing them as a portion of the Lismore Papers, in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire, at Lismore Castle, co. Cork) courteously permitted him to show. They were, two letters of the wife of Spenser, then his widow, and married to Sir Robert Tinte, to her cousin the ‘‘ Great Earl” of Cork ; two letters of the poet’s and her son, Peregrine Spenser, to the same nobleman; and one letter by the celebrated Sir Walter Ralegh, all of them originals. Mr. F. J. Grant exhibited (by the kindness of Col. Thursby) the curious and finely-carved old oaken panel, preserved at Ormerod House, bearing the arms of ‘‘ Spenser de Hurstwood,’’ executed probably in the early part of the 17th century; also a deed of release, dated 1661, by Edmund Spenser, of Hurstwood, to Oliver Ormerod, of the tenement of Foxstones, near Hurstwood. Dr. Dean exhibited a copy, in good preservation and handsomely bound, of the first edition of the faerie Queene printed in 1590, in the author’s life- time. The members of the club and ladies present were greatly interested in these vestiges of the poet, his wife and son, and of the local Spensers. 83 SOCIAL LIGHTS AND SHADOWS. By the Rev. W. WILLEY. November 30th, 1886. Mr. Willey said that the attention given to social questions— to the conditions of social happiness, is a conspicuous and salu- tary feature of our time. The association formed by Lord Brougham for the promotion of social science helped to quicken interest in social subjects. It disseminated the idea that there is such a thing as a Science of Society, and that society will never reach the ideal of well-being until that science is fairly grasped and obeyed. We are not content to live in the random, happy-go-lucky way of our grandfathers. We are less than ever disposed to accept the doctrine of Alexander Pope :— Spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite, One truth is clear :—WHATEVER Is, 18 RIGHT. Least of all are we inclined to rest satisfied with the prospect of post-mortem bliss. To prepare for the future life by neglecting the present is preparing for manhood by neglecting youth. Our age has acquired a vivid perception of this truth—hence the greater interest attached to all social questions, and the greater avidity with which every kind of social amelioration is sought for. At the outset of any consideration of the social problem, we are confronted by the theory that in our own country, at any rate, there are a great many more people than there ought to be. The Rey. Thomas Malthus gave his name to a doctrine of terror in regard to over-population, which men like Mill have, with more or less emphasis, confirmed. Ruskin thinks that England would be far better worth living in if the population were some two- thirds less than itis. ‘‘ Leave this hypocritical prating about the masses,” says Emerson. ‘‘ The masses are rude, lame, un- made, pernicious in their demands and influence. The worst of charity is that the lives you are asked to preserve are not worth preserving. Masses! The calamity is the masses. I do not wish any mass at all, but honest men only, lovely, sweet, ac- complished women only, and no shovel-handed, narrow-brained, gin-drinking million at all. Away with this hurrah of masses ! If Government knew how, I should like to see it check, not multiply, the population.”” But Government does not know how, and neither Malthus, Mill, nor Emerson gives it a morsel of practical instruction upon the point. The only real means of checking the population is by massacre or cannibalism. If such plans are impracticable, the only alternative is to square our accounts with things as they are. The millions exist; the thirty millions of this little scrap of geography called England; the four or five millions of our bloated metropolis, the seventy and odd thousands of Burnley. It is of no use to say that they are 84 in the way, that they are “ not worth preserving,” that if half of them were despatched it would be all the better for those who remained. Any man who says that of another is as much entitled to have it said of himself; and if we all fostered such a misanthropic mood, there would be nothing to choose between England and Zululand. Here we all are like a crowd on board a ship, and here we remain until we reach the port that we happen to be booked for. If we are too many the ship-owners are to blame, not the passengers; but as we are actually on board, the question presses equally upon us all—how can we make the voyage pleasant and safe to one another? Mr. Froude declaims against the evils which accompany the aggregation of human beings in manufacturing towns. Healthy men and women, he says, ‘sound in soul and limb can be bred and reared only in the exercise of plough and spade, in the free air and sunshine, with country enjoyments and amusements, never amidst foul drains and smoke-blacks and the eternal clank of machinery.” That may be true, but who could have kept the country in such Arcadian simplicity and salubrity? What could have insured that the population should have remained peasantry for ever. Mr. Froude proceeds to say ‘“‘ Here with no sight of a green field, with no knowledge of flowers or forest, the blue heavens themselves dirtied with soot, amidst objects all mean and hideous, with no entertainment but the music-hall, no pleasure but in the drink shop, hundreds of thousands of English children are now growing up into men and women.” Froude’s remedy for these miseries is not massacre but emigra- tion, but emigration will not perceptibly diminish social pressure. The first necessity resting upon us is to recognise facts. To complain is as useless as itis unphilosophical. The problem is to live and let live; not merely to tolerate one another, but to recognise one another’s right to existence—to endure the inevit- able jostling good humouredly, and to get all the comfort we ean out of the situation compatible with a full consideration for the comfort of our comrades in travel. This problem has not yet been solved. The shady side of the case is, that many do not wish to solve it, and that many more are determined to solve it in a selfish sense. Many amongst our own city crowds are pas- sively or actively selfish; many are indifferent; many are reckless and defiant. There are dismal localities in every large town, usually known as the “slums.” Humanity is to be found there in its grimmest aspects, and men and women hustle and trample one another to death—mental death, social death, physical death. There are “slums” in Burnley; not of course to the depth and hideousness often reached in London, Liverpool or Glasgow. Drunkards, idlers, spendthrifts, and other social anarchists are to be found in Burnley as elsewhere, but the present condition of Cy ae iin 85 trade and labour here makes it possible for all who are able and willing to work to earn their bread. We have no large class who have to spend life in cruel toil, for a pittance which means nothing but slow starvation. Burnley however has its elements and aspects of misery. It has its proportion of unhappy humanity resulting from vices which are in their turn the effect of causes common to every town where the staple industry requires masses of people to spend life amidst what Froude calls ‘‘the eternal clank of machinery.” Happy is it for those who find relief in wholesome enjoyments ; in books, music, science, art, domestic amenities, elevating social fellowship, invigorating recreations, communion with nature. Many however have no taste for such rational felicity, but give way to vicious indulgences which end in social ruin. All the dark aspects of our social life however, are not confined to the “slums.” John Bright once said that rowdyism was not the monopoly of a class, but was to be found amongst the nobility and gentry as well as amongst the sans-culottes ; just as according to Thackeray, snobbishness is sometimes seen under crowns and coronets as well as under sou’westers and billy-cocks. That doctrine is true. Some of the ugliest intellectual and moral types may be seen in the gilded saloons of what is called “ high life.” But all vice is not above-board and defiant. Many a family has its exterior bathed in sunshine while there is deep eruel unknown gloom within. Often the unknown becomes known. We need no demon’s wand to unroof the privacy of Society. Society unroofs itself. The newspaper is our Asmodeus, and turns our homes inside out. The law-courts explore every mousehole. Lawyers, doctors and clergymen have the equivocal privilege of being the confidants of their fellow-citizens and are thus in the way of seeing the shadows that darken many a seemingly sunny life. They see the unhappiness of the happy, the vices of the virtuous, the sins of saints, the follies of wise men. Now if the view of the shady side of social life is apt to strike us with a panic of pessimism, the shock will be mitigated by a consideration of what lies on the other side of the hedge. There are many signs around us of happy import and augury. One of them is the universal readiness to discuss with unfettered freedom—freedom not fettered by either tradition, prescription, fear or self-interest, all questions bearing on social well-being. Certain men, as we know, are bent upon the total destruction of society as it stands. Such bear the varying names of Nihilism, Anarchism, Socialism. Discussion now must be unrestrained. The ultimate effect of such freedom may be calculated. Abuses, errors, fallacies, superstitions, tyrannies of cant and custom, un- fair advantages and privileges will be swept away. Amongst other things, the reciprocal obligations of wealth and poverty, 86 capital and labour will be made more clear. Many of our most excruciating social sores spring from our blundering modes of distributing the prodigious wealth which our intelligence and industry are able to produce. The consequences of our econ- omical clumsiness are seen in the inflated fortunes at one end of the scale and the emaciated fortunes at the other. The con- trasts between extreme opulence and extreme indigence are the standing scandal of the country. The danger of the situation is mitigated by charity. But the effect of charity is at best but negative. It does not heal. Without venturing into the perilous labyrinths of Political Economy, we may nevertheless urge that the real remedy for the evil is not charity but equity ; and equity does not mean the forcible transference of specie from one man’s pocket to another. It means that all who produce wealth should enter into an equitable partnership with one another, and that the fund which they all combine to produce should be divided amongst them according to the share which each man had in producing it. That equitable distribution of acquired wealth would save society the scandal of excess in either direction. Society will not be safe until every industrious citizen shall dis- tinctly feel that he has something to lose, and that therefore his interests are on the side of public order. ‘‘ It is not to be expect- ed,” says John Stuart Mill, “that the division of the human race into two hereditary classes, employers and employed can be permanently maintained.” Such a division is not favourable to the development of the highest character. The employer naturally wants the greatest amount of work at the least cost; and the employed naturally schemes to give the minimum of service for the maximum of pay. The bright aspect of the case is that both sides are willing to argue and inquire, and to accept the results of investigation and of logic. What reciprocal concessions may be needful will become more and more apparent, and the governing good-will of the community will ensure that they shall be made. In the meantime, until justice is ready, charity may continue its consoling services. There is a considerable percent- age of philanthropic activity in the highest degree enlightened and noble. In almost every town in the kingdom there are ‘certain persons, cultured and opulent, who, instead of lounging through life in luxurious self-indulgence spend it in laborious philanthropic experiments. In London, little colonies of refined people have deliberately taken up their abode in the vicinity of the “slums ’’ for the sole purpose of purifying by personal influ- ence the barbarism around them. When the cholera visited Marseilles a year or tivo since, there was an inglorious stampede of the respectable inhabitants, but when that scourge last visited London, numbers of ladies and gentlemen from the West End betook themselves to the Hast Hnd where the pestilence was Se Ae) ace 87 hottest, to breathe, if possible, a little amelioration into the lot of the stricken poor. It is this spirit among the rich and cul- tured classes of our country which has enabled us to maintain our equilibrium during periods when other nations have been wrapped in revolutionary flames. Beneath all our social jangles and wrangles, the rich trust the poor and the poor trust the rich. Hence our national quietude in stormy times and the little pro- gress which social incendiaries are able to make amongst our populations. The great changes which are coming upon us will not be great catastrophes but salutary re-arrangements of the social programme accomplishei by the good-will of all. Change for the sake of development we have ceased to dread. The whole universe is in perpetual flux and evolution. Human institutions and constitutions must follow the common destiny. What we have. to do is to control the process, so that it may be our servant rather than our master, and bring with it increase of happiness to every class and every man. Look which way we will there are pleasant lights upon the social scene. We have entered upon the era of common-sense. Since Adam Smith proclaimed his great discovery that labour is the true source of all wealth, the stigma upon toil and trade has been rapidly passing away. Industry cannot be ignoble if the whole social body is absolutely dependent upon it for every atom of worldly good. An idle life cannot be an ideal life. Rank must be admitted to be only the ‘‘ouinea’s stamp,” and the man the gold. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow, The rest is all but leather and prunello. A few weeks since Lord Dufferin distributed prizes at a Hindu College and took the opportunity of informing a throng of Pun- jaub chiefs that the time had gone by when they could hold their places in life on the mere ground of their hereditary rank. They must have culture, capacity and character in addition or they would go to the wall. This advancing perception of the worth of “worth,” this acknowledgment of the supremacy of merit, has dissipated the awe of authority which used to be one of the most potent of all the sentimental forces in society. In the home, the school, the workshop, the church, the senate, the law-court, the only authority which commands real homage is that which” Lord Dufferin eulogises—the authority of knowledge and char- acter. A lady can now haye her own way to a degree which would have made our ancestors stand aghast. Society used to hold some surly fiction about masculine superiority, and subjected the female moiety of the nation to a variety of unchivalrous dis- abilities. Women have not achieved their complete emancipation yet, but they are making good headway. It is worth noting that women now have greater opportunities than ever: in maintaining a respected position in society otherwise than by marriage. In our day the relative numbers of the two sexes are such that 88 thousands of women must live a celibate life. Society is there- fore deeply interested in every successful effort to render the single state really and truly a state of ‘‘ single blessedness.” All the offices of the empire, and all honourable professions and occupations ought to be equally accessible to all citizens on the sole ground of character and competency, and with no more regard to sex than to the colour of the eyes. If equality of skill secures equality of reward in a life of mechanical labour as it does in towns like ours, the same principle should be acted upon through the whole gamut of professions from the loom to the throne. What is the ideal state of Society? It is that state when every member of it shall have scope for the best use and the highest development of all his powers—physical, intellectual and moral. That is the only state which deserves to be described as happy, and it is the mark at which all the energies of the commonwealth—legislation, education, science, art and charity should aim. Two things are needful in order to gain it; first to beget within the mind of the individual citizen healthy tastes and worthy aspirations; secondly, to surround him with con- ditions which shall allow the reasonable gratification of his desires and the healthy exercise of all his faculties. As a rule, each citizen needs the helping hand of the whole community. The community can do for us all that the rich man can do for himself. It can, for instance, enforce the known conditions of health, and even create them. It can enact that dwelling-houses shall be built with due regard to the laws of hygiene and decency. It can provide means for promoting public cleanliness and re- creation. It can furnish the opportunity and the apparatus of education to every individual. The library, the museum, the gallery of art, the laboratory, the sanatorium, the gymnasium, baths and wash-houses, parks and playgrounds—all which the community can procure for us all, and when it does so, everyone of us may call himself rich ; and society approaches the ideal of happiness. Society is engaged in a tug of war. All evil elements —unfair laws, corrupt conventions, false philosophies and a legion of selfish passions and interests are on one side ;—truth, virtue, duty, nature, science and the soul of religion are on the ‘ther. Sometimes the one force has prevailed, sometimes the other. Our social history is made up of the oscillations of victory between them. Without exposing one’s self to the charge of an imbecile optimism, one may venture to interpret the omens of the time as in harmony with our best hopes for the country. We may all share in the patriotic cry of the poet :— Oh make Thou us, thro’ centuries long, In peace secure, in justice strong. Around our gift of freedom draw The safeguards of Thy righteous law ; And—cast in some Diviner mould, Let the new cycle shame the old! 89 PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS IN THE NEIGH- BOURHOOD OF BURNLEY. By W. A. WADDINGTON and TATTERSALL WILKINSON, December 7th, 1886. Mr. Waddington said :—The last time it was my privilege to read a paper before this Club it was upon a kindred subject, illustrated by references to those wondrous earth mounds, and huge stone monuments, which speak so eloquently of a pre- historic past in the ‘‘ New World.” It was at that time apparent that the Ethnologist, the Philologist and the Archeologist were working hand in hand in the solution of some of the most deeply interesting problems of modern science. All the underlying chronicles of pre-historic and unhistoric peoples are being brought to light and it is to be expected that much that .has been con- sidered shadowy and empirical will shortly be settled upon a solid foundation as auxiliary scientific truth. The field of obser- vation extends from the extreme west of the old, to the extreme east of the new world—from the Mediterranean to the Steppes of Northern Asia. With nearly all the world under contribution it might not be expected that Lancashire would be distinguished by its offerings of the “treasures of oblivion,’ but it may yet happen that no summary of pre-historic evidences will be con- sidered complete which omits a reference to the ancient defences and sepulchral mounds of the Burnley Moors. We have around us many pre-historic remains so full of mystery that in discussing them there would be ample verge for the most rampant specula- tion. It is well to remember, however, that it is exactly this wild empiricism which has brought so much deserved ridicule upon the study of archeology, and we should do well to ‘ wait upon events.” The attitude befitting all archeologists at the present time is one of quiet but vigilant observation of modern researches and we should do well to consider our local pre-historic evidences in this spirit. We propose to deal to-night with but one section of our subject: it is certainly the most interesting and the one upon which we can speak with greater freedom, viz. ‘** The ancient methods of Sepulture.”” It will be known to most if not all of you that certain discoveries of interments dating beyond the Roman Conquest have been made on the moors above Worsthorne. Cinerary urns and cists have been found, and we are here to-night as a Scientific Club to consider the value of these ‘‘finds” and to recognise the services of Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson, our new Honorary member, whose years of observa- tion have been now rewarded by substantial results, In inviting 90 your attention to this subject it is not intended to impose the lugubrious suggestion in the lines—‘ Let’s talk of graves, of worms, of epitaphs,”’ but the broader, brighter and more inspiring suggestion in the lines of Volney ‘‘In the inmost recesses of sepulchres I will invoke the spirit which gave splendour to states and glory to their people.” Many may ask ‘‘Can these rude mounds yield all this?” It is not too much to say that they have told us almost all that we know of the origin, the dispersal and the general history of the most ancient peoples. Scme of them long departed are without a mark except in the chambers of their dead. There are many of these memorials which for ages have stood in ‘‘ silent uncommunicative majesty” that have now yielded up their secrets and speak plainly of the state of the primitive arts, of the manners and customs, the habits of life, the social relationships, the physical characteristics and even of the early phases of religion amongst the people who reared them. Though mounds and cairns, cists and urns are scattered all over the face of the earth, we shall so far as possible confine our attention to the antiquities of the British Isles. Professor Hvans says “there is not a tittle of evidence to show that Paleolithic man practised any form of sepulture”—they appear to have absolutely neglected their dead. This is the more to be believed as the Eskimos, their truest modern representatives, still display an indifference in disposing of the departed which greatly shocks the European mind. In the Neolithic Age, however, we have eyidences of a very careful bestowal of human remains—and a good many of the long barrows and chambered barrows found in our country are assigned to this period. Some antiquarians con- tend that many of the chambers of the dead both in natural caves and artificial barrows were formerly abodes of the living—this can be proved by reference again to the customs of the Eskimos and it must strike everyone how closely the winter huts of these people resemble our own Chambered Barrows. ‘They are to be entered only on the hands and knees, are oblong in form, are divided into sleeping compartments, and the Greenlander sleeps in the same attitude as the crouching skeletons discovered in our Long Barrows. The same ring of stones will also be found propping up the sides, which we see in many cases marking the outer margin of the earth mounds in our own country. With respect to the theory of Dual Sepulture, it may be said that on the summit of some of these barrows are dolmens or rude stone chambers, and upon the ground-level others, called ‘surface dolmens,” having no apparent connection with the chambers within the mounds. ‘Che question is, ‘‘ What is the meaning of this free standing type of dolmen?’’ They are co- existent with the neolithic barrows, and we may be sure, says Dr. Evans, that primitive man never set a stone on end without 91 some very practical utilitarian object. After careful study Dr. Evans believes that ‘the galleried chambers of the interior of the oldest barrows present phenomena, as regards the bones con- tained in them, only reconcileable with the hypothesis that they had lost their fleshy covering and had become partially detached from their ligaments previous to interment. In other words that these galleried chambers of the dead are to be regarded as ossuaries, and it is necessary to suppose that the body was first temporarily disposed of in such a way as to allow of the prelim- inary decay of the flesh before the final interment of the bones.” The practice of temporarily disposing of the dead is continued in many parts of the globe to this day. This part of the subject is capable of great expansion, but it will be sufficient to allude to the customs in parts of Australia and the South Sea Islands and amongst the American Indians and Patagonians of placing the bodies in trees, upon wooden platforms, or in surface graves of wood and bark, until the fleshy parts should have become detached, when the bones are solemnly collected and buried or taken to the homes of the living. This process is expedited by exposing the bodies in a net to the fishes or on a platform to the vultures, asin the case of Guiana and the Parsees of India respectively. Weare also reminded of the present burial customs of the Capucini to be seen in Rome and Palermo. Many other illustrations could be given to shew that the actual burial of the body is delayed for long periods. Some of the American Indians have annual ‘Festivals of the Dead” when the second -actual interments take place. Canon Greenway says in China the body is preserved unburied until a propitious time arrives, the time of which is discovered by the priests, who perform certain incanta- tions. As may be imagined, the burial of a rich person is often long delayed. Probably the ghastly ceremony of great men “lying in state’ is a survival of these customs—as the family mausoleum is the lineal descendant of the Neolithic barrows. But to return to the Surface Dolmen. There seems to be little doubt that it was in the literal sense a sarcophagus, the Greek word meaning ‘‘the flesh eater.” Leaving this special feature in relation to the chambered barrows, there is no doubt that the long barrows supply the earliest sepulchral evidence of man’s existence in these islands. No metal is found in the long bar- rows, but flint and stone implements are common. The pro- cesses of inhumation or cremation were both carried on during this period side by side, the latter process being supposed to mark a later epoch. The most valuable evidence gathered from these barrows is that of the existence of a long-headed people, supposed to be of the Iberic race. Speaking of the two sets of erania from the long barrow and the round barrow which followed, Professor Rolleston says they are as “ distinct and sharply con- 92 trasted as any other set of skulls which it is possible to put along- side each other from ancient or modern times.’ The people of the round barrows—the bronze-using Celts—were a much larger and stronger race in every respect, and probably drove out those of the long barrow. Both types are, however, found at times in the same mounds, and though they were natural foes it is likely that the skulls intermarried. We can now refer directly to the recent discoveries in our own neighbourhood. On the summit of a hill called Black Hambledon, about a mile from Worsthorne, there was at one time a barrow 60 feet diameter. Some three or four weeks ago excavations were made, and in the exact centre five or six large stones were discovered of the upper layer of mill- stone-grit evidently brought from a neighbouring hill, and though somewhat disarranged it is clear that they have formed the cist which is usual in or near the centre of these barrows. The size of the cist would justify the belief that it contained a crouched body. The presence of numbers of flint chippings about the grave and the general character of the cist point to a very early date, but until further evidence is forthcoming it would be rash to assign it to the stone period. Flint chippings were much used about the graves of this period. They are, however, met with in the bronze period, and, in some cases, in Roman interments ; so that too much stress cannot be laid on this evidence. This mound, along with a smaller one some 30 yards to the S.W., has evidently been disturbed, but we have here probably the earliest evidence of an ancient burial yet discovered in this locality, and I believe the stone cist is the only one yet brought to light. We now turn to a small valley about a mile to the north called Hell Clough. On the ridges in the neighbourhood of this clough, Mr. Studley Martin and Mr. Spencer had ex- cavated within a stone circle and discovered three cinerary urns in 1842 and 1843, and in 1854 urns were discovered at Catlow. In consequence of these discoveries local archzologists have for some years bad a strong desire to conduct further investigations. And now, mainly through the efforts of Mr. Wilkinson, sub- stantial successes have followed. Within a stone circle of about seven yards in diameter excavations were made some short time ago, and after considerable labour a cinerary urn was discovered 14 ins. in height by 114 ins. diameter. It was without ornament and was made of baked clay. It occupied a small excavation in the ground about 18 ins. square, which had a margin of thin stones and was covered with a cap stone. The mound formed over the urn consisted of stones and earth. The urn was found to contain human bones, pronounced to be the bones of a young woman of about 18 years, and those of a child of three or four years. One of the bones however was not human. The space in the excavation outside the urn was filled in with charcoal and ss wer 93 bones, and, most important of all, within the urn was a bronze pin. Towards the outer edge of the circle was found a compact mass of charcoal and small bones, quite independent of central burial. Some distance to the north-east was another circle of seven stones. A short time ago this circle was examined and it is pretty certain that an amount of zeal was brought to bear, untempered with discretion, and the urn was doubtless broken through careless investigation. However, large masses of char- coal and bones have been found, along with large quantities of burnt clay and a flint axe. This forms a simple statement of the nature of the recent finds in this clough. The circular mounds or barrows seem to have been surrounded by a group of seven stones. ‘This circumstance is probably accidental, the stones forming the circles in this country vary greatly in num- bers and disposition, and sometimes they are connected with walls of loose masonry. It has been supposed that they were intended to afford a support to the mound, and in some cases this is likely to be true, but in other cases they are found within the mound also half way up the slope, and at times there are double circles. Referring to the fear of avenging spirits in con- nection with these tumuli, Professor Dawkins says those in the Isle of Man are protected from destruction by this superstition and that in 1859 a farmer offered a heifer as a burnt offering that he might avert their anger excited by the exploration of a chambered tomb near Tynwald Hill, opened by Messrs. Oliver and Oswald. In the course of some investigations, noticing what appeared to me to be a tumulus, near the Castletown-road, I interviewed the proprietor, and he informed me that his plough had turned up a cinerary urn, which he quickly re-buried. His father had solemnly enjoined on his death-bed that the mound should never be disturbed. The notice of these variations, coupled with a study of present customs in the Kast, has led to the notion that these stones have something to do with the belief that it was necessary to appease and propitiate the ‘ spirits of the departed,” they being regarded as “ the cause of all joy and woe.” Perhaps further investigations will lead to more settled conclusions. Turning to the urn itself, it is not distinguished by any ornament, but in general outiine it finds a parallel in many parts of the country. It is clearly Celtic in form and is probably of the Bronze Period. It is worthy of note that the urn most closely resembles urns recently discovered in the Isle of Man. The Darwen urn is also similar and has some slight incised ornament on the rim, corresponding in style to some of the other urns found in this locality. The Roman and Saxon urns are marked by quite different characteristics. It is probable that Mr. Wilkinson’s urn was slightly hardened at the fire, and it is often the case that urns are so imperfectly burnt as to 94 crumble away on exposure to the air. The bronze pin or skewer is often found in urns of this period, and was doubtless used to secure the cloth or hide in which the bones, collected from the pyre, were placed on their transfer to the urn. There is clear evidence that this was often done. Pieces of woollen fabric have at times been found. Homer says that the bones of Hector were wrapped in a soft purple cloth. It is imteresting to note that a similar bronze skewer was found in the Port-a-Chee urn in the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man urns are mostly found resting on a smooth stone with the mouth downward, and this is frequently the case in discoveries in England, the one at Black- burn for instance. It often happens that the bones of women and children are found in the same urn, and this has led some to believe that children were often sacrificed at the pyre of the mother. That human sacrifices were frequent in the early burials there is no doubt. And in reference to the fact that one of the bones is pronounced to be that of a small animal, it may be mentioned that animals were often burnt on these occasions. This was shewn by a reference to Homer, concerning the burial rites over the body of Patroclus. In many countries at the burials of great chiefs, sacrifices have been made, so that they might appear with fitting pomp in the other world attended by a suitable retinue of departed spirits. Cases have been known of faithful servants sacrificing themselves in the desire to accompany a faithful master. The Scandinavian was accompanied by his horse, the American Indian by his dog, so that they might together continue the chase in the ‘‘ happy hunting grounds.” The property of the dead has often been deposited with them. The Anglo-Saxon graves contain the swords and spears of the departed, the Roman graves contain coins, and the Indian graves beads and tobacco pipes. These are incontestable evidences of the almost universal belief in a future state, and convey various ideas as to the conditions and occupations therein. The solid mass of charcoal and bones found at the outer edge of the circle doubtless represents the remains of some of these accompanying sacrifices. The discoveries within the other circle call for no extended comment except that the quantities of burnt earth and stones probably fix it as the site of a funeral pyre. The clayey ground underneath and around these pyres is often found for some depth in a hardened condition such as we here find. The pres- ence of (if it is one) the flint-axe need not disturb our belief that whatever was deposited within the circle was of the same period as the one previously described. The ring stones are arranged in the same way, there is the evidence of cremation and it would be far more difficult in the face of these facts to assign the burial to the stone age than to accept the explanation that the axe was a survival of the older period. The evidences generally about this 95 particular barrow are so vague however as to incline one to lay little stress upon their meaning until we know more about them. There is the evidence of a bell-barrow with shallow fosse (betwixt the two referred to) which remains to be excavated. On a neigh- bouring height there is the promise of another discovery of the cist type. Pending these and other excavations it would be quite premature to speak in a dogmatic manner about the age and origin of the objects already brought to light—but so far as we know there is no evidence to interfere with the belief, that on the moors above Worsthorne and Extwistle a people of Celtic origin lived in what is known as the Bronze period, which we may take as commencing in Britain about 1,000 years before the Christian Era, and that to-night it is our privilege to look upon their simple memorials. Whether, as in other parts of the country this sturdy and bronze-using race of the round-headed type drove from our moors their weaker long-headed predecessors of the stone age, there is no evidence to show—-but, with the presence of flints, we need not despair of assembling on some future occasion to discuss the indications of Neolithic man. There is in my opinion nothing before us to justify our claiming a date for ‘‘ the oldest inhabitant’’ earlier than about 500 years before the Christian Era. It must be borne-in mind that in a country covered by forests and unbisected by large streams as Great Britain was long after the period we are dealing with, tribes living at what we now consider short distances from each other, might be practically isolated and be somewhat late in coming in contact with those agencies of civilization by which we are accustomed to settle their chronological position. There are certainly no evidences whatever of any contact with the Romans in the remains referred to. Considering that there are indisputable evidences of the presence of the Romans all around the site of the discoveries, the absence of coins is strong evidence of a Pre-Roman origin. In conclusion Mr. Waddington observed :— I have been careful to confine myself to a simple unadorned tale of such local evidences as we are al] at present in possession of, and I have tried to avoid sensational explanations as to the origin and pur- pose of these memorials, believing with Dr. Evans that “nothing probably has done more to bring the science of antiquity into discredit.than the rash and visionary speculations for which these memorials have so often supplied the occasion.” I trust that the result of this evening’s discussion will be the institution of system- atic investigation of all remaining sites likely to yield additional evidence, and that this Club will take its proper share in the work and responsibilities attendant upon so laudable yet so arduous an enterprise. Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson said that it was difficult to get at the correct age, having no historical data for their guidance, but he 96 should be inclined to ascribe them to an earlier time than Mr. Waddington. A description has just been given of the only explored barrow in the neighbourhood of Burnley, and when they considered the implements which the savage tribes of that period used, they must look upon these barrows as works of immense labour. At present the barrow in question was four feet high, and originally it was probably three times that height. He wrote to Dr. March, of Rochdale, the well-known antiquarian, the other day, asking his opinion upon the relative periods under which the various barrows and circles had been erected, and that morning he received the following reply :—‘‘ My own opinions are these. The earliest interments known in this country are those of the Neolithic barrows. The dead were not burned. In the barrows of the bronze people, the dead were sometimes burned and the ashes placed in an urn and sometimes buried without incineration in a contracted fashion. In the iron age, the Roman and Roman- British times, incineration was adopted and inhumation in a contracted fashion was abandoned. The Saxon chiefs were usually buried stretched out with their arms about them. I take it that the stone circle with the urn interment and the cist of Hambledon Hill are both of the bronze age, and probably the circle is the older, but that is doubtful. In the bronze age iron had not come in and flint had not gone out, as regards any par- ticular country, not as regards the world at large.’’ Mr. Wilkin- son thought the distinct methods of interment met with in the same barrows, might be accounted for by the supposition that the tribes succeeding those who had built the barrows would regard the earlier places of interment with great superstition, and very probably inter their own dead within the same barrow. A most singular fact in connection with these ancient burial grounds was that the names of these places were of Saxon deriva- tion. In Hell Clough, for instance, the word “hell” was from the pure Saxon, meaning holy, and it was only natural to expect that a great amount of veneration would attach to these places. They had another instance in Stonehenge. People were apt to call all these ancient burial places Celtic as if no race had existed in these islands before the Celts. His opinion was that the cus- tom of burning human bodies was practised here before the Celts arrived. He then went on to speak of the discovery of the um recently unearthed at Hell Clough. The circle of stones within which it was found had been previously digged. There was a tradition that a chest of gold was concealed somewhere in the locality, and he had been given to understand that the person who previously digged within the circle did so for that chest. He (Mr. Wilkinson) commenced to dig at the same place, and when he had got about three feet below the surface came upon a car- pbonised mass of charcoal, bones, and human teeth. This would 97 be about 18 inches in length, 6 inches wide, and about 11 inches thick, and the mass was embedded in a yellow soil. Feeling confident that he was on the right tack he sent a letter to Mr. W. L. Grant desiring that some member of the Club should be present, and Mr. Strange, accompanied by his good lady and daughter, journeyed to the site. They had not been digging long before he (Mr. Wilkinson) placed his hand on the top of the urn. Having graphically described the scene which was presented at the discovery and the bearing away of the valuable relic, he expressed the opinion that the carbonised remains were part and parcel of the two bodies found in the urn. Within forty feet of that circle was a bell-shaped barrow, which had been looked upon as a small Roman camp. In concluding he said that with him it was a labour of love to trace out the footprints of ancient races, and his belief was that the district east of Burnley was one of the richest in England for archeological remains. An interesting discussion followed. There were exhibited four urns which had been discovered in the neighbourhood of Burnley. They were as follows :—(1) Found on the moor, west of Swinden, in 1842, by Mr. Spencer, of Halifax. Lent by T. T. Townley Parker, Esq. (2) Found on Worsthorne Moor, April 17th, 1843, by Mr. Studley Martin. Lent by Colonel Thursby, J.P. (8) Found at Catlow Quarry, March 1854. Lent by the Church of England Literary Institution. (4) Found at Hell Clough, Ex- twistle, Sept. 18th, 1886, by Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson. Lent by T. T. Townley Parker, Esq. DINNER. December 10th, 1886. The Annual Dinner was held at Mr. Cronkshaw’s Hotel, and was attended-by 30 members and 2 friends of the members. The following were the principal toasts :— 1. The Loyal Toasts.—Proposed by The President, Mr. J. Langfield Ward, M.A. 2. The Burnley Literary and Scientific Club.—Proposed by Mr. Alderman Greenwood, J.P. and responded to by The President. 3. Literature—Proposed by Dr. Brumwell, J.P., and res- ponded to by Mr. Strange. ° 4. Science.—Proposed by Mr. F. H. Hill, and responded to by Dr. Mackenzie. 5. Art.—Proposed by Mr. Councillor A. Lancaster, and responded to by Mr. T. Preston. 98 (ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.) ON THE ETYMOLOGY OF PLACE NAMES IN THE FOREST OF ROSSENDALE AND ITS CONNECTED DISTRICTS. By JAMES KERR, L.S8.A.L. The Rev. Dr. Isaac Taylor in “‘ Words and Places”’ says :— Local names, whether they belong to provinces, cities, villages, or are the designations of rivers, mountains, &c. are never mere arbitrary sounds devoid of meaning, and may always be regarded as records of the past, inviting and rewarding careful historical interpretation. Of the prehistoric old stone age and the neolithic age or new stone age we have no knowledge of any word. By Heroditus the British Isles were called the Cassiterides or Tin Islands, which the Phoenicians designated Albion and Irene, and called them the British Islands beyond the Celtae. Then came a tribe of Huns or Bulgarians into Eastern Europe, and settled in the Spanish peninsula, possibly some sixteen centuries before the Christian era. They were known as Iberians, Ugrians and Kuskarians, and so far as we know, were the first to give our country a name, Britain or Britannia; giving us also the names Hibernia, Siluria, and Caithness, which are words not belonging to the Aryan or Hindoo European languages, but to the Turanian. These were superseded by the Phoenicians, from whom we have Marazion, ‘‘a hill by the sea’’ and Polgarth from Kartha a city, both in Cornwall. Through these Phoenicians the Romans found their way to the Tin Islands. The race found in our islands by the Euskarians were probably descendants of the valley and cave men, and of stray Celts who had crossed the channel from Gaul. The next dominant race were undoubtedly Celts. They were divided into two tribes, the Gadhelic and the Cymric. In B.C. 55 and B.C. 54 Julius Cesar invaded Britain, and the Romans held it until A.D. 410. At this date they left the Celts to govern themselves, and did not return, except for a brief space, to assist the English Celts against their enemies, the Picts and Scots of North Britain. The chief place-names left by the Romans were those of Military Stations and Military Roads; the names they gave to provinces, cities, towns, and temples being mostly used only by themselves, soon after they departed fell either into disuetude, or 99 were obliterated by the return to the former native names; and subsequently by the imposition of Teutonic and Scandinavian names. After some reference to the Picts and Scots the paper con- tinued :—About the middle of the fifth century, and, for more than a hundred years after that, bands of invaders, consisting of Jutes or Danes, Norwegians, Frieslanders, (Frisons), Angles, Saxons, and neighbouring tribes, continued to pour upon the south and east shores of Britain. These gave us, not only innu- merable place-names, but what we call the Anglo-Saxon, which forms the great basis of the language, which to day we speak as our Mother-tongue. Subsequently, the Danelagh took in nearly the same territory that the Angles had occupied, including a large portion of Lancashire, which became almost a Danish colony. In the Lancashire dialect there are many words of Danish origin even now, and about fifty place-names. Finally, came the settlement of the Normans. The Norman-French, and other provincial dialects which these introduced, however, gave us comparatively few descriptive names of places, except those of Castles, Abbeys and the like, the names of the lands they acquired being derived, chiefly, from their Christian and family names, rather than from natural characteristics. We have given this rapid sketch of these various nations, because from them, we are directly or indirectly descended, and derive from their several languages and dialects, the names by which we to day call our seas and rivers, mountains and plains, hills and valleys, and all the natural features of our country, as well as its various civil and political divisions, national and local, its cities and towns, villages and home-steads, and all the place- names with which we are so familiar. And this we shall find to be no less true of Rossendale in particular, than of Hngland, Treland, Scotland and Wales, in general. The special subject of our paper is the place-names in a some- what isolated and limited, but pretty well defined district, around which cluster not afew other names, when its position and relations are fully stated. This ancient Royal Forest of Rossen- dale originally formed a part of the Forest of Blackburnshire, and the Chase of Pendle. In the composite designation: ‘The Forest of Rossendale,” we have three very expressive and descriptive names. forest is, both in orthography and meaning, a purely Armenian word, and was probably brought by the Celts, from the mountainous forest- lands of their ancient Asiatic home. In the various European tongues, its radical meaning is strange, foreign, wild, barbarous, and indicates wandering, and distance from cities and civilization. _ In our country it means wooded land and pasture-ground for wild animals, occupied by trees of natural growth, in contra- 100 distinction to trees planted by the hand of man. In reference to Rossendale, the word Forest was probably taken from the German forst or the Norman-French, fores, a forest; and we know that the district was placed, after the Conquest, under the strict Norman Royal Forest Laws. That Rossendale corres- ponded, in its earlier days, to the description of forest, just given, the names occurring in its various parts, will clearlyshow. The etymology of ‘‘ Rossendale” has been the subject of considerable controversy. Dr. Whitaker, in his erudite history of Whalley, after suggesting the Cymric or Welsh Celtic word rhos, which he says means “a bottom,” abandons it, and adopts the russet, or reddish-brown colour of the native herbage, as giving origin to the name. Rhos means however, a moor, not ‘‘a bottom,” or valley. The first syllable Ross, (Rhos) then points out the district as Moorland. The second syllable en or an in the Irish or Gaelic Celtic, means water, and in the form of in, means ‘‘ the country,’ and like an and ain, is an intensitive particle. ‘‘ Rossen ” then, means “‘a very watery moorland country.” Again in the Trish Celtic, Ros means, among other things, “a grove, a wood,” and Rosan, ‘‘a shrub,” hence, if this be admissible, Rossen becomes, in addition to its other characteristics, ‘‘a woody land.” Add to these, the Norse dol, ‘‘a valley,” inits Northumbrian form, Dale, and the district of the Forest of Rossendale becomes ‘“ the Country of the Woody Moorland-Dale.”’ As the names of Hills and Rivers, are not only the oldest, but the most permanent, we shall now take up the hills in order, beginning at the South West corner of the range which roughly bounds the district; and first on the list is Cribdon, Cridden or Cribdun. Crib, in the Welsh Celtic, means a sharp ridge, and is frequently applied to hills in Wales, which present the long, house-ridge-like appearance of Cribdon. Dun, and Don, both mean hill, the former, ‘‘a fortified house or hill, a fortress, a fastness, a city.” Dun is pure Gadhelic Celtic, and Don, Celto- Saxon, meaning the same as Dun a hill fort, but, ultimately, both were applied to hills, whether fortified or not. Cribdon then, means ‘‘ the narrow or sharp-ridged hill.” A little further North stands Hameldon Hill, which was, probably, the hill fort, and the burial place of a Scandinavian Viking of the name of Hamill. The etymology of Hameldon is, however, to me, very obscure, so far as the first two syllables are concerned. The word Hill after Hameldon, is, evidently, a tau- tological redundancy, added by a people who had lost the meaning of don. With regard to Hameldon being the burial place of Hamill, it is worthy of notice that, on the Northern slope of the hill, there is a good sized Mound, known as “ Little Hameldon,” which is clearly a Barrow, with a smaller twin barrow near it, as is often the case where a chief has been buried. 101 The next hill in the chain is Great Hill, which forms a part of Hapton High Park, and bears a name which requires no expla- nation. The same applies to the adjoining one, to a great extent, viz, Nutshaw Hill. Under the surface-soil of this hill, great numbers of hazel-nut shells are still found, showing that it was at one time the site of an abundance of Hazel-nut-trees, and that its present name, Nutwood Hill, was then no misnomer. Next comes Horelaw Hill, which is corrupted into Whorlaw and Woolaw Hill. This name is derived from the Saxon har, white, and the Anglo-Saxon Alaw, ‘‘a mound, a rising ground, and hence ahill.” Horelaw, more correctly Harlaw, is the White Hill. This hill stands at the beginning of a range bounding the Forest on the North, and is succeeded, towards the Hast, by a number of places, the names of which include the word white, or a cognate word. In connection with this range the following names occur, viz., Horelaw, Horelaw Brook, Horelaw Head, Whitehill Pastures, or Fields, Whitehill, The stream Whitewell, The Whitewell Valley, Whitewell Bottom, (a small hamlet), and the Erewell, the source of the river Irwell. In addition to these, we have the subordinate or derived names Horelaw Farm, two Horelaw Nooks, Horelaw Colliery, Whiteley Farm and Whiteley House. In Horelaw, Horelaw Brook and Horelaw Head, we retain the old Saxon hor or har, while in the remainder we have by translation directly or indirectly, its English equivalent white. This remark applies specially to Whitehill Pastures, which lie on the declivity of Horelaw, and to the stream Whitewell, which, being an old river name, would most likely be the Horewell. The derived names are evidently more modern, and have, probably, always had their present form. But why should the word white or har be so prevalent in this locality? We reply, that our forefathers only followed a custom which obtains, not only throughout the British Isles, but in all lands, in giving the appel- lation white, or its equivalent, to elevated places, which are, either permanently or frequently covered with snow or hoarfrost. Next to Horelaw Hill, comes Crown Point, which is so-called from the Farm House being placed on the Crown or Point of the hill. Succeeding Whitehill, comes Durplay, Derplay, or Dirplay Hill, which has been transformed into Deerplay Hill, indicating an etymology which has been strongly disputed. We would suggest the following as to the etymology of this obscure place- name. The Gaelic or Irish dur, often der, in composition, and the Welsh dwr, are both river-root-words, meaning water, and form the chief part of many river-names; and play or lay, means, primarily, ‘‘ to send or throw, act or operate, as the easy effect of nature,” as water springs, or gently wells up from the earth. In our own, and in many other countries, the name of 102 the chief river or stream, means simply the water, and the Irwell, being the chief stream in Rossendale, would in early days be called, ‘the water.” Now, as Derplay ‘sends or throws’”’ out the water of the spring called the Ere-well, which is the source of ‘‘the water’ or river, now known as the Irwell, it might with great propriety bear the name of Der Play, (Derplay) The Water Spring. Adjoining Derplay Hill, is Thievely Pike, or Pike Law, the Beacon Height, or Beacon Hill, on the top of which are still to be seen, the remains of an old beacon-fire pit or ring. The name Pike was given to places where beacon-fires were raised, and is synonymous with Peak, “the top of a hill or mountain ending in a point.” Thievely, is from the Saxon Heafod, heaved, the elevated part, the top, and is synonymous with head. Thievely Pike, then, is the Beacon on the top of the hill. On Heald Moor there is an old village called Heald, vernacular Yeld, which gives, probably, its name to the Moor. ‘This village is on the old road which formed the chief communication between Lancashire, Yorkshire and Derbyshire, and ran along the ‘‘ Haia Dominicalis,” or the Lord’s Dyke, still called the Old Dyke, which formed the northern boundary of the Forest. The road bears also the name of ‘“ Limers-gate,” being the pack-horse road or gate, along which lime was carried from Clitheroe, up to a recent date, and was travelled, ‘‘not only by the common people, but by the ecclesiastics and nobles of the land.’ ‘This old village, probably, derives its name of Heald from the Saxon eald, old, but some additional word seems necessary to complete the sense. Moor is from Mor, ‘“‘a mountain, heathy, marshy land.” Then Heald Moor becomes the Old Moor, a name which is not very distinctive. Falling back upon the vernacular pronunciation of Yeld, barren, we have The barren moor, which would be a very appropriate name. The next hill on our list is Todmorden Moor. Todmorden was, until recently, called Tormorden, no doubt, from the very rocky hill adjacent to the valley in which the town is situated; Tor, Celtic, meaning “a rock,” Mor, ‘“‘a moor,” and den, (Anglo Saxon), “a deep wooded valley.” This would make Tormorden the deep wooded valley of the rocky moor. Tooter Hill follows, and is, we think, very properly designated by Dr. Whitaker, ‘The Horn Blower’s Hill.” It was customary to blow a horn on the top of a hill to give warning of danger, and it was also an old practice to blow a horn from an elevated spot, at a certain hour in the evening, probably, in continuance of the Curfew, or cover fire, of the Conquest, when all fires had to be covered up, or extinguished at eight o’clock in the evening. There is an elevation at Goodshawfold called Tooter, which, there is very little doubt, had been used for this purpose. Tooter 108 is from the Dutch or low German toeten, ‘to blow the horn,” hence the outlook or watching hill was called the Tooter Hill. HHogshead Law is the (wild) Hogs Hill. |\Here head and law are nearly synonymous, head meaning “an elevated place,” and law ‘a rising ground, a hill.’’ As domestic hogs were not allowed to run in the forest without rings in their snouts, to prevent them rooting, is it possible that this hill was allowed them without the rings? or must we take the more direct etymology, viz: that wild hogs were found here ? Top of Leach is the highest point in the Forest. Leach or Letch means ‘“‘a long narrow swamp, in which water moves slowly.” The meaning then is, the top of the swamp, which Top of Leach still is to this day. Coupe Law, is from Cow-Hope-Law, which is the original name. Hope is ‘‘a sloping plain between ridges of hills,” which is quite descriptive of the Cow Hope. Coupe Law, then is, The Cow Hlope Hill. So much then, for the ring of hills forming the general boundary of the forest. In the reign of Edward the II, in 1311, there were in the forest eleven Cowpastures, called Vaccaries, from the Latin vacca, acow. By the 12th Ed. IV, 1472, Wolfenden and Crawshaw Vaccaries had acquired the addition of the term Bothe or Both, from the Gaelic Celtic boith or both, ‘a hut, tent, booth, cabin, house,” and ‘‘ to lodge for the night ;’’ hence, a temporary dwel- ling, which the booths would primarily be. To both was now joined the word shagh or shaw, in Dunnockshaw, Godshagh and Crawshawbooth, from the Saxon scwa, sewwva, ‘a thicket, a shady place, a bushy place, a small wood.” Vaccary and booth afterwards became coextensive and con- vertible terms. The Booth of Dunnockshaw derives its name from dun, ‘a hill-fort, a hill,” and the Gaelic knock, a small hill or hillock, and shaw, a wood. ‘he knock is one of a series of small hills called the Hart Hills from the Saxon heart ‘a stag, the male of the red deer, in the siath year.” These small hills are presumed to have got their names from their being the frequent resort of the Hart. The four Booths, Gambleside, Love Clough, Goodshaw and Crawshawbooth form the Township of Higher Booths. The highest booth in Higher Booths is Gambleside, spelt in the earliest documents Gamelsheved, literally ‘‘ the crooked height or hill head,” from the Celtic (both W. and Ir.) cam, crooked. From this root we have Morcambay The crooked piece of wood on which butchers hang their meat is called a gamble, camel or cambril. Gambleside was probably so called from the crooked outline of the estate which bears that name. The next booth in the Township is Love Clough, spelt in the old lists Luffeclogh, Lufclough, Lufelugh; lu or luf being 104 sometimes the pronunciation formerly given to lough, as now to Loughborough, in Leicestershire. In the clough adjoining called Great Clough, there is a large drift mound, which has at one time made up the clough and so retained the water as to form a lake, the water from which evidently flowed on what is now the left or higher side of the mound, and thus the estate from which the booth takes its name was the Lake Clough or Lough Clough, subsequently corrupted into Love Clough. Clough, ‘‘a cleft in a hill” is pure Saxon. The third of the Higher Booths is Goodshaw, which in the old list of 12th Edward IV, is spelt Gode-shagh, literally, The God’s Wood. Thatit can have no reference to God’s House, or to God’s Acre, at Goodshaw, is evident from the fact that ‘‘ Godshaw ”’ was in use long before these had an existence; for there was no Church or Chapel, and no burial ground there until after December, 1540. And moreover, when the Church was built it was not called Goodshaw Church but Dunkirk, the kirk or church on the hill, and the original Church still stands in Dunkirk Square, though now degraded into a hen house. Originally the word god, in the Saxon, was used simply as the adjective good, but on the conversion of the Saxons to Christianity they required a name for the Supreme Being, and finding none in their language expressive of his character as they then understood it, they adopted their adjective god, ‘‘ good,” as a noun, and called him God, The Good. Godeshagh, ‘‘ the Wood of the God”’ then, is the earliest name of the Booth with which we are acquainted. It seems probable that a heathen god was worshipped at some time in this locality. The ancient inhabitants of this district were Celts, and the worship of the Celts was Druidic, which, where practicable, was conducted in woods and forests, within a circle or circles of stones, many of which are still extant, especially in out of the way or secluded places, where sacrilegious hands have not as yet converted them to secular uses. Even where this has been done, the places where they formerly stood retain names indicative of their previous existence. Near the central part of this Booth, and about mid-way up the valley, we have what are still known as Rings Field and Rings Meadow, giving names to Rings Row and Rings House. And in an old survey of the Town- ship, we have adjacent to these, or clustered about Rings Row, the following, viz: a farm called Rings, having upon it Rings Meadow and Rings Field; and upon Jive other adjoining farms or separate properties we have sia inclosures bearing the name of Ring or Rings, making in all Nine place-names, of which the word Ring or Rings forms a distinctive part. As the old Druid Circles are well known throughout this country by the designation of Rings, we think we are quite justi- fied in coming to the conclusion that this particular place was 105 formerly the site of one or more Stone Circles or Druidic Rings, within which was conducted the worship of some of the ancient Celtic Deities. These stone circles, or the remains of them, being found here, the Saxons conferred upon the wood in which they stood the very appropriate name of Godeshagh or Godshaw, which gaye its name to the district and was subsequently trans- lated or transformed into Goodshaw Booth. Descending the valley we come into the Crawshaw Booth, which is derived from the Saxon crawe, shaw and booth, literally the Crow-wood-Booth: the word craw being the vernacular for all birds belonging to the genus Carvus. At the back of the Old Crawshawbooth Mansion House, dated 1610, lately taken down and now represented by the Mansion House Buildings, there was a Rookery, and the adjacent houses are still known as the Crow Trees, or Crawtrees. The Township of Lower Booths, consists of the booths of Constablelee, Oakenhead Wood, Rawtenstall, Coupe, Lenches, New Hall Hey, and Hall Carr. At what is now known as Lower Constablelee, stood probably the residence of the Constable of the Forest, the officer, who under the De Lacys had the charge of the forest and the admin- istration of the forest-laws. In a document by which Roger de Lacy gives to the Abbot and Monks of Stanlaw the Pasture of Brandwood, and in a grant for the cutting of hay, in each grant he speaks of Rossendale as ‘‘ my forest.” Rossendale was the largest division of the forest of Blackburn, and therefore it is very probable that the Constable would have a, ley or lee, ‘a pasture for horses and cattle’’ in it, and also a house for his accommoda- tion during his hunting and other visits to ‘his forest,” which house would be the residence of his Constable of the Forest. Constablelee then, means the Constable’s Pasture. Oakenheaved Wood, or ‘ Oak-height-wood,” now Oakenhead Wood, ‘the Oak-wood on the Height” is a small booth and village at Cribden End. Rawtenstall, formerly spelt Rowtandstall, and having adjoining to it Routand Clough, according to Dr. Whitaker, means “ the brawling brooks.” We prefer the Cymric Celtic rhawter, and the Gaelic Celtic and Fr. ruta, the former meaning “a crowd,” the latter, a “herd, rout,’’ and the Ger. and Du. rotten, “to com- bine together, to plot, to assemble;”’ the general meaning of rout being a rabble or multitude. So much for Rout, which in some parts of the country still means the annual assembly of the people, at the Feast, Wake or Fair of the town or district. Stall in Sax. is ‘‘ a place, a seat, a station.” Routandstall or Rawten- stall then, means “‘ the place or station of the Rout,” and, being a central place in the forest, it would be the most likely one for the annual public assembly of the people for sports, &c. 106 Lench or Lenches, according to Mr. Harland, in Baines’ Lanc., is a contraction or corruption of Langhshaw or Langshaws, which means the long narrow strips of wood stretching along the hill side. New Hall Hey is from the New Hall, near Rawtenstall. Hall means ‘‘a stone house,’ a manor house, in which courts were held, from Sax. heal and D. hal; and Hey or Hay, ‘a hedged inclosure,” from Sax. hag, a hedge, ‘‘ and was usually an inclosure for the purposes of the chase.” In Hall Carr, Carr means “boggy or marshy ground.” Hall Carr, then, is The Hall Bog, or Marsh Land. This is its meaning, unless there was a fort in the neighbourhood ; for the word Car, in one form or another, signifies also ‘‘a stronghold or fortified place. The next Township, which is by far the largest in the Forest, is Newechurch, which, along with the isolated portions, we must defer for the present. These include Musbury, Yate and Pickup Bank, with Hoddlesden, Henheads and parts of Habergham- Eaves, Cliviger, Spotland, and the streams, valleys, farm and field names of the forest. Originally the forest would, to a great extent, be covered with wood of less or greater growth, but, as cultivation progressed, the trees would be separated into more or less isolated patches, which received distinctive or proper names, which are still given to the localities, farms, &c. on which they stood. Hence we have in the forest and surrounding districts such names as Shaw, from the Sax. Scwa, Scuwa, a thicket, a wood, or the Ang. Sax. sceaga, a shady place, a small wood. This word is of very frequent occurrence as in three or four of the booths, and in Nutshaw and Nutshaw Hill; also in Cronkshaw Hill, the twisting, bent or crooked wood opposite to Gambleside. Shawclough is ‘the wood in the clough.” Shaw occurs in many places both in and out of the forest, and corresponds pretty nearly with Holt, Ger. Holz and Ang. Sax., a copse. Hurst, Sax. hurst or hyrst, ‘‘a thick wood, a grove,” analogous to our Eng. word wood, from Sax. wuda, wudu, Du. woud, “a thick collection of trees.’ These two words appear in Hurstwood Hall, where wood is a reduplication of hurst, being added by persons who did not know the meaning of hurst, z.c. “The Hall in the thick wood.’’ Mickle Hurst and Stony Hurst are other examples meaning, the great wood and the stony wood. Weald, Wold, and Wood, are related to holt, each meaning woodland. Den, Dean, Sax. den, dene, denn, ‘‘a deep wooded valley,” we have in Dean, near Water, Haslingden, and Todmor- den. Dell and dale, mean also a valley, but don’t necessarily imply the presence of wood. ‘The dens were the swine pas- tures ; and down to the 17th century the ‘‘ Court of Dens,” was held at Adlington to determine disputes arising out of the rights 107 of forest pasture. Ing means a meadow, Ang. Sax., hence Has- lingden, is “the meadow in the hazelwood valley.” Ing in the middle of a word is a patronymic. The following set of words imply less or more of wood-clearing or ridding, viz. Grave, Grove, Greeve. Grave, as a final syllable means a grove, a small wood, a wood haying a shady walk within it. Royd, Taylor says is Teutonic; meaning ‘land that has been ridded of trees.” On the western flank of Hambledon Hill, we have Mariroyd Well, which seems to have been, in pagan times, one of the ancient May Day holy wells. At this well a fair, or rustic gathering, is still held on the first Sunday in May. According to the Monasticon Anglica this royd, or forest clearing, was granted to certain Monks, who were subsequently driven away by the in- habitants of the district. While there, however, following the sage advice of Gregory the Great to St. Augustine, they re- dedicated the well to the Virgin Mary, with the purpose of retaining the veneration of the natives for the place while they diverted it into a different channel. Huntroyd, from Sax. huntean, “to hunt wild animals,” is the ridding for the hunt. Holroyd, “the ridding in the hollow.’”’ Acre and Field are synonymous, but are now modified from their original meaning. Acre, slightly varied, is found in Celtic, Sax., Ger., Gr., Lat. and Low Lat., in the sense of ‘‘a ploughed or sowed field,’ and was used in this sense, in Britain up to the time of 5th Ed. I., 31st Ed. IIL, and 24th Hy. VIII., when it was limited to definite measurement, which, however, differed in different parts. In its original sense we have God’s Acre, ‘‘ the field or burial ground belonging to a church; Knaves Acre, near Hey Head Farm, from Saw. caufa, a boy or young man, then a servant, and lastly a false deceitful fellow, a rogue. Knaves Acre was probably, as it is still, a waste field, formerly used for youthful sports, ‘‘ the young men’s field.” Acre Mill, is “ the mill in the field,” but may have been so called for some special reason, as there are several bearing that name. Field Sax., and Ger. feld, is probably ‘‘level land, or plain ;” and Du. vellen, ‘to fell or lay down,” properly ‘“‘land not covered with wood,” and used for tillage or pasture. We have several Holm Fields from Holm, ‘‘a lake or river-island,’” or “a field or piece of flat land by the side of a stream,” allied to ing and haugh ; also Long Holm and Holmes, near Rawtenstall, Reeds Holme, and Higher and Lower Holmes, &c., near Crawshawbooth, where Holme and Field are nearly synonymous terms. The word itself is pure Norse or Norwegian, and is also embodied in the Ang. Sax. seemingly by adoption. Royd, Acre, Field, Haw, Gau, and Gay, are from the Sax. and Ger. gehaw, and are cognate with field, meaning ‘‘a place where the trees have been hewn, a forest ridding.” Gawthorp, has this prefix, and with it Thorp or Throp, Dan, ‘‘a village,” indicating permanent residence, and with 108 Thorpe near Royston, Rochdale, are the only instances we have found of this Danish word in Lancashire. Lay, ley, lee, le, ly, leigh, lea; Sax. leag, leah, lege; W. lle, is ‘‘an open pasture in a wood, where the cattle delight to lie,” the radical meaning being setting or laying. Ley also means land which is allowed to lie untilled, or unploughed. In Rossendale, joined with farm-names, or other words, such as Dunnockshaw Ley, Bridgley Bank, Bottomley Bank, Stubby Lee, Lee Mill, Constableiyh or Con- stablelee, &c., it often occurs. The various Trees, Shrubs, and other plants which grew in the Forest have given many place-names, some of which are Oaken- bead-Wood-Booth, Oakley, Hazles, Hazlehead, Nutshaw, Holly Farm, Hollingreave, Hollingate, Limetrees, Thorne, Thorny Bank, Hawthorn, Slagh-Thorn, Whin Hill, Reeds, Reeds Holme, Withingreave, Fernhill, Fearns, Brecks, (possibly broken land, ) Rushybed, Ivyhouse, Primrose Syke, (syke a small run of water,) Musbury (mus, moss), and Musbury Tor, Cranberry Height and Wimberry Naze. Helm Shore and Helm Clough are not so named from the Elm Tree, but more probably from Helham, the home of the Goddess Hel. In the adjacent districts we have Ashworth Moor, Nuttall, Haslingden, Hollingworth Lake, &c. We have purposely omitted fancy and modern names. The animals which inhabited the Forest have also left us many place-names, as Staghills, Hart Hills, Buck Earth, Roclyffe and Roclyff's Wood, Laund, (a Deer Park), High and Low Park ; (Hapton, adjoining Dunnockshaw,) Wolfenden, Wolfenden Booth, Wolfstones ; Hogshead Law, Boarsgreave, Sow Clough, Swinshaw; Brock Holes, Badger Cote, {Badger means also a corn dealer); Hareholme; Cat-wood, Cat Clough; Mouse Nest Farm. Eyen our domesticated animals have given a few names, as Cowside, Cow Hope (Cowpe) Fair Banks (from Norse faar,a sheep) and Fairwell Farm. The feathered tribes also contribute a few, as Crawshawbooth, Crow Trees, Crow-wood, Tewitt Hall, Swallow Shore and Bird Holes. In adjacent districts we have Foxhill Bank, Great and Little Harwood and Hagles Crag. It may be added that in various parts of the Forest there have been found Bones and Horns of the Red Deer and the Boslongi- frons, or Celtic Shorthorns, Bones and Teeth of the Equus Fogsilis, and Teeth and Bones of the Wild Pig. BB B 109 ANCIENT AMERICA. By W. A. WADDINGTON. April 10th, 1883. By way of introduction attention was called to the wonderful interest in archeological investigations which has recently mani- fested itself in nearly every country in Europe, and how a com- prehensive range of speculative and inductive research has been established, in which the geologists and ethnologists are working hand in hand with the archeologists in solving some of the most deeply interesting problems of modern science. America was now regarded as a field especially favourable to the study of striking and novel truths in reference to primeval man. It was complained that the Americans, who freely subscribed to the unearthing of the treasures of Egypt and Assyria, Greece and Rome, should leave unexplored the remains of scores of cities in their own continent which were being hidden under or being rent asunder by dense forest growths. Mr. Waddington dealt in the main with the Earthworks of the Mississippi Valley and the Stone Structures of Central America. These works present quite distinct characteristics, being probably the outcome of two distinct civilizations—which separated only by short geographical distances—are yet divided by ages in point of mechanical and artistic development. The first works comprise Enclosures for Defence—forts and strongholds—some of these being of immense magnitude, indicating the presence of large populations of settled habits. Next come the Sacred Encloswres—forming groups of sym- metrical enclosures—square, circular, elliptical, and octagonal, with long connecting avenues. Some of these works occupy an area of six square miles, having avenues in some cases two and a quarter miles long. Within the enclosures are circular mounds and pyramids of immense size, and often the plans are so com- plicated as to leave room for endless conjecture. There are 1000 to 1500 of these works in the State of Ohio alone. After de- scribing the temple mounds, and mounds of sacrifice, some of which are 1000 feet in circumference, an account was given of « Animal Mounds,” chiefly found in Wisconsin. These form huge ‘basso relievos” on the face of the country, and are numbered by thousands. They present entire singularity in form, and have but slight analogy to any others of which there is any account in any portion of the globe. They represent the forms of beasts, birds, reptiles, and men. The “Great Serpent” is 1,000 feet long. The Alligator Mound is 250 feet long, having a width of 40 feet. These figures often occur in groups, and there is evidence that they have originally been finished in fine clay, with very faithful attention to details. Speaking of the significance of these mounds, observations were made upon 110 serpent worship and the serpent symbols of Egypt, Assyria, India, &. An account was also given of the contents of the mounds, consisting of pottery, flint heads, carvings in stone, and numerous implements and weapons of metal. Turning to the second department of the subject reference was made to the earliest nations of whom there is any account, who occupied Central America, including the Toltecs, Aztecs, Tez- cucans. Extracts were given based upon the writings of the historian Ixtlilxochitl, shewing the advanced nature of the institutions of these peoples, and the magnificence of their archi- tectural structures. Their scientific and artistic attainments were quite equal to those of their Spanish conquerors. An account was given of the cities, pyramids, and temples as they were found by Cortez and his followers. ‘Then followed the results of explorations by Dupaix, Stevens, Charnay, and others, proving that the cities of Central America were of an extent and mag- nificence which scarcely find their parallel in Europe. Of the earlier works the Pyramid of Cholula was perhaps the most wonderful, being over 1,400 feet square, and occupying an area four times the size of that occupied by the Great Pyramid of Egypt—rising to a height of 200 feet, its summit being crowned with a sumptuous temple, containing the image of one of the great gods of the Aztecs. The Palace of Montezuma was three- quarters of a mile long, and half-a-mile in width, containing over 800 apartments, some being 50 yards square. Many other examples were given of less importance. And in the course of the paper reference was made to the mysterious rites of the Aztecs—their human sacrifices, their cannibalism, and other customs which blot the otherwise fair page of their wondrous history. In conclusion the following questions were dealt with : ‘Who constructed the ancient mounds of Ohio?”’ ‘* Who built the great pyramids of Central America?” “To what age could these monuments be respectively assigned?’’ “ Was there any connection betwixt the two civilizations?” ‘‘ What analogies can be drawn betwixt these works and the ancient works of the Old World?” Mr. Waddington referred to the following as the principal sources of his information :—‘'The Historical Works of Prescott,’ “The Works on American Antiquities,’ published under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institute of New York, Schooleraft’s work on the ‘‘ Indian Tribes ;’’ works on ‘‘ Central American Exploration,” by Lord Kingsborough, Stevens, Squiers, and others; and latterly papers in the North American Review by Desire Charnay—stating that by the kindness of the authorities of the Manchester Reference Library Mr. Butterworth had been allowed to take photographs from the principal plates. These were thrown upon the screen by the oxy-hydrogen light and formed a series of some 24 illustrations to the paper. A con- 111 versation followed, Mr. Thompson asking what material was used in the sculptures, as they must have been of an enduring nature. The President remarked that if the Darwinian theory was to be taken into account, it would scarcely be necessary to assume that in bygone ages America had been peopled from other continents. He could scarcely coincide with the lecturer in con- sidering the Egyptian pyramids inferior in point of grandeur and ‘impressiveness to those of America.—Mr. Bell inquired if the ancient remains were found over all parts of America. Referring to primitive Greek sculpture he remarked that it was first done in wood and gradually introduced upon stone. He would suggest that in like manner those stone remains had been preceded by wooden sculpture. Referring to the Peruvian remains, he pointed out that they were more perfect than the Mexican. The Peru- vian fortifications were peculiar and unlike those of any other portion of the world, and displayed a wonderful knowledge of the principles of engineering. Mr. James Lancaster testified to the high value of the paper. He regretted that our boast of England’s antiquity over that of America was no longer to be made. It appeared to him that the type of faces in the stone sculptures was more Jewish than Egyptian, and this was con- firmed by his recollection of having seen some Aztecs a number of years ago. ‘The architecture, &c., appeared to be allied to the Chinese, and he suggested the possibility of the Chinese having crossed over by the shallow and at times frozen Behring’s Straits in bygone times and peopled America. Mr. Kay, in referring to the antiquity of America, commented upon the age of some copper mines near Lake Superior, and instanced the fact of a tree growing over the mouth of a mine with 350 annular rings. Under this were found other trees of like age. He also remarked on the great extent of these mines, and stated that at one place as many as ten cart loads of stone hammers were picked up. Mr. James Folds asked if there did not exist in by. gone times two distinct civilizations in different parts of America- This was suggested to him by the contemplation of the different styles of the remains. Mr. Strange asked if no cromlechs existed. There was another question suggested itself to his mind. Con- sidering the resources and luxuriant fertility of this rich country, and the religious and educational facilities of its inhabitants, how did it come about that the people had all disappeared? He would point out that in the Burnley neighbourhood there were points of archeological interest which this Club ought to unravel. Mr. Waddington was called upon to reply. Regarding the question asked by Mr. Thompson, he stated that the chief monuments of Central America were in stone. Considering the state of mega- lithic remains all over the world this did not tell against their antiquity, it was more a matter of surprise that the earth mounds 112 should be so well preserved. In many of the pyramids bricks were used, some being of most enduring quality. Alluding to the remarks of the president and other members upon the origin of the American race, he mentioned that there was little doubt that at one time America was connected north and south with other continents. Evidence was given in the submergence of great areas in the South Pacific. On some of the islands—mere specks of land—there are great palaces and temples whose walls are washed by the sea, and they are so far under water now that their avenues can be navigated by the canoes of the natives. These indicate large populations, which have now disappeared, spread over areas which are now beneath the waters. Replying to Mr. Bell, he pointed out that the stone remains were mainly found in Central America and Peru, the earth mounds occurring more or less throughout the northern continent. The remains of Peru were more solid, but were not nearly so interesting, being chiefly engineering works, works of defence, roads, &e. They resembled the Greek work to this extent that they were carrying out the constructive principles of the Pelasgu—the Greek aborigines— 2,000 or 8,000 years later in the world’s history, at that time being unacquainted with the use of the arch. He disagreed with the idea of Greek sculpture being based upon previous efforts in wood, {though this undoubtedly applied to their architecture, instancing the Doric. Treating upon Mr. Lancaster’s idea of the cranial types, Mr. Waddington said there was a distinct difference in the skulls of the mound builders and the Central Americans and Peruvians, the former having the outline very round, the latter bemg much flatter, with a depression towards the forehead. He saw no analogy betwixt the architecture of China and that of Central America. The great purpose of Lord Kingsborough’s elaborate book was to prove that the ancient Americans were Jews, and that the Temple of Palenque was built on the model of Solomon’s Temple. Referring to Mr. Kay’s remarks about taking the rings in the growth of trees as a proof of antiquity, he observed that this was an argument much used, but Charnay disagreed with this kind of evidence, stating that a tree twelve years old, planted during his first visit to Palenque, had 120 of this kind of rings upon it at his second visit. Re- ferring to Mr. Folds’s question he said that the question of two distinct civilizations was a debateable subject, but it seemed likely that the mound raisers and the stone builders had come from different sources. Regarding Mr. Strange’s remarks he said that under some mounds rude stone structures were found of the character of cromlechs ; by some they had been described as stone altars. Two great causes had occurred to decimate the inhabitants, there was evidence of both—war and famine ; amongst the former might be mentioned the wars of extermina- tion. 118 EXCURSIONS. RIBCHESTER. JUNE 5ru, 1886. Seven years previously the Club had visited this interesting place, under the guidance of Mr. W. A. Abram, F.R.H.S., J.P., author of ‘‘ A History of Blackburn,” and one of the Club’s Hon- orary Members. The party on this occasion had the privilege of being under the same leadership. Most of the members drove through Whalley, visiting on the way, the Jacobean mansion of “many gables””—Hacking Hall, situate near the confluence of the Calder and Ribble. It was observed that many alterations in the interior of the building had been made since the last visit ; though the exterior remained as built by Sir Thomas Walmesley, Judge, in the year 1607. From here a pleasant drive brought the party to that romantic piece of river scenery known as Sale Wheel ; and the remains of Salesbury Hall, which stand close by were noticed. There are left but meagre fragments of the fine half- timbered mansion formerly occupied by the Talbots. Half-a-mile from here is the handsome bridge which crosses the Ribble, and conducts to the village of Ribchester. Proceeding through the churchyard the topography of Roman Ribchester—(Rigodunum) was pointed out. At the west end of the enclosure there are still apparent the remains of the fosse and vallum, close by what is known as Anchor Hill. Much of the site of the Roman Camp is now occupied by the river, which has shifted its bed during the centuries which have intervened. The encampment was in the form of a parallelogram measuring 900 by 450 feet. Mr. Abram indicated the spots where the chief discoveries of Roman remains had been made; the place where the beautiful bronze helmet (now in the British Museum) was revealed in 1790, the point where the Romano-British sepulchral slab (now in the Blackburn Museum) was taken out in 1876, and the site of the great temple dedicated to Minerva. The lines of route from differ- ent directions were also pointed out. Next the party visited the interior of the Church of St. Wilfrid, the salient points of interest being described by the Rev. F. J. Dickson, the Vicar. The recent restoration of the edifice had revealed several noteworthy features. The elaborately carved pulpit, an old tombstone curi- ously appropriated, the design of the roof of the nave, and other features were noticed, and the party proceeded to see the vene- rable Church of Stydd, one of the most ancient structures in the county. The building is small and consists simply of a nave. The chief points of interest are the North Doorway of Norman architecture, the font with ancient sculptured work, and the tomb- 114 stones. From here the party traversed the fields to the De Tabley Arms Hotel where tea was provided; and after a hearty vote of thanks had been accorded to Mr. Abram for his lucid explana- tions, and kind guidance, the return journey was made, the route being by Hurst Green, and Hodder Bridge. GARGRAVE, ESHTON HALL AND WOODS. JULY 177u, 1886. The party went by train to Elslack and walked through the fields to All Saints’ Church ; an ancient and interesting struc- ture, evidently much rebuilt, and restored; and shewing traces of various styles of architecture from the Norman period down to the present time. Crossing the brook below, and passing through rich pasture and meadow lands, characteristic of the Craven Distriet, the party emerged into the high road, presently overshadowed by noble trees. A beautiful glimpse of the stream in the valley below is here obtained. Just before reaching the front of Broughton Hall, the seat of the Tempests, a slight divergence from the road is made, and on the bridge near the Lodge gates is discovered another interesting view of river and woodland scenery. Arriving at Eshton Hall which is about half-a-mile beyond Gargrave permission is granted to wander at will through the woods and grounds, which being somewhat extensive occupy the remainder of the afternoon. Eshton Hall, which is magnificently situated, is the seat of Sir Mathew Wilson, Bart. There are large numbers of flowering trees in this district, including horse chest- nut, laburnum, white and purple lilacs, and red and white single and double flowering hawthorns; which in contrast with the copper and purple beech, and the light green color of our wood- land trees, produce strikingly beautiful effects. These, however, to be seen in their glory should be visited about the middle of June. A bridle path runs all the way through the woods, and at intervals rustic but very elaborate wooden structures are found in the shape of alcoves and summer-houses, wherefrom the sylvan scenes could be enjoyed; whilst the naturalists of the party lingered on the bridge to watch the black-backed trout, or wandered amongst the flowers where the greedy bees were busily engaged in literally intoxicating themselves with the juices until they fell helplessly to the ground. A tea at Gargrave, and a brisk walk back through the lanes to Elslack when the sun was low ; and the remainder home by train, completed a very enjoyable “short excursion.” 115 GAWTHORPE HALL AND GROUNDS. SEPTEMBER 9ru, 1886. Over thirty members and friends availed themselves of the kind permission of the Right Hon. Sir Ughtred J. Kay-Shuttle- worth, Bart,, to visit Gawthorpe. The party approached the fine old Elizabethan mansion from the eastern side, passing along the terrace in front of the hall and through a garden laid out in plots of geometric patterns. Externally it was noticed that the disintegrating influence of the weather was having its effect upon the stone, and judicious and careful repairs were being made. This was regarded with satisfaction, as Gawthorpe is one of the finest specimens of Elizabethan architecture in the locality. Its architectural record may be traced from the ancient Peel or Castlet of medieval times, a portion of which still remains, forming the nucleus of the stately four-storied structure built in 1600 by Lawrence Shuttleworth. Enclosing the original Peel within the new erection he raised it to a greater height, so that it might pierce the roof and become a prominent feature of architectural detail. This tower was again heightened when the last restoration under Sir Charles Barry was undertaken by the father of the present Baronet. It was evident to the visitors (who now had the pleasure of the cicerone- ship of A. Ford, Esq., Steward,) that the later restoration had been carried out with the greatest care, both externally and in- ternally, and that the additions were in strict harmony with the style of the original. Even the pierced Elizabethan battlement extending round the whole building, which it is alleged has pro- voked hostile criticism does not offend in this particular. The same picturesque ornamentation encompasses the central tower between the pinnacles, and on a pediment below it appears a characteristic inscription in bold Roman letters relating to ‘ Pru- dence,’ ‘ Justice,’ and ‘ Hospitality.’ The main features of the Entrance Hall are, the exquisitely carved stone panels, (though quite stern in their treatment,) of John Thomas, a well-known sculptor ; the light pleasant arcading of the same material, and a truly baronial oak staircase looking stout and substantial enough to last for generations to come. Owing to the require- ments of a modern mansion, the original hall has been con- tracted. and a portion of it wainscotted in oak, now forms the Dining Room. Here is still found the dais, the long table, an enormous wine cooler, and a minstrels’ gallery. Many valuable paintings, and portraits of the family, adorn the walls, while in the wainscotted gallery to the right of the entrance are gathered many curious and ancestral relics. The ceilings of the principal apartments on the ground floor are panelled; that in the Drawing 116 room being more delicately treated, and enriched with the ‘ Vine’ ornamentation. The Library, though small, is a pleasant apart- ment in the south western angle. An object of great interest was the long gallery (75 feet) upon the fourth floor, running the whole length of the building, and overlooking the front garden. Tt has an ornate plastered ceiling dated 1608, the characteristic features of which, as well as the whole room, lighted by the quaint Tudor windows, conjures up reminiscences of Haddon. From the gallery the party were conducted to the top of the tower, and the weather being charming they lingered long on the summit. Although the mansion stands low, a beautiful view was obtained to the north and west over the rich meadows that form part of the Gawthorpe Estate, with Pendle in the back ground. From this point the ancient bed of the river Calder could be distinctly traced, and it was easy to picture the appear- ance of the landscape when the Hall was merely a Peel or Castlet somewhat similar to Hellifield in Craven, in days long gone by. At that time the river would flow within a hundred yards of the then miniature fortress, beyond the present bastion wall to the north, and would form an additional defence from Scotch foray and plunder. Probably then there would be no trees round the mansion, and the view would be uninterrupted from the battlemented Manor House of Ighten Hill, down to the spot in the valley upon which old Gawthorpe stood. Descending from the tower an inspection was made of the out-lying build- ings, many of which are most substantially built of stone, and as old as the Hall. A huge barn with its massive oak beams, ample capacity, and semi-ecclesiastical timbered roof, forms one of the finest specimens of knightly appurtenance in the county. A walk through the grounds, and a peep at the tennis courts, completed the visit. A very hearty vote of thanks was given to Mr. Ford for the kind manner in which he had taken the members over the house and grounds. 117 LIBRARY. The Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows :— Vol. 1.—1878.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys,” 1649 to 1655. 5, 2.—1879.—‘ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1545 to 1620. ,, 98.—1880.—“ Lancashire Inquisitions,”’ now existing in the Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period. Part I, 1 to 11, James I. », 4.—1881.—‘ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,’ 1621 to 1650. », 5.—1881.—“ Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1636. », 6.—1882.—“ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certificates,” 1600 to 1678. »» 7.—1882.—.” Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. ,, 8—1882.—.‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,”’ preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part II. » 9.—1884.—.‘ Rolls of Burgesses at the Guilds Merchant of the Borough of Preston,” 1397 to 1682. ,, 10.—1884.—.” Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1457 to 1680. », 11.—1885.—* Lancashire and Cheshire Exchequer Deposi- tions by Commission,” 1558 to 1702. ,, 12.—1885.—“‘ Miscellanies, relating to Lancashire and Che- shire,” Vol. I. ,, 13.—1886.—“ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1681 to 1748. Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Vol. xxxili., 1880-1 ; Vol. xxxiv., 1881-2; Vol. xxxv., 1883. Reports and Proceedings of the following Societies :— Manchester Field Naturalists and Archeologists’ Society, 1860 (the year of its formation ), to 1879 (1871 excepted), 1884, 1885. Manchester Scientific Students’ Association (Established 1861), 1878, 1879, 1883, 1884, 1885. Manchester Geographical Society (Established 1885), Journal for 1885 in 4 volumes, 1886 in 4 volumes. Catalogue of Exhibition of Appliances used in Geographical Education (held March and April, 1886). Report of Educational Committee, and Addresses Delivered in connection with the Exhibition. Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1812), 1888-4, 118 Liverpool Geological Association (Established 1880), 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-3, 1883-4, 1885-6. Liverpool Science Students’ Association (Established 1881), 1883-4, 1884-5, Chester Society of Natural Science (Established 1872), Reports for 1878-9, 1879-80, 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-3, 1883-4, 1884-5, 1885-6, also Proceedings, Vols. 1, 2, 3. Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science (Established 1876), No. IX., 1813-4, No. X., 1884-5. Halifax Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1831), 1883-4. Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society, 1883, Part I. Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1835), 1883-4. North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club and Archeological Society, 1883-4, 1884-5. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1822), 1878, 1879. Montreal Natural History Society (Hstablished 1832), ‘‘ The Canadian Record of Science,” Vol. I., Nos. 3, 4, Vol. IL., Nos. 1, 4. Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, 1884, 1885, 1886. ‘© Synopsis of the British Mosses,” by Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S. « Art in Lancashire and Cheshire;’’ a List of Deceased Artists, with Brief Biographical Notes. By John H. Nodal. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th to 26th, 1883. Catalogue of the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 1883 (containing prices realised.) Baptisms and Anniversaries, &¢., 1705. Manuscript, evidently the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley, on the Vigil of St. John the Baptist, 1705. John Towneley’s Diary, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library. Manuscript. John Towneley’s Account Book, 1601-8. The following papers have been read before the Club :— *«« Geoffrey Chaucer,” by Henry Houlding, read January 18th, 1874. *‘The Philosophy of Recreation,” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874. 119 *¢ Hdmund Spenser,”’ by Henry Houlding, read October 26th, 1875. “The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,” by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P., read September 16th, 1879. *«¢The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. “‘ Science Two Hundred Years Ago,’’ by C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.5., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,” by Thomas Holgate, read October 17th, 1882. “ Odours, Perfumes, and Flavours,” by Alfred Henry Mason, F.C.S., Liverpool, read February 20th, 1883. “Some aspects of Destructive Distillation,” by Thomas Holgate, read March 3rd, 1885. «Sanitary Matters—Past and Present,” by T. N. Dall, read March 10th, 1885. Those marked * may be purchased, price 6d. each. Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June 1st, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, July 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. « Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,” by Edward T. Bellhouse, a paper read before the Manchester Statis- tical Society, April 13th, 1881. Guide to Cambridge, by G. M. Humphrey, M.D., F.R.S. The Railway Traveller’s Walk through Cambridge. Guide to Chester and its Environs, by Thomas Hughes, F.S.A. Handbook to Ely Cathedral. Photographs may be obtained of the following :— Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, i881. Old Houses in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May, 1881. Price 1s. and 2s. according to size. The Four Cinerary Urns discovered in the neighbourhood of Burnley. Price 6d. and 1s. Transactions of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, Vol. I, 1883, Vol. II., 1884, Vol. III., 1885, Vol. IV., 1886, may be obtained. Price 2s.6d. each. 120 ‘aoniaday “TTIN WOUOHD “4001100 punoy pue poururexyy G ST S&F |G ST S&tF BOOT g. Thine tact eee oe peas cerns ipomNT eg « | BOL PTT Tt cop SMOISSTUILOD 8,10499TT09 “ OTT 8 ‘Cth! ‘ox ‘souspueyyy ‘SaIst}eApy ‘saseysog “ ae Ae sare site e Se neue sabipee = ROMO | | pue (IIT ‘IOA ‘SuotjoesuRry, Surpnypour) ‘sunumg “ 06 B ttt: kyerog jeorpdersoep toysoqoueyy ce | 0 (e € - (staf ¢) Ayar0g pr09ex7 aItyseyO pue arITYysBvoUBT, “e | G IT 0 Rata elaine mreve)eiel@ tel eiapele ae see eels 2 ie see eiaaele 49010}UT yueg “ee o 61 0 teen e scene eeeeee eeeeesee sess gogmodxm UOIsINoxXy “e 9 rd 0 Set eC ele Da Ta CORT CE TS i DLT Lene) (9) jo uvory ce 088 treeeeseeses grodeg UIA WOTO9MUOD UT “ cmc 19 IL 0 AOD OO HOD Os POU Oso OCND Oot COCA GOD 50h “ “ 0 61 6z [eyOay Ss, WBIpUPIg “TTA “ee ae 0 ct 0 SECM OCT CT OCH So Pt MCMC) 2 OH POUT Chi SUOTJOVSUBIT, JO BBS “ec 0 @ Fz oishe wise) sje ie’ 6 0 eqs e).0)0io¥ee« trreeeeess goueqg—sosueds gy “ 19 6 8I senses sees sees rena sUUBIpUBIg “ITN “ 0z2?F se eeseeeeeeees ess -o2y ‘gaquueyg [louN0g jo yuoyy ‘* 0 9T OT wae cae eee erens seer revessse 68 *ONTIBC ye sydreoaxy “ 8 OL T wecerese ees eesest moses eee pxBArtoy yYSnoIq coureg Aq 0 OL 96 bese eeee cere rere eee sess sTOTydrTOsqng S1equeyy oL ps F |e ees y "AD ‘OSBL ‘ISLE 4EqQWU909q Buipue seoA BY} AO} yunoooy sweunseod | SUL "Ag Year of Election. 1874 1874 1874 1875 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 1880 1881 1884 1886 121 HONORARY MEMBERS. PAST AND PRESENT. Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. Jas. Kerr, L.8.A.L., Crawshawbooth. Thos. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., Manchester, Rev. J. 8. Doxey, Whalley. William Naylor. Philip Gilbert Hamerton. W. B. Bryan, C.E., London. F. J. Faraday, F.8.8., F.L.8., Manchester. C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield. Edwin Waugh, Manchester. J. H. Nodal, Manchester. Samuel Laycock, Blackpool. R. R. Bealey. W. A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.S., Blackburn. D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S., London. Joseph Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. Alf. H. Mason, F.C.S., Montreal. H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D., Chester. Jno. Edw. Price, F.S.A., F.R.S.L., London. Chas. Rowley, Jun., Manchester. Jas. Croston, F.$.A., Prestbury. Jas. Monckman, D.Sc., Bradford. Tattersall Wilkinson, Swinden, Burnley. MEMBERS. Those whose names are marked * have been elected during 1886. Anningson, J.W., L.R.C.P., Yorkshire Street. Bailey, Charles, 101, Manchester Road. Baldwin, Alexander, Ormerod Street. Barlow, J.A., 2, Padiham Road. Barlow, W.H., 18, St. Matthew’s Street. Baron, John, J.P., 107, Manchester Road. Baron, Arthur, 107, Manchester Road. *Bates, J.H., Towneley Estate Office. *Bell, George, 25, St. James’s Street. Bell, Thomas, 14, Grimshawe Street. Berry, James, 17, Carlton Road. ' *Birley, Arthur, Colne Road. Birnie, Joseph, Post Office. Bolton, Edgar, Bank Hall Terrace. 122 Booth, James, Manchester and County Bank. Booth, Thomas, 22, Sand Street. Bradley, John, 21, St. James’s Street. *Briggs, B. W., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. Briggs, H , M.D., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. Brotherton, Lawrence, Hapress Office. Brown, John, M.A., M.D.. 68, Bank Parade. Broxup, J. Greenwood, Gannow House. Broxup, John, Gannow House. Brumwell, J.C., M.D:, J.P., Hargreaves Street. Buleock, Henry, Hargreaves Street. Bwrows, Thomas, 87, Padiham Road. Butterworth, Jno., Junr., J.P., Brooklands Road. *Butterworth, Tom, Brooklands Road. Calvert, A. E., Nelson. Carter, J.H., M.R.C.V.8., Nelson Square. Clement, Leonard, Iorest View, Nelson. Colbran, W.H., Bank Parade. Colbran, John, Bank Parade. Collinge, James, 51, St. James’s Street. Collinge, John, Spring Hill. Collinge, John §., J.P., Park House. Collinge, William, J.P., 110, St. James’s Street. Cooke, Samuel, 5, Carlton Road. Corder, Edward, Manchester Road Station. *Coulston, W., 21, Rectory Road. Cowgill, Bryan H., 48, Manchester Road. Crabtree, Robert, Brooklands Road. Crook, Thomas, 2, Carlton Road. Crook, Campbell, Rose Hill Road. Cunningham, J.M., Manchester Road. Dall, T. Naylor, Borough Surveyor’s Office. Dean, Thomas. M.D., Manchester Road. Dent, William, Local Board Office, Nelson. Dickinson, Alfred, Rose Cottage. Dickinson, W.R., 20, Manchester Road. Drew, Alexander, Holme Lodge. Duckworth, Joshua, 6, Manchester Road. Dunkerley, Elias, 82, St. James’s Street. Dunkerley, Elijah W., 82, St. James’s Street. Eastwood, Henry, 40, St. James’s Street. Edmondson, Thomas, J.P., Fern Hill. Fletcher, J.H., Hargreaves Street. 128 *Fletcher, John, 84, St. James’s Street. *Fleming, J.G., Spring Terrace, Habergham. Foden, C. M., Sefton Terrace. Folds, James, J.P., Brunshawe House. Folds, James, Junr., Fair View Road. Tox, Charles, 12, Nicholas Street. Gill, George, Woodleigh. Granger, H. Beresford, Craven Bank, Grant, IF’. J., Bank Parade. Grant, W. Lewis, 22, St. Matthew’s Street. Grant, James, Manchester Road. Grant, A. E., 14, Palatine Square. Gray, Nathan P., J.P., Manchester and County Bank. Gray, Rev. R. D. H., Briercliffe Vicarage. Greenwood, James, J.P., 188, Manchester Road. Halstead, Edmund, 40, Junction Street, Hardman, Albert E., Osborne Terrace. *Hargreaves, Fredk., 88, St. James’s Street. Harrison, James, Carlton Terrace. Harrison, J. Dilworth, Sunny Bank. *Hartley, Francis, Albion Street. Haslam, Tom, Sunny Bank. Haslam, W.H., Lark Hill. *Hleaton, Tom, 1, Palatine Square. Hedges, Alfred, Healey Villa. Hesketh, James, 189, St. James’s Street. *Hey, Colin, Lark Hill. Higgin, Cain, 87, Rectory Road. Hill, Fred. H., 21, Fair View Road. Hitchon, Robert, 54, St. James’s Street. Hoghton, Thos., 1, Carlton Road. Hoghton, W.H., 1, Carlton Road. Holden, John, Holme View, Holden, Ralph, Brooklands Road. Holden, Thomas, Chancery Street. Holgate, Albert, 97, St. James’s Street. Hopwood, Fred. James, Corporation Offices, Nicholas Horn, J.8., 15, Palatine Square. [Street. Horner, Thomas, 67, Standish Street. Horner, William C., 29, Manchester Road. Houlden, John Wm., The Cemetery. Houlding, Henry. Oak Mount Terrace. Howard, Wm. R., Manchester and County Bank. Howorth, John, J.P., Park View. Howson, Charles J., Craven Bank, Hudson, Saml., 9, Sefton Terrace, 124 Jobling, Arthur, Spring Wood. Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa. Kay, W.E., Brooklands Road. King, Alfred S., Carlton Road. Lancaster, Alfred, Manchester Road. Lancaster, James, Carlton Road. Lancaster, Wm., Junr., 18, Carlton Road. Lawson, S.. L.F.P.G., Brierfield. *Tea, Richard S., 66, Albion Street. Lee, Richard, Parker Lane. Lee, George, Stoneyholme. Lee, J.L., Stoneyholme. Lloyd, Thos., Grammar School. *Lonsdale, John, 1, Yorke Street. Lupton, Arthur, 136, Manchester Road. Lupton, J.T., 28, Manchester Road. Lupton, Wm., Trafalgar House, Manchester Road. «Lupton, William H., Trafalgar House, Manchester Road Mackenzie, James, M.D., 68, Bank Parade. Mellor, T., Hargreaves Street. Metcalfe, Chris., Palatine Square. Midgley, Tom, 50, Rectory Road. Moore, B., Gazette Office. Mossop, Wm., Bank Parade. Mozley, H., Queen’s Gate. Myers, Fred, Westgate. Nelson, Richard, 11, Nicholas Street. *Nicoll, Peter L., Manchester Road. Nowell, Thos., Healey Grange. Nutter, Henry, 44, Queen’s Gate. Ogden, Geo. C., Thorn Hotel. O'Sullivan, D.A., B.A., L.R.C.P., Westgate. Parkinson, A. W., 74, Manchester Road. *Parkinson, Wm., Palatine Square. Parsons, Chas., 9, Grimshawe Street. Parsons, John, Westgate. Pickles, Joseph, 34, Allen Street. Pickup, Peter, 40, Westgate. Polding, Jas. B., Nicholas Street. Preston, Henry, 104, Manchester Road. Preston, Thomas, 92, Manchester Road. 125 Pritchard, Thomas, Worsthorne. Procter, Richard, Oak Mount. Ratcliffe, Abraham, 142, Manchester Road. Ratcliffe, J.R., 142, Manchester Road. Ratcliffe, David, 9, Carlton Road. Raweliffe, G.B., Pickup Terrace. Raweliffe, J., Oak Mount. Raweliffe, J. H., 65, Manchester Road. Rawlinson, Joshua, J.P., Oak Bank. Riley, Holden, St. James’s Street. Roberts, P.E., Carlton Road. Roberts, Thomas, Bank Parade. Sagar, Benjamin, Heaton Moor. Scowby, Francis, Craven Bank. Shaw, Smith, 11, St. James’s Street. Shaweross, John T., Nicholas Street. Shuttleworth, Sir U. J. Kay, M.P., Gawthorpe. Slater, Chris., Manchester Road. Smith, Denis, 57, Cuerden Terrace. Smith, James, Yorke Street. Stafford, J.E., Nicholas Street. *Steel, Fredk. Wm., Cuerden Terrace. Storey, Geo., J.P., Brunshawe. Strange, Alfred, Craven Lodge. Sutcliffe, Alfred, L.R.C.P., Trinity House. Sutcliffe, Geo., J.P., Oak Hill. Sutcliffe, James, Bull Hotel. Sutcliffe, John, Hargreaves Street. Sutcliffe, J.S., Fir Grove. Thompson, James, 26, Cuerden Street. Thompson, James, St. James’s Street. Thompson, James W., Oak Bank. Thompson, Wm., Oak Bank. Thornber, Thos., Piccadilly Road. Thornton, John, The Poplars. Thorp, Thos., Manchester Road. Thursby, J.0.S., J.P., Bank Hall. Tovey, A.E., D.Sc., Grammar School. Tunstill, Henry, Oak Mount. Waddington, Wm., Thorn Hill. Waddington, W. Angelo, Thorn Hill. Waddington, J. Arthur, Thorn Hill. Waddington, John C., Thorn Hill, ~ 126 Waddington, James C., 3, Ormerod Street. Walmsley, George, Lark Hill. Walmsley. Thos., Coke Street. Ward, H. T., Palatine Square. Ward, J. Langfield, M.A., Grammar School. Watson, A. A., L.R.C.S8., Colne Road. *Watson, Matthew, Junr., 54, Bank Parade. Watson, Richard, Hargreaves Street. Whitaker, Jas. H., Wilfield Terrace. *Whittaker, Henry, Berry Street. Whittaker, John, Junr., Carr Road, Nelson. Whitehead, W. Rennie, Carr Road, Nelson. Wignall, John Wm., Market Street. Wilks, Maurice, 24, St. Matthew's Street. Willey, Rev. W., Palatine Square. Witham, Wm., Todmorden Road. Wood, Martin, Westgate. 127 NAMES OF READERS OF PAPERS, &c. (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER.) Pace. Abram, W. A., F.R.H.S., J.P. ....A Review of the Evidence on the suggested relation of the Poet Spenser to the Clan of Spensers in the Burnley District........ 73 Anningson, J. W., L.R.C.P. ......John Hunter: his Lifeand Work .. 45 SPAN GTANE LS. elise ve tieyhe vetoes c Recital— As you like it”’.......... Brumwell, J. C., M.D., J.P. ....., Visit to the Dead Cities of the Zuyder Zee, and the Stone Monuments in the Drenthe ............... 66 Fleming, J. G...... Bit siara ice sents hie Recital—‘“‘ Othello” .............. 69 Grant, Frederick J............... The Three Sisters of Haworth ...... 17 Review—“ Tiresias and other Poems”’ j by Alfred Tennyson .......... 43 Hill, Frederick H. ........... . .. Review—“ Tiresias and other Poems” by Alfred Tennyson .......... 40 POETS Ueto sence ct ajosictsle’a siopsiclsic oct Local Government as it at present exists in England and Wales.. 30 Kerr, James, L.S.A.L.............Etymology of Place Names in the Forest of Rossendale and its connected Districts .......... 98 Monckman, J., D.Sc. ............ CompusOnnpace nse ae 22 Moore, Benjamin................ Proportional Representation........ 23 SCC EUR al 2 ee ee a a ae ee Matthew Arnold: an exposition of his leading views, with a note on hisvPoems ys. c5 skin wre 13 Parkinsons Els Weaanecs oe se.0s «ahs AN OVIGAS Fassia cea ceee ae vou ewe 71 Perry, Rev. 8. J., F.R.S., F.R.A.S..Our Present Knowledge of the Plan- CLATYAWOLIG. sae csieiascirccaces 12 Stafford, J. E., A.M.I.C.E........ Lifeboats: past and present........ 17 Strange, Alfred ................ A Chat about Heraldry ............ 48 Thompson, William ............ Gal yPecra cscs aeteeysiciare, ctw cians oeieaioeoe 63 Thursby, J.0.S., J.P... ...... 0... The Drama of To-day ..........,. 25 Movey, A. E,, D.S¢.6. 5% csc ccewcss Animal Parasitism ................ 68 Waddington, W. A............... Pre-Historic Remains in the Neigh- bourhood of Burnley........., 89 Ancient America........3....+.... 109 Ward, J. Langfield, M.A. ........ Cambridge Life .................. 27 The Ancient Epic and Drama as reproduced in English Poetry.. 55 Wilkinson, H. 8., M.A. ..........Howtoreada Map .............. 70 Wilkinson, Tattersall............ Pre-Historic Remains in the Neigh- bourhood of Burnley.......... 89 Walley. Rev. W.....c\.ccssiioeie sie Social Lights and Shadows ........ 83 For Full List of Meetings held during 1886, sce Page 10. EXCURSIONS. GaRGRAVE, HsHTON HALL AND WOODS ..cceereeecsesssseccecccescess LI4 GAWTHORPE HALL AND GROUNDS........00 00s sevccccevcesvecseseee LIS 128 TUTSMGOM IO MELOBRGS, Of. cette ec ioe era tor euo,ayand) Suiereleid acevo weal keane ANNUAT MEVEPORT caer ene iereieecajalsy ettarcioveielel oltre ae aie lols wae cenibereie g tietens List or Meertines, civinc Namres oF READERS AND SUBJECTS . SUMMARIES OF PAPERS READ DURING THE YEAR.,........e0000+ OrHER PapEeRs :-— seen vee Erymonocy or Piack NAMES IN THE Forest or RossENDALE AND ITS CONNECTED Districts. By James Kerr, L.S.A.L. Ancient America. By W. A. WADDINGTON. .. HSK GITRSTONG a aievantuelec ietele Wists cats we (ejecta tterelte fw ide veasie celeie eioie uel tera oes WTR REAT Wagers te reyeriey so anova) eere'e: siete ar siederel Wieiatele label ee oreo ltaceet ete imate STATEMENT (OMA OCCOUNTS iin oieisieialciels sieieieieie ale si aielerolelevateeinareye.e’ List or MEMBERS—HONORARY AND ORDINARY ...cceceeece ces ALPHABETICAL List oF READERS OF PAPERS, &C. 1... 0.0000 eee eeeee BURGHOPE & STRANGE, PUBLISHERS, &¢., BURNLEY. oe) 98 109 113 117 re) MAR i SS eee ee oS eee LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. oG POE A 1887. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXVII. TATEZS | Toe ze bustin i io = \\ eee 3 || RE Parker Bag? — —_A\ 3.298 \\ ae = 6.2.15 \ uy Pion pis a ——- \ pet 4 y, \ = Daneneaeae bad “ \ € eee bora ies Ba Sowa wel om We ie \ oo" \ LE ~N 2207 (2 ans son Ze James LG thier Esq” Tow Church Lang B Harrison le ie dle, 5 ? Holgate & Massey Beg” | \ Holgate _ I HA BER GH AM aol ‘ Law Halstead Beg” 1.3.27 Zevers\ Nelson house © DP \Parkin son Z 2 | ye @Healy Larth 7 Yea es i oa \ 422\\ \ lt Ge \ \ \eaanes / Hoidhte Eagh aN Ve i ji \ 7 / We eeion. f ANG 4.2.21“. PD SA \zasol dal Zi Y) Ze \ e eee Burnley? “Hargreaves SEE 32.0 /Whii WY LL Y Burghope & Strange, del, 1888 VS Se) y PLAN OF BURNLEY SEVENTY YEARS AGO: BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. VOL. V. 1887. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXVII. Burnley Literary and Scientific Club. ESTABLISHED 1878. ———>—_— President: J. LANGFIELD WARD, M.A. Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumwety, M.D., J.P. J. W. Awnnineson, L.R.C.P. F. J. Grant. ALFRED STRANGE, W. A. Wappinerton. W. L. Grant. Treasurer :—JAS. KAY, J.P. Committee: JAMES LANCASTER. F. H. Hu. H. Butucocx. J. Antoun WapDINGTON. G. B. Rawcuirrs. A. E. Tovey. D. Se. Secretary: T. LLOYD, B.A., Grammar School, Burnley. * eee Titian ls~ i a Z A be 4 7 Petes NET ean apes oP ee a > : og OO f 7 ae b ie ee ed SOM é : £ Phis re) a. ae) a na th rt | inf aad ity ite: er ard ; 3 es Ris! pt ee Seeders th ee eet eee . ray - t% Serie es od \ a ~ Sean 2 Ton. Me) an te ee a a fg ee ee Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule RULES. That the Society be named the ‘‘ Burney Literary AND ScrentiFic Cuvs.” That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrange- ments be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary Members. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be prepara- tory to the Excursions. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings of each meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting. Candidates for membership to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next; a majority of three-fourths of the members present being required to secure the election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club; four to form aquorum. Such officers to be chosen by Ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. Rule 8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rule 11. Rule 12. Rule 13. 6 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discus- sion. No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the Chairman. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Secretary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of management. Each member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend,* but no person so introduced, shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings, unless invited by the Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare any meeting “Special” and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meeting as they shall think proper. That an annual Subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary members, and any person whose subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be a mem- ber of the Club. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Committee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a Special Meeting; in both cases a fortnight’s Notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. *No gentleman residing within the parliamentary borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission. Jan. 7 SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1887. 13—Lecture, ‘‘ Lancashire in the Carboniferous Age,’’— Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S. 18—Paper, ‘‘ May Probyn’s Poems,’’—J. Williamson. 21—(Friday,) Dance, (Mechanics’ Institution.) 25—Paper, ‘‘ Ventilation as a means of Health in Dwel- lings,” Ilustrated—Thos. N. Dall. 1—Paper, “ Review of English Language and Literature from the Conquest to Chaucer ’’—T. Lloyd, B.A. 8—Paper, ‘‘ Bi-Metallism ’—Joshua Rawlinson, J.P. 15—No Meeting. 22—Paper, ‘‘ The Riviera,” Ilustrated—James Lancaster. March 1—Paper, ‘‘ Reminiscences of Local Flora’’— ” ” ” Henry Houlding. 8—Readings from his Father’s Works, (Mechanics’ Institu- tion)—Charles Dickens. 15—Discussion, ‘‘ The Development of the Cotton Trade since 1875—can it be maintained ?’’— James Greenwood, J.P. 22—Paper, “Types of Sepulchral Urns and Lancashire Neolithic Remains ’’—H. Colley March, M.D. 29—Paper, ‘‘ Old Halls in the neighbourhood of Burnley,” Tllustrated—Thomas Bell. April 5—Annual Meeting. », 12—Musical Soirée, “An Kvening with the great Tone Poets: Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven,” Director— G. Crompton, 8 SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER, 1887. t 27—Opening Conversazione: Presentation to W. L. Grant: 4—Paper, ‘‘ On the Nile: a Pleasure Trip,” Ilustrated— J. Whittaker. 11—Anonymous Papers. 18—Paper, ‘‘ An Evening with Moliére ”"—Rey. W. Willey. 25—Readings by Members—Chas. Parsons, Director. 1—Paper, ‘‘ Nebular Hypothesis »—H. Nutter. 8—Paper, ‘‘ Economical and Constitutional Results of the Crusades.”—Rev. W. S. Caiger, B.A. 15—Paper, ‘‘ Water and Water Supply ’”—Dr. Johnston. 22—Paper, ‘“ Scott” —J. 0. S. Thursby, J.P. 29—Paper, “ Bi-Metallism ”"—Elijah Helm. 6—Paper, ‘A Sketch of Burnley Seventy Years ago "— J. Grant. 13—Paper, ‘Solar Flames,” Illustrated—Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., Stonyhurst College. 16—The Dinner. 20—Musical Soirée—Tom Heaton, Director. INTRODUCTORY REPORT. This volume—the fifth of the series—sets forth the work done by the Club during the year 1887. Twenty seven meetings have been held. The average attendance from January to April was 26 members, 9 friends; from September to December 34 members, 16 friends. _ The year was commenced with a membership numbering 204, 23 of these the Club has lost; it has however admitted 12 new members, and is thus left at the end of the year with a list of 193. The Excursion Committee prepared plans for Ex- cursions to Owens College, Ingleton, and Ormerod with Hurstwood. The proposed excursion to Ingleton was abandoned because of the very small number of names sent ; an account of the others will be found in the appendix. At the invitation of the Manchester Geographical Society,—to which this Club is affiliated,—37 mem- bers visited the Preston Docks, on Saturday, 22nd October. Of the 26 papers and lectures delivered to the Club, 7 were contributed by gentlemen who are non- members, but who bear well-known names; they are Professor Dawkins, J. Williamson, Dr. Colley March, G. Crompton, Rey. W. 8. Caiger, Elijah Helm, Rev. A. L. Cortie, 8.J.. The Paper on “Old Halls near Burnley,” by T. Bell, and that on “ Burnley Seventy Years Ago,” by J. Grant, had in them so many interesting details of Old Burnley, that as much space as possible has been devoted to them. 10 On March 8th, the Members were treated by Chas. Dickens, to Readings from his father’s works. At the Autumnal Opening Conversazione, Sep. 27th, Mr. L. Grant, the retiring Secretary was pre- sented with an Address and a purse of gold as a mark of the Members’ admiration of the manner in which he had watched their interests through seven long years. The Corporation still continue to grant the use of the Council Chamber, and the thanks of the Club are again given to His Worship the Mayor and the Cor- poration for the kind consideration which they never fail to show towards the Burnley Literary and Scien- tifie Club. Mr. J. Butterworth, Junr., J.P., has again ren- dered most valuable assistance; to him also the Club expresses its thanks for his continued services. The financial position is good. A Statement of Accounts will be found in the Appendix. At the close of the 14th year of the existence of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, the Com- mittee cannot help looking at the past with some amount of pride at the work that the Club has done, and for the future they trust that success will crown the efforts of the Society, and that it will continue to maintain its present high character, and may be the means of elevating the literary and scientific attain- ments of the immediate neighbourhood. 11 LANCASHIRE IN THE CARBONIFEROUS AGE. By PROFESSOR W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.4A., FBS. January 11th, 1887, In choosing the subject which I propose to lay before you this evening, I was influenced mainly by two ideas. In the first place, I wanted to point out to you that the study of the ancient history of the earth is by no means a thing of long names, but in itself an interesting subject. My second reason was to show you that the geography of the earth as we find it now is not in the least degree shut out from the ancient history of the earth. In other words, I wanted to show you how it is possible to re- construct the geography of Lancashire even so far back as the carboniferous period; and in doing that I wanted you particularly to see how exceedingly simple, easy, and natural the geological or scientific method is. For, as a rule, when a thing is abstruse and wrapped up in long words it is a thing which for the most part is not understood even by the people who use the long words. My friend, Mr. Freeman, the historian, has said a very good thing to me upon that point, and which I think bears upon what Iam saying now. He said to me ‘ Whenever I know a thing well myself and I want other people to know it too, I use short words, but supposing I don’t know a thing well or don’t wish people to know what I am talking about, then I use long words.” I shall attempt, therefore, to-night to give what I have to say as plainly, as simply, and as straightforwardly as possible. In the first place, in dealing with the geography of Lanca- shire, I want you to follow me with regard to our method. Supposing we take our stand upon the sea shore, at high water mark there are the long lines of pebble upon the shingle beach, and if you follow them away from the high water mark, as you can sometimes, towards the low tide, you will find that the shingle is replaced by the sand. First you have the shingle, then the sand, and if you were to go still further away beneath the surface of the water you would get another set of deposits called the muds. Thus you will note that on the present shores we have three distinct deposits—the shingle near the line, the sand, and the mud. In other words, the materials borne away by the waves from the land are deposited in a long series of bands lapping round our coast line, and if we examined the distribution of these deposits from the coast line towards the deeper waters we should get not more than, at the very outside, 109 fathoms for the sand and shingle, and for the most part very much less, while we may have muds deposited in water which is deeper than 100 fathoms. We may have, as for instance in the 12 cases of the Amazon and La Plata, the mud bank ranging down to 1,000 fathoms, but as a rule away from the mouth of the great rivers the water is clear and blue, bright at the surface, and devoid of mud. But supposing we go still further and into deeper water beyond all this, and occupying the very bottom of the ocean, we have a great accumulation analogous to chalk. It is caleareous and is mainly the result of countless generations of globigerina—animals which have lived and died at the bottom of the seas. Thus you see at the bottom of the deepest waters, ranging from say 200 or 300 fathoms near the limits, to a depth of 2,800 fathoms, you have this formation which is absolutely distinct from the mud, sand, and shingle. We must not forget to note the fact that in the very greatest depths—from 2,500 fathoms to the greatest depths yet arrived at—we have a deposit of what may be termed oceanic muds—the finer sediments which have taken perhaps hundreds and thousands of years to sink, with slowness, to the bottom. We have definite arrangement in the case of the shingle, we know for certain that it is only near the land; in the case of calcareous deposits we know they are formed in the depths of the sea, and the mud and sand banks tell their own story of the arrangement of the land. We have in that simple arrangement the key to make out the old geography of Lancashire which I shall hope to put before you this evening as a part of the greater geography of this country. For what- ever we may be in politics we cannot, in our geology, separate our geography in Lancashire from the geography of Ireland and Scotland. Passing on to the rocks, which we shall consider this even- ing, and which are familiar to most of us as the sandstones and shale and clay and limestone, they are all of them petrified sand- banks, mudbanks, or shingle beaches or in part petrified calcare- ous portions of deeper accumulations which have been formed on the margins which looked towards the land. In the relation with these over-lapping shingle, sand and mud bear to one another, we have the clue to the ancient geological distribution of land and water. Having then finished that section, the next thing which I must ask your attention to is the classification of the carboniferous formation, consisting of a series of grits. We have first of all the carboniferous shale, then Yoredales, then millstone grits, so named because in comparatively modern times they have been used for making millstones; and then above that again we come to the most interesting of all—an accumulation of rocks, containing coals and familiarly known as coal measures. These represent the names I shall use this evening, and I should like you to note the fact that we classify these beds into two groups—the lower being the carboniferous millstone grits. Let us, as we are dealing with the pure question of local geography 18 and local geology, begin in a well-known spot. Supposing we draw a section across Pendle Hill, starting from Clitheroe. I draw it at the top and I must ask you to imagine that this hori- zontal line is intended to represent the sea line. In the first instance, in the neighbourhood of Clitheroe, and especially at the point where the Ribble runs at the bottom of the valley there is a thick accumulation of limestone—carboniferous lime- stone. I shall not detain you with any particulars regarding it ; I would merely direct your attention to the fact of its enormous thickness. We have there a supposed thickness of 3,250 feet. I say supposed, because we have not got to the bottom of these beds, and if you wanted to see the bottom of the beds you would have to go all the way to the district of Ingleborough. Above that we have an enormously thick mass of sandstones and shale. Coming from the neighbourhood of Clitheroe up the slopes of Pendle you will come over a set of mud banks and sandbanks and petrified deep-sea accumulations, and ultimately, when you get to the top of Pendle, you are standing upon an ancient series of sandstones containing large pebbles in some places. The thickness of these beds is 4,675 feet, representing a vertical depth from the top to the bottom. This is the massive sandstone forming the top of Pendle. Now then we come to the group immediately above. These objects are what I have called the Yoredale beds, and, like the mountain limestone, they are purely marine; and, as you know perfectly well from the economics of this district, there is no coal to be found in one or the other. Some ingenious person 25 years ago, amused others, not himself, by sinking for coals in this spot. This is a very good illustration of the proverb, “a little learning is a dangerous thing,” and also shows that a practical man is sometimes able to make a mistake. Here we have a set of sandstones and shales, and sandstones constituting the ranges which gradually descend into the direction of Burnley. These belong to that series of deposits known as millstone grits. Then above that we have the coal-field of Burnley—the enormously valuable coal-field of Burnley—in thickness, even in its present condition, 3,217 feet, while the thickness of the millstone grit is a thickness which is perfectly unrivalled in any other part of the world so far as I know. This enormous accumulation of petrified sand banks and mud banks is no less than 5,500 feet thick. You see then that in dealing with the most extraordinarily thick series of deposits, for we are actually standing in a spot, I may say, where these lower de- posits—millstone grits and Yoredale shales—are far thicker than they are to be seen anywhere else. I shall, first of all then, consider the physical geography of this country during the time that all the rocks from the top of Pendle northwards were being deposited from the carboniferous limestone upwards. This cal- 14 careous accumulation, this lower limestone, is to be looked upon as I have already mentioned to you as being formed in deep water free from muddy sediment, for if there had been a muddy sediment the creatures would not have lived and formed the lime- stone, and we should have got mud limestone instead of calcareous limestone. Consequently there can be no doubt whatever that the area of Clitheroe was the area of deep sea. It must have been clear sea, removed some distance from the land, for if it were not so we should have got mudbanks or sandbanks. Let us pass away from this area of Clitheroe to the area in Derbyshire. There we shall be able to enlarge our ideas with regard to the history of things from the time of the accumulation of these rocks in Derbyshire. In Derbyshire we have at the very least 5,000 feet in thickness of pure limestone, or limestone nearly pure, implying that for a vast series of ages the deep waters of the ocean rolled over that region. We may therefore take our stand in this district, and we may say that in Derbyshire and in Clitheroe, and, I would add further, that in all the intervening points, there is proof of the existence of deep sea in the carbon- iferous age. Let us just consider where the line was. Take this to represent a portion of the Welsh hills just at the point where they die away towards the English border into the lower region of the valley of the Dee, or Severn. Resting upon these older rocks of the Welsh area—Silurian—we have as well-defined a series of petrified beaches representing shingle as ever you saw. The conglomerates would point out that we are close to the mar- gin of the ancient sea. Not only that, but the limestones are thinner, being not more than 1,500 feet in thickness, and more- over they are associated with sand banks and mud banks, showing beyond doubt that land was ahead. We may take it, therefore, that the condition of the land at that time in that region was very much what it is represented to be on this map. Here you see we have started in Clitheroe, and worked our way into Derby- shire, finding it all deep sea, but when we have gone to the south and west in the direction of Wales we are brought up by land and petrified shingle. Going due south, all along the line from the region where the Severn leaves the area of North Wales proper for a considerable distance there is no limestone. Why is that? Simply because in those days there was land and not sea, and consequently, there was no chance for limestone to be deposited. The same, too, is the case in the district of Stafford- shire, and with regard to the whole of the area of Charnwood Forest, where, however, we get something like 1,500 feet of lime- stone. So that there is the most clear evidence, from the shingle beaches, the absence of limestones and the presence of sand- stone, and also from plants growing upon the land that the limit of the sea was there.. I take it, then, that the line of the sea is 15 marked by the indications I have pointed out, and that there was a barrier of land reaching from Wales eastward in the direction of the line to The Wash. Its exact boundaries, of course, it was impossible to make out, but as to the existence of that line there can be no possible reason to doubt. Following the sea line northwards, precisely the same class of evidence I have indicated to you with regard to Wales is to be found in the - deposits which encircle the mountains of Cumberland. We have the limestone very thin and insignificant, and along with the limestones we have these conglomerates or petrified shingle beds, and there can be no doubt whatever that the region of Cumber- land and North Lancashire formed the islet, and contributed those accumulations which encircle these mountain tracts now. We have the most ample proof that the waters of the lower car- boniferous sea rolled over the area of South Scotland, but there were two islands with their encircling lines of shingle beaches in the southern parts of Scotland. Coal seems to have been looked upon as petrified peat-mosses, or rather the representative of peat- mosses of ancient times. Therefore the very existence of coal seems to imply the existence of land in the carboniferous times. After tracing the sea line in the Highlands and Ireland, and remarking that the rugged characteristics in the north-western part of the sister isle had made their stamp on the inhabitants of the present time, Professor Dawkins said :—Thus you see we have fair evidence from the most simple premises as to the dis- tribution of land and water in the lower carboniferous times in this country. The greater part of these islands was occupied by water, and the area of the British Isles was then represented by ‘a series of isolated islands, one in Cornwall, another occupying the greater portion of Wales, another in Cumberland and West- moreland, another in the Isle of Man, two (it may be three) in the southern parts of Scotland, and one or two islands in the area of Ireland. There is evidence of portions of the western part. of Ireland having formed part of that ancient continent “which extended to the north and west, and which we know from geological evidence to have been a continent for an enormous period of geological time. The continent to the north and south was a continent which extended to the Arctic circle, which formed a mass of land along which in those times any one could have travelled all the way from the Highlands of Scotland through Greenland, and on to Canada. That is a mere fragment of this great continent—the great lost continent we may term it—of ‘Archaia. As to the length of time this continent existed look at this map, and you will find the older rocks are to be found directed towards the north west, while the newer rocks lie in series of parallel bands broken and shattered, to a large extent lying to the south and the east. That merely means that these deposits 16 were formed in great sand-banks and mud-banks and other accumulations parallel to the ever-shifting coast line of this great continent—Archaia. I mention that to enable you to realise a fact which I myself did not realise until about this time last year. Let us now consider the physical condition of this country that is supplied in the upper carboniferous times. In case of the Yoredales we have evidence unmistakable of the gradual shallow- ing of these oceanic waters. First of all the mud banks gradually passed their way over the accumulations of the deeper waters ; then in due order the coarser accumulations were pushed over the mud banks, and so on until you have your 4,500 feet of Yoredale rock of Pendle formed. The sand-banks and mud-banks gradually filled up the area of sea, and the sea was pretty nearly converted into an area of land. Then we have gradually creeping down from the higher points of land the carboniferous trees, the trees of which the coal was built up. We have trees of various sorts— the lepidodendra, the sigillaria, &c.,—gradually finding their way over the newly-formed land, clothing it with vegetation, which in its decay contributed to the formation of the beds of peat, which, compacted together and altered by heat, were converted into the seams of coal so valuable to us in this district and upon which our commercial prosperity depends. These trees comprised large representatives of the conifers, more particularly the Salisburya, and now comes an interesting fact. Did those trees find their way over these great tracts of accumulation—the mud banks and sand banks? We find our answer to that by just considering the evidence as to the vegetation on the land in the lower carbon- iferous times. Those forests were flourishing in Scotland—in that portion of Archaia—during the whole of the carboniferous age: there is no doubt whatever that it was flourishing also in Wales, so that what would happen was for them to descend from the higher to the lower area. In that manner then this area of sea was gradually converted into an area of land covered with luxuriant forest. A very interesting piece of evidence in regard to the position of the land is that the coal seams in a bed occur as nearly as possible parallel to one another. They may be inclined to any angle of the horizon; that does not matter at all because since that material accumulated great changes of level locally have taken place. Not only so but when we come to examine the sand banks and shales which are associated with the coal seams, we have proof that after these land surfaces represented by the seams of coal had been suddenly depressed beneath the waters of the sea or estuary, then the sand and mud banks were poured over the submerged area of vegetable accumu- lation. Then they accumulated again and formed another dead level on which another coal bed was formed, but in every case the surface was a horizontal surface. That will lead to such a 17 re-construction of geography as we have seen here. Here (point+ ing to a map) we have the coal seams occupying the position of the old shingle bed of the lower carboniferous times. In Ireland in those days there was a wonderful wealth of growth, and in those times you might have walked straight away from this island of ours into the region of Ireland over a dead alluvial flat covered by these forests traversed by innumerable winding rivers, some of which are preserved abundantly, and some of which we can map in the Forest of Dean. Thus then you see the geogra- phy of this country at this time was in strange contrast to that geography which I have put before you in dealing with the Archaian portion of our subject. There was no Pennine Chain in those days, and no hills in this part of the country. Here in Burnley you have enormously thick coal measure rocks, rather less than half the total thickness of these successive level growths. In the Wigan coal fields we have a thickness altogether of 7,200 feet of sand bank and mud bank, and forest growth. Only just consider what time that means! We know at the present day that the accumulations of sand, say in the Irish sea, is excessively slow. Why there has been no important addition to our island formed by the accumulation of sand since the days that the Romans landed here! We know, too, that the deposit of mud is also very slow. How long then, may we ask ourselves, was required for the accumulation of 7,200 feet of deposits largely formed of sand and of mud? Or, supposing we put it in another way, how long would it take to form a foot of coal? A foot of coal would represent I am afraid to say how many feet of com- pressed vegetable matter. How many forests of trees lived and died upon a given spot of coal seam? All these facts bring us face to face with the problem of the infiniteness of past times. But now let me point out to you the wonderful series of physical revolutions which took place at the close of the carbon- iferous age. At the close of the carboniferous age these great horizontal tracts, clad with forests, were thrown into a series of folds, formed at the close of the carboniferous age and before any of your rocks were formed. I take it that the fold of which Pendle Hill is one of the most remarkable monuments in this district, took place at approximately the same date, and I know for certain that there was another series of folds extending right away from the west of Ireland, all through Somerset, to the Belgian coal fields, an enormous smashing and crashing at right angles owing to these operations. Then broke up the vast tract of coal formation into a series of isolated coal fields of which the present coal fields are mere rags and tatters. It almost makes me shudder to think of the enormous amount of coals which Ireland has lost by the erosive action of the ice, the atmosphere, and the like. In ancient times Ireland was richly endowed with 18 ‘coal, but owing to one of those perversities with which we geol- ogists have nothing to do, Ireland was robbed of these vast coal fields which are now represented by a few insignificant tatters. I would like to add one other idea of the geography of this country in the carboniferous age. During the whole of the car- boniferous age there were volcanoes active in one or another part of our island. For instance in this area—the centre of Scotland—there were volcanoes comparable to Etna or Vesuvius throwing their lava into the air and filling with the most singular beauty the forests upon which they fell. I must ask you really to consider whether it is not worth while, living as you do in an area so full of interest as this, to look into the how and why of these things and see whether you cannot add to the interest which you possess in life by trying to make out how these things of which I have been speaking came to be what they are. I can speak for myself that I have derived all the pleasure which some people get from hunting, fishing, killing time, or even in follow- ing many of the other amusements of life—I say I have obtained a far greater amount of satisfaction, in my private opinion, by going into these matters than by following those other and perhaps more expensive pursuits. [An interesting discussion followed. ] MAY PROBYN’S POEMS. By J. WILLIAMSON. January 18th, 1887. —— In 1881 May Probyn published a small volume of seventy- eight pages; and if brevity be the soul of poetry as well as of wit, the book is a poetical treasury in which all lovers of good verse will take an ever increasing delight. Written ata time when the taste for exotic forms of verse had developed into a mania, it would be too much to 2xpect Miss Probyn to be proof against the fascination of the revived rhymths first made popular by Austin Dobson and Andrew Lang. Fourteen Ballades, Virelais, Rondels, Rondeaus, Triolets, and Villanelles help to enlarge the small collection without adding anything to its real value, and may be passed without farther comment. Of the remainder, no poem could be left out without loss. Dramatic power, brevity, quaintness, and a curious indefinable charm of treatment belong to them all; while, in one rare quality—sug- gestiveness—Miss Probyn approaches some of our greatest writers. As an instance, look at the little gem called a ‘‘ Jacobite Snatch:”’ “He left the wheat in the ear, And the bearded barley, Left the heifer and steer— My love’s away with Charlie.” — 19 In the whole poem are eleven lines, seven of them superfluous. The first four make a completed romance. The title itself is a stroke of genius. In this little quatrain the rise of the young Pretender in the North—the gathering of the clans—the call to arms—the wild enthusiasm of the Highlanders—the skirll of the pipes—the alarm in the South—the march to victory—defeat and banishment—and the longing and sorrowing of wives and mothers and sweethearts left behind—are brought as vividly before the mind's eye as a flash of lightning reveals a distant landscape. Outside Shakespeare I only know two examples comparable to it; one is Marlowe’s apostrophe to Helen : “ Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, And burnt the topless towers of Ilium?” and the verse in Wordsworth’s “‘ Highland Girl:” ‘« What is it that the maiden sings: How do the numbers flow? Of old, forgotten, far off things And battles long ago.” In the three tragedies—‘ Dante’s Wife:”’ ‘‘ Sudden Death :” and ‘ City Chimes’’—this power of depicting with a few strokes complex and disconnected events is strikingly apparent. In the sonnet on Gemma the doglike fidelity, the mute misery and self abnegation of a large class of women is epitomised in four- teen lines; the three volumes of Mrs. Carlyle’s letters do not reveal more. ‘City Chimes” is a five-act tragedy condensed in a couple of pages. There is no prologue to the play bespeaking our sympathy for the heroine: nor any Shandean delay in lead- ing up to the main incidents in the drama, but immediately the curtain rises we are absorbed and held until the pitiful tale is told. There are only three characters in the piece. One is almost a nonentity—the aristocratic villain never appears—and the shy city merchant’s daughter is left on the stage alone to appeal to the feelings of the audience. The principal remaining poems: ‘In February:”’ ‘‘ Yesterday:”’ ‘Soap Suds:” and the “ Mill Wheel:” are all worth noting for their artistic qualities : recurring felicities of phrase, and genuine pathos and humour ; while the second part of “ Affinities” might have been translated direct out of the golden prime of Greek mythology. Taking it altogether, no such book of performance and promise has appeared for many years. A delightful old-world atmosphere surrounds it «And the sweetness as of a hundred Junes Seems gathered up in the sunny weather” that floods the pages wherein the young Pagan shepherds who ran “ Over Thessalian meadows Wet with Olympian dews ;”’ 20 and ruddy-faced English men and maidens make love,—and grow jealous,—and marry—and die. Miss Probyn’s second volume: ‘‘A Ballad of the Road and other Poems;”’ published in 1883, is larger than the first; the poems, generally, are longer and more ambitious in design, and display a certain growth and advance in choice of subject and surroundings, though not in picturesqueness of treatment, or skilful delineation of character. There is also *‘ A Nosegay from a French Garden :’’ very pretty and graceful, but almost scent- less, and scarcely worth the trouble of tying up. The most powerful piece of work in the volume is the tale told in blank verse and named ‘“ Mary Trent.” The subject is something hack- neyed: but as a first attempt in this difficult metre it is a remarkable performance. Whether from instinct or design, Miss Probyn’s finest poems have their initial motive in the sorrow and misery of women, children, and dumb animals caused by the selfishness and brutality of men. In “ Dante’s Wife ”’—“ Yes- terday ’—‘‘ Mill Wheel ””—* City Chimes ”»—‘‘ Jane Shore ”’— «The Model’’—*‘ The Painting of a Fan ’’—* Boy Butterfly "— and “The End of the Journey’’—the feeling of sympathy for the afflicted and downtrodden is the dominant inspiration ; while as an interpreter and appealer to the better nature of mankind, T think—after mature deliberation—she stands on a much higher level than Mrs. Browning. Mrs. Browning is always at fever heat or in hysterics; Miss Probyn never seems to forget the fable of the Sun and Wind. As an instance of her power in portray- ing the evanescent charm of childhood: the epitome of child life and nature in ‘‘ Duckie” may be mentioned for special notice. In twenty-nine lines beginning,—‘ A thing that ran with wane of light,” Miss Probyn has summed up the ever-changing attractiveness of those bundles of paradoxes and miracles in miniature which we call children. A clever man can write well about men and women: only a genius can write about children. ‘“‘ Sunday Evening, ” for its quiet humour; ‘ Revelation,” for its imaginative power ;” ‘Jane Shore,” for its vigorous and rapid narrative—resembling in this respect some of the old ballads, may all be read with interest. The swing and movement of the metre in ‘A Ballad of the Road,” carries us along with it, and we cannot help admiring the handsome highwayman who relieves pretty young ladies of their posies, and testy old gentlemen of their purses, with a smile and a bow: and feel inclined to shout when the hangman is cheated out of his prey at the foot of the gallows tree by sharp witted Mistress Ann. To those who, for their sins, have waded through the large mass of modern poetry: most of it a compound of mock medi- evalism, sickly sentimentalism, and pseudo classicism; these poems come like a refreshing wind through the Ghetto of literary m4 in SE SASS trae ABD . re é . - ‘ & | : - : ; . ‘ i ' . > oo” - - 4 \ ‘ > * a : ¢. é , ; Z ee a es ° 2 = ia 3 - : - h « 2 ‘ " ‘ - ~ Fa : 5 : ¥ . + fs ; . = J § . | = ' ~ . Ny : . % . u 7 ’ “ i en i LACLEDE SSS 4 c L@VZZEZ4 Saar Ma LLL == ees Mit Llp lille WLLL vs Yards LL “fy ~ 4 Hoe: >, Zi Lada ae 7, Ud Plan Section / fy Of, SINISE 1 3 w | ¢ * rs * eS) NO) GES eed : es 4 Ww 8 Ge 18) 8 OE see oh 2 | 2 Dae ee as os 3 2 ae | : SSSI [SNeeee 21 corruption. It is a positive relief to turn from the erotic chan- sons and wearisome iterating ringing of the changes on the text, *‘ Let us eat and drink for to-morrow we die,” of many latter day singers, to songs and verses pure in conception and healthy in sentiment, and which, from title page to colophon, do not contain an obscure sentence or laboured conceit. These poems have a witchery all their own, and owe little or nothing to borrowed beauties from other poets: here and there we find a faint reminiscence of Herrick and Sir Philip Sydney, but it only adds to the fine flavour of originality which characterises the whole of Miss Probyn’s work. The liquid purity of style and simplicity of language may lead a cursory reader to imagine a shallowness of thought; no greater mistake could be made. Limpidly beau- tiful many of these poems are: but their beauty is the clearness of an unruffled mountain lake, not the transparency of a brawl- ing brook. English literature is richer in possessing these two volumes: and, although recognition appears to be slow, and Miss Prehwn may never in the ordinary sense of the term become popular _- the few who love and admire the idyllic picturesque- ness of old fashioned English country life with all its humour and pathos, will take these poems to their heart of hearts, and place them amonest their dearest literary treasures. HEALTHY DWELLINGS. By T. N. DALL. January 25th, 1887. In the present age when epidemics of various diseases are so prevalent it becomes the duty of each to consider what is best to be done to stop the spread of those diseases. And more especially is this the duty of the builder and property owner, as badly built houses, bad drains, &c., are amongst the worst evils which con- duce to the spread of fevers and other diseases. - The first thing to be obtained is a healthy site, that is, one of natural ground, and not land filled up with nightsoil or ashpit refuse. Having obtained this healthy site, then comes the ques- tion of the building. Airy, well-ventilated rooms should be con- structed, so as to supply pure air, and draw off all bad gas and vitiated air. In ordinary cases, doors, windows, and chimneys will prove sufficient, but when not sufficient, invention has sup- plied the want, there being many artificial forms of inlet ventila- tion, one only of which may here be noted, viz. Tobin’s. Fig. 1 gives a sketch of this form—A is an aperture, with opening to outer air at lower end B, and a second opening into the room at C with a lid which may be opened and closed at will. It will 22 be seen that the fresh cold air is discharged into the room about three or more feet from the floor, thus causing it to diffuse over the whole of the room, preventing cold draughts at the floor. When the fire-place is not sufficient to carry off all impure air, artifice again supplies the want in the shape of sunlight ventil- ators, grids near the ceiling, or as Fig. 1 shows, a bell-mouthed funnel D in the wall with a connecting tube E carried to the chimney or outer air. This funnel and tube may be fixed over the ornamental centre piece above the gaslight, as shown at F the funnel, G the tube, alsoin Fig. 1. For drawing bad air from large rooms the Cowl invented by Mr. Boyle is very per- fect and free in its action. It is connected with the tube before named, and fixed in the outer air and the least breath of air is sufficient to draw off the impure gas from the room. There are also many other methods of supplying fresh and withdraw- ing bad air from rooms, but space will not allow of them being named. The noxious gases caused by breathing differ greatly from those given off from decayed animal and vegetable matter, but all these must be guarded against. The highest parts of a town are those where the presence of sewer gas is mostly felt, therefore the ventilation of the main and house drains must be closely looked to in these parts, of course not neglecting the lower parts. Fig. 2 shows the common method of draining a court or back street with back yards at each side. A is the main drain, ending at B, and as it is to this end, as being the most elevated part of the sewer, that the sewer gas makes, it becomes therefore imperative to relieve this end and so pre- vent the gas forcing its way up the house drains and into the houses. ‘To effect this a pipe C, is carried from the end of the sewer to the nearest house up which an iron pipe D is carried above the roof, at its lower end connected with an earthen pipe C. This pipe D is surmounted by one of Boyle’s Cowls (before- named) which draws all gas out of the sewer, and if the sewer A is connected with the cross main sewer by means of an open grid manhole, fresh air is constantly drawn through the sewer keeping it perfectly free from bad gases. The rain pipes F.F. on Fig. 2, also act as ventilators to the sewer A, and one of these rain pipes should be fixed for, at most, every four houses ; no trap must be fixed in the branch drains connecting them with the sewer, but they must have a clear course for the whole length of both rain pipe and branch drain G. Now come the questions. How would the gas get into the houses, if not drawn off? And, how prevent the gas getting into the houses at all ?—First then, sewer gas gets into houses through defective drainage, porous walls, and in a many other ways. Various ‘‘ Traps’ have been invented, to stop sewer gas, with ‘“‘ water seals” varying in depth from 3 to 6 inches. It is at ali di seit Ned aed i 28 once essential to have drains connected with the interior of houses, and unless properly trapped, these drains form channels for conveying bad gases into the houses. Now take the case of water-closets within houses. The W.C. must have a drain, and the best form to,adopt is shewn on Fig. 3. A is the trapped pan of the closet, B the outlet pipe inside the house, C the pipe out- side; at the junction of the pipes B and C, a pipe D is carried up above the eaves of the roof, surmounted by a Boyle’s Cowl, thus all bad air is drawn off and discharged into the open air. Baths and lavatories are other sources of difficulty, and should be treated in the same manner as the W.C. It is a great mistake to make the W.C. drain to serve for the bath and lavatory; they should have a separate connection. Next take the slopstone, over which so many women stand for hours each day. Fig. 4 shews the best method of draining slopstones, and of keeping out the sewer gas. A is the slop- stone, B is the lead trapped pipe from the slopstone, cut off at the outside of the house, and discharging on to a grid in the slop trap C, which, as its name shews, is a “trap’’ connected with the main sewer by the branch drain D. By this method any gas that breaks through the trap discharges into the open air and is lost, but what small volume of gas does get into the lead pipe B is stopped by the trap in this pipe. If the rain pipes before spoken of are connected with the branch drains D just below the trap C, the back pressure causes the gas to be driven up the rain pipe, reducing the pressure against the trap to a minimum. Fig. 5 shews how slopstones in cellars are to be dealt with. The lead trapped pipe A is formed to have a branch leading both upward and downward directly behind the trap A’; B the upward pipe, connects directly with the open air, acting as ventilator, and often as a rain pipe; C the downward pipe leads direct to the sewer D which runs under the house. Great care should be taken in laying this sewer D and indeed every sewer inside a house, each joint should be laid in good clay puddle or concrete so as to prevent the escape of sewer gas, and where possible, iron pipes should be used. Another point to be carefully considered in constructing houses is the ashpit. This should be placed as far away from the house as possible, should be made water-tight, and should be emptied at least every three weeks. Why? Because at the end of about three weeks putrifaction will have set in, and thus many bad vapours will be given off which are dangerous to the health of the town: the ashpit should be water-tight to prevent foul liquids soaking into the ground and getting into the foundations of the house. _ The reason for placing the ashpit as far as possible from the house is apparent. There is yet’another difficulty to be over- come before we can get truly healthy dwellings, viz: damp cellars. 24 Now any one can see that great evils may arise from dampness in buildings, and to overcome this is sometimes one of the hardest works a builder encounters. Where possible to do without, it is far wiser not to connect any drain from the inside of the cellar with the main sewer, but where absolutely necessary great care should be exercised, each joint should be made water and stench proof, and each drain should be trapped. Now, dampness usually shews itself in the cellar walls, and may be caused by damp earth surrounding, or by negligence at the time of building, in diverting the old land drains. If these land drains are not diverted when cut off by the operation of laying the foundations, then they be- come a source of great trouble hereafter and the work of diversion is often very expensive. Fig. 6 shews how this is to be accom- plished, being a section of the drain. It will be seen that the cutting is carried down 12 ins. or 18ins. below the foundations of the house; at the bottom of this cutting and half embedded in soft clay A is laid a 6in. pipe B with open or loose joints; on the upper side of this pipe is laid a course of broken stone C loosely packed together, the remainder of the cutting is filled up as usual, but every 5 or 6 feet a square chamber, called a weep- hole is formed, see Fig. 64-, and this is filled up to about a foot of the surface of the ground with broken stone D and is shot off obliquely, E, against the walls of the house to take away all rain water discharged against the house. If in laying a drain of this kind the workman finds a subsoil drain F, Fig. 6, one of these square chambers should be formed at the end of it to conduct the water to the sewer at the bottom. Of course to carry out all these details of ventilation and drain- age, &c., involves an increased cost in construction of properties, but common humanity demands that all shall be done that is possible to avert sickness and prolong life, and it is the first duty of every Sanitary Authority to see that a code of laws is formed enforcing the best sanitary appliances being employed. Not only so, but thorough systems of sewerage ventilation should be carried out by every Sanitary Authority, as money spent on such works is bound to yield a rate of interest that cannot be calculated by any percentage, viz. prolonged life and greatly reduced death rates. These are the primary objects of the San- itary Authority, and consequently too much cannot be said in condemnation of any laxity in carrying out such works as may be necessary for attaining the desired end. It is time that the elements of true sanitation began to be more fully taught, especially in the National Schools, for surely in this age of enquiry and education, no enquiry can be more interesting or remunerative than the study of general health which in time means, general happiness, longer life, and increased comfort. 4 25 _ To prove this the following facts may be stated. During the 26 years from 1854 to 1880 a complete scheme of drainage and drainage ventilation was completed in Munich, whereby the death rate from Enteric fever, per one million inhabitants, was reduced from 242 to 8-7 a reduction of 15°5. During the same 26 years and from the same cause the death rate from Enteric fever per 10,000 inhabitants of Frankfort-on-the-main was reduced from 8°7 to 2:4, a reduction of 6°38. But a more striking case is that of Dantzic, where during the 15 years from 1865 to 1880 a complete scheme of sewerage and sewerage ventilation was carried out, whereby the death rate from Enteric fever per 100,000 was reduced from 108 to 18, a reduction of 90. Croydon, from similar causes, had its death rate reduced from 24:03 to 19°56, a reduction of 4°47. Thus it will be seen that money spent on works of sanitation is no extravagance, but pays an ample interest as before named. Life is indeed so short that man can ill afford to play with it, but search must be made and works executed whereby it can be prolonged, and when this is done, then is found the true Philosopher’s Stone. EE eee REVIEW OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE FROM THE CONQUEST TO CHAUCER. By T. LLOYD, B.A. February Ist, 1887. Mr. Lloyd observed that 400 years previous to the Conquest the English language might be said to have been fixed, the few Celtic, Danish, and other terms introduced having been insignifi- cant in number. The advent of the Normans, however, intro- duced a state of unrest, and the language passed through a transition period. When this terminated the language became fixed and has not since been altered. The story of the invasion self-reliance of their character was followed by an explanation of the adoption by these heathen conquerors of the language of the Norman of Christian Gaul. The battle of Hastings introduced into England the French language, and this became the language of the Court, the nobility, the Universities, and Parliament, whilst the lower classes, who comprised the vast majority of the people, stuck tenaciously to their old tongue. For nine genera- 26 tions the English and French languages were brought into con- tact with each other; hence the adoption of a great many French words in our language. We often met at the present time with the Saxon word and its Norman equivalent in conjunction with each other. Mr. Lloyd next gave an interesting account of the derivation of typical words which the Normans imported, and which were used in law, state, war, hunting, and the Church. The gains of the English language consisted in greater copious- ness of expression and rhythm of the sentences; the loss, how- ever, was in depreciation of words and in the loss of old English words. The banishment of guttural sounds was, to Mr. Lloyd’s mind, a great benefit, for they did not add to the euphony of the language. With respect to the literature from the Conquest to King John, the books were mostly written in Latin, some few being in French ; but King John’s reign gave birth to the rise of English literature. Extracts from the Saxon Chronicle, referring to the great victory of Athelstan at the battle of Brunnanburh, and from the writings of Ormin, a canon of the Order of St. Augustine, and Layamon, a noted metrical chronicler, were given and translated. Reference was also made to the Arthurian legends, founded on the national and patriotic songs of Wales and Brittany, and also to the minstrelsy of the troubadours. As to the means of education, the two universities of Oxford and Cambridge were the most important. After the conquest the monasteries rose rapidly, those of St. Albans, Peterborough, and Malmesbury being the most important. The country was much indebted to those establishments for the preservation of the works of ancient authors. Literature was, however, greatly handicapped by the costly and scarce nature of paper, and it sometimes hap- pened that parchment which had been covered with writing was again used after the original writing had been only imperfectly erased. In this way some valuable copies of ancient authors had been curiously preserved. Some little discussion followed the reading of the paper, refer- ence being made therein to Mr. Lloyd’s statement that this immediate neighbourhood could not claim to possess the site of the battle of Brunnanburh, a place in Cheshire being, in his opinion, a more likely situation. This assertion was combatted by Mr. Strange and the President. Dr. Johnstone (Victoria Hospital) also took exception to Mr. Lloyd’s denunciation of the gutturals, as he considered that their absence rendered the language incomplete as compared with the modern languages of Europe. Mr. Strange laid stress upon the influence for good upon society of the writings of Walter de Mapp, in Henry the Second’s reign. 27 BI-METALLISM. By JOSHUA RAWLINSON, J.P. February 8th, 1887. Mr. Rawlinson commenced his paper by referring to the fall in the price of Silver which had been going on since 1878. Prior to that time the average price was about 61d. per oz., but it had gradually fallen until in 1886 the average was a little over 46d. per oz. He pointed out that there had been a general fall in prices of commodities coincident with the fall in silver. He showed how the fluctuations of silver affected our foreign trade and exchanges with countries where silver is the standard of value, and how it upset and disturbed the calculations of our merchants. The paper then describes Waat is Bi-METALLISM. One of the remedies proposed for the cure of the evils I have brought before you is what is termed bi-metallism. The advocates of this theory are desirous of changing by Act of Parliament the standard of value in this country, and by agreement and in concert with other nations they propose to make silver and gold exchangeable in given proportions, say of 154 of silver to one of gold. Enouish STANDARD OF VALUE. Our standard is the sovereign, which must contain 123°274 grains of standard gold. This standard was fixed by Act of Parliament in 1816, and it had for many years before been the practical standard of value. As the sovereign contains this weight of metal, it makes the price of bar gold to be £3 17s. 104d. per oz. Any person can take a bar of gold to the English mint, and if it weighs, say, 20lbs., he will have it coined into 934 sovereigns and one half-sovereign. But as he would have to wait for his coin until the process of manufacture had been gone through, and would lose interest on his money in the meantime, it is as cheap, and more convenient, to take his bar of gold to the Bank of England, where he can immediately exchange it for sovereigns at the rate of £3 17s. 9d. per oz. By the law of England the sovereign is the standard of value, and all debts of over £2 in amount must be paid in sovereigns or in Bank of England notes, which, being payable in gold at the Bank of England, are equivalent to it. Our silver and copper coins are tokens—that is, the instrinsic value of the metal is not equal to the nominal value, and by law they are not good legal tender beyond 40s. in- case of silver and 1s. in case of copper. The English mint is not open to coin silver and copper for all-comers, as it is in the case of gold. These two points—(1) the limita- 28 tion of the amount payable as legal tender, and (2) the absence of unlimited coinage—constitute the difference between token and standard money. Now from the fact that the Bank of England will always pur- chase bar gold-at the price of £3 17s. 9d. per oz., there has arisen the idea that the law thus confers a fixed price upon gold. This is, however, a complete fallacy. The only effect of the operation is to divide bar gold into sovereigns of a given and guaranteed weight and fineness. The transaction in no way fixes the rate at which corn or cotton or iron or any other article or commodity is to be exchanged for gold, but merely that a certain weight of gold shall be made into a certain number of sovereigns. I have shown you that the legal standard of value in England is made of one metal only, and that it is the gold sovereign. Frenco STANDARD OF VALUE. In France the standard of value is the franc, and it may be made of either gold or silver. By a law passed in the year 1803, it was enacted that the franc might be made of either gold or silver, and that the value should be in the proportion of 154 of silver to one of gold. The French mint was thrown completely open for the unlimited coinage of silver and gold to all comers. CHANGE oF STANDARD BY GERMANY AND ITs Hirrects. Up to the years 187i and 1873 the standard of value in Germany was silver, but the German Government then deter- mined on a re-coinage, and they changed the standard to a gold basis. The demonetisation of silver by Germany, accompanied as it was by similar steps in Scandinavia and Holland, threw large quantities on the market, and this being coincident with a greatly-increased annual supply from the mines, caused a severe depreciation in the value of the metal. Upon this, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy closed their mints to the un- limited coinage of silver, and practically they have coined gold only since that time. Proposats oF Bi-METALLISTS. Now the proposal of the advocates of Bi-metallism is, that England, Germany, and the United States should mutually agree to establish gold and silver as their standards of value at a fixed and uniform ratio, and that each of them should throw open their mints for the unlimited coinage of both metals at the agreed ratio, and that France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy should con- form to this arrangement. But the advocates of Bi-metallism are not agreed amongst themselves what the ratio is to be. Some advocate the French ratio of 1 to 154. Some suggest a 29 ratio more nearly approaching the present relative values of the two metals, which is about 1 to 20, while others express great indifference as to the precise ratio, if only a uniform one be agreed upon. Turory oF Bi-meTanttism Hxaminep. The theory of Bi-metallism is based on the idea that it is possible for Governments by legislation and agreement to fix the ratio at which gold and silver will exchange with each other. In support of this theory the example of France is cited. AsI have already explained, France was Bi-metallic from 1803 until 1876. But although in theory this was the case, a careful examination of the movements of the precious metals will show that the double standard was not really in operation. Instead of a double standard, France had really an alternative standard, that is—whenever the market price of gold and silver varied from the established ratio of 154 to 1, the cheaper metal became the standard, and the dearer one could only be obtained at a premium. The same thing took place in the United States. Down to 1834 the established ratio was 15 to 1, and the consequence was that America was practically a silver-using country. But in 1834 the standard was changed to 16 to 1, and silver in France being dearer as compared with gold, silver Howed from America to EKurope, and the United States became a gold-using country. Resuuts or Bi-metautism 1n France. The Bi-metallists contend that it was the action of the Bi- metallic law in France and the other countries forming the Latin Monetary Union that maintained the ratio between the two metals for over 70 years. It cannot be denied that it must have had a large influence in doing so. The Bi-metallic law fixed the price of 153 to 1 at which the two metals should exchange with each other. I have already shown that in this sense gold in England has no fixed price. The effect of this law was that when silver was dearer than gold it was withdrawn from France, and gold sent in for it. When the reverse conditions obtained, gold was withdrawn and silver substituted for it. This see-saw operation has taken place more than once. When the gold discovered in California and Australia came on the market it was sent into France in exchange for silver to so large an extent that M. Chevalier proposed to discard it as money and make France mono-metallic on the basis of silver. Mr. Cobden was so profoundly impressed with the views of M. Chevalier that he translated his work into English. But’perhaps the most notable instance of it was during the American civil war. At that time the exports of Cotton from India were greatly increased, and as it rose to a high price there was a great demand for means of remittance to India. Silver rose to 624d. per oz. measured in gold. It could always.be obtained 30 in Paris at 60}2d. per 0z.—that being the equivalent, as fixed by the 153 to 1 ratio. The consequence was that the Bi-metallic law compelled France to part with the dearer metal silver, in ex- change for the cheaper metal gold. But in a few years the tide turned, and silver became the cheaper and gold the dearer metal. What happened could have been predicted. The cheaper silver was exchanged for the dearer gold, until the French people opened their eyes, and in 1874 restricted and in 1876 totally stopped the coinage of silver. I doubt whether there is any lesson in the whole range of history more pregnant of warning than the action of the Bi-metallic law in France from 1850 to 1876. The losses sustained by France during that period must have been enormous, and the final collapse proves the im- possibility of fixing an arbitrary value between two things of which the production and demand are constantly changing and varying. So long as the conditions of supply and demand kept the real ratio between the two metals anywhere near to the fixed ratio of 154 to 1, France was able to bear the strain of main- taining the equilibrium. But the system broke down. What made it do so? If you examine the question you will find there were several causes which—tending in the same direction and being in operation at the same time—by their combined forces so threw down the price of silver as to make the maintenance of the ratio of 154 to 1 impossible. Wuy FRANCE CEASED TO COIN SILVER. One of these causes was the large increase in the annual production of the silver mines. Extraordinary discoveries of deposits of silver were made in America and elsewhere, and the anuual production which from 1852 to 1862 had averaged about £8 millions, had increased in 1875 to nearly £18 millions. Another cause was the lessened demand for silver from India and other eastern countries. In the ten years from 1857 India absorbed over £110 millions of silver, and the production during the same period was about £90 millions. But in the succeeding ten years from 1867 to 1876 India absorbed only £45 millions, while the production had increased to over £150 millions. Another cause was the demonetisation of silver by Germany. ~ The coinage of the countries constituting the German Empire was in a very barbarous state, both from the multiplicity of the various kinds of coins and their debased condition. The German Government determined on establishing a uniform coinage, and also on changing the standard from silver to gold. Wauat woutp BE THE Eirrrots or Bi-METALLISM IF ADOPTED. You will perceive that of the three causes I have mentioned two are natural causes, and one is the result of legislation. 31 Now, what would be the effect of Bi-metallism—I mean of fixing a ratio of 154 to 1 in these three cases? As to the annual pro- duction, you will admit that the effect of giving an artificial value to silver would be to stimulate the production of silver and to discourage the production of gold. It would, in fact, bea vast measure of protection to the producers of silver, and would guarantee to them a market for their silver at 25 per cent. above its present price. And just in proportion as it would encourage the production of silver it would discourage the production of gold. The gold miner can now sell his one ounce of gold for 20 ounces of silver, but the Bi-metallists propose to deprive him of a part of the fruits of his labour, and by force of law to reduce the price of gold from 20 to 153. I sometimes wonder whether the Bi-metallists ever ask themselves this question, Why do the owners of silver mines continue to produce silver in increasing quantities, and why do the owners of gold mines produce gold in decreasing quantities ? Surely the answer must be, because even at the present low price it is profitable to produce silver, and at its present high price it is unprofitable to produce gold. The competition between the producers of gold and silver will fix a fair and equitable value between the two metals just as surely as the competition between cotton and woollen manufacturers will fix a fair value between cotton and woollen cloth. The present holders of silver would be large gainers by a forced rise in its value. Enormous quantities are held in America, France, and other countries, ready to flow to any part of the world where it can be disposed of ata profit. Yet the English people are asked to join in artificially depreciating gold, of which they are large holders, and in artificially raising silver of which they hold hardly any at all. The next cause I mentioned was the diminished export of silver to India. I think it will be obvious to all of you that the very worst way of encouraging India to take silver is artificially to raise its price. It is an axiom, that a cheap article will force its way into consumption, while a dear one cannot do so. Nature oF INTERNATIONAL TRADE. But what Bi-metallists appear to misapprehend is the nature of international trade. Whatever confusion of ideas there may be upon the many questions arising as to the nature of money, or circulation, or of the value of gold or silver as money, or as commodities, all must admit that when gold and silver are sent from one country to another they lose any special attributes that law may have conferred upon them, and become merely com- modities. As such they exchange for other commodities at their market value. This attribute of exchangeability they possess in common with all commodities which men wish for and desire, 32 For the purposes of exchange, cotton, cloth or salt are as ex- changeable commodities for sugar or rice as either gold or silver. Hence the idea that cotton goods or salt are changed internation- ally for silver and not for other commodities is a delusion. Ex- ports and imports, so far as they are induced by trade, are correlative. Each is the cause and complement of the other, and to impose any restrictions on the one will necessarily lessen the other. So long as India wants our cloth and we want her wheat, and their are ships and men able and willing to transport them from the one country to the other, they will be exchanged for each other, regardless of the price of silver or the rate of exchange. Do we LOSE By CnEaP Sinver anD Low Excuancs ? The idea prevailing among Bi-metallists is that cheap silver and low rates of exchange entail a loss upon us in our trade with India. If these causes do really affect our trade or our profits, it will, I think, be difficult to show that we suffer any loss. During the last ten years ending in 1885 the average annual import of goods into India amounted to over 46 millions sterling, while the average annual export of goods from India for the same period averaged over 72 millions sterling. If it be a loss to us, as the Bi-metallists contend it is, to sell our exports for cheap silver, it must by a parity of reasoning be a gain to buy our imports with the same metal; and as we have during the last ten years bought from India over 260 millions worth of goods more than we have sold to it, we ought, according to the theory I am speaking of, to be the gainers thereby. Wuy Have Prices Fauuen ? Now, whether the fall in prices has been caused by a rise in the value of gold is a question that I cannot enter upon very ex- haustively. That gold is in greater demand and that the annual supply has fallen off is unquestionable. But many other causes have been at work which will account to some extent for a fall in prices. The wonderful inventions of our time, the greater use of labour-saving machinery, the lower cost of transit, the saving of the use of capital by means of the telegraph, the dim- inution of stocks, the lessened profits caused by keen competi- tion, the quicker and better distribution of merchandise, are all of them causes which have contributed to the fall in prices. But is the fall a calamity? I think not. No doubt stability of value is greatly to be desired, but if there must be a change I am of opinion that a fall is more beneficial to the community than a rise, 88 Ovucut we to EstTasiisH Bi-METALLISM ? The proposal of the Bi-metallists to enter into treaties with other countries by which our own standard of value would be altered, and which would subject it to serious injury by the action of any one of the several countries who are parties to the treaty, is, to say the least of it, a very questionable and dangerous pro- position. It is a new departure in policy. Hitherto we have had a simple standard made of one metal which has worked well, and under which England has become the financial centre of the world. Other countries have fixed upon standards for them- selves, and doubtless have chosen those which are most suitable for their particular circumstances. These arrangements are natural, and are more likely to be permanent than any based upon treaty. How long are treaties observed? In the light of the experience of even the last few years he would be credulous indeed who imagined that a treaty with another nation would be kept for a single day beyond the time it appeared to be beneficial. Why should we then so seriously derange our currency in pursuit of a theory which could be wholly upset by any one of the countries party to the arrangement? The less kings and govern- ments meddle with the arrangements of trade the better it is for the people who live by it. You have all heard of the story of the king who asked a merchant whether he could do anything to benefit trade. ‘‘ Sire,” replied the merchant, ‘‘if you want to help trade, pray leave it alone.” I pointed out at the beginning of wy paper that most of the evils of the fall in silver arose through the fluctuations or dis- turbances in the exchanges. It would be folly to attempt to deny the existence of this grievance. It is one that our mer- chants feel most acutely and which has caused immense loss. The Bi-metallists promise us stability. They point to the period anterior to the fall of silver, and offer us a return to that happy state of things. But if the rate of exchange rose from 1s. 6d. to 2s. it would be as great a convulsion and might cause even greater loss and suffering than was caused by the fall from 2s. to 1s. 6d. The fall, as I have shown, arose to a great extent from natural causes, but a rise caused by bi-metallism would be entirely artificial, and would be subject to all the uncertainties of legis- lation in a large number of countries. The conclusion I have come to is that bi-metallism would do us much harm and little good. If it were attempted we should find the dearer metal, gold, leaving us, and the cheaper, silver, would stay with us. You cavnot make an international arrange- ment with the whole world. It is only possible to do so with highly-civilised countries and well-organised governments. The population of the world is over 1,400 millions, and the countries proposed to be embraced in the Bi-metallic Union, excluding 34 India, have a population of 210 millions only. The vast popu- lations of Asia have during the present century absorbed an enormous quantity of gold. They clearly could not be brought under any treaty, and the hard-headed European would find once more that the heathen Chinee, so child-like and bland, had been too much for him, THE RIVIERA. By JAMES LANCASTER. February 22nd, 1887. The paper consisted largely of personal recollections of a trip to the Riviera made during the spring of 1886. We left England in the rigours of an exceptionally severe winter. Great was the contrast on arriving at Marseilles with its almost tropical temperature, cloudless sky and streets filled with the gaiety and fashion of a wealthy city. Fhe railway journey from Marseilles to Hyéres, the first town in the Riviera, was exceedingly interesting and diversified. The rich colouring of the landscape and the glories of the sunset were a delightful contrast to our dull leaden sky and murky atmos- phere. Hyéres is a perfect paradise, where the quiet of nature can be enjoyed in all its fulness. The view from the Old Castle here is truly magnificent. The pine-covered slopes of the mountains, the prettily situated villages, the luxuriant vegetation, together with the blue expanse of the Mediterranean and the serene sky combine to present ever-varying pictures of beauty. The Riviera extends 800 miles from Hyéres to Leghorn, and is cradled between the snow-covered Alps and Apennines, and the soft waters of the Mediterranean. Cannes was next visited, and the strongly marked contrast between the old and new town was noticed, a feature to be found in nearly all the towns of the Riviera. Cannes has a population of 10,000 and is beautifully situated. Its famous orange grove (possessing over 1,000 trees) is one of its chief attractions. After a notice of the Island of Marguerite, famous for its connection with the story of ‘the Man with the Iron Mask,’—and a reference to the manufacture of perfumery, and the battle of flowers, the journey was con- tinued to Nice. This important city possesses a splendid esplan- ade lined with palms and oleanders. Its castle, situated on an imposing rock, has for centuries been a landmark, and is a deeply interesting spot in history. Its history in geological times is traced in the fissures and caverns along its seaway sides, which 35 are filled with marine remains. The Pheenician settlement, the Greek Acropolis, the Roman Castrum, and the fortress of the Middle Ages, have all left their traces. The 25 miles of railway journey from Nice to Mentone is one of the most interesting in the world,—tunnels being cut through the solid rock almost every few hundred yards. Mentone is remarkable for its almost perpetual sunshine. The air is pure and bright, and fog unknown. Statistics give an average of 259 days in the year when the sun shines all day long. Mentone is an admirable centre for the tourist and the health seeker. The most interesting walk at Mentone is by the celebrated Comiche road in the direction of the Italian frontier across the gorge of St. Louis. At one point in this walk a dis- tinct view of the Island of Corsica (120 miles away) was obtained. A path through Dr. Bennett’s garden leads to Grimaldis, the original home of the princes of Monte Carlo. Here an olive oil mill was visited, with its old stone rollers and water-wheel, re- minding one of patriarchal times. The drive from Mentone to Monte Carlo by the Comiche road is one of the finest possible. The gardens, terraces, and Casino are famous the world over, and are carried out in the highest skill and at the most lavish expenditure. Monaco, close to Monte Carlo, is the smallest kingdom in Europe, and is supported by the profits made at the gaming tables at Monte Carlo. The journey was continued through Bordighera and San Remo to Genoa. Lantern illustrations of the places of interest were given by Mr. Butterworth, and a choice variety of fresh flowers from the Riviera were placed upon the table by Miss Thompson of Oak Bank. REMINISCENCES OF LOCAL FLORA. By HENRY HOULDING. March Ist, 1887. The Flora of the British Islands is almost identical with that of Germany and the countries of Europe in latitudes parallel to our own. Our common flowering planis, trees, grasses and ferns came here, it is supposed, in some great vegetable migra- tion, which covered this region at a time when England was not entirely isolated by the sea from the adjacent continent, as it is at present. Botanists tell us that there are traces of at least three older floras than this Germanic one. The earliest of these is represented by certain species, found on the mountains 36 in the west of Ireland, which are identical with or closely related to the vegetation of the north-west of Spain, and indicate a time when a great mountain barrier—or rather so far as it affected vegetable migration—a great mountain bridge, extended across the Atlantic from Ireland to the Peninsula. A portion of the vegetation of the South-east of England is identical with that on the opposite coast of France, and points to a connection between these two coasts at some remote period. There is, again, what is called the Alpine flora of Wales, and the northern part of the island, that is, species which are found only on the tops of the highest hills and represent a flora which is supposed to have covered this region of the earth in the glacial period, when the mountains of Britain were low islands or mem- bers of an archipelago extending to the area of Norway. Of the latter flora we have one representative in this locality in the Cloudberry, Rubus Chamemorus, which grows on Pendle. There is this peculiarity about our Pendle plant—while the Cloudberry flowers on Ingleborough and all hills higher then Pendle, it has never yet been discovered in flower there, though botanists have made repeated journeys thither for the purpose of observing it. It will thus be seen that the indigenous plants of this locality are the indigenous plants of a certain European latitude, that our local flora is identical in type with that of Germany. Botanists vary in their statements of the number of British species not because they differ as to the real extent of the flora, but because they differ in opinion as to what constitutes a species ; some classing what are probably mere varieties as permanent species. Thus Babington gives 1,708 species of plants, Hooker and Arnott 1,578, while Bentham reduces the number of per- manent species to 1,285. Of these, nearly one-third, about 400, constitute the indigenous flora of the Burnley basin, in- cluding the valleys of the Don, the Brun, the two Calders, and the smaller tributary streams flowing from the surrounding watersheds of Pendle on one side, Boulsworth on another, the Hambledon range on a third, and converging towards the west. The radius of the district may be roughly stated at from six to eight miles. One of the best guides to a systematic study of our flowering plants and ferns is undoubtedly Bentham’s ‘“‘ Manual of the British Flora.’ To this may be added any popular manual of structural and physiological botany, such as Lindley’s or Balfour's. Armed with these and a pocket lens, the botanical student, after acquiring a general knowledge of the elementary principles of the science, may begin his investigations at once by the collection and examination of species. The thorough dissection of one plant—a practical mastery of its specific, generic and natural characteristics, will be of more value, the source of much more 37 pleasure and profit than a great deal of superficial knowledge of meré names of species, which, with too many ‘‘ botanists” seems to be the be all and the end all of their ambition. There are, no doubt, difficulties in the way of the beginner, which in a great measure arise from not knowing where to begin, and how simple beginning really is. The best way to begin is with the commoner plants that we know, at least by sight, and a very good time is to begin now, as the spring itself is beginning. One of the earliest spring flowers is the Coltsfoot, which will soon be found plentifully scattered in waste ground and by the banks of streams. The Daisy also is one of the earliest spring flowers, and the beginner who wishes for a first lesson in botany cannot do better than try to find out in what the two flowers agree and in what they differ. They both belong to the great tribe or family of Composite which comprises one-tenth of all known species. It is so called because what appears to be a single flower is com- posed of a great number of small, more or less perfect flowers, or ‘florets’ as botanists call them, arranged in ahead. Another flower which will soon begin to show itself in damp hedge bottoms and ground is the Figwort Ranunculus, a species of Buttercup. The Strawberry-leaved Potentilla or Barren Strawberry, flowers in March, and is frequently found growing along with the last- named plant. It is in habit very like the wild strawberry, but has not so large a flower, and the fruit is dry, being without the succulent receptacle of the latter. The Shepherd’s Purse is another very common weed to be found in flower nearly all the year round. It belongs to the interesting and highly useful Cruciferse, or Cabbage family. The flower is small and unpre- tending, but the pod is interesting and curious. When ripe it is a very pretty object under the pocket lens, the. golden seeds hanging upon each side of the partition walls of the cell like grape clusters. The name is taken from the triangular shape of the pod, which is itself sufficient to distinguish the plant from all other Cruciferee. The common Chickweed flowers early and late, and may be studied at all times of the year. It belongs to the Caryophyllacex or Pink Family, and the botanist, who takes a pleasure in tracing family likenesses between the ‘‘ flaunting flowers our gardens yield,” and their “poor relations’’ by the wayside, will be interested to observe the analogy between the high-bred Carnation and the low-born Chickweed, so called, says Duchesne, because it is used to feed birds. Another weed be- longing to this family is the Common Cerastium or Mouse-ear Chickweed, found on walls and waysides. It flowers through the year. The structure of the seed-vessel of this and the last named plant is very interesting, and a peep into the inside when the gold yellow embossed seeds are ripe, is worth taking. We have two varieties, the common narrow-leaved and the broad-leaved 38 plant of a brighter green which has been found in Cliviger. The plant found is a highly variable one and has been distinguished into twenty or thirty different species. Another very early flower is the Moscatel, which may be found in hedge bottoms at the top of Brunshaw and elsewhere. It bears a little green obscure looking flower, but pretty under the lens. It is a genus, says Bentham, consisting of a single species and is allied to the Elders and Honeysuckles, though it does not look it. Dog’s Mercury is another very vulgar weed, but interesting to the botanist. It may be found under any hedge, and is worth attention, not only for itself, but as being a near relation of the Spurges. The flowers are unisexual, i.e., the stamens are in one flower and the ovary in another. In the Spurges the two different kinds of flowers are found on the same plant, but in the Mercury the stamen-bearing flowers are all on one plant and the ovary-bearing flowers on another. In one place you may look a long time and find nothing but stamen-bearing plants, and in another you may look as long without discovering anything but the seed-bearing plant. Linneus called plants of this kind diccious, or plants of two houses. Like Coltsfoot and several others of our local plants, the flowers of this weed appear before the leaves are fully out. Following the subject into still further detail, the reader enu- merated a great number of local species and gave descriptions of their habitats and associations, concluding with some remarks on the common names of plants. The paper was illustrated by a number of very beautiful and well-preserved specimens of local plants, belonging to Mr. Simpson, and kindly lent for the occasion, which were inspected by the members present with great interest. DISCUSSION: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COTTON TRADE SINCE 1875; CAN IT BE MAINTAINED ? By JAMES GREENWOOD, J.P. March 15th, 1887. It may be remembered that in 1875 I introduced a discussion in this club on the subject:—‘‘* Can England maintain her commercial supremacy ?’’—and I thought it would not be in- appropriate to continue an examination of the subject from that 39 date, under the title I have selected for to-night’s paper. Mills are being continually erected in the neighbourhood of Oldham, and sheds in the neighbourhood of Burnley and Nelson, and the question that naturally suggests itself is: Can this state of things continue? I may say at the outset that I intend to deal with the question from an affirmative standpoint. I shall en- deavour to prove that there has been a considerable expansion in the cotton trade during the past five years, and to show in what parts of the world we may expect our future customers to be found. Owing to their being in some cases no return for 1875 I shall not be able to confine myself exclusively to that year; and the comparison will mainly be confined to the years from 1874 to 1886. The following figures will show the increase in the number of spindles, looms, cotton operatives, and cotton consumed in the United Kingdom :— Years. Spindles. ergee Meera bine ach AS iaa cen ® Aides taee Tes OOD EOHETS IESE en eae, wise none dve Felon cae vant abun cetew cons 42/1 00;000 Increase . ... ... 5,184,228 Percentage, 13°8. Annual Increase, 1:15. Years. Looms. MOU Ameectemsccn Fests iets. conte ccs! ane, faver soa 460p108 MOO Oa veauMeete oeads Ca Soe hase faatehincl Se . 561,000 Increase ... ... 97,882 Percentage, 21:1. Annual Increase, 1-75. Years. Cotton Operatives. MS Aas tees Rennes havtil amet ctiehbtess Winwe cca AOLOLD MGSGeetidt a Ee. cara peta ieuse ieee - 505,000 Ynerease’. ... ... 25,485 Percentage, 5°3. Annual Increase, °44. Years. Cotton consumed. 1874 Hon hictienes .eapieSead cress lee ieee ¢ dl, AT 400,000 1886 ROO | Hood aes Sees f 1,450,700,000 Increase ... .. 173,300,000 Percentage, 13°5. Annual Increase, 1°12. Exports Yarn. Average per Annum. Lbs. Five years to 1877 Incl. ... ... «2. «2. 222,250,000 re LON UGB O ys cen aon eae dane, BHD, OU0000. Fouryears to 1886 ,, ... .. «ss «+. 259,000,000 Increase 1878 to 1886 ..._~—«. - « 86,750,000 Percentage, 16°5. Annual Increase, 12°77, 40 Exports Cloth. Average per Annum. Yards. Five years to 1887 Incl.... ... ... ... 8,682,000,000 oe TOMS si5) free pyeer ace | enn 4,1 99,000000 Bonryearsto. 1886 ,, ..<) «- .... .«« 4,645,000,000 Increase 1878 to 1886... ... ..- 913,000,000 Percentage, 25:1. Annual Increase, 1:93. Having shown the great increased production and exportation of yarn and cloth, I have now to show that this development can be maintained. In this connection it is desirable to compare spindles in the United Kingdom with those of the rest of the world. In 1886 the following return was published by Mr. Elli- son, as the most reliable data on this question at that time :— Great ‘Britain stias dee AO UES 249 00 MOo Continent eso fee er. vee ace: aed es 22 90R0OD DherStates eee eel ei) et US BS Pant lnidies.Gh kw eres dest ee Ss. VEO ORR Total ... ... 81,050,000 England’s percentage of total ... ... ... 52°6 Other coumtringie <.- Acca aioe ar. wail) ose 47°4 No returns of looms from other countries except India. The following will show the relative consumption of cotton in the different portions of the world :— 1866-70. Per cent 1881-5. Per cent Bales. of Total. Bales. of Total. Great Britain... 2,435,000 ... 47°7 ... 83,610,000 ... 38-0 Continent ...... 1,633,000 ... 82:0 ... 8,285,000 ... 34°5 United States... 960,000 .. 19:0... 2,142,000 ... 22°5 Hast Indies .... °%0;,000':.. 1°38... 470,000... 6:0 -_— —- Total’ s *.aes. 100-0: 100-0 This table shows we have lost 9°7, Continent gained 2:5, United States 3°5, and India 3-7. Seeing that we have more spindles than all the rest of the world put together, it may seem strange that we only used in 1866-70 47-7 per cent, and our competitors 52°38, and in 1881-5 that we should use only 88-0, whilst our competitors use 62°0 per cent, but this is explained by the fact that the counts which they spin are much coarser than those spun in the United Kingdom. The following return will be interesting, and will explain this :— 41 Lb. Cotton used per spindle in Europe... ..- §2°2 iy pee a United States .. 74:5 5 a India... ... 109°0 Great Britain ... 34:5 The above table seems to indicate that our competitors are gain- ing upon us considerably, but the following returns of exports of cloth and yarn from countries with which we compete will show that we have nothing to fear in this respect :— Export of Cloth and Yarns from Foreign Countries compared with Exports of same from the United Kingdom. Average per Annum. aS Four Years, Five Years, Four Years, 1872 to 1875. 1876 to 1880. 1881 to 1884. £ £ £ Germany 3,564,000 ... 4,442,000 ... 5,000,000 Switzerland... 5,214,000 ... 2,171,000 ... 2,840,000 France ... 3,000,000 ... 2,625,000 ... 8,187,000 Holland 2,875,000 ... 2,812,000 ... 2,750,000 Belgium 500,000 ... 625,000 ... 875,000 Austria... 588,000 ... 562,000 ... 888,000 The States 625,000 ... 2,125,000 ... 2,500,000 Totals ... 16,861,000 14,842,000 17,485,000 Percentage 17°74 17°81 18°70 England 75,884,280 68,468,580 76,019,930 Percentage 82°26 82°19 81:30 Gross totals, ex- clusive of India 92,245,000 83,810,000 938,504,000 India 1,376,000 2,682,000 Gross totals, inclusive of India 84,686,000 96,186,000 Percentage w=. 80°85 79°04 This table proves most distinctly that during the twelve years 1878 to 1884, inclusive, England held her own against the six Continental countries and the United States, and even with India added to her competitors she still practically controls four-fifths of the entire cotton export trade of the world. As additional evidence we have nothing to fear from our foreign competitors, I beg to give the following quotations from Ellison’s Circular for 1885-6: Reports from Saxony said: ‘‘ Business during the past season unsatisfactory, owing partly to spinners having bought 42 the bulk of their cotton early at high prices, and partly to the severity of English competition.” Bavaria said: The main reason for bad trade, over-production, has been aggravated in its consequences, by the regrettable and ever recurring sharp com- petion of England on our own market.” Wurtemburg said: «The business of the past season was worse for spinners owing to the low prices caused by English competition.” Alsace said : «The past season has been very unsatisfactory to spinners, owing to the low prices of yarn compared with cotton, brought about in a great measure by English competition.” Switzerland said: «The unsatisfactory business (which has never been so bad since the industry commenced) is attributed to hostile tariffs and English competition. Manchester in default of finding an outlet in the East throws enormous quantities of yarn on the Continent at any price, and this injures our industry,’ or as another correspondent puts it: ‘‘ England has squandered yarns at ruin- ous prices on our market.’ Holland said: ‘‘ Moreover the trade has been injured by Manchester competition at excessively low prices.” Lille, Roubaix, &e., say ‘The past season has been very unsatisfactory, owing to the low and unremunerative prices occasioned by excessive competition, especially from England.” Perhaps these quotations will be sufficient as indicating the feel- ing of soreness as to the severity of English competition. Lastly, with regard to the spinning industry of India, J. EK. O’Connor, Esq., in his annual Report on the Finance and Commerce of India for 1884-5 says: ‘‘ There was mostly no profit, the value of all shares in these enterprises has fallen heavily and two at least of the largest mills in Bombay found themselves compelled to stop working in March and April. The Directors of one of the largest of these mills, in their report for 1885, say, ‘the fact is notorious that this year has been to the cotton spinning industry in general an unprecedentedly disastrous one.’”” The following table will show how our export trade in cloth and yarn is distributed :— AVERAGE PER ANNUM,—CLOTH IN YARDS. Five years Five years Four years Continents. 1873 to 1877 1878 to 1882 1883 to 1886 Europe... 611,650,000 ... 661,650,000 ... 589,250,000 Percentage 17:3 15°9 13:1 ASIHe s. 1,905,750,000_... 2,881,850,000 _... 2,728,062,000 Percentage 53°7 57°5 60:7 Africa ... 264,550,000 ... 270,100,000 ... 802,000,000 Percentage 74 6°5 6-7 America ... 715,000,000 ... 762,000,000 ... 779,000,000 Percentage 20:1 18:3 17°3 Australasia 53,000,000 ... 75,000,000 ... 98,000,000 Percentage 1:5 1:8 2°2 48 YARN IN POUNDS. Five years Five years Four years Continents. 1873 to 1877 1878 to 1882 1883 to 1886 Europe...... 146,000,000... 188,000,000 ... 156,000,000 Percentage 67°7 66:0 62:0 PURI. <5 ose exe 66,000,000 ... 68,000,000 ... 91 000,000 Percentage 30°6 32°5 36:2 Africa...... 8,600,000 ... 3,000,000 ... 4,000,000 Percentage iyi 15 1:8 Ellison’s tables of cotton products exported from the United Kingdom, and distribution, are as follows :— Percentage Continents. 1853. 1883. Increase. of Increase. Europe .... 11,340,000 ... 20,448,000 ... 9,108,000 ... 80:0 TNSIises sec cce 8,361,000 ... 33,589,000 ...25,428,000 ... 311:0 Australasia 1,049,000 ... 2,487,000 ... 1,488,000 ... 137°0 Africa ...... 1,160,000 ... 4,632,000 ... 3,472,000 ... 300:0 America... 10,943,000 ... 15,842,000 ... 4,899,000 ... 40:0 The following table shows the percentages of cotton products taken by the five great divisions of the world :— Percentage Continents. 1853. 1883. Increase. of Increase. Europe.....- 84°78 ... 26°73 .... — .. 8:00 IASia: ccsakeeee 25°00 ... 48°91 ... 18°91 ... — Australasia. 3°21... 325... O04 .. — Africa ...... 8:55 ... 6°06 ... Dit sci America ... 33°51 ... 20°05 .... = — ... 13°46 Let us now briefly summarise the result obtained by an ex- amination of the data contained in the tables I have just given you. First: During the 12 years from 1874 to 1886 spindles increased 18°8 per cent, looms 21-1 per cent, operatives 5:3 per cent, and cotton consumed 13:5 per cent. Second: From i873 to 1886 our exports of yarn increased 16:5 per cent in weight, and cloth 25-1 per cent inyards. Third: Of the spindles of the world we have 52°6 per cent against 47:4 per cent by our com- petitors. Fourth: Of the total cotton consumption of the world the United Kingdom is using 88 per cent against 62 per cent by our competitors, but this apparently anomalous result is owing to the rest of the world spinning very coarse yarn. Fifth: Shows, notwithstanding the severe competition with which we have to contend, we are conducting four-fifths of the entire ex- port trade of the world in cotton products. Sixth: The lesson taught by the distribution of our export in yarns and cloth, both as regards weight, length, and value, is that our exports to Europe in cloth are practically stationary, slightly increasing in 44 Africa and America, gradually, but evidently permanently, in- creasing to Australasia, but rapidly and largely increasing to Asia. Our yarn exports are principally to Hurope, and are increasing, Asia coming next, and Africa standing third. Our business is now to try to show that we can not only maintain our present trade but even expand and develop it still further. This will be no easy task, especially as regards the yarn trade in this connection. I would call especial attention to the com- petition of India. Cotton yarn produced in India in 1876-7 amounted to 76,520,000lb., in 1884-5, 204,750,000lb., or an increase of 128,230,000lb., or 167°6 per cent. The exports of yarn and thread from India amounted in 1876-78 to 8,796,000lb., but in 1884-5 to 68,897,000lb., or an increase of 60,101,000lb., equal to 672 per cent; whilst the increase of the United King- dom only amounted to 21,792,000lb., or 9:4 per cent. So successful is India’s competition with us that our export of yarn to India is almost stationary, whilst to China it is declining. It seems to me the main hope for the future of the yarn trade is the home market, and this only as a result of an increased demand for our cloth. While not expressing any great con- fidence as to the future of the yarn trade I am very hopeful in regard to an increased demand for cloth. This hope is based mainly on the development of our trade with India. The popu- lation may be put at 260 millions, and that of China at 330 millions. In 1886 our exports of cloth to India amounted to 2,119 million yards, but to China to only 456 million yards. In 1873 we sent 990 million yards to India, and 350 millions to China, thus showing that in the 13 years our trade with India increased 1,129 million yards, or 114 per cent, while that of China increased 106 million yards, or only 30 per cent. Sup- posing China took cloth from us at the same rate per population as India, our trade with that country would be 2,752 million yards per annum. This would be equal to the production of over 200,000 looms. There is no reason why this sanguine view should not be realised, except that of the indisposition of the Chinese to encourage and develop the trade and commerce of their country. There are signs of a decided change in the policy of the Chinese Government. Telegraphs, which they have hitherto opposed, are now being erected all over the country. Railways have also obtained a footing in China, their rivers are being opened up, and an English banking company have started a banking business in Pekin. All these changes are evidence that the Chinese Government are taking a more enlightened view of their relations with the western world, and instead of opposing the introduction of western ideas are now encouraging them in every possible way. May we therefore not hope that keen traders as the Chinese are known to be, and having more means than 45 the people of India with which to conduct a large trade, are we not warranted in hoping that China will make much larger demands upon us than in the past? Mr. J. C. Fielden, in an article in the ‘Co-operative Annual” says the present value of the world’s cotton products is not more than about 350 million sterling, and allowing the population of the world as 1,400 million, and that the consumption is 12s. per head, which is that of England, then the total requirements of the world amount to 840 million sterling, or considerably more than double that which is used at present. This is certainly taking an exceedingly sanguine view of the future, and a view which perhaps it may be somewhat difficult to sustain; but in taking this view which | hhave adopted in regard to China we are proceeding upon actual experience of an Eastern country, viz. that of India. It has been found that India takes a little over 241b. of cloth annually per head of population. The same remark applies to Java and Japan, and I see no reason why it should not apply to China. The more I think of the matter the more I am satisfied that China is the great hope of the future for the English manufacturer. Should my expectations in regard to China be realised, the ma- chinist, spinner, and manufacturer of this country will have as pleasant an experience in the future as they have had of the past. India is our greatest customer both in yarn and cloth, in evidence of which last year (1886) she took over 18 per cent of the entire export of yarn and 48 per cent of our cloth exports. Of the entire increased exports since 1873 India has taken of yarn 51 per cent and of cloth 83 per cent. The Board of Trade returns show that the export of cloth in 1886 exceeded that of 1881 to the extent of 783 million yards, but during this time the exports to India increased 479 million yards, showing an actual decrease to other parts of the world to the amount of 406 million yards. This shows very clearly our great dependence upon India as a customer for our cotton manufactures. No one in the light of these facts can fail to see how important the prosperity of India is to the trade of Lancashire. Anything which seriously inter- fered with the prosperity of India would be absolutely ruinous to Lancashire, seeing that she takes nearly half of our exports of cotton cloth. It is therefore important that Lancashire men should encourage in every possible way the development and prosperity of India. Experience shows that the more easy and the greater the facilities for the conveyance of produce from one part of India to another the greater has been the trade of India. Hence the importance of encouraging railway, river, and road improvements. The following statistics, culled from an address delivered before the Manchester Geographical Society by J. K. Bythell, Esq., on the 2nd March, will be found very valuable and interesting to those who are desirous to obtain information 46 in regard to our great Indian dependency. Mr. Bythell was for many years president of the Bombay Chamber of Commerce, and also a member of the Legislative Council of the Governor of Bombay. In his address Mr. Bythell stated that during the present century India had been visited by ten famines. There were no returns as to the loss of life of the first four, but 114 million of people were shown to have died of starvation as the result of the last six. Mr. Bythell contended strongly that most of these lives might have been saved if India had possessed better railway communication. The intimate connection between railway communication and trade is strikingly shown by the following return from the address :— Year. Miles of Trade in Railways opened. Rupees. PSH2268 it... va akeeee EE ee saab 385 million. ILS EO) Ganscnincoce: SOM siaee. ore 695 rf TSEGO27TO ces tere eT OG) <2 20.5 tec. OOS eae USSb-86u -cicsaeee odes (Rechessceee. 1,520 _ ,, The passengers carried in 1881 amounted to 65,000,000; in 1885, 81,000,000, classified as follows: first-class, 364,037; second-class, 1,845,100; third-class, 3,262,224; fourth-class, 75,393,418; total, 80,864,779. The goods carried in 1885 amounted to 18,925,385 tons. In conversations I have had with a gentleman who has travelled largely in India, I have been informed that improved railway communication is the great want of the country. My friend said he had seen again and again trains leave the stations in different parts of the country leaving bebind them great numbers of people who could not be taken for want of additional rolling-stock. I am strongly of the opinion that every encouragement should be given to the development of the railway system of India. If this were done there cannot be any doubt that the large trade we are doing with India would become still larger, as experience has shown that better railway communication has always led to increased trade. Time will not permit or much more might be said on this part of my subject. In conclusion, I beg to make the following suggestions: First, the people of Lancashire should strongly urge upon the Government the desirability and import- ance of having a Minister of Commerce; second, that our consuls should be instructed to look more after the trade of the country than they have hitherto; third, that strong representa- tions should be made to the Government in favour of the de- velopment of the Indian railway system; fourth, that Chambers of Commerce should be established in all the large manufacturing towns of the country: fifth, that we should not underrate or despise our competitors, but adopt every legitimate means to cheapen the cost of production, as it is only through being able 47 to undersell our competitors that we can hope to maintain our supremacy. The facts I have placed before the members of the club clearly show that, though we are holding our own, we are not gaining upon our competitors—it is clearly a neck and neck race. I therefore, in conclusion, strongly urge upon workmen, employers, and merchants not to be apathetic and fancy that our position is secure and unassailable, but exert themselves to the utmost to retain and maintain the honourable and dignified position which we hold as the leading traders of the world. I will conclude with the language of our great dramatist— “This above all—to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man.” DISCUSSION ON MR. GREENWOOD’S PAPER. Mr. J. W. THompson pointed out that as foreign countries be- came more civilised and peaceable, they developed their own manufactures more and more, and our position in future would depend not so much on the opening up of India and other parts of the world as of our ability to compete with foreign manufac- turers. If protective tariffs in the United States were removed, America would become a very keen competitor. While agreeing with the suggestion as to Chambers of Commerce, he disapproved of a Minister of Commerce, believing it was not for a Govern- ment to find trade or means of employment for any section of the people, but for the latter to rely on themselves. Mr. James Kay, J.P., quoted an assertion by Mr. Joshua Raw- linson, that the Burnley Limited Liability Companies had not made an average dividend from their formation of more than 2 per cent, and said that if Burnley manufacturers were not to expect anything brighter than they had experienced in the past, Alderman Greenwood’s assurance was not very encouraging. If America adopted free trade he believed she would be our greatest compet- itor. It was high time a Minister of Commerce, who thoroughly understood trade, was appointed, and also that our consuls should pay more attention to trade matters. It was very desirable there should be a Chamber of Commerce in Burnley, and he thought no one was better fitted to act as leader in such a movement than Alderman Greenwood, whom he should be glad to see the first president. Councillor Lancaster thought Alderman Greenwood had taken an exceedingly optimist view of our trade, and had overlooked a great many difficulties with which it was hedged round. The ‘Continental and American people were as hard-working as Lan- eashire people, and were not hampered with such stringent Factory Acts as existed here; and if these countries removed their protective tariffs they would be able to produce goods possibly cheaper than we are doing at present, Indian manu- 48 facturers were already competing successfully with us in Kast Africa, and he did not think we should make much headway in China owing to the exclusiveness of the population. He had not a word to say against the workpeople of this country, who he believed were as industrious as those in any part of the world, and if strikes were common here they were common in every civilised country; but he thought the Factory Acts might be better administered. Retired military officers on half pay were not the men to superintend our mills, but we should have as inspectors men who could carry out the Acts in a little more conciliatory manner than at present. Councillor THornser, J.P., considered the figures which had been adduced proved rather the reverse of what Alderman Green- wood had argued. Through the competition of other countries that were now commencing to manufacture their own cloth, English manufacturers were being driven on to finer counts of cloth, and if we were to maintain our position it would be through our supremacy in this direction, owing to the superior intelligence of masters and workpeople in the country. The establishment of technical schools throughout our weaving centres would enable the operatives to become better fitted for these elaborate makes of cloth to which we were being driven. Burnley had been considerably behind other towns in this respect, having had goods more of a ‘‘ bread and cheese” type. However they were moving in the direction of having to make less plain sorts, and he indulged the hope that the proposed technical school would give an impetus to the movement in that direction. Mr. James Lancaster was of opinion that while the competi- tion from India would increase very considerably, there was a wonderful field for the development of our trade in China, where the first railway had only been open a short time. After pointing out that the crops of cotton in India increased in quality every year, he said our consuls ought to be more like travellers, and follow in the steps of consuls representing other countries who were constantly sending samples of goods and valuable com- mercial information to their respective Governments, for the use of Chambers of Commerce. ‘There had been a tremendous increase in the production and export of yarn; but it must not be forgotten that many old spinning mills in Burnley .and other towns were killed off, whilst many gigantic concerns at Oldham were to-day standing in the books at double their value. Mr. J. S. Cottiner, J.P., reminded the members that India formed part of the Empire, and a great deal of the capital em- ployed in her mills was Lancashire wealth. India was dependent upon her agricultural prosperity, and in case of a ruinous harvest there, one half of the looms, in this part of Lancashire at all events, would, according to Mr. Greenwood, have no work at all. 49 He hoped Alderman Greenwood would take up the question of a Chamber of Commerce for this town. Mr. F. H. Hit having briefly spoken, Councillor Burrows thought Alderman Greenwood had made out a very good case in support of his position. It was rather peculiar that three or four million inhabitants in Lancashire and one or two neighbouring shires should expect to be able to make more cotton cloth than all the rest of the world put together. If the numbers employed in our cotton trade increased in the same proportion as they had since 1874, it would be something wonderful. He did not see how we could expect to be able to have much more than 82 per cent of the entire export trade of the world in cotton goods. It was a wonderful thing for a little country like this to have attained such a position. He believed the adoption of free trade in America would give, in the outset at least, a considerable stimulous to our trade. The American markets would be flooded with English cotton goods, and the result would be disastrous to the American trade for a consider- able time. We could not reasonably expect to increase our exports to Continental countries, seeing that these were constantly increasing their tariffs to keep us out, but in all the open markets the increase had been very considerable. India had certainly increased her export of yarn and cloth very considerably, but it ought to be remembered that a large percentage of the capital embarked in the Indian cotton trade was English money, and it was therefore the resources of England that were being developed in that country. Ourconsuls at present paid too much attention to political affairs, and too little to our commercial interests. They were really sent out to guard the interests of the Empire, and as we were a trading nation our interests really lay in a strict attention to commercial questions. We might have a wonderful improvement in this direction, without one extra penny of ex- penditure. Alluding to the desertion of old spinning mills in Burnley, and the centralisation of this branch of the cotton industry in Oldham, he said they all mourned the disappearance of these institutions as they would the departure of old friends, but it was one of the laws of nature that these old mills should become unfitted to compete with the modern structures, equipped with all the newest inventions. Spinners in Burnley might have been rather lax in the introduction of new machinery, and that might have been one of the causes of spinning falling off in this neighbourhood. Butif they had not been able to maintain their spinning trade they had excelled in the manufacture of plain cloth. He took it some portion of the community would have to make plain goods if there was a demand for them, and though it might be better in some respects if they were able to weave every kind of cloth, yet if they could secure a sort of monopoly 50 for the production of plainer sorts, in which there was not so much exertion required, or so great a strain on the nerve and attention of the operative, it would be well for them to continue in its production, if the masters could reap the same profits as from the other kinds of cloth. Alderman GrrEenwoop replied at length to the various points raised in the discussion. He said the fact of Continental countries constantly increasing their tariffs showed their weakness as com- petitors with England. ‘The tendency was towards a continual rise in the tariffs rather than in the direction of their abolition, but if these imposts were removed our employers would find themselves crowded with orders, they would have a difficulty in finding sufficient workpeople to run their spindles and looms, and the profits would be something fabulous. The fact that India was open to any country in the world and that we had a monopoly of the trade, showed the supremacy of our position in a competitive sense. Then the manufactures exported from India were a mere trifle, and these were divided between Persia, China, and Africa. When Mr. H. H. Johnstone, the African traveller, lectured in Burnley, he and a few more gentlemen impressed upon him very strongly that as he was going out as consul to the Cameroons, he should give special attention to the develop - ment of the export trade of Lancashire, more particularly the Burnley trade. He replied that his special instructions were to look particularly after the trade of the district to which he was sent. This was asitshould be. With regard to India, Alderman Greenwood explained that whenever a “decided increase of our exports had taken place in any year it had always been maintain- ed, and contended that the tone he had adopted with respect to our future trade in that dependency was not too sanguine. Very little development might be looked for in our future exports of yarn, but he looked to a continued increase in the exportation of cotton cloth. Our spinners would have to look more to the home market for an increased demand for this commodity, and spinning mills could not continue to be built at Oldham and carried on profitably without an increased demand. But while the yarn market had been practically stationary for a few years, the manufacturing industry had been expanding year by year, and for an outlet for this expansion we must look more and more to Asia, and particularly to India. In conclusion, he expressed a hope that some decided effort would be made to establish a Chamber of Commerce in Burnley. It was either the second or third manufacturing town in the kingdom, having about 50,000 looms, and it was desirable that a Chamber should be inaugurated to look after so gigantic a trade. The proceedings terminated with a vote of thanks to Alderman Greenwood. 51 THE EARLY NEOLITHIC FLOOR OF EAST LANCASHIRE. By H. COLLEY MARCH, M.D., Lond. March 22nd, 1887. 1. Introduction— The forgery of stone implements was never so abundant or so difficult of detection as at present. Therefore I wish to say that every object shown to-night, has been found by myself, or nnder my own supervision. The sections have been examined and reported on by Dr. Hinde, and the photographs were prepared by Mr. Spencer Smithson of Facit. The geological formation of the district is that of the coal-measures—shales and gritstones;—so that no chert or flint is native to the soil. 2. Definition— By a “floor” is meant the actual undisturbed area occupied by a race of men. It is only by a fortunate accident that such a floor has been preserved, and it is only by careful digging that such a floor can be accurately laid bare. 3. The extent of the floor-containing area— The area comprises a portion of the Pennine Chain. Its altitude is well above 1300 feet. It does not extend to the north of Burnley, nor to the west of Bolton, nor to the south of Hadfield; but it stretches eastwards, without defined limits, into Yorkshire. Beyond this area, stray silicious flakes may be picked up anywhere, but speaking roughly of the north, no flint- floor has been found on Boulsworth Hill, or about Pendle, or on the limestone ridges round Clapham ; nor, as regards the south, at Marple, or at Hayfield, or on the escarpments of the millstone-grit of Derbyshire. 4. The relative position of the Floor— The floor is found either on the summit of a conical hill, or on a southward slope a hundred feet below the top of the rearward or protecting ridge. More particulary ; there are six conical hills: Bull Hill, 1372 ft.; Tooter Hill, 1420 ft.; Knoll Hill, 1878 ft.; Middle Hill, 1800 ft.; March Hill, 1450 ft.; and Cupwith Hill, 1440 ft.; and five slopes: Wadsworth, Blackstone Edge, Readycon Dean, Pule Hill and Bareholme, which have a mean elevation of 1350 feet. 52 The floor is generally covered by peat, sometimes to a depth of more than six feet. Where not so covered there. is evidence either direct or presumptive that the peat has been removed by fire, by denudation, or by turbary opera- tions. The lower stratum of the overlying peat has usually a distinct intermiature of clay. Beneath this is’a brownish- erey subsoil full of carbonaceous markings of rootlets and formed, not by the decomposition of heather and moss such as now flourish on the moors, but by the remains of an ancient growth of grass and brushwood. Throughout this subsoil, relics of human handiwork are strewn ; and in some cases they may be met with even beneath it, lying on the yellow yoredale sand, in which no traces of vegetation exist, or mixed up with a rubble of millstone- grit, the ruin, apparently, of rude sand-stone shelters. 5. The objects found on the the floor— Besides implements, and, from the present point of view, more important than implements, cores of chert and flint, and innumerable flakes of all degrees of minuteness indicate the existence of a true floor; and the indication is confirmed by their association with bits of iron pyrites and of reddle, and crystals of quartz; while fragments of charcoal and burnt pieces of flint verify the site of a hearth and a dwelling-place. 6. The nature ef the Early Neolithic material— The only wrought stones found on the floor are of quartz, quartzite, chert, and flint—that is to say, borers of quartz, hammers of quartzite, awls and thumbstones of chert, and implements of flint in great variety. 7, The source of the material— The quartzite hammer-stones are obviously pebbles from the drift. When chert flakes or fragments retain a portion of their original exterior, this is always a water-worn surface, and corresponds precisely with chert of the drift; while micros- copic sections show that all have an affinity to the chert of the carboniferous limestone. The flint, also, is evVi- dently that of the drift. Nodules that have been wrought are often small in size, and bad in quality. When flakes present a portion of the nodular surface, this is seen to be pebbled or water-worn ; oF it has a thickness of ‘ skin” the result of greatly prolonged weathering. Ifan exception occurs, it may be explained by the fact that large pieces of quite fresh-looking flint are to be met with in Lancashire boulder-clay. 53 8. The Implements proper to the floor— These are for the most part of the usual type: hammers and knappers; scrapers, flakers, thumbstones and borers ; together with knives, spear-heads and arrow-tips. As regards these it may be noticed that they are small in size, somewhat rudely made, and entirely destitute of polish. But there are other implements of a type by no means usual. In the Colonial Exhibition at South Kensington there were shown, last year, as the work of Bushmen, Hottentots and Kaffirs, some diminutive tools of flint labelled “ drills.”’ Similar flint implements have been met with in Egypt; in the Exeter Museum are some slender points of worked flint that were discovered beneath a submerged forest near Westward Ho! and small worked crescents of flint and agate have been found in caves of the Vindhya Hills of India. But all these are far surpassed, as regards minute- ness and delicacy of workmanship, by the implements of the East Lancashire floor. Indeed in some of them the secondary flaking is so fine that it cannot well be seen without a magnifying glass. Roughly speaking, these minute implements are divisible into two classes, and are probably borers and gravers. Those of one class taper slenderly to a point, as if for drilling eyes in bone needles ; while those of the other class have the form of an old- fashioned pen-knife, and are shaped so much on one pattern that, in nearly every instance, when their flat or unflaked surface is placed downwards the dorsal angle is on the left hand, and the long side of the triangle is on the right hand. In fact they closely resemble a modern graving tool, and were doubtless used for carving orna- mental devices on bone or wood. They present, moreover. certain peculiarities of local manufacture—the minute implements of one station differ somewhat in style from those of another. The smallness of some of the thumbstones also deserves attention. It would seem to be impossible to use them. M. De Mortillet, in his ‘ Prehistoric Antiquity of Man” speaks of ‘‘les haches amulettes’’ which he says are ‘small axes—too small, or made of a stone too soft, for ‘use, and yet fashioned with great care.” Perhaps these are amulet-thumbstones. 9. Negative evidence from the floor— Hitherto no barbed arrow heads, nor any fragments suggesting one, have been seen on an undisturbed floor. They are met with on denuded patches of moor-land. 54 Those picked up by myself were in the lower layers of peat. But leaf-shaped arrow-heads certainly occur. No indication of polishing has been observed. No metal has been found, and no spindle-whorls. No beads, or glass, or pottery. No bones of any description, and no implements of bone, horn or wood. No flakes of greenstone or of volcanic rock have been met with, nor any example of a stone that is not common to the drift of the neighbourhood. It is necessary to mention the discovery of three finely polished celts, one of flint and the others of greenstone. The flint axe was found near Wardle in a bed of gravel on the bank of a stream. The two greenstone celts, which seem never to have been used, and which bear to each other an extraordinary resemblance, were found only a few miles apart—one, buried under fragments of rock in a quarry of millstone grit at Cudworth, in Saddleworth, and the other, under two feet of peat, on a bed of marl or clay, in the works for the Todmorden reservoirs, near Ramsden Wood. These hatchets are clearly importations into the district; they are not connected in any way with a true floor; and they probably belong to a much later period than that of the Neolithic stations of which we are speaking. 10. Signs of Antiquity— The floor is associated with a vegetation entirely differ- ent from the present moorland growth. It occupies, in many instances, the top of a conical hill, and yet it is covered with a layer of peat from 4 to 10 feet in thickness. A rounded and elevated and isolated surface is apparently the last place on which one would expect to find a deep deposit of peat, especially peat of which the lower stratum has an intermixture of clay. It is difficult to avoid the inference that the present conical hills which correspond so strikingly in altitude, must have been part of a generally level country when the deposit of peat began; and that some of the smaller river-valleys have been cut out since the Karly Neolithic floor was first used. The entire absence of bones, of pottery, of polished im- plements, agrees with the assumption of a high antiquity. 11. General conclusions— We know that in Neolithic times and in those places where flint is geologically present, large quantities of flint implements were made for barter and exportation; as in Wiltshire, for example, or in Antrim, 55 And it is conceivable that unwrought flint may itself have been a matter of commerce; in which case the nod- ules would assuredly have been of good size and quality. The evidence of the East Lancashire floor shows that the silicious material was derived altogether from the drift, and that the nodules of flint were, as a rule, neither good nor large, while a scarcity of them is disclosed by the constant recourse to chert, and by the re-employment of flakes already used and discarded. But the evidence also shows that implements were manufactured in great numbers on the floor itself. In other words, neither flint nodules nor flint implements were brought thither from a distance—for the three celts belong to another floor and a later age. The suggestion is that the men who occupied the Early Neolithic Stations of Hast Lancashire had been driven from the Yorkshire coast by a victorious invasion—by the wielder of the war-spear or the battle-axe of polished stone; and that they had clustered in a few inaccessible parts of the country where they were shut off from flint- producing districts and were compelled to utilize the scanty material of the drift. Their scrapers show that they clothed themselves with garments of skin; their minute graving-tools indicate, if not smallness of stature, at any rate delicacy of workman- ship and a love of ornament. They made no durable pottery ; they probably did not spin; and on the elevated regions where they dwelt it is not likely that their pursuits were agricultural. In fine, the general facies of their armament indicates less the warrior than the hunter, and not so much a horde of conquerors as a fugitive and a vanishing race. What was this race, and by whom were these people assailed ? Urn rounp at Het Croven, near Burnuey, Sxpremser, 1886, py Mr. TarrersaALL WILKINSON OF WoRSTHORNE. 56 OLD HALLS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF BURNLEY. By THOMAS BELL. March 29th, 1887. The district around Burnley is peculiarly rich in ‘“‘ Old Halls.” The unprecedented development of the town within the last twenty years as a great commercial centre together with the altered circumstances of life is changing even the physical aspect of the country and rapidly removing the old land marks. The old Houses near the Parish Church, dated 1655, have been pulled down for street improvements. The ‘“ Old Sparrow Hawk Inn ” adjoining will doubtless share the same fate. The old Market Cross, the Stocks at its foot, and the Cross of Paulinus, have been removed to a new and safer position near the Grammar School. ‘The old Hall popularly called ‘‘ Danes House,” which a few years ago was in the midst of green fields in the outskirts of the town, was gradually encircled by cottages, where it stood for a time, shewing a startling contrast between the old and the new, not at all in favour of the latter, and then it gave place, because it did not come up to the first of modern requirements, and pay over 5 per cent. interest. The ‘‘ Old Lodge” off Byerden Lune, a fine old Elizabethan Hall, fit residence for a yeoman of the 17th century was not considered suitable for a farmer of the 19th, and so it was taken down and a new house erected adjoming—the only portions retained being the old circular-headed doorcase in the new porch, and the staircase window above it, which is a medley composed of various parts of the old windows terminated wth the characteristic gable head. Itis much to be regretted that this fine architectural relic with so many characteristic features of a past age could not have been preserved. The ‘‘ Old Hall” at Worsthorne of somewhat similar age and character to the ‘‘ Old Lodge” is rapidly going to ruin and decay, and is now used as a slaughter-house and stable. The Club would be doing good work if they would follow in the footsteps of the French Antiquities, or our own Historic Buildings Preser- vation Society, and use their influence to get the hall repaired so as to be a memorial in this too flimsy and utilitarian age of the methods employed in times gone by. ‘‘Shuttleworth Hall,’ near Hapton, is in danger of being taken down and, in the course of a few years many other of these interesting relics will doubtless have pased away. As far as I know there is no detailed description and compari- son of these buildings in existence, and as they are so full of 57 interest both to Architect and Antiquarian I purpose to-night to deal with the first branch of the subject, to examine the records in stone that past generations have left us, and to see evidences in the solidity of their structures, of the sturdiness of their minds and characters, and in their arrangements get some glimpses of their social habits. Each nation possesses its own peculiar model of domestic plan; thus, Italy has its Villa, France its chateau, and England its country seat or hall, and these differ in their arrangements just as the occupiers differ in their habits of life. Hach manner also has had its development. During the six centuries commonly called the ‘‘ Dark Ages”’ the habits of the people were extremely rude and their domestic buildings correspondingly so. The house of a Saxon of average degree consisted of a single large apartment about 30 to 40 feet long, about half as wide and low in height. ‘his apartment was the Hall of universal Northern usage, and answered as sole dwelling room, eating room, kitchen, scullery, nursery, and sleeping room for lord and lady, guest and serf alike, and also afforded quarters for sheep dogs and wolf hounds. The Norman conquest produced no immediate difference of plan for the peaceful cultivators of the soil—but in the 12th Century there was some advance made. The houses were of two types, one in the form of a parallelogram 2 stories high, the lower storey vaulted, with no communication with the upper storey which was approached by a flight of steps on the outside; in this storey was placed a fireplace, often the only one in the building. The windows in the upper storey were larger than those below which were small narrow lights. Necham’s account of a good Manor House of his day, gives a Hall or Public Room, a Chamber or Private Room, a Kitchen for cooking, a Larder for preserving and storing meat, a Sewery for service of wine, ale and table furnishings, and a Cellar for miscellaneous stores. ‘The Hall was on the ground floor, and the height of the 2-storey portion which contained Cellar under and Solar over. The Saxons built universally of wood and after the Conquest the same method continued to be general. In the 13th Century considerable progress was made. The nobles became weary of the dreary Donjon keep, and as the general state of Society had greatly improved a general regard to defensiveness was all that was required for safety, and thus originated the ‘‘ Fortified Manor House” which continued to be the standard Hall down to the time of the Tudors. The Service Rooms were enlarged and subdivided, and a novelty—* Bed- chambers ”—was introduced. Still all was rude and incomplete. Staircases were very rare, external flights of steps, trap doors and 58 ladders being the rule, fireplaces were few, glass windows were almost monopolized by the Church, and the floors were usually of clay. Karly in the 14th century the quadrangular plan with the Hall as its chief feature was adopted and it now reached perfection. Its dimensions were magnificent—its walls were lofty, its windows expansive and its roof or cciling elaborate. The Dais raised at one end by two or three steps was occupied by the high table; opposite was the wooden partition or screen forming the entrance passage and porch, above which was the minstrels’ gallery. In the centre of the hall was placed the brass grate for fire with a louvre in the roof, and on the other side were doors leading to the kitchens and household offices. The ordinary Manor House of this period contained a pair of irreuglar two storey wings attached to the ends of a large hall. Sometimes the building enclosed a quadrangle, having in front a wall or outbuildings, and a gatehouse, and the whole surrounded with a moat. One wing contained the few family rooms and the other the household offices. The best houses had several rooms set specially apart for sleeping, but the arrangement was not improved. In the North of England from the early part of the 14th century down to the Union of the two Crowns of England and Scotland under James I. no residence was safe without a tower, and these were gener- ally provided. Timbered houses consuming an immense amount of the finest oak were erected—a specimen of one of these build- ings may be seen at Salmesbury. Mr. Croston thinks the great Hall and its adjuncts were erected towards the close of the 14th century. In the 15th century houses of all materials, plans and sizes occur, sometimes quadrangular, sometimes an irregular court with tower gateway used for the entrance or with octagonal towers on each side. In the Northern counties towers were still in use by the smaller proprietors, and castles adapted both for habitation and fortification by the greater lords. The timbered houses now very often become half timbered, or the walls were continued to the eaves of the building, the gables being of wood as in the hall of Little Mitton. This period is a time of transition, the serfs had attained the independence of hired labourers and owing to the improvement in the social condition of the people and the establishment of the authority of public law the men-at-arms and retainers were less in number, and so the great hall in future was not required of such magnitude though it still continues the principal apartment. The Dais was frequently omitted. Bay windows now became characteristic features, and the reredos or brazier gradually gave way to the fire-place in the wall or the ingle nook. ‘Tapestry was used for the walls, and occasionally the ceilings were divided into panels with carved bosses at the intersections. 59 The 16th century may be called the Tudor period. In it numerous houses of the greatest size and magnificence were erected, of which many examples still exist. arly in the century wainscot came much into use for the principal rooms and for the division of the chambers, the panels were small and carved with every variety of pattern, the ceilings were also richly ornamented by carving the massive oak beams and moulding the joists or dividing the ceiling into various geometric patterns with oak beams and filling in the spaces with plaster, and occasionally pendants were introduced. The staircase became much ampli- fied and elaborated, and the gallery, which is a peculiar feature of Elizabethan plan (being sometimes 150 feet long and used for music and dancing) was introduced. In the matter of arrange- ment, hitherto the increasein the number of rooms had produced little else than an increase in the doors of communication, but now privacy was obtained by the introduction of corridors. The great hall, which, continually increasing for four hundred years attained its climax in the 14th century, declined in the 15th and in the 16th still diminishes in importance, till in some instances it disappears, the family parlour taking its place for the family and the kitchen for the servants, the entrance hall being used occasionally for festivity. The general decay of native woods occasioned a universal disuse of this material for external pur- poses about the latter end of the reign of Henry 8th, and in the reign of Elizabeth numbers of the old timber walls having gone to decay were rebuilt in stone; an example of this kind may be seen at Hoghton ‘Tower, which was commenced in 1565 by Thos. de Hoghton, who was killed 3 years afterwards. His son Richard must have completed it within a short time for it was a sufficiently magnificent place to receive in 1617 the honour of a royal visit from James I. In the 17th century a decided revolution took place both in the arrangement and architecture of domestic work. The taste for classical literature introduced the taste for classical archi- tecture; the old English model was entirely put aside, and a new mansion to be in the fashion must be an Italian Villa with the kitchens and offices in the basement, the family dwelling rooms on the principal floor, with a large central saloon and portico, and the bed-rooms on the floor above. Both wings of the house must also be exactly alike. This district, however, and the north generally, (being remote from the fashionable centres) for a considerable time kept to the old plan, though introducing in some measure the classical details. The. stair- cases were made with open balustrades, some of them richly carved. Galleries also were generally adopted for the larger houses. Plaster work richly ornamented was frequent, and the gardens were laid out in stiff geometric patterns, with terraces 60 and open balustrades. None of the old halls in our neighbour- hood are erected on the Italian type, so I do not propose to con- tinue the historical part of domestic architecture further. Dr. Whitaker in his chapter on Domestic Architecture in the History of Whalley divides the Mansions of our forefathers as follows :—(1) The castle. (2) The castlet, peel or tower. (8) The ancient unembattled manor house. (4) The greater or less embattled mansion of Queen Eliz. or Jas. I.—and adds (5) The ordinary Hall Ho. (6) The farm house. (7) The cottage. (1) Of the Castle we have no example in the neighbourhood except we go as far as Clitheroe. (2) The castlet, peel or tower. These were erected to protect the Lord of the Manor or considerable landowner, not only from the incursions of the Scots who frequently pen- etrated as far South as Clitheroe and Whalley, but also from family feuds which frequently terminated in slaughter —of this kind is the South wing of Towneley, with walls 6 ft. thick, and till lately furnished with the corbels of a machicolation. (3) The Unembattled Manor House. These generally surrounded a quadrangle, and were defended by a moat which supplied the want of strength in the walls and gates. We have none of the exact type in our neighbourhood, Hoghton Tower being the only specimen of true baronial residence with upper and base court. (4) Embattled House of Elizabeth and James I. A house erected in tranquil times, built to be lived in and with but slight reminiscences of days when the Englishman’s castle was his home rather than his castle—of this species our neighbourhood furnishes a single but complete specimen in Gawthorpe, which will be more fully described here- after. (5) Ordinary Hall for the accommodation of the middle or lower rank of gentry. This type consisted in plan of a through lobby with entrance porch, a large hall with a parlour on one side for the family, and a kitchen on the other for the servants. Under this head, with more or less elaboration according to size and importance, are classed the greater number of the Halls in this district. (5) Farm House. The hall became the house which answered the double purpose of kitchen and living room, the screen, the speere and the parlour were reserved for special occasions. (7) The Cottage with one room on the ground floor which serves as living room, kitchen, and bed-room, but oftener with a small scullery in addition to the rear, and with one or 61 two bed-rooms on the first floor. Examples of these are to be seen at ‘the Shorey” in Burnley, Worsthorne, Hurstwood, and other neighbouring villages. Materials.—Just as brick walls with thatched roofs are the characteristics of many of the old Halls in the Midland and Southern Counties, varied with half-timbered Houses in the well wooded districts, so this being pre-eminently a stone district the walls are invariably built of this material. As it was very plentiful the old builders were lavish in its use, making the in- ternal as well as the external walls about 2 feet thick, facing the latter with roughly dressed course stones, bedded in and pointed with a good quality of lime mortar; the inside facing also was bedded in mortar and the centre filled in with dry saplings to allow any moisture that penetrated the outer facing to fall to the ground. The stone generally used, (at any rate that for the Old Lodge, Danes House, Extwistle, Worsthorne, Barcroft and Hurst- wood with parts of Towneley,) was the grit rock which was obtained from the boulders, which at that time were plentifully scattered on the surface throughout the whole of the district. Many of these are still remaining on Marsden Heights, and the same strata of rock is still to be seen bared in the ravine behind Hurstwood Hall. These were carted to the sites of the Halls, cut up into the sizes required, and possibly explains the shape of the windows and the peculiar methods of jointing adopted in their construction, they being in small stones, though with mas- sive mouldings. In the cases of the larger stones required for square headed door tops which were wrought out of one stone, these were obtained from the millstone grit found further up on the moors. The wallstones for the general facing of the walls were in all thicknesses and placed in irregular courses just as they were obtained; the angle quoins were also of all sizes and shapes, in consequence considerable picturesqueness was added to their appearance. Most of the windows were protected by the overhanging labels, and many of the gutters were emptied through quaint projecting gargoyles. The thickly wooded district provided an ample supply of oak for the bearing timbers which were of enormous size and capable of carrying far more weight than was ever put upon them. The divisions of the rooms were generally formed of oak with moulded _ panels and fluted framing, much of which is of specially good design. Some of the walls of the rooms were also covered from floor to ceiling with panelled framing of similar character. The roofs were covered with what are technically called grey slates, being thin slabs of stone secured with wooden pegs. These were far to be preferred to the blue Welsh or Westmoreland slates, as in the absence of wood and plaster ceilings to the bed rooms, they made a covering that was cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 62 Besides this, they were a greater protection in case of storms, and being obtained in the district at a time when transit was difficult, they saved a deal of labour, and also harmonized both in color and massiveness with the other portions of the structures. The glazing of the windows was in lead-lights with square or diamond shaped panes fixed in with iron stanchions, and the glass was sometimes tinted. In spite of defects of arrangement in some, such as passing through one room to get into another, the lowness of the rooms; in others no provision for ventilation, draughtiness and insufficient fireplaces, and occasional fantastic and incongruous details, yet taken as a whole, they will compare favourably with our modern work, and they still can supply us with many valuable hints for our adoption, and furnish us. with materials, that combined with our modern conveniences, would greatly improve our present domestic dwellings. TowneLey Hatt. The original site according to Dr. Whitaker appears to have been a tall and stately knoll southward from the present man- sion, and which is still called ‘Castle Hill,” immediately adjoining the farm called the “Old House.’’ Here before the Conquest, far beyond written memorials, was the Villa de Tunlay, the residence of one of those independent lords who preside over every village. The present residence is shaped thus | | and the date of its erection cannot exactly be determined—the archi- tectural features indicating about A.D. 1500. The north east side (now open) which would ccmplete the quadrangle, was formerly occupied by an Entrance Gatehouse and Chapel. The alterations made by Chas. Towneley in the time of Queen Anne have destroyed the value of the Hall as indicating the progress of Medieval Domestic Architecture. Judging from the wealth of the family, the Great Hall must have been one of great magnifi- cence, but in 1725 it was gutted and converted into an Entrance Hall, which is now a fine example of Ionic Architecture. As the Hall now stands it presents a bold and castellated appearance —the walls in the south wing being 6 ft. thick. The entrance door of oak enriched with tracery is dated 1530, and is inserted in the porch which was erected in 1614. The most interesting feature of the Hall is the Chapel, which is of extreme beauty, and of great archeological value. Its length is 33 ft. and width 18 ft. The chancel is about one-third the length, lofty, and elaborately panelled and carved, with a fine reredos with window above it. The nave is about 12 ft. high with a flat ceiling shewing the richly moulded beams and joists. On the north west side of the chapel is a small room for the priest. In the side wings.the walls are handsomely panelled in oak, and throughout there is a profusion of fine oak furniture. 63 The Towneleys of Towneley are one of the oldest families in Lancashire. The family has always been Roman Catholic, and its representative in the time of Queen Hlizabeth underwent heavy penalties for recusancy. The Towneley pedigree contains many illustrious names, the best known being that of Charles Towneley, F.R.S., F.S.A., who died in 1805, and was the collector of the Towneley Marbles now in the British Museum. His cousin, Peregrine Edward Towneley, F.R.8., inherited the estates. He was High Sheriff of Lancashire, and died in 1846. He was succeeded by his son, Chas. Towneley, F.R.S., Col. of the 5th Lancashire Militia, who died in 1876, leaving three daughters. The eldest married Viscount Norreys, and died in 1873; the second is the wife of Lord Lennox ; and the third married Lord O’Hagan, who died in 1886. Lady O'Hagan now resides at the Hall. GawTHORPE Hatu. It is the residence of the Shuttleworths, and was chiefly built about the year 1600, at the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and is in the stately architecture of that period. It has its principal door with circular head in a square bay projecting from the centre of the building, with two tiers of five-light windows over and flanked on each side with polygonal bay win- dows in three tiers. The whole of the front is deeply and boldly moulded, and all the windows have mullions and tran- soms. The opposite side, towards the valley, has the stern and bare simplicity of the old border peel, built for defensive purposes. The other with its windows in irregular positions varied with quaint oriels produce a most picturesque effect, while the central watch tower gives unity to the whole. Sir Charles Barry restored the building in 1849, and his biographer says “all he thought needful was to give importance to the tower and chimneys by raising them so as to produce greater boldness in the sky line and to surround the building with a parapet of the characteristic Elizabethan style.” The great hall (now the dining room) is a very fine one, being 35 feet 9 inches long, and 20 feet 3 inches wide. It has a flat ceiling, with passage, screens and minstrels’ gallery over. The fine ingle nook is in the middle of one side, and opposite is the square bay, the only example in this district. The high table is in the usual place, opposite the passage, and it has a raised dais with a fine seven-light window far up in the wall above it, thoroughly lighting the apart- ment without dazzling the eyes. To the front of the house on the fourth floor is a gallery, 25 yards long, with elaborate plaster ceiling bearing date 1603, and was probably intended as portrait gallery and dancing room. The gardens are arranged in stiff geometric patterns as was customary in Elizabethan times. 64 A fine barn of the same date and with massive timber adjoins the hall. The house and farm accounts are well worthy of examination, and it is interesting to note that the workmen were paid after the rate of 1d. per day, while the architect received 6d. per day. Being erected at one time and without interim, the work is in harmony throughout, and is a fine specimen of domestic architecture well worthy of close study. Gawthorpe has been the seat of the Shuttleworths since the 48rd year of Edward III, when Agnes, daughter of William de Hacking, conveyed it to her husband, Ughtred, son of Henry de Shuttleworth. From him the estate descended uninterruptedly to Robert Shuttleworth, of Barbon Lodge, who died 1816. He left it to his second son, Robert Shuttleworth, Barrister-at-law, who died in 1818, devising the estates to his only child, Janet, then under one year old. In 1842 she married James Phillip Kay, M.D., who upon his marriage assumed the surname and arms of Shuttleworth. He died in 1877, and his son, the Rt. Hon. Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth, is now the present owner and occupier. Hurstwoop. Tattersall’s House. This building is one of the oldest in the neighbourhood, though there is no date upon it. It is built entirely of millstone grit, the remains of the old fireplace are still extant, but modernized. The entrance door-case differs from many of the halls in the neighbourhood by having a semi- circular top, which is the characteristic of the Norman period. The mullioned windows have square heads, double moulded, and the interior has the characteristic massive oak beams and joists. The position is extremely fine, giving a good view of the Rock Glen. ‘The Tattersalls were in possession of the estate in 1889, when Peter Tattersall also held Holme. The present represent- ative is Edmund Tattersall, Esq., of Albert Gate, London, the celebrated Auctioneer. Spencer’s House. This hall is situated mid way between Tatter- sall’s and Hurstwood Hall. There is no date on the building, but the similarity of style in the shape of the windows, and the porch being similar to that at Danes House (except in the roof which has a lean-to instead of the gable of the latter) points to the date of its erection as being early in the 16th century, and the records of that time shew that it was then in the possession of the Spencer family. In plan it somewhat differs from the prevailing type, as the porch abuts on the kitchen wing though projecting beyond it. The door-case has the four- centred Tudor arch, and the windows are square and circular headed, intermixed some with single and some with double mouldings. Tradition states that it was here the poet Spencer resided when in this district, and that seated on a high mound at ~~ 65 the east of Rock Glen where Sheddon water forms a confluence with the water from Black Hambledon, he received the inspiration which produced ‘‘ The Shepherd’s Calendar.” Hurstwood Hall. This fine relic of the 16th century stands on the north side of a deep gorge through which runs a stream from Thursden to the Brun. The Hall is of the common type, but has two frontages. That to the garden is approached from the upper side crossing the stream by a solid block of masonry, and con- tains the Porch with a Tudor arched doorcase, and a long narrow range of light to the centre Hall. The other being the front towards the village contains the best doorcase, with Tudor arch, full moulding and label and the inscription in a sunken moulded panel with the date 1579. The windows are circular headed under square tops on the garden side, and square headed on the other. The gables are finished with moulded projecting watertabling with wattled terminals. In the Hall the large dining table still remains, which is about 8 ft. high, somewhat inconvenient for use in modern times. The Hall was built by Barnard Towneley, a branch of the Towneleys of Towneley, who married Agnes Ormerod of Ormerod. He died in 1602. From documents in the County Court of Chancery, in which the said Bernard Towneley is the defendant and Thomas de Hoghton was the plaintiff, it appears that Bernard was an architect, that he had agreed to erect Hoghton Tower, but had refused to do so. An injunction was taken out against him and he was found at Has- lingden, and from there went and finished his work. I have no doubt whatever that this same Bernard designed many of the other works in progress at this time, and that his influence con- tributed to keep the work done in this district during the following years in the old style—strong, good in outline and general detail and adapted to the requirements of the district. A number of the stones on both fronts are marked with the Masonic Emblems, the compass, square and gavel. Perhaps some of the Masonic fraternity may be able to explain their meaning. WoRSTHORNE. Wallstreams, now called the old Parsonage, was erected by John Towneley a branch of the Towneleys of Towneley in the year 1593. It is of the usual type, differing only in the fact that the porch is three storeys high, being the only oneI know of in this district. The doorcase has a curious arrangement of label mould and bears a somewhat peculiar inscription over—beginning from left to right in the lower line and returning in the upper line from right to left, thus :—— VI) IH 15938 WYFE IOHN TWoNE: AND ALIS HIS The date is not discernable, having weathered away, but Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson remembers it well. * Barnardus Townley et Agnes yxor eius 1579. 66 Cunliffe’s Hall, or the Higher Hall. This was built with two wings, the porch forming one at the extreme lower end. ‘he general style of the work is similar to the adjoining halls, but here we specially find a freedom entirely opposed to the classic idea. The door-case has the Tudor arch in a square head, the hall had two windows; one a two-light, and the other a double row of eight lights all square-headed, while that in the upper wing has six lights all circular-headed ; this variety adds quaint- ness to the general effect. and is much to be preferred to the stiffness of the classic, which requires absolute uniformity. It was built by the Cunliffes of Hollins and Wycollar, and is dated 1637 in the plaster work in the hall. The base and corners are of millstone grit. This is the only house in the district where the chimney has been left entire; the large opening on the ground floor has been walled up for the insertion of a modern kitchen range, but in the room over, the opening has been boarded up and the chimney left as originally built, the space for the flue being studded round, and the studs covered with rushes and lime instead of laths and plaster as at the present day. The orchard on the west side was planted in the form of a rectangle at the time the hall was built, but the trees are now dying away. Worsthorne Old Hall. This is the finest specimen of domestic Architecture we have in this district, but it is now in a most dilapidated condition. The door-case is of the round-headed type, and over this is the following inscription, placed in a sunk moulded panel :— GVLIELMVS HALLSTED ET ELIZABETHA VXOR EIUS. Anno Domini 1688. Here I must notice an error in Taylor’s ‘‘ Old Halls of Lanca- shire and Cheshire,” who gives an illustration from a sketch made by the Rey. 8. J. Allen, who lived near Burnley between 1880 and 1840. He gives it as ‘‘ GuLieLuus,” but Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson, who has known the place from childhood, says positively it was ‘‘ropertus.” Above the inscription in the boldly projecting porch is a large six-light window of the full breadth and with four-light returns on each side, all deeply moulded and transomed. In the gable over is a three-light window with the peculiar characteristic window of this district. The gutters empty themselves with the old Gothic termination the gargoyle, and the whole style of the work shews very little sympathy with the Italian movement then in fashion in the southern parts of England. Mr. Philip Gilbert Hamerton, the distinguished artist and editor of the Portfolio, who once resided at the Hollins, not very far from Worsthorne, writing to Mr. Waddington, the Market Inspector, on the 6th May, 1886, 67 acknowledging the gift of a large photo. of the Old Hall, says :— *« Allow me to tell you, you could hardly have offered anything more acceptable to me as the building was always a great favourite of mine, and I used to think if ever I built a house I should like to have Worsthorne Hall simply copied in stone of its own size. Iam sorry the old building is falling into decay, but that is the end of all buildings sooner or later, and even as it is they last longer than the architects.” Again, writing from Autun on the 30th December, 1886, after receiving the photograph he says :—‘‘ Messrs. Seely forwarded to me the excellent photograph of Worsthorne Hall that you have have been so kind as to give me. I remember when quite a boy being much struck with the simple beauty of design in that old house, and with its perfect unity. After studying a great deal of architecture since, I still retain my old opinion, that Worsthorne Hall is one of the most harmonious and complete houses of its size that I have ever seen. Such a house could easily be applied to modern convenience, and would be better in every way than many commonplace modern designs.” Many of the windows are walled up with stone slabs to reduce the amount to be paid as window tax, and I think every one will agree with me that whatever other complaints were laid against the old halls, that of want of light will hardly be amongst them. It is curious that Dr. Whitaker does not mention the Halsteds in connection with this old hall. Doubtless, as he says, Rowley was their principal seat, but it (the original hall) would not compare at all either in size or magnificence with this grand old hall. I hope, at some future time, to be able to place before the Club, measured drawings of the Hall with full size details of the moulds. Row ey. This house is the seat of the Halsted family, who originally came from High Halsted. It was granted by Robert de Lacy to Oswald Brun, and was erected in the year 1593 by Oliver Halsted. A peculiar feature of this Hall is that a roadway from Netherwood to Brownside Bridge originally passed in at the front door and out at the back, and was in use until about 100 years ago. The house has been considerably enlarged and modernized, but the south gables still retain their old mullioned and transomed win- dows, and the porch has its old gable, though the doorecase is modern. The style of work corresponds with that at Wallstreams, which was in course of erection at the same time. BaRoroFrt. The hall is situated on the outskirts of Towneley Park, and is another massive stone structure. The plan was based on the 68 usual arrangement of the hall in the centre, the family rooms on the lower side, and the kitchen on the upper. The kitchen end both from the appearance of the masonry and woodwork seems to be of older date. The alterations made in 1614, (the date over the door-case) are interesting as shewing the changes in the habits of life which took place soon after the Elizabethan epoch. Mr. Taylor says ‘‘it is plain the original plan of the house was thus| —_|, the entrance to the hall being in the corner, it being removed and placed in the porch, which was erected in 1614, making the plan on the M type, which was supposed to be adopted as a compliment to the Virgin Queen.” There is no doubt the doorcase was originally in the corner, the entrance to the hall being down the passage and through the sereens in the usual way and it is clear the doorcase was removed to the centre of the porch, but I see no evidence in the building that the porch was erected at the time of its removal, but rather that the porch was a part of the original building, it being used as a bay to the hall, lighted by a three-light window which was cut through when the doorcase was removed; the present head and label mould still remains, also the ends of the old window sill, the doorcase being placed in the centre of the porch at the Jacobean epoch when symmetry was so much thought of. The ‘great hall’ is one of the finest and most complete in the neigh- bourhood, and if the bay (now the porch) was a part of the original structure it would greatly add to its completeness. The hall is 36 feet long, including the screens and ingle nook, 24 feet wide and 14 feet high. The ceiling is flat, with massive oak beams. Although the room is only 14 feet high, space was found over the passage for the minstrels’ gallery, with an oak balustrade of turned columns, and approached by a wooden staircase near the entrance. The high table was placed along the side of the room instead of at the end of it, opposite the screens, which was the usual arrangement, the variation being caused by the ingle nook occupying this position, The ingle nook is a special feature being of extraordinary size, in fact, so large that the whole family could sit round the blazing logs. It is now made into a separate apartment, and the high table has been removed to the servants’ hall at Towneley. Near the ingle nook is a solid circular stone staircase leading to the family apartments, the partitions and walls of the latter being of panelled oak and well worthy of a close inspection. It is to be regretted that some of the oak wainscot has been painted over. The doorcase has a square moulded head with the date 1614 upon it, and is finished with frieze and cornice over; between the triglyphs of the frieze is the name William Barcroft. The house occupies three sides of a small court, the fourth being a wall in which beneath a pediment broken into six gresses and formerly ornamented with pinnacles 69 is the gateway, with a semi-circular moulded arch, enriched with the chevron, a characteristic Norman ornament, and over it is the date 1686. Brerecroft, Bercroft or Barcroft was from the earliest times to which records extend down to the middle of the 17th century the property and residence of the family of that name. In the year 1668 it was conveyed by his daughter, Elizabeth, to Henry Bradshaw, of Marple Hall. Mary Bradshaw, his daughter, married first Wm. Pimlot, and had a son, John, who possessed the estate but died in 176i. The second husband was Nathaniel Isherwood, of Bolton le Moors, whose grandson, Thos. Bradshaw Isherwood, came into possession on the death of the last Pimlot, and died, unmarried, in 1791. His exors. in the year 1795, sold the hall and demesne of Barcroft to Charles Towneley, ancestor of the present owner. The time at my disposal is too short to allow my giving a detailed description of many other most interesting examples of the old halls. I must content myself with merely naming the following ‘‘ The Holme,” Ormerod, Extwistle, Monk Hall, Catlow and Burwain’s, Heysandforth, Fulledge, Danes House, Bank House, Healey Hall, The Old Lodge, Royle, Pendle, Old Laund, Shuttleworth Hall, and Bank House and the White Bear at Barrowford, AN EVENING WITH THE GREAT TONE POETS: HAYDN, MOZART AND BEETHOVEN. Director: G. CROMPTON. April 12th, 1887. The winter session which has furnished an admirable series of instructive and entertaining meetings, was brought to a close with a Musical Soirée, given under the direction of a famous local Violinist, Mr. George Crompton. The entertainment was appropriately entitled ‘“‘An evening with the great tone poets, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.’ The performers were— 1st Violin, Mr. Crompton; 2nd Violin, Mr. Titherington ; Viola, Mr. Booth; Violoncello, Mr. E. Crompton; and the selections, which were given with the utmost precision, taste and skill, were— Quartett in G, Op. 54, No. 2 from Haydn; Quartett in D Minor, No. 2 by Mozart; and Quartett in C Minor, No. 4, by Beethoven. Before the performance, Mr. Crompton said it was now generally admitted that the study and practice of good music, and listening to it, is very beneficial to the mind, and a great vehicle of in- struction. Musicians, real and mythical, have always exercised 70 a humanising influence over their fellows. As an instance, Mr. Hallé has done more to refine and benefit society in Manchester than anybody who ever entered it. Good music should always be listened to in strict silence, without which it is impossible to enjoy or get to understand it. Music, in some form or other, has existed from the earliest ages, and amongst all tribes and races of men. The primitive instruments were the Drum, the Pipes and the Lyre. By the Drum was meant anything which would make a noise, but they found that by covering the ends of a hollow cylinder with skins, a much greater effect could be produced, and some of the wild tribes have acquired astonishing dexterity on their Drums and Tambourines. Pipes were made of metal and the Horns of Animals, and were used in religious ceremonies to assist their superstitious rites, in warfare to frighten their adversaries. The Lyre, or Harp, is very ancient, and existed long before David’s time. In heathen Mythology ‘‘ Orpheus ” is represented with his Lyre soothing the savage beasts. ‘* Haydn”’ was the first to develop the Quartett, which is one of the highest forms of musical composition. All his works are beautiful and display his healthy genial disposition. Mozart studied under and followed him, but said that he had taught him very little. This is human nature all over: most pupils soon think they know more than their masters. However, he was a most remarkable genius, and has left an immense number of compositions behind him. Sonatas, Concertos, Duetts, Trios, Quartetts, Quintetts, Symphonies, Masses, in addition to his grand dramatic works. For symmetry of form and the exquisite tenderness of his slow movements, his Quartetts and Quintetts, (especially the latter,) may be said to be almost unique. He died at the early age of 35. Haydn lived to be 77. ‘‘ Beethoven” is considered by all good judges to be the greatest instrumental composer that ever lived. He seems to have possessed a higher poetical inspiration. Like Mozart and many other great men he was disappointed, and neglected, and died in poverty, at the age of 57. These three gifted men have expressed every form of human feeling and emotion. To say that they are in the old school is ignorance, envy and conceit. Music, as an Art, has made rapid progress the last few years, but as regards composition the works of these Masters have never been excelled, and never will be because, when perfection is arrived at, it can only be copied. Like ‘‘ Handel” they have given pleasure and delight to thousands, and will do again, as a fresh generation is continually springing up to whom these things will always be new, and they have reared for themselves monu- ments imperishable, which will last for ever, as long as human kind exists. 71 PRESENTATION TO MR. W. LEWIS GRANT. SEPTEMBER 27th, 1887. The opening night of the Session took the form of a Con- versazioné, the occasion being specially marked by a presentation to the late Secretary of the Club, Mr. W. Lewis Grant. The duties of Secretary had been fulfilled by Mr. Grant throughout the period of seven years during which he had held that office, with such self-sacrifice, earnestness and success that the members determined to recognize his services in a tangible manner. It is deserving of special mention that during this long tenure of office, Mr. Grant was not absent from a single meeting. The President, Mr. J. Langfield Ward, occupied the chair, and there was a large gathering of members and friends. Mr. Ward observed that the duties of Secretary were of a very onerous nature, but it could safely be said that during the seven years Mr. Grant had occupied the post, he had performed in an admirable man- ner the multifarious duties required of him. He had devoted himself to the work with such earnestness as he had never seen exceeded. Mr. Ward then handed for Mr. Grant’s accept- ance an Address in album form, beautifully illuminated, and a purse containing £25 in Jubilee coins. The following are the terms of the Address— “To Mr. W. Lewis Grant, We, the undersigned, the Officers of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, take the opportunity of your resignation of the office of Secretary to present to you, on behalf of the members of the Club, this Address and the gift which accompanies it. We are sensible that the Club has sustain- ed a severe loss in being deprived of the services of one who through several years has fulfilled the duties of the arduous post of Secretary with such zeal and such thorough- ness. You have spared no pains and thought no sacrifice of time or trouble too great, when the interests of our Society were concerned; upon you has devolved the management of the Club in all its multifarious details, and you have guided it with consummate ability through all the vicissi- tudes to which such a Society as ours is liable. We admit that it is unreasonable to expect you, after having attended with such devotion to the interests of the Club, to continue to bestow your energies on it, when there are so many other calls upon your time, but we trust that you may long be spared to assist in sustaining it in its useful career, that you will always remember with affection that official con- nection with it which has just terminated, and that you 72 will carry away many pleasant reminiscences of the time you have spent in the performance of the duties. We assure you of our thorough appreciation of the value of your services and our lasting gratitude to you for having done so much for the maintenance and advancement of our Club.” Signed on behalf of the Club. J. Lanermitp Warp, President. Frep. J. Grant, J. C. Brumwett, M.D., J.P., : Vice- ALFRED Strance, W. A. Wavpineton, E Presidents. JamMkS GREENWOOD, James Lancaster, J. Arraur WappineTon, ihe el) shove, G. B. Rawcuirre, Committee. Henry Butcocr, A. K. Tovey, James Kay, Treasurer. Tuomas Luoyp, Secretary. Burnley, September 27th, 1887. Dr. Brumwell, a past President, testified to the remarkable efficiency, unfailing courtesy and wonderful tact which character- ized Mr. Grant’s performance of his duties both in the arrange- ment and conduct of business. The Club held the highest rank amongst Lancashire Societies, and much of its success was due to the labours of their late Secretary. He would not have Mr. Grant suppose that by the testimonial they gave him that night, their debt of gratitude was fulfilled. As representing the non- official members, Mr. Joshua Rawlinson, J.P., eulogized the manner in which Mr. Grant had performed his Secretarial duties. He did not know that there was a single incident in Mr. Grant’s connection with the Club, upon which any of the members could look with regret, and he hoped the same sentiment pervaded Mr. Grant’s own mind. In acknowledging the gift Mr. Grant said that he accepted the gift with every feeling of gratitude and pleasure, as evidence of that friendly feeling which had led them to shut their eyes to much that had been neglected or imperfectly carried out. He admitted that the position had at times brought considerable work and anxiety, but he did not begrudge any sacrifices he had made, and only regretted that more time had not fallen to him, so that the pursuit of a congenial task might have been more efficiently fulfilled. The officers of the Club had done much by their support and co-operation to lighten the labours of the office. The three Presidents who had adorned the Society during his term of office had in many ways given substantial proof of their interest in the Society’s welfare. In Dr. Brum- well, one of the founders of the Club, they had a genial and ever-ready helper; Mr. Henry Houlding would confer distinction on any Literary Society in the kingdom; and Mr. Ward had 73 from his coming to the town been a warm and steadfast supporter of the Club. He had found delight in being associated with such gentlemen, in being able to fill a public post of honour, and in endeavouring to be the instrument of accomplishing useful work, of diffusing the “fertilizing waters of intellectual knowledge.”? He thanked the members for their forbearance at a time of difficulty, when he succeeded in the Secretaryship, one who was the main originator of the Club—Mr. W. Angelo Waddington, whose ability and enthusiasm first gave the Club a position in the town. He congratulated the Club upon possess- ing as the present Secretary, Mr. Lloyd, whose abilities and energies would be devoted to maintaining its interests. Mr. Grant then pointed out several matters in which he should like to see improvement. The membership might with advantage be increased by tke addition of many gentlemen in the town. The average attendance at the meetings was not sat- isfactory, and there was need for voluntary help in providing the sessional programmes. He wished that members would realize their responsibility, as this would widen the circle of contributors, and give more spirit to the debates. Their Society had outlived the average age of similar institutions, and had survived much ridicule, derogatory criticism, and sinister prophecy. The policy of its directors had not been to attempt the achievement of bril- liant exploits in the fields of science, art and literature, but rather to stimulate and diffuse a taste for letters and science, to facilitate the interchange of ideas on these subjects, to ventilate questions which affect the comfort and progress of the human race. And in doing these, they were establishing a bond of harmony between men of opposite opinions in religious and political matters, and they were contributing, if only in a small way, to the ‘‘general culture of human life, and the amelioration of its somewhat hard conditions.” The Club had done good ser- vice in directing attention to sundry questions of local history and antiquities; and the publication of the Society’s proceedings shewed that its work was not of an ephemeral character. Mr. Grant concluded by saying that the gift they had made to him had a value in signifying that they strongly desired to see the Club continue a prosperous career, and that they would heartily second and encourage any efforts made to that end; and he was sure that cherishing the remembrance of its fourteen years of pleasant and profitable work, they were solicitous that the Club should in the future assert itself by steady work and salutary activities, and be maintained as an essential organisation in their important town. Mr. Henry Nutter read an original composition recording, in eulogistic terms, the labours and merits of the late Secretary. Songs were given by the Rev, A, B, Edelstone and Mr. H, 74 Hartley ; Miss Simpson presided at the pianoforte, and Mr. G. B. Raweliffe contributed a reading. Through the influence of Mr. James Lancaster, a collection of photographs had been procured from the Manchester Geographical Society. The views repre- sented scenes on the Niger and Gold Coast, and many of them had been taken by Mr. Joseph Thompson, the celebrated traveller. ON THE NILE: A PLEASURE TRIP. By J. WHITTAKER. — October 4th, 1887. When Shakespeare’s fat and witty knight requested his minion Pistol, to deliver himself in the ordinary language of the world, mine Ancient replied— A foutre for the world and worldlings base ! I speak of Africa and golden joys. And it is by no means easy to think of Egypt without the mind becoming overcrowded with many and diverse images, This feeling of painful fulness increased vastly in acuteness when we first set foot in Alexandria, and made personal acquaintance with a country which had rivetted our attention—long before we heard of Greek art or Roman laws—when spelling slowly out the won- derful story of Joseph and his brethren in our English Bible. Later reading has told of monuments, still extant in this vast storehouse of antiquity, erected as far before the Israelitish sojourn as their times have preceded our own; and evidence is not wanting—nay, it is strong enough to be simply irresistible— that before our cramped and ordinarily received chronology admits of our First Parents’ creation, the religion of Assyria had reached rigidity, and the whole of Egypt, under Menes, the founder, and succeeding kings, had been formed into a mighty empire. Children’s prattle, youthful emulation, military dis- cipline, settled laws, priestly and other orders, regular kingly succession existed then, of the same nature, though not in the game form, as now; and childhood, manhood or womanhood, marriage, parental affection, middle age, decrepitude, and the grave, were parts of a common heritage. Here the traditions of a great and disastrous flood, general and persistent elsewhere, find no place, and the Nile for the last seven thousand years at least has risen and fallen with surprising regularity, bringing year by year, in greater or less abundance, rich soil and welcome water to a practically rainless land. Then, as now, the land outside the influence of this mysterious river was almost as life- 75 less as the craters of the moon, while all that could by any means be brought under its wonderful spell was fabulously productive. Need we wonder at the ancient’Egyptians, whose religion was nature worship, personifying this regularly recurring source, not only of comfort but of life, and propitiating by every means in their power the—to them—unexplainable beneficence which made a desert to rejoice and blossom as the rose? Quite five thousand seven hundred years ago—we take as our chrono- logical guide a most conservative body, the authorities of the British Museum—the art of sketching and colouring, as instanced by tombs of kings and court officials, had wonderfully developed ; and from their walls we gather much of the life history of this interesting people. The idea of life beyond the grave and of a bodily resurrection was held with unquestionable firmness, and their chief cares were bestowed upon temples and burial places. The perfect preservation of the body after death received more attention than its ailments during visible existence, as several humorous drawings testify. Hven then the dentist and the surgeon made occasional havoc on the human frame. During the earlier dynasties, before the time of the conquering shepherd kings, life was distinctly pastoral, and the landowner is invariably pictured as dwelling amongst his own people. He caused, with childish pride, a pictorial record to be sketched of his wealth and possessions; his men servants, maid servants, he asses and she asses, cattle, poultry, orchards and granaries, not forgetting to remark in a somewhat loud aside that he stood highly in favour at conrt. Vanity allowed him to be pictured as of five times the ordinary height, his wife, children, and dependents appearing as so many minnows by the side of a sturdy trout. The common weal had as yet over three thousand years to wait for an advocate in Plato, whose quick ear caught the “still sad music of humanity,” and women’s wrongs nearly six thousand years ere Miss Lydia Becker should transform them into women’s rights. In which part of Egypt civilisation first took root it is impossible to say with certainty. The temple of Dendera, situated some four hundred miles above Cairo, contains traces of government by princes of the God Horus—the Son of the Egyptian Trinity —seven thousand years ago, when there was, as yet, no king in Egypt. But soon after the time of Menes—who, like Egbert of England, brought into subjection previously independent local rulers—the court was established near where the Pyramids stand, within twenty miles of the present city of Cairo. On the extinction of the shepherd kings, some three thousand years after Menes, the court migrated to Thebes, about four hundred and fifty miles above Cairo, and here remained during the most dazzling period of Egyptian history. In later years, when Greece, and afterwards Rome, dominated Egypt, interest centred 76 around Alexandria. Here was founded a celebrated school of philosophy, and who has not heard of its splendid library de- molished by early Moslem fanaticism thirteen hundred and fifty years ago? Here with fierce heat and frequent blood-shed Arianism and orthodoxy maintained a constant struggle. Here St. George, the patron saint of England, is said by some to have been a bacon seller, and ‘ready,’ as one old historian expres- sively states, ‘to sell his soul for a cake,” before he took to slaying dragons. But we repel with scorn these base insinua- tions, even though backed by Gibbon and by Emerson. Our patron saint was eminently orthodox, and never could have been an Arian and their heterodox archbishop, as the converted army purveyor undoubtedly was. Here also Athanasius, though five times expelled, was archbishop of Alexandria for a considerable time. From the Delta stretching from Alexandria to the Pyramids, a distanae of 180 miles by 90, Rome in her days of insolent sovereignty wrenched the corn, whose free distribution kept at bay the rabble of the empire city. When Rome lost her grip, Egypt, torn by contending factions of what should have been a common faith, fell a comparatively easy prey to the fierce soldiery brought into existence by Mahomet, whose kingdom was undoubtedly of this world. Since then the seat of government has ranged around Cairo, a city of 500 mosques, within sight of the Pyramids. Here many of the most richly imaged stories in the Arabian Nights find local colouring, and to this day the Arab donkey drivers sing or recite from memory, as they trot by your side, the luscious poetry which found favour at the court of the celebrated Caliph of Bagdad, Haroun al Rashid, who reigned 1,100 years ago. Cairo has been, and still to some extent remains, the centre of fanatical Mohammedanism, a striking contrast to latitudinarian Constantinople; but commercial enterprise, the opening up of the Suez Canal, extension of railways, general indebtedness to European nations, and the joint English and French control ending in British occupation, are destroying, insulating, and rapidly changing Alexandria and Cairo into cos- mopolitan cities. Occasionally the old leaven works out. For instance, as we were leaving our hotel in Alexandria on our way to Cairo, a well-dressed, scholarly-looking Egyptian, clad in a priestly habit, dropped fervently upon us as he passed an unmis- takable curse. But what gave rise, To no little surprise, Nobody seemed one penny the worse. About the history of Egypt during Mohammedan supremacy nothing need be said. It consists mainly of struggles for power between families or between members of the same family, and latterly of laudable attempts to minimise or to get altogether free from Turkish domination. Throughout Egypt's lengthy 77 history rapacity and misgovernment have always obtained. Names, religions, languages have changed, and yet the workman, as in ancient days, is ‘‘ charmed” to his labour by the magic of the switch, handled by men but one degree removed from his own appearance of abject misery. Kven yet the up-country farmers dare not acknowledge aught but poverty, and the children of those who are privately known to be well-to-do run in a naked and dirty state at the heels of travellers uttering the magic word ‘‘backsheesh.”’ Babies make this.word their first earthly utter- ance, and it clings to them throughout life, and is an Arab’s ‘‘last farewell.” ‘* Backsheesh,” in understandable English, is nothing but an Oliver 'T'wistian cry for ‘‘more.’”’ Its survival in the mouths of those no longer in need is an apt illustration of the laws of heredity, because in Egypt for ages past ‘‘ half- starved spiders have fed on half-starved flies,’ and will long continue so to do, unless British occupation developes into some- thing more than an occasional military parade. Justice in Cairo to those without friends is not a farce merely. Itis a bitter mockery ; and our policy of non-interference—of anything but masterly inactivity—is rapidly making the large cities of Egypt into a happy bunting-ground for the scum of Kurope. Deeds that would raise a thrill of horror if committed in England or France, are passed by unnoticed in Cairo or Alexandria, and fre- quently the only results of murder are the rapidly shuffling away of the victim and the replenishment of the purses of those who sit in high places. Instance has been piled upon instance prov- ing these accusations to the hilt. They are never challenged, because they are unfortunately too true. Before closing the introduction, it may be interesting if I draw attention to the presence in Egypt of many of the world’s greatest commanders. Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great. In Egypt Pompey was murdered, and here Julius Cesar and Mark Antony were successfully caught in the toils of Cleopatra. Saladin—a striking figure in the history of the Crusades—made of this country for a time a mighty empire. Napoleon held possession of Egypt from 1798 to 1801, and “ ‘twas in the Nile’s proud fight” that Nelson first tock rank as a naval commander. Eng- land of late years has taken a decisive step with regard to Egypt, and British occupation is entailing upon this country vast and far reaching responsibilities. But my wish to-night is not to plunge into the maze of our Egyptian policy, but to ask you kindly to follow for an hour or so the first impressions of a journey made last winter from Alexandria to Cairo by rail, and afterwards from Cairo to the first cataract by steamer—a distance of 580 miles. I can promise you no hairbreadth ’scapes. We saw just one hyena, led in a string at Siout; one jackal, which “met us by moonlight alone,” amongst the ruins of Karnak, 78 and made a sudden removal when shouted to by our donkey boys; and a solitary crocodile, dead as the nails that pinned it to the front wall of the hotel at Luxor. Yes; but what about snakes? Well, madam, it was winter, and they were too sleepy to put in an appearance, although one member of our party—an American lady—searched for them as diligently as ever woman looked under couch for burglars. A Swedish doctor spared no pains to prove to her that there were snakes in abundance in Egypt as recently as 3,000 years ago, and he never failed to point them out—stretched on the walls of the tombs of the Rameses. A series of sketches and photographs were then thrown on the screen, and the scenes depicted were racily described by Mr. Whittaker, whose remarks were interwoven with many humorous points, which were readily taken up by the audience. Com- mencing with the Grand Square at Alexandria, he carried his audience over the principal sights on his month’s tour, which embraced many of the most picturesque and historically-interest- ing scenes in Egypt. ANONYMOUS PAPERS. These were four in number, the titles were as follows :— 1. The Queen’s English and the Lancashire Dialect. 2. Another Carnac. 3. TheIncomeTax. 4. Burnley, a Poet’s Centre. 1. The writer of this paper submitted that “dialects” (not merely that of our own county, but of other counties) should be discouraged both in schools and societies whose office it is to teach. He believed that the vigour of the Lancashire dialect was to be found in the domain of physical strength, rather than in the more elevated feelings of our nature. 2. In this paper was given a graphic description of the Breton Carnac—a collection of stone monuments, interesting not so much for their size as for their number, the memorial of a people of whom we know but little, and who have not left on these stones any distinct token of their life or history.’ The whole of Brittany is covered with what, for a better nomencla- ture, we call Druidical remains, but in no part of the province are the rude stone remains more remarkable or more numerous than in the department of Morbihan. At Carnac the lines of stone radiate from an artificial mound known as Mont St. Michel. There are thirteen rows of stones, the distance between each is 79 about ten yards. At the termination of these lines (or avenues, as they are called,) are found dolmens, cromlechs, menhirs, and other kinds of Keltic or Druidical erections. Interesting partic- ulars were given of other remains in the neighbourhood, and the paper thus concluded :—“ Though there is nothing in Brittany of the grandeur of the Eastern Karnak, though there are no tokens of mechanical ability such as are displayed at Stonehenge. the place is one of great interest, suggesting by its weird aspect thoughts of the buried past and of the forgotten dead.” 3. Some of the anomalies and inequalities of the Income Tax were dealt with in this paper, and remedies suggested. 4. Burnley, though an unlovely town is placed in the midst of a lovely country. In its picturesque natural surroundings Burnley possesses spots adapted to any mood that would stir a Poet’s mind. Such scenes were to be found in Ogden Clough, on the summits of Pendle and Boulsworth, in Moorhiles Clough, or in Pendle Forest. AN EVENING WITH MOLIERE. By W. WILLEY. October 18th, 1887. Moliére was a man of his time, but did his work so as to make it serviceable for all time. He was an artist of human nature and painted it so well and truly that mankind can never be weary of contemplating his portraitures. Though of hypochondriae temperament, he must be classed amongst the laughing philoso- phers. He proclaimed comic war against all shams and all the men and women who aided and abetted them. Bores, bullies, prigs, pedants, snobs, blue-stockings, dandies, chatterboxes, scandal-mongers, misers, hypocrites, toadies, quacks, spinners of doggerel, parasites of the court, men about town,—Moliére “ran a-muck’”’ among them all. One mortal only did he condescend to spare—the King. Louis XIV, who was his stedfast patron, and whom he flattered almost to the extent of servility. The King’s inspiration, he says in the letter prefacing Les Facheux, was of more efficacy to him than that of Apollo and all the muses. The Naiad who recites the prologue says that she has come from her grotto to see the greatest of kings. He is a miracle in purple. Heaven could refuse him nothing. If he desired it, the very trees would sing. He outshines the demigods. While abjectly complaisant to royalty, however, Moliére must be regarded as a great democratic force, because he poured un- stinted derision upon the privileged classes which constitute the 80 mainstay of a throne. From the day of Mazarin’s death, Louis XIV became an absolute autocrat, and regarded with a tyrant’s jealousy any authority that might rival his own. He accordingly allowed the satiric genius of Moliére free range, and the pitiless dramatist spitted the feather-headed marquises and the canting faux dévots, male and female, as a school-boy will spit a cock- roach, and set them buzzing and wriggling for the diversion of men. The thirty dramas which are recognized as his authentic works were produced between 1653 and 1673. They are of unequal merit. Some are frivolous and unclean, without trace of worthy purpose; others, such as the Misanthrope, Tartuffe and L’ Avare rise to the highest artistic and moral rank; while a large number, such as Les précieuses ridicules, L’ Ecole des Femmes, L’ Ecole des Maris, Les Fourberies de Scapin, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le Malade Imaginaire, Monsieur de Pourceaugnac, overflow with fun more or less satiric. ‘The principal pastures on which his genius feeds are the relationship and manners of society. His plots, of course, mostly turn on love and marriage. His own marriage was an act of folly and brought him unmixed misery. In the fine Drama of the Misanthrope which is as obviously autobio- graphical as Cain and Manfred are autobiographical of Byron, he describes his dismal condition. The conduct of his wife fills him with disgust, and yet he loves her over head and ears. He concludes that love is not an heroic passion elevating human nature, but a fieree monomania that makes it weak and miser- able. George Dandin, soliloquizing on his domestic woes, decides that the wisest course for a man ill mated is to throw himself, head first, into the horse-pond. French manners had become greatly relaxed and brutalized by the civil wars first of the Ligne and then of the Fronde. A sort of «esthetic club styling itself the Précieww, established itself in the Hotel of Madame de Rambouillet for the laudable purpose of reforming the manners of the nation. Its character however gradually deteriorated. Refinement lapsed into ludicrous fastid- iousness and affectation, and both Paris and the provinces came to swarm with pretenders to wit and learning, scribblers of superfine doggerel, and all the varieties of quack gentility. Moliére had no mercy for them. In 1659 appeared Les Précieuses Ridicules—the Affected Ladies—which fairly drowned the pre- vailing affectation in laughter. Les Hemmes Savantes was written thirteen years later for the purpose of rebuking those ladies who put philosophy before domesticity. Snobs receive appropriate treatment in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, and the various species of bores in the comedy of Les Facheux. What we commonly call the professional classes get heavy mauling from Moliére. He could not anticipate the discoveries 81 which subsequent generations would make in physical science and other provinces, but he possessed sufficient perspicacity to perceive the empirical character of the science and learning of his own time, and he believed that he would deserve well of mankind by laughing it out of court. He cudgels every species of scientific pretence, but directs his fiercest attacks against the profession of medicine. He was himself the prey of an incurable disease—consumption. The malady added to his effectiveness as an actor. It gave his voice a sonorous depth of tone. The cough that accompanied it became an important item of his stock-in-trade. He used it with consummate address so as to make his recitations more exquisitely comical. Audiences roared with laughter at what was fretting away the life of the artist. He could forget his buffettings amidst the brilliant bewitchments of the theatre, with all the glory of the royal presence, but whea the spell of intoxication was over, the consciousness of disease gnawing into the very core of life sank him into deep dejection, and rendered him implacable towards the men whose function was to heal but who brought no healing to him. In Le Malade Imaginaire Argan is represented as a peevish and penurious valetudinarian. He thinks himself miserably ill and cannot endure the doctors out of his sight. Indeed in order to have a doctor always at his elbow he will make one of his son-in- law. The fact that his daughter’s affections are already pledged elsewhere is of no moment. The doctor upon whom he has fixed his choice is a pedantic young dry-as-dust, who has just written a treatise against the pestilent new doctrine of the circulation of the blood—a doctrine which he triumphantly demolishes. Argan inquires whether the young physician is pushing his way at court? ‘No,’ says he, ‘it is better to deal with the people than with the quality. With the public you have not to answer for your actions. If you only follow the rules of the art it doesn’t matter what happens; but in high life, those who sicken require absolutely that their physicians cure them.” In the end Argan becomes a doctor himself, and the drama winds up with an extraordinary scene in which he is formally admitted into the faculty and authorized to purge, bleed, cut and kill throughout the terraqueous globe. Religious hypocrisy was the target against which Moliére aimed his keenest shafts. He did not set up as a reformer of either dogma or the Church. His purpose was to show that religious pretension when it covered a corrupt mind was not only accursed but ridiculous. His satires provoked violent opposition in many quarters, and but for the direct protection of the throne the poet might have been made to taste the sweets of an Auto da fe. Considering Moliére only as a moral and social force, he is a force ‘‘ making for righteousness.’ His writings were defective, 82 like his life, even from a moral standpoint, but there is a great balance on the right side. They abound with good sense and wholesome pleasantry, and Moliére might have pointed to them and said with Horace: I have erected a monument more enduring than brass. READINGS AND MUSIC. CHARLES PARSONS, Director. October 25th, 1887. ROH sreue chetennucpash epee Pee Skipper.” 50.04. esaaaawe cee cemee nce Wim Arno. Reading...... “The facts concerning Jay Gould.”’............ Anon. G. B. Rawcuirre. Oboe Solo......... ‘‘ Daughter of the Regiment.”’ ......... Verroust. Franz Myers. BONG. \ccenaere ‘Thou art so near and yet so far.” ...... Reichard. Micuart Ineuam. RecitatiOn...:hechteersnnsas Le WMClO, creek. ane gine H. G. Bell. R. T. Surcrirrs. Descriptive Song ...... Fee Deserh 7 s2as sn. Louis Emmanuel. Wiiu1am ARNoLp. Reading...... “Selections from the Golden Butterfly ’’... Besant ¢ Tom Heaton. Price. DONO cruscanpan sarah siera a: MOVINISDEEG. <.cacsauienens Stephen Adams. Micuart IncHAM. Cuas. Parsons. poe Sole 24,5... sedans ors Don Pasquale ase acmectceaw sess. Donezetti. Frank Myers. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. By HENRY NUITER. November Ist, 1887. A discussion on the above theory was opened by Mr. Henry Nutter. In introducing the question he gave a short history of the Science of Astronomy, beginning with the Babylonish Astronomers as far back as 22384 years before Christ, down to the Chinese 1100 years B.C., and on to the time of Ptolemy 161 after Christ. The most ancient theory was that which placed the earth in the centre of 83 the universe. This theory, to which Ptolemy gave his name and influence, regarded this planet to be the centre, round which revolved the sun, moon and all the celestial bodies. The Ptolemic doctrine continued down to 15438, when Copernicus assigned to the sun his proper position in the Solar System. The laws of the planetary motions were discovered by Kepler in 1609, and in 1610 Galileo supported the Copernican theory, and algo discovered the moons of Jupiter. Newton’s great discovery of universal gravitation came about the year 1687. At the beginning of the present century the French Astronomer, Laplace, propounded the theory now designated the Nebular Hypothesis. In affirming the truth of the above theory the lecturer directed the attention of the members of the club to the fact of the present incandescent state of certain members of the Solar System (Jupiter and Saturn). In imagination he placed his audience on the equator of the Sun itself: stating that the central orb was 866,000 miles in diameter, moving once round its axis in 26 days, with a direct motion in space of 18,000 miles an hour towards the constellation, Hercules: his vast incandes- cent body enshrouded in a highly heated gaseous envelope. One important fact urged in support of the hypothesis was the axial and centripetal motions of the planets agreeing with the motion of the Sun; the direction of all being from west to east. The flattening of the poles of the planets was affirmed to arise from the once gaseous and incandescent particles flying largely towards the equator in consequence of the centrifugal motion of each body. No other reason he maintained had been given to account for the polar compression of all members of the Solar System. The distances, magnitudes and densities of the planets were minutely described with their degrees of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. From Mercury to Neptune their rotations and velocities were given, with their equatorial directions and affinities to the equator of the sun. This continuous whirl of planets round the equator of the central orb in their various stages of condensation was claimed by the speaker as supporting the Nebular Hypothesis. After carrying his hearers to the distant planet, Neptune, on the out- skirts of the Solar system, he stated that he had no doubt that all the matter now contained in the sun and planets, was origin- ally one vast nebulous cloud, filling a space far beyond the extensive orbit of Neptune. This gaseous cloud would be more than 5,000,000,000 of miles in diameter, and like all true Nebulz at the present time, revolving as it were on an axis. Our Nebule would also revolve; condens- ation would go on at a certain rate, the heavier particles falling towards the centre, and the more volatile atoms flying to the surface. The law of gravitation would crowd these (once attenu- 84 ated) atoms together so densely that the central forces, assisted by the axial motion of the Nebule would overcome the resistance of the outward pressure ; resulting in the first planet, (Neptune) being rolled off from the general body. As all real Nebule ob- servable in the heavens move round a centre, more brilliant than the outside, so would ou Nebule revolve, and in casting off, would give to the body the same motion as obtained in the mass. The speaker carried his audience into the immense depths of space, where stars, double, triple, and numberless, form one dull speck on account of their distance, the light from which would take millions of years to reach ourearth. Further still he stated that clouds of Nebulz in a gaseous state existed, and altogether unresolvable into stars. As proof of this he mentioned the great Nebula in the constellation Orion. That matter was eternal and indestructable he maintained: but always changing. All stars and systems being in rapid motion: flying in all directions in the infinity of space, will undoubtedly plunge within the attraction of each other, thus two stars flying directly towards each other, and approaching with velocities greatly accelerated by the tremendous attraction of the bodies, would in a moment of collision reduce themselves into gases. The process of con- densation commencing again would probably result in the form- ation of sun, planets and satelites. Thus order emerges from apparent chaos or confusion. Suns lose their luminosity and heat in death, and are only rekindled by the clashing of sun against sun, being reduced instantly to vapour or Nebule, again and again. Ad infinitum. ECONOMICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. By Rev. W. S. CAIGER. November 8th, 1887. Mr. Caiger gave an account of the Crusades and their origin. He then spoke of the Latin kingdoms of Jerusalem and Constan- tinople, and the rest of his paper was devoted to tracing the indirect results of the Crusades; first, in keeping back the tide of Turkish aggression from Europe, and then preventing prema- ture dispersion of Greek learning among peoples unprepared for it. He also traced the influence of the Crusades upon the development and the decay of feudalism, and in connection with this, the growth of municipal institutions at the expense of feudal laws. Dealing with the influence of the Crusades upon the French language, Mr. Caiger said they tended to make it 85 the means of international intercourse, and the language of diplomacy. He showed that the French prose literature took its origin in the account of the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, by Villehardouin, marshal of the province of Cham- pagne, and in the life of St. Louis, by Joinville. The Venetians, who assisted the French in the conquest of Constantinople, were influenced by commercial reasons, and factories were afterwards established at different points in Greece, namely, in the Ionian Islands and in Pera—a suburb of Constantinople which served all through the middle ages as the channel through which Eastern produce found its way into HKurope. This commerce with the East was the source of Venetian greatness. The English, from their insular position, took less part than the con- tinental nations in the Crusades. But the discontent of the English people at the taxation imposed upon them by the papal Curia, for the purpose of promoting Crusades, and the alienation of the revenues of the English Church, ostensibly for the same purpose, led ultimately to anti-papal legislation, which began in the time of Edward the First. WATER AND WATER SUPPLY. By DR. JOHNSTON. November 15th, 1887. Dr. Johnston remarked that the health of the community of our towns was largely dependent upon water supply, and this ought to be plentiful and of good quality; quantity was even of still greater importance than purity. Rain water, being soft, was admirably adapted for washing purposes. It was also employed in some instances to supply houses. But in this respect great care should be taken to avoid the use of lead in the construction of cisterns in which to keep it. It was also best to have such tanks underground, and the water should, before being used for domestic purposes, pass through coarse river-sand, or, better still, through charcoal. These served to extract impurities caused by dead leaves, etc., getting into the tanks. In the neighbourhood of manufacturing towns, many impurities got into the water, and families would do well to let it be subjected to a good system of filtration before use. The quantity of water necessary for health purposes was about 70 to 80 ounces per day. One-third of this was supplied in articles of diet, and the other two-thirds in liquids. Where water was scarce the amount did not in many instances exceed three gallons per day, but then the inhabitants were anything but cleanly. An authority on the subject had estimated that the consumption per individual each day should 86 be 10 gallons each for domestic, municipal, and trade purposes. The average supply in Glasgow was 50 gallons per head, Edin- burgh and Southampton 35 gallons, the manufacturing towns of Laneashire and Yorkshire from 16 to 21 gallons, Norwich 12 gallons, Derby 14 gallons, and Warwick 15 gallons. In hospitals the daily use for patients was about 30 gallons each. Referring to the several modes of water supply, Dr. Johnston said that many villages obtained their supply from surface wells, but these were frequently subject to contamination. In crowded localities these ought always to be looked upon with suspicion, and, as far as possible, their use discontinued. Speaking of the supply to towns by means of waterworks, he said the storage room in reservoirs should be large enough to contain from four to six months’ supply at least, and the site with the least artifi- cial embankment, the least amount of puddle, and the least area of land under water, was the one to be preferred. The purest water was obtained from barren moorlands, and from limestone, sandstone and millstone grit districts. House service pipes were dangerous because they were generally made of lead. But a lead pipe was not so dangerous as a cistern, provided the water passing through was not charged with oxygen. Cisterns, he suggested, should be always covered in, to keep out air, frost and heat. The Essayist went on to remark on the purification of water, and recommended the provision of fish in reservoirs, because they acted beneficially against crustacea. Water was polluted considerably from sewage and cesspools, and the danger of these could not be too earnestly pointed out. In large towns wells ought to be prohibited altogether. Water was unwholesome when it contained an excess of mineral substances, and when vegetable and animal organic matter were present. Very hard water was detrimental to health, and diseases of the stomach and other ailments were often traced and attributed to the consump- tion of water containing a large proportion of carbonate of calcium. Alderman Greenwood remarked that Dr. Johnston in referring to the water supply said provision ought to be made in reservoirs for four or six months’ supply. In Burnley, at present, we had 170 million gallons stored in our reservoirs. The;population was 77,000, and the total consumption, including compensation, over two millions per day. This showed that the supply at the pres- ent time would cover eighty-five days yet. When the Cant Clough works were completed, and assuming that the consump- tion would then be 24 million gallons per day, the supply would then cover 172 days. According to this, they ought immediately to set about making new works. In regard to rainfall, Alderman Greenwood mentioned that during the 21 years ending with 1886, 87 the rainfall registered at Swinden was 945 inches, or an average of 45 inches per year. Taking ten months of each of these years, and including this year, the rainfall equalled in the aggre- gate 798 inches, or 36 inches each year. But, during this year, up to the end of October, the fall only amounted to 23°33 inches, or 12°67 inches less than the average for the past 22 years... This accounted for the serious position in which Burnley had been placed. Councillor Lancaster spoke of the difficulties Burnley had to encounter in regard to the construction of waterworks, and said the cost of the Cant Clough works could not be estim- ated; the ratepayers might possibly have to spend twice the amount they originally anticipated. The water itself was par- ticularly pure, in fact, few better samples could be found in England. Dr. Tovey did not agree with the last remark, because Burnley water contained organic impurities; as a naturalist he had been several times much interested in it. SIR WALTER SCOTT: HIS LIFE AND WORKS. By J. O. S. THURSBY, J.P. November 22nd. 1887. In the opening portion of his paper the reader stated that he had taken upon himself the task of attempting to paint in words the life and the life-work, the struggles, the victories, the joys and the sorrows that awaited one who has an everlasting claim to the admiration, the respect, and also to the sympathy of cul- tivated men and women. He continued, “‘ My effort is, to describe his life and his life-work ; his life—his actual daily life, the eventu- alities of his bodily existence ; and his life-work, his literary life as shown by the memorials of his imagination, observation, and inyention, the breadth of his genius, the creations of his muse. I shall endeavour in dealing with my subject on the one hand not to weary you with long extracts from poems or novels, or to fill the time allotted to me by any too elaborate attempt at criticism ; and on the other hand, I have been anxious to avoid offering you merely a second-hand condensation of diary—the terribly dry bones of a dead man which only a miracle-worker can clothe with flesh.” Harty Yours. Scott was born on the 15th August, 1771. At the age of eighteen months he was attacked by a fever, which left behind it an incurable lameness. In other respects the youth was of that healthy physique that defies sickness, As Carlyle remarks, 88 ‘© A vigorous health seems to have been given him by nature, yet as if nature had said withal, ‘Let it be a health to express itself by mind, not by body,’ a lameness is added in childhood, so the brave little boy, instead of romping and bickering must learn to think, or, what is a great matter, to sit still.” The boy in his early youth delighted in the violet hills, the foam- white burns, and ‘the velvet tufts of loveliest green,’ and he drank in with the fresh, keen air of his native land the intense love he bore for its people, history, romance and folk-lore. At ScHoou anp UNIVERSITY. From Sandyknowe he was taken to Edinburgh, and in due time entered the High School. He never did much to dis- tinguish himself there, at least within the class-rooms; his reputation was one of irregular ability, he ‘‘ glanced like a meteor from one end of the class to the other.’’ Out of school, in the ‘“‘yards,” as he himself puts it, his fame stood more established than in the class-rooms. At the age of thirteen he went to the University, but for the teaching of the Professors he cared but little. His real education as a poet and kindly teacher was not acquired in the class-rooms or in his father’s edifice. It was rather gained in his walks through the Lothians and Border country, his excursions to Perthshire and the Highlands, his raids, sometimes on foot, sometimes on horse-back, through the wilds of Selkirk and Dumfries-shire. He was ever on tramp, often engaged in harum-scarum enterprises, not infrequently getting into scrapes, but always storing his memory with associ- ations, romantic or humorous, which suggested themselves to his luxuriant fancy. In tHE Law. In June, 1792, he was called to the Bar, but he does not appear to have been very sanguine as to his prospects. After the completion of the ceremony, he was in the company of his friend William Clark, who had put on his gown at the same time. Scott said to Clark, mimicking the air of a Highland lassie, waiting at the Cross of Edinburgh to be hired for harvest work, ‘‘ We’ve stood here an hour by the Tron, Hinny, and deil a ane has speired our price,” a sad experience that is not un- familiar to some barristers of to-day. But his heart was not in this work, and he met with only moderate success. We had rather regard him as an author glorying in the exercise of his genius than as a lawyer tired of the ‘“‘dry and barren wilderness of forms and conveyances.” Tue Forms. Scott’s genius did not mature until late in life, when he was thirty-four years of age. He gave the world his first romance in 89 1805. ‘Border Minstrelsy’’ he had indeed previously written. The sweet simplicity of diction endeared them to the hearts of the people, and accounted for the immediate success and per- manent charms of the poems. There was ‘in them the indis- putable impress of worth, of genuine human force which lies in some degree at the bottom of all popularity.” Carlyle attributes Walter Scott’s hold upon the imagination of the peuple to the vigorous whole-life he depicted. The reader was carried back to rough strong times. . . . Brawny fighters, all cased in buff and iron, their hearts too sheathed in oak and triple brass, caprioled their huge war-horses, shook their death-doing spears ; and went forth in the most determined manner, nothing doubt- ing; and in this new-found poetic world there was no call for effort on the reader’s part; he had not to struggle with a Browning, or a prose Browning in George Meredith, but what excellence they had exhibited itself at a glance. ‘Of all the poetry I know,” says Ruskin, ‘none is so sorrowful as Scott’s ; around all his power and brightness and sorrowful enjoyment of eye and heart, the far-away Afolian knell is for ever sounding ; there is not one of those loving or laughing glances of his but it is the brighter for the film of tears. In Scott’s love of beauty, the love of colour is a leading element.” Tur Waverztey Nove ts. In the summer of 1814 Scott completed a fragment of a Jacobite story begun in 1805, and then laid aside. Published anonymously it took the world by storm; ‘‘ Waverley,”’ as it was called, became almost immediately a household word, and the richest vein of Scott’s genius was brought to light, and its gold rescued from the caverns of forgetfulness to be for ever an orna- ment to and the delight of the world. After Waverley, the novels flowed in quick succession from the facile pen of the ready writer. Scott’s method was altogether extempore, indeed, he says himself, that the two last volumes of Waverley ‘ were written in three weeks.” The morning was his favourite time for work, and he was then at his brightest ; page after page of MSS. was finished, and thrown on a heap on the floor which rapidly increased in dimensions as the hour of mid-day approached. There was no check to his imaginative and creative power. ‘‘ Print the talk of any man,” says Carlyle, ‘there will be a thick octavo volume daily ; make his writing three times as good as his talk, there will be the third part of a volume daily, which is still good work.” Scott’s career is certainly the triumph and the excuse for ready writing ; in the fourteen most effective years of Scott’s literary life, from 1814 to 1829, he wrote twenty-three novels, besides shorter tales, and, as Mr. Hutton remarks, the best stories appear to have been, on the whole, the most rapidly written, probably 90 because they took the strongest hold on the author’s imagination. What series followed out of Waverley, and how and with what result, is known to all men, and was witnessed and watched with a kind of rapt astonishment by all. Hardly any literary reputa- tion ever rose so high in our island; no reputation at all ever spread so wide. Walter Scott became Sir Walter Scott, Baronet, of Abbotsford; on whom Fortune seemed to pour her whole cornucopia of wealth, honour, and worldly goods; the favourite of princes and peasants, and all intermediate men. His “« Waverley series, swift-following one on the other apparently without end, was the universal reading ; looked for like an annual harvest, by all ranks, in all European countries.” MisFoRTUNE, AND HOW ScorTT BORE IT. In 1825, Constable’s publishing firm became insolvent, and the Ballantynes were deeply involved. Scott was a partner in the house, and the whole weight of their liabilities fell upon his shoulders. Their obligations amounted to no less than £117,000. His determination was taken at once. He would with his own pen, retrieve those losses, and pay the debt in full. Adversity, he says, was to him ‘a tonic and a bracer.” He was then a man past the meridian of life, and within a few days of the failure, his health began to break. A few months after this his wife, who had been in failing health for some time, during which he had watched her tenderly, died at Abbotsford. The entries in his diary at this time, many of them dated from a solitary lodging-house in Edinburgh, are of the most touching character ; so touching that even after a lapse of sixty years it is hardly possible to read them with dry eyes. But he struggled on manfully to the end. His wife was dead. His house in Edinburgh was sold. His estate was conveyed to trustees for the benefit of his creditors. But in Mr. Brown’s lodgings in St. David street, the brave, proud man struggled on to pay his debt. In two years, between January, 1826, and, Jan- uary, 1828, he earned for his creditors forty thousand pounds. Had his health lasted, he would have redeemed his obligations to the uttermost farthing. But this was denied to him. His health failed more and more, but he still struggled on with little more than half a brain. In February, 1830, he had a paralytic stroke. He was then engaged on ‘‘ Count Robert of Paris.” He dictated that novel, and ‘‘ Castle Dangerous” also to Laidlaw, for he could hardly write himself. In dictating he would frequently pause and look around him, like a man ‘‘ mocked with shadows.” Then he bestirred himself. His iron will aud indomitable cour- age were summoned to his aid, he rallied all his forces, and the style again flowed clear and bright; but not for long; the clouds would gather again, and the mental block recur; his troubles went on increasing until the end came. 91 His Dears. On September 17th, 1832, Lockhart (Scott’s beloved son-in-law and accomplished biographer, ) was called into the poet’s chamber. Scott had awakened from the delirium that had clouded his senses. ‘‘ Lockhart,” he said, ‘‘I have but a minute to speak to you. My dear, be a good man—be virtuous,—be religious,—be a good man. Nothing else will give you any comfort when you come to lie here.’ He then sank into a tranquil sleep, from which he only awakened on the arrival of his sons. About half- past one, on the 21st, Sir Walter Scott breathed his last, in the presence of all his children. It was a beautiful day—so warm that every window was wide open, and so perfectly still that the sound, of all others most delicious to his ear, the gentle ripple of the Tweed over its pebbles was distinctly audible; they knelt around the bed, and his eldest son kissed and closed his eyes. AN AFTER THOUGHT. I will conclude my attempt to sketch some of the features of this great man’s life with some words ot a distinguished great fellow-novelist who used her talents for the benefit of mankind, Mrs. Beecher Stowe. She thus describes his grave. ‘ Under- neath these arches he lies beside his wife, around him the representation of the two things he loved most—the wild bloom and beauty of nature, and the architectural memorial of bygone history and art. Yet there was one thing I felt I would have had otherwise ; it seemed to me that the flat stones of the pave- ment are a weight too heavy and too cold to be laid on the breast of a lover of nature and the beautiful. The green turf, springing with flowers, that lies above a grave, does not seem to us so hopeless a barrier between us and what was warm and loving; the springing grass and daisies there seem types and assurances that the mortal beneath shall put on immortality; they come up to us as kind messages from the peaceful dust to say that it is resting in a certain hope of a glorious resurrection.” Adieu, Sir Walter, pride of all Scotchmen, take our proud and sad farewell. THE RESTORATION OF THE JOINT STAND- ARD OF VALUE. By ELIJAH HELM. November 29th, 1887. Mr. Helm said the subject of his address was ‘“‘ The proposed restoration of the Joint Standard of value.” The proposal in- volved, of course, a change in our Currency laws. It was. 92 advocated by a large and increasing number of thoughtful business men,—bankers, merchants, manufacturers and agricul- turalists. Several much respected Statesmen, and the Professors of Political Heonomy at the Universities of London, Cambridge and Edinburgh were also in favour of it. He hoped to be able to show that the proposal was practicable, reasonable and just, and essential to a return of prosperity. The terms in which his subject was stated implied some historical considerations :— Where, when and under what circumstances did the Joint Standard exist? When and with what consequences did it cease to exist? These are the first questions which came across their path. But before dealing with them, some definitions were desirable. What was meant by a standard of value? What by the Joint Standard? ‘There were two meanings attached to the word Standard :—(1) The full aggregate amount of legal tender money available for use. In England, this consisted of the bank notes and gold in circulation and held as banking reserve, together with the subsidiary token coinage of silver and copper ; in France, both gold and silver together with the bank notes, all of which were legal tender, without limit. In Germany and the United States, there was also a large mass of silver which was used on equal, or nearly equal terms, with gold. All these countries are said to possess a gold standard, but practically all of them have more or less silver, which was kept at par with gold, and was therefore in effect as good as gold. (2) The “ Standard of Value’’ also sometimes meant the monetary unit. In England the gold sovereign, in Germany the gold mark, and in the United States the gold dollar were frequently described as the standards of value in these several countries. In India the standard of value was silver, and the unit of value was the silver rupee. At present the Joint Standard of silver and gold nowhere existed, but between 1803 and 1873 it practically prevailed everywhere. In France gold or silver were during that period coined freely and for all comers at a fixed ratio. This ratio was preserved not only in France but throughout the world, and it might be said quite accurately that even in countries which had nominally the single standard, whether of gold or in silver, the real standard was that prevailing in France. It was therefore strictly proper to speak of the aim of the present movement as the restoration of the Joint Standard. As soon, however, as the French Mints were closed, as they were in 1878, to the free coinage of silver the single standard countries realized for the first time what it was to possess a true single standard, and thenceforward a great change took place in the commercial relations of the silver and gold standard countries respectively. Hven previous to 1803 the Joint Standard practically existed, because all countries using 93 both silver and gold were in the habit of fixing a ratio—each for itself{—at which the two kinds of coin were legal tender. In England this was accomplished by declaring from time to time the equivalent in shillings at which the gold guinea would be received in discharge of debts due to the Government. The effect of the rupture of the Joint Standard system in France in 1873 was to cause a great decline of prices in the gold standard countries whilst prices were kept approximately steady in the silver standard countries. This decline of prices was brought about partly by the insufficiency in the supply of gold relatively to the demand for it, and partly by the influence of the fall in the rates of exchange between the gold standard and the silver standard countries consequent upon the breach of the fixed ratio. It was obvious that when the value of silver, as measured in gold, declined, or (to put it the other way,) when gold rose in relation to silver an adjustment of the prices of commodities as between the gold and silver countries became inevitable, and since no rise took place in the silver countries the adjustment was effected by a decline in the gold standard countries. This decline had been attributed by many persons to other than currency causes, and it could not be denied that some other influences which, however, had been long in operation, had tended to depress prices in these countries. It was impos- sible, however, after once grasping the principle underlying the great monetary change which took place in 1878, to ignore the tremendous results of the divergence between the relative values of silver and gold just alluded to. But the most important con- sideration was the momentous consequences which had resulted in this country, from the general decline of prices, in the shape of the greatly enhanced burdens which it had cast upon British industry. It had practically increased the fixed charges upon production. These charges were mainly comprised under the following heads :— 1. Taxation. 2. Fixed rents and mortgages. 3. Royalties. 4, Tithes. 5- Railway rates and fares. 6. Customary prices. 7. Retail prices not adjusted. These had all been practically augmented, though remaining nominally the same as before because of the greater purchasing power of gold. The result of this practical increase of fixed charges was diminished profits, and the consequent discourage- ment of industry and commerce; and, flowing trom this, a want of enterprise. These evils had notoriously characterised the course of business through the past twelve or fifteen years. 94 A further consequence of the decline in prices had been an augmentation in what might be called the tributes due from certain foreign states, in the shape of interest on national.and other borrowings, on the part of such countries as Egypt, the South American nations, India and Australia. These countries had all been compelled to part with a greatly increased proportion of the products of their labour in the mere discharge of the debts annually due from them to the older nations. ‘They had con- sequently less of such products left for the purpose of commercial exchanges, and were obliged either to take less of our manufac- tures in return for the rest of their produce, or to pay lower prices for them. Here again we had another indirect cause of the decline of prices at home. For various reasons Hnglish industry had suffered more from the fall of prices than any other of the gold standard countries, and on this account the restoration of the Joint Standard became to English agricul- turalists and manufacturers a question of even greater urgency to this nation than it was to the rest. Mr. Helm then enumerated the various influences which ought, under ordinary circumstances to have produced within the last dozen years great prosperity in home industries, such for example as the absence of great wars, the spread of education, and the lessening of crime and extravagance; and after dwell- ing upon the practicability of an international arrangement for the restoration of the Joint Standard he urged that it was essential to a revival of trade, and that in fact the re-establish- ment of the monetary conditions prevailing before 1878 was reasonable and just as well as practicable and necessary. A SKETCH OF BURNLEY SEVENTY YEARS AGO. By JAMES GRANT. December 6th, 1887. At mid-day, on the 16th September, 1818, the mail coach, by name the “‘ Telegraph,”’ left Manchester for Burnley. Upon the box, by the side of the driver, sat an elderly man, by name John Stansfeld, and a younger one in his 18th year. The youth’s parents had lived at Goodham Hill, in Burnley, but had died within two days of each other. The boy, Oliver, then nine years of age, had been sent to reside with his uncle, who himself had formerly resided in Burnley, but had removed to Manchester some twelve years earlier. The lad’s education was now finished, as the phrase runs. Uncle and nephew were now on their way to Burnley to find a sphere where the youth’s energies and abilities 95 might be utilised, while each had a desire, naturally more marked in the elder than in the younger, to see the place he had pre- viously known so well, for the village by the Brun had lately come into some prominence. So taking the coach on this bright autumn day a few hours’ ride brought the two to Burnley. They came easily down the road running through the Rawtenstall valley—horses had been changed at Rawtenstall—and turning the road at Horelaw or Wholow Nook, the coach rapidly de- scended the incline into the hollow of the Calder and the Brun; drove past Hood House on the one side and Healey Fold on the other, then past ‘‘ Pickup”’ (Green Hill), the house now occupied by the Dowager Mrs. Artindale. At Spring Hill the coach comes into a straight line for the centre of the town and somewhat furiously it goes along. On the left were a few houses immedi- ately below where now is the railway, and below them some better houses recently built by some of the leading people of the town. Houses border both sides of the road as far as the canal. The coach stops and two girls in charge of their mother get out, who proceed to the house of Miss Weatherhead in Wood Street, the leading School for “young ladies” of the day. The coach drives on into the town, and at last a sharp turn to the right brings the vehicle to a standstill opposite the door of the Red Lion Hotel... Uncle and nephew turn into the hotel, and are welcomed by James Pate, the landlord. At the close of the meal, partaken of in the low snug room to the right of the entrance from St. James’s Street, the two sally forth to see how the land lay. They turn into the street and admire the width and space in front of the hotel—quite “a square,’ though diamond shaped. Burnley people at that day were proud that they possessed a thoroughfare so wide as St. James’s Street. Where the Bull Hotel stands now, were, at the time of which we are speaking, a number of dark huts and warehouses, where farmers stored their grain. The Old Bull stood facing St. James’s Street where are now the premises occupied by Mr. Shepley and Messrs. Burghope & Strange; it was a two-storey building, and was the handsomest public-house in the place. A little lower down the street on the same side was the Bay Horse (not the present building) ; to reach it you had to go down one or two steps. Firth, the saddler, Ratcliffe, tinner, and John Pate, potter, had shops between the Bull and Bay Horse, and below came old Jim o’ Nick's fish place; Betty Eastwood, and her daughter, now Mrs. Clegg, who in her 90th year still lives at Greenfield House, in Manchester Road. Lower down came the Masons’ Arms ; then came Robert Munn’s grocery and drapery store, the principal establishment of its kind in Burnley, in the premises now known as Liverpool House ; and just below resided James Howorth, grocer; Old, Brown, the tailor, and Thomas Sutcliffe, stationer, at the corner of St. James’s Row. 96 Between the Bull and Firth’s shop there was a considerable opening, through which one could go, and walking round the rear of the Bull, come out into Manchester road. There was a great area—the Bull yard —immediately behind the Bull, anda newsroom over the saddler’s shop. Between St. James’s Row and Coal Street were several low-built shops, not the ones which were removed a few years ago, that jutted out into the street, but shops of a lower order. Coal Street, properly Coal Lane, was so called because it was the way to the coal pit, which was in the Bull Croft. Lower down still came a miscellaneous assemblage. In one house with a prominent porch was a butcher’s shop, then came a barn, then another butcher’s shop, then the home of the Old Huntsman, whose name was John Smith, then another butcher’s shop, and the house of old Molly Sutcliffe, who kept a mangle. This was followed by a shippon and barn belonging to old Pate, who farmed the land where now is Hargreaves Street and Victoria Street, then old Tommy Healey’s house; old Tommy Healey was the father of Thomas Healey, whose musical abilities Burnley commemorated some years ago by a permanent memorial; he was by trade a shoe- maker, and his wife kept a knitting and sewing school. Here was a gate which led to the fields where Holroyd’s size-house stands, and a little lower a coal pit, with its coal-heap where now stands Messrs. Collinge’s furniture depot. This colliery was worked by a company, of whom Mr. Hammerton (father of Mr. P. G. Hammerton) seems to have been the chief. Mr. John Spencer's factory, lately Messrs. Tunstill’s property, came next, and from there to the Cross Keys a succession of cottages and shops, with one mill (still standing), used by Mr. Emmanuel Sutcliffe as a calico printing works, but, as my informant says, ‘he only printed one or two patterns, blue and white and such like.’’ The Cross Keys was kept by Mr. James Raweliffe, father of the well-known Old George Rawcliffe. And now let us trace St. James’ Street on the opposite side, beginning at the top of Bridge Street. First came the house of Mr. James Massey—the house is now Mr Crossley’s fruit store— then the house of Mr. John Moore, father of the first Mayor of Burnley. Mr. Moore ran what is known as ‘‘The Old Mill,” near the Old Brewery, before building the great mill at Keighley Green. ‘The Old Mill’’ still stands, and the corner in which it is, with the Old Brewery and the arch, is one of the few spots within a mile of the Gaumless which remain almost untouched, unaltered—as they were in the beginning of the century. Then came Robert Lupton’s grocer’s shop: Mr. Lupton’s wife’s sister married old James Hartley, of Ightenhili Park, who still walks the earth, a compendium of knowledge affecting Poor Rates and Justices of the Peace. Then Mr. Robinson Greenwood’s store 97 for meal and flour, and at the corner, Mr. John Smith, a quaker, kept a grocer’s shop. Across the end of Fleet Street, we come to the Thorn, which at that time included the space since made into shops. It had great gardens behind it where now our Market Place is, and it had ‘“a great big thorn”’ in the recess in front. Mr. Gilbertson, stationer, occupied the premises under ‘the Blue Clock,” and next to him was a gardener’s store and pot shop kept by Mr. Greenhalgh. Miss Demaine, afterwards Mrs. Haslam, mother of Mr. George Haslam, of the Ridge, came next; then Crook, the ironmonger, who was succeeded by Mr. Eastham. One of the very numerous family of Sutcliffe occupied the next premises—Mr. George Sutcliffe, tather of Mr. Thomas Sutcliffe, the oldest printer in the town. Old John Ratcliffe, painter, came next, and then the White Horse Hotel. Up a flight of steps here was Mr. Robert’s the watchmaker, then came Miss Robertshaw, cap and bonnet maker, followed by Mr. Broxup, the saddler, which brings us to Chancery Street, then called King Street. In speaking of old Burnley, the use of phraseology adopted by old Burnley people somewhat helps us to realise things better. To hear an old person speak of old Pate is equivalent to saying that when the speaker was young, Pate was an old man. We thus get a firmer grip of last century, a connecting link with customs even 70 years ago, changing, and you feel sensibly nearer to a man who began life with the great Napoleon, and lived through all his wars. Crossing King Street, we come to Ned o’ Mash’s—son of Joan o’ Mash—whose real name was Whitaker, and was a butcher by trade; then came the premises of Joseph Sutcliffe, tinner; then John Howard's, and then a private house occupied by Mr. Joseph Massey, one of the leading woollen manufacturers and dyers of the town, father of the late Alderman Massey. The house still stands, though its lower rooms have been turned into shops, and at the time of which we speak Mr. Massey’s residence was quite one of the chief points in the town. Old Pate’s house was on the site now covered by the Dog and Duck. Pate farmed the land immediately in rear of his premises; his son William who was by trade a shoemaker, had a large and attractive garden. Indeed, almost the whole line of St. James’s Street had a deep fringe of garden in the rear of the houses, and Burnley children were then much more familiar with apple trees and gooseberry bushes than are the children of our time. Grime shaw Croft—a real croft, the name survives in Pickup Croft—was entered by a gate where the Royal Oak stands, Curzon Street being then ‘mowing grass.’ Below were another butcher’s shop and two or three cottages, then Bethesda Street, and then 98 the group of buildings still standing. One was John Howard’s, a clothier’s shop, and another the residence of Mr. John Spencer, who ran the factory directly opposite. Another private house, two shops, and a few cottages reached to Brown Street—to Hopwood’s factory. This factory has undergone a change some- what similiar to the one on the opposite side of the way, except that Spencer’s mill has been completely absorbed, and Hopwood’s mill only adapted. Beyond, where the Commercial Inn is, was a square piece of open ground with a few scattered trees growing. Here the sweepings from the neighbouring factory were brought —there were several such elegant ‘‘ open spaces” for the same purpose in different parts of the town. These sweepings were allowed to ‘‘rot’’ sufficiently to make them useful as manure— and sometimes this process was hastened by the outbreak of fire from spontaneous combustion in the summer time. A few low houses bring us to Veevers’s Factory, now becoming a thing of the past by successive removals and renovations, and presently we reach the bridge over the Calder at the Cross Keys. The bridge was but a narrow one, and near it was Crow Nest, one of the most aristocratic parts of the town. Mr. John Moore at one time lived there, so did the Beanlands. Mr. Buck—Anthony Buck—lived here when he first came to this town. John Stansfeld and his nephew did not go so far along Cheapside as the Cross Keys to night. They turned to the left past Spencer’s Mill, and crossing a temporary bridge, where now is Newtown Bridge, crossed the rippling river, clear and sweet, and wended their way slowly up the lane in the direction of Manchester Road. The road was not much better than a country lane. The bridge to Newtown was but for foot passengers. A dozen or so cows were being driven down the lane on their way to a croft near the Club- houses; they made their way through the water as the cowboy somewhat gloomily sang a tune which had been composed by a famous Burnley singer not then forgotten—‘‘ Robin o’Green.” The travellers passed along Cow Lane into Manchester Road, and from the top of Hammerton Street looked over the site of Hargreaves Street and the busy offices and workshops near it, and saw the outline of St. James’s Street, with nought but fields and meadows and gardens reaching to the river at their feet. Thirty years later every yard of the land and all around had been covered with buildings, except the vacant land above the Mechanics’ Institute, where our new Municipal Palace now rears its fine and imposing frontage against the sky. Our travellers walked slowly back to their hotel, as evening was rapidly hasting to darkness. ‘They passed down the left side of the road—a low wall separated the road from old John Green- halgh’s garden, with gooseberry bushes down the slope from the road—and by the Bull Croft—meadow-land mainly—occupying 99 the ground covered by the buildings which now reach from Dr. Coultate’s old house to the Union Club—not a building of any kind there —to their hotel. The old ‘‘Old Red Lion”’ disappeared in 1868, and by its removal the last indication of the original width of what is now a good broad road, was taken away. ‘‘ The Bull,” I may here mention, was strictly speaking, ‘‘ The Black Bull.” Next to the Red Lion, coming up Manchester Road, was a spacious yard, in which was a large warehouse used by James Pate. Close to was the local gaol, popularly known as ‘‘ T’ Black Hoyle” (it seems a pity to disturb the pronunciation of the words) : in this square building offenders against His Majesty’s laws were incarcerated until such time as they could be brought before one of the Justices of the Peace; the rings used for the detention of prisoners may still be seen in Mr. Henry Holdsworth’s shop ; it was then a two-storey building, the men occupied the bottom floor, and the women found accommodation in the room above, reached by a flight of steps on the southern side. In proximity to this somewhat sombre building was Bill Pollard’s smithy, then came Henry Whitaker’s wheelwright’s shop; a portion of the land here was used as a pig market so late as the time of my boyhood. Where Red Lion Street is now was a gate leading to Red Lion Croft, a path through which led to Lane Bridge, or, as it was then known, Hand Bridge. Coming higher up was the cabinet maker’s works of Mr. Wm. Birtwistle: in this workshop the father of our esteemed Mayor (George Sutcliffe, sq.) served his time. A little higher still was Tom Whitaker’s house and cart shed, and near here was the beginning of a cart-road which led through the fields to Drift Coal Pit—the entrance to the pit, or the mouth as it was called, was near the Rose and Thistle Hotel, and the Drift—for such it was in feature more than a pit—went under the canal. Parker Lane was then a country lane, just wide enough to admit of a cart—it had gardens on each side—the street which has taken its place is still called Parker Lane, and the name seems to have been derived from a Robert Parker, who lived at the White Lion.—The area above the present Post Office as far as the river was a field in Pate’s tenancy. The opposite bank was known as Windy Bank (it is now Saunder Bank) and at the corner of Lane Bridge was the foundry which we all remember when in the occupation of Messrs. Graham and Sons—70 years ago the foundry was the property of Mr. Thomas Smith, and he lived close to the workshop in a house facing Foundry Street. The opposite side of Foundry Street was cornered by the Canal Tavern, to reach which more _ steps were required than are now or have been for many years. Manchester Road, besides being wider than it: formerly was, has 100 had its fall considerably equalised; opposite the Canal Tavern the height of the road was reduced. This work was undertaken in the time of distress amongst the artisan population of the neighbourhood, as a kind of “ Relief Work ”—much as the alter- ation in Coal Clough Lane was made during the more recent years of the cotton famine. A little higher up Manchester Road was Fishwick’s timber yard—one of the same family of which an hon. member of this club, Colonel Fishwick, is a member. Next morning our friends prepared for a stroll in another direction. This time they turned towards the “Top of the Town,”’ a name which, with its counterpart, ‘‘ Bottom of the Town”’ in days then passing away approximately indicated the limits of the village. It would appear that the name Market Street was given to the central portion of the village, reaching out on both sides of the centre point—eastwards to a point a little further than the Boot Inn, and westwards as far as the White Horse Hotel. It will be remembered by many here that at these points projecting buildings both from the south side were to be found, apparently bounding the central area. Turning to their left, John Stansfeld and his nephew passed the Swan Hotel, and Miss Hastwood’s the confectioner, Dr. Meanland’s surgery, and halted for a moment opposite Mr. John Riley’s (the premises occupied till lately by Messrs. Bayne). This was quite a point in the village. From it the Manchester coaches started. Next was passed the shop of Mr. Thomas Gilbertson. A relic of old Burnley still remains in the Clock Face. Between the Clock Face and the White Lion were buildings occupied by a hatter, an oatcake baker, and a butcher. The third of these buildings is still used as abutcher’s shop. Just as they reached Henry Hastwood’s (the butcher,) the post coach, from Leeds, ‘‘ The Invincible,” came dashing by and stopped at the Bull. Seeing the coach halt at the Bull, our travellers turned right about and, in so doing took the lower side of St. James’s Street, and walked as far as the top of Bridge Street. They crossed the top of Mally Riding’s Hill— for down the hill lived Mrs. Riding, who kept a dame’s school. These schools were quite numerous in Burnley, there being several in St. James’s Street. But, of course, they were small and of doubtful quality. The only day school then in existence in the town was the Grammar School. The late Archdeacon Master incurred a good deal of ill-will by clearing away some old property near the church to make room for a new day school, which was built in 1828. Our friends did not turn down this hill, though it would have led them through a district rather above than below any other part of the town in respectability, but walked on towards Bridge Street. At the door of an ironmonger’s warehouse, the one now occupied by Messrs. Cowgill and Smith, stood a particularly fine, tall, well-built man, one who had the 101 reputation of being the best company man in Burnley. His Brother, Dr. Samnel Haworth, lived next, and the block was closed by places in the occupation of the Holgate family. The end house was their dwelling-house, and the memory of their bank and their wine and spirit stores still remains. Besides conducting these enterprises the Holgates had a woollen manufactory, and were, indeed, the principal business people in Burnley. Our travellers now turned back, passed along St. James’s Street, Blucher Street (now merged into St. James’s Street) into Church Street. Henry Langfield carried on business here as a grocer and tea-dealer, and on the opposite side, near the Boot, was the Post Office. ; The houses which jutted out into the road—you remember them well, Mrs. Higgin, saddler, was the occupant of the corner one—were in 1818 private houses. A little beyond—in Blucher Street—were the premises of Brown Fletcher, plumber and glazier. The White House at the foot of Yorkshire Street was at one time the curate’s residence, and from there for a considerable distance a low wall skirted the river. The sight of the sweet smiling river was pleasant to the eyes of the two, who were ac- customed to see their river in Manchester of quite another hue. Trees grew at the sides of the Brun, and fish could be caught in it. The house occupied by Mr. Grimshaw was a great house then, occupied by Mr. William and Miss Ellen Greenwood. It was known as Well Hall House. Nearing the Church was passed the Nelson Hotel now known as the White Hart, kept by a man named Heap, who had been a re- cruiting sergeant—then a line of thatched cottages bordering the churchyard and the site of the present schools. The churchyard was entered by a covered wooden gateway. ‘here were seats in the gateway—the lych-gate—the gate of the dead, in which the mourners sat awaiting the arrival of the minister. The visitors here saw a funeral which had come in from Brier- cliffe, and they had alighted upon a young man whose name was Clege—Henry Clegg. He remained with our friends for the space *half-an-hour, telling them about the church and its devoted minister, and describing the lives of the inhabitants of the village. Henry led the way past the house near the church known as the ‘* Lobby ’’—a house built really in flats and let off to lodgers, and the old hearse-house, over the narrow bridge up School Lane, to the front of the Grammar School, when he left them, going up Colne Road to his home. On the afternoon of Easter Day, this year, 1887, I myself stood by Henry Clegg’s dying couch. As everyone knows, he had for half a century been the parish clerk of Burnley, and until within a very few days of his death his memory was absolutely untouched 102 by time or disease. He was born on St. Patrick’s Day, 1797, and died on Easter Day last, living the whole of his long life of 90 years within sight of the church he loved so well. ~“ Soon after Henry Clegg had left our friends they came across a party on a visit to Bank Hall who were going to have the rights and wrongs of their contention settled by Justice Hargreaves who held court sometimes in his own house. Our friends followed a little way, but having ascertained what was the matter deter- mined to retrace their steps. They did, however, halt a moment at the plantation and the dividing lane known as Cock-pit Lane. Brown Hill was not then built. When Mr. George Holgate built it, so great an event was the building of such a mansion regarded that the roofing thereof was celebrated by the firing of muskets from the top. It displaced a bona fide cock-pit, at the entrance to which were two gate-posts with carved cocks at the top—an unblushing memorial of a species of sport long since disappeared —except we regard as a modified survival, the men races at Glen View, or the football matches at Turf Moor. Here they reached the entrance to what is still known as ‘‘ The Park.” It was then park-like land—a stretch of grass land down from the high ground above the church to Salford Mill. At the top was the road cor- responding to the Bank Parade of our day. Where Mr. Thos. Roberts lives stood Col. Hargreaves’s smithy. A few yards past the smithy was a coal pit—the shaft of the pit arched over, is I believe, to be found in the cellar of one of the houses in the large block adorned by the tenancy of a past secretary of this club. These coal pit mouths—made, I hope, secure—are to be found all over Burnley. Besides those we have named to-night there is one near Messrs. Baldwin’s Brush Works, there is another underneath the Market steps, yet another in Mr. Watson’s wood yard in Hammerton Street, and soon. The two little cottages so well-known on the Bank were there—one of them has a little coloured window, but all down the slope no buildings were to be found except Bankhouse and Bankhouse barn and farm buildings. Following the road through Keighley Green, the travellers left Mr. Webster Fishwick’s house and tanyard to the left and saw Bishop House, an old-fashioned dwelling of considerable size, snugly ensconced by the river side, where it remained till expelled to make room for Messrs. Spencer and Moore’s gigantic mills. A pathway from here led to “The Butts” a little higher up the stream. Lower down the road was Keighley Green Chapel, now the Court House, and presently passing by the water-side they crossed Bridge Street bridge—then much narrower than now— and reached once more their hostelry. Instead of walking down Keighley Green, the two might have come down Mill Lane, which then ran under the arch near the Old Brewery and round by the old mill joining the Keighley Per 108 Green road, near the bridge. This was the cartway ; but flights of steps breaking off near the Crown Inn and passing the edge of the mill dam would bring foot passengers by a straighter route to the bridge. In the evening a party, of whom our friends formed a part, attended a theatrical performance held in the Hall Inn, kept by Thomas Brooks. To-night the play was ‘‘ The Red Barn Murder,” and a sufficiently exciting tragedy was produced. The price for admission into the pit was 2s., into the gallery 1s. The large room at the Hall Inn had no competitors for public entertain- ments. Occasionally a travelling company would engage a barn for an evening—Bankhouse Barn, and Henry Crook’s barn (now the Butchers’ Arms) were the most attractive places for this purpose. Next morning our friends started off early for a walk round the country side. They passed up Mill Lane by the steps, by its well-known mill dam, and out on the Parade. The pair walked up Burnley Lane, past Bank Hall, then a new building, a Baptist Chapel, and scattered houses. It is scarcely necessary to say that 99-100ths of Burnley Lane is strictly modern. Turning to the left opposite John o’Nobody’s they crossed the canal and descended into the valley of Pendle Water. They followed its course through lands innocent of sewage works, among fair meadows and smiling fields, and returning by ‘Pendle Hip- pings,” made their way homewards by Park Lane and Gannow. Gannow House existed, and here and there were groups of houses, and occasionally a workshop. A happy company assembled in the Red Lion that evening, and they talked over the recent events in the history of the country. One of them described the rejoicings in Burnley after the victory of Waterloo, when a public feast was held in the Bull Croft: provisions were given freely to every applicant, but everyone had to bring his own knife and fork and plate. Another, who had been present at the celebration to commemorate the coming of age of the late Robert Townley Parker, Esq., the year before Waterloo was fought, created much amusement by his recital of the doings then. Mr. Fielding, steward of the estate, lived at Royle at the time, anda great feast was made. An ox was roasted whole; all comers were supplied; each one had to take his own bread—oatcake chiefly being provided. It is hardly necessary to say that such an event created quite a prodigious stir in the whole neighbourhood, and everybody seemed to consider it his duty to put in an _ appearance. I know of one case where a little boy two or three years old was carried on his brother’s back all the way from Briercliffe to be present, 104 And so with stories like these the time went merrily by till bedtime. About half-past nine the whole company turned out to see what was the cause of a commotion they heard in the street. It was only an incident of civilization—a man had got drunk. William Chaffer, the village constable, was hauling him off to the lockup, ana as usual was followed by a crowd attracted by the sight. The late Mr. James Roberts used to say when detailing his reminiscences (as he liked to do) that he could remember the time when Burnley was kept in order by one constable and one parson. The last morning was spent in a walk on the Cliviger side of the canal. No houses on that side of the water were to be found except Fulledge House, a few farm buildings and cottages, and the outposts of Towneley Hall. At Rose Cottage the first Roman mass in Burnley since the Reformation had just been said. The name “ Priest’s House ”’ still clings to that dwelling. The return journey was made in company with old John Todd, who, then in his 61st year, was vigorousand well. He told them how he had founded a Sunday School in the town in 1787, and how that school had been the forerunner of many others. He promised to send them a copy of the sermon preached by Dr. Collins, the then incumbent of St. Peter’s, in commemoration of the beginning of that work, on November 4th in that year. He gave them many additional particulars about the town which deeply interested them. ‘The afternoon was spent in completing the business on which they chiefly came, and the next morning (Friday) they mounted the coach once more, and returned to Manchester. John Stansfeld has long been dead; his companion still lives, though he is very feeble. He has seen Burnley grow from a pretty village, with its twin streams coursing merrily under its wooden bridges, through many stages until ithas become a large town—full of an active people, stretching out its arms octopus- like in every direction. Who, looking back upon the picture we have tried to present to-night, when Burnley had 5,000 inhabit- ants, and remembering what Burnley is to-day, would say that in 70 years from now the whole distance from Bradley Hall in Nelson to Isles House in Padiham, will not be one town, a town of half a million inhabitants, owning the sway of one Mayor, the descendant, maybe, of some old Burnley inhabitant we have named to-night? But it is not oursto ponder. Yet hear, if you kindly will, the words of a letter I have just received from our old friend of whom we have been speaking. The hand-writing is that of his daughter, but the words are the words of the father, and the signature is his own. ‘‘So you are going to tell about Burnley 70 years ago. I have seen changes. I remember Burnley well, and have a deep affection for it. What the town 105 will grow to I cannot tell. But I never forget my birth-place, and you, as a native like myself, will never forget that you are a citizen of no mean city.” In the discussion which followed, many additional interesting particulars of Old Burnley, were brought out by Mr. Joshua Rawlinson and others. SOLAR FLAMES. By Rev. A. L. CORTIE, 8.J., December 13th, 1887. History aNnp Merruops oF OBSERVATION. The appearance of the sun, as viewed by the naked eye, is that of a round white disc, the apparent diameter of which, when the glare caused by our atmosphere has been removed, subtends an angle of little more than half a degree, or about the same angle as a penny piece would subtend when seen at a distance of seventeen feet. The surface of the sun visible to the naked eye has received the name of the photosphere. If we project its image by means of even a small telescope upon a screen we see that this visible disc is by no means of a uniform whiteness. In the first place there is a darkening at the limbs, due to the solar atmosphere, and moreover the whole surface is made up of a net-work of dark and white patches, giving to it a peculiar mottled or granulated appearance. Here and there we shall probably distinguish dark dots called pores, and perhaps a sun-spot, with its dark interior or umbra, surrounded by a veil of a tint not so black, and called the penumbra. This penumbra is furrowed by bright streaks, all radiating towards a still brighter ring, which forms the boundary between it and the umbra. Again, we are likely to see brilliant white patches of irregular shape called faculae. These are more easily dis- tinguishable at the limb, where they stand out by contrast with the darker background. They are usually of filamentous or streaky form. They invariably follow an outburst of spots. Surrounding the photosphere are the wonderful forms of the sun’s atmosphere, which no telescope will show us, and which are only rendered visible when the moon places herself between the sun and earth, or when, by means to be explained later, they are seen in the spectroscope. For present purposes we may distinguish two parts of the solar atmosphere. First, a rose-coloured stratum of glowing hydrogen, some three thousand six hundred miles in depth * out of which rise the flames called * The mean height of the chromosphere, as derived from the six years’ observa- tion, 1880-85, made at Stonyhurst, is 8’°07. The linear value of 1” on the sun’s surface is very nearly 450 miles. Hence the mean height in miles of the chromo- sphere becomes nearly 3630 miles. 106 prominences or protuberances, the subject-matter of the present paper. Enveloping these and extending at times more than a million miles into space, is the complicated structure called the corona, with its streamers and rifts, clouds and filaments, the aureola of glory seen round the sun in total solar eclipses. The first recorded observations of flames were made by a mathematical professor at Gottenburg in Sweden, Birgen Vassen by name, who during the eclipse of May 2, 1738, noticed three red clouds suspended above the sun. Again, in 1778, the attention of the Spanish Admiral, Don Ulloa, when observing the eclipse of that year, was attracted by a point of red light on the western edge of the moon, which grew brighter in proportion as the sun emerged, until it finally vanished. He attributed this appearance to a hole in the body of the moon. For some unaccountable reason these remarkable phenomena seem to have entirely passed out of man’s memory. Accordingly their detection in 1842 by the eminent astronomers who observed the eclipse of the 6th of July of that year, filled them with surprise and wonder. The track of the moon’s shadow in this eclipse pased over Southern France Northern Italy, and Austria. Observations of the flames were made, among others by Baily and Airy, Arago, Scuhmacher and Biela, while at Leipsic, Otto Struve saw again the rose-coloured chromosphere closely surrounding the sun’s limb, first discovered, according to Flamsteed, by Captain Stannyen, on May 12, 1706. Various hypotheses were at once set afloat to account for these novel appearances. Some maintained that they were mountains on the moon, seen by reflexion or refraction through a lunar atmos- phere. Others again contended that they were true solar flames, while a third party, including the learned M. Faye, asserted that they were mere optical delusions, exactly analogous to the terrestrial mirage. Nor was this discussion closed by the eclipse of July 28,1851. This time it occurred in Norway and Sweden, and among the observers were Airy, Carrington, Hind, Dawes, and others. Special watch was kept to see if the prominences were gradually uncovered by the moon, a fact which ought to prove their solar origin. No reasonable doubt was left on this point. For example, in his observations Carrington describes the gradual increase in size of three prominences on the western limb of the sun. However, cavillers were not silenced; M. Faye still clung to the mirage theory. But the doubts of those who were still unsatisfied were finally put to rest by the applica- tion of photography to the eclipse which took place in Spain in 1860. To Mr. Warren de la Rue and to the late illustrious director of the Roman College Observatory, Padre Secchi, is due the honour of the settlement of the questions at issue. The former of these two scientists was stationed at Riva Bellosa, 107 near the Atlantic, and the latter at Desierto de las Palmas, on the Mediterranean. Allowing for difference of position in viewing the sun, the photographs taken on that occasion have a most satisfactory accordance, and show the prominences gradually disappearing on one limb and coming into view on the other, as the moon advances across the solar disc. Hence Secchi con- cluded that the prominences were real solar phenomena. For, in the first place, the perfect agreement between the pictures obtained by two observers separated the one from the other by a hundred leagues, precluded all possibility of the appearances being merely optical delusions of the mirage type. Then, too, they were not mountains on the moon, for they were gradually covered and uncovered by that body. The only possible theory was that they were true solar appendages. If the methods adopted in the eclipse of 1860 were a step in advance, a much greater step was taken in the Indian eclipse of 1868, when the camera was supplemented by the most won- derful instrument of modern times, the spectroscope. Before proceeding to give any account of the eclipse of that year, it will be necessary, omitting details which would be out of place in the present instance, briefly to recall to mind a few of the great principies which form the basis of the science of spectrum analysis. If we pierce a hole in the shutter of a darkened room, as Newton did in his experiments, and admitting the light of the sun, receive it on a screen after passing through a prism, we shall have a coloured image of such a hole painted in every one of the colours of the spectrum. But the size of the hole will cause the images to overlap, and render the spectrum impure. If, however, we use as an aperture for admitting the light a thin line, we shall get the image of the line painted in all the spectral colours on our screen, but in this second case the images will not overlap so much, and the resultant spectrum will be purer. The finer the line, the less will its images interfere one with the other. Solid bodies, liquids, and gases under great pressure, when at a white heat, give such a continuous spectrum as has been de- seribed, in which no image of the line is wanting. If however we take as our source of light the vapour of some metal, as for instance that of sodium, one of the constituents of table-salt, we no longer get the slit-images painted in every colour, but only in afew. In the case of the metal selected as an example, under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure we shall get but one image of the slit, forming upon the screen a bright yellow light. The second kind of spectrum then which is produced is one of bright lines, and is due to the incandescent vapours of metals. When we view the analyzed light of the sun, in a spectroscope, we see the continuous band of colours, whence we draw the deduction that the core of our luminary is composed of 108 gases and vapours under immense pressure, since other consider- ations preclude the possibility of its being solid, as Herschel thought, or liquid, according to Kirchhoff’s views. But we see more than this, for superposed on the brilliant band of colours are hundreds of dark sharp lines as if the image of the slit were wanting in some places. Without entering at all into the recip- rocity of radiation and absorption, from the analogy of the darkening of one candle-flame when viewed through another, we shall easily be able to accept the statement that these dark lines are due to the vapours which surround the intensely heated nucleus of the sun, giving a spectrum of bright lines if viewed apart from the sun, but one of relatively dark lines, on the back- ground of the bright continuous spectrum. Thus we have a third sort of spectrum, or that of dark lines on the bright back- ground, due to absorbing vapours when seen in front of either a solid, or liquid, or even a vapour of the same sort at a higher temperature. The only thing necessary for the production of the dark lines is that the solid, or liquid, or vapour should contain the same radiations as are absorbed, and be at a higher tempera- ture. With such knowledge, and with the recently-invented spectro- scope, the observers of 1868 prepared to grapple with the problems presented by the eclipse of that year. Photography was confided to the care of Major Tennant, with the result that a series of six beautiful pictures was obtained, showing among others a wonderful prominence, eighty-eight thousand five hundred miles high, which received the name of the Great Horn. But it was on the spectroscope, now for the first time directed to the eclipsed sun, that the greatest hopes of success were founded ; hopes destined to be most brilliantly realized. As soon as the sun was totally obscured, and the rosy-coloured flames burst forth, eager eyes were directed to the new instrument to read the story there told. A spectrum of bright lines; among which were one in the red, another in the yellow, the famous D, line, and yet another in the blue. These were observed by Rayet, Herschel, and Tennant, although the positions certified were not exactly accordant, as was hardly to be expected at a first attempt. A spectrum of bright lines; hence the prominences are due to a glowing gas. What gas? hydrogen was the answer of the tell- tale lines. But the results of this eclipse were even of greater value than could have been anticipated. Struck by the vivid brightness of the lines seen in the prominence spectrum, Janssen cried out, as he tells us himself, ‘Je reverrat ces lignes la!’’ Accordingly, on the morrow, he directed his instrument to the sun’s limb, and was able at his leisure to examine again the prominence spectrum, equally as well as on the eclipsed sun. The news of 109 this discovery was nearly two months in reaching Europe, and meanwhile Mr. Lockyer had succeeded, perfectly independently of Janssen, in viewing the spectrum of the prominences in the same manner. The idea he had first conceived in 1866, but want of instrumental power had hitherto prevented him from successfully testing his views. The credit therefore of this most important discovery is equally and most deservedly shared by these two eminent men of science. Before proceeding to explain the principles which enable us to study the prominences without the aid of an eclipse, it may be well to give a brief description of the essentials of the telespec- troscope, the instrument employed in such researches. ‘The rays of light proceeding from the sun, forming a parallel pencil of rays on account of its distance, are first received by the object-. glass of a telescope, which being a convex-lens, causes them to converge and form an image in the focus of the glass. In this focus is placed the slit-plate, in which is the delicate slit adjust- able within certain limits, ordinarily by means of a screw acting on a spring. The line of light admitted by the slit forms a diverging pencil, the rays of which are caught by a second lens and rendered parallel before passing through the prism or prisms which break the light up into its constituent parts. A small telescope is placed beyond the prisms, in the eye-piece of which a magnified image of the spectral band may be viewed. We ordinarily see the sun by two sets of rays, first by its direct rays, and secondly by those which are reflected to the eye by our atmosphere. When in an eclipse the dark body of the moon is interposed between us and the sun, not only are the direct rays cut off, but also in a less degree the reflected rays, so that there is total darkness except for a lurid glow about the horizon. To a certain extent the slit-plate of a spectroscope performs the duty of the moon during an eclipse, for by placing the image of the sun a little below the slit, no direct rays of sun-light are able to enter through it. In this position we have the slit across the regions of the solar atmosphere, and at first sight it would seem that we ought to be able to view the chromospheric spectrum. But we have not yet dealt with the reflected sun-light, which is especially strong in the immediate neighbourhood of the limb, so strong, that in a spectroscope of small dispersive power, the spectrum of the solar atmosphere would be altogether masked by the continuous spectrum of the nucleus, reflected from the terrestrial atmosphere. It is precisely to the device Mr. Lockyer suggested for overcoming this difficulty, that is due the credit of the successful method he proposed for viewing the prominence spectrum in ordinary daylight. He argued thus. By increasing ‘the battery of prisms it will be possible to dilute the band of colours reflected from the atmosphere until it becomes very faint. 110 For the total amount of light received is the same, hence the brilliancy of the band will be inversely as its length. But for bright lines proceeding from an incandescent vapour, the same inverse proportion between brilliancy and dispersion does not hold. Let us take the case of hydrogen, one of the chief constituents of the solar atmosphere. By an increase in the number of prisms, all we effect in their case is a separation of the four bright images of the slit or lines from one another by a greater interval, without very appreciably dimming their light. Hence if we wish to view the prominence spectrum, it will be necessary first to cover the image of the sun by the slit-plate and so cut off the direct rays, then to increase the number of prisms, removing by this means the continuous spectrum caused by reflected rays, and the bright lines sought for will be obtained. Having now obtained the prominence spectrum, it only remains to travel round the limb of the sun, and whenever the bright line of hydrogen is seen rising up beyond the ordinary level of the chromosphere, we know that we are viewing a prominence. It will not be out of place to describe the method adopted in this observation at Stonyhurst. The spectroscope is carried by a tail- piece which is securely clamped to the eye-end of the telescope. This tail-piece has a graduated circle which can be read to sec- onds of arc, and an attached vernier can be rotated round it at the same time as the spectroscope, by means of a rack and pinion. Therefore in the first place it is only necessary to make the zero division of the scale exactly coincident with the apparent N. point of the sun, and the index of the vernier when rotated will tell to what part of the limb, as measured from the N. point, we are directing our gaze. But more than this, by another simple ad- justment the spectroscope may be so rotated round the sun’s disc that the slit may be kept either in a tangential or a radial position to the limb. At the eye-end of the small viewing telescope, placed after the prisms, is a micrometer, by which the height of the line of light may be read off. In this way it is possible to view a flame in successive, almost vertical sections, and putting the readings together, a very fair picture can be drawn. And so we can travel round the sun and observe all the prominences to be seen on any given day. Or if the tangential slit be preferred, successive horizontal slices of any prominence can be taken, and the flame depicted. ‘Though the forms can be obtained by a re- duction of the measures made, yet the work is long and tedious, and it would be obviously far better to study these objects by view- ing them as a whole. This was the next problem proposed for solution to the skill of spectroscopisis. Lockyer and Janssen proposed to use the one an oscillating slit, the other a rotating slit adjusted to a direct-vision spectroscope, the idea being that a succession of sectional images coming rapidly 111 before the eye, the impression of the object as a whole would be. retained upon the retina. It was, however, found both by Hug- gins and Zoéllner that it is only necessary to open the slit, placed in a tangential position to the sun’s limb, to the width required, and the whole form of the prominence can be observed. This result is simply a natural extension of the principle explained above of diluting the continuous spectrum due to reflection near the limb, until it is rendered invisible, when the chromatic prom- inence lines stand out clear and distinct. Now lines are only images of the slit, therefore open the slit when the continuous spectrum has been so diluted, until it contains the whole prom- inence, and the prominence will paint its own spectroscopic images. Mr. Huggins was the first to practically employ the method. His announcement to the Royal Society is dated Feb- ruary 16th, 1869, and the first prominence ever seen by man in all its details on the uneclipsed sun had been observed by him three days previously. The method was at once adopted by the whole band of observers, and many most interesting and valuable results have been secured in the domain of physical astronomy _ by the labours of such men as Lockyer, Secchi, Young, Resphigi, Zollner, and others. But one year’s observation of solar flames by the open slit method sufficed to enable observers to distinguish two classes of . these objects; and the broad division of ‘‘ cloud-prominences ” and ‘‘ flame-prominences ” was announced by Lockyer in April 1870. These classes are sometimes called hydrogenous and met- allic from their chief constituents, or again quiescent and eruptive, the first class being quiescent not always in themselves but relat- ively to the eruptive class. Various subdivisions have been suggested by Secchi, but it is very difficult to draw any clear line of demarcation between the various forms. However, such forms as plumes, horns, and clouds, either attached to the chromosphere as is generally the case, or floating in the solar atmosphere, are easily recognizable. Then, too, there are flames composed of filaments which cross and recross in all directions, and again diffused masses which rise from the solar surface, broad at the base and tapering to their summits. Eruptive prominences are generally of the cyclonic or spiked kinds, or if composed of fila- ments, the filaments are arranged vertically. There are also such shapes as sheafs or bundles of flame; and jets and fountains are to be seen in the neighbourhood of spots. We have before remarked that these prominences of the first class are only relatively quiet. Indeed so rapid at times are their motions, that the distinction of the classes into hydrogen and metallic prominences, founded on their constituents would seem to be the best. The first kind of motion we may call attention to, is that caused by mighty solar winds or currents 112 playing in the sun’s atmosphere. The summit of a prominence quiet at its base will at times be torn to pieces by such winds. The direction of these currents as indicated by the inclinations of the summits of the flames formed the subject of long continued study by Secchi. Asa result of his researches he arrived at the conclusion that there is a well marked current flowing from the equator to the poles, with which conclusion Young is inclined to agree. Yet as more observations seem to be needed to solidly establish this important point, it is one of those which receives especial attention in the observations of chromosphere and prominences made at Stonyhurst. There are other motions of these suspended cloud masses which are interesting. | For instance, on April 3, 1872, Secchi observed a cloud which moved so rapidly upwards from the limb that between 8" 44™ and 9" 10™ the distance of the summit from the sun’s surface had increased from 4' 19” to 7' 29”. The increase in height of the prominence was therefore at the rate of 85,500 miles in 26 minutes, or about 55 miles a second. But by far the most interesting of all solar displays are the eruptive prominences. Not so extensive as the quiet prominences, they are as a rule much more brilliant. They differ too in this, that their lives are generally very short. Their spectrum at times is a very complicated one, and although the chief materials out of which they are formed are hydrogen and helium, yet their spectrum is rich in such metals as iron, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and titanium. But they are most remarkable on account of their rapid changes of form, and the velocities with which they are projected upwards. On October 16, 1871, Secchi observed and drew a remarkable outburst in the presence of O. Struve, the Director of the great Russian Observatory of Pulkowa, At 9-10 when the sun was first observed, nothing remarkable on this limb had been noticed; but at 9-30 a conical shaped flame was detected at about 85° from the N. point towards the W., and about 5° from the flame a large diffused mass of cloud. At 9-86 the flame had increased both in length and breadth, having absorbed the cloud. At 9-43 it assumed a fan shape with brilliant jets, the height being now about 64”, 7.e., nearly 29,000 miles. The storm culminated at 9-49. The height of some isolated fragments was now about 240”, about four times what it had been six minutes previously, and the breadth 236”, with a rate of ascent of 217 miles a second. An injection of heavy metals at the base of the flame was also detected by the spec- troscope, among them being iron, sodium, and magnesium. Three principal jets could be distinguished, the highest attaining its maximum of 176”, or about ten times the earth’s diameter, at 9°56. By 10-12 the whole storm had passed away, and there remained but two small jets to mark the seat of this mighty eR Ne ITT, ~ ls Se. ge) MQ many “a > F ie is a : -_ ‘ a rh + ae 7 113 outburst. The cycle of changes therefore described above had been completed in less than one hour. But the most astounding observation of this kind ever made is that reported by Professor Young on September 7, 1871. At 12-30 on this day he noticed on the western limb of the sun a large cloud connected by three stems to the chromosphere. Beyonds its great size, some 55,000 miles high and 100,000 long, there was nothing very remarkable at first about this flame. But after half an hour’s interval the state of affairs had entirely changed. For in the meantime it had literally been blown to fragments. We quote Professor Young’s account: “‘ While I was watching I saw some of the filaments ascend from an elevation of 100,000 miles to one of 200,000 miles in ten minutes of time, with an average velocity of 167 miles a second.” ‘This observation has received a very careful discussion from Mr. Procter. He shows that if the filaments Young observed actually started from the chromosphere they must have possessed an initial velocity of more than 260 miles a second. Nay, more; it is evident from his calculations that these patches of flame must have encountered considerable resistance to their upward passage through the solar atmosphere between the heights of 100,000 and 200,000 miles, and more than this the intensity of the force of gravity on the sun which would tend to pull them downwards is 274 times that of the same force on the earth. Taking all these facts into account, the initial velocity of projection cannot be placed at a lower figure than 500 miles asecond. Had the particles observed been solid instead of gaseous, such a velocity of projection would have been sufficient to have driven them into space never to return again. So inconceivable are such velocities to the human mind, that Young was tempted at first to suppose that in such phen- omena there was not a real transference of matter, but only a lighting up of matter already in position, something analogous to the explosion of a train of gunpowder. But here again the won- derful spectroscope comes to our aid, and its teachings are that in the velocities observed, we are dealing with real velocities of incandescent particles. No doubt many of our readers have noticed what happens to the note given by the whistle of a train as it dashes through a railway station. As itapproaches the note becomes continually shriller and of a higher pitch, and the opposite effect is observed as it rushes out of sight? Why is this? Because sound is conveyed to our ears by waves in the air, and the more waves that reach us in any given interval of time the higher is the corresponding note, and the fewer the lower. A precisely analogous effect happens in the case of a body giving out light vibrations instead of sound vibrations. Light is conveyed not by the air but by ether, and the length of the waves is very small indeed, The unit for measuring them 114 adopted by spectroscopists is the tenthmetre, t.¢., the ten millioneth part of a millimetre, a millimetre being 0:08937 of an inch. The length of the longest wave that we can see in the red is 7,600 of these small units, and of the shortest in the violet is 3,932 of the same unit. Ifa body giving out light is advancing towards us, more waves will reach the eye in a given second or, what is the same thing, relatively to us the length of the waves will be shorter, and whatever is true of bodies advancing is true in an opposite sense of bodies receding. Take, then the case of a glowing cloud of hydrogen swiftly advancing in our line of sight on the sun. Suppose we are observing it on its blue line. The waves of light giving this line have a certain definite length, namely, 4,860 tenth-metres. What will happen ? Since the body is advancing, the length of the waves will be less than 4,860 units, hence the bright blue line will be displaced from its proper position and thrown down in the scale towards the violet. Ifthe body had been receding, the line would have been thrown towards the red. A change of one-tenth metre in the position of the blue line of hydrogen towards the violet would indicate an uprush of this gas at the rate of 88 miles a second. The spectroscope, then, is not only an instrument for finding out what the heavenly bodies are made of but can even be employed to gauge their velocities in the line of sight. We say in the line of sight because, as a moment’s reflection will show, the method is inapplicable to motions at right angles to the line of sight. Hence on the body of the sun it measures the velocity of the gas- streams which are rushing up or down, while at the limb it will measure not the up and down rushes, but those only towards or away from us. But, as we have already seen, up and down rushes or vertical motions on the limb can be detected in the open slit of the spectroscope, and measured by an ordinary micrometer. By such means of observation velocities of sixty, eighty, and of a hundred miles a second have been often detected in masses of hydrogen. A phenomenal instance occurred on August 8, 1872., as observed by Young, when the same flame gave in one part indications of an uprush of 250 miles a second, and in another part a downrush of 280 miles a second. More wonderful still, Young noted in this outburst three times of special intensity, and at these precise instants the magnets at Greenwich and Stonyhurst gave responsive deflections. The greatest average velocity in a flame ever observed by Secchi was about 280 miles a second, in the outburst described above of October 16, 1871, 115 DINNER. December 16th, 1887. A Dinner, at which there was a good attendance of members of the Club, was held at Mr. Cronkshaw’s Hotel, on the above date. The following was the toast list :— 1. The Loyal Toasts.—Proposed by the President, Mr. J. Langfield Ward, M.A. 2. The Burnley Literary and Scientific Club.—Proposed by Mr. W. Lewis Grant and responded to by the President 8. The Town and Trade of Burnley.—Proposed by Mr. Joshua Rawlinson, J.P., and responded to by Alderman Greenwood, J.P. 4, Literature and Art.—Proposed by Mr. F. J. Grant, Vice President, and responded to by Mr. James Kay, J.P. 5. Science.—Proposed by Mr. W. Lancaster, and responded to by Mr. Alfred Strange, Vice President, and Member of the Burnley School Board. 6. The Ladies.—Proposed by Mr. William Witham, and responded to by Mr. J. W. Thompson. MUSICAL SOIREE. Director: TOM HEATON. December 20th, 1887. The following was the Programme performed :. pare Quartette—Op. 83., No. 3 ...ccccsccseseseseseeeeseeees Haydn. For 2 Violins, Viola and Violoncello. Messrs. George Crompton, J. A. Heaton, E. Titherigton, and Edward Crompton. 2 eee “The Requital ”...........0++ Blumenthal. ; Se Miss Horner. Trio..: «.. No. 3 in C., for Piano, Violin and Violoncello... Haydn. ‘Miss Fletcher and Messrs. George Crompton, and Tom Heaton. Allegro. Andante. Finale—Presto. 116 F . Grand Trio in E. flat, for Violin, Viola String Trio =i and Viclontéello, } Mozart. Messrs. G. Crompton, H. Titherington, and E. Crompton. Menuetto. Trios. Finale. OMe cress sccuenscssecerernaten’) DOLOUALD cs cn-cseesaneenetnee Braga. Miss Horner. with Violin Obligato,...Mr. George Crompton. No. 1 in G. minor, for Piano, Violin, Viola Quartette... | pad aw ioloneclin. | Mozart. Miss Fletcher and Messrs. George Crompton, H. Titherington, and Edward Crompton. Allegro. Andante. Rondo—Allegro Moderato. THE BURNLEY HALFPENNY TOKEN 1669. The Burnley Halfpenny Token which is shewn full size in the accompanying engraving, is the only one which has survived the wreck of time—no duplicate is to be found in any public or private collection, and was unknown before it was described in an article in the Palatine Note Book of December 1882, by Mr. William Waddington, Market Superintendent, of Burnley, to whom the Club is indebted for the use of the engraving and the additional notes. In the seventeenth century great inconvenience was felt in England through the want of a coinage of less value than silver; to meet this necessity, corporations, public bodies, and traders were allowed, or took the responsibility of issuing their own tokens of the value of a penny, halfpenny and farthing, which “were used simply to supply the pressing demand for change, and were the only means with which the poor had to purchase the common necessaries of life." The tokens were of various shapes, but mostly round, were commonly made of brass, pewter, or lead, and sometimes even of leather. The metal ones were impressed with the names of their issuers, the towns in which their businesses were principally carried on, their value, and a ee et a a a a ee 117 device of some of the incorporated trades or guilds of London, or the representation of some of the implements of trades or handicrafts. No doubt the token was a great boon for a length of time, but they became so numerous and the inconvenience of exchange was so great, that in 1672, a Proclamation prohibiting the making or use of any such private token was issued, and stringent measures taken for their suppression, which, in a short time, effectually put a stop to the tokens of this century. The Burnley Halfpenny Token was found in 1881, by a work- man while preparing a piece of ground for paving, opposite the Old Church gates, Burnley, the site had just been cleared of the ancient gabled houses, the market cross and stocks—a good pho- tographic view of which was fortunately secured by the Club before their removal was commenced. The token is made of brass, very thin, and is about three-quarters of an inch in diam- eter. It is in a capital state of preservation, owing probably to its exclusion from the air, the inscription is very legible except a portion of the figure on the shield. On the obverse is the in- Scription LAWRENCE TOWNLEY; in the centre or field, surmounted by a dotted circle, is a shield bearing the arms of the Mercers Company; a demi virgin couped below the shoulders, issuing from clouds, vested, crowned with an Eastern crown, her hair dishevelled, and wreathed round the temples with roses; all within an orle of clouds. In the Burnley Token the orle is absent. On the reverse the inscription is, or BURNLEY, 1669, and in an inner dotted circle, mis HALF PENy. The issuer, Lawrence Townley, was of Barnside, near Colne and Carr Hall, in Marsden, he owned extensive estates with soke corn mills in the neighbourhood of his mansions, which he had inherited from his ancestors. Considering the period, he would be a large employer of labour, and the mulcture of his soke mills, after supplying the wants of his household, would be sold in the adjoiming markets of Burnley and Colne. He would issue the tokens to meet the necessities of his own trade and to suit the - conveniences of his numerous customers. EXCURSIONS. OWENS COLLEGE. June 25th, 1887. The Members of this Club joined in their first excursion of the summer season on Saturday, when a visit was paid to Owens College and Chetham Library, Manchester. Professor Boyd Dawkins—whose interesting lecture on ‘Lancashire in the 118 Carboniferous Age,’’ formed an important item in last winter’s syllabus—had courteously undertaken to conduct the party over the College buildings, giving special attention to the department connected with his late lecture to the Club. The programme for the day also embraced a visit to the famous Chetham Library and the Manchester Exhibition. The party, numbering 20 Members, in addition to one or two ladies, left Manchester Road Station at 12-52 p.m., reaching Manchester at 2-30 p.m. A wagonette was in waiting to convey them to Owens College, and here they were met by Professor Dawkins, who gave an afternoon lecture on the peculiarities of carboniferous strata and some highly interesting details concerning the discoveries of pre-historic times that have lately been made in the neighbourhood of Burnley. The lecture was chiefly an elaboration of the entertaining discourse which the eminent Professor delivered at Burnley some months ago. The members were conducted by Professor Dawkins through the geological museum and several objects of especial interest con- nected with his first lecture were pointed out. This closed the purely scientific part of the programme, and the College buildings were then inspected. On the proposal of Mr. J. L. Ward, M.A., (President of the Club), seconded by Mr. Strange, a hearty vote of thanks was tendered to Professor Dawkins for his kindness in entertaining the members during the afternoon. It may be added that while conducting the party through the buildings, Mr. Dawkins observed that the College and all its accessories were held in trust for the people of Lancashire, and he hoped the population of its vast centres of industry would make them- selves acquainted with Owens College and use it as a means of instruction. On leaving the College the members proceeded to the Chetham Library, where the Librarian (Mr. Tinkler) had kindly arranged, for the private view of the visitors, several very rare books, some of which were similar to those sold at such long prices at the Crawford Library sale in London the week before the excursion. The old manuscripts which form a valuable part of the Chetham collection, were also examined with much interest. Several of the members concluded a profitable and enjoyable ex- cursion by visiting the Manchester Exhibition. ORMEROD AND HURSTWOOD. Aveusr 27th, 1887. On Saturday, the members of the Club paid an enjoyable visit to Ormerod and Hurstwood. A large party of ladies and gentle- men met near St. Peter’s Church. and then walked to Ormerod House, the residence of Sir John Hardy Thursby, Bart. They 119 were received by the Rev. W. Ford Thursby, and conducted over the principal rooms of the house. The ancient wainscot and oak carvings attracted much attention, and the ladies who accompan- ied the party were much interested in the appointments of the bed-room used. last October by H.R.H. Prince Albert Victor. The panel containing the arms of the Spensers of Hurstwood, and the urn found on Worsthorne Moor in 1848, by Mr. Studley Martin and Mr. John Thursby (the present High Sheriff,) were shown to the visitors. After examining the old mullioned window in the kitchen, the company strolled through the grounds to Hurstwood. Assembling in the house believed to have been, for many months, the home of Edmund Spenser, the party were addressed by Mr. Strange, who detailed some of the evidence pointing to the poet’s connection with this locality. After tea the company proceeded to the site of the new reservoir at Cant Clough, where they examined the puddle trench and inlet where the water of the stream is diverted to the Corporation pipes, and wound up the visit by walking through the tunnel under the embankment. The weather was favourable, and altogether the excursion was most enjoyable. Mr. James Waddington supplied much interesting finformation respecting the architecture of Ormerod, while the general arrangement of the excursion was taken in hand by Mr. F. J. Grant. PRESTON DOCKS. Sarurpay, Ocroser 26th, 1887. A large party of ladies and gentlemen from Manchester and Burnley paid a visit to the works now being executed under the Ribble Navigation Scheme. The Manchester Geographical Society took the initiative in the matter, and having received an invitation from the Mayor of Preston—Alderman Bibby—to inspect the works, that excellent society extended the offer of his Worship by affording an opportunity to members of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club to join in the survey. It should be added that the Burnley Society is affiliated to the Manchester Geographical Society, and the payment of an annual subscription secures a number of privileges, of which the event of Saturday. proved to be a highly acceptable one. The party comprised about seventy persons, Manchester and Burnley each contributing about an equal share. The Manchester contingent included the energetic Secretary, Mr. Eli Sowerbutts, The Venerable Arch- deacon Anson, Councillor Bosdin, T. Leach, Councillor W. Sherratt, Messrs. Joseph Hainsworth, Mark Stirrup, F.G.S., J. 8. Thornton, B.A., Leon Grue La Rouse (French Consul) 120 Alderman Wolstenholme (Heywood), H. A. Rohde. The Burnley Society was represented by the following officers :—Messrs. J. Langfield Ward, M.A. (President), F. J. Grant, A. Strange, Alderman J. Greenwood, J.P., W. Lewis Grant, James Kay, J.P., T. Lloyd, B.A. (Secretary), Jas. Lancaster, F. H. Hill, H. Bulcock, J. A. Waddington, AX. EK. Tovey, D.Sc., and of the other members who were present there were Dr. Dean, Dr. Lawson, Messrs. J. 8. Collinge, J.P., T. Edmondson, J.P., Councillors Lancaster, J. S. Sutcliffe, and W. Lupton; Messrs. J. 8S. Horn, T. Nowell, J. W. Thompson, W. Thompson, J. Bradley, W. Waddington, T. Preston, G. C. Ogden, J. B. Polding, J. G. Broxup, W. Lancaster, junr., R. Nelson, John Sutcliffe, F. Parkinson. Preston was reached about half-past two, and the party at once proceeded to the extensive works at the entrance to the estuary of the Ribble. Here they were met and welcomed by the Mayor of Preston, Councillor Booth, Councillor Raweliffe, Mr. Sykes (the Engineer), and others intimate with the details of the scheme. It was under these happy auspices that the com- pany commenced their tour of examination. The progress of the party to the termination of the dock works was facilitated by means of a locomotive, to which three waggons suitably fur- nished were attached. This journey afforded an excellent oppor- tunity of estimating the extensive charactor of the enterprise ; and the visitors readily realised that half a million of money was not a sum out of proportion with the dimensions of the scheme. Additional interest was given to the visit by the fact that only the day before the Preston Town Council had authorised the application to Parliament for an extension of their borrowing powers, with the view of completing the diversion of the River Ribble, the wet docks and the subsidiary docks, authorised by «The Ribble Navigation and Preston Dock Act, 1883,” and in- creasing the depth and area of the dock and entrances thereto, &c. The first application was for £558,000, and the second application, which was granted on Friday—by 82 against 4, was for a further sum of £508,000, increasing the expenditure thereby to over a £1,000,000. The council meeting had also been followed by a largely attended ratepayers’ meeting in the evening at the Guild Hall. The proposal met with considerable opposition, but in the end the consent of the meeting by a fair majority was given to the promotion of the Bill in the ensuing session of Parliament. This was followed, however, by the demand that a poll of the ratepayers should be taken. Some idea of the extent of the works may be gathered from the fact mentioned after tea by Mr. Sykes, the engineer, that the contractor, Mr. Walker, put down before commencing operations plant of a not less value than £50,000, including 16 locomotives, five American steam 121 navvies, many miles of lines, and a vast number of appliances and implements. A good view of the new course constructed for the Ribble, and its relation to the present river was obtained, and it was pointed out how already, by the construction of a wall 24 miles in length, many hundreds of acres of land, formerly covered at high tide, had been reclaimed. Much of this was the property of Squire Rawstorne, of Penwortham. Numerous stacks contained the produce of the land from the first year’s yield. The mention of Penwortham will call to mind the fact that the priory and church of that interesting village were made the objects of a visit three years ago by the Literary and Scientific Club. Castle Hill, in Roman times a camp of observation commanding the pass of the Ribble, was conspicuous, and it was no wonder that the fine situation and charming scenery of Penwortham should have marked it out as it was in olden time as ‘‘a Royal Manor.” One matter which arrested attention was the remains of hundreds of trees, which the excavations had disclosed. Projecting from the cuttings were the trunks of trees of all sizes, some of them measuring as much as a yard in diameter. A curious fact in connection with this submerged forest was that all the trees were said to lie in the same direction, namely, north and south. ‘The blackened timber soon fell to pieces after exposure to the air. The presence of these remains had given mnch trouble to the contractors in their task of excavation. On alighting at the © limit of the docks, the company were divided into four detach- ments, and under the guidance of the Mayor, members of the Ribble Committee, the engineer, and others, the inspection on foot was undertaken. On entering the tidal basin and passing through the site of the dock gates, the massive masonry and finished concrete walls were presented to view. Perambulations along the bed of the works had often to be made by means of the sleepers on which the rails were laid, in consequence of the large quantity of water which found its way into the cuttings, chiefly from the adjoining river. The pumps, which were constantly working, were capable of raising seven millions of gallons per day. The new river bed came in for observation, and its proposed point of juncture with the present river was indicated. The old river would be used partly as a timber pond after the diversion of the stream. Next were noticed the two gigantic locks, with the places to be occupied by the three pairs of gates, the object of the adjoining locks being for the purpose of saving water. Exceptional solidity has been given to the sides of the gates, Welsh granite from Swansea being used at these points. The sill has been formed of adequate strength capable of resisting the tremendous force of water which will come against it. The geologist found an ample field for his investigations, the sections affording admirable means of studying 122 the stratifications and remains. There is about 12 feet of alluvia soil and this overlies sand and gravel; beneath this is red sand- stone, which becomes more solid according to the depth. The solid rock is made use of for the dock walls, and the less solid is made use of for the formation of the training walls in the estuary. The gravel and sand are also available to the contractor; indeed, beyond the granite to which we have alluded, and freestone, he had little need to obtain material outside the scope of his opera- tions. On entering the large dock, the memorial stone laid by the Prince of Wales was noticed. It is of polished granite, and con- tains an inscription. The stone was laid on July 17th, 1885, during the mayoralty of Alderman Forshaw. The dock will cover 40 acres, and its dimensions are 1,000 yards by 200 yards. The locks are each ninety yards by twenty yards. The height of the dock walls is 40 feet, the width of them being at the base 17 feet 6 inches, and at the top 9 feet. The middle portion of the dock has not yet been excavated, though the dock walls are a long way towards completion, the coping stones being in some places fixed. The bed of the dock is on the solid rock. There are entrances provided for two graving docks, but at present it is only intended to proceed with the construction of the larger one. The new course dug out for the Ribble was then visited: its ‘width is about the same as the present channel. ' Considerable labour and expense have been bestowed in preparing the bed in a thoroughly even style, and so as to form a regular gradient down to the union with the old course. For the purpose of and in connection with the diversion of the stream, the Corporation secured a large amonnt of land from Mr. Rawstrone, ut the price of £800 peracre. By this prudent action there has been obtain- ed a large area suitable for sidings and warehouses. Quays are being made for the accommodation of the little coasting vessels, the trade carried on by them forming an important element in Preston commerce. The people of Preston appear to have been unfavourably circumstanced in the matter of railway transit, and they find it much to their advantage to encourage conveyance of various articles of merchandise by small craft. As regards the financial bearings of the question, we are informed that the assets of the Corporation in respect of the scheme will amount to £250,000. They possess a fringe of the river for many miles down to Freckleton: and they have a farm of 550 acres, which yields a handsome revenue. The land which they own, and of which they have lately become possessed by purchase or reclam- ation, will be of considerable value in the future as building land, &c. Even should the scheme prove an absolute failure aud unremunerative, it is calculated that the addition to the rates would be 2s.9d., bringing up the total to 7s.1ld. in the £—an 123 amount less than is found in other towns. The fear of the opponents is with respect to the operations for improving the channel navigation, and as to the uncertainty of the limit of expenditure in connection with them. There is a distauce of 16 miles to be dealt with from the dock to the bar, and the effect of deepening the channel on the training walls, which are only con- structed part of that distance, is according to the opposition a risky element in the scheme. A brief perusal of the large plan of the docks, &c., brought the visit to a termination, and the party passed up Fishergate to see the Cross Street Museum. The curator of the Museum is the Rev. J. Shortt, Vicar of Hoghton, and the members were by him courteously shown over the building. The main object of the visit was to see the relics which had been taken out of the Ribble works. These consisted of a splendid collection of the skulls and antlers of the red deer; the skull and horns of the wild ox; an implement which much resembled an ancient battle-axe, and a canoe measuring about 9 feet by 3. These remains, which were invariably found at a depth of from 12 to 14 feet, were examined with deep interest. The Harris Institute next came in for attention; and from the custodian of the Institute the members heard a brief outline of the work carried on in that splendid educational institution. A vote of thanks was accorded to the authorities of the Institute and Museum for the privilege of inspecting them, the motion being made by Alderman Greenwood and seconded by Councillor Leach, of Manchester. Mr. Horn and Councillor J. 8. Sutcliffe joined in tendering the obligations of the party to the Rev. J. Shortt, curator of the Museum, and the Archdeacon, who pre- sided. Tea was provided at the Park Hotel, the palatial and pictur- esque structure overlooking the renowned parks. After tea, the kindness of the Mayor of Preston was recognised by a vote of thanks, proposed by Archdeacon Anson, seconded by Councillor Leach. Mr. Ward placed the motion before the gathering, and it was carried with acclamation. Mr. Ward expressed the appre- ciation of the visitors of the pleasure and instruction which the afternoon had ministered to them, by the kind interest of the Mayor. His Worship, Mr. Ward facetiously observed, had given them the privilege of standing in the dock, though not under such unfortunate conditionsas experienced by many who at times stood before him. The Mayor responded, adding that he would be pleased to receive another visit from the members of the societies when the works had got more advanced. An interesting speech was made by Mr. Sykes, the engineer of the scheme. He con- sidered that £1,250,000 would be sufficient to complete the works, so that they could admit vessels of 3,000 tons, drawing 24 feet of water. They had 6 to 7 millions of yards to deal with in 124 dredging; and they had engaged in the work two of the most powerful machines yet made, capable of getting through the hardest material ever dredged. He would be glad on a future occasion to convey them by steamer to see those wonderful machines at work. He thought they had been very fortunate in having Mr. Walker as the contractor. (Mr. Walker was the con- tractor for the Severn Tunnel, and has taken also the Manchester Ship Canal contract.) His work was splendidly done, and the prices were low; so that they would have probably the cheapest docks in England. Councillor Raweliffe humorously observed that the Preston scheme would be working some time before the Manchester Ship Canal, but he trusted that they would be in a position to spare some surplus trade from the port of Preston for the Ship Canal. A vote of thanks to Mr. Sowerbutts, who made some announcements concerning the coming meetings of the Geographical Society, was carried on the proposition of Mr. F. J. Grant, seconded by Mr. Slake, of Manchester. The afternoon was fine throughout, and the arrangements ex- cellent, so that the visit was of a thoroughly entertaining and profitable description. OBITUARY NOTICE. THE LATE RICHARD CHARLES. Since the issue of our last volume we have another name to add to the list of old friends who have passed away. Richard Charles, ‘‘ Our Old Librarian,” died on Monday, June 13th, 1887, at the good old age of 77. Mr. Charles, as is well known, had been declining in health and strength for some years past, but slowly leaving his friends the hope that he might yet be spared for some few years to recount the reminiscences of his early years, when Burnley was a very different place from what it is to-day. Richard Charles could remember many incidents of past times which to young people might seem like fables or the self-pleasing fictions of garrulous old age. He told of bull- baits and cock-fights as of familiar things, and of other incidents of old Burnley life which few besides himself remembered. He was present at many movements and the making of many per- sonal fortunes and public interests. The building of Trinity Church and of all the sacred edifices which have risen since, he knew, and could recall the histories of these for more than sixty years back. He was one of the early members of the Mechanics’ Institution, with which he became connected on the 125 19th October, 1887. Not long after this he became librarian, when the Institution was situated in Chancery Street, and he was fond of recalling the names and incidents of that time. At the annual meeting of members, held January 25th, 1848, he, (along with Martin Brown and William Wood) was made an honorary member for life, on account of the valuable services he had rendered for many years as librarian. During the period of his librarianship he was closely associated with the late Mr. John Sutherland, who as honorary secretary and director did so much ‘good service for the working-men’s library. Besides his labours for the Mechanics’ Institution, Mr. Charles taught in the Sunday School in connection with Trinity Church of which he was for many years a member. From about 1866 to 1880 he was librarian of the Literary Institute, and some years after he resigned that position, a subscription was raised, by the combined efforts of the members of both Institutions, and a considerable sum of money was raised for his relief and support. Latterly Mr. Charles has resided with his son Robert, at 189, Padiham Road, but for the last eight years he has not been able to follow any employment. On Saturday, the 4th inst., his daughter-in- law and two friends returned from a walk at about half-past ten. As they entered Mr. Charles was going upstairs, and before they were able to sit down, he fell down stairs and fractured his left thigh, and slightly bruised his face and head. He died on Monday at 8-45 p.m. Mr. Charles took great interest in local and antiqua- rian lore, and occasionally read very interesting papers on the early history and legends of Burnley, before the members of the Literary and Scientific Club and other societies. He was never so happy as when recounting the history of the old times, and there are not many now remaining who will be able to supply his place as a faithful chronicler of times gone by. 126 LIBRARY. I'he Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows :-— Vol. 1.—1878.—‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys,’’ 1649 to 1655. 2.—1879.—* An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1545 to 1620. 3.—1880,—*‘ Lancashire Inquisitions,’’ now existing in the Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period. Part I, 1 to 11, James I. 4,--1881.—*‘ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Conrt of Probate at Chester,’’ 1621 to 1650. 5.—1881.—‘‘ Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1636. 6.—1882.—‘‘ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certificates,”’ 1600 to 1678. 7.—1882.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,’’ preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. 8.—1882.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part II. 9.—1884.—* Rolls of Burgesses at the Guilds Merchant of the Borough of Preston,” 1397 to 1682. 10.—1884.—‘‘ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1457 to 1680. 11.—1885.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Exchequer Deposi- tions by Commission,” 1558 to 1702. 12. —1885.—‘‘ Miscellanies, relating to Lancashire and Che- shire,” Vol. I. 13.—1886.—* Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1681 to 1748. ,, 14.—1886.—* Annales Cestrienses.” ,, 15.—1887.—*‘ Wills at Chester,” 1660-1680. Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Vol. xxxiii., 1880-1; Vol. xxxiv., 1881-2; Vol. xxxv., 1883 ; Vol. xxxvi., 1884; Vol. xxxvii., 1885. Reports and Proceedings of the following Societies :— Manchester Field Naturalists and Archeologists’ Society, 1860 (the year of its formation), to 1879 (1871 excepted), 1884, 1885. Manchester Scientific Students’ Association (Established 1861), 1878, 1879, 1883, 1884, 1885. ” 127 Manchester Geographical Society (Established 1885), Journal for 1885 in 4 volumes. 1886 in 4 volumes, 1887. : Catalogue of Exhibition of Appliances used in Geographical Education (held March and April, 1886.) Report of Educational Committee, and Address delivered in connection with the Exhibition. Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1812), 1883-4. Liverpool Geological Association (Established 1880), 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-3, 1883-4, 1885-6, 1886-7. Liverpool Science Students’ Association (Established 1881), 1883-4, 1884-5, 1886-7. Chester Society of Natural Science (Established-1872), Reports for 1878-9, 1879-80, 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-3, 1883-4, 1884-5, 1885-6, 1886-7, also Proceedings, Vols. 1, 2, 3. Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science (Established 1876), No. IX., 1883-4, No. X., 1885, No. XII., 1886-7. Halifax Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1881) 1883-4. Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society, 1883, Part I. Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society (Kstablished 1835), 1883-4. Reports and Proceedings of the Manchester Field Naturalists’ and Archeologists’ Society, 1887. Manchester Microscopical Society Transactions, 1887. North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club and Archeological Society, 1883-4, 1884-5, 1886-7, 1888. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1822), 1878, 1879. Montreal Natural History Society (Established 1832), ‘The Canadian Record of Science,’ Vol. I., Nos. 3, 4, Vol. IL., Nos. 1, 4. Types of Sepulchral Urns, 1888. H. Colley March, M.D. (Lond.) Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, 1884, 1885, 1886. * A Synopsis of the British Mosses,”’ by Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.8. “ Art in Lancashire and Cheshire;”’ a List of Deceased Artists, with Brief Biographical Notes. By John H. Nodal. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th, to 26th, 1883- i Catalogue of.the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 18838, (containing prices realised.) Baptisms and Anniversaries, &c., 1705. Manuscript, evidently the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley, on the Vigil of St, John the Baptist, 1705. 128 John Towneley’s Diary, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library. Manuscript. John Tuwneley’s Account Book, 1601-8, The following papers have been read before the Club :— *« Geoffrey Chaucer,” by Henry Houlding, read January 138th, 1874. **¢ The Philosophy of Recreation,” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874. *«¢ Rdmund Spenser,” by Henry Houlding, read October 26th, 1875. “The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,” by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C:P., read September 16th, 1879. *«The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. ‘Science Two Hundred Years Ago,” by C. J. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,’ by Thomas Holgate, read October 18th, 1882. ‘‘ Odours, Perfumes, and Flavours,” by Alfred Edward Mason, F.C.S., Liverpool, read February 20th, 1883. “Some aspects of Destructive Distillation,’ by Thomas Holgate, read March 3rd, 1885. ‘«‘ Sanitary Matters—Past and Present,” by T. N. Dall, read March 10th, 1885. *«< Bi-Metallism,” by Joshua Rawlinson, read Feb. 8th, 1887 Those marked * may be purchased, price 6d, each. Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June 1st, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, July 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. «Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,’ by Edward T. Bellhouse, a paper read before the Manchester Statis- tical Society, April 13th, 1881. Guide to Cambridge, by G. M. Humphrey, M.D., F.R.S. The Railway Traveller’s Walk through Cambridge. Guide to Chester and its Environs, by Thomas Hughes, F.§.A. Handbook to Ely Cathedral. 129 Photographs may be obtained of the following :— Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, 1881. Old Houses in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May, 1881. Price 1s. and 2s. according to size. The Four Cinerary Urns discovered in the neighbourhood of Burnley. Price 6d. and 1s. Transactions of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, Vol. I., 1883, Vol. II., 1884, Vol. III., 1885, Vol. IV., 1886, Vol. V., 1887, may be obtained. Price 2s,6d. each. — F GI Sols TiO Olas GOSS DD OLS >| (OAOKS | enbeyp pus TOISSIUUTMOD YUBA af 9 Sh t POO RC Oni POET OC! eene ‘O~” ‘TLOTSSTUMULO 1) §,10909][99 “ec 9 9LI Sf hearin) aaa see wes DOC MD Lenny “ 9 P T eg win eohit die eresnoagv e's stim 9)> pal sissin/ se OUTS IAS EL ve 6 9 t Fes jor et Ca CLL) Le en) Beene FAD ODO NO OU OOOODD ch y..fcis-Fsh ih:Lore “ee 0 61 0 PCa re: GLa SELS E paaiaisjarecave..byevenmaensle lc 2 hein sydeisojoyd “cc ¢ y ep CAI ICA a ee ih Hes. oe seseeeeess Kata0g pxooayy aTyseD pure airysvoue'y ‘SuOTJOVSUBAT, Surpnyout) At9Uo0TyeI§ pus suru cs seereeeeeess Kyato0g yworydvas00p qoysoyuURN ‘ “a ns cule cmd a5 veeeeeeseces (grpak porty}) orTyseyD PUL orryseouwry Jo SyoTD0g ONOISTH Wy (i pees Tr Scie 0 0 9 9 (ie i) a 0 0 ae cee eeee eres grodeg IIA worjoouu09 ur 6“ “ eceeessegSurppoy 8 SUexoId “IN 4° 2 ‘TIT1ID TUL ‘qa1100 PUNOF PUB POUTULEXY F GL Sols a 1 att Ea OS eR) ae a gourreg “ 0 210 a, sake tettetbaanenensates ts SOT OT AUB S 9.8 FT Raietakelove euarenarnia.a)s sBurpwory §,SuexoIC ‘TIN 2 “ 0 0 BE pera By 50 TOCERO ODIO LAL Sad goung ye sydreoay te 9 0 § 9 0 veueeeeeeaes eee qHOIQ Jo WeoT] pus sxodeq 70 e178 a c 98 Rear arag) Bre myasteuese tay Oe Le LOLSne Ma suoT}dtIosqng ,Stoq are cc Sr atarerciate wievereraysimsinas/Mieieksaen ley aoung jo sesuedxg “ 0 9 sc caseeeeeaeeeseeees sess zgqurmyy [ounog Jo wo Ag or 8 ei are at okome Sieys/.wisnalal sate iNT ioe pIVATOy FSNOIG CoUBTe OL p38 F “18BL ‘ISLS 4oquieced Suipue seed eu} 40} junoosoy sJeunseed tL ouL ‘ak Year of Election. 1874 1874 1875 1876 1876 1876 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1877 1878 1879 1879 1880 1881 1884 1886 1887 1887 131 HONORARY MEMBERS. PAST AND PRESENT. Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. Thos. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., Manchester. Rev. J. 8. Doxey, Whalley. William Naylor. Philip Gilbert Hamerton. W. B. Bryan, C.E., London. F. J. Faraday, F.S.S., F.L.8., Manchester. C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield. Edwin Waugh, Manchester. J. H. Nodal, Manchester. Samuel Laycock, Blackpool. R. BR. Bealey. W. A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.S., Blackburn. D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S., London. Joseph Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. Alf. H. Mason, F.C.S,, Montreal. H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D., Chester. Jno. Edw. Price, F.S.A., F.R.8.L., London. Chas. Rowley, Junr., Manchester. Jas. Croston, F.8.A., Prestbury. Jas. Monckman, D.Sc., Perowne Street, Cambridge. Tattersall Wilkinson, Swinden, Burnley. Sagar, Ben, Manchester. Houlding, Henry, Burnley. MEMBERS. Anningson, Dr. J.W., L.R.C.P., Yorkshire Street. Briscombe, Rev. W., Prospect Terrace. Baldwin, Alexander, Ormerod Street. Barlow, J.A., 2, Padiham Road. Barlow, W.H., 18, St. Matthew’s Street. Baron, Arthur, 22, St. Matthew’s Street. Bell, Thomas, 14, Grimshawe Street. Birnie, Joseph, Post Office. Bolton, Edgar, Bank Hall Terrace. Booth, James, Manchester and County Bank. Booth, Thomas, 22, Sand Street. Bradley, John, 21, St. James’s Street. Briggs, B.W., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. 132 Briggs, Dr. H., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. Brotherton, Lawrence, Express Office. Brown, Dr. J., Bank Parade. Broxup, J. Greenwood, Gannow House. Broxup, John, Gannow House. Brumwell, Dr. J.C., J.P., Hargreaves Street. Bulcock, Henry, Hargreaves Street. Burrows, Thomas, 26, Padiham Road. Butterworth, Jno., Junr., J.P., Brooklands Road. Butterworth, Tom, Brooklands Road. Brotherton, H., Preston Guardian Office. Button, F.S., Corporation Offices. Catlow, A.W., 77, St. James’s Street. Calvert, A.E., Oak Mount, Nelson-in-Marsden. Clement, Leonard, Forest View. Collinge, John, Spring Hill. Collinge, John §., J.P., Park House, Collinge, William, J,P., 110, St. James’s Street. Cooke, Samuel, 5, Carlton Road. ‘ Couiston, W., 21, Rectory Road. Cowgill, Bryan H., 48, Manchester Road. Crabtree, Robert, Brooklands Road. Crook, Campbell, Osborne Terrace. Crook, Thomas, Rose Hill Road. Dall, T. Naylor, Borough Surveyor’s Office. Dean, Dr. Thomas, Manchester Road. Dickinson, Alfred, Rose Cottage. Drew, Alexander, Holme Lodge. Duckworth, Joshua, 6, Manchester Road. Dufton, A., B.A., D.Sc., Grammar School. Durham, Rev. W.E., St. Matthew’s Vicarage. Bastwood, Henry, 40, St. James's Street. Edmondson, Thomas, J.P., Fern Hill. Fletcher, J. H., Healey Grange. Fletcher, John, 84, St. James’s Street. Fleming, J.G., Spring Terrace, Habergham. Foden, C.M., 4, Sefton Terrace. Folds, James, J.P., Brunshawe House. Folds, James, Junr., Fair View Road. Fox, Charles, 12, Nicholas Street. Flack, Fred, Accrington Road. 7 : 138 Gill, George, Woodleigh. Grant, Fredk. J., Bank Parade. Grant, W. Lewis, 22, Carlton Road. Grant, James, 14, Manchester Road. Grant, Arthur E., 14, Palatine Square. Gray, Nathan P., J.P., Manchester and County Bank. Greenwood, James, J.P., 138, Manchester Road. Harwood, Dr. T., Wilfield House. Hargreaves, Fredk., 83, St. James’s Street. Harrison, J. Dilworth, Sunny Bank. Haslam, Tom, Mount Villa. Heaton, Tom, 1, Palatine Square. Hedges, Alfred, Healey Villa. Hesketh, James, 139, St. James’s Street. Higgin, Cain, 37, Rectory Road. Hill, Fred. H., Thorn dill. Hitchon, Robert, 54, St. James’s Street. Hoghion, Thos., 1, Carlton Road Hoghton, W.H., 1, Carlton Road. Holden, John, Holme View. Holden, Ralph, Brooklands Road. Holden, Thomas, Chancery Street. Hopwood, Fredk. Jas., Corporation Offices. Horn, J.S., 15, Palatine Square. Horner, Thomas, 67, Standish Street. Houlden, John Wm., The Cemetery. Howard, William R., Manchester and County Bank. Howorth, John, J.P., Park View. Howson, Charles J., Craven Bank. Hudson, Samuel, 9, Sefton Terrace. Howarth, Adam, Union Workhouse. Handsley, Robert, J.P., Reedley Lodge. Holt, Dr., Holme View. Holden, E., 42, Colne Road. Heap, John, 2, Nelson Square. Jobling, Albert, Carlton Road. Jobson, Rey. H., B.A., 8. Luke’s Vicarage, Brierfield. Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa. Kay, W.E., Warm Lake, Sutton, Kent. Kay-Shuttleworth, Right Hon. Sir U., Bart., M.P., Gawthorpe Hall. Lancaster, Alfred, Fern Bank, Coal Clough Lane. Lancaster, James, Carlton Road. Lancaster, Wm., Junr., 13, Carlton Road. 134 Lawson, Dr. 5., Brierfield. Lea, Richard §., 66, Albion Street. Lee, George, 96, South Parade. Lee, J.L., 96, South Parade. ‘ Leyland, Rev. Thomas, Shakespeare Terrace. Lloyd, Thomas, B.A., Sefton Terrace. Lupton, Arthur, 22, Carlton Road. Lupton, J.T., 28, Manchester Road. Lupton, William, Trafalgar House. Lupton, William H., Trafalgar House. Mackenzie, Dr. James, Bank Parade. Moore, B., Gazette Office. Mossop, William, Bank Parade. Mozley, H., Queen's Gate, Colne Road. Myers, Fred., Westgate. Monk, Josiah, Brookfoot, Padiham. Moffatt, C.W.P., B.A., Grammar School. Massey, J- Bennett, 64, Burns Street. Nelson, Richard, 11, Nicholas Street. Nicoll, Peter L., Manchester Road. Nowell, Thomas, Healey Grange. Nutter, Henry, 44, Queen’s Gate. Ogden, Geo. C., Thorn Hotel. 0’ Sullivan, Dr. D.A., Westgate. Parkinson, A.W., 74, Manchester Road. Parkinson, William, Palatine Square. Parsons, Charles, 9, Grimshawe Street. Pickup, Peter, 40, Westgate. Preston, Thomas, 92, Manchester Road. Procter, Richard, Oak Mount. Pullon, Dr. G.S., Westgate. Preston Herald Office. Parker, R. Hartley, Belgrave Street. Ratcliffe, Abraham, 128, Manchester Road. Ratcliffe, Dr. J.R., University of Edinburgh. Ratcliffe, David, 9, Carlton Rvad. Raweliffe, Geo. B.. Pickup Terrace. Raweliffe, James, Oak Mount. Raweliffe, James H., 65, Manchester Road. Rawlinson, Joshua, J.P., Oak Bank. Riley, Holden, St. James’s Street. Roberts, Thomas, Bank Parade. ‘ 135 Riley, William, Reedley, near Burnley. Ruttle, Dr., Accrington. Scowby, Francis, Craven Bank, Shaw, Smith, 11, St. James’s Street. Slater, Christopher, Manchester Road. Smith, James, Yorke Street. Stafford, J.H., 7, Hargreaves Street. Steel, Fred. Wm., Cuerden Terrace. Storey, Geo., J.P., Brunshawe. Strange, Alfred, Greenfield House. Sutcliffe, Dr. Alfred, Trinity House. Sutcliffe, George, J.P., Oak Hill. Suteliffe, James, Bull Hotel. Sutcliffe, John, 8, Hargreaves Street. Sutcliffe, J.S., Fir Grove. Southern, Walter, Rydal Mount. Simpson, Robert, Todmorden Road. Thompson. James, 26, Cuerden Street. Thompson, James, St. James’s Street. Thompson, Jas. W., Oak Bank. Thompson, William, Oak Bank. Thornber, Thomas, J.P., 16, Piccadilly Road. Thornton, John, The Poplars. Thorp, Thomas, 11, Manchester Road. Thursby, J.0.8., J.P., Bank Hall. Tovey, Rev. A.E., D.Sc., Hollin Hill, Towneley. Tunstill, Henry, Oak Mount. Waddington, William, Thorn Hill. Waddington, W. Angelo, Thorn Hill. Waddington, J. Arthur, Thorn Hill. Walmsley, George, Lark Hill. Walmsley, Thomas, Coke Street. Ward, H.T., Palatine Square. Ward, J. Langfield, M.A., 111, Manchester Road. Watson, Dr. A.A,, Colne Road. Watson, Richard, 12, Hargreaves Street. Whitaker, James H., Wilfield Terrace. Wignall, Jno. Wm., Market Street. Willey, Rev. W., Palatine Square. Whitham, William, Todmorden Road. Wood, Martin, Westgate. Winfield, Rev. B., B.A., St. James’s Vicarage, Walton, Robert, Manchester Road. Whitham, W., Junr., Ormerod Road, Watson, A., Manchester Road, NAMES OF READERS OF PAPERS AND 186 DIRECTORS OF SOIREES, &c. ANONYMOUS PAPELS seis ones we vase cee eines cen e ee eelneiniee 6 snleisin 78 alle ANON) Soe gepeeaco oto oue ae ‘Old Halls in the neighhourhood of Burnley, fc distaee emnctater tetee 56 @aiger, Rev. W.S., BeAy.....0c05 0s “Kconomical and Constitutional Re- sults of the Crusades.......... 84 Corte Reva Acius wSsdem ties a ciersle ‘ Solar Blames”? 2% .tA.cccsin sceetele 105 Crompton. Ge wse weiss tie . ..‘*An Evening with the Great Tone Poets; Haydn, Mozart, Beet- hOVENs.c5.tSesntins ose eee 69 DSU ATAIN cates eee aa ..“ Ventilation as a means of Health an, Wwellinte <7. ctavetelstvarebeiaiets 21 Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd. M.A. ; F.R.S. “Lancashire in the Carboniferous NCC ERA AR OT IO OTIC OG.6 a9 11 Grant, James... 6.0.0 ccsceesers “Sketch of Burnley Seventy Years Yt eS PHS ROCCO Udo. on 0° 94 Greenwood, James, J.P. ..........‘¢ The Development of the Cotton Trade since 1875—can it be maintained???) srjesinelsteeleeeiees 38 Plea fons LOM) cect sete vate saute vis CC Musical SOE esis meter 116 lela yo ij alhierreraeetcte cere ote spectators ‘‘ Restoration of the Standard Value”’ 91 Honlding WH eunyeec tee ee eee = “© Reminiscences of Local Flora” .. 35 JOHNSON Lew setense Gio ts ‘Water and Water Supply” ...... 85 Thancaster, James .......+.-+.-+-0 Lhe Riviera”? oo... sence amen 34 Moy spelits miss Avior ejevare clsiete/sietel lete fe fare “ Enelish Language and Literature from the Conquest to Chaucer” 25 March, H. Colley, M.D. .......... “ Sepulchral Urns and Lancashire Neolithic Remains” ..... .... 51 Nutter, Henry 22-2000. sew sue ‘‘ Nebular Hypothesis”..........-- 82 Ener (ln Gaecododgoneboda Jo Readings by Members..........++ 82 Rawlinson, Joshua, J.P. .......... CGH is ensipaliqroil eA gononco wooo oC 27 ALlannS hye da Ohtsks Wels abo auoaecoue MVS COLE yotstearovesetace oe eterelar= lene y tees 87 Winks Alin Sseopooudeob uqon “ On the Nile—a pleasure trip”.... 74 Willey, Rev. W.......-+++sssseees “An evening with Moliere” ...... 79 Williamson, J. ......ccceeeee cers ‘**May Probyn’s Poems” ..--..++.. 18 EXCURSIONS. OWENS COLLEGE ...cceeeeees Meee HOnAC OR dpa ico lh nistiot tocmnkic O00 117 ORMEROD AND FLURSTWOOD ...cscsssecseecere tect recess sereteccence 118 PRESTON DOCKS ....eeeeee eee cantareleratsteqst ancien siete ( : 119 137 IGT OF OFFICERS... 00.0 cece seccesesce Rietacstue OaepRatea cers weayeore ES EIAAET RAP rete cote Pete cA casbedst cee tat alls caticca sisal eretas storey 3 ele crave er akovaccteraierouaber titers MGTSEMOKO WERE TINGS) © a\c'e ale o)ieie'eie cichiarw ure vere ol ores’ sjols))aiaieie 6 alale, wicievafele PENNITATMELEDORT arecjasdie.ticictoss ele aleis) ew olwie, stra ateeieiere ala alielsratareteee SumMaRIES OF PAPERS READ DURING THE YEAR............. eae Tue BournuEy HauFeENNY Token. By Wrinuiam WADDINGTON SES RCATRRSTONS sey avapial olafeyi at csl's & oy sie'eovele?aeie wun eS)%)« levays! y's. osteyate, fore ai: 6 ace OxituaRy NoTicE—THE LATE RICHARD CHARLES.............- SPATE ERAS Ve Biere ora a eisi.cis Iw aieePeysle, ole wea alo a ale abs arene relavnseichaliclsieieis unis até ce STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS .......c0ccececcce cence List oF Mempers—HonoRARY AND ORDINARY..........00 cece ApHABETIcAL List oF READERS OF PapERs, &. ......... 7 9 .. 11 to 116 BURGHOPE & STRANGE, PUBLISHERS, &C., BURNLEY. 116 117 124 126 130 131 136 aS 4 9MAR1936 —e— | BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. WOOL. “Wil, 1888. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXIX, a i ZZ i\\ I NTERIOR OF THE PAROCHIAL CHURCH, BURNLEY, AS IT APP VIEW, LOOKING EAST. Yan. at : ions iia i ti} | ] | aww , a [= = l —_= ———— ult it Wf (ll (om | ber ; _<—————————— EARED 70 YEARS AGO. BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. TRANSACTIONS. WMO ENT. 1888. PRICE TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, ST. JAMES’S STREET, BURNLEY. MDCCCLXXXIX. Burnlep Diterarp and Scientific Club. —— ESTABLISHED 1873. —<—as———_ President: FRED. J. GRANT. — Vice-Presidents: J. C. Brumwewtt, M.D., J.P. J. Lanerrenp Warp, M.A. ALFRED STRANGE. James Greenwoop, J.P. (Mayor.) W. A. Wanpineton. W. Lewis Grant. Treasurer:—JAS. KAY, J.P. Committee : James LANCASTER. BE ims. H. Butucocx. D. A. O’Sunitvan, B.A., L.R.C.P. G. B. Rawcuirre. Rev. A. E. Tovey, D.Sc. Secretary: T. EEOYD,. B-A,, Grammar School, Burnley. y ” < _ of he ‘ - 4 : ; A NOS Pa ; A _ a Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule RULES. That the Society be named the ‘‘ Burnury Lrrerary AND ScrentiFic Cuvs.”’ That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrange- ments be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary Members. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be prepar- atory to the Excursions. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings of each meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting. Candidates for membership to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next; a majority of three-fourths of the members present being required to secure the election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club; four to form a quorum. Such officers to be chosen by Ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. Rule 8. Rule 9. Rule 10. Rule 11. Rule 12. Rule 13. 6 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discus- sion, No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the Chairman. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Secretary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of management. Each member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend,*but no person so introduced, shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings, unless invited by the Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare ‘any meeting “Special” and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meeting as they shall think proper. That an annual Subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary members, and any person whose subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be a mem- ber of the Club. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Committee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a Special Meeting; in both cases a fortnight’s Notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. * No gentleman residing within the Parliamentary Borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission. » INTRODUCTORY REPORT. The work of the Club during 1888 has not been marked by any special feature, though it is satisfac- tory to be able to place on record that it still holds a position of acknowledged influence and power among the Educational Institutions of the town. _ Profiting by affiliation with the Manchester Geographical Society, the Committee were able to arrange for a Geographical Soirée under the direction of Eli Sowerbutts, Esq., F.R.G.S., its Honorary Secretary, with which the Session of 1888 was appropriately inaugurated. The Lecturer brought with him a valuable collection of Charts, Maps, Atlases—ancient and modern, Old and Rare Geo- graphical and other interesting exhibits, with which to illustrate his remarks. A Catalogue of these exhibits was printed for the use of the Members, and will be found appended to the brief report of the address given on the occasion. An epitome of a valuable paper on ‘“ Local Aids for promoting the Culture of Art, Science and Literature,” by the late Revd. John Stroyan, and read before the Club on December 8th, 1874, is given at the end of the volume. : It is largely to be regretted that there still appears to be much apathy evinced by the Members in attend- ing the Summer Excursions, a fault which has seriously engaged the attention of the Committee. It need hardly be pointed out that elaborate arrangements cannot be made for these Excursions without involving a large amount of time and labour, not only to the Secretary and Officers, but to those at a distance whose services must be sought to render them a success, and the conclusion has been come to that, unless greater interest is shewn to warrant incurring “ Excursion responsibilities,” this interesting department of Club activity will have to be much modified or abandoned altogether. During 1888, only two Excursions took 8 place; the first in June, when the Members accom- panied the Manchester Geographical Society to the Ship Canal, and a later one in July, when a small party visited Lancaster. The Club in the former instance are under obligations to Mr. Sowerbutts, for his excellent arrangements on the occasion, and in the latter, to the Town Clerk of Lancaster, and Mr. J. S. Slinger for special privileges enjoyed while visiting the Castle and other historic sites in the town. It is to be hoped that this friendly hint on a subject of vital importance, may not be lost sight of by the Members. After two years occupation of the Presidential Chair, during which he was most indefatigable in attendance at the meetings, and thoroughly devoted to the interests of the Club, Mr. J. Langfield Ward, M.A., was succeeded by Mr. F. J. Grant, one of its oldest members. The excellent address by the new President on ‘Literature and Men of Business,” at the opening of the Winter Session, and partly repro- duced in the following pages, will be long remembered as one of the most thoughtful, eloquent, and delightful of the many admirable essays he has written. The number of Members at the close of the year was 172; and the average attendance, with Friends, at the meetings for the two Sessions was as follows ;— January to April, 25 Members, 14 Friends; from September to December, 29 Members, 23 Friends. Referring to the financial position, the Balance Sheet will be found incorporated with the present volume as usual. In reviewing the work of another year, it is matter for encouragement that the Club still throbs with the impulses of a vigorous vitality, and that as it grows older it aspires more than ever to promote and secure for the social life of Burnley, the great and important objects for which it was founded fifteen years ago. © | INI hy SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1888. Jan. 17.— Geographical Soirée,”—Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S. », 24.—Dramatic Recital—“‘ Hamlet ””—J. G. Fleming. ,, 31.—Paper, “ Beauty,’—Rev. B. Winfield, B.A. Feb. 7.—‘‘ Readings and Recitations,’—Director, ; G. B. Raweliffe. », 14.—Paper, ‘A trip on the 8.8. St. Sunniva,”"—H. Bulcock. », 21.—Paper, ‘‘Some Lancashire Legends,’’— W.S. Weeks, F.R.Hist.S. », 28.—Paper, ‘‘ Wanderings on the Banks of the Lower Moselle, and a Visit to German Watering-places.”— J. C. Brumwell, M.D., J.P. Mar 6.—Paper, ‘‘ Charles Darwin's Life and Letters,’’— R. C. Holt, F.R.C.S- », 18.—Paper, ‘‘ Half-hours in the Green Lanes,”— G. B. Raweliffe. - ,, 20.—Paper, ‘‘ Disposal of Sewage and Town Refuse.” W. Parkinson. ; = 27.—Paper, ‘‘ Burnley Street Names,’’—W. Lewis Grant. April 3.—Annual Meeting. », 10.—Paper, ‘“‘ The Moon,’’—Rev. E. Jobson, B.A. 10 SEPTEMBER TO DECEMBER, 1888. Sep. 25.—Paper—‘ Literature and Men of Business,” —The President, F. J. Grant. Oct. 2.—Paper, ‘‘ Water Gas,’—A. Dufton, B.A., B.Sc. »» 9.—Paper, ‘Charles Kingsley: His Life and Works,’— Rev. 8. P. Carey, M.A. ,, 16.—Paper, ‘‘ Norway and the Land of the Midnight Sun,” (Illustrated) James W. Thompson. ,, 23.—Discussion—‘‘ The Local Government Act and its effect on our Neighbourhood ”—John Whittaker. 5, 30.—Photographic Soirée, Directors -- John Butterworth, Junr., J.P., 5. D. McKellen. Nov. 6.—Soirée, ‘‘ Shakesperian Music ”— J. Arthur Waddington. ,, 18.—Paper, ‘“ Place Names in and around Burnley ”— Thomas Dean, M.D. ,, 20.—Paper, ‘‘ Heat of the Sun.’’—Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., Stonyhurst College. ,, 27.—Paper, ‘The Evolution of East Lancashire Boggarts,”’ Jas. McKay. Dec. 4.—Paper, ‘‘ The Political Economy of John Ruskin,” — Josiah Monk. », 11.—Paper, ‘‘ Notes of a Tour in Switzerland,” (Illustrated) W. Witham. 18.—Annual Dinner. | i : se be 4 i a ; é : 5 i | * il GEOGRAPHICAL SOIREE. Director: ELI SOWERBUTTS, F.R.G.S. January 17th, 1888. This Soirée was under the direction of Mr. Eli Sowerbutis, F.R.G.S., Honorary Secretary of the Manchester Geographical Society. In the course of a few observations Mr. Sowerbutts spoke of the great importance of Geography from military and com- mercial points of view. All maps were, in the first place, con- structed for military purposes, and many soldiers to-day could not get the idea out of their heads that maps only existed for their use. The Germans and other continental nations seemed to be much in advance of England in the preparation of maps, and this, perhaps, was to be explained by the fact that those nations were in a greater sense military nations, and also from the fact that commercial studies are there more in vogue. In the German army every third soldier was provided with a map of the district over which his regiment was marching, so that it was almost impossible for him to lose his way. Very often, as in the war.of 1870, every third soldier was also possessed of maps of the enemy’s country. Geography. owed a great deal to religious pioneers. Many of the best maps and geographies of various districts had been prepared by these missionaries. The connection between geography and commerce was easily seen, for geography told the climate and natural productions of different countries, and thereby enabled traders and merchants to supply goods adapted to the climate, and better to meet the -wants of those places. Geography also gave more correct know- ledge of science, and tended to prevent such mistakes being made as sometimes happened, when traders swamped a country with goods at a time when the inhabitants were literally decimated by famine. Mr. Sowerbutts concluded by remarking that in view of the large number of people in the world who are not christianised, differences of creed should be overlooked in the great effort to bring them within the range of its teaching. The following is a Catalogue of the Exhibits kindly placed at the disposal of the Club by the Manchester chee Society :— 1. Atlas, (Universal.) M. Robert, 1757. 2. Atlas, (Folio,) 1690—1700. 3. Cosmographie Universelle, 1768. M. Phitlipe.- 4, Geography of the Ancients. London 1747. pe 12 An Atlas to Guthrie’s Grammar of Geography, 1815. The Geographical Treasury. About 1836. Keith Johnson’s Political do. Physical Hand Atlas. do. Historical Philip’s Handy Atlas of the World. do. do. of the British Empire, 1887. Atlas Minimus, 1758. R. Andrew’s Hand Atlas, 1881. (Lent by M. Van Bierna.) Le Sage’s Historical, Geographical, &c., Atlas. About 1816. New Relief Atlas. Published at 21/-, sold off by Philips at 7s.6d. Philips’ Handy Atlas. 1885, London. Stanford’s Intermediate Schools, Physical, &c. Atlas. London 1886. The Queen’s Jubilee Atlas of the British Empire, 1887. Philips, London. School Atlas. J. Randegger. H. Weltstien, Zurich, 1886. Mission Atlas. R.C. 1884. Fragments of Moll’s Atlas, 1750, with numerous curious Illustrations, (see Maps of Africa and North America.) Book containing some specimens of the work of the Man- chester Geographical Society and the first Sketch Map of ‘‘Fly” River, New Guinea, by the Rev. 8. Macfar- lane, LL.D. Norwegian Maps, by the Government of Norway, Central East Africa. Engelhardt & Von Wensierski, 1886. A Map of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 1887. 12 Maps of India. British Government. Palestine Exploration Fund Map for Schools, price 18/- Idea of the correct Shape of the World. (Christopher’s.) Perthes’ Africa, 1885-6. The Last Authority, and obsolete. Map of Africa. §. Boulton, London, 1787. Very interest- ing and valuable. 6 Maps of Russia. Jolnson. Shews an attempt at a new departure. Map of Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge. Shewing ‘relief’ by a new process. Guide and Atlas to the Lakes. 2 Vols. England, Wales and Scotland, &c. John Speed, 1666. Lent by Rev. T. Champneys. Ch. Cellarii— Geogr. Antiqua, 1745, London. Méthode pour apprende facilement la Géographie. 1st vol. only. Ala Haye M. Robbe, 1691. The Useful Pocket Companion of London, 1760. List of Traders, Coaches, Geography, &c. aki = 36. 37. 38. 39. 40, 41. 42. 43, 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 638. 64. 65. 13 Easy and Compendious Introduction to History. John Prideaux, 1664. : Africa: A Journey to Newala from Matopo. Printed at the Mission Press, Zanzibar, on the site of the Old Slave Market, by African Boys, 1885. Handbook to Cape of Good Hope. 1886. See Views, &c. The Lake Regions of Central Africa. Nelson, London, 1881. Maps and Views. Chalmer’s Adventures in New Guinea. Shaw’s Madagascar. Sir Richard Torkington’s Journey to Jerusalem in 1517. A New Cosmography. Guy Miego, 1682. [Reprint. Epping Forest. E. A. Buxton, 1885. Illustrations of Animals and Birds. The East Anglian Handbook, 1887. Local and Antiquarian Notes. [1874. Pocket Guide to Lincoln. Sir C. N. J. Anderson, Bart., Keith Johnson’s Geography. Stanford, London, 1880. A Primer of Physical Geography. P.M. Duncan. Ward, Lock, & Co., 1887. Essai d’une Géographie Physique. V. Ducarne, Brussels, 1886. Plates, &c. Natural History of Jamaica. Vol. with plates. Sir Hans Sloane, London. 1725. Notes Commercial Geography. Rev. L. C. Casartelli. 1884. Report on Alaska,—U.S.Govt. 1885. Sixth Geological Report, 1884-5. U.S. Curious Monograph on the Yuna Indians. Maps and Views. Geography Anatomized. Pat Gordon. 1740. A Tutor to Astronomy and Geography. Josh. Moxon. London, 1686. Remarkable Chapter on Astrology. Geographia Cl. Ptolemaei Alexandrini. Venice, 1562. Cosmographie. Peter Heylin. 2nd Edition. London, 1657. do. do. 3rd Edition. 1666. Contains curious Map of Africa. The Discoveries of Prince Henry. RB. H. Major, F.S.A. London, 1877. Historia della Guerre Civili England, France, Turkey, &c. Venice, 1653. Memoir on the Interior of Africa. J. W. Hoar, 1835. On the Map is a Statement of the Knowledge of the Con- tinent to that time. Afrika. Leipzig, 1886. Vide Maps and Ilustrations, and compare with Keith Johnson’s Africa in the London Series of Stanford’s Compendium. 1 Vol. (out of 5) of Tenth Census of U. 8. Population. 14 66. Vols. 1 and 2, Manchester Geographical Society Journal. 67. 50 Numbers of Journals, &c., Corresponding Societies, with Maps and Engravings. RECITAL :—SHAKESPEARE’S “ HAMLET.” By J. G. FLEMING. January 24th, 1888. The great histrionic ability of Mr. Fleming was even more marked on this occasion than when he gave ‘“ Othello’ before the Club more than two years ago. The recital was not only entertaining but pre-eminently instructive. BEAUTY. By the REV. BEN WINFIELD, B.A. January 81st, 1888. Burnuey ScENERY. It was my happy lot to take advantage of a bright, frosty morning, a week or two back, to ascend the hills to the east_of the town. The landscape stretched around, above and below me, covered with its virgin mantle of pure snow, which brought every feature of the scenery into full relief. The eye followed with delight the course of the several streams, marked by the trees luxuriating on their banks, upwards to their gathering-ground among the everlasting hills. The snowy heights stood out clear and silvery against the rich azure of the sky beyond. The sun shone brilliantly ; the hedgerows were adorned with a glittering filigree-work of hoar-frost, and every twig and blade of grass seemed transformed into ‘‘a gem of purest ray serene.” Turn- ing my gaze over the fair and far-reaching hills to the bright heaven above, I was reminded of Bunyan’s Country of Beulah, on the way to the Celestial City, ‘‘ whose air was very sweet and pleasant,” ‘‘ where the pilgrims solaced themselves for a season,” and ‘‘the sun shineth night and day.’ Duty, however, called me to leave the heights for the valley. Burnley appeared below. Burnley appeared, do I say? To speak more correctly, Burnley fet? RS st PR a re AIOE WRN iene = 15 should have appeared, but it was completely hidden from view by a pall-like covering of smoke and vapour, black, impenetrable, deadly, rising up from the buried town, and driving before the wind in lingering nastiness ‘‘ long drawn out.” The day-dreams of Beulah were rudely dispelled, and again Bunyan’s description occurred to me, though of a very different scene from the former. “ About the midst of the valley, I perceived the mouth of hell to be, and it stood also hard by the way-side. And ever and ‘ anon the flame and smoke would come out in such abundances with sparks and hideous noises. This frightful sight was seen for several miles together. The valley itself is as dark as pitch. Death also doth always spread his wings over it. In a word, it is every whit dreadful, being utterly without order.” Certainly, though ‘‘God made the country,’’ man makes Burnley smoke, Burnley is justly proud of its local institutions, and as the smoke may be assumed to be a well-established local institution, at any rate for five a half days in the week, it ill becomes a comparative stranger to lay, figuratively speaking, sacrilegious hands upon it. Clean hands certainly he cannot. Burnley is ‘ beautiful for situation,” but as for the smoke—oh the pity of it! Ruskin writing in 1859, says, ‘‘ Last week, I drove from Rochdale to Bolton Abbey; quietly, in order to see the country, and certainly it was worth while. I never went over a more interesting twenty miles than those between Rochdale and Burnley. Naturally, the valley has been one of the most beautiful in the Lancashire hills; one of the far away solitudes, full of old shepherd ways of life. At this time there are not, I think, more than a thousand yards of road to be traversed, without passing a furnace or mill......... Beautiful art can only be produced by people who have beautiful things about them, and desire to look at them; and unless you provide some elements of beauty for your workmen to be sur- rounded by, you will find that no elements of beauty can be invented by them............... Improve their minds, refine their habits, and you form and refine their designs: but keep them illiterate, uncomfortable, and in the midst of unbeautiful things, and whatever they do will still be spurious, vulgar and valueless.” ‘WHAT DO WE MEAN BY THE Bravutirut ? In books of Philosophy, certain more or less mechanical con- ditions are laid down as necessary in an object or scene, if it is to commend itself to our minds as beautiful, and the attempt is made to reduce the subject of Beauty to a simple matter of calculation, according to specified rules, after the fashion of a school-boy’s table-book. On the other hand we are told that Beauty is entirely a question of individual taste, that there are no rules to be laid down concerning it, and that De gustibus non est disputandum. We are reminded that very divergent views: 16 are held among different nations as to what constitutes the highest form of human beauty, and that opinions current in one age on natural scenery, architecture, dress or other subjects which fall under the domain of the beautiful, have been entirely at variance with those held in succeeding ages. Fashion settles the point it is said, and neither in the condition of the human mind nor in the objective universe without, are there to be found any such conditions or harmonies, invariable and unalterable, , as are needful to enable us to elaborate or maintain any so-called science or system of Beauty..... ...... The truth les, I maintain, here, as often, between two extremes. The materialistic phil- osophy which endeavours to reduce the Beautiful to compliance with a set of hard and fast mechanical rules, ignores that spiritual element in the human being which is essential to the appreciation or sense of Beauty at all, and which cannot be fettered by any arbitrary regulations, no matter how generally true and useful. Nor can any objects, however they may com- ply with the rules of the philosophy book, strike us as beautiful, from which the living element, the soul, the imagination, the sympathy, call it what you will, is lacking............ Still, though we cannot confine the human soul and its powers within the analysis or synthesis of physicists and materialists, yet there are certain rules observable with regard to its operations, which supply us with some universally recognized axioms or canons of the Beautiful. They can only cover a portion of the ground, but they assist us greatly in our survey of it. I say ‘‘universally recognised” advisedly, for notwithstanding certain exceptional workings into which men’s fashion or fancy may have led them under some special impulse, it is evident from literature and every-day experience that their minds generally have never been similarly attracted by like objects. I need scarcely do more than refer to the Bible for proof of this. The glowing imagery therein employed, the descriptions of natural scenery, the sympathetic illustrations from things small as well as great, from insect, bird and flower as from the sublime thunder-storm, the tempest-tossed ocean, and the star-begemmed vault of heaven; the admiration and love pervading it for every beautiful existence of God’s creation—all arouse an answering chord in every breast, and we recognise that they and we are one in our sense and acknowlede- ment of the beautiful. Like testimony is furnished by the works of genius handed down from Greece and Rome and other nations great and wise in their day and generation. They, no doubt, had their vagaries and fashions, but the product of such abnormal fancy has been allowed to fall into neglect and forgetfulness, while the permanent embodiment of the principles of true Beauty has been cherished and preserved amore the world’s. precious heirlooms. 17 The Lecturer then referred to certain general principles of Beauty, such as Unity in Diversity, Gradation and Alternation, and Association of Ideas, each of which was illustrated in detail. Unity in Diversity. The formal beauty of a musical composition depends upon its correspondence to the law of Unity in Diversity. The Sonata is an illustration. In a Sonata there are three or four movements which, however much they may vary, are cast in a regular mould, and in their changes and modulations follow a clearly defined or accepted order. The effect of this is to assist the mind in follow- ing and retaining the musical impressions conveyed, and to render them more distinct and beautiful. This unity in diversity gives a charm to ordinary objects of utility, dress, furniture, table-appointments and the like, which are thus raised above the common-place needs of every-day life into the region of refined pleasure. ‘‘Orderis Heaven’s first law.” Order is some people’s last law, and the ills attendant upon angusta res domi, unduly limited means, are often aggravated by the want of it. The simplest furniture, the humblest employ, can be arranged with some general design and correspondence, and home and toil rendered more bright thereby and even beautiful. Method of work is as necessary to our happiness as it is to our usefulness. The most orderly life is the most joyous. Our very holidays require the application of method to render them’ pleasing. Their charm lies at first in the diversity from our ordinary course. This wears off, and we are apt to grow weary, even of holidays, unless system and arrangement be introduced to occupy or vary the time. Variety is introduced into our life by the Divine institution of one day in seven as a day of rest and recreation for mind, soul and body. The less that day is like © ordinary days the better. Our life when thus varied is represented as more conformable to the Heavenly Model. Proressor Ruskin on “ Desien.” “Tf you learn to draw a leaf well, you are taught in some of our schools to turn it the other way, opposite to itself; and the two leaves set opposite ways are called “‘ a design:’’ and thus it is supposed possible to produce ornamentation, though you have no more brains than a looking-glass or a Kaleidoscope has. But if once you learn to draw the human figure, you will find that knocking two men’s heads together does not necessarily con- stitute a good design...... .. It ought further to be observed, that the nobler the material, the less their symmetry is endurable. You may harmlessly balance a mere geometrical form, and oppose one quatrefoil or cusp by another exactly like it. But put two Apollo Belvederes back to back, and you will not think the symmetry improves them.” ; B 18 GRADATION AND ALTERNATION. Lancashire is generally remarkable for its musical taste and capacity, though Yorkshire choirs are reputed to excel those of the County Palatine in their attention to gradation and alterna- tion. Lancashire congregations like a hearty service. So do if only by hearty, I mean one in which we have our heart not only in the music but primarily in the ideas sought to be interpreted and expressed by the harmonious union of music and words. Hearty as sometimes applied denotes a persistent and continued forte ox fortissimo, lungs atfull tension and voices exerted to their utmost capacity. This is what may be called heady and ear- splitting, but evidently not hearty or heartfelt, for words of prayer, praise, intercession, confession, threatening, pleading, judgment are brawled with equal vigour, and I may add thoughtlessness, provided the melody is sufficiently easy and taking........-+-.--++5 There is an opposite danger, viz., the artistic, otherwise artificial service, when the choir have the musical part almost exclusively to themselves, and think only of the melodious and harmonic effects they may produce, with but little regard to worship. A solo which can show off the leading tenor’s upper A, a sonorous and telling run for the basses, a few musical fireworks in the shape of startling discords scientifically resolved, and the like, are the desiderata, and Divine worship becomes a means instead of an end. CoLouR. There does not appear to be any special beauty in one colour above another. When it seems to possess such particular attractions it does so because of its deficiency in the general colouring around, its juxtaposition with some other colours, or from associations of ideas. An English gentleman after a con- siderable sojourn among the Maories of New Zealand found their colour far more beautiful in his eyes than that of the white man, whose comparative pallor of countenance was unpleasantly sug- gestive of sickness and weakness. A child’s earliest impressions of beauty are probably derived through colour. When his attention cannot be excited by beauty of form, that of colour will both attract and sustain it. Very beautiful were the daisy, buttercup and cowslip meadows, the mossy primrose woods, and the shady violet beds of our childhood. No stream so sparkling or melodious, no lake so reflective of heaven’s glory as those by which we rambled then, if perchance it was our happy lot to be brought up in the country, away from the smoke, din and bustle of a great city and “the madding crowd’s ignoble strife.” Heaven lies around us in our infancy,” says Wordsworth. « And trailing clouds of glory do we come From God who is our Home.” Those of us who delight to hold converse with nature 19 and see her charms displayed know how important a part the varying colours bear in the adornment of the landscape, each season presenting its own peculiar beauties of colouring, from the contrast between the snows and dark earth and vegetation of winter to the varieties of red and gold which autumn affords. The sky above us, whether as is unhappily too commonly the case in our climate completely covered with clouds, or whether its clear blue expanse be only diversified by the glowing sun, or by the silvery moon and myriad stars that gleam bright and beauteous in its tranquil and pellucid depths, furnishes us with every variety and tint of colouring. Whatever its mood may be, whether of sunshine or shade, calm or tempest, it attracts our gaze, not less admiringly so when the storm piles cloud upon cloud in wild and majestic confusion, than when the reflex of golden brilliancy derived from the rays of the setting sun, is mirrored forth from every fleecy cloud, and the whole heavens seem pregnant with glory, as still evening prepares to pillow its head upon the lap of night. The charm of an absolutely cloud- less sky is felt only on the first experiences of it, when it has all the force of novelty and therefore of variety. After a short period of perfectly clear sky, the eye wearies of the monotony, and longs for the diversity in the aspect of the heavens afforded by our English clouds. Tur Supreme Berne, A CREATOR, AND Lover oF THE BrautiFUL. All the most abstruse mathematical theories and problems which it has taken the mind of man long ages to discover and elaborate in his inner reasonings are found worked out to the utmost exactitude in this immense, complicated and intricate machine, the Universe. No mistake or inaccuracy is to be found in its mechanical working, no unpunctuality, irregularity or dis- order. The Master Mind of the Omniscient and Omnipotent Being who planned, created and preserves it. understood all the principles of Geometry, of Mechanics, of the Highest Mathe- matics, and framed the worlds upon them. Our most extended knowledge is less than a drop in the ocean of infinite knowledge and wisdom displayed in Creation. We boast ourselves upon the recent advances made in the domain of physical science and our discoveries of nature’s powers. We must not overlook the fact, however, that they are discoveries and not inventions. These forces have been at work in the universe all along, and we have only just found them out. There may be yet undiscovered powers which may effect further revolutions of knowledge and material progress, but whatever knowledge we acquire, it is only second-hand. We can find out no truth that is not in visible operation in all its completeness already. The Master-working Mind has been there before-us, and: it is only in- His light that 20 we can see light. Our intelligence, however, weak and finite though it is, can realise and appreciate His operations, and see herein evidence that He has condescended to create us in His Image after His Likeness. But the world is not merely a machine to minister to purposes of utility, it is also a creation of wondrous beauty. It appeals not only to our bodily wants but to our mental and moral perceptions also. It calls forth wonder and admiration, rapture and delight, awe and reverence. It reveals the Supreme Being not merely as a Mathematician, Practical Mechanic, Engineer and Artificer, but as an Artist, Architect, a Lover and Creator of the Beautiful. Nature our GUIDE TO THE BEAUTIFUL. If we want to understand the principles of Beauty we must study and copy nature. Our own intelligence and imagination must be brought to bear to present it under such aspects as may suit the purpose we have in view, but true art, design or beauty must ever rest upon the basis of unperverted nature. Ruskin points out that good Art interprets nature and is not content sim- ply to imitate. The three schools of perfect Art, he says, those of Athens, Florence and Venice had for their ‘‘ primal aim the representation of some natural fact as truly as possible.” At Athens it was the form of the human body, at Florence the effects of passions in the human face and gesture, at Venice the representation of colour and shade. Ruskin attributes the decline and fall of ancient nations largely to the introduction of the non-natural in art. The rejection of nature by the artistic world was however, only one of the many symptoms of decay marking a nation in its times of greatest material prosperity, when it has descended to inglorious ease, sloth and sensuality, become unnatural in its passions as well as artificial in its tastes, and has neglected to look up through Nature to Nature’s God. Human Beauty. I can put forward no claim ,to any infallible prescription by which we can at once or at all determine what belle has the right to carry off the bell. By a beneficent arrangement each happy couple solves the question for themselves in a manner mutually agreeable. Should there be unanimous or even general agreement as to the supereminent charms of one happy fair in Burnley, what a distraction of rival claimants to be the beau to win the belle would ensue! We have ancient authority as to the evil consequences resulting from trying to solve the question ‘‘ Who is the most beautiful?’’ It was the goddess of Discord who threw the golden apple into the midst of the banquet of the gods, inscribed with the words ‘To be given to the most beautiful.” The gods, very sagely for their own domestic peace, 21 be it remarked, determined they could not settle the knotty question, and selected the handsome and ill-fated mortal Paris to exercise his judgment upon it. Inspired by youthful rashness and vanity, he accepted the questionable honour, and decided in favour of Venus, to the exclusion of Juno and Minerva, which two mortified goddesses were henceforth his implacable foes, and worked his overthrow and through him the ruin of his country, the ancient Troy. Iam no Paris, so I wont sit in judgment, but only content myself with some general observations, ‘“ the bearings of which,” on the well-established authority of Captain Bunsby, “lays in the application on it.” Ts Man orn Woman THE MORE PERFECT Type or Beauty ? Some male men have made the so-called discovery that they are the superior creation, and actually claim that the massive, well-proportioned, strongly-set, symmetrical form of Adam is to be preferred on the score of beauty to the softer graces of his consort Eve. Well, it would require all the mental and physical commanding attractiveness of an Apollo, his majestic beauty and dulcet strains, to argue this astounding proposition with accept- ance to this learned society, adorned and honoured as it is with the presence of ladies. Beauty or CHARACTER. The beauty that is only skin deep, and depends upon puffs, powders and cosmetiques, the art of the milliner, perfumer, or “‘ general repairer of property’”’ plays but a very slight part in the beauty or happiness of life, whereas sweetness of disposition and character, the ‘‘ beauty of holiness”’ shines out more con- spicuously as bodily strength decays, the eye loses its brightness, the form its grace, the limbs their power and elasticity, so that the hoary head rather than the luxuriant tresses of youth is a ‘crown of glory when found in the way of righteousness.”........ In its effect upon man’s well-being a noble action is worth far more than a fine statue or a beautiful picture. It is in heart not in art that human dignity and beauty are manifest in their truest and best form. Tar Kery-note oF Beauty 1s, BE NATURAL. - The man or woman is, as a general rule, most beautiful when displaying the characteristics and performing the duties which naturally belong to them.................. A manly-woman and a womanly-man, though not unknown in this World’s Museum of curiosities, do not commend themselves to a refined taste......... When the wife assumes the garments naturally appertaining to the man, there are likely to be other breaches of the peace......... What is unnatural is not beautiful. High-heeled boots, pointed 22 toes, waspish waists, camel-like lumps, balloon-shaped frame- suspended dresses, stand utterly condemned from any properly understood canon of beauty. A lady’s train which requires so much carriage that it will not go off without a considerable amount of siding, and then only with imminent risk of serious collision owing to interlacing of points and other obstructions, is the height, or to speak more precisely, the length of inelegance. The question of dress ought to be ‘‘ What is becoming to me personally ?”’ Good-breeding demands that we should not make ourselves conspicuous by eccentricity or singularity. On the other hand it does not or should not be allowed to compel us to ape this or that style because it is suitably adopted by ‘Her Grace the Duchess,” or because it is brought out by eminently fashionable milliners. As regards our gentleman’s attire, it is generally so hopelessly inartistic that I can only refer to it as a horrid example of ‘‘ how not to do it.” READINGS, RECITATIONS AND SONG. Director: G. B. RAWCLIFFE. February 7th, 1888. The Programme was as follows : Recital...... «The story of a Stowaway ’’...... Mr. Percy Taylor. Recital...... ‘Dream vision of the Universe”... Mr. B. Gossling. ROMP: i.5 yetie ‘‘ Travellers all”...... Mr. Charles Parker, R.A.M Recital...‘ The Closet Scene from Hamlet’... Mr. Joseph Hall. Humorous Recital...... ‘The Law—‘ Daniel v. Dishclout.’ ’’— Mr. B. T. Gosling. Song...‘‘ Hear me, gentle Maritana” Mr. Charles Parker, R.A.M. Recital...... “ Curfew shall not ring to-night ”...Mr. Perey Taylor. Humorous Recital...... ‘“‘ Rubenstein’s Piano-playing *— Mr. Joseph Hall. GMCs one. eter 50, Dil pe aes, «+6 Mr. Charles Parker, R.A.M. Humorous Recital...‘‘ Look at the Clock ”’...Mr. G. B. Raweliffe. By a hy Ree, apt porate 23 A TRIP ON THE SS. St. SUNNIVA. By H. BULCOCK. February 14th, 1888. This Steamship, the floating residence for 10 days of about 140 saloon passengers, left Aberdeen for one of her trips on the afternoon of the 22nd of August, 1887. By eight o’clock the following morning we were in sight of the Norwegian Coast, and at eleven o’clock rounding Skudnes, the’ southermost point of the Island of Karmo we enter smooth water. From here to Bergen, which we reached about 6-30 p.m., we steamed through calm water between various islands and the mainland, obtaining at one point a beautiful view of the distant peaks of the Folgefond Glacier. The scenery on either hand was rocky and picturesque. Bergen as a town is not very interesting, but its surrounding scenery is extremely beautiful. Some of us visited the Leper Hospital, others the open air Concert in the Public Gardens. Next morning the fish market, the shops, the parks and museums were visited, and some of us ascended the Floien Fjeld, the hill at the base of which Bergen stands, from whence magnificent views are obtained. About three o’clock in the afternoon 120 of the St. Sunniva’s passengers left Bergen by train en route for Vossvangen. This journey of sixty miles occupies about five hours, and the scenery from the beginning to the end is of the loveliest description. Magnificent views of mountains, woods and lochs are constantly obtained until one’s sight becomes almost wearied with gazing at so much beauty. Our large party on their arrival at Vossvangen, a pretty village on the edge of a lake, were comfortably housed at the various hotels. On the morrow an early start was made for Gudvangen, 82 miles distant. A large number of carrioler and stolkkeres,— native conveyances, the former made to contain one occupant, the latter two, with a small place at the back of each for a boy to sit upon, whose business it is to bring back the con- veyance—had been requisitioned the previous evening to convey the party, and a curious and somewhat amusing cavalcade was the consequence. The morning was a lovely one, and our road lay through the most interesting and romantic scenery. Waterfalls, woods, cliffs and snow-capped mountains were on every hand. One or two pretty villages were passed by, and about one o’clock we attained the top of the Stalheim Cleft, where an hotel is stationed, at which we lunched. From this spot the panorama of magnificent mountain scenery presented to view is most wonderful, and adequate justice cannot possibly be done to it by words. The Stalheim Foss, within forty yards 24 of the hotel, is seen plunging its volume of water nearly 1,000 feet sheer into the valley below, and the Nerodal, a narrow valley encompassed with sterile rocky mountains rising some 3,000 or 4,000 feet in height on either hand, winds its way in the direction of Gudvangen.. Down this valley we drove in the afternoon, passing en route a few small scattered farm houses. The St. Sunniva, which had left Bergen the previous night, met us here, and after receiving all on board bore us down the Nero Fiord to Balholmen on the Sogne Fiord, where we came to anchor about seven 9’clock. The scenery was of the most beautiful character for several miles below Gudvangen, the mountains rising precipitously from the water’s edge to the height of several thousand feet. The hotel at Balholmen is charmingly situated, and anyone fond of boating, fishing, or climbing could hardly find a more desirable spot to stay at. Weighing anchor in the early morning we passed close under the Hornelen, the highest cliff in Europe, a mass of rock 2,400 feet in height. Two golden eagles were seen close to the summit. At five o’clock p.m. Molde was reached, a watering place much frequented by Norwegians for the salubrity of its climate and its beautiful situation. From an eminence in the Park, lying behind the town, a beautiful view of the distant peaks of Romsdal mountains is obtained. Molde has a population of about 3,000, and three fine hotels. The buildings are of wood, brightly painted. A very enjoyable concert was given on board this evening and shewed the existence of much musical ability amongst the passengers. LHarly the following morning, which was Sunday, the Sunniva steamed down the Nes. Splendid views of the Romsdal Horn and the peaks of the Trolltinderne and Vingetindene mountains were obtained, when the fleecy mists enveloping their summits momentarily dispersed from time to time, and those who were on deck between six and seven a.m. were amply rewarded for early rising. A large number of carrioler and stolkkeres were in readiness at Nees to convey those of us who felt disposed as far as Horgheim, distant about ten miles. The valley was narrow, and the Romsdal on the one hand, the Trolltinderne mountains on the other hand, rising precipitously above us, contributed to make the drive a very beautiful one. In places where the valley broadened out an abundance of yellow corn gave promise of a plentiful harvest. Arrived at Horgheim we visited a monster snow cave, and within a few yards enjoyed picking the black- berries which grew in profusion. On the return journey we observed some interesting river terraces with large accumula- tions of sand and gravel at the lower end of the valley, but a passing glance was all that could be permitted. Our steamer’s course now lay past Molde and north in the direction of Thrond- e 25. jhem. The appearance of the old Capital is not so picturesque as that of Bergen, but still distinctly fine. The country behind is of a more open character, and the hills about are on a smaller scale. The streets of Throndjhem are broad and somewhat roughly paved, in many parts with cobble stones. There are a number of good shops and fine looking hotels and publie build- ings, for the most part built of wood. The stumpy and un- beautiful tower of the Cathedral is a land mark in the town. The Cathedral itself is being very beautifully restored, but lack of funds retards its progress. A pleasant drive of some five miles through a rich and well-cultivated tract of land brought some of us to the Lerdal Foss. The water is broken in its descent by several masses of rock, and a great deal of spray is thrown up. The fertility and high state of cultivation of the soil in this neighbourhood, and the genial nature of the weather so late as the 29th August made it difficult to realize that Throndjhem is in the same latitude as the southernmost town in Iceland. We anchored at night in the same place as the previous evening. The following morning we entered the Geiranger Fiord. For several hours the scenery was comparatively tame, but on enter- ing the gorge—for so it may be termed—leading to Merak it became most impressive. The weather contributed to make the scenery more awesome. It was gloomy and occasionally showery. The height of the mountains on every side rising abruptly from the water, the number of waterfalls leaping from the rocks above, these rocks often assuming most fantastic shapes, conduced to make this Fiord famous for its wild grandeur. We did not land at the hamlet of Merak as no anchorage is obtainable owing to the immense depth of the water. The St. Sunniva now turned southward, and the day following, about ten o’clock a.m., we again found ourselves in Bergen. Some of us visited Fantoft Church, about four miles distant, built of wood, and somewhat resembling a Chinese Pagoda. Anchor was weighed about six o’clock, and in a very severe storm of thunder and lightning we quitted the chief port of Gamle Norge, arriving at Aberdeen about four o’clock the following day without further incident. SOME LANCASHIRE LEGENDS. By W. 8. WEEKS, F.R.Hist.8. February 28th, 1888. - The collection and comparison of the popular legends of vari-' © ous iocalities shows us the same story, in more or less varying forms, continually cropping up in widely different parts of the. world. As Mr. Baring-Gould well observes, ‘‘ every popular tale 26 has its root, a root which may be traced among different coun- tries, and though the accidents of the story may vary, yet the substance remains unaltered. It has been said that the common people never invent new story-radicals, any more than we invent new word-roots, and this is perfectly true. The same story root remains, but it is varied according to the temperament of the narrator or the exigencies of localization.” Laneashire is rich in its traditions, and the purpose of this paper, in relating a few of them, is to show that they are no exception to the general rule stated above. It is also hoped that, in come cases, the probable origin of the legend may be success- fully indicated. Local stories have chiefly been chosen to be dealt with. Most of them are to be found narrated in the works of Roby, Harland, and Wilkinson, and Hardwicke, but one or two of them appear in print, it is believed, for the first time. Lecenp oF BurnurEy CHURCH. Tradition asserts that the site originally chosen for St. Peter’s Church at Burnley, was the one lately occupied by the Cross in Godly Lane, and that some progress had been made in laying the foundations. But whatever was done by the workmen during the day was removed, to the present site, during the following night, by supernatural agents in the form of pigs. At last tired of contending with these mysterious agents, the builders gave up their own choice, and erected the church on the spot indicated by the demon pigs. A similar story, which is told to account for the Parish Church of Rochdale being built on the top of a hill, on the opposite side of the river to the town, has furnished Mr. Roby with material for his narrative of The Goblin Builders. The erection of Colne Church is said to have been commenced at Church Clough, about half a mile from the town, but to the surprise of the masons every stone put on by day at Church Clough disappeared during the night, and was carried by unseen hands to the present site and there skilfully laid together. Hence ‘it came to pass that Colne Church stands, as it now does, a prominent object for miles round. The Church of St. Mary-le-Gill, near Barnoldswick, according ‘to local legend, should have been built at Salterforth, but invis- ible beings nightly removed the foundations to where the Church now is. The same legend attaches to Winwick Church, where pigs not only decided the site, but gave the name to the village by squeal- ing ‘ We-ce-wick” as they ran backwards and forwards; to Breedon Church in Leicestershire, where the agents were doves ; to Wendover Church, Bucks, where witches or fairies were 27 engaged ; to Godshill Church, Isle of Wight, where the Angels, by removing the stones to the hill top, gave the village its name; to Samlesbury Church, the Church at Whaley Bridge, and to several Churches in Dorsetshire, and many other parts of the country. Dr. Brumwell met with the story in connection with a Church at Nieff on the Lower Moselle, and Borrow, (author of The Bible in Spain,) mentions a place in Spain called Los Angeles, from a legend that its Church was built by Angels, the foundation of it being a beam of gold—once a rafter of God’s own house— which they had brought with them from heaven for the purpose. Mr. Roby states that a similar exploit to that of the Goblin builders is recorded in the Scandinavian Legends, and may be traced, under many variations, in the Icelandic, Danish and Norwegian traditions. Tae Myra or tae Spectre Huntsman. Tradition asserts that on the Eve of All-Hallows, a spectre huntsman and hound hunt a milk-white doe round the Hagle Crag, in the gorge of Cliviger. Roby has introduced this story in Part Second of The Lancashire Witches, but its root idea is far older than the time of the Pendle Witches. ’ Aspectre horseman is said every year to visit Wycollar Hall, near Colne. The night of his appearance is wild and tempestu- ous; there is no moon, and when the wind howls the loudest, the horseman can be heard dashing up the road at full speed, his horse wild with rage, with fire streaming from his nostrils. The rider enters the house, presently screams are heard, then he re- appears, mounts his horse, and dashes off as he came. He is supposed to be one of the Cunliffes who murdered his wife, and is condemned to pay an annual visit to the scene of his crime. In a scarce book entitled ‘ Lancashire Legends,’ published in 1841 by Whitaker, Ave Maria Lane, and Cocker, Market Place, Wigan, is a Liverpool story of a spectre coach. Many years ago several young infidels used every night to meet, and drive in a coach to their orgies in the suburbs, where they drank, burnt the Bible and plunged into other forms of dissipation. The young men have all passed away, but still at the hour of midnight a spectre coach stops at their old abodes. Drivers have expected to collide with it, dogs howl and are frightened at its approach, and many have heard, but none seen the spectre coach. - These three stories are different developments of the myth of the Wild Huntsman, which, in an infinite variety of forms, is to be found not only in every part of our own country, but also over a great part of Hurope. 28 In some places the midnight host consists of the souls of un- baptised children instead of dogs. A Devonshire legend says that Sir Francis Drake once drove a hearse into Plymouth, at night, drawn by headless horses and followed by a pack of yell- ing hounds without heads. Night after night a coach whirls along the rough approach to Langley Hall, Durham, drawn by black and fiery steeds. The same story is also to be met with in Northumberland. In the Hartz mountains the wild huntsman is supposed to be the Wandering Jew, and in some parts of France when a peasant hears the sudden roar of the wind at night, he crosses himself and mutters ‘‘ the Wandering Jew.” In an earlier stage of the myth it is Oden or Woden, who mounted on his milk-white steed careers nightly through the woods with his legion of hell-hounds. We have in the wild hunter and his host a personification of the storm, as it is heard sweeping over the country at night-- one of those nature-myths that form the basis of so much of the mythology of the Aryan races. Pre O’NE tu. This legend, which Mr. Roby has worked up under the title of «The Demon of the Dell,” is as follows: Many years ago there lived at Waddow Hall, on the banks of the Ribble, near Clitheroe, a servant maid who gives her name to the story. One winter's day she quarrelled with her mistress as she was going from the house, down to the spring near the river-side, to fetch some water. After high words, her mistress said, in moment of anger, “TJ hope you will slip and break your neck.” The ground being slippery, the poor girl did fall and her mistress’s unkind words were verified. After this when anything went wrong at Waddow, or whenever any mishap occurred in the neighbourhood, it was always said to be Peg’s doing. Beyond this, once in every seven years, on what was called ‘ Peg’s Night,’ she demanded a sac- rifice, and if some animal or bird was not slaughtered at the river side, she claimed a human being. One stormy night, in the days before any bridge had been built at Brungerley, a young man sought to get to Clitheroe on horseback, by fording the river near the Hipping Stones. He had previously been warned at the inn at Waddington of the danger of the enterprise; for not only was the night tempestuous and the river swollen, but it was Peg’s Night, and she had not had her victim. With the headstrong daring of youth, he ridiculed their fears and set out on his journey in defiance of the spirit. As was to be expected, he never reached his home, and neither man nor horse was ever seen again. 29 Standing by the side of Peg’s Well in the grounds of Waddow Hall is a headless stone figure supposed to represent Peg. It is said this figure was formerly in Waddow Hall, but that the servants at last refused to have it any longer in the house, so it was placed at the wall side where some mischievous person knocked off its head. The writer sometime since examined it, and came to the conclusion that it had probably at one time occupied a niche either in Sawley or Whalley Abbey. This seems to explain why the figure got associated with the legend. At the time of the Reformation, while the people of the towns mostly favoured the reformed religion, a great majority of country people, especially in the North of England, clung to the old faith. When therefore great abbeys like Sawley and Whalley were secularized, the statues of saints and martyrs destroyed or put to profane uses, many of those who lived in the locality, and who were still Catholic in their hearts, looked upon it as sacrilege. They would thus be likely to associate any mischief, that hap- pened in a neighbourhood to which one of these images had been removed, with the idea of retribution for the indignities which it had suffered. The root idea of the legend—that rivers and fords are haunted by beings, who drown travellers and are to be appeased by sacrifice—is of great antiquity, and pervades the Teutonic and Scandinavian legends. A Devonshire rhyme tells us that “The river Dart, the river Dart, Every year demands a heart,” and in heathen times it was a common practice to make an annual sacrifice to rivers. Grimm says “although Christianity forbade these sacrifices and represented the old water spirits as demons, the people retained a certain respect and regard for them, and have not by any means yet given up their old faith in them and their power. To-day when any one is drowned they say ‘‘ The river spirit expects his annual victim but prefers an innocent child.” In Norway every torrent has its Strom-grimm, and every waterfall its fosse-grimm. Lancashire children are still often warned not to venture too near water for fear of J enny Green- teeth dragging them in. In early times man did not understand Nature as we do to-day. He realized that his own acts were the result of a conscious will, and reasoning from this he attributed all natural phenomena to a similar origin. Thus the different aspects and forces of nature became personified, so that when anyone was drowned in cross- ing a stream, instead of saying it was an accident, primitive man tenanted the ford with a kelpie or a grimm who took a pleasure in drowning people. As this being was feared, the natural result was that sacrifices were offered to it to ward off its ill will. 30 Tar Devin AnD Porunar LEecEnps. The Evil one plays a very prominent part in all local legendary lore, but the Devil of the popular story is not however the Devil of the Bible. He often seems on more or less familiar terms with mankind, and the popular names for him,—‘ Owd Nick,’ *Owd Scrat,’ and ‘’Th ’Owd Lad,’—indicate a very different feeling towards him to that inspired by the Devil of the Scrip- tures. Moreover, he generally gets the worst of a bargain, and instead of making men his dupes, he is usually found to have been taken in himself. In many places he is said to have made the Roman roads ; Stonehenge is sometimes attributed to him ; and there are many bridges in difficult positions which he is supposed to have built. The reason why the Devil appears so much in our legends is that he has taken the place of the heroes, giants, and gods of the older mythology. When our pagan forefathers adopted Christianity they often did so in a very superficial manner. And this is not to be wondered at, for besides the difficulty of explaining the mysteries of Christian doctrine through the medium of half educated interpreters, or in languages with which the missionaries were but imperfectly acquainted, the work of conversion was frequently accomplished by the sword. When a heathen people embraced the new faith, they did not by any means cease to believe in the old one; and their Christian teachers instead of telling them their former gods were myths to be disbelieved, taught them they were demons to be shunned and feared. Thus the old gods. were dethroned and degraded into devils. As an instance, in many places the exploits of Odin or Hackelberg are now attributed to the Devil; and he is often said to have thrown the erratic blocks, that are found scattered about the country, in this reminding us of Thor’s labours. Ratsine tHe Deyin art Criraerozr GRAMMAR SCHOOL. According to a story related to the writer by an old lady, the scholars of Clitheroe Grammar School once raised the Devil. It was many years ago, when the school stood in the Churchyard, and the Revd. Mr. Wilson was its head master. Mr. Wilson, who then lived not far from the school, on the opposite side of the road, was one day taking a nap after his mid-day meal, when he was awakened by the sudden rising of a tremendous storm. The wind howled, the lightning flashed, the thunder rolled, and the rain came down in sheets. Suspecting there was something wrong (for the Devil usually appears during a confusion of the elements,) he hurried across to the school and found that the lads had raised the Devil, in the orthodox way, by saying the Lord’s prayer backwards. There was his Satanic Majesty seated in the 31 middle of the school, the boys standing round trembling with fear, and do what they would, they could not get rid of their terrible visitor. They repeated the Lord’s prayer forwards, said the Apostle’s Creed, and read various passages of Scriptures, but all to no purpose. They then set him various tasks to perform, but he did them all. At lasta happy thought struck Mr. Wilson, who told him to knit knots out of a strike of sand.’ This feat was beyond even his power, so that he had to retire baffled. The narrator of this story said that the Devil came up through the hearthstone, which ever afterwards showed the cracks he had made in coming through. She said she had seen them, and that though the stone was several times replaced by a new one, it was of no avail, for the cracks always reappeared in the same place as on the old one. Messrs. Harland & Wilkinson give a somewhat similar story of the raising of the Devil at Burnley Grammar School, but there he did not get so far, for when he had got his head and shoulders through the hearthstone, the boys beat him down with the poker which left a black mark on the stone. The feature of making a rope of sand appears in the legend of the Cockerham Schoolmaster and the Devil, and at Hothersall Hall, near Rib- chester, there is a demon laid under a laurel tree until he can make a rope of sand that can be washed in the river. In Cornwall, the Giant Tregeagle is said to be employed on the shore near Padstow, in making “trusses of sand, and ropes of sand with which to bind them. APpRONFUL AND THE Devit’s Footprints on PENDLE. On a farm called Craggs, near Sabden, on the sloping side of Pendle, is a mass of sandstone rocks which have fallen down from the scar above. On one of these big stones, are two marks, side by side, about 2 feet 6 inches long, and about 6 inches wide. They resemble gigantic footmarks and are said to be those of the Devil. However, when he alighted upon the stone, he must have crossed his legs, for the left footprint is on the right side of the stone. The outline of this foot is quite perfect, but the other is ill-formed. This is accounted for, by the well-known fact, that the Devil has a club-foot. About a mile from this spot, nearer Clitheroe, and on the crest of the hill above Ashendean Clough, not far from the Well Springs public house, are a quantity of stones scattered about on ground, locally known as ‘ The Apronful.’ Nearly in the centre of them is a small hollow in the ground, and the writer is in- clined to think that these stones were formerly built into a rude wall round the hollow as a base for a beacon fire, and that they have since been scattered about as they now lie. 32 Mr. Harrison Ainsworth, (Lancashire Witches,) in describing a Pendle beacon, speaks of it as a quantity of logs, heaped in ‘a circular range of stones, with openings to admit air.’ The local legend is however as follows. One day the Devil was coming with an apronful of stones for the purpose of knock- ing down Clitheroe Castle. He stepped from Hambledon Hill on to the side of Pendle, where he left the footmarks on Craggs Farm before alluded to. His next step was to the Apronful. Here being in view of the Castle, he took one of the stones and threw it towards Clitheroe; but, just as he was in the act of doing so, his “ brat-string’’ broke and all the stones he was carrying were tumbled on to the ground. This disturbed his aim, so that the stone he was throwing fell short of the mark, and may now be seen, with the marks of his fingers on it, in a field above Pendleton. The miraculous imprint of footmarks upon stones is of very common occurrence. According to some a priest, according to others, the Devil, stamped his foot into the Church wall at Brindle, to prove the truth of Popery; and George Marsh, the martyr, has left his footmarks at Smithell’s Hall, near Bolton, to prove the truth of Protestantism. At Mount Dol in Brittany the foot- print of St. Michael is to be seen; and on the top of Adam’s Peak in Ceylon is a cavity in the rock which the Mohammedans say is the footmark of Adam, while the Buddists declare it to be the impress of Buddha himself. The breaking of the apronstring is a very common incident in folk stories. It occurs in connection with the building by the Devil of a bridge at Kirkby Lonsdale; and in an Ormskirk legend of the Devil, (contained in ‘‘ Lancashire Legends” before alluded to) it was the breaking of his apronstring when carrying sand, that caused the sand-heap known as Shirley Hill. It is also to be met with in Denmark, and in the Isle Rigen in the Baltic. Grorce Barrerssy’s Murper. One of the best remembered events in the history of Clitheroe is this murder, which took place at the March fair, 1775. The body of the victim was not discovered till three years afterwards, and during this time the murderers appear to have shifted it about from place to place so many times, that ‘ knocked about as ill as owd Battersby” has passed into a proverb. Amongst other places it was hidden in a culvert which passes under the Wad- dington road just beyond the present railway bridge, and in one of its removals it was dragged through the hedge close by. Old Clitheronians used to say that every March fair day blood marks appeared on the stones at the mouth of the culvert, and that at the particular place, where the body was dragged through the hedge, the thors would not grow. One of the three men who 33 were tried at Lancaster for the murder, and acquitted, lived in Clitheroe for many years afterwards. Notwithstanding the ver- dict of the jury, he was always suspected of having been one of the murderers; and it was said that he constantly kept one of his fingers wrapped round with a rag, because during the death- struggle it had got into Battersby’s mouth, who bit it, causing a wound which would never heal up, and which every March fair day commenced bleeding afresh. One of the incidents of this story reminds us of the persistence of Rizzio’s blood stains at Holyrood. Such beliefs were probably prompted by the same feelings which trial by ordeal originated, viz. that Providence would directly interfere to manifest innocence, or declare guilt. Havuntep Hovsss. These are common enough in every district. There are several to be met with at Clitheroe. One is Well Hall, the present residence of the Master of Clitheroe Grammar School. A lady, whose family resided in this house for several generations, has told the writer several wonderful stories on the subject. Her mother’s grandmother could see the boggart, and of an evening when she had done her work, she used to sweep up the hearth, and then sit on one side of the fire, while the boggart took a chair on the other, and they used ‘‘to camp one another.” During the night the boggart was often heard about the house... now working the spinning wheels, and now moving heavy pieces of furniture about; and sometimes it used to amuse itself by pulling the bed clothes off people. My informant said it would never do harm to anyone if you did not speak ‘‘ presumptuously” about it. Her mother’s uncle once spoke ‘“‘ evil words”? of it, and it ‘‘made him fast”’ to the wall in the yard all night, till someone came und released him in the morning. Sometimes this boggart, or else another, appeared as a woman, flitting about the house, with a child walking by her side, having its hand resting on her arm. Soon after the Rev. Mr. Allen, (a former Grammar School Master,) went to live at Well Hall, one of the servants alleged she met this lady and child in the passage, which frightened her so, that she let the tea-tray she was carry- ing fall to the floor. There is a house near Edisford Bridge which is also haunted. In some of the rooms it is said that the doors cannot be kept _ fastened, and that if they are shut at night they will be found wide open in the morning. The furniture is also moved about in the night, and particularly the chairs; for however they may be placed, they will be found in a different position next day. Beyond this, at a certain time of the year in one room, it is impossible to keep a candle burning, for as soon as it is lighted it 1s extinguished by invisible hands. Children’s cries are often c B4 heard proceeding from one of the upstairs rooms, but when the place is searched nothing to cause them can be found. The figure of a woman has, on several occasions, been distinctly seen in different parts of the house, and at first she has been mistaken for one of the inmates, but on being followed she has suddenly vanished. In Lowergate, Clitheroe, where the Primitive Methodist Chapel now stands, there were formerly three old cottages, which were pulled down to make way for the chapel. One of these was haunted by the figure of a lady, who was sometimes dressed in blue, and at other times in white, and was often accompanied by a child. A woman who lived in this house some 40 or 50 years ago, used to say that this apparition frequently came into her bed-room at night, and after remaining there sometime would go out from the house in the direction of the Wilkin Brook which runs close by. In these stories two distinct elements are confused— I. The domestic, or house, spirit, who in England, is Robin Goodfellow; in Scotland, the Brawnie and in Germany, the Kobold. In the North of England he is usually styled Boggart or Bar-gaist. Itis he, who works the spinning-wheel, pulls away the bed-clothes, moves the furniture, opens the doors, and plays similar pranks in the above legend. His characteristics are very well displayed in the story of the Barcroft Boggart, as related by Mr. Tattersall Wilkinson in the columns of the Burnley Express a year or two since, and also in Roby’s tale, ‘‘ The Bar-gaist” in his Traditions of Lancashire. II. A myth from which the well-known legend of the White Lady of Habergham is also derived. There are two versions of this legend. In one the White Lady is Bertha, daughter of Ulrich Von Rosenberg, who married John Lichtenstein, by whom she was badly treated. On his death she returned to her brother, and dressed in the white mourning habit of a widow, devoted her days to the care and education of orphan children, Tn the other, she is Kunigund of Orlamiinde who is said to have murdered her children with a silver bodkin. The name Bertha shews the origin of the story. Itis the same as Perchta—the bright one—who is the old Teutonic Goddess of the Moon. She is also Hulda, the gentle, and Hérsel. She is represented as guardian of souls and travels with a train of children’s spirits. We have here a personification of the moon and her attendant train of stars. Pertcha is also the Goddess of Nature, who calls her children the flowers of life, and then destroys them with her silver hair-pin, the frost crystal. She is also a widow, mourning her lost husband the Sun. (See Cornhill Magazine, March 1887.) This nature myth, which is the common property of the Teutonic races, has most probably inspired the various stories in which — Ee 85 houses are haunted by the figures of women and children, and with many of which a murder of a child is associated. WANDERINGS ON THE BANKS OF THE LOWER MOSELLE. By J. C. BRUMWELL, M.D., J.P. February 28th, 1888. Dr. Brumwell commenced by referring to the fact that the Moselle was but little known in this country compared with the Rhine, and mentioned the reasons for the strange neglect of the Moselle. The latter river was, he said, the Rhine condensed into a small space, and the only way to enjoy it was to select a portion of the river and travel leisurely along it. On his visit last summer, he and his party left Brussels by the 12-30 train, and arrived at the Upper Moselle in the evening, staying a day or two at Treves. There they found that they could not possibly see the whole of the Moselle during one visit. The Germans div- ided the river into the Upper and Lower Moselle, and the tourists deciding to wander over the lower part took the train to the town of Bullay, which was about half-way down the river. At the station they left their luggage, in order to climb the Marienburg. When its summit was reached a scene was to be viewed as curious as it was beautiful. The hill itself was a wedge-shaped tongue of land about three miles long, gradually sloping towards the further extremity, and running parallel with the river. There seemed, however, from the Marienburg two rivers without any connection, one on the left and the other on the right hand; whilst what was more singular still was that looking from the summit in the direction of Treves there was to be seen another river which appeared to have no connection with the other two. Having given an explanation of this curious geographical phenomena, Dr. Brumwell said that anyone standing on the Marienburg did not feel inclined to spend much time in geographical research, because he had before him a scene of beauty which it was almost impossible to describe, it was the view from the Marienburg which was so charming. The Moselle had changed its course,. it had left its narrow banks and gone into the open country, thus giving a grandeur to the scene which could not be found any- where else. Looking towards Treves the open space was bounded on the right by the volcanic Hifel which frowned down upon: the river, on the left the more attractive hills of the Hunsrue mountains were seen receding into the distance. In the front of the plain lay the little cities which gave such a charm to the 36 Moselle, they were quaint and old fashioned, and were studded at intervals of two or three miles around the Marienburg. To realise the beauty of the scene it was necessary to remember that everything was flooded with rich sun-light, which brought out the colours in all their variety and beauty. Returning to Bullay for the luggage the next wandering of the party was to a most interesting little watering place, built in the bed of an ancient volcano, six miles up the valley behind Alf. This place was called Bad Bertrich and was not so well known as it ought to be considering its attractions. The road was an excellent carriage drive, and had been made by the German Government for military purposes, and also for the accommodation of visitors to Bad Bertrich. It was difficult to describe the beauty of this road, because the scenery was so varied and attractive. Two things were very evident, viz. that the surroundings were naturally extremely picturesque, and that the most had been made of this natural beauty by human skill. Turning the last corner of the road they saw Bad Bertrich itself and certainly it was a most curious place. That it was really built in the centre of an extinct volcano was very evident because it looked like a few houses standing at the bottom of a huge funnel. The crater would look more imposing if it had been perfect in its whole circumference, but there was a break on its south-eastern side caused by the contents of the voleano being shot out in that direction. The little town or village as it might be called had nothing especially picturesque about it so far as the houses were concerned. The Curhaus of Bad Bertrich was a neat but un- pretentious building evidently built upwards of 100 years ago. The baths themselves were much older and looked as though they had been used for three or four centuries without under- going any alteration. Indeed, judging by the antique appear- ance they might have existed since the time of the Romans, who first made such baths. No charge was made for the water which was drunk out of glasses, and each visitor might have an unlimited supply. To English geologists the waters of Bad Bertrich were especially interesting, because Lyell was of opinion that the English mineral waters of Bath might really have some communication with the volcano of Bad Bertrich. The next days wandering was to the Falkenlei and the volcanic Bifel bordering the Moselle. Falkenlei was a lofty hill, composed. of lava, slag, cinder, ashes, which had evidently been poured out of the volcano at some other place and run down upon this spot. Geologists were of opinion that this huge hill was really the contents of the mighty crater of Bad Bertrich. After describing the road leading to the Falkenlei, and the rare plants and insects found on the sides of the hills the doctor said that the scene on the top of the Falkenlei was very surprising to those’ eae ee ee 37 who had at no previous time visited the volcanic Hifel. Instead: of finding themselves amongst a range of mountain peaks as they would have done had they climbed a similar height in the Lake districts of Cumberland or Wales, they looked down upon a flat plateau reaching in all directions as far as the eye could: see, and more singular still, they saw villages, towns, churches, highways, farms, and orchards. Looking round the distant horizon they saw several large mounds which, upon- enquiry, they found to be extinct volcanoes. Seeing a village about a mile distant on the Hifel they walked down to it and found its name to be Kenfus. It looked picturesque enough at the dis- tance, but instead of the cleanliness of the English village, they found a huge refuse heap, several feet high, on each side of the road through the village. It was impossible to describe the horrible unsanitary condition of Kenfus, and it was difficult. to understand why its inhabitants were not swept away by the first epidemic which found its way to the Hifel. The next wan- dering was from Alf to Cochem, Afterwards they reached the. city of Hdiger. There was something amusing in speaking of the city of Ediger it was like speaking of the city of Worsthorne, but nevertheless Ediger was a city in the strictest sense of the word. and had more points of interest in it than many cities ten times its size. The city walls frowned upon them as they drove up to it, and the old watch tower stood grimly warning them to be careful lest they awoke the slumbering. garrison. They passed underneath its stern gateway, but the portcullis was up and no sentry challenged them for the pass- word. Entering into daylight they found themselves in a narrow old-fashioned street, with its quaint gables and old-fashioned roofs. Walking onward they saw no signs of life and soon came to the old church, which-stood upon an eminence, but on reaching the steps leading to the church they found to their surprise they had really crossed the entire width of the city and reached the walls on the other side of Ediger. The church thus seemed to form a part of the fortifications of the: city, and was so constructed that it could easily be turned into a castle in time of war. The interior of the church had a strange old world look and was well worthy of examination by those fond of ecclesiastical architecture and ornamentation. They did not see more than four or five people while wandering over the city, and anyone walking its streets felt as if somehow or other he had entered on a previous stage of existence and was living in the Middle Ages. A description was then given of Cochem. with its Capuchin monastery and its magnificent castle. A fair was being held at the time of the visit, and afforded many interesting pictures of the manners and customs of. the natives. of the Moselle country.. The succeeding wandering was .to, the. 38: celebrated castle of Eliz, which was certainly one of the greatest curiosities in Germany. It was built in such an out of the way place that all invading armies had either missed finding it or thought it too much out of the way to be worth investing. The consequence was it had not been subjected to violence, and stood much the same as it had done for hundreds of years. The con- tents of the castle and the journey back to Moselkern were described ; then their last and briefest wandering by the Moselle, which commenced early the succeeding morning. The lofty banks of the river at this part approached each other very closely, and in the early morning the weird appearance of the landscape was enhanced by the curious condition of the river itself. It looked as if it were heated by some subterraneum fire which caused the steam to be rising from its surface in large quantities. At first sight this was rather startling, but observing that the same large flakes of vapour were coming down the sides of the hills they saw that in reality it was clouds of dew descending to the earth. This was the secret of the richness of the verdure on the banks of the Moselle. They were assured no rain had fallen’ on the Lower Moselle for several weeks, and yet the vines. were flourishing as if they had received a daily supply of rain. Below Moselkern the river widened, and the banks were dotted by little farmhouses surrounded by orchards. They saw a traveller with his knapsack strapped to his back starting off to take this delightful wander, and only wished they could do the same. CHARLES DARWIN’S LIFE AND LETTERS. By R. C. HOLT, F.R.C.8. March 6th, 1889. This eminent Naturalist was born on the 12th February, 1809, and died on the 19th April, 1882, after devoting his life to trying to find out the various apparent paradoxes and inconsist- encies in Nature. He was the son of a medical practitioner of great repute in Shrewsbury. As a boy there was nothing very marked about him. His school days were of a very ordinary type; ‘he was rather a dull boy at his classical studies; he showed ereat fondness for animals, and all through his life he had the power.of attracting dogs from their masters. When quite*a little boy he used to try to make out the. names of plants and collect shells. His father intended him for a doctor and sent him to study at Edinburgh, but this proving a failure, he was sent to Cambridge with the intention of being ordained. Here i he wasted a great deal of time as far as his academical studies: 39 were concerned, but he worked energetically at entomology. He formed here some of his most important friendships ; amongst the number of these friends was Mr. Henslow, Professor ot Botany, for whom he had a high regard. This gentleman in+ fluenced his career more perhaps than anyone else. Whilst here he came to know many scientific men through his friend Henslow, and these acqaintances furthered his studies in Natural History a good deal. When he left Cambridge he had almost finally made up his mind not to be a clergyman, though he was quite orthodox,—he did not feel justified in saying that he felt himself called for the work. He was 23 at this time and he was offered the post of Naturalist on board H.M.§. Beagle, which ‘was then preparing to start on a voyage of observation in the South Seas. Professor Henslow recommended him ag the fittest person he knew to undertake the work. He collected a huge number of specimens, few of which he had the time to accurately describe, but they were brought home and made use of, partly by himself and partly by other naturalists. The ‘voyage occupied five years, and was a most important event in his life; he became known to the scientific world and formed friendships which were never broken in life. All who knew him were charmed by his pure enthusiasm, his love of the subjects he studied, and the ungrudging labours he bestowed on them. When he returned from his voyage his observations and col- lections attracted attention, and he read papers before the Geological and Zoological Societies, and was asked to take the Secretaryship of the Zoological Society, but declined. As a result of this voyage he published his famous book—*“ Journal of Researches of a Naturalist,” and his book on ‘ Coral Reefs,” besides various other geological papers. With respect to the ‘‘ Coral Reefs”’ Sir Charles Lyell said in a letter—‘I am full of Darwin’s new theory of Coral Islands. I must give up my volcanic crater theory for ever, though it cost me a pang at first, for it accounted for so much; the annular form, the central lagoon,—and the sudden rising of an isolated mountain in a deep sea,” When he returned from his voyage. he married and settled in London, devoting himself to arranging his collections and to further researches ; but his health began to fail, so he bought a quiet country house at Down in Kent, retired there and spent the rest of his life there. There he lived a simple country life, -which would have been very enjoyable, if it had not been for his bad health. He worked so many hours a day regularly, keeping a careful record of the time; he devoted a certain time to newspapers and novels. He interested himself to some extent in village affairs, for he acted as Secretary to a Friendly Society and toa Coal Club. His personal character was of the 40 highest order. He was generous and kind to all. His domestic relations were very happy; his letters constantly abound with references to family matters. One trouble haunted him lest his children should inherit his bad health. He also kept careful records of all business matters, all money spent and all received, Letters were carefully kept. He made a practice of writing down his observations, many of his thoughts and ideas with their conditions; these were indexed and referred to when necessary. He kept large portfolios in a convenient place in his study, and by this means he accumulated a vast store of accurate knowledge. The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection was the great work of his life, and this made him famous. In his auto- biography he gives the reason why he was first induced to think of this subject. ‘During the voyage of the Beagle I had been deeply impressed by discovering in the Pampean formation great fossil animals covered with armour like that on existing arma- dilloes; secondly by the manner in which closely allied animals replace one another in proceeding southward over the continent ; and thirdly by the South American character of most of the productions of the Galapagos Archipelago, and more especially by the manner in which they differ slightly on each island of the group—none of the islands appearing to be very ancient in a geological sense.” This and reading Lamarck seem to have been the birth of this great idea. It was in 1844 that he wrote the sketch of the work and sub- mitted it to Sir Jos. Hooker. Later on he was advised to write it out more fully, and this he did in 1858, and when he was doing this he received from Mr. A. R. Wallace, a gentleman who was making observations in the Malay Archipelago, an essay “©On the Tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type;” and this essay contained exactly the same theory ashisown. This was rather serious, but Mr. Wallace recognised the coincidence and saw that Mr. Darwin was in advance of him, so their joint productions were published in the Journal of the Linnean Society. Singular to say it created very little comment. Prof. Houghton of Dublin, said that the truth in it was old and the news was untrue. The writing of the work took 13. months, and it was published in 1859—November. When the book was published the reviewers treated it most unmercifully,and very few people believed anything of it—and after it had been published a year and a half Mr. Darwin in a letter to Sir J. Hooker tabulates 15 only whom he knows to be adherents to the cause. His next work was on plants and animals under domestication. Then in 1871 he published his Descent of Man, and to show what is meant by that I will quote an extract from the preface, : : ’ a aud, 41 «The sole object of this work is to consider whether man like every other species is descended from some pre-existing form. Qndly—the manner of his development; and 3rdly—the value of the differences between the so-called races of man.” Again, he says—‘‘ It has often been said that man’s origin can neyer be known: but ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge; it is those who know little and not those who know much who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.’’ It took him three years to write this work; it did not create the same excitement that the “Origin” did. His book on the Expressions of the Emotions was begun immediately after finishing ‘‘ Man,” and was com- piled from notes he had made all his life to some extent, and from enquiries. The work required much correspondence, not only with Missionaries and those living amongst savages, to whom he sent printed enquiries, but also with physiologists and physicians. In 1874 he was engaged on “ Insectivorous Plants.’ He has also written on ‘‘ Movements of Climbing Plants.’’ The impression one gets after reading Mr. Darwin’s life and reading his letters is, that he was a man of simple habits and tastes, of very lovable nature, and kind and generous to a degree. He seems to have been constantly observing little things which had previously passed unnoticed, everything was carefully noted, and all his observations seem to tend in one direction, viz. that of Evolution, not only of species of animals but of plants. His great idea seems to have been that nature is constantly changing, and one slightly different type is constantly being formed from another. The bulk of his letters are to Sir Jos. Hooker, Sir Charles Lyell and Prof. Huxley, with whom he was on terms of very intimate friendship. In his letters to them he discusses details of theories, observations, and manner of writing. This account cannot be complete without mentioning that he was a member of nearly all the chief learned societies in the world. He had honorary degrees from four Universities. Two medals, the Royal and the Copley from the Rvyal Society, and one, the Wollaston medal, from the Geological Society. When he died there was a letter sent to the Dean of West- minster, signed by 20 Members of Parliament, asking for him to be buried in Westminster Abbey, and he was there buried on the 26th of April, 1882, the pall-bearers being Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Huxley, Mr. J. R. Lowell, (American Minister,) Mr. A. R. Wallace, Duke of Devonshire, Canon Farrar, Sir Joseph Hooker, Mr. Wm. Spottiswoode, Pres. R. 8., Earl of Derby, Duke of Argyle. D 42 HALF-HOURS IN THE GREEN LANES. By G. B. RAWCLIFFE, March 18th, 1888. This paper consisted of a description of a series of rambles round Burnley in 1887, written chiefly from the field naturalist’s point of view, as will be seen from the following selections :— “Tt isa dull morning in May, 8-30a.m., the only hopeful sion I can discover to encourage me on starting my rural ramble to-day, is a throstle singing merrily on the roof of a house near Bank Top Station; but the moment I am away in the green fields, ‘‘ with the feeling of the breeze upon my face, the feeling of the turf beneath my feet, and no walls but the far-off mountain tops’’ then am I once more myself, and all weathers are alike enjoyable to me, wet or dry, sunshine or storm, all are equally delightful in their way: the sombre aspects of nature, the sad- ness and the melancholy are as dear as the bluest sky, and the brightest sunlight ; ‘I twine the willow with the vine, as moves the world through shade and shine.” Strolling along the quiet slopes of this Salterforth Valley, I listen to the lark, ‘the shrill voiced messenger of morn,” singing overhead; the corn crake invisible in the grass gives out his hollow note; a small bird sitting on the topmost bough of a melancholy old ash (whose trunk is covered with knotted and warty twigs) sings ‘twee, twee, twee, twitter, twitter, twee, with a regularity of repetition that indicates the limit of his song; the voice of the pewit on the hills to the left, blends with the goggle, goggle, goggle, of the turkeys away in the valley below; the roosters in the farm yards, with defiant voices send forth their challenges from hill to hill the cows in the distant homesteads call plaintively to each other, the rumble of invisible cartwheels in the ruts of some distant lane, the mingled song and twitter of the sparrows, the chirp, chirp, of the blackbird; these and the faint low murmurs of the gentle wind playing soft «olian airs in the bare branches of the trees are all the quiet rural sounds that break the solemn still- ness of this Sabbath morn. Of flowers, the lesser celandine, that modest little yellow flower, ‘‘ that comes before the swallow dares,” is here in plenty under the wet trees; and the larger kind, the marsh-marigold, lifts its shining yellow cups from out the ditches. The delicate pale pink flowers of the wood-anenone, are dotted over the dull grass and dead leaves in the dingles, and in contrast with the young green needles of the larch, form as great a charm to my eyes as does the beautiful cascade, whose roar I have heard in the distance, and whose waters I have followed thus far to see. The guelder rose or snowball tree, as it is called in res. 43 its cultivated state, and the mountain ash or rowan tree, are now both in full leaf, and their blossoms in bud. I saw a splendid example of the mountain ash a few weeks ago in Blackhill Woods, above Sabden. I estimated its height to be not less than forty- five feet; it is the tallest I have ever seen. There, too, I heard the plaintive ‘‘coo-goo-roo-o0” of the ringdove, and, following the sounds, found its broken white eggs at the foot of a larch, the handiwork probably of some mischievous urchin, or possibly of the jay or some other bird. The tender young leaves of the beach, of a most charming golden green just bursting from the bud, are found to be packed three or four together, all neatly and beautifully folded from the centre outwards like a lady’s fan; every branching vein of the leaf forming a fold in the fan, and all cased in a handle or sheath of rich coppery red and orange, while the edges of the leaves, (as is oftimes also the fashion in fans,) are bordered with a delicate silvery fringe. The unopened buds, long and sharply pointed, with orange and gold tips, are equally charming to look upon when examined in detail. Here in Barlick Park are some curious old hawthorns, one about thirty feet high and almost as upright and straight growing as a Lombardy poplar; and several others with their ancient trunks intertwined about each other in a most eccentric manner. Near Barden Tower there are several thorns from forty to fifty feet high ; there is one about fifty feet high by the river-side near Broughton Hall Lodge ; and another fine tree in Alkincoats Park, whose spread of branches is over forty yards in circumference. There are also several fine specimens in Mr. Ralph Assheton’s grounds, near Downham; and in the village of Waddington is to be seen a fair-sized hawthorn tree growing both red and white blossoms ; it has two trunks, but both kinds of blossom grow from each trunk. The season generally being a late one, I ramble down to Paythorne Bridge, thinking I may yet be in time to see the salmon descending tail foremost to the sea; but though I “linger on the bridge” a full half-hour, gazing intently into the waters below, I see only the black-backed trout, darting hither and thither at the bottom, and their counter-parts the martins with their glossy purple backs and white tail coverts, glancing to and fro, a few feet above its surface, and occasionally dipping their beaks into it; some silently intent upon their prey, and others joyfully twittering as they fly, the latter probably sending a love-note to their mates sitting on their new-made nests, under the eaves of the adjacent cottage, or possibly under- neath the arches of the bridge, for as our ‘‘ sweet Shakespeare ”’ says, ‘‘ No jutty, frieze, buttress, nor coigne of vantage, but this bird hath made his pendent bed and procreant cradle; where they most breed and haunt, I have observed the air is delicate.’’ These birds are the common house martins; the sand martin is 44 a scarcer and smaller bird, being less than five inches in total length. I have not seen the latter for some years, but as a boy I remember a colony of them building in the upright sandbanks in Pickup Delph, but I believe for one summer only. I climbed up or down, I forget which, to the only one of their nests that was assailable, and on putting my arm into the hole, I remember the shock it gave me on touching the dead bodies of the young ones, cold and clammy. Possibly the situation was damp and did not suit them, hence their departure. The swallow, also, with its straight elongated tail feathers and pretty chestnut head and throat, used, I believe, to be found in this neighbourhood, but I have not observed it during the last seven years. I remember many years ago some birds of the swallow tribe used to build every summer under the eaves of the Bull Inn and the Old Red Lion, and also of several houses in Westgate, but I cannot say whether they were swallows, house-martins, or swifts. The swift is the largest of the swallow tribe, but he is not nearly so handsome as his relatives; his length is about seven inches, but his wings when closed are one inch longer than his tail ; this circumstance renders the swift unable to rise from the ground, if, as I have occasionally seen him, he happens to alight in a hollow place, a dusty cart rut for instance, for the purpose of smothering a parasite with which he is much infested. I have picked up several in this plight, and have always found this little red parasite on the lower parts of their bodies. The wild carrot has several allies, very similar to itself, as the water dropwort, the parsnip or foolsparsley, the hemlock, &c., all, I believe, poisonous to man, but very acceptable to butterflies. They are great favourites with the Vanesside, #.e., with the large and gorgeous coloured tribe of butterflies, and also with a pretty little fly called the orange tip. This latter, I believe, frequents the plant for protection as well as for food; the top side of its wings are white, and the male has large patches of orange colour at the tips, rendering it very conspicuous; but the undersides of both male and female are white, mottied with green. When the insect alights on the flower-head of an umbelliferous plant it raises its wings erect and exposes the underside only; these bear such a close resemblance to the flowers on which it is feed- ing that a novice cannot see the insect even when it is pointed out to him. This law of imitation is very strong in butterflies, the brightly-coloured peacock butterfly, for instance. when at rest will often seem to disappear mysteriously by simply closing its wings over its back and showing the underside only, which, looking like brown decayed leaves, become blended with the surrounding foliage. The angular wings of the yellow brimstone, also, are veined and coloured on the underside exactly like a 45 faded autumn leaf. I remember once seeing a large red under- wing moth fly across a lawn; whilst on the wing he seemed a mass of brilliant red and white; distinctly seeing him alight on the trunk of a birch tree I ran up to it, keeping my eyes fixed on the spot all the time, but on my arrival he appeared to have mysteriously vanished. I put my face within twelve inches of the trunk and searched it most minutely, but in vain; a few ants crawling up it were all I could discover, when, turning away in disgust, I fancied I saw a bit of the birch bark move slightly upwards ; this bit of birch turned out to be the moth, an insect measuring three inches from tip to tip of wing. The lower wings are white, with scarlet and black bands; the upper wings, which when at rest entirely cover. and conceal the others, are a mottled grey, the colour of birch bark. Again, another case comes to my memory. On any fine day in June I can show you in Delamere Forest a number of small birch trees not more than six or seven feet high; you shall stare at them for five minutes, and see nothing but shining green leaves dancing in the sunlight, but amongst these green leaves I can see a dozen green butter- flies, the exact size of the leaves, flirting themselves about, and strutting and promenading like fantail pigeons. I have found them in the same spot for many years in succession. When you blow a ‘‘ lady clock’’ or dandelion head covered with seeds, ‘‘ to see what o'clock it is,” a number of little silken plumes float away on the wind. Similar plumes are blown from the tops of thistles, they are the seeds of the thistle, borne away by the wind. There is a little moth called the twenty-plume moth, because its wings are unlike other moths, being broken up into twenty separate plumes; this moth closely resembles, and is just the size of, the thistle seeds referred to. The Duke of Argyle says that he has watched this moth feed on the flowers of the thistle, and then, when a gust of wind has come, allow itself to be borne away on the wind along with the seeds,. but, instead of falling to the ground, adroitly alighting on other flower heads, and proceeding with its feast. He argues that this is done to escape detection by insect feed- ing birds. This may be, and probably is, the case; but, on the other hand, if there are any goldfinches or other birds in the neighbourhood that feed on thistle seeds, the moth’s device will certainly bring about its own destruction, as the goldfinch devours insects also. I have never seen the twenty-plume on flowers, but only fluttering like a fly or a gnat against windows; it has a habit of frequenting outhouses ; but I have noticed that a number of the large white-plume moths, when on the wing, look just like snow flakes, so lightly do they fall through the air. The eggs of the cuckoo are very variable in colour, and are said to greatly approximate to the colour of the eggs already in the 46 nest in which they are laid. This doctrine or law of imitation, as it is called, is very attractive to students of natural history, who occasionally push it to such a degree that they unknowingly invent facts to square with their theories. For instance, the editor of Science Gossip says, ‘‘the orange-tip butterfly lays its eggs on yellow cruciferous plants, hence we see the benefit of the deep reddish yellow tip to the wings to avoid detection, &e.”” Now, as a fact, it is the male only which has this yellow tip, and, of course, he lays no eggs, but the female, a small, white butterfly, lays her eggs on the pale pink cuckoo flower or cardamine pratensis, and, I believe, on no other plant; in fact, the butterfly is called Huchloe Cardamines in consequence. It is now the month of June, and as I know the lanes around Newby and Rimington will be full of primroses, I wander forth in that direction. At Duckpits the pure pendent blossoms of the bird cherry, and the bright blue of the wild hyacinths make gay the woodland shades. The common white butterflies are fluttering in the fields, the leaves and also the beautiful waxlike flowers of the horse-chestnut, are nearly but not quite in full blow, and very tender and beautiful they are to look upon. The sparkling dewdrops fill the chalices of the wild rose; the wood- bine blossoms red and yellow on the hedge tops or climbs away up the ash or the elder tree, out of the reach of rude pilfering hands; the large white convolvulus creeps along and festoons the hedgerows, its elegant white flowers turning ever towards the sun. A pair of late martins are busy gathering mud in the lanes, wherewith to build their nests, but the starlings more advanced are already feeding their young; a little black moth called the chimney-sweep is flying in plenty in the meadows, a green-veined butterfly I am watching alights on a daisy, but it is too small or too frail to carry him, and he overbalances and flies away. A large black insect looking like a large bee, but in reality the great Dor Beetle, describes a circling flight like a pigeon, and alights and buries herself under a heap of cowsdung lying in the lane, there doubtless intending to bore a perpendicular tunnel twelve inches deep in which to lay an egg. e This season is so far said to be the driest we have had for thirty years, and although the primroses in this ditch at the foot of Rimington Moor are very abundant, I notice that they are much smaller and shorter in the stem than last year. In Shrop- shire I have often counted fifty to sixty good long-stemmed flowers on a single root; and used to like nothing better than to push my fingers in amongst the cool wet stems, for the sake of the delicious perfume. There too I have found foxgloves and teazles over eight feet high, being the tallest I have ever either seen or read of ; seven feet being considered something remark- able. 47 The lanes around Salem, Howgill, Newby and Rimington are as lovely as any in Lancashire, the beautiful contrasts of colour in the large masses of ‘‘ forget-me-nots,” ‘primroses, wild orchids, ragged robins, red and white campions, &c., growing in such rich abundance on the hedgebanks and lane sides, is a sight never to be forgotten, Later on, the beautiful mealy primrose, ‘‘ primula farinosa.”’ is also to be found in the neighbourhood. The white campions by the way open only in the evening and are sweet scented, but the coloured ones are open all day long, and scentless. The hedges are all aglow with the rich pink and white petals of the crab apple and the pendulous blossoms of the bird cherry; the latter tumbling like little cataracts of snow, adown the gentle slopes of their green leaves. Standing on the little wooden bridge at Howgill, where the brook crosses the lane, you may see the finest bird cherry in this county, it over- hangs the stream and its lovely image is clearly reflected on the placid waters, reminding one of Lowell’s lines ‘‘ a dogrose blush- ing to a brook, aint modester nor sweeter.’’ This tree is worthy of a special visit when in full bloom; its odour is delightful, being very like that of the lime tree, only more heavily laden with honey. et Be Tier ae) ots fe Lorie till “te Se (aa Sl Bel Dieta The cuckoo is now (June 12th) in full song, calling continu- ously. The woods at Whalley Nab, Moreton Hall, and Clerk Hill as viewed from near Cock Bridge, being in full leaf are a ‘picture to behold.’”’ The view down the river from the cliff opposite Moreton Hall with the Nab on the left, and Waddington Fells away in the distance, forms one of the most striking bits of scenery in this district. This blue flower growing in the ditches and so often taken for the ‘‘forget-me-not” is called ‘brook-lime,” its flowers are a darker blue and without the pretty pale yellow centre which contrasts so beautifully with the light blue petals of the true ‘‘forget-me-not.’’ The hop plant with twining tendrils and light green vine-shaped leaves is trail- ing along the hedges; and here and there are the pretty black and yellow caterpillars of the magpie moth feeding on the hazel, being the only’instance of the kind I have ever known or heard of, their natural food being the currant leaf. They are busily at work, but the moment my hand approaches, they fall apparently dead on the leaf, and allow me to tumble them about without showing any signs of life. I believe it is not generally known that this instinct is common to the cater- pillars as well as to the fully developed insect. Drinking from a stone trough on the road side I have an opportunity of watching a diving beetle perform his aquatic evolutions, coming occasionly to the surface to take in fresh supplies of air, which he carries safely down again under cover 48 of his horny wings, having invented the diving bell ages before ever mankind dreamed of such a thing. Aa Sa he a The finest fir tree in this neighbourhood stands near the bridge at Old Read Mill, and growing out of the walls of this picturesque old bridge may be seen some fair-sized specimens of the sycamore, elm, mountain ash, dog rose, elder, and ivy, all of which spring from the crevices in the masonry, where their seeds have been blown by the wind or carried by birds, Leaning over the bridge and looking down into the fork ot the elder tree I observe half a dozen yellow-edged mouths gaping up at me and calling lustily for food. I put my hand down towards them when the instinct of fear sends them flying in all directions, probably their first venture on the wing. The parent birds are evidently away foraging, or there would be a pretty clatter, for [ know of no bird that so strongly resents interference with her domestic arrangements as does the female blackbird. A pair of them have been known to compel a prowling cat to beat an ignominious retreat. In the ivied gable of an old barn I count fourteen birds’ nests, most of them starlings, judging by the straws hanging out. I throw a stone and sixteen birds fly out at short intervals. Tempted by the beauty of numerous great-clumps of ferns on # background of bluebells, I make a small detour into Black Hill Woods, and come very near treading on a poor song thrush, which by some means has lost one of its legs and become too exhausted to fly. Emerging from these woods, in which I observe both pheasants and wood pigeons, and at their outskirts numerous coveys of partridges, I arrive at Sabden Top, from whence, standing just below the quarry, I have a splendid view in the direction of Burnley, a foreground of yellow gorse, than which nothing can be more effective, against blue hazy distances such as are seen at sundown only. The gorse, or whin, as it is sometimes called, grows best on a sandy soil; probably ‘‘ Whin” Hill at the bottom of ‘‘Sandy”’ Gate owes its title to this charming shrub, and was once lighted up with its golden glory. Hven I, who am not yet the oldest inhabitant, can well remember the blossoms of the apple, the pear, the lilac and laburnum growing in the gardens, or orchard as it was then called, at the foot of this same ‘‘Whin” Hill, and tall fir trees, and a jungle of long grass in the street now called ‘‘ Crow Nest.” The next date I find recorded in my diary is the 21st of June, the day set apart for celebrating the fiftieth year of her Majesty’s reign. How can one celebrate it better than by an afternoon’s ramble in the green fields, and how can this be done more readily and charmingly than by wandering along the banks of 49 Pendle Water—commencing at Duckpits if you will, or, better still, at Barrowford Higher Bridge. Here, not far from the river side, is the largest oak tree in this district; the main trunk is seventeen feet in girth at the thinnest part, and from this, branch out eight or nine other trunks, each as large as an average oak tree. Close by is also a very fine willow. The pale pink flowers of the passion dock present a charming patch of colour in this cool corner of the meadow, where in the shadow of the trees, I lie down to rest; a large humble bee is busily intoxicating him- self with the juices of the common bugle; the purple loose strife and the blue forget-me-not are growing in sweet companionship by the river's edge, but the alder trees overhead present a curious and phenomenal appearance. The undersides of their leaves are covered with a thick white fluff. A similar fluff but of a greenish cast, is on the sycamore trees, whilst the mountain ash is afflicted with another of a slaty colour; the trees for miles are covered with it. If you ask the farmer he will say, ‘‘ Oh it is a blight,” but if you examine it for yourself you will find the leaves swarming with millions of aphides, such as you occasionally see on rose leaves, excepting that the whoolly aphis does not exude honey-dew—-as does the green one—and that here they are of three distinct varieties each on its own particular food plant; and hiding from the birds or other enemies under cover of this peculiar fluffy substance, which they manufacture for their own protection; and which to some extent imitates the natural down that is found on the underside of the white poplar, ‘that with silver lines his leaf,” the white beam tree, the wayfaring tree, and several others. I examine leaf after leaf until eventually I find one foe, who will reduce their numbers by thousands; at present he has gorged himself until he lies helpless and ready to burst: this is the larve of the common “lady-cow” or ‘ lady- bird,” a pretty little beetle that we are all familiar with. But lady-birds and the two-winged yellow barred flies that we see hovering about currant and gooseberry bushes, and which look like so many miniature wasps, must be very scarce about here, or these aphides could never have increased to such an enormous extent, although they are amongst the most prolific creatures in the universe, and this notwithstanding that they neither ‘‘ marry nor are given in marriage,” they simply eat, and drop young ones whilst eating, they have no time for anything else; the young instantly fall into rank at the bottom of the group and commence eating and eventually dropping other young ones. Alphonse Karr says, one aphis will produce nearly twenty young ones in the course of a day, i.e. a volume equal to ten or twelve times its own body. A single aphis which in the beginning of the season would produce ninety young ones, which ninety, twelve days afterwards would each produce ninety more, would aD) 50 be in the fifth generation the author of 5,904,009,000 aphides. Now this is only the fifth generation. but one aphis is in a year a source of twenty generations, so that it seems doubtful whether all the trees in the world would hold them; but do not be alarmed, one poppy plant produces 82,000 seeds, one tobacco plant 360,000; a carp lays 350,000 eggs at once, which are devoured by other fishes and insects. Death is the aliment of life; these aphides are the game that nourish other insects, which in time form the food of the birds we eat, then we are returned to the elements and serve to nourish the grass and the flowers, which in time feed other aphides, and so the mill goes round. The water wagtails are busy wading in the shallows searching for food, and flirting their tails from side to side with an air of complacent satisfaction; upon the hill-slopes are two larger birds, looking not unlike wagtails in the distance, but which I know to be magpies, having seen them about the same spot a few weeks previous. A two hours’ ramble over the moors brings me in view of the most brilliant sunset I have ever witnessed in these northern latitudes. The sky over Longridge Fells appears to be literally on fire, the thin horizontal red and orange lines of cloud across the setting sun look like bars of red hot iron, cooling away into purple as they recede, whilst the steep end of Pendle on my left is smothered in a delicate pink haze. It seems as if all nature rejoiced to celebrate this day of jubilee. ‘“‘Ah! what a scene was that, and what repose, And what bright splendour in the burning west ; The glorious sun low dropping to his rest, While incense-like the soft mists gently rose To do her homage at the day-light’s close; The birds entranced and all the wind repressed.” And then as the last long lingering rays drop down behind the distant hills, the clumps of heather about my feet grow blacker and blacker; the stone walls rise up, and stand out dark and grim against the fading light still lingering in the sky ; the even- ing moths dart past as swiftly as if impelled from catapults, and the sleepy partridges fly off with a low whirr, annoyed at being disturbed at such an untimely hour, then on a sudden there comes a faint shout from the top of Pendle, a blaze of light and a great cloud of thick black smoke, and the old beacon is once more aflame; the Weets at Barlick, the Fells of Newton and Longridge, Hambledon, Castor Cliff, and several others, send the story on from hill to hill; and the unusual spectacle fills me with a weird sense of wonderment, as I wander homeward through the blackness of the night. It is now the month of August, and a hot summer’s day, such as I love to be out in, and as there is no breeze the sight and 51 sound of water is all the more refreshing. Peering cautiously over the high banks of the pond at Heasandford, I pause for a few minutes to silently watch the movements of the water- fowl. They are wary birds, and to see them in their wild state you must be yourself unseen. Although in every sense a waterbird and a good swimmer and diver, the water-hen is not web-footed like the coot and dabchick. I never saw the latter in Lancashire, but one summer’s evening, when bathing in the Severn, I took a dive in at one side of the river and came up at the opposite side close by a bed of long reeds when, to my astonishment, I found myself surrounded by a dozen little fluffy creatures swimming on the surface, and greatly astonished and excited they were at my impertinence. They were too young to be identified by their plumage, but, taking one in my hand, I recognised the strange-looking feet, like minature horse chestnut leaves, which proved them to be either the coot or the dabchick, but probably the latter. ‘The corncrake is very common around Burnley, but being such a shy bird is seldom seen. About a month ago I came upon one sud- denly at the turning of a lane a few miles beyond Clitheroe. On the same journey I saw several specimens of the heron, and the kingfisher, which may both be seen any day in summer on the Ribble and the Hodder. Sitting on the banks of the former, one day last summer I was surprised at the boldness and apparent tameness of a kingfisher which kept alighting on a stone in the river in front of me; happening to look down at the shingle below where [ sat I saw some broken egg-shells, which having hatched out had been ejected from a hole in the bank where I was sitting and dangling my heels; the bird’s tameness was thus accounted for by the fact that she wanted to enter her _ nest, but could not whilst I mounted guard over it. The air to-day is perfectly still, and the trees are filled with the hum of insects’ wings; if you stand and listen you imagine there must be millions of them, and as you look up and see them swarming around the tree tops you feel sure of it. Very often you will find the tree to be a sycamore covered with the sweet sticky substance exuded by the common green aphides. The flies have been feasting on this and now they are having a grand ball; dancing and providing the music at the same time. Often on a day like this you may see a column of gnats or midges, as they are called, dancing in the air in thousands forming a column two or three yards long by half a yard in diameter. Although it is broad daylight, and the hot hour of noon, the rabbits are out feeding in considerable numbers; possibly it is hot in their burrows and the green herbage is refreshing to them. I came upon them suddenly one day, whilst chasing a sandpiper, they had crossed the brook to nibble in the fields and my sudden 52 appearance caused them to take to the water again and swim across it to get back to their native woods. It was the first time I had seen rabbits swim. Before you enter the woods from this brook there rises a steep rocky slope right away up to Monk Hall quarry; all amongst the loose stones grows the common yellow ragwort in great profusion; this plant growing on the sandhills at Blackpool provides food for the beautiful black and yellow barred caterpillar of the Cinnabar moth; one plant of which may be swarming with these grubs, yet they will be invisible to the ordinary observer on account of their ‘‘ imitative- ness’’ of colour. The beautiful tortoise-shell butterflies are feeding on the rag- worts at present; these are the commonest and most domesti- cated of the vanesside or variegated kinds. I saw one in my garden in Manchester Road yesterday. The peacock butterfly, which is larger and rarer, also pays me a visit occasionally; I saw one there as late as October the 8th, last year. While naming local butterflies I may say that in addition to the meadow brown, the three whites and the tortoiseshell and peacock, I have seen the red admiral, near Gisburne; the painted lady at Ribchester, Thornton, and Hurstwood, the common blue at Waddington and at Raweliffe fold, near Dinckley, and the small heath, on Pendle and Newton Fells; whilst the large poplar hawk moth has been taken inside the Exchange Hotel, and that rarest of so-called British moths (cheriocampa celerio) was taken about four years ago in Burnley Market-place by Mr. Sutcliffe, draper, and is now in my collection. A specimen taken the same week at Leamington was offered in the Hachange and Mart for two guineas. It is really an Italian moth, and, doubt- less came to Burnley in a box of grapes. The moths whose caterpillars created such alarm at Clitheroe and Whalley in 1881 were the common gamma, or silver Y moths, still plentiful in this district. But I must close; and if there should be one of my hearers who henceforth will learn to look with more loving eyes upon the alder growing by the brook, and the birch tree ‘“ peeling silverly ;’’ to hail with more enchanting joy, “ the fair blooming of the hawthorn tree, which finely clothed in a robe of white, fills full the wanton eye with May’s delight,” or who henceforth will listen with more intense pleasure to ‘‘the thrush that carols at the dawn of day from the green steeples of the piny wood,” as well as to ‘all the throng that dwell in nests, and have the gift of song,” my long and wearisome paper will not have been written in vain. 53 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE AND TOWN REFUSE. By COUNCILLOR PARKINSON, March 20th, 1888. After explaining what is included in the name Sewage and shewing that the practice of storing human waste near dwellings, whether in stone tanks, pot tanks, pails or earth closets, is wrong in principle, and a fruitful source of nuisance and disease, the reader remarked that water carriage to some outside place appears to be the future permanent method of removal, and the various recently patented self-flushing waste-water closets seem to offer an economical carrier. What then is to be done with it? Seaport towns have suffered from the discharge of sewage into the sea, and inland towns have been compelled by the Local Government Board and Rivers Pollution Commissioners to cease polluting our streams with untreated Sewage. The main object in the treatment of Sewage is to prevent this matter being a nuisance, or a disease propagator. Another aim ig as far as possible to utilize the known valuable manurial elements contained therein. Theoretically the value of crude Sewage as a manure according to Hoffman, Tidy, and Denton, &c., is about 2d. per ton; this would represent £10,000 a year to Burnley, and several million pounds to London. In practice it may be said that in all cases that this mine of wealth does not pay for the cost of working, and the attempts to extract the phosphates and ammonia, &c., have not as yet been commercially successful. Lieut.-Col. Hope, Bailly Denton and others have advocated and laid out farms in Romford, Rugby, Birmingham, Barnsley, &c., upon which crude Sewage is received. The liquid passes through the soil, and the solids are dug in, but in nearly all cases the cost is out of all proportion to the crops realised, and the land becomes sewage-sick unless great skill is brought to bear in rotation of crops and giving occasional rest to the land. The smell from these farms is a constant nuisance, and crude sewage farming has been declared a failure. Col. Hope, the father of crude sewage farming, himself says ‘‘For many reasons the heaviest solids ought to be taken out before the Sewage is dis- tributed over the land, and their extraction should be made compulsory by Act of Parliament.” The Parliamentary Committee on the Birmingham Sewerage Bill in 1872 allowed the Bill to pass on the express condition that ‘‘No Sewage be put upon any land without having been previously defcecated in tanks.” Experiments of all kinds have been tried, freezing and heating, concentration and dilution, oxidizing and deoxidising, ferments and preventers of fermentation; electrization and magnetism; 54 and one of the most interesting experiments is now being tried by Mr. W. Webster, F.C.S., who by means of electricity only, has on a small scale, succeeded in throwing up the solids to the surface in a few minutes and leaving a clear water below. He, however, is asking permission to try his process on the London Sewage at Crossness, and it will be interesting to see the result. The treatment of Sewage naturally divides itself into three parts. (1) The separation of solid and suspended impurities from the liquid portion. (2) The purification of the effluent water. (3) The treatment and disposal of the semi-solid residue, called ‘‘ Sludge.” These processes require large impervious tanks to receive the Sewage at the outfall works, and machinery to carry on pumping and other operations. Subsidence is the simplest form of separation during a period of rest in the tanks, but it is found that much of the lighter suspended matter and all the matters in solution passed into the river and rendered it highly putrid, besides wasting most of the valuable fertilizing ingredients. Straining or Mechanical Filtration has been tried. Gravel was used at Ludlow and East Barnet; gorse and broken stones at Ulverston; charcoal, coke and ashes at Bacup, and other places; an iron slag filter at Merthyr Tydvil; straw, cocoa-nut matting, peat, unglazed porcelain, &c., have been used, but they very soon choked up and all of them permitted the escape of a foul effluent which could not be tolerated by the Local Government Board. Chemical Precipitation has greatly assisted in the separation of the solid portions and part of the matters in suspense and solution; and is now generally practised. The action is partially mechanical and partially chemical, forming insoluble compounds which sink with the solids. A curious result, however, often occurs, namely, that the chemical introduced has actually in- creased the impurity of the liquid portion by dissolving sub- stances that were before only in suspension. Some substances such as oils, fats, essences, salt, and gas-works refuse, resist precipitation, and it is greatly to be regretted that the ammoniacal salts and alkaline nitrates and phosphates are not precipitable, as their retention would greatly increase the value of the sludge as manure. The precipitants most generally used are lime, iron and alumina, besides these, permanganate of potash, ferrous carbon, charcoal, ashes, clay, black ash, tar, &¢., have been employed, Lime at present seems to be the sheet-anchor of nearly all Sewage Works, either alone or with some of the salts of iron or alumina; the proportion used varying from 5 to 10 or 15 grains per gallon. The effluent water, after the best chemical treatment, may be clarified, but it is not purified, and contains three-fourths of the 55 original impurities, and a second decomposition is set up after mixing with the stream, especially if so much lime or other agent has been used as to render the effluent alkaline. In a river of large volume (say, twenty times the volume of the effluent) a flow of very many miles would be required to partially purify itself again ; and in a small stream purification is impossible. It is an open question whether a second chemical treatment of the effluent alone with the manganate of potash or soda, or other oxidising agent, and a long flow in an open channel might not render it sufficiently pure to be admitted into the river at the sacrifice of the manurial ingredients destroyed. This, however, does not appear to have been tried. The treatment which most commends itself to sewage autho- rities, and which is favoured by the Local Government Board, is to filter the effluent through land, not over it. The soils most suitable for the purpose, according to Denton, Tidy, Bateman, &¢., are sandy loam, or loamy clay, or stiffish loam, and it is all the better if the soil contains iron, as at Coventry. The quantity of land required will depend upon whether it is to be used as a filter alone, irrespective of the value of crops, or whether it is intended to raise crops so as to recoup the cost of working. In the former case, an acre for every 5000 of population would suffice, but in the latter various estimates are formed from 100 - to 1000 per acre of a fully water-closeted town. The land is intersected with drains at a depth of five to six or seven feet, according to the situation and soil, which enter a main drain leading to the outfall. The surface is laid out in ridge and furrow, and divided into several plots, so that the sewage water can flow for a few hours on each plot alternately, by means of sluices, which can be shut or opened as required. Italian Rye Grass, on account of its enormous appetite for water, and rapid growth, is a specially suitable crop; five crops per year being easily raised. Mangolds, beetroot, turnips, cabbages, rhubarb, &c., may also be cultivated. Animals fed upon sewage-grown crops are as healthy and well fed and free from disease as those fed on other produce ; the milk and butter and flesh of cows are in no way inferior. The action of the soil is twofold. First—It acts as a simple filter, retaining particles in suspension, Second—It is a chemi- cal laboratory. Franklin, Warrington, Muntz and Pasteur have shewn that the ammonia and nitrates and organic matter are oxidised by the agency of oxygen and living organisms in the soil, which feed upon the sewage, destroying its noxious charac- ter, and evolving nitric acid and carbonic acid, &c., for the sustenance of vegetation. This process of nitrification or oxida- tion is most interesting, and Mr. Dibden, a great authority on sewage says, he has not the slightest doubt that in future, where 56 land cannot be obtained, the proper way to treat sewage will be to keep the effluent neutral and turn into it a charge of these bacteria specially cultivated for the purpose ; and, after a sufficient time has elapsed, pass a really purified effluent into the river. The sludge in the bottom of the tanks which, theoretically, should be of great value, has, in practice, been a difficult thing to deal with, and very seldom pays the cost of treating. In most cases it. has been allowed to lie on the ground to drain and evaporate till it could be carted to the farm for manure; in others, baked to dry it more quickly, causing an abominable stench; it has been carted to sea; burnt with ashes to make clinkers for road making, and used in making cement, &c. During the last few years, however, sludge presses have come into general use, the presses most used being Johnson’s, Man- love's and Drake’s. ‘The principle of all these presses is that the sludge is forced by direct action pumps or compressed air into cavities at 60 to 100 lbs. pressure, and the liquid escapes through strong cloth or cocoa-nut matting, leaving a solid cake of sludge behind, easily handled, almost free from smell and not liable to ferment. It is more valuable also as a manure than when baked. Since the paper was read, the writer and the other members of the Burnley Sewage Sub-Committee have visited several towns, and decided on important alterations in the Burnley Sewage Works, including the purchase of sixty-five acres of land for filtration purposes, and the purchase of four of Johnson’s presses which are now being fixed for the treatment of the two million gallons of sewage delivered at Duck-pits daily. BURNLEY STREET NAMES. By W. LEWIS GRANT, March 27th, 1888. After some observations upon Burnley in the early part of this century, the reader observed that the word ‘gate”’ in Hastgate (now Yorkshire Street) and Westgate meant ‘ road.” The paper indicated the line followed by the old road which passed through Burnley from West to Hast, prior to the days when the new roads were constructed under the Blackburn, Addingham, and Cocking End Trust. Modern methods have named the leading roads diverging from the town after the places reached by them, and some antique titles have accordingly been dismissed, 57 The street and district names afford abundant evidence of the enlargement of our town, and its encroachment on the surround- ing country. The names “The Park” and ‘“‘ The Meadows” and the frequent occurrence of the word “ Lane” remind us of the country scenes amidst which our forefathers dwelt. The fortunes which have attended the name “ Burnley Lane” were alluded to, and reference was then made to the former appropriate- ness of such names as Croft, Healey Wood, Oak Mount, Crow Nest. These and many other titles remain as memorials of the period when most of the land now thickly studded with houses and mills was park and pasture, farm and garden. The Rivers which intersect the town have given names to Streets, and the reader suggested that Brown Street should be strictly Brun Street, and Brown Hill, Brun Hill. Other street names derived from the natural features of the place were men- tioned, such as Bank Parade, Hill Top, Rakefoot, Sandygate. A large and interesting class is that in which the names owe their origin to the owners of the land whereon the streets were formed. By the aid of the Street Names one could roughly parcel out the land covered by the town, and allot the divisions to those who at one time or other owned them. Recognized upon our sign-boards are Hargreaves, Ormerod, Hamerton, Halstead, Grimshawe, Curzon, &c. Some interesting particulars were stated respecting many of the names of our landed gentry found embodied in street appellations. The Church exercises an influence over street-nomenclature and gives us our Church Street, St. Peter’s Street, &e., and in Raws, Robert, Mosley and Master Streets they had remembrances of former clergy of the Parish Church. Mr. Grant next examined the names Parsonage Street and Bankhouse Street, and here we quote the reader’s remarks : “‘Something ought to be said respecting the title Parsonage Street, even though it has been relegated to obscurity by the Improvement Committee,—Curzon Street taking its place. The street received its name from the old house—colloquially known as ‘The Parsonage,” though its correct name is ‘“‘ Bank House.” The street adjoining is called after it—Bankhouse Street. It has been known as the Parsonage because some forty or fifty years ago it was made the abode of Assistant Curates of the Parish Church. Now the late Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, in his “ History of the Parochial Church of Burnley,” and algo in his account of Benefactions to Burnley Church compiled for the later editions of “‘ Whitaker’s History of Whalley,” assumes that this building was the original Parsonage, and asserts that the Rev. Richard Kippax, incumbent, built the cross portion or front. Let us briefly examine this matter. About the year 1696 the house which was the Parsonage (not Bank House) was given to F 58 Burnley Church. The house and estate of Bank House did not become Church property until thirty-six years afterwards, in 1732, so that there was no need for it to become the Parsonage when one was already possessed. The cross part in front of the house, which is said by Mr. Wilkinson to have been built by the Rev. R. Kippax must necessarily have belonged to the Parsonage, and not Bank House; for Bank House was not bought for the Church until nine years after Mr. Kippax’s death, in 1723. There is certainly a date on the head of the rain-pipe in front of Bank House with the date 1721 thereon, which was during Mr. Kippax’s incumbency, but the initials “‘ H.H.,’’ shew the owner- ship, Henry Halsted (the Rev. Henry Halsted, the generous donor of a large part of the Grammar School Library). It is not likely that the Incumbent would erect a substantial addition to a building cwned by someone else. The original Parsonage was undoubtedly the building which stood by the banks of the Brun, between the Court House in Keighley Green and the River. The building was not wholly demolished thirty-five years ago, and was known to old inhabitants of the town as the ‘“*Old Parsonage.” In 1800, we find from the Rate-book of that year, that the old Parsonage House and Grounds were occupied by one Luke Hastwood, a manufacturer (1 ac. Or. 34}p.) the owner being stated as Dr. Collins, incumbent. Now in the same book appears Mr. Rothwell as occupier of Bank House and lands (80 ac. Or. 34 p.) the owner being also Dr, Collins. The clergy lived in neither house. In the early part of this century two of the incumbents were non-resident, and the assistant- curate, the Rev. J. Raws, who was also Master of the Grammar School, lived first on Grammar School property, at a house next to the Hall Inn—the White House—and then at a house described in the Directory of 1824, as No. 1, Park Street. This house he built for himself. The premises are now Bank Top Inn. In the 3ame year there resided at Bank House a Mr. Blake, teacher at vhe Grammar School. The last occupant of the Old Parsonage was Jeremiah Eastwood. Close by the site there subsequently arose the Mills bearing the title ‘‘ Parsonage Mills.”” That name could not have been derived from the Bank House Parsonage. And the street now called Massey Street was familiarly known as Parsonage Street as it was the approach to the Parsonage. On Merryweather’s map of 1841, the street afterwards named Par- sonage Street is marked Curzon Street. It is however called Parsonage Street in the Ordnance map of 1851. ‘The building is shewn on Fishwick’s map, 1827, and also on the Ordnance map.” : Mr. Grant next gave illustrations of street names derived from residences and public-houses. A great proportion of street names repeated the Christian name or Surname of the lessee of the 59 land, the builder of houses or other property forming the street, and some interesting facts were quoted in giving instances. Amongst miscellaneous names, was mentioned Mill Lane, now Bridge Street, which derived its name from the Old Soke Mill, a building erected in feudal times, and parts of which still exist. Other names such as Engine Street, Coal Street, Gas Street, . Barrack Street, (now Cooper Street,) were examined, and the paper then alluded to that large class which perpetuates names of favourite warriors, statesmen and travellers. A good deal is told us on the corners of our streets of national glory, state-craft and enterprise, and in some cases these names enable us to fix the approximate date of the rearing of the buildings. The names of some of the old streets speak of the patriotism of the people. They have handed down to us, King Street, Queen Street, Charlotte Street, Hanover Street, George Street, Pitt Street, and in the same locality in which these exist, it was intended when the estate was laid out, that there should also be Princess and Duke Streets—the whole forming quite a Royal ward of the town. The methods of naming followed on different estates, and the haphazard fashion too frequently found, were referred to. There are between 600 and 700 names of streets in our Borough, and the paper had given reasons for the bestowal of most of them. The reader expressed the hope that care had been and would be taken by the authorities to keep an accurate record of all street and court names, with the changes effected, and that names would be preserved which were indicative of the ancient life and history of the Borough. There was not the least excuse for barrenness in selecting titles for our streets. There was an abundance of material without dealing in magniloqueut or meaningless desig- nations. Mr. Grant acknowledged the great help he had received in the preparation of his paper from Mr. William Waddington, Market Inspector. THE MOON. By Rev. E. JOBSON, B.A., April 10th, 1888. Of all the heavenly bodies, with one exception, that of the sun, there is not one more interesting to mankind than our own satellite, the moon. The sun, the greater light, rules’ the day; the moon, the lesser light, rules the night. She is the main 60 cause of the tides. She, by the advantage science has taken of the rapid changes of her position with reference to the stars, guides the mariner across the ocean. In courtly and in rustic life, in palaces and in cottages, the lunar world has been regarded with respect and admiration as an emblem of modest beauty and faithful attendance. And while her varying aspects have indica- ted to barbarous tribes weeks and months, times and seasons, astronomers have studied them with greater attention than any other celestial appearances, owing to her greater proximity, bringing the orb within more convenient range of their telescopes. Some of the finest bursts of poetry have been inspired by the placid loveliness of the Queen of Night. We find in Pope’s translation of Homer the following beauti- ful lines :— “« As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night, O’er heaven’s clear azure spreads her sacred light, When not a breath disturbs the deep serene, And not a cloud o’ercasts the solemn scene, Around her throne the vivid planets roll, And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole, O’er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed, And tip with silver every mountain’s head. Then shine the vales, the rocks in prospect rise, A flood of glory bursts from all the skies, The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight, Hye the blue vault, and bless the useful light.’ Tar Apparent Movements oF THE Moon. It is an easy matter for any one to see for himself that the moon is continually changing. If he watches its movements among the fixed stars for an hour or two he will see that it moves from west to east, that the stars which le in its path disappear on its east side and reappear on the west side. If the moon's path be traced out among the fixed stars, it will be seen to lie in a plane which makes an angle of 5° 8’ 47” with the plane of the ecliptic. Sometimes it is below the ecliptic, at other times it is above the ecliptic circle. The points at which the path of the moon intersect the ecliptic are called its nodes. The ascending node is that point of intersection in which the moon passes from the south to the north side of the ecliptic, and the descending node is that point of intersection in which the moon passes from the north to the south side of the ecliptic. The nodes of the moon are not fixed, but are continually chang- ing, retrograding, moving in the opposite direction to that in which the moon moves. So that in 18 years 224 days they make a complete revolution round the ecliptic. 61 Tar Euurrtican Pats oF tae Moon. The moon, like many other of the heavenly bodies, in her orbit round the earth obeys Kepler’s first and second laws of planetary motion—that is, the moon’s path is an ellipse, of which the earth occupies a foci, and that the radius vector of the moon describes equa] areas in equal times. When the moon is furthest from the earth she is said to be in apogee, when nearest she is said to be in perigee. Tur Puases oF tHE Moon. The sun always enlightens one half of the moon, and though sometimes its whole enlightened hemisphere is seen by us, yet sometimes only a part is discernable, and at other times none at all, according to her different positions in the orbit with respect to the earth. When the moon comes between the sun and the earth no part of its enlightened hemisphere is visible to the earth. It is then new moon or change, and is said to be in conjunction. When the earth comes between the sun and the moon the whole of the enlightened hemisphere is then turned towards the earth, and this is called full moon, and then it is said to be in opposition. It passes through all its phases between new moon and full moon, and between full moon and new moon. It might be supposed that one half of the moon was self-luminous and the other half was dark, and that the phases of the moon were produced by a rotation of the moon on its axis. Now, if this were the case, those parts that are called seas and other markings upon the disc of the moon would not always occupy the same portion of the visible disc of the moon, but the illuminated hemisphere would always contain the same objects, and the boundary between light and darkness would always occupy the same position with reference to the lunar markings. Observation shows that this is not the case. The light may be seen creeping along the surface of the moon and lighting up one lunar mountain and valley after another. One most interesting feature of the moon is that it always turns the same face to the earth. Tae Roration oF THE Moon. The surface of the moon possesses certain well-marked features visible to the unaided eye, but still more clearly discerned in a telescope. The simplest observations suffice to show that these objects remain constant in position, in other words that the face of the moon which is turned towards the earth is always the same. It follows, therefore, that the moon turns upon its axis in the same time that it takes to move round the earth. 62 Lunar Ecuiesss. The Sun being a bright object and larger than the Earth will form a conical shadow of the Earth, and if a line were drawn joining the centres of the Sun, the Earth, and the point of the shadow will always lie in the plane of the Keliptic and the axis of the Earth’s conical shadow will intersect the ecliptic in a point exactly opposite to the centre of the Sun, or 180° distant in longi- tude from the Sun. If the Moon performed her revolution round the earth in the plane of the ecliptic she would pass through the earth’s shadow once a month when in opposition, and be eclipsed, but as her true orbit is inclined 5° 8’ 48” to the ecliptic, it is plain that she may lie above or below the ecliptic from 0° to 5° 8’ 48” latitude at the time of opposition, and in fact she generally passes the shadow of the earth when in opposition. In order to undergo an eclipse she should pass through the shadow. There can be no eclipse of the moon unless the distance of her centre from the centre of the earth’s shadow become less than the sum of the semi-diameters of the moon and shadow. There cannot be a total eclipse of the moon unless the distance of her centre from the centre of the earth’s shadow become less than the difference of the semi-diameters of the moon and shadow. The commencement and end of an eclipse will take place when the distance of the moon’s centre from the centre of the earth’s shadow is equal to the sum of the semi-diameters of the moon and shadow. The commencement and end of the total part of an eclipse will take place when the distance of the moon’s centre from the centre of the earth’s shadow is equal to the difference of the semi-diameters of the moon and shadow. LITERATURE AND MEN OF BUSINESS. By the President, F. J. GRANT, J.P. Opening Address. September 25th, 1888. Many people are of opinion that “literature” and “ business ” cannot exist together, that they are wide as the poles asunder. It is the design of the address to show that a connection between the two is possible, and moreover necessary for the proper dis- charge of the manifold duties of life and for maintaining a due sense of proportion in our several concerns. Literature enters into our ordinary life more largely than is generally admitted. The gradations of a man’s illness may often 63 be noted by the books he asks to be brought to him or by the poetry he half unconsciously quotes. ‘*Oh woman when pain and anguish wring the brow, A ministering angel thou’”’—marks the first stage of weakness. As the invalid advances towards convalescence ‘‘man delights not him ; no, nor woman either;’’ he longs for a suitable book to occupy his thoughts. He does not ask for the grand old masters whose mighty thoughts suggest life’s endless toil and endea- vour. Books like Macaulay’s Lays and the poems of Sir Walter Scott rivet his attention and carry him, as it were, out of himself. This is just what he wants—to forget himself and all his painful experiences: ‘‘ Locksley Hall” sounds like music in his ear. But probably beyond all he prizes the delightful essays of the gentle Elia, with his dear old Mrs. Battle, and Jem White, and his tales of the old Actors. The question may be considered in another aspect. Youth revels in the lyric, manhood assays the epic, old age selects the didactic, in our poetry. The child lisps the Evening Prayer of Coleridge, a little later learns by heart the ‘‘ We are Seven”’ of Wordsworth ; the next age of man finds inspiration in the war- like lays of Campbell and Tennyson; the ‘‘maiden with the meek, brown eyes . . . . standing with reluctant feet where the ; brook and river meet” treasures the idyllic pictures of Longfellow, of Cowper, or of Goldsmith ; the young man lingers over the delightful love passages with which the works of our poets abound; the man of middle life studies singly the wondrous plays of Shakespeare, learns by heart the smaller poems of Milton, endeavours to comprehend the profundity of Browning and is amply repaid in the quest, walks with Waller amid the glades of Penshurst, or traces in Lakeland the scene of the inspiration of Southey and Wordsworth. Old age is comforted by the lyrics and elegaics of Arnold, the ‘‘ In Memoriam’”’ of the Laureate, or the ‘‘ Retirement”’ of the recluse at Olney. As the end draws nigh (for tho’ the day appear ever so long at last the bell ringeth to evensong) the old man loves, with Charles Lamb, to think of those who have gone before to the unknown and silent shore, and finds the best expression for his thoughts in the pathetic words of Mrs. Barbauld :— ‘‘ Life! we’ve been long together Through pleasant and through cloudy weather ; ‘Tis hard to part when friends are dear; Perhaps ‘twill cost a sigh, a tear; Then steal away, give little warning, Choose thine own time; Say not Good Night, but in some brighter clime Bid me Good Morning.” If asked to name the distinguishing features of the age you would tell of the great discoveries in science, you would dwell 64 also on the improved condition of the dwellings of the poor, and boast of the increased interest taken in imperial and municipal matters by the body of the people. But if pressed as to the characteristics of men of business in great centres of industry you would be constrained to admit that individually there is much feverish unrest. Trade fluctuates from causes beyond control and outside any help Guvernment can furnish, the great manufacturers of thirty years ago are gone, and their places iknow them no more—the whole personnel of the principal industry in Burnley has changed in one generation. Competition is more keen than ever. With many business men life is one constant struggle for competency, in some instances for existence. All this naturally leads to a restless anxiety, a want of proper proportion—the very opposite of that quiet mind we all ought to cultivate. Business engrosses all the thoughts of many of our men of industry. Their very recreations are apt to become mere second editions of their ordinary work. Whereas it is a primary law of useful recreation that its first element must be change— of scene, of labour, or of thought. To men of this class (among the most useful constituents of Lancashire life) a more excellent way may be pointed out. You say your lives are pro- saic—lI offer you poetry. Your work is dull, monotonous, the atmosphere in which you labour depressing—I take you into the realms of sweetness and light where martial odes shall stir your blood, and noble words shall speed you to high emprise. Your lot is cast in a district where vegetation languishes and the sun is rarely seen through the canopy of smoke which doth so much encircle us—I can direct you where there are brighter skies and where the sun shines in refulgent beauty :— ‘There to wander far away On from island unto island at the gateways of the day Larger constellations burning, mellow moons and happy skies, Breadths of tropic shade and palms in cluster, knots of Paradise.” Your work is too much with you—‘‘ getting and spending you lay waste your powers,”’ your mind needs recreation—I can tell you where you may fill your brain with wondrous visions of forests and enchantments drear, of fair women and chivalrous men, ‘immortal shapes of bright aerial spirits, insphered in regions mild of calm and serene air, above the smoke and stir of this dim spot which men call earth.” In this time of ‘: quad- rumanous activity ’’ would you learn to see the trivial phenomena of the world in their true relation to the whole of the great universe into which they are so cunningly fitted, you must go to the great poets of your own and other lands and there read of ‘‘that true world within the world we see whereof our world is but a bounding shore.’’ Imaginative poetry is, as Spenser has it, ‘“‘the world’s sweet inn from care and wearisome turmoil.’ a cae A Se 65 That is a fine passage in one of George Eliot’s poems where she contrasts our miserable aims that end in self, with the ‘“‘ thoughts sublime of the immortal dead which pierce the night like stars.” Says that rugged genius Walt Whitman, ‘of all mankind the great poet is the equable man; he bestows on every object or quality its fit proportions, neither more nor less. He is the equaliser of his age and land; he is the arbiter of the diverse, and the key.” He shows that objects gross (or material) and the unseen soul are one, and that in the daily routine of a trader’s life are realities and are poems, ‘‘ the development good, all themes and hints.”’ The study of science must not be depreciated. To many business men, however, the study of science in their leisure hours would probably resolve itself into the investigation of some particular branch likely to be useful to them in their daily work. Thus it would not adequately fulfil the mission claimed for literature. Again, science is constantly shifting, the para- doxes of yesterday become the commonplaces of to-day, what is held most tenaciously now may be proved to be altogether wrong afew months hence. But Literature is permanent, ‘ panting time toils after it in vain,’’ it is ever fresh and vernal. Its lessons never lose their power. Its grand prevailing element is repose. Imaginative poetry supplies a link in the chain of human thought which exact science could never furnish. The two studies are not antagonistic, they may exist side by side, each useful in its respective sphere. The mar who has turned to that unfailing resource of strenuous idleness the collection of statistics, may exercise his mathematical powers in solving the problem of the day—the great equation of Shakespeare, Bacon, Donnelly, and the unknown quantity. Literature often interests the reader of it in science, and throws light on its study. (Instance given—‘‘ barbaric pearl.”) Many times has science proved the handmaid of literature, and great benefits have accrued both to art and science from the happy combination. If asked the question sometimes propounded which is the more useful, literature or science, the answer would be that while the latter is of more service to the community, literature is more beneficial to the individual. The best safeguard for the scientific student against the ever dwindling area of his own scientific research is some kind of literary discipline—at once minute and generous—a dis- cipline which shall steep his mind in the atmosphere of great poets or great thinkers, and teach him to apprehend many of those finer shades of expression in which one great writer differs from another, and so marks the limit of his elevation, his humour, or his dramatic force. Huxley points ont how prolific is the growth of the minutest branches of almost all the sciences, so that a scientist who has devoted his life to but one section of 66 it cannot keep any real hold of the whole field of discovery even in his own particular science, but is compelled more and more to devote himself to smaller departments even of that field, if he wish to contribute anything of his own to the progress of dis- covery. More than seventy years ago Wordsworth took a large view at once of the greatness and smallness of science, and with true poetic insight foresaw the very difficulty alluded to by Professor Huxley. Wordsworth thought that the only guarantee against the danger was to be found in poetry and religion. The narrowing effect of specialism of scientific pursuit is not to be warded off by merely grasping fairly the general principles of the science with which the student is connected. What is necessary is that the student should ‘“‘complement his narrow ‘analytic view of portions of the universe by a wider imaginative grasp of it,’ Thus he shall come to see really the unity between man and Nature—to know that the mind of man is the mirror of the finest and most interesting properties of Nature, for poetry, Wordsworth maintained, is ‘‘the breath and purer spirit of all knowledge, the impassioned expression which is in the countenance of all science.” In advocating increased attention to literature I am not undervaluing the claims of history. Poetry elucidates and ex- plains history. In its stage of ideal perfection history (as Macaulay puts it) is a compound of poetry and philosophy. One portion of its function is to bring the distant near, to call up our ancestors before us with their peculiarities of language, manners, and garb. All this is almost as well fulfilled in poetry as in many so-called histories. Has not history, like one or two of the other muses, often been too much taken up with noise and tumult? Each age of literature is the truest picture of the history of its day. Literature gives point and force to some of the most suggestive lessons of history. (Lowell’s Harvard Com- memoration Ode, 1865. ‘Tis not the grapes of Canaan that repay, but the high faith that failed not by the way.”’ His words respecting the youths who went to the war and returned not, may be applied to our great poets :— ‘We find in our dull road their shining track ; In every nobler mood We feel the orient of their spirit glow, Part of our life’s unalterable good, Of all our saintlier aspiration ; They come transfigured back, Secure from change in their high-hearted ways.”) It may be said that one prominent feature of literature is its melancholy. Without admitting the truth of the charge it is easy to give reasons why such a peculiarity might be expected to belong to literature. HKvery man who has any clear vision of 67 Good and Evil has a large leaven of Grief always fermenting in his soul. The meeting of actual humanity with its ideal—this is indeed melancholy to behold, nothing could be more depressing to a supersensitive soul such as many of our poets have possessed. “The poetic temperament, half-way between the light of the ideal and the darkness of the real and rendered by each more sensitive to the other, and unable without a struggle to pass out clear and calm into either, bears the impress of the necessary conflict in dust and blood,’ (Mrs. Browning.) The same characteristic has distinguished almost every reformer, from Moses downwards (See Bacon’s Essay). Russell Lowell thus prefaces his latest work, ‘‘ Heartsease and Rué ” :— ‘ Along the wayside where we pass bloom few ‘Gay plants of heartsease, more of saddening rue; ‘So life is mingled; so should poems be ‘That speak a conscious word to you and me. There is something of sadness in ‘‘ Locksley Hall,” e.g. the comparison of a hungry people to a lion slowly creeping nigher, but yet how Tennyson in the same poem warms when he sees the “‘ Vision of the world and all the wonder that shall be—the heavens filled with commerce, argosies of magic sails dropping down with costly bales,” the war-drum silent and the battle flags furled. We hear much from our poets of ‘the still sad music of humanity.”” They have majestic sorrow, but it is ‘‘ mingled with uncomplaining trust.” Possessing in the highest perfection the gift of imagination they pierce beyond the passing fancy of the times, they fulfil to some extent the office of seers in these later days; (‘‘’twas surely prophetic that the name of prophet and of poet was the same” ;) what is hidden from others is revealed to them, and they are never so happy, never so fitly exercising their high vocation, never more truly poets, than when with the vision and faculty divine they tell us of the claims of our own age, or look forward to the more glorious future. The vision of a Golden Age has never been lost. Some of the old writers did indeed ‘‘push the happy season back.” But there never have been long wanting those who, like Bacon, have given the rein to their imagination and pictured the world as it would be when a true philosophy (to use his own splendid phrase) “should have enlarged the bounds of human empire.’ The nobility of their imaginations has been fully recognised in these later ages when many parts of their predictions have been accomplished, even according to the letter, and the whole, construed according to the spirit, are daily accomplishing all around us. ‘Those who speak of the golden year as being in the past, and those who push the season forwards, the Laureate calls ‘‘ dreamers both,’’ and this is the lesson he gives to us 19th century men :—“ Well I know that unto him who works, and feels he works, this same grand 68 year is ever at the doors.” Wordsworth has himself given a noble description of the character and uses of his poetry :— ‘‘ Power hath been given to please for higher ends Than pleasure only; gladdening to prepare For wholesome sadness, troubling to refine, Calming to raise.” (The introduction to the ‘‘ White Doe of Rylstone” should also be read in this connection.) It may be charged that some great writers have been of immoral character. Probably they were not much worse than the ordinary men of their time—but let that pass. It must be admitted that some men of genius have perverted literature, laying unhallowed incense on the altar of genius, and mingling with strange flames her vestal fire. We will make some allowance for their temptations, for their strongly susceptible natures. We will remember Burns’s touching appeal for charitable judgment :— “‘ To step aside is human * * what’s done we partly may compute but know not what’s resisted..’ Shall we because of their errors refuse to read the magnificent works they have left us? May we not accept their very failings as an indication of the fact that they were men of like passions with ourselves, to the same frailties incident, and by the same temptations overcome ? Happily most of our great poets have been men of the people, conversant with their virtues and their faults, their hopes and aspirations, their wants and needs. Some fantastic admirers have imagined the poets as being nursed in quiet retreats far from the madding © crowd, and engaged in occupations almost celestial. Fortunately this is but a fancy. Cowley’s comparison of Bacon to Moses standing on Mount Pisgah is applicable to many of our writers. While the multitude at the foot of the hill saw only the flat sterile desert bounded on every side by a close horizon, he was gazing from a far higher stand on a far lovelier country, following with his eye the long course of fertilising rivers, through ample pastures, and under the bridges of great capitals, measuring the distances of marts and havens, and portioning out all those wealthy regions from Dan to Beersheba. Some of our poets— like Wordsworth and Cowper—have not only ‘allured to brighter worlds ”’ but have themselves trod the favoured land. While others have conceived lofty ideals, have drawn noble pictures, have pointed the way (to the great benefit of succeeding generations) but have themselves failed to carry out the principles inculcated in their writings. Are we justified in renouncing the whole of their books on this account? Are we never to listen to admon- itions until they who preach become perfect? There is much instruction in Goethe’s saying—‘ there are many echoes in the world but few voices’’; and it should be our constant effort to distinguish the voices from the echoes and to respond accordingly. 69 If there be any man who for ages has commanded the admiration of mankind, if there be any man who in any branch of study confessedly stands head and shoulders above the rest let this (says A. P. Stanley) be the man whose works we read. As the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns they shall learn to sift the chaff from the wheat, what is mean and contemptible will perish, what is noble and godlike will remain. The perusal of the works of our best authors, whether in prose or poetry, is calculated to lift business men out of the narrow sphere of their occupation, and give them “ nobler loves and nobler cares.” Such study shows us that in the evolution of the world there is no evil but brings a larger good, and assists us to grasp the distinction between the great primary ideas of life, and the small secondary ideas which jostle each other in the turmoil of thought. Soa due sense of proportion in the concerns of life is gained, and broad sympathies and world-wide charity take the place of mean and petty aims. All great poetry is catholic: the next generation will remember the verse of Trench, the Protestant Archbishop, side by side with that of Cardinal Newman, whose finest poem consoled the lonely vigil of Gordon at Khartoum. Literature is cosmopolitan, and, rightly used, is a corrective of that insularity on which we Britishers pride ourselves. We rejoice that there exists across the Atlantic a literature original, splendid, racy of the soil. It is impossible to study the later literature of Britain without being irresistibly carried back to former eras—the Georgian, the so-called Augustan age, the Elizabethan, the Chaucerian, and still on until the origin of English song is lost in the twilight of fable. The intellectual succession can be traced—sometimes clearly, sometimes only dimly as when a great master has arisen and inaugurated, as it were, a new style distinct from all that had gone before. This study is equally useful, interesting and inspiring, if it be carried backward to more ancient literature, to learn how much even a 19th century writer is indebted to Rome or Greece. The average Lancashire man clings to his newspaper, and ofttimes takes his views from the anonymous writers therein. (Someone has said that ‘‘the face under a mask is not the one which is most troubled with blushes.”) Newspapers have their own useful function; but we do not hear in them the voice of the Sibyl, which, (to quote a Greek author) uttermg things simple and unadorned reaches through innumerable years. The experience of the world is enshrined in its noblest literature. There con- summate artists have given us some of the finest gems of thought ‘‘ which on the stretched forefinger of all time sparkle forever.’’ Sometimes the question is asked—what is the mechanism of poetry? Of course there is an art in writing verse, there must be some attention to established rules, the rhythm, the lilt, is 70 important; and one class of poetry finds its best exponent in one form of stanza. The rhyme of the elder poets is merely a felicitous adjunct ‘the tinkling of a cymbal through the choral harmonies.” In later times fulsome dedications were penned, and poems written to order. Happily the age of patron- age is past, and our literature is free and unfettered. The highest poetry is infinitely beyond a mere mechanic art. Some of our poems, like ‘In Memoriam,”’ have taken half a lifetime to write, while others have been left unfinished, like the Faery Queene of Spenser, the Christabel of Coleridge, the Hyperion of Keats, and Chaucer’s tale of Cambuscan bold. The poet writes as a seer to whom his message is a burden and to whom ‘‘it is a necessity that his words should be words of fire.” Milton spoke of the poet’s work as to be raised only “‘ by devout prayer to that eternal Spirit who can enrich with all utterance and knowledge, and sends out his seraphin, with the hallowed fire of his altar, to touch and purify the lips of whom he pleases.’ The more the lyrist or song- writer has of passion and personal impetus the better, and the true lyrical moment has been described as the time when the primary perturbation has just so far subsided that his trembling hand can sweep the strings. ‘‘ Visions come and go, Shapes of resplendent beauty round me throng From angel lips I seem to hear the flow Of soft and holy song, In a purer clime My being fills with rapture-waves of thought Roll in upon my spirit-strains sublime Break over me unsought. Give me now my lyre; I feel the stirrings of a gift divine ; Within my bosom glows a hallowed fire, Lit by no skill of mine.” The product of this can be summed up in one word—poetry. In Stedman’s sketch of E. B. Browning there is a fine passage describing how when her eye had grown dim and her poetic force seemed abated, there came a short time when her inspiration returned. For a brief space ‘‘the sun on the hill forgot to die, and the lilies revived and the dragon fly came back to dream on the river.’’ Like her own Hebrew poets Mrs. Browning was not disobedient to the heavenly vision, she surrendered herself to the play of her imagination as if some angelic voice were speaking through her. When, in Arno-girdled Florence her life of pain and suffering was drawing to a close she was at the last, as ever, the enraptured seer of celestial visions. The history of our literature abounds with such pictures. (Instances given: Long- fellow and the origin of Excelsior—Coleridge—Wordsworth enjoying ‘‘ the harvest of a quiet eye””—Milton, old and blind, 71 waiting ‘neath the heaven like blind Orion hungering for the morn—the Lady of the Lake reaching our army in Portugal— and the meeting of Spenser and Raleigh.) On pictures such as those adduced the mind loves to dwell. Living as we do in a district resting under the glamour of poesy it would be altogether without excuse if the taste for the poetic and historic aspects of human life should languish and pine. Such studies, taken in intervals of our daily work, will help us to attain that ‘‘ union of action and contemplation” which the large-browed Verulam called the perfection of human nature. The noblest eulogy was pronounced on Sir Philip Sydney when his biographer said of him that he was ‘‘the exact image of quiet and action, happily united in him and seldom well divided in any.’’ Literature includes much which is not known as poetry. The essayist and the philosopher have claims on all who desire to become acquainted with their country’s literature. Lamb’s Essays comprise exactly the style of writing so grateful to a man after a hard day’s labour at what he called the low level of the dry drudgery at the desk’s dead wood. The work contains thoughts rich in suggestion and lesson, and there is withal such a geniality of style that the reader comes to love the gentle Elia. Of essayists whose works are suitable for men of business may be named Macaulay, Matthew Arnold, (one scarcely knows whether he ought to be classed among the critics or the poets), the Hares, Arthur Helps, and F. D. Maurice. Macaulay’s works are full of illustration and analogy. Choose any of Macaulay’s Kssays and trace out every allusion to be found there—this will take you to forgotten histories and books the most recondite. You will be lead to read the old English and Scotch ballads, where may be found some of the most charming lines ever written. - The history of the bards and minstrels of ‘old is tull of interest and is one of those studies which take one’s mind entirely away from the carking cares of daily life. Arnold defined criticism as a disinterested endeavour to learn and prop- agate the best that is known and thought in the world. He preaches an exalted creed; he is the gentle apostle of lucidity, of sweetness and light—and are not these the very qualities of which men of business stand in need? Few of our poets have been so happy as he in transferring to their pages the balmy darkness of summer evenings, the dewy air and the moonlight :— “ And strange and vain the earthly turmoil grows, ‘‘ And near and real the charm of thy repose, ‘“‘ And night as welcome as a friend would fall.” There are other writers in so-called prose whose books ought to be as household friends to business men, and of these there is none to approach John Ruskin, There is as much genuine 72 poetry in his works as is to be found in a thousand of those volumes of verse which are issued from the press every year. Cavillers say that Ruskin’s ‘‘ideas’’ are Utopian, the principles he advocates impracticable. But this does not detract from the charm or usefulness of his works. Is it not well to have a lofty ideal even though we may be conscious that it is almost impossible of attainment? At least we may press toward the mark; and in an age when there is so much to degrade life from its sweet and serious sanctity into vulgarism and frivolity, an age of fierce competition, of hardening struggles, a period in which the contrast between the rich and the poor is so marked as to constitute the chief danger of the state—surely in such an age it is weil that we should be taken back in language the most eloquent and convincing to the great first principles enunciated in the Sermon on the Mount, and should be reminded that the words ‘Man shall not live by bread alone’”’ have something more than a mere theological import. That there is an ambition greater than that of glory, and a covetousness nobler than that of gain— is not this the very lesson needed by men who in pursuit of wealth ‘‘ have given their hearts away—a sordid boon”? We should not take our political economy from Goldsmith, yet even from him the statesman may learn something of the danger which portends a state where ‘‘ wealth accumulates and men decay.”’ The man who wields a great monopoly on the exercise of which may depend the comfort and welfare of a community— will it do such an one any harm to be reminded that while it is excellent to have a giant’s strength it is tyrannous to use it like a giant? We may adapt Johnson’s words and say if any one wish to attain a thoroughly English style of writing let him give his days and nights to the study of—Ruskin, Read the ideal which in the ‘‘ Two paths ”’ he places before the sculptor and the painter, and say if the spirit of the passage is not one which men of business, especially those possessing great influence, may well take to heart. Other names can be considered but briefly. If Carlyle had written no other sentences than those in which in rugged and fervent language he teaches the usefulness, the dignity and the holiness of labour, he would have deserved hearty recognition at the hands of Britons. Such a lesson is necessary, not only in the wealthy metropolis, but in Lancashire, where all too often we see the sons of a successful hard-working man of business leading idle useless lives—toiling not nor spinning—and setting evil examples to those in the classes ‘‘ beneath them.’’ Carlyle preached to the poets of this century on the duty of staying at home. ‘The poet can never have far to seek for a subject; the elements of his art are in him and around him on every hand ; for him the ideal world is not remote from the actual, but under 78 it and within it; nay, he is a poet precisely because he can discern it there.” These words have been adopted as the motto of one of his poems by one. whose works I cordially commend to your notice—P. G. Hamerton. His essays on life in France and England, his youthful poems, his reminiscences of Lancashire life, are interesting works, and will be found to furnish reading of a nature to give to the mind of the provincial man a wider scope and broader tendency—enabling him to see ‘‘ beyond the borough and the shire.”’ Returning to the point from which I began, I repeat that the best study for men leading prosaic lives is—poetry. In the touching and refining appeals of our poets to the ‘‘tragedy and the epic”’ of human life is to be found the best counterpoise to the absorbing business claims of an enterprising and bustling generation. Some folk like to be soothed with music. They would find—if they came with minds prepared to receive it— that in the lays of Milton, of Pope, of Burns, of Tennyson, of Swinburne, of Longfellow, of Rossetti, is to be found the quint- essence of music—rhythm the most perfect, the sound seeming an echo to the sense. Andif it be your lot to seek for something which shall brush away the troubles, the annoyances, the failures, of your day of business, when vou go in the evening to those homes which I trust have never lost ‘their ancient English dower of inward happiness ’’—browse at will upon the fair and wholesome pasturage of good old English literature, or take down from the shelf close at hand the works of one of your favourite poets. Give yourself up to their enlightened guidance, surrender yourself to the spell of their enchantment, follow them as they tell of a glorious future for this hard world, linger in the serenity and brightness they diffuse, dwell on their visions of fair women and noble men charged with but one object—that of raising in an infinitude of tenderness fallen humanity to a higher and holier state. Thus you may “Join the choir ieee Of those immortal dead who live again In minds made better by their presence, And with their mild persistence urge man’s search To vaster issues.” And sweet spirits shall bear the burden for you—with watch in the night, and call in early morning. 74 WATER GAS. By A. DUFTON, B.A., B.Sc. October 2nd, 1888. A gaseous fuel possesses many advantages over a solid one. The gas stove is everywhere appreciated for its convenience, cleanliness and economy in labour. The great extension in the use of the gas engine shows that where only a moderate horse- power is needed the reign of the steam engine is over. The success of gas furnaces in metallurgical and other operations involving a high temperature has been recognized for many years. The manufacture of steel of high quality at a low price became possible only by means of a gas-heated furnace—the temperature necessary being higher than that of a blast furnace and quite unattainable by ordinary means. The demand for a gas of low price for heating purposes is steadily increasing. It has been shown that such a gas could be readily made from the coke produced in the manufacture of illuminating gas but this system has not been adopted owing chiefly to the trouble and expense of laying down a second series of service pipes. Ordinary Coal Gas produced by the destructive distillation of coal is a complicated mixture containing— from 25 to 50 °/, Hydrogen. — 35—50 — Marsh Gas. — 5— 9 — Carbon Monoxide. — 3—20— Olefines. And smaller quantities of other bodies. It owes its illuminating value to the olefines, the other con- stituents burning with an almost non-luminous though intensely hot flame. On distillation a ton of coal yields according to its nature and treatment from 1,000 to 1,400 Ibs. ur} 2 00 — 600 lbs. tar — 300— 4500l1bs. gas When carbon burns with an excess of air carbon dioxide results. If the supply of air is insufficient there is formed carbon monoxide, a gas of high calorific intensity. This is the principle of the manufacture of ‘ Producer Gas’ now so largely used in glass-works and in the Siemens-Martin steel process. The composition of Producer Gas is roughly about H 8 35 °/, combustible gases. N 61 } 65 2/5 incombustible gases. 75 - Owing to its high percentage of Nitrogen, producer gas can only be used economically with a regenerative furnace and there- fore is not capable of general application. This Nitrogen is derived from the air used in the combustion of the fuel so that to convert the fuel into a gas free from Nitrogen it must be burned with some other body than air. That body is water. When steam is passed over incandescent carbon it is decom- posed with formation of carbon monoxide and hydrogen—thus H,O+C=C0O+H, Of course a mass of incandescent fuel cools rapidly when steam is blown through it so that the great problem in the production of water gas has been how cheaply to keep the fuel at a high temperature avoiding admixture of air. The latest process of making water gas involves two distinct operations. In the first a mass of fuel contained in a generator is raised to a high temperature by means of an air blast; a gas similar to ordinary producer gas being formed. This gas is a bye-product in the manufacture of water gas itself. When the fuel in the generator is sufficiently hot, the air blast is stopped and the outlet by which the producer gas has escaped is closed. Another outlet is opened and a blast of steam blown through the heated fuel, a gas being produced consisting of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, that is a gas com- pletely combustible. The operation of opening and closing the various valves are effected by moving one lever, the valves opening and closing in their proper order. When the fuel has become cooled by the action of the steam the valves are reversed and the temperature again raised by the air blast. Water gas can be produced at a cost of about 4d. per 1,000 feet. Burning with a non-luminous flame, water gas requires incan- descent burners when used for illuminating purposes. For household use it is in many respects superior to coal gas, e.g. (1) The flame is perfectly free from smoke since the gas * gontains no hydro-carbons. (2) Less heat of combustion. (3) Unlike coal gas it can be easily and completely freed from sulphur, so that the products of combustion are less injurious to health and furniture than those of ordinary gas. (4) It requires only about one-third as much air for com- bustion as coal gas, therefore the atmosphere of a room is less vitiated. 76 For heating and cooking stoves it is an excellent fuel, giving no unpleasant smell and burning noiselessly since the Bunsen burner is not required. Although the heat of combustion of water gas is less than that of coal gas yet the temperature of the flame is enormously higher owing to the small volume of air required to burn it, and the corresponding small amount of the products of combustion. From its cheapness and valuable properties water gas appears likely to become the gas of the future. The paper was illustrated by diagrams of Water Gas Plant and Water Gas was shown with the Fahnejelm incandescent burner. CHARLES KINGSLEY: HIS LIFE AND WORKS. By Rev. S. P. CAREY, M.A. October 9th, 1888. To reach the birthplace of Charles Kingsley, we must banish all thoughts of tall chimneys, shawled and clogged weavers, steaming rivers, blackened sheep and trees, and think of a quiet little Devonshire village, at an angle of the river Dart, ten miles north west of Totnes, as the crow flies. From the Holme Parsonage where his parents lived 67 years ago, the soft outline of Dartmoor could be seen, ever and again sharply broken by the granite Tors. His father was a good naturalist and sports- man and his mother almost a poetess. When six weeks old, he was carried to Nottingham, and thence for six years to Barnack, amid the old fen flats. Even then his child-soul felt ‘the mystery and majesty’”’ of the shining meres,” the poplar rows, ‘the golden reed beds,” the creaking draining mills, the gaudy butterflies. Even then he learnt to tell ‘the clank of the coot, the boom of the bittern, the wild whistle of the curlew, the trumpet of the swan,” and was preparing to tell of ‘“ Here- ward the Wake.’ When 11 years old, his father moved to Devon again, and Charles exchanged the meres of Huntingdon for the swell of the Atlantic on the pebbles of Clovelly. That was just the freshness, just the grandeur that the boy's soul needed, and just the breeze his not over healthy body needed too. No spot was ever dearer to Charles Kingsley than Clovelly. How he would hurry down that paved cranny of a street, stair after stair, when his father would lead the sunset service on the quay, as the herring fishers were to put to sea! How he would watch 17 from the Hartland lighthouse tower ‘‘the night rack come rolling up ragged and brown!’’ How he would weep with the women who wrung their hands for the corpses out on the Santon sands of ‘‘ those who could never come home to the town!” How he would read his Wordsworth among the trees in the Hobby Drive! A year more and he only saw Clovelly in the holidays between the terms at Clifton School, when he came home to tell of the bread riots he had seen in Bristol one autumn afternoon: the riots that made him a radical. From Clifton with his ‘‘ curse of stammering,’”’ which clung to him almost throughout his life, he went to Helston School, between the Lizard and Land’s End. Seventeen years old; and he no more breathed the ozone of the Atlantic, but the carbonic acid gas of Chelsea, where through his father’s promotion he was thrown into the midst of none but curates and clergymen. He did his best to hide the common- place of London in the chivalry of Arthur’s Imights and the romance of Spenser’s ‘‘ Faerie Queene,”’ in the few hours he could spare from the Plato he was reading at King’s College. Was it there in his daily walks to the Strand and back that he dis- covered the original of the Scotch second-hand bookseller of ‘Alton Locke,” whose portrait and dialect Carlyle pronounced so perfect ? At nineteen Kingsley got away from stifling Chelsea, to the Fens again, to jack fishing and snipe shooting, and to boating on the sluggish Cam. He did very well at Magdalen, in spite of the fitfulness of his studies and his fretting against the University routine. It was genius rather than long plodding that won him his honours. But the years at Magdalen were not lost. The Dons might have thought him only a brilliant free-lance, a naturalist and wild-man-of-the-woods. But there was more in him than that, as he afterwards proved. Mrs. Kingsley had told them that when first she knew him as a student he was fond of fox-hunting, true as a poet in descriptions of nature, deep in the lore of all out-of-the-way studies, like magic, mythology, and mesmerism ; daring, and searching in all argument, roughly scorning all mere appeals to authority, too earnest after facts and firm truth to rest content with such woman-like appeals, believing that ‘‘the blackest of all sins, the deepest of all atheisms, that which, above all things, proves no faith in God’s government of the universe, no sense of his presence, no under- standing of His character, was a lie.” Yet not religious, indeed often counted irreligious, by the very vigour of his onslaughts upon falsehoods and shams. Oxford at this time was under the magic spell of the mystic Newman—that “spiritual apparition,’’ who, as Matthew Arnold says, would “glide in the dim afternoon light through the aisles of St. Mary’s, rise into the pulpit, and then in the most entrancing of voices break the silence with words and thoughts which were 78 a religious music—subtile, sweet, mournful.’”” How Kingsley at Cambridge, like Clough at Oxford, felt the charm and compulsion of that Anglican Renaissance may be read between the lines of “Yeast,” and how Kingsley, like Clough, fought his brave way through and out of it into a broader brawnier faith may also there be read. Kingsley wanted a faith that could engage every fibre of a man, not one that only cultured the heart, while it slighted and distrusted the reason, and renounced the flesh. The creed of the Anglicans seemed the surrender of all that was worth fighting for as Protestants. But the grim struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism was ended for Charles Kingsley on the 6th of July, 1839. That day he first saw his after wife, and it was a case of love at first sight. So sudden and strong was the first love of Kingsley and his wife that it seemed less like the making of a new friendship, than the renewing of an old one. It was the inrush of that love to the heart of Kingsley that hushed the conflict of those college years. Henceforth to him no religion was possible that cast a slur upon that love. All religion henceforth had to be judged thus simply—which gives the truest sacredness to marriage and to human love. It is the remembrance of the great part that the love of his after wife played in the religious life of Charles Kingsley that is the key to what else is misleading in his novels. He is continually showing the power of a woman’s love to change a man’s heart and life, as in the cases of Lancelot and Tom Thurnall. By human love, by prayer and repentance, and the brooding of the Spirit, the great re-birth came to Kingsley one June night when he was 22 years old. ‘‘ Before the sleeping earth and the sleepless sea and stars, he devoted himself to God,’ and twelve months after he was praying day and night that ‘‘ God would even reject him from the office of a deacon in the Church of England if he needed yet more strongly to be taught his own weakness and the holiness of his work.” On July 17th, 1842, he preached for the first time as curate in the church now hallowed by his name in Eversley, a parish of three small hamlets in the north-east corner of Hants. None of the then Church sects could ever claim him as dis ciple or as champion. Taking his stand there on the divinity of human life and love, on the discoveries of science as inspirations of God, on the facts of history, of all history, but especially of the history of Jesus Christ as the will of God revealed, ke built up his own structure of thought and faith. The more he tried to clothe his own native thought in words, the more all other words failed him, save those of the Church of England Articles. Most of the parishioners were field labourers and ‘‘ heth-croppers,’ earning only from 8s. to 10s. a week. ‘It seemed a dreary start for the young curate. The church was empty, the alehouses were full, so that Sunday was more like that dull beery village-revel he has described vividly in ‘‘ Yeast.” 79 Soon an ill wind blew Kingsley some good, for through the absconding of the rector, with many creditors left behind him, the cure of the parish was given to Kingsley. He was married in the June of 1844. The debts of the last rector and the smallness of the living were amongst the causes which drove him into the writing of his novels. Nothing he ever did will last as long as these novels. No other field could have offered such scope for his peculiar genius.: The dramatic instinct was very strong in him. What Emerson writes of Carlyle is also descriptive of Kingsley—‘‘ Those devouring eyes and that pourtraying hand! ” What power he had of pitching his tent in an earlier age, of talking its dialect and living its life. Perhaps no one ever called spirits from the vasty deep so triumphantly as Kingsley, those grand silent Elizabethan Admirals in ‘‘ Westward Ho,” and those Neo-Platonists and monks of the critical 5th century in “ Hypatia.” Every page of his novels proves how well he had studied and discerned the deepest needs of his own generation, and how skilfully and obliquely he could meet them. But we must back to his parish and think of him as sitting up whole nights nursing dying men, attending to the ventilation of sick rooms, seeing to the drains daily when the cholera visited Eversley. ° He boasted that he knew every man jack of them, and that was why Eversley work was more pleasant to him than preaching as Canon of Westminster. In the Abbey the faces were all but unknown. Notso at Eversley; there he knew all—the groom, the labourer, the gipsy, and even the old poacher. Men sprang to touch at every point. He tried to save men by hope, believing that there was a “latent chivalry in the heart of every clod.” He so looked up to the poor for the sake of the poor Man of Nazareth, that they could butlook up to him. He never blushed nor feared to make his sermons simple and colloquial. He never let public worship become ‘‘dead bones.” He strove and prayed day and night, till he had put life into it. The very churchyard was made to ‘‘ blossom as the rose” on Sunday. He himself had planted the yew trees and bordered the paths with box, and trained his children and villagers to brighten the graves with flowers before the service on the Sunday morn. He keenly felt and made his listeners feel the seasons of the Christian Year, the happy Christ- mas, the plaintive Lent, the triumphant Easter. There was no stiffmess or starch in his reverence. It was but its depth and not its shallowness that stayed him between the altar and the pulpit to carry a rare but lame butterfly to the safety of the vestry. He felt God so in everything that he would visit a dying man one hour and be trout-fishing in the next. He could pass quickly from jest to earnest, because his humour was as pure as his seriousness, like the humour of Augustine. Perhaps in the “Water Babies’? Kingsley’s humour found its freest vent. 80 Mr. Carey then went on to describe at some length the misery of the city working-classes in Kingsley’s day—their oppression by the faithless shop-keepers, their ‘‘ sweatings ’’ under the Labour- Kings, their moderate Charter, their not-unmerited distrust of the Church and their desperate infidelity. This was the drift of Kingsley’s message, as also of Maurice’s, and of their allies. Iam aclergyman, and therefore I want to feel my brother- hood with the working-classes, and to live for them completely, for their social and political freedom. But will the Charter make them free—from revenge, covetousness, and drunkenness? Is it licence or liberty that is sought for? Is it equality of wealth or equality of worth? Is it the selfish equality of Communism or the unselfishness of Christianity? Is it a larger income for one’s self or a better chance of using one’s gifts and talents for the good and joy of all? Do men want to live on one another or for one another? But why should the Chartists be infidels, as if the Incarnation was not the great seal of our Brotherhood, as if the Bible was not the poor man’s comfort, the rich man’s warning, and the reformer’s guide? ‘To live the life of brothers, we must know we have one Father, who can only mend society on condition that each man mend himself. Association, Co- operation, then—these must be the new Christian watchwords instead of selfish competition. This is the whole heart of ‘‘ Alton Locke ’’—than which is no grander history of Chartism. In the latter part of his paper Mr. Carey referred to the work which Kingsley loved most, viz: sanitary reform. He no more dared to turn away from a bit of such work than from knocking down a murderer, whom he saw killing a woman. He called the sanitary reformer in ‘“‘ Yeast,” ‘‘ the only true soldier, who conquers those real devils and natural enemies of Englishmen, carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen.” He went to London to see for himself and to make the whole country see the con- dition of the drains and wells of Bermondsey. Day and night he worked to make men see and feel ‘‘ the mass of suffering and agony of mind and body in England,” and to persuade men that it was possible to stop at least three-fourths of it. In taking a peep into Kingsley’s beautiful home, Mr. Carey said that there everything was referred to God. The servants were not slaves, but were treated more like the servants in the days of the Patriarchs. All of them had lived there from 17 to 26 years, when the master died. He himself seemed when at home, to be in every part of the house, not bustling, but sweetly ordering and encouraging. There was for some years either a curate or a pupil and the four happy children—two girls and two boys. For these children there was built the hut nursery in ‘‘the highest and loveliest pomt of the moorland glebe,’’ where the nightingales nested. There were books specially written for 81 them. In the hut was stored the museum of insects, flowers, and shells. He was never too busy or tired to mend a broken toy. The children felt that he was not simply their father, but their patientest, intimate friend. They were not taught to feel a great difference between the six days and the seventh. The Sundays were not much above the level of ordinary days, because the work-days were so much above the ordinary level. He made them feel that ‘‘honesty and modesty’’ made the true gentleman, and that it was the finest thing in the world ‘to give needless pain to no one, poor or rich, and to take pride in giving up one’s _. own pleasure for the sake of those weaker than oneself. But what shall we say of Kingsley’s wife—whose love was the in- Spiration and the guide of his whole activity—who for years wrote at his dictation all his letters, sermons and novels! ‘Few and evil would have been the days of the years of my pilgrimage, but for her,’’ Charles Kingsley said. Mr. Carey closed with a brief allusion to the pathetic incidents of Kingsley’s death, and with Max Miiller’s description of his funeral at Eversley. PAPER ON NORWAY AND THE LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT SUN. By J. W. THOMPSON, October 16th, 1888. We, a party of four, started from Newcastle on the 8th of June and returned on the 5th of July, 1887. It is best to visit Norway in the month of June, for many reasons, especially because the days are at full length. We were bound to Bergen by the good ship the “ Norge,”’ and arrived there in fair form after two nights and one day of the usual sea experiences. Bergen is the second town of importance in Norway, and is a very suitable place to arrive at, as it is very central for getting to the parts most interesting to the tourist or sportsman. A great feature in Norway is its fjords. They are the highways in Nor- way. Some of them run 100 to 150 miles inland, and are of various widths from being just wide enough to admit the passage of a steamer to several miles wide. Their beauty and interest is of the most varied and delightful character and of world renowned fame. The depth of these fjords is something remarkable. In one position in the Molde Fjord we passed close to an immense cliff 5,000 feet high, and if we had dropped the lead there. it would have gone to a depth of 3,000 feet. Many of the fjords are im I 82 some parts 2,000 feet deep, and one part in the Sogne Fjord is 4,000 feet deep. The principal fjords are the Hardanger, Sogne, Molde, Nord and Trondjem. The glaciers of Norway are of no second-rate importance. The most extensive is the Jostedats Brae, north of the Sogne Fjord. It is 515 square miles in area, and is the largest glacier in Europe. Another glacier of vast extent is the Svartisen. We passed close past this latter in going to the North Cape. Its base almost comes down to the sea level; it is one of the most imposing sights one sees. Norway is more resorted to by sportsmen than by tourists. Fishing is the most important sport, the numerous lakes, rivers and fjords affording the best opportunities for this quiet, unob- trusive amusement. It is remarkable to what an extent fish enters into the diet of the inhabitants, and even the visitors. Most of the streams are rented by English sportsmen, and salmon and trout can be caught by the skilled ones in abundance. The climate of Norway is much milder than we supposed. The summer is short, and the winter long, they have little, if any, spring and autumn. The summer commences suddenly in June and ends at the close of August. In summer, especially in June, the days are particularly bright and long, but this extreme of brightness and length of days is counterbalanced by a long, dull, dark winter, with very short days. For certain days, and in places near the North Pole, the sun does not set. The nearer we get to this point the more we feel the effect of the sun not setting. For instance, at most places in Norway at twelve o’clock at night, on June 21st, you can see to read a newspaper. The further you go north the greater becomes the light, until you get to the Arctic Circle, and there, on June 21st, the sun does not set, and it is quite as light at midnight as during the day. The further you go north, and on more days, the sun does not set until you get to the North Pole, and there it does not set for six months, but it is daylight, or one combined day, for six months. The brilliancy of the orb varies in intensity according to the state of moisture of the atmosphere. One day it will be of deep red colour, tinging everything with a roseate hue, and producing a drowsy effect. There are times when the changes in the colour between the sunset and sunrise might be compared to the varia- tion of a charcoal fire, now burning with a fierce red glow, then fading away, and rekindling with greater brightness. There are days when the sun has a pale whitish appearance, when even it can be looked at for 6 or 7 hours before midnight. 83 As this hour approaches, the sun becomes less glaring, gradually changing into more brilliant shades as it dips towards the lowest point of its course. Its motion is very slow, and for quite a while it apparently follows the line of the horizon, during which there seems to be a pause as when the sun reaches noon. This is midnight. For a few minutes the glow of sunset mingles with that of sunrise, and one cannot tell which prevails; but soon the light becomes slowly and gradually more brilliant, announcing the birth of another day, and often before an hour has elapsed the sun becomes so dazzling that one cannot look at it with the naked eye. This constant daylight and brilliant sunshine has a very inspiriting, exhilarating, enlivening and invigorating effect on the traveller, and makes him feel that he does not want to sleep—but feels so stimulated that he could undertake any amount of endurance. The people are brave, industrious, moral, contented, and polite. Intercourse with them is pleasing, they are so gentle, guileless, trustful and honest. Agriculture and fishing are the principal industries, and so meagre are the apparent means of obtaining a livelihood, that one is driven to ask continually how do the people make a living at all. Whilst healthy, strong, happy, intelligent and contented, their wants must be few and easily satisfied. Their food is of the simplest and plainest kind, and their clothing primitive and of material frequently manufactured in their own homes. We returned to Molde, and made two or three days excursion up the Molde Fjord and the Romdals Fjord and valley. The scenery here is considered the finest of its kind in Norway. We landed at Veblemnaes about eight o’clock, and were obliged to make the excursion up the valley in the night, because the steamer started at six o’clock the morning after, so we started in carrioles up the valley at nine o’clock and got back at half-past one. This is one of the advantages of the constant light, that you can work or travel night and day if occasion requires. Riding on these carrioles is the principal method of travelling on the roads in Norway. It is exciting and pleasant, and we thoroughly enjoyed it, as we did all in Norway. Along the valleys and fjords of Norway a very striking feature is the number of cascades and waterfalls, their number is endless, and nearly always interesting. The Romdal valley is no exception to the rule. Near Fladmark, some distance up the valley, in a less distance than one English mile, no less than 70 falls can be counted, none less than 1000 feet high, and some plunged down 2000 feet. _ After getting back to Bergen we made a little tour up the Hardanger and across to the Sogne Fjord and down the Sogne Fjord back to Bergen. 84 - In the south, in the valleys, and along the edges of the Fjords, wherever there is an opportunity, vegetation springs up and is taken advantage of by the poor farmer and cotter. I have mentioned how suddenly summer comes in Norway. The consequence of this is there is a beautiful freshness and special green about the grasses that you don’t meet with else- where. Herbert, the poet, speaking of this sudden and beautiful development of Nature, says :— Oh, ’t’is the touch of fairy hand That wakes the spring of Northern land, It warms not there by slow degrees, With changeful pulse the uncertain breeze, But, sudden, on the wondering sight, Bursts forth the beam of living light, And instant verdure springs around And magic flowers bedeck the ground. The Stalheim cleft, with its two waterfalls and winding, well engineered road with 14 zig-zags, and the Naerodal Valley and Fjord, are well worth the trouble of going all the way to Norway to see. Such was the variety and interest of these few days of inland scenery that I cannot put my ideas more pithily than Ruskin has put it :—‘* There is not a moment of any day of our lives when Nature is not producing scene after scene, picture after picture, glory after glory, and working still upon such exquisite and constant principles of the most perfect beauty, that it is quite certain it is all done for us, and intended for our perpetual pleasure.”’ THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT AND ITS EFFECT ON OUR NEIGHBOURHOOD. By JOHN WHITTAKER. October 23rd, 1888. To many members of the Club, Local Government, with its straggling train of scarecrows—crime, lunacy, pauperism, sew- age disposal, and infectious diseases—crossing and recrossing the stage of local administration, for all the world like those ragged rascals with whom Sir John Falstaff refused to march through Coventry, will seem sadly out of place in this, our little Utopia of letters. But is this really so? The great Hercules himself was an improvement commissioner—witness his cleans- ing the Augean stables—and Plutarch, on his own confession, 85 held an inspection of draims. Are not Shakespeare’s merry conceits, Dogberry and Verges, Justice Shallow and Justice Silence whimsical shadows of our present Watch Committee-men, and coming County Councillors. De Quincy somewhere recom- mends the general study of political economy as a certain cure for sleeplessness. If any friend of mine has tried that specific with, as yet, unsatisfactory results, I have only to say “thread the mazes of local government,” as we endure it, and you will soon obtain dreamless repose. There are twenty-four (shortly to be made into twenty-five) separate and distinct sets of local authorities, each playing within bearing of the rest, an independ- ent air; but to these the student will become used in time, just as dwellers in proximity to a cataract find in the roar of rushing waters a soothing lullaby; to the accustomed ear the rasping tones of the village politician ‘will roar you as gently as any sucking dove.” Tae Merits anp Score or Mr. Ritcuie’s Bru. Although Mr. Ritchie’s Bill for the reform of local government adds one more distinctive authority to bodies already weakened by excessive differentiation, it has the distinguished merit of being thorough as far as it goes beyond the dreams of the most enthusiastic reforms of a few years ago, of carrying with it the possibility of a complete readjustment of local administration. With apologies to Mr. Nutter and other students of astronomy in connection with this Club, I would liken the Bill to the core of a newly-launched world, around which the present chaos of miscalled Local Authorities will shortly revolve or suffer absorp- tion by more receptive neighbours. At one stroke, the large administrative powers for so long a time held by county magis- trates are being transferred to a popularly elected authority—the control of main roads, river pollution, asylums, county rating, police (to some extent) and many other minor matters which it would tire you to hear enumerated. It speaks well for the general character for fairness enjoyed by Englishmen that the system of government by a privileged class, independent of popular feeling and control, and acting in direct contradiction to the generally received theory that taxation and representation ought always to go together, has left behind it few traces of bitterness: the quiet dignity with which the County Justices have surrendered their charge—not at the call of an indignant populace, but in acknowledgment of the silent force of circumstances which the extension of household suffrage to counties brought fully into play—covers them with honour. Thus sometimes and happily, powers that have become an anachronism,— 86 “drop like the tower sublime Of yesterday, which royally did wear His crown of weeds, but could not even sustain Some casual shout that broke the silent air, Or the unimaginable touch of Time.” To enable us to grasp the full import of the recent Act, it will be necessary to tersely rehearse its main outlines. Fortunately the task has been taken out of my hands by Mr. Alexander Macmorran, one of the co-editors of the Justice of the Peace, whose luminous introduction I have not scrupled largely to draw from in the following explanation. The Local Government Act, 1888, is one of the most important measures of recent years. It has been said to be the most important statute relating to local government that has appeared since the Municipal Corporations Act, 1835, but it may be doubted whether even that Act effected greater changes in local administration. Hitherto the business of a county, as distinguished from the smaller areas within the county such as Poor Law Unions or Sanitary Districts, has been administered by Justices in Quarter Sessions. It has been admitted on all sides that the Justices have performed their allotted functions with economy and efficiency. But the Justices were not a representative body, and when it came to be the general opinion that much of the work now done by Departments of State (central authorities) might, with advantage, be trans- ferred to local bodies, an opportunity arose of creating repre- sentative Boards or Councils in counties, and transferring to them all, or nearly all, the administrative powers and duties now exercised by the Quarter Sessions, and at the same time of conferring upon them other powers now exercised and performed by State Departments. In addition to this it is proposed, by means of Provisional Orders, to transfer to the representative body many of the powers and duties which now devolve upon public departments and other public authorities. In other words, the powers granted to County Councils admit of great future development. Tur New County Councits : THerr Constitution AND WoRK. The County Council is to be constituted and elected in most respects similarly to the Council of a Municipal Borough. It is to consist of a Chairman, County Aldermen and County Coun- cillors. The mode of election is to be regulated by the Municipal Corporations Act, 1882, but with considerable modifications. County Councillors will be elected once in three years (one for each electoral division), these divisions to be determined by the Local Government Board or by Quarter Sessions, and in the following manner. The Local Government Board determines in the first place the number of Councillors to be returned by each 87 county. The same Board then assigns to each borough in the county—not being a county borough—the number of its repre- sentatives upon the County Council. In the rest of the county the Justices of Quarter Sessions determine electoral divisions. The divisions—according to the Act—have to be, as nearly as possible, equal in population, but regard is to be had, not merely to population, but to a proper representation of urban and rural populations respectively, to the distribution of the popula- tion, and to area. The Chairman of a County Council will, during office, be a Justice of the Peace for the county, and the Returning Officer at an election of County Councillors is to be a person appointed by the Council. The ordinary day for the election will be—as in boroughs—the first day of November, but in every third year only. The first election, however, is to be held in the month of January next, and the Returning Officers for the purposes of that election will be the Sheriff of each county. The County Aldermen will be elected by the County Councillors only—no Alderman being allowed to vote for himself or for his brother Aldermen—a distinct advance upon the practice prevailing in municipal boroughs. Besides the powers already hinted at, the County Council will acquire powers now exercised by the Justices out of Session relating to the licensing of theatres and the execution of the Explosive Acts. Amongst the duties which are transferred to County Councils, otherwise than from Quarter Sessions and Justices, may be mentioned the appointment of County Coroner, an appointment which has hitherto been made by a select class—the freeholders of the county at large. One of the principal changes which will be effected by this Act will be the transferring of the control of the county police to a body consisting partly of Justices and partly of Members of the County Council. That Committee will appomt the Chief Constable and will exercise the same control as has hitherto been exercised by the Quarter Sessions. The County Council will hereafter take complete control of main roads, defraying the expenses. Urban Authorities can, if they wish it, have the work deputed to them, but the County Council will ‘‘ pay the piper and choose the tune.’”’” The purification of rivers and streams (a long neglected and exceedingly necessary work) will be undertaken by the County Council and they have power—in cases where a river runs through more than one county—to appoint joint Committees consisting of Members of two or more County Councils to deal with this important subject. Perhaps I need not add that practically all householders and property owners, irrespective of sex, unless a female householder has the misfortune to be married, will have a vote in the election of County Councillors, and that the election will be by ballot. The Lancashire County Council will consist of 105 elected Coun- 88 cillors and 85 Aldermen. The meeting place is, as yet, unde- termined, but will probably be in Preston. Peers are eligible for election, and so also are all owners of property if property owners within the county, even though non-resident. To qualify for the County Council it is enough to be simply a ratepayer within the district for which the ratepayer has been elected or, as above, a property owner within the county. Tue Errect or tHe Act upon tHis NEIGHBOURHOOD. Our next inquiry is what effect will the Act have upon this particular neighbourhood; taking as the true definition in this case of the word neighburhood the Burnley Union with its aggregate of twenty-six townships and a population of some one hundred and sixty thousand. And since municipal Burnley— largely through the well-directed efforts of Mr. Southern, its able Town Clerk—has become a county in itself, the Burnley Union offers fair ground for a general explanation of the scope of the Act, having within its borders a county borough, five local board districts. and a rural sanitary authority composed entirely of poor law guardians. In attempting this explanation it will be neces- sary to avoid explaining many things unless we are prepared to share the fate of the knight who was drowned through carrying too much armour. Previous to the passing of this Act certain sums, amounting in the aggregate during 1887 to £1,825,491, were handed over from the national exchequer in aid of local rates. These were chiefly expended upon pauper lunatics and in aid of medical officers, and teachers of paupers, and salaries. These grants cease when the Act comes into operation, and in their place a settled proportion of the license and probate duties will be paid over to the credit of each County Council. Burnley, therefore, by attaining the rank of a County Borough will be able to retain for its own use—subject to certain restrictions we have hereafter to specify—a fixed fractiona] portion of all licensing and probate duties falling due within its own area, and will no longer be much interfered with by outside authorities, whether they may be styled County Justices or County Councillors. On the other hand—in return for these acquired rights—the Burnley Municipal district will have to contribute its fair share of the costs incidental to both Assizes and Quarter Sessions, and also towards the salary of the District Coroner. Pauper Lunatics sent from within the Municipal Borough of Burnley will have to be partially supported from the Borough funds—the Council having power to appoiut visitors to any asylums in which Burnley Luna- tics may be patients. County Bridges and their approaches within the municipal boundary will henceforth be transferred to the Corporation, and the sole cost of repairing them and the main roads over the same area will rest with the Town Council. 89 Special Commissioners’ (Harl Derby, Messrs. Shaw-Lefevre, Wharton, Mowatt and Henley) have been appointed, who, by themselves or with the aid of a skilled deputy or deputies, will undertake the complicated task of apportioning Burnley’s share of liability on main roads, prisons, lunatic asylums, and other accounts towards the County generally, and also the County’s obligations towards the New County Municipality. Since the balance of advantage remains largely with Burnley I may be the more easily forgiven for drawing attention to a conspicuous “ fly in the ointment,’’—Burnley men will be still liable to serve on juries, both at the Preston Sessions and during the Assizes. That part of the Burnley Union situated outside the Municipal Borough will be placed largely under the control of the County Council. To that Council outer Burnley will send five represen- tatives, distributed—in all likelihood---as follows :—Colne and Marsden and Trawden Local Board Districts, one ; Nelson Local Board District one; Padiham and Hapton and Brierfield Local Board Districts, one; the Rural Districts will be divided into two Electoral divisions, named respectively Barrowford and Briercliffe, but covering an immense area, the whole of nineteen and a por- tion of four other Townships. The above five County Councillors will share with one hundred others, authority over the whole of Lancashire, with the exception of the Municipalities of Manches- ter, Salford, Liverpool, Blackburn, Bolton, Bury, Burnley, Barrow, Preston, St. Helen’s, Oldham, Rochdale, Wigan, and Stockport. The Lancashire County Councillors—to be elected during January next—will retire on the 1st of November, 1891. Of the County Aldermen, about one-half will retire on the 7th of November, 1892, and the other half on the same date in the year 1894. The Council will not be at once invested with full powers. The Members will first act as a Provisional Council. They will meet for such purposes as the election of Chairman and Alder- men and for making the needful arrangements with Quarter Sessions for bringing the Act into operation. It will not be until the 1st of April, 1889—a date of ominous import—that the County Councillors will begin to exercise their full powers and duties. At the risk of repetition it will be necessary here to rehearse the main outlines of the full powers and duties of the Lancashire County Council. With them will rest the making, assessing, and levying of County, Police, Hundred, and all other Rates, and the application and expenditure thereof, and the preparation and revision of the basis or standard for the County Rate; the borrowing of money, and the passing of the accounts of and the discharge of the County Treasurer. They will have to build and maintain shire halls, county halls, assize courts, judges lodgings, lock-up houses, justices’ rooms, police stations, and county buildings, works, and property, They will be res- J 90 ponsible for the provision, enlargement, maintenance, manage- ment and visitation of, and other dealings with all asylums within their County for pauper lunatics ; also the establishment and maintenance of, and the contribution to Reformatory and Industrial Schools within their area. On them will fall the drawing up of the tables of fees to be taken by and the costs to be allowed to any Inspector, Analyst, or person holding any office in the County other than that of the Clerk of the Peace or the Clerks of the Justices, also the appointment, removal, and deter- mination of salaries of any officers where remuneration is paid out of the county rate with the above exceptions. They will control the salaries of Coroners, regulate the fees, allowances, and disbursements to be paid by each Coroner ; divide the county into Coroner’s districts, assign the districts, and elect Coroners. In them will be vested the division of the county into polling districts for the purposes of parliamentary elections, the appoint- ment of places of election, the places of holding courts for the revision of the lists of voters, and the costs of, and other matters to be done for the registration of parliamentary voters. In their hands will be placed the execution of the Acts relating to con- tagious diseases of animals, to destructive insects (Colorado or other beetles), to fish conservancy, to wild birds, to weights and measures, and to gas meters, also to any matters arising under payment of damages during a riot. They will register the rules under which Literary and Scientific Societies become exempt from payment of rates—oh blessed state! who will say now after this that our members have no interest in this question? Also all charitable gifts, and record and confirm the rules of loan societies--the lamb and the lion here lie down together. The County Council will have power to purchase or take over on terms to be agreed upon—existing bridges—not dedicated to the public, but used by them by special permission, or upon payment of toll—and to maintain, repair, or improve any bridges so pur- chased and taken over. They will also have transferred to them the licensing of houses or places for the public performance of stage plays and the execution as Local Authority of the Explosive Act, 1885, dealing with the manufacture, keeping, sale, transport, and importation of explosives, and including the granting of licenses and the registration of premises for the above purposes. Every main road within the area covered by the Lancashire County Council, together with the bridges in connection therewith, will be vested in the council, who by themselves or by means of Urban Authorities will repair and maintain, or widen and improve the same. They will also have the same powers as a Highway Board for preventing and removing obstructions, and for asserting the right of the public to the use and enjoyment of roadside wastes. The County Council may also, should they think fit, 91 contribute towards the cost of the maintenance, repair, enlarge- ment, and improvement of any highway, and even of any public footpath in the county. Mark the fact that main roads are vested in the County Councils, and that the clause as to highways and public footpaths largely extends the sphere of use- fulness of such councils. But the powers granted with regard to rivers pollution overshadow in importance—from a sanitary point of view—all the rest. The narrowly selfish manner in which urban and municipal authorities have sent down sewage into rivers and streams, and for which they will now be promptly brought to account, is a crying disgrace. With the single excep- tion of Colne, not one authority—whether municipal, urban, or rural sanitary, is free from blame in this matter—from Trawden to Whalley. Not only will the Lancashire County Council be able to enforce the provisions of the Rivers Pollution Prevention Act, 1876, within their own area, but they will by joining in committee with other County Councils be able to follow any river or stream to its source in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, or Cheshire. Many other minor powers have been granted to County Councils, but enough has been brought before you to prove that the post of a faithful County Councillor will be one involving plenty of hard work and heavy responsibilities. In Lancashire he will have a share in the administration of an immense tract of coun- try of large rateable value and containing a population of one and a half millions. In naming the paper ‘ the Local Govern- ment Act and its effect upon our neighbourhood,” I did noi intend to don the prophetic mantle, Russell Lowell’s grand- mother’s advice ‘‘ don’t never prophecy unless you know,’’ would have openly rebuked me else. ‘‘ Effect,” therefore, must here be understood in its narrow and immediate sense ; but it is impos- sible to ignore the importance of this crisis, or the need of a careful selection of candidates if the Act has to be made as useful as every friend of good government desires. Tue pest CANDIDATES FOR THE OrricE oF County CoUNOCILLOR. Ambitious seekers after social position should be avoided, and on the other hand honoured names are not in themselves suffi- cient—we must insist upon a liking for work and administrative capacity. Above all, the election of members as a reward for purely party services would lower the tone of the whole council. Government by party has—in the present state of public opinion —in Imperiai Parliament—an irresistible case—because there laws are abrogated, altered, or made. But on the County Councils quite a different set of faculties will be brought into play. Laws already passed will have to be carefully administered, and a member’s usefulness will increase just in proportion to his power to lay aside for the time all local and party considerations 92 in his anxiety to carry out fairly, firmly, and wisely the pro- visions of the Acts he has the honour to administer. In the opinion of many the great blot upon the nomination of magis- trates has been the party bias displayed in their selection. Every Conservative, Liberal Unionist, or Gladstonian Association there- fore that advocates the selection of County Councillors upon merely party grounds helps to perpetuate a custom on all sides condemned and, to speak plainly, deliberately threatens to debase at its very inception an honorable and responsible office. Mr. Ritchie, Sir Charles Dilke, Sir Ughtred Kay-Shuttleworth, and all careful students of local:administration have severely deprecated party action in the coming elections. It would be little short of a calamity if gentlemen such as Mr. J. T. Hibbert (a Gladstonian) and Mr. C. R. Jacson (an out and out Tory) were, through party opposition, debarred from joining the Lancashire County Council, and yet, the introduction of party cries might easily hinder either or both from obtaining a seat, or receiving the necessary vote as ‘Alderman. At this time a large view is required to be taken by County electors. Wherever individual County justices have shown activity and ability in County administration a seat should, if possible, be reserved for them upon the coming County Council, Their previous knowledge of County work would at this juncture ‘be of immense service. We might do worse than imitate the action of the good people of the City of Ripon, who have agreed ‘to sink party differences and to offer to the Marquis of Ripon the unopposed representation of their electoral division. ~ In conclusion, although I have unmistakeably advocated the in- advisability of introducing party politics into the pending elections, I have strong confidence that under all circumstances—even though party feeling should dominate for a time our County Councils and ‘‘the party hack’’—to quote from Goldsmith—by “straining his throat’ prevail upon the County elector ‘ to give him his vote ’’—the responsibility thrown upon County electors will on the whole work for good. Open discussion of the affairs of the County will in time awaken an intelligent interest in them amongst the electorate generally, and—though here and there liable to abuse—publicity and the share of power vested in each ratepayer and property owner will form the best possible safe- guards for the well working of the Local Government Act of 1888, an Act thorough in its conception, wide in its application, and far reaching in its effects. An interesting discussion followed. Mr. Horn pointed out that those inside the Borough of Burnley would have compara- tively little to do with the adminstrative Council tor the geograph- ical County of Lancaster. As to the past government of the County he thought it had been administered efficiently and economically, and as evidence of this he mentioned that while 98 its rateable value was £18,000,000 per year, they had a debt of only £700,000, which spoke well for the County Justices. But they had got the Act and they would have to pay the piper for an administration which would be more costly, although they might get value in other respects. The new Act did not affect the Guardians materially, although it was at first proposed that the members of that body should be paid, but they had got those clauses wiped out, and others inserted, by which, the Guardians will receive certain sums in respect of rates from the County Council, and also from the Borough of Burnley. . My. J. Rawlinson said if they believed in popular representa- tion and the management of public business by popularly elected bodies, then he thought they were all bound to admit that that object and principle had been very well embodied in the Act which Mr. Ritchie had passed. He thought the authorities of Burnley acted wisely and in the interests of the town when they succeeded in getting the borough made into a county of itself. Apart from other advantages, he understood that the borough, according to Alderman Greenwood, would benefit to the extent of some £8,000 or £4,000 by the Act. PHOTOGRAPHIC SOIREE. Directors: JOHN BUTTERWORTH, Junr., J.P. S. D. Mc KELLEN. October 30th, 1888. ‘ This was an enjoyable evening, the Entertainment consisting of a Photographie Soirée under the directorship of Mr. Jno. Butterworth, J.P., assisted by Mr. Mc Kellen of Manchester. Mr. W. Sutcliffe and Mr. J. Pickles conducted experiments in ‘Photography. MUSICAL SOIREE. Director: JAMES ARTHUR WADDINGTON. November 6th, 1888. Mr. Jas. Kay, J.P., presided. The Programme was in two por- tions, the first Shakesperian, and the second Miscellaneous. Ina short introductory paper Mr. Waddington gave some interesting particulars concerning the composersof Shakesperian Songs, and ‘94 the circumstances under which they were introduced into the Plays, He pointed out that ‘‘It was a lover and his lass,” (As You Like It) was composed by acontemporary of Shakespeare (Thomas Morley) and published in the year 1600. ‘The words of the song ‘¢ Should he Upbraid,”’ were altered from the speech of Petruchio in the *‘ Taming of the Shrew.” The song was composed by Sir H. Bishop, and originally sung bya lady in “‘ The two Gentlemen of Verona,” but had lately been introduced into the Play to whiéh the words belonged. The Programme included selections from Mendelssohn’s music to ‘“*A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” the Overture Scherzo, Nocturne, and Wedding March, four Piano Duetts being ex- ecuted by Messrs. Fred and Saville Myers. Miss Horner sang with taste and feeling. Miss Mary Hutton and Mr. Arnold sang excellently, and Mr. Pennington displayed great skill with his violin. The Soirée was a decided success. PLACE NAMES IN AND AROUND BURNLEY. By THOMAS DEAN, M.D. November 18th, 1888. In introducing his subject, the reader first took A Guiese at tHE Ancient Brirons. Before the Romans conquered Britain, the inhabitants of this part of the island were a wild, uncultivated, pagan people; what culture existed was confined to the Druidical Priests. The people were scattered in tribes, each tribe fighting for its own hand; when they wore clothing in the colder months it consisted of the skins of wild animals taken in the chase; rude huts made from the boughs of trees protected them from the weather ; their food consisted of acorns, wild roots, corn and fruit, and those wild animals and birds they could kill by hunting. Bears, wolves, beavers, and lesser wild animals were very common, the hills in this neighbourhood showed their bare tops through the woods and forests, and the valleys were marshy, and in rainy weather nearly impassable on account of the numerous pools or meres that existed ; there were no roads, and the tribes, when defeated, took to the hills, The language of this people was similar to the Welsh of the present day. Rather more than half a century before the Christian Era the Romans invaded Britain and finally conquered it, but did not leave much of their civilization in these parts of Lancashire, There are traces of their presence; we can just say they came and they went. When the Romans retired, 95 after 400 years of possession, the Danes and Northmen from the regions of Scandinavia came over and conquered Tar Native Britons more thoroughly than the Romans. The Romans spared the natives and became their protectors ; the Northmen took posses- sion with fire and sword, and those natives who were not killed or made slaves fled to the hills and fastnesses of Cliviger and Briercliffe. Six hundred years after the Romans had left England and the Northmen and Saxons had settled on the lands of the ancient Britons, the Normans conquered England. Now these Normans were exactly of the same race of people as those who were settled in Lancashire, cousins, only far removed ; for in the ancient Druidical and Roman times whilst one horde of Northmen over-ran the North of England, another over-ran and conquered the North of France; the French called them Normans, we called them Northmen. These later Normans, lke the earlier North- men, came to live and settle here, so that before manufacturing industry arose and brought all nations into Lancashire, the natives of this part of Lancashire consisted principally of North- men with a sprinkling of Saxons, and as these very Saxons were cousins of the Northmen, we may say that this part of the county was a Danish settlement. We have seen that the ancient Britons had not much settled or cultivated lands. consequently they have left but little trace of their existence. The Romans were eminently a military people, and their hopes and eyes were always towards Rome, so that we have not much trace other than military of their presence. The Danes and Saxons were a people of squatters ; no sooner did they steal a piece of land than they felled trees, put up fences, and built a house, consequently they have left many more traces of their existence than the others. The Nor- mans were not only a military people but they loved the chase, they were hunting lords and they lorded it over the natives with a high hand. The peasants were slaves and belonged to the soil. From the times of the Danes to the Normans if a serf caused a deer to run till it panted, whether by design or accident, he was whipped till the skin peeled from him, if a free peasant, that is a, farmer who was not sold with the land, caused a deer to pant by running, he forfeited 10s. to the king. If the beast caused to pant was a royal stag the freeman lost his liberty for a year, the bondsman for two years, and the serf (ville) was outlawed. During f Tue Norman Ocovpation inquests:were held over all deer found dead or wounded, just as in- quests are held nowover dead people. The Forest of Lancaster con- sisted of the forests of Bowland, Blackburnshire, Pendle, Trawden, Accrington and. Rossendale, including lands, -sometimes called 96 chases, and bélonged to Karl Lacy, a Norman lord, then to the Royal family and others, and now to the Duchy of Lancaster. A Royal forest was put under the guard of men paid by the State, called the chief men of the Forest. If any one offered viclence to these men, if the offender was a freeman, he lost his freedom and all his property, and became a serf, if a serf, his right hand was cut off for the first offence, and whether a freeman or serf, for a second offence the penalty was death. The difference between a forest and a chase was this, that a forest belonged to the king, and was under the cruel forest laws, whilst the chase belonged to a subject and was under the common law. A Palatine County is a county over which an Karl, Bishop or Duke had a royal jurisdiction; there were formerly three counties Palatine, Chester, Durham and Lancaster, owned by the Earl of Chester, Bishop of Durham, and Duke of Lancaster. If we cast our eyes over the district comprised in the Forest of Pendle, and remember that it was a hunting ground owned by a powerful Earl (Karl Lacy and Duke of Lancaster,) we shall understand that it must have been the home of many of the lord’s servants. There would be a manor house, a park keeper, a forest ranger, a farm bailiff or steward, and many other subordinate servants. The homes of these servants would be dispersed over the domain, and as pop- ulation increased some village must exist where rents and tenures’ could be liquidated, trees must be felled, homesteads made, names must be given to the various localities, and the business of a great estate managed and conducted. In the primitive times under the ancient Britons, names would be given to prominent. hills, rivers and fastnesses, the different kinds of trees would be known because their qualities differ, the haunts of wild animals would be noticed, marshy land would be distinguished from dry. Under the Danes and Saxons, clearings, homesteads and localities would be differentiated, and names given to them, the names of owners would be given to some, we should expect the names of trees, birds and beasts would be given to others, slopes, flats, marshes, river crossings, contiguity to hills and rivers, places where religious rites were held, places where well-known incidents of chase or battle occurred, contour of lands or colour of the soil, springs and peculiar vegetation, all those would be likely to give names appropriate to the circumstances. In solving Tur Proptem or Puaczt Names it is well to look at the names in different ways just as you do. in finding out those card puzzles which tradesmen are so fond of bringing to your notice; you must turn them this way and that, and stare at them, get familiar with the locality represented by the name if you can, and then you will find bye and bye that the proper (may be improper) meaning will dawn on your mind, and 97 everything looking simple. It is always necessary, if you are able, to trace the word back to some very old spelling. This work entails great labour, and it is often much easier to make a guess at a word than laboriously follow it to its early source. You may depend that place names reveal to you the real circumstances which existed at the time of naming. Those circumstances and surroundings may not exist to-day, they may have changed, or disappeared altogether, but on that account the derivation of the word may be all the more interesting. I must warn you that the present way of spelling is often misleading, the pronunciation also will often mislead you, sometimes you must trust a little to the spell- ing and sometimes to the sound, at other times you must throw both overboard and then comes the opportunity for great differ- ence of opinion amongst men learned in words. The battle of the meaning of some words will last for all time. Old deeds, old histories, and particularly old manuscripts will often solve the problem when otherwise all would be confusion and doubt, take an instance of the well-known name Shotover in Oxfordshire. Some long time ago a person built a good house there, and because the grass and trees about it were very green he gave it the French name of ‘‘ Chateau Vert,” the green villa. The rustics unacquainted with French words, gradually turned Chateau Vert into Shotover, and if you ask the meaning of the word they tell ‘you somebody was at one time in the habit of shooting over this particular land. Now if you will dissect the sounds in Chateau Vert and Shotover, you will find a close relationship in sound but not in letters, but when you come to the clear meaning of the two words there is no relationship whatever. The way prim- itive meanings can be traced by closely scrutinising and dissect- ing the word and showing how frequently we can see and use a familiar word without understanding its significant meaning, and how words give out their original meaning when properly inter- rogated, is shown in the word neighbour, this can be dissected into two words, the first syllable neigh, may be spelt nigh, or near, or next, or as they would say in Trawden or Pendle Forest, neighst, you may spell it nee if you like. All these words mean in modern English near or next, you can pronounce the neigh either ni, or nee, or na, they are all correct, mean the same thing, and are so pronounced in different counties to-day, we then come to the second syllable bour, you can write this boor, or bur if you like, and can pronounce it many different ways, so that if you ring the changes on the difterent spellings and pronunciation of the two syllables, you may get a great variety, and yet, if the word be traced back to its original meaning they have all been in common use, but the present standard is neighbour (nabur,) now the meaning of the first syllable is next, and the second Boor, or peasant farmer, the word Boor is common in Holland, we say a K 98 Dutch Boor. In the Transvaal (Cape of Good Hope,) the farmers: are still called Boors, so that neighbour, is your next Boor, or peasant farmer, not the King, Earl or Bishop, not the tradesman, not the vagrant, not the man with no settled occupation, but the next Boor who has settled on his homestead, he, and he only, was your neighbour when the word was coined. If you put hood to the word you have neighbourhood, now hood means a fortified or protected place, so that a neighbourhood was a protected locality, showing you the condition of the country when the word was coined, when each neighbourhood, at times had to run to a pro- tected place. Take the word gleaner, now meaning to gather corn left by the reapers, the origin of the word is gland meaning acorn. In old times they gathered acorns not only jor swine, but for family food, acorns have ceased to be food, and the word is now used for corn gatherers. Pennie Hit. When this district was forest and marsh, the symmetrical outline of Pendle Hill would be a striking and distinctive object, the people then living called it Pen. This word amongst the ancient Britons meant top of a hill, there is no qualification to the word, so that we may conclude that it was bare as at present, that is not wooded. By and bye the British were driven from the district and the Danes settled here, they did not know the Pen meant a hill, their name for a hill was hull, they therefore took the old name of Pen which had no distinct meaning to them (they per- haps thought it meant a district) and called it Pen Hull, then in a further lapse of time, there came the modern Britisher, who did not know that the old mountain had got two names already. each signifying hill, but seeing that it was a hill, and wishing very properly to distinguish it from other places, they added their own word hill to the Pen Hull, and called it Penhull Hill which eradually became Pendle Hill. The village called Pendleton on the Clitheroe side of the mountain, in old documents is called Penhulton, meaning, Hill Hill Town, thus confirming the deriv- ation of Pendle Hill. I fancy that in old times, the accent was strongly laid on the Pen just as they do now in the Forest, and the second syllable hull was not noticed, for there is no great difference between hull and hill. If time permitted, some reflec- tions might be made on the teaching of these words, for instance, when the Danes supplanted the ancient Britons, they did not at once exterminate them, they lived with, or near them, long enough to know the name Pen, but not long enough to learn the language of the British, or they would not have duplicated the name. This reduplication of words having the same meaning is very common in this district, for instance, in very old English, a little wood was always called Hurst, but we have Hurstwood, a dupli- 99 cation, and teaching this lesson, that when the modern English came to live at Hurstwood they did not know that Hurst meant wood, and that which was a wood in old Danish and Saxon times was still a wood when the modern English came to live there. I am told on good authority, that at Church Kirk, near Accrington, reduplication of words having the same meaning is still going on, and in a very likely and simple way. Evidently the old name of the place was Church (there were churches in this part of the County in the 8th century) because there was a church there then came a people who called a church a kirk, both words mean and are, the same, only church is pronounced soft, and kirk hard, the ch-k and k-ch, so that the place became Church, Church, and now, I understand, it is quite common for people who are going to the church there, to say, ‘I am going to Church Kirk, Church” which is quite equal to Pendle Hill, but one would think the tautology far easier of detection. Burney is an old name, it means a field through which the Burn or Brook flows. In the will of Richard Towneley, Esq., eldest son and successor of Sir John Towneley, born in the year 1499, he - describes himself as Rd. Towneley of Brinley, Esqre, other docu- ments call it Brunley, Burn, in the dialect of the district is changed to Brun, just as burnt with fire, is altered to brunt, and -as is in some districts of Lancashire a bird is called a brid, we have the same change in ‘“‘ bran new” knife, or clothes, or any- thing that is quite new, bran new was originally said of iron fresh from the fire, that is, newly burnt or brant. The same ~ Burn or brook, is rather more vulgarly made into Brown, as Brown hill, the hill above the Brun, Brown side, Brown street, meaning side or street near the Brun. We have Brunshaw, which I consider has a different meaning, Shaw from which we get our word shade is Danish, meaning a little wood or grove. Members of the Club will know that the late Mr. T. T. Wilkinson, of Burnley, was convinced that the great Danish and Saxon Battie oF BrunansurG was fought at Saxifield to the east of Burnley; now the land at Brunshaw does not slope or shed its water into the Brun, but into the Calder, I make the meaning of this word Brunshaw, to be the shaw or wood where the battle fiercely raged—we yet say the brunt of the battle, therefore Brunshaw is where the battle hotly raged, or where the brunt was. One strong objection to Mr, Wilkinson’s theory of the locality of the great battle was, that Saxifield was only a small place, and therefore could not have been the site of a great engagement where three kings were »slain. There formerly existed in Burnley Lane, a tenement 100 called Bishop’s house, a new shed has lately been erected on the site, it lies a few hundred yards to the left as you pass through the Duke bar leading to Burnley Lane Head. The land is known as the Bishop’s House Estate, and once, with the tenement, belonged to the Archbishop of Canterbury, though formerly to Whalley Abbey. At the death of Paslew, the last Abbot (1537), the Chapel of Burnley was conveyed to the See of Canterbury in exchange for other property. I find in a MS.1I possess, a ‘‘ Particular taken out of Rolls,” of what com- mons were allotted to several persons at several courts within the Manor of Ightenhill, by Mr. Andrew Holden, Steward of the said Manor in the year 1663, that George Archbishop of Canterbury obtained 192 acres of land in Burnley for the sum of 9s.1034d., and that Henry Jackson for 4s.84d. obtained 24 acres of land upon the top of Saxifield, and that Richard Towneley got 533 acres on Saxifield, 9 acres on Ightenhill-ridge, 2 acres on the Ridge above Burnley, 14 acres upon Turf Moor, 53 acres upon Meanefield Slacks, 4 acres on Thornell Moor, and 1 acre on the Royds. He also obtains 54 acres more common land upon Saxifield, whereof 2 acres are beneath Bishop’s House, and the rest above, he also gets land on Broadhead Moor, Nutshaw House, upon the great hill on Broadhead Moor, near Whorely Pasture, some near Timberhill Gate, some at Hayslacks, and Crownbrook, a total of 216 acres for £5 2s. 13d. I presume all these sums are yearly rents, they come to about 6d. per acre. Abram Colthurst gets between 8 and 4 acres above Bishop’s House. The following year George Archbishop gets about 14 acres on Broadhead Mocr for 93d. Broadhead Moor was somewhere about Four Lane Ends. Henry Walton, John Clough, Robert Ingham, George Halstead, Richard Towne, William Folds, Nicholas Towneley, Mrs. Isabella Towneley, and others get about 120 acres on Saxifield, William Foulds gets 2 acres for the glebe. The following year (19th James) John Parker, gentleman, gets over 24 acres of land for 1s. 22d. upon Saxifield, for the use of the school and others joined with him. In the same year Thomas Barcroft, Evan Haydock, gent., got about 60 acres on Saxifield. I desire to call the atten- tion of the Club to the circumstance that Saxifield is spoken of as being, not only above, but below Bishop’s House. Now as Bishop’s House estate was in Saxifield it follows that Saxifield extended nearly to Burnley, a much more extended district than Mr. Wilkinson could be aware of, so that there was, after all, space for a large battle on Saxifield. The following list of the common and waste lands in places round Burnley, are surveyed by William Eanes and Roger Walkden in 1618, although not necessary to the present subject, may prove interesting to local historians and will at least show that the districts are much altered. Briercliffe common consisted of 789 acres, Marsden \ 101 common consisted of 241 acres. Burnley, Burnley Wood, Haber- gham, are as follows:—on Saxifield, 309; on Roydes, 7; Turf Moor, 11; Ridge above Burnley, 42; Burnley Wood to the hill top, 25; above the Planetree and Huddehill, 561; below the Planetree and Huddhouse to Whittal-lane head, 56; the lowest part of Burnley Moor, 93; Meanefield Slacke, 22; Thornhill Moor, 82; and Ightenhill-ridge, 46. Prace Names 1n Burnuey. As you go out of Bridge Street into Howe Street, and imme- diately behind Nile Street, there is a place called Stoney Batter. The houses in Nile Street are evidently built on the edge of a precipice, and the precipice before the erection of the Sun Inn and adjacent houses was called Stoney Batter. Batter is a term still in use among masons and builders, for when they build a river wall they always put in it what they call batter—that is, they make the wall incline outwardly from the base to the top— hence Stoney Batter must have been a rocky hill inclining from its base to its summit. MHallrake in Wapping, Rakefoot off Church Street, and Rakehead, near Ebenezer Chapel, in Burnley Lane are cases in point. The two first are names contiguous to the River Brun; the left bank of the stream here shelves rapidly ; this steep inclination of land was in old English called a rake. The name hall attached to it is simply the Hall where a branch of the Towneleys once dwelt, hence Hall Rake. Rake Footis bottom of Rake, and Rakehead is, ot course, the head of the inclining land. The word shorey does not seem to be well understood ; it is simply the shore heigh land above the river, and Shorey Well is a well near the bank of the river. The estate known as Shore- heigh with Marles paid £8 a year to Towneley in 1535, so that it was a large tract of land. Marles is an old name meaning soil, that is a mixture of earth and lime. There must have been a good deal of drift limestone here. Farmers used marle as a manure in olden time; so late as 1682 a letter on this subject was published, entitled a letter from the imgenious Mr. Adam Martindale of Cheshire, about improving land by marle. It is not likely that the soil of Burnley Lane would do much to increase the fertility of land. Keighley Green is simply the green or croft, or little pasture of Keighley, a man’s name. Keighley is a very old name about Burnley. At the Clitheroe compotus, in 1295, a Henry de Keighley is 14s. in arrears to the Harl Lacy, and I believe a Keighley was the first Member of Parliament sent by the County Palatine of Lancaster, but perhaps not resident in the district of Burnley. Danes House, popularly named Dawnser House, is what its name implies—the house of the Dane. There are many places in and around Burnley which are patronymic, Waddington is a fine illustrative place, it means the town of the 102 descendants of Wadda, the great chief. Whenever ing follows'a name, and is followed by another syllable or more, it means the descendants of, the children of—ton of course means a town, a group of houses. Gambleside is Gamelside, Gamel is a Danish name; Hamble is the same as Gamel, so that Hambleton is the town of Gamel. Ormrcd is the royd, or clearing of Orme. Thurs- den is Thors Valley named after the god Thor worshipped by the pagans; it was with Thor’s hammer that the backbone of the victims was broken when human sacrifices were offered in these wild valleys. All these names are Danish, and show the north men settled here. Heasand Ford, foolishly called Pheasant Ford on the ordnance maps, is simply the high sand ford; high is pronounced hey in this district. In old manuscripts it is written Heysandforthe. There is Sandholme immediately below it. Now, the the Holme means a place, or land liable to be surrounded by water, a sort of marshy place. The name is very expressive, it was a holme where the river had deposited sand and formed an occasional channel round it. There was a fordat Sand Holme Bridge called Lower Sandford. Bishop’s Leap, near Heasand Ford, has nothing to do with a bishop’s hunting and leaping down pre- cipices, but is simply a weir, or leap, or lope, for fishes, to enable them to surmount some obstacle and get up stream. Fish came through Burnley and went up the Brun in those days in flood time. There is no necessity for a leap now. There was or is an old mill at Heasandford and this leap or lope had something to do with the water being turned into a dam or reservoir. Healey Hall, Laith, Heights, Healey Wood. Healey means the high field, the first syllable hea is just the same as in Heasand, and means high; ley means a field. The Hall was formerly the seat of a family named Heley, in 1295. In the Ightenhill com- potus there is received a fine of 6s. 8d. for the goods of Adam De Heley, coming to the earl; that is Adam de Heley died, and what is called the heriot was probably compounded for 6s. 8d. In other documents the name is spelt Helay, Heyleghe, this gives the derivation of the name Highfields. We, in our day, say Healey Heights. The word heights here is superfluous, for it makes the word Highfield Heights. Strange to say, on the lands of Healey there is a Highfield Terrace, which is exactly the same as Healey Terrace. I mentioned the word heriot. Tuer Feupat Heriot, was the giving of the best beast to the Lord of the Manor when a farmer died. The priest, as well as the lord, in time came to claim a heriot for the Church. The priest’s heriot was the next best cow after that given to the Lord of the Manor. The bishops ‘took it out of the priests, for when a priest died his best horse or “mare, bridle,-saddle- and spurs, his best gown: or. cloak,- hat, 103 upper garments under his gown, and tippet) and’ also his best signet or ring was the perquisite of the bishop. The demand and payment of heriot was often cruel. Dr. Hibbert Ware, of Manchester, relates the following :—A tenant’s boy, on the death of his father, driving an only cow to the manor house of Dukin- field, being met by the Lord (Sir Robert Dukinfield), with whose person and rank the boy was unacquainted, was questioned whither he was taking the beast. ‘I am driving it to Dukin- field for the heriot,”’ said the lad. ‘‘ My father is dead, we are many children, and have no cow but this. Don’t you think the devil will take Sir Robert for a heriot when he dies?’ The lad was fortunately addressing a humane landlord. ‘‘ Return home,” said the knight, ‘‘ take the cow back to thy mother. I know Sir Robert, I am going to Dukinfield myself, and I will make the matter up with him.” It was an ancient custom to drive the heriot horse or cow before the corpse of the deceased at his funeral. Saunders bank ought to be Sunder bank, it means separate, privileged; we still use the verb to sunder, to disunite, to separate, to break. Saunders Bank is in the township of Burnley although it stands on the left bank of the Calder which separates or sunders Burnley from Habergham Eaves township. As the stream divides the two townships every one would suppose that Saunders Bank was in Habergham Haves, whereas the separat- ing or sundering thing is the bank and not the river, and that is the reason why it is called Sunderbank or rather Saunderbank. Taking the District NEAR PenpLE Hu, we have some characteristic place names. Higham is the high village. The Halmote Court of the Duchy is now held there. Ightenhill is the same name, it only requires the letter H pre- fixing and becomes Hightown Hill. The hill is superfluous. Higham no doubt was a settlement of serfs who speaking with a guttural accent, pronounced the word high with the guttural sound heard in the Scotch word, loch. It is so pronounced to-day in Pendle Forest. Ightenhill on the other hand was the castle or manor house of the Lord and the Norman and more elegant pronunciation would be heard, and the initial H became lost. Bothes, booths, or huts were erected for the men engaged in forest duties, and as these in time became centres round which population accreted they became place names and landmarks. We have Barley Booth, near Pendle Hill, meaning Barelee, or clearing, that is an unfruitful field; it is not difficult for those who know the dialect of Pendle to see how bare becomes bar, They do not talk of barefoot but barfoot, not bareheaded but baryed. When a booth or as they say in Scotland a bothy, was erected it necessitated some clearing of trees, brushwood or 104 heather, so that it became a homestead. In the 31st year of King Henry the Highth, or about 1540, John Woodrofe, the wife of John Robinson, John Mankell. Jacob Ballard, Jacob Hugyn, Peter Verley, Thomas Verley, Jacob Hartley, John Robinson and Miles Crabtree paid a rental averaging 8s. a year each (£4 for the whole) for the whole of Barley. Higham Booth (Higham Bothe) had ten farmers, Hugh, Christopher and John More, Robert, Radus, George, Richard and Jacob Hargreaves, Hugh Parker and Edmund KEmmot, altogether they paid £5 in rent for Higham. There is a place called Higham Cloyse, cloyse or close is a field which Nicholas Hankok had all to himself for £3 a year, Sir John Towneley (the ghost Towneley) had the whole of Ightonhill Park and paid £15 a year. The same Sir John had the whole of Felecloyse (Fillyclose) and paid a yearly rent of £5 6s. 8d. Fillyclose, now a township, was a large tract of land nsed for the rearing, protecting and perhaps breeding of foals. The rearing of horses in this district (Pendle) was a matter of great importance to the Earl, as he was often called upon to supply horses for the service of the King in war. In the com- potus of Ightenhill in 1296 there is an item paid to two men for keeping foals in the stable ten weeks 7s. 6d. Selling foals, halters bought for them and expenses of those who helped to hold and take them, 5s. 24d. There is New Laund and Old Laund—a laund is grass land and we get our word lawn from it. In 1540 New Laund had three tenants, Elias Nutter senior and junior, and Robert Nutter, and paid £3 yearly. Old Laund had two tenants, John Robinson and John Hugyn. At Westcloyse, otherwise Hunter Holme, at this time there were four tenants, a Robert, John (senior and junior) Cronkshaw, and John Croke, they paid £4 a year for West Close. Over Roghleghis (upper Ronghlee) nether Roghleghis (Lower Roughlee,) there are 15 tenants paying £6 13s. 4d. There are three Robinsons, three Baldwins, three Smiths, a Nutter, Mytton, Bybby, Hurst, Har- greaves and Hartley. Over and Nether, that is Higher and Lower, Barrowford in 1296 a John Del Baroforde gets 10s. allowed from his rent of the vaccary that he holds (probably because he is sick and unfortunate.) In the time of Karl Lacy what are now townships were probably vaccaries, that is places for the feeding. guarding, and production of cattle, the same year that John Del Baroforde gets 10s. remitted from his rent, he sends in a statement of his vaccary, he does not go himself (he is pro- bably ill) but sends Thomas son of Alan and he renders his compotus of 86 cows and one bull of the remainder (that is of what he had last time he delivered his returns of cattle census), and nine of addition and 1 received from the instaurator, total 46 cows and one bull, of which he counts two delivered to Simon le Geldherde and four to the instaurator ; 40 cows and one bull 105 remain, also nine oxen of addition delivered to Geoffrey le Parker; also 18 yearlings of the remainder, five steers and seven heifers remain; also eight calves of the remainder and one received from the instaurator, of which he counts one in tythe 18 yearlings remain (seven males) and 23 calves of the year; of which one in murrain, hide of no value, two delivered to Simon the Geldherde and four to the instaurator 14 calves remain. Total of the cattle remaining in the vaccary: 40 cows, one bull, five steers, eight. heifers, 13 yearlings (seven males) and 16 calves. This is a fair account of a vaccary, had it been a report from Trawden or Rossendale there would have been mention of a calf or yearling destroyed by the wolf, but so near to the Manor House there were no wolves. The meaning of Barrowford. Barrow means an ancient place or mound of interment, therefore if we take this interpretation we have to say a ford near a place of interment, there does not seem to be any evidence of an ancient barrow. If we dissect the word we shall get bare-hough ford: bare, uncovered, is pronounced bar, hough means a small hill, and ford means a passage through water, therefore Barrowford is a ford bya bare hill. In this part of Lancashire we have a name not unfrequently met with. spelt, Riddihalgh and Reddihough, some people call it Reddihalgh (sh), some Reddihough (ho), and some Reddihuf. We know how the terminal letters ough are varied in English. This Riddi means a ridding of trees and hough or halgh means a hill or little eminence where the trees have been ridded or cut down, so that halgh, hough, huf, ho, how, all mean the same thing. In the vaccary of Barrowforde we come in contact with the OFFICIALS OF THE F'oREST. There is Geoffrey le Parker (the ancient family of Parker are no doubt descendants of the Forest Parkers), his salary was £2 5s.6d, a year, he had allowed for a robe 13s.4d. and an allowance to the groom of 1s. 7d. for the year, his yearly stipend being 5s. Simon de Geldherd, some of whose descendants live in Pendle. Forest now, was an important officer, he had to collect the geld, or money tax paid to the king. I think he got about 30s. a year. The instaurator was the Farm Bailiff, and he got about 20s., with other expenses when selling cattle and horses at fairs. There is a place in the forest called Copinhursthey, Cop-head or: Top-ing Meadow, Hurst-wood, Hey-enclosure. Hurst, meaning wood, is common about Burnley. We have Hurst-wood, both words meaning the same thing, Ecken-hurst, Ecken-oak, Hurst- wood, therefore Kcken-hurst is oak wood. Whittley in Heybooth ; Whit-wood and ley-field ; Whittley is therefore the woody field. Haybooth, hay-hedge, or enclosure in a forest for taking wild deer, &c.; booth cottage, therefore cottage enclosure. The word white .is of frequent occurrence in the forest district, and. L 106 generally means young or green wood. Sometimes it will mean white a colour. There are many combinations of white; there is whit, with, wit, wid, as Whitehead; white cop, Whitaker, Whitacre, Whitwam, Whitam, Witham, acre, aker—cultivated lands ; Whitaker — woody cultivated land. Whitam and Witham mean green village or wooded village. This word with, carries more the idea of a plantation, young hazels, willows, and saplings ; ‘‘and they bound him with withs,” that is willow, or sapling. The same idea obtains in the preposition ‘‘ with.”’ Will you go with me ?—that is united to me, bound to me; I will go without you—not bound to you, free, not withed to you. There are many names in the forest given by birds. There is Foulridge— the bird hill. ‘In somer when the shawes be sheyne, And leves be large and long, Hit is fulle merry in feyre foreste, To hear the foulys song.” There is Dunnockshaw; Dunnock—hedge sparrow; shaw— wood. Crowshaw—crow wood. Noggarth, Nog or Knag-rough or rugged hill top, and garth a small enclosure, so that Noggarth means a garden in a rough hill. In a deed (1553) where Richard Assheton, of Downham, and John Braddyll, of Braddyll, pur- chased for the sum of £2,132 3s.9d. all the demesne and manor of Whalley, and the lands called Whalley Park, and all the capital house and site of the said late monastery of Whalley, with the guest house, the common stable, the fernery garths, the kitchen garths, the prior’s orchard, the abbot’s orchard, the procter’s orchard, the abbot’s kitchen garths, the procter’s stable, &c., you have the word garth in this deed just turning into garden. Reedley Hallows is our friend Riddihalgh, with meadow between, that is royded or ridden meadow hills. Huntroyd means a clear- ing sufficient for a Hunt. The word Royle has given me some trouble. In very old documents it is written Rohille; now Ro is the species of red deer of that name, and hill, so that it means deer hill. Ifso, Royle must have extended a considerable dis- tance towards Burnley. Im the farm accounts in 1296 there occurs an item of received 7s. 9d. for one workhorse and 17 oxen agisted (that is pastured) in Rohille; also a disbursement for ‘“‘repairing the pailing about the fish pond and the fence about Rohille.”” In the same account there is a payment of 9s.1d. paid for making anew and erecting a cross in the market of Burnley. I am afraid this item puts aside the notion that the old cross was erected to commemorate the visit of Paulinus. But since the cross was renewed in 1296 the old cross must have been erected very early indeed, unless some accident had happened to it. There is no mention of accident in the item. New Church in Pendle explains itself, but I think New Church applies to the aw ee eee ee ee ee ee | eee P. q i : 107 present building. Only the tower remains of the old church. T find that a church or chapel was consecrated on the Ist October, 1544, by John Bird, first Bishop of Chester. He says in his decree, ‘‘after having been moved by the desires, requests and petitions of worthy men, and because the late chapel of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Pendill, in the parish of Whalley, sett and situate far distant from the parochial church, for the com- modities of those who live there, he consecrates the church, and to avoid all strifes and discords, of and for the perceiving of the fruits, oblations, rights, and emoluments of the said chapel or of the parochial church, which, between the Vicar of the Parish Church of Whalley, having care of the souls there for the time being, and their successors, on the one part, and certain inhabit- ants of the said church or chapel of St. Mary of Pendill aforesaid, and their successors on the other part, namely, James Hargreaves, Edmund Stevenson, householders of the hamlet of Goldshaw ; John Mankinalls, William Bulcock, householders of Barelee and Whittley respectively ; John Hartley, Myles Nutter, householders of Roughlee; and John Robinson, householder of Auld Launde. These householders are to have the control of the funds of the church, without contradiction or reclamation of the Vicar of Whalley, except certain tythes, &c., to the Rector of the Parish Church of Whalley.” The Bishop goes on to say that if any foreigner attend church, and will not pay a fair share of the repairs and expenses, the chaplain must cite and call them before him (us) the said Bishop. THE HEAT OF THE SUN. By the Revd, A, L. CORTIE, S.J., Stonyhurst College. November 20th, 1888. 1. °Tue Heat or toe Sun, THE Source or aLL HEnerey. If the power of the tides, and the power derived from the in- ternal heat of the earth be excepted, the whole energy of the world, whether displayed as steam power, or wind power, as water power, or again under the form of electrical or muscular energy, is ultimately derived from the heat of the sun. 2, Tue Heat or tHE Sun TRANSMITTED BY RapiaTION. - Heat is transmitted in three ways, by conduction, by convection, and by radiation. By conduction when there is actual contact either between a cold and hot body, or between the ‘hotter and colder portions of the same body; by convection when the material body containing the heat is carried from one place to another; and, finally, by that transference of energy of vibration” 108 known as radiation. The Sun sends heat to us by radiation, his rays being carriers of his whole energy. This energy is mani- fested as heat, or light, or by its chemical effects solely according to the object by which they may be intercepted. 8. ANALYSIS oF THE SoLAR RapraTIon. - The solar rays can be analysed by placing a glass prism cut at a proper angle in their path. They will emerge sifted, and bent round towards the thicker part of the prism, forming a spectrum, the dark or heat rays being the least bent of all, the violet the’ most, and the other colours in their order, from red to violet. The heat rays, though invisible to the human eye, can be analysed by other means. Their chemical activity has been found hy Captain Abney, who has photographed, on properly prepared plates, this invisible end of the spectrum, and, what seems more paradoxical still, has by their means obtained a picture of a hot kettle in the dark. Using the principle that an electric current will flow more easily through a cold than through a hot wire, Professor Langley has constructed an instrument called the ‘‘volmeter,’’ for mapping this infra-red portion of the solar spectrum. Just as an exposed tooth-nerve in a cold draught of air telegraphs notice to the brain, so the sensitive platinum wire inserted in the circuit betrays the presence of an absorption line or band in the dark part of the spectrum by deflecting the needle of the attached galvanometer. By means of this instrument the dark end of the solar spectrum has been traced to a distance of about twenty-five times the extent of the visible rays. 4. Measurine toe Amount or Souar Heat. The question as to the probable amount of heat transmitted from Sun to Harth now claims attention. But since heat isa physical quantity, and therefore capable of measurement, the expression of such measurement requires that some standard or unit of heat be selected. The amount of heat which will raise 1b. of water, though 1° on the Fahrenheit scale of temperature, is a convenient unit for our purpose. The instrument first used by Sir John Herschel and Pouillet in 1838 to determine the ‘solar constant ’’ or the number of heat-units received in each unit of time by a unit of surface of the earth when exposed to the Sun in the zenith is called the ‘ pyr- heliometer.’’ By its means a known amount of matter, such as water or mercury, is exposed for a known time to the action of a sunbeam of known cross-section, and the rise of temperature being noted, the ‘‘ solar constant ’’ can be deduced. The instru- ment consists essentially of a little blackened box full of water, which, by means of a suitable mounting, can be directed squarely to the Sun. Inserted in the box is a thermometer, and = eee FPO RD bing EERE Re AY. Cee Pepe =| 109 the water ean be kept agitated by rotating the whole ‘apparatus. Both Pouillet’s and Herschel’s results agree very closely. Accord- ing to the former, the amount of heat falling on each square centi- meter of the earth, the sun being in the zenith, would in one minute receive 1-7633 grammes of water through 1-6. Turning this result into English measure, the heat received from the rays of the vertical sun in one minute by a square of 4-10th of an inch side, are competent to raise 15-1 grains of 1° Fahr.; a result at first sight ridiculously small. 5. Amount or Sonar Heat, EXPRESSED (a) IN TERMS OF WATER HEATED. _ But at this rate the heat received by each square mile of the earth’s surface, were it all utilized in warming water, would in one minute raise 750 tons from the freezing to the boiling point. There being in the earth’s section exposed to the solar rays some 49,000,000 square miles, the number of tons of water which could be raised through the same range of temperature under similar circumstances is simply enormous. More than this the absorption exercised by our atmosphere is very great indeed, so that according to Langley we should have to multiply the above numbers by 1:7; in other words, nearly one-half the radiant heat of the sun is stopped by our atmosphere. . (6) In rerms or Icz mMeEtrep. To regard this enormous quantity of heat from another point of view. To melt 1b. of ice, the temperature remaining at 32° Fahr., 142-65 thermal units on the ib. Fahr. scale, which we before adopted, would be required. Let it be supposed that on the cirele of the earth’s orbit a mighty sphere of ice be construc- ted, one inch in thickness. Since the distance of the sun from the earth may be reckoned as 92,800,000 miles, twice this number would represent the diameter of such a sphere. According to Sir John Herschel it would take the sun’s rays but two hours twelve minutes, were their heat subtracted for no other purpose, to melt this huge cyrstal globe. Another illustration from the same source. Let a bridge of ice be constructed from the earth to the moon, a distance of 240,000 miles. Make the diameter of its cross section fifty miles. The volume of the resulting cylinder would be enormous. But were it possible to concentrate the whole of the solar rays by any means but for one instant on this i¢e- bridge, it would in that instant not only be melted but totally driven into vapour. (c) In Terms or Work Done. - Work is said to be done when a force overcomes a resistance in its own direction through any distance. Thus the lifting of a mass against the attraction of the earth through a certain vertical 110 height is the doing of work. One foot-ib, or the work done against the force of gravity in lifting 11b through a distance of 1 foot, is the engineer’s unit of work. A long series of experiments by Dr. Joule of Manchester, has established the fact that a cer- tain relation exists between a unit of work and a thermal unit, one of the latter being equivalent to 7723 of the former, thus proving that heat is but one of the several forms of energy. Now the heat received by the earth at its equator would, if wholly converted into work, every year raise fifty-three tons through a mile for every square foot of surface, which is equival- ent to over 16,000 tons raised every minute through the same height for every square mile of surface. It must be borne in mind, also, that the earth receives but a scanty quota of the whole supply of heat poured forth by the sun into space. For no less than 2,200,000 earths could be placed on an imaginary sphere constructed on the earth’s orbit as a great circle. Defining one horse-power to be the doing of 33,000 foot-Ibs. in one minute, each square yard of the solar surface is equivalent to an engine of 108,000 H.P. or about the total H.P. of the engines of eleven first- classiron-clads. Atthe distance of the earth this amount corresponds to 1 H.P. for every 25 square feet when the sun is in the zenith. 6. Tue TemMpPeRATURE oF THE Sun. (a) By Newron’s Law.. Knowing the radiant energy of the Sun, it might not at first sight seem a difficult thing to gauge the corresponding tempera- ture. All that we require to know is the law that connects radiation and temperature, But this connecting link between the two quantities is still in the region of doubt and uncertainty, Sir Isaac Newton’s opinion, ably championed in modern times by Father Secchi and Capt. Ericsson, is that temperature like radiation follows the law of inverse squares. Thus the intensity of radiation on one square foot at two feet from the source of the rays is only one-fourth the intensity at a distance of one foot, while at three feet it would have fallen to but one-ninth part of the original value. And so with temperature, if the temperature at a distance of three feet is found to be 60°, according to this law the temperature of the source is 9 x 60° or 540°. Sir Isaac Newton calculated the temperature of the Sun, by observing the distance of the comet of 1680 from the Sun, calculating its tem- perature, and then by applying the law of inverse squares, passing to the temperature of the Sun itself. It will be ‘instructive to follow him in this investigation. First he exposed a clod of dry earth, a very absorptive material, to the direct rays of the noon- day Sun. This was his “ pyrheliometer,” and he found by its means that the excess of temperature of the earth thus exposed above its surroundings was 60° F. Next he ascertained that the’ distance of the comet from the centre of the Sun on the 8th of 111 December was to the distance of the earth from the same point in the ratio of 6 to 1,000, hence he concluded that its temperature according to the law of inverse squares would be 1990" x 60° = 6 1,670,000° (approx.) Again since the distance of the comet from the centre of the Sun was also four solar radii, the tempera- ture of the solar surface would be the temperature of the comet increased in the proportion of 42 — 82 or 2,987,000° Fahr. (approx.) However this value cannot be accepted as at all likely, because the law on which it is founded appears to break down when applied beyond a very limited range of temperature, and to furnish exaggerated and impossible results. For instance, Bunsen’s value for the temperature of a body heated in the oxy- hydrogen flame is 2,800° C.; but if Newton’s law be applied it comes out 45,000° C. (b) By Dunene anp Perit’s Law. - Duleng and Petit, in the second decade of the present century, proposed a new empirical law, based on a complete series of experiments concerning the velocity of cooling of a thermometer, both in air and in vacuo. By this new rule temperature increas- ing in arithmetic progression, radiation increases in geometric progression. For instance, according to Newton, the velocity of cooling for a temperature of 200° above an inclosure should be double that for a temperature of 100°, while Duleng and Petit found that it is nearly three times as much. But if Newton erred by exaggerating, Duleng and Petit have equally failed by mini- mizing results. For the French physicists, notably Pouillet and Vicaire, adopting this formula, have deduced for the solar effective temperature valves between 2600° and 3200° Fahr. But this is impossible, for, as we are told, at the focus of Berinére’s great burning-glass, set up in the gardens of the Luxemberg, at the end of the last century, such refractory substances as iron and gold, and even the diamond, were melted, and ran like butter. The principle of the burning-glass is very simple, for it virtually brings the Sun to such a distance from the object placed at the focus, that the apparent diameter of the Sun would be equal to that of the glass when viewed from its own focus. The largest burning-glass so far constructed would bring the Sun to a distance from the Harth equal to that of the Moon. It follows then that the temperature of the Sun must be far higher than that of molten gold, and that were he to approach as near to us as the Moon, the whole earth would in a few moments be dissipated in vapour. (c) By Roserti’s Law. A third law has accordingly been proposed by Professor Rosetti, of Padua, like that of his French predecessors, founded on a 112 series of experiments. It is certainly correct as far as a tempera- ture of 2000°C. It declares that radiation increases as the square of the absolute temperature, that is the temperature ag reckoned from the absolute zero or —273° C. The readings of the actinometer reduced by this method gives as the resulting effective solar temperature about 18,000° F., a value which Professor Young considers to be more reasonable than any of the earlier estimates. 7. Ovser Metuops or DETERMINING THE SoLAR TEMPERATURE. The problem of the solar temperature has been attacked along yet other lines than those before indicated. Professor Langley has compared sun-light and sun-heat directly, taking equal areas, with the heat and light of the Bessemer converter. Leaving out of account the absorptive action of the atmosphere, the heat radiation of the Sun per unit area was eighty-seven times that of the molten metal. Others, as Zodlluer and Hirn, have endeavoured to gauge the solar temperature by observations on the velocities of the flames which are to be seen on the limb of the sun in the spectroscope. Velocities of thirty miles a second are common, those of sixty, eighty, and even one hundred miles a second frequent, while phenomenal instances of two hundred and thirty miles a second have been recorded both by Young and Secchi. If these outbursts on the solar surface be, regarded as the result of the escape of powerfully compressed gases, they can be brought under the hand of the mathematician and their temperature gauged with some degree of accuracy. Hirn deduces by this method a temperature of 135,000° F. for the paris of the Sun just above the photosphere, and 3,600,000° F.. for the parts below the same level. The late Captain Ericsson constructed at New York an engine for utilizing the direct rays of the Sun, By means of a parabolic reflector they were con- centrated on a cylindrical boiler. Hence steam was generated which was employed to work an engine. A similar machine, devised by M. Mouchot, was to be seen in the gardens of the Trocadéro Exhibition at Paris in 1878, which printed a paper aptly styled ‘‘ Le Soleil.’’ Ericsson considered that by experi- ments which he made with his engine that the solar temperature could not be less than 3,000,000° F. He, however, was a staunch defender of the Newtonian law. Lastly, from spectroscopic indications, Mr. Lockyer is inclined to think that the solar temperature is approximately that of the voltic arc. Great,, then, is the diversity of opinion on this point, even among those who are best qualified to pronounce a judgment, The numbers range from the 3000° F. of the French school of physicists to the 18,000,000° of Secchi. What may be the truth it would seem almost impossible to say until a-surer knowledge is obtained. of 113 the law which connects radiation and temperature. The difficulty lies in the inability to test any empirical formula beyond about 4000° F., the limit to which bodies can be heated on this earth. And yet, so far, the whole history of science declare that it would be rash indeed to deny that the goal is attainable. 8. How tae Heat or THE SUN IS MAINTAINED. - The most probable opinion of the mode. in which the heat of the sun is maintained, is the contraction theory of Helmholtz. Gravity tends to push the outer parts of the sun towards the centre, heat tends to make the mass expand and drive these same parts away from the centre. But the balance is ultimately in favour of the contracting force, the equilibrium being disturbed by the loss of heat consequent on radiation at the free surface. But if the sun contracts, work is being done, for a resistance is being overcome, and work done has an exact equivalent in heat. And so the heat thus generated by contraction continually supplies the place of that which has been lost by radiation into space, and which has given both light and heat to the planetary spheres. It has been computed that in order to furnish heat sufficient for the present rate of solar expenditure, the contraction demanded is one mile in 25 years, or four miles in a century. Such a diminution in the sun’s radius could not be observed in less than ten thousand years, so that the theory cannot be tested by actual observation. However, it follows immediately from the doctrines of the con- servation of energy, and of the mechanical equivalent of heat. It receives stray confirmation from the study of the nebule ; for the-spectrum of a nebula is a gaseous spectrum, and the telescope shows nebule in the heavens in all. stages of condensation. In fact the theory is but a modification of Laplace’s famous nebular hypothesis, to which it tends additional weight. Finally, an | interesting point, this hypothesis gives 20,000,000 years as the past life of the sun, and would allow not more than between five and six million years of sunlight in the future. THE EVOLUTION OF EAST LANCASHIRE - BOGGARTS.. By JAMES Mc KAY. November 27th, 1888. _ Most people who have attained to so much as middle age, if they are natives of Hast Lancashire, can well remember that in their young days there were particular spots about their homes M 114 where they did not like to be alone lest they should fall in with company other than mortal. This brow, that pool, yonder thick dark plantation, were all reputed to be haunted by boggarts, and the very brook that linked them together was supposed to bubble not inarticulate sounds, but human words of grief or warning, As for the people who dwelt under the venerable shadow of the village church, there was nothing between the two backs of the Bible that they belived with more implicit faith than that at, midnight the spirits of the departed rose from their quiet graves in God’s own acre and rambled restless until cockcrow through and around the sleeping hamlet. It need hardly be said that the superstitious belief in boggarts, like the superstitious importance that used to be attached to dreams, has long since given way to scientific curiosity—that is to say, where any lively interest is taken in such matters at all. The enthusiasts of Science are fully entitled to say, of course, that this simply means that the world by their efforts has become more enlightened than it used to be, and that the order or state of mind that was wont to be influenced by the ‘visions of the night,” as the result of their labours, has to a large extent passed away. But the enthusiasts of Literature, prompt and ready as they always are to hail with delight whatever is good and beautiful in the kindling dawn of human progress, are yet never weary of catching the subdued glories of the setting sun. The grandfathers and grandmothers of the present generation, the men and women whose sturdy common sense, indomitable perseverance, ideal integrity, and keen-sighted shrewdness laid the sure foundation of modern Lancashire prosperity, believed in boggarts with all the force of their refreshing individuality. What is our title to laugh them to scorn? What right have we to withhold from them the homage of reverential respect even in their misbelief? In the first place, the boggarts in which they believed were long-inherited legacies from the fanciful past, when everything in the way of magic, witchcraft, and sooth-saying bore a far deeper meaning in common life than it does now. In the next place, though all may agree that boggart lore is but a rubbish heap of human superstition, do not let us forget that in the rubbish heaps of ages the archeologist finds illustrations of the daily life of our remote ancestors, without which the store of human knowledge would be much reduced; and that on the spoil banks of our coal mines and quarries the geologist picks up bits of shale and frag- ments of limestone which enable us to see as if by miracle what life was like on this globe of ours ‘‘ when the morning stars sang together and the sons of God shouted for joy.” In like manner, be assured, we cannot turn over and ransack the cobwebs, the dust, the damp moss, the mouldering drapery associated with boggarts and their doings without encountering glimpses of the 115 joys and sorrows, the rights and wrongs, the hopes and fears of our hard-headed, sound-hearted ancestors to whom it was not given to denounce their oppressors in a weekly journal, or to expose Villanies in wearisome novels of three-volume regulation length. Having food and raiment, the men and women of Hast Lancashire in days gone by were still greatly moved by divine discontent at all the evil done under the sun. They persuaded themselves that there is no wrong wrought on earth which will for ever go unrighted: that just as the very stones of the street would have called out if the people had kept silence when the Pale Galilean passed through their midst to death and victory, the spirits of the departed will rise from their mouldy graves and avenge in one way or another, if men will not, the unpunished rapine and wrong, cruelty and lust, misery and wretchedness that make was meant to be an Earthly Paradise a howling wilderness of sin and sorrow. What does it matter if you demonstrate to me by all the laws of physics that every such belief was utterly vain: while the correctness of your proof is admitted, it is not to be denied that deep down under the piles of superstition, which came to overlie the popular belief in boggarts, there was at the very root of the matter a noble instinct of sympathy with the wronged, and a warm yearning for poetic justice, as between man and man. VuuGar Bogearts. The boggarts, with whose proceedings middle-aged Kast Lan- cashire people were made acquainted in their younger days, were, for the most part, undeniably a stupid, vulgar, purposeless assemblage of airy nothings. Every house that had outlasted three or four generations of human tenants was supposed to be haunted, though not once in twenty times could the oldest in- habitant assign any reason for such a supposition. Bridge End House, which is now the very centre of Burnley, had the reputa- tion, a quarter of a century ago, of being frequently visited by a ‘‘ flaesome”’ boggart, but who or wherefore nobody then living could understand, although many could tell glibly enough that the body of a murdered man was buried under the foundations of the bridge hard by, which was bound to fall whenever three funerals passed over it during any one day. The shape that the Bridge End House Boggart took nobody was able to declare. The fact is, by the beginning of the present century, it had become fashionable in all ranks of life, it had become the popular craze of the multitude to seize upon any and every pretence to associate a boggart with every scene and with every building which appeared in the least appropriate. There are fashions in sentiment, as there are fashions in clothes, and boggarts were the mental fashion in East Lancashire at the close of last century 116 and the beginning of this, and for the most part were as utterly contemptible ag the creations of mere fashion always are. All that, notwithstanding those who idealised, however roughly, the memories of an eerie domicile like Bridge End House, in very truth rose to the height of anticipating Longfellow’s latter-day assurance that ‘‘ all houses wherein men have lived and died are haunted houses” wherein harmless, inoffensive phantoms meet us noiselessly in doorways and on stairs, by the warm fireside and in the gusty passage. But if Bridge’Knd House was only associated with the wholly vague, indefinite, unsubstantial, legendless boggart, Burnley had another homestead in its very midst with a boggart of a somewhat more precisely stated charac- ter. The schoolboy of twenty-five years ago passed Bankhouse, the residence in youth of the present noble Bishop of Sodor and Man, and at a later day of the present President of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club—the schoolboy of twenty-five years ago passed Bankhouse on a dark windy night with a tremulous shiver, half expecting that strange lights would be seen gleaming from its windows, and that from between the two or three grimy; withered trees that still existed in its grounds, some uncannie figure would suddenly start up. In this case the voice of tradi- tion did condescend so far to particulars as to affirm that within the walls of this fine old residence a servant girl had once upon a time been foully murdered, and that every now and then the spirit of the hapless maiden showed itself in her ancient home to revive human horror and disgust at the merciless wretch who knew not how to ‘“‘ spare that bonnie face to hae been some man’s joy.” Here we have the key by which to unriddle the mystery of most modern East Lancashire boggarts. ‘‘ Rachel crying for her children and refusing to be comforted’’ has, alas, always been a familiar, if agonising, figure in human society, as she still is; but where the bereaved mother of to-day finds an anodyne for her grief in change of scene or occupation, the mother of a hundred years ago robbed by Nature, or, still worse, by violence, of the darling of her heart and hopes, could do nothing, travel being difficult and expensive, and popular literature unknown, but brood and live on her grief until the loved and lost one became to her partial eyes a nightly visitor in angel form, or until the revolting villain who took away that treasured life began, in imagination at least, to haunt in ceaseless pain and torment the scene for ever blasted by his pitiless crime. The crowd, with the tendencies of the age, caught and fantastically exaggerated, or unconsciously caricatured, the not unnatural illusion of the solitary mourner. Sacred sorrow and exalted srief, it often happened, were vulgarised and degraded by the efforts of the cold and callous and unimaginative to transmute them into boggart form. ‘The fashion of the time. made.men 117" greedy for new boggarts to associate with every dark and lonely corner of the land, and in their clumsy haste they robbed the story which the boggart should have represented of every trace of the original pathos and meaning. The boggart that haunted the cross roads under the dark shadow of Hambledon, though asso- ciated only in the vulgar mind with the dishonoured grave of a suicide, like the spectral horror that the old folks would have lingered at. midnight about the spot on the moor over Catlow Delph, where once a gibbet stood, got their name of evil, by the rapid popular degradation of what at the outset were doubtless the yearnings of pure affection. ‘‘ When Nero died some hand strewed flowers upon his grave,” and no poor wretch who in the stress of mental agony committed ‘‘ what Cato did and Addison approved,”’ though buried without Christian rites at midnight with a stake through his body where the byways met, ever altogether: lacked a mother’s or a sister’s love potent to make them see him. with the eyes of their soul, as they passed his dishonoured resting- place, not as ‘‘crowner’s quest law’ had painted him, but as they knew him in his young and happy days. Yet the angel motherly and sisterly affection called forth to hover over the hapless scene, the gross or spiteful crowd transformed into a restless spirit baneful in all its doings. The carrion frame that swung to and fro in the wind-rocked gallows tree in days when. every venial offence was capital, seldom inspired enough of. revenge to suggest a boggart of malign intentions, but, on the other hand, as often as the withered body was seen or thought of some fond heart deeply cursed the legalised atrocities of the time, and sympathised with this their hapless victim until in dreams he ‘‘ revisited the glimpses of the moon”’ in the oriel glory of golden innocence that clothed him as a boy. These boggarts, then, so gruesome and ridiculous in the mass, when examined in detail are often found to be reflections of human love search- ing the dark places of life and death for a loved and lost one—or, to vary the simile, echoes of the cry, as old as earthly bereave- ment, so choicely expressed by Tennyson, ‘“ O, for the touch of: a vanished hand and the sound of a voice that is still.” Historica Bocearts. . Some of our Kast-Lancashire boggarts are so fortunate as to have historical credentials. Rowley Hall, near Burnley, it was said within the memory of most of us, received visits from one of its ancient residents, who, attired in a ball costume of Queen Hlizabeth’s reign, was frequently seen beyond midnight, We have heard it averred that William Chaffer, a Worsthorne joiner, while employed in making a coffin in one of the Rowley barns, where he had been working all night, received a silent but unmis- takeable visit from this, Elizabethan lady boggart... Another man, 118 who fetched milk from the farm, we have frequently heard it said, avowed that he had been stopped from going in a certain direction beyond Rowley by some invisible agency. Other Worsthorne people were quick to allege that they had repeatedly seen super- natural visitors about there, but such sights never excited any fear or apprehension in their minds. Some of them could relate with marvellous exactness the circumstances attendant upon the “laying” of this Rowley boggart; how by prayer and supplica- tion at the confluence of two streams near Rowley—that is at Netherwood Bridge and at Water Meetings, a little lower down the stream—a treaty with the boggart never again to emerge from spirit land, had been ratified by placing a headstone in the ground as a seal and sign manual of the ceremonial. What it was that caused this ancient lady to come back across the vasty deep so often at Rowley Hall we never heard it said; but the bent of the popular mind may be easily inferred from what we do know about the boggart of Samlesbury Hall. Old folks at Samlesbury used to tell of a lady in white being seen to pass along the ancient galleries and corridors, and thence go into the quaint old grounds, where she met a handsome young knight, who knelt to her and accompanied her in the walks of the garden. Ata certain spot, thought to be the grave of her lover and his friends the apparitions stood still and uttered wailings of despair, embraced each other, and then disappeared into space. Here we find the boggarth as a substantial foundation, for at the end of the 16th century Samlesbury Hall was occupied by Sir John Southworth, whose daughter was in love with the heir of a neighbouring knightly house. The lady’s father from his attachment to the religion of his forefathers, forbade her to continue the acquaintance, but she persevering in it the lady’s brother one night suddenly appeared on the scene, and slew her betrothed and the two friends by whom he was accompanied. The tradition said that the bodies were buried in the chapel of the Hall, and that the lady died abroad a maniac, with the name of her lover on her lips. Some years ago, during excavations three human skeletons were found at Samles- bury, and were reasonably enough taken to attest that at the bottom of these old boggart stories there is a ground of actual truth if we only knew how to find it. What historical foundation there may be for the terrible boggart of Wycollar Hall, it is not possible to say. There the form of a lady, dabbed with blood, used sometimes to be seen on dark nights, according to popular fancy, passing in and out of the ancient mansion, wherein the floors of polished oak were shown besmeared with gore. The blood probably had a great deal more to do with cock-fighting than with human gore, for one of the ancient owners of the hall is known to have been so fond of that pastime that when he was too ill to leave his room he ordered the birds to be fought in his pres- 119 ence, and, being raised up by pillows, lay there enjoying the deadly strife. There is a legend attached to Osbaldeston Hall, which avers that a murder once took place there, and that in consequence the boggart of the murdered person still hovers about the neighbourhood and troubles the residents with frequent un- welcome visits. One of the rooms of the Hall used to be some- times shown as the scene of the murder, and as the apartment specially, favoured by the ghost on its visits. The ghost of the murdered one used to come, it was said, in a way to make night hideous by uttering unearthly groans and exposing a wound in his chest from which blood flowed. Here, again, we find that the popular fancy of the boggart has an historical basis, for Dobson, in his delightful ‘‘ Rambles by the Ribble,” tell us that during the reign of Queen Elizabeth the eldest son and heir of the then Squire of Osbaldeston married the daughter and co-heiress of John Bradley, of Bradley Hall, near Chipping, and the husband and one of the daughters of that marriage was killed by one of the lady’s brothers, Thomas Osbaldeston, in a family quarrel, he being tried for the crime at Lancaster Assizes in 1606; though he contrived to cheat the hangman at last by escaping abroad. In all these cases the boggart has been a creature of love, or passion or revenge, or jealously, arising out of love matches disapproved by relatives. Such incidents naturally and easily burn themselves deeply into the popular sympathy, and there is no room to wonder at it. But when we find that a boggart is created in order to show forth the horrible hatred of the common people against selfishness and greed, we can easily see how intensely sordid miserliness were disliked by the untutored generations of medizval Lancashire. There are many, both old and young, who walk with quickened pace past Sykes’s Lumb Farm in Mellor, whenever they are belated, fearful lest they should once more be confronted with the dreaded form of Old Sykes’s wife, a most miserly dame of the ancient time who was suddenly cut off from the hoards she had buried in the ground around her dwelling, as she thought, for greater safety. The boggart of the miserable woman, unable to rest at being parted from what Sykes’s wife thought so much of in her lifetime, used to come and wander about the premises, alarming her old neighbours by her midnight appearances. This went on for some generations, when the farmer of the land, having more courage than usual on a particular night when he was fortified by an extra glass of John Barleycorn, ventured to ask this boggart outright why it came. The ghost of the wrinkled old woman then took him to a venerable apple tree, beneath which the treasure was hidden, and from underneath which the wily farmer took it, whereupon an unearthly smile passed over the face of the boggart, the bodily form became less and less distinct, and Old Sykes’s wife has slept in her grave in peace ever since. 120 Dramatic Bocgarts. (9°) 2 There were at least two boggarts associated with the Towneley’s, and although one of the two can scarcely be considered strictly local the name entitles it to consideration here. ‘‘ Towneley’s Ghost ’’ was an essentially dramatic boggart. There used to be a tradition in Burnley that a T'owneley reviewed his men in front of the Old Sparrow Hawk on the morning previous to starting to join the ill-tated army of Prince Charles Edward. That Towneley became a Colonel in the Manchester Regiment. He it was whose head, with that of Captain Fletcher, was exposed upon Temple Bar, seeing which, Goldsmith, passing under it with Johnson, whispered to the illustrious Jacobite doctor, ‘‘ Our heads yet may shine with theirs.”” Colonel Towneley underwent a most cruel -and barbarous death. On the 80th July, 1746, he, with a num- ber of other officers, was executed on Kennington Common. Five minutes after suspension, and even before signs of life had ceased, the body of this brave man was cut down. Stripped and being laid on a block the hangman with a cleaver severed the head and put it into a box. Then taking out his bowels and heart he threw them into a fire of faggots kindled for the purpose, exclaiming, ‘‘So perish all the king’s eneniies.’’ This use of boggarts in literature was no new invention. Some nameless Jacobite writer, fired by the unquenchable hatred of ‘‘ the Butcher Cumberland,” which was as justified as it was ever possible tor hatred to be, invoked the Shade of the gallant Towneley who capitulated at Carlisle, in order to add intolerable sufferings to the richly-merited agonies of that abominable political monstros-: ity. The ballad of ‘ Towneley’s Ghost ’’ will ever have a ‘place amongst the literature and philosophy of Lancashire’ ‘Boggarts. Pouitican Bocearts. If some boggarts originated from the play of the affections, others in fireside variations of authentic tragedies, and some in. the literary skill of strong political partisans, a. still greater. ‘number were invented by the poor oppressed peasantry in the: hope of winning for themselves protection against wrongdoers in: high places who in the old times were left free by contending: political factions to do as they liked with those beneath them in’ station, so long as they did not interfere with the political. arrangements of their social superiors. There is at least one good example of this kind of boggart in Hast Lancashire. EHvery- body in Burnley knows where the Boggart Brig is, for it is on the’ very confines of the thriving and still extending borough. Des-- pite collieries and factory smoke it is still a picturesque spot, and the fit resting-place for the Towneley boggart which was reported | to come every seven years, and before being appeased demand the- 121 sacrifice of human life. Odd people will have it that even yet some serious accident befalls one or other member of the house of Towneley every seven years. But that cannot be, for the voice of tradition unanimously declares that the Towneley boggart was successfully laid with bell, book, and candle far beyond living memory. Dr. Whitaker vouches for it that the Towneleys had been guilty of the illegal enclosure of the Hoare Law pasture, and that in the time of Queen Elizabeth the Duchy of Lancaster ordered 194 acres unlawfully filched from between Hoare Law and Hollin Hey to be granted to Lord Mountjoy, Earl of Devon, in consideration of his good services. The enclosures of the 15th and 16th century laid the foundation at once of modern English agriculture and of modern English pauperism. They displaced a@ primitive system of common husbandry which was incompatible with good farming; but they did so with small regard to the rights of the commoners. The Towneley boggart is a fossilised declaration of the feeling of a group of wronged commoners cen- turies ago. It was their way of giving expression to the public feeling of the time, which we should put before the world by means of an indignation meeting. Ratsinc THE Deap at WALTON-LE-DALE. That the people of Hast-Lancashire, when the belief in. bog- garts was at its height, were very liable from their very faith in such matters to fraud and deception, is evidenced by the story which has come down about the pretended feats of Wizard Kelly in the churchyard at Walton-le-Dale. That impostor professed to raise, not only the common dead buried there, but the devil, and that not once in a way, as the Burnley Grammar School boys did to their horror ; but as often as he thought well, by mere incantations. CuurcH Bogearts. It is easy in our day, almost at the close of the nineteenth century, to affect amazement that people could ever have been found in Kast Lancashire or elsewhere so crassly ignorant as to be duped by Kelly’s profession that he could call the disembodied spirit back to earth, or so painfully credulous as to believe that departed souls could under any circumstances reappear in their old familiar haunts. It was not, however, all ignorance; nor was it only the ignorant people of Hast Lancashire who in old times believed in boggarts. Whatever else the Monks were, they were at any rate the learned and scholarly men of their day and generation. And yet we have it gravely chronicled that months after Paslew, the last Abbot of Whalley, paid the penalty of a shameful death for his loyalty to the old religion, his disembodied soul appeared on a certain occasion at midnight to one of his old companion.monks. It is the monk himself who has -left on N 122 record that he saw the wraith or boggart of Abbot Paslew, which others in later days pretend to have seen about Whalley Abbey and Pendleton Hall. This monk was not ignorant, at any rate not in the sense that the peasants about him were ignorant, yet he did not doubt the reality of this apparition of his former ecclesiastical superior. The fact is, the Church in medieval times, if not the actual inventor of boggart stories for its own purposes, fostered the belief in boggarts, and saturated the minds of the people with the idea of souls liberated from the body going to and fro among the scenes with which it was familiar while tabernacled in the flesh. No elaborate proof of this statement is necessary. We have several venerable Lancashire churches dedicated to All Hallows, or All Souls. Let us walk into one of them and think over this matter of boggarts and old-world Church teaching. The church so dedicated that we know best, is not in East Lancashire but at Bispham, away on the cliff beyond Blackpool. The very name of All Hallows speaks of pre-Reformation times. The very name is full of the romance of religion and superstition. The mind is carried back by it to the far-off time when the doors of the hamlet stood wide open and in every house the supper-table was spread on All Hallows Eve, with clean linen cloth, lights, and the evening meal. Around the table stood vacant chairs; and on the hearth there burned a fire, carefully arranged to last to dawn. For it was the Night of the Dead; and after the death-bell had been tolled, the dead Mass said, the supper eaten, and the household but retired to rest, the souls of the Dead would enter in and partake of the solemn feast in the dwellings where they had died, or where their kin abode. Then the inmates would listen, and hear strange wailings at the doors of the rooms; and then they would rise from their beds, fall upon their knees, and pray that, but for this one waking night of the year, those they loved might sleep in peace. Not only from the little churchyard on the hillside, where the light was gleaming from the open chapel door, would the Souls of the Dead come; but over the wild mosses, and marshes, and waste inland, and down the lonely roads from the far-off towns, and most of all, in from the washing waters of the sea beneath the cliffs beyond the church. Strange phosphorescent lights were moving all night to and fro upon the deep. High in the air strange eerie voices were calling and crying. From land and sea, from all the places where they slept, the dead were coming back through All Hallows night to the homes they loved in life. The observ- ance of the festival of All Hallows was esteemed of such import- ance, that in the event of its falling on a Sunday, it was ordered not to be postponed till the Monday, as in the case of other cele- brations, but to take place on the previous Saturday, that the 123 souls of the departed might suffer no detriment from the want of the prayers of the Church. Persons dressed in black traversed the streets, ringing a dismal-toned bell, calling on the people to remember the souls suffering penance in purgatory, and to join in prayer for their liberation and repose. Charnel houses in some places were during the day thrown open, lighted with torches, and decked with flowers, while crowds flocked through the vaults to visit the bodies of their friends and relatives, whose fleshless skeletons were dressed up in robes and arranged in niches along the wall. In other places sumptuous entertainments were provided in every house on the eve of All Souls’ Day for the souls who were supposed then to revisit temporarily and make merry in the scenes of their earthly pilgrimage. Bocearts, Souus, Spits, Guosts. What did the teachers of the Medieval Church mean by the soul, and did they mean what the founders of the festival of All Hallows meant? In the oldest translations of the Bible we read in the Book of Job ‘I have seen a bug ”’ where we now read ‘‘1 have seen a spirit.” The fairies of the Isle of Man are still ‘ bugganees,”’ the half-fairies and the half-ghosts of the Scottish Lowlands are still known as bogles or bogeys. In everyday English to “‘bogle” is to start as if frightened by a boggart. The King says to Bertram in “All’s Well That Ends Well,”’ you boggle shrewdly, every feather starts you.” Dr. Johnson is rather inclined to derive the word ‘“‘ bugbear’’ from ‘“ pug,” an old word for the devil, who was, of course, the chief of the boggarts, and even modern philologists who reject this derivation are all at one in deriving it from the Celtic word “ bwg”’ a hob- goblin. “‘ Bogelu’’ in Welsh again means to affright. We make bold to give our own belief that ‘“chumbug”’ was originally intended to represent everything and everybody who was as unreliable and unsubstantial as a boggart. A boggart therefore is a spirit, a ghost, a soul released from the flesh. Now, turning to the scholars who have made philology their work, we learn that together with the equivalent words in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Sanserit, and other languages, soul, spirit, and ghost literally denote air or breath. The metaphor is eminently just and beautiful, seeing that the air is the physical image and repre- sentative of life, and that it isin the invisible, spiritual part of man that life is supremely throned. Every one of these names denotes accordingly, in addition to air or wind, the life of the body. Soul is coincident with the Latin halitus, breath, derived from halare, to breathe, a root familiar in the words exhale and inhale, Colloquially, and in miscellaneous literature, “soul” is not now used in the sense of “breath,” but in the Authorised 124 Version of the Scriptures, or the English language of 1611, it often has this meaning. In I. Kings, xvii., we read, ‘‘ there was no breathin him; . . . . andthe Lord heard the voice of Elijah, and the soul of the child came into him again and he revived.” Now let us very especially mark this. In the original physical sense of the word soul, all creatures whatever have souls, inasmuch as they live by inhalation or breathing ; so that to be “‘a living soul ” is nothing peculiar to man, if we judge by the words alone, without exploring their philosophy. The dis- tinction apparently established by the words ‘‘ living soul” in the Biblical account of the creation of man and the brutes pre- sents itself only in the translation. There is no such distinction, we are assured, in the original, which in this instance applies identically the same terms to man and brute. Each was made ‘¢a living soul,” only our translators have rendered the reference to the brute creation (Gen. i. 21—24) ‘living creature.’ Hither word might legitimately be substitued for the other. It is amus- ing, Mr. Leo Grindon very pertinently observes after stating these facts, that while many have entrenched themselves in this phase of ‘ living soul,” and found in it man’s inalienable charac- teristic, the exactly opposite conclusion has been arrived at by some of those whose curiosity has led them to the original. Both brutes and man being called “ living creatures ”’ or “‘ living souls,” some have inferred that brutes are as immortal as man; others that man is mortal as brutes. Let this argument be borne clearly in mind, for it has an important bearing upon early ecclesiastical teaching in relation to boggarts. ‘‘ Ghost’’ shows its physical meaning in the cognate word “‘gust,”’ as “a gust of wind ;”’ also in the term used to designate the aériform substance called “gas.” In old German, the grandparent of English, geisten, signified to blow. To ‘give up the ghost,” is literally to surrender the breath; the ‘Holy Ghost” is literally the breath of the Lord as implied in his own words where we are told «He breathed on His disciples and said, receive ye the Holy Ghost.” Where the English version of the Scriptures has ‘“‘shost” and ‘ spirit,” the Anglo-Saxon reads “‘ gast.” The « gist” of a subject like the “ spirit”’ of a book, or the animus of an action, signifies its soul or inmost principle. “ Spirit” takes us to the very origin of words, resting on the beautiful lisp or whisper with which the breeze quivers the leaves. Now, this peculiar movement, thus becomes an emblem or pictorial repre- sentative of the wind, and thence of what the wind itself repre- sents, namely, Life—tlife of man or beast on this side of the grave or the other. All Hallows, All Souls, may have, therefore, meant in the beginning of the ecclesiastical system the spirit of men and beasts alike. Passing on to the subject of 125 Bogearts of THE Brute CREATION, Mr. McKay referred to the Spectral Horseman, respectively associated with Wycollar Hall and Eagle’s Crag, and affirmed that the legends of Worsthorne and district were curious as bearing upon this species of ghost. When the old people of that part were young there was a common belief in the existence of boggarts, brownies, and fairies. Brownside, in fact, has been supposed to owe its name to its being frequented by brownies. The ford at Brownside was alleged to be their favourite resort, A woman, who lived at Bottin, when in a communicative mood, used to tell how, on the occasion of fetching the doctor to her father from Burnley after midnight, she saw a brownie sitting behind a hedge and taking it quite coolly. It was in size equal to a man, but devoid of clothing. At the bottom of the great meadow at Rowley there was a sheltered and sunny spot between the wood and the river Brun that was held to be the happy hunting ground of the fairies. Shreds and patches of their dresses, but of the tiniest kind, were said to have been found. Even fairy smoking pipes were said to have been seen strewn upon the ground. Now how did all these strange fancies about spectral horses, spectral milk-white does, fairies and brownies come to be mixed up in these Kast Lancashire boggart tales? We cannot answer the question unless we clearly understand all that the East Lancashire people of long ago understood by a boggart. The people of to-day have forgotten the very meaning of the word. Messrs. Harland and Wilkinson’s talk about the « barghist”’ as the origin of boggarts, because boggarts were sometimes found sitting on bars or gates, is, it must be said with all possible respect, mere learned trifling. To come back to the point again, a boggart isa ghost, a spirit, a soul of either man or brute. What we call nightmare is the survival in another form of the old belief that the disembodied spirits of brutes are able to torment us in their nightly rambles. Nightmare is something so terrible that its very name attributes its origin to the devil, the meaning of mare being an incubus, a spirit which torments persons in sleep. This again suggests that here in East Lancashire the population was in the far remote past at that extremely low stage in which dreams do much towards forming character. Spectral hounds associated with the vale of Cliviger remind us, that about the border of the Tamar and Tavey they believed that such appari- tions were the souls of infants who died before receiving the rite of baptism, and we know that in the Cliviger district the belief in Gabriel Ratchetts or Gabriel’s hounds long survived. Dr. Webster has left it on record that the people of East Lancashire were satisfied that these Gabriel Rachetts were disembodied souls flying through the air, and that he tried in vain to prove to them that they were simply wild swans flying above their heads out of 126 sight. As to the spectral horse, that is only one of the Protean forms that the Bugga, which in the Middle Ages came to mean literally the Evil One, assumed. In those days he was a very Proteus, generally a horse, but often an eagle. Such spectral brutes were naturally greatly dreaded by the people of those bygone days. Bogearts anp Nature Myrus. When recapitulating these East Lancashire Boggart tales we have so far said nothing about how they were ‘‘laid’’—that is, about how they were supposed to have been induced to cease from troubling. The ‘laying of boggarts”’ is, however, a very interesting and a very large subject. In the first place, in all the country side tales it was always the Roman Catholic priest who put’ the unwelcome visitor from spirit-land to rest. That this particular pretension is of venerable origin is tolerably plain from the fact that the statute book bears testimony to the necessity for restraining it by law soon after the Reformation. If, how- ever, the Roman Catholic priest was always the principal actor in the scenes where East Lancashire boggarts were effectually laid, the play itself had come down from a time long anterior to the arrival of the first Christian monk or missionary in England. When Augustine landed in this island his orders from Rome were not to destroy existing temples, but to press them into the service of the Christian Church. He and his followers impressed other things than temples, though of pagan origin, into the service of the Church. The Britons of these parts, like the Celts every- where else, were greatly wedded to the awful and the mysterious. The rites and ceremonies of All Hallows Eve, as we call it, of Hallowe’en as the Scotch name it, are very plainly only an adapt- ation of what Christian teachers found said and done here on that particular night when they first came in contact with our heathen forefathers. The earliest observers of All Hallows Eve —Inown by quite another name then—must in every part of East Lancashire have been a simple, wild, and ardent-minded people. With them the feast was one of fire, to the kindly sun in acknowledgment of the gathering in of the harvest of wood and field. Pretty and fanciful, but altogether characteristically Pagan myths, gathered round the occasion, dark and shuddering legends of the unseen world were grafted on it, till after a lengthy interval what we call the last night of October became a night of superstitions so incongruous that it is almost impossible to account for their association with each other. There are partsof Lancashire where you now and then come across a field in a country place which bears the name of ‘“ Purgatory.” When you make in- quiries ‘the oldest inhabitant’ can only tell you that his grand- father called it so in his day, and that he supposed it was called 127 so ever since it was a field. An old intelligent farmer with a good memory may now and then get so far as to inform you that it was in the field called ‘‘ Purgatory”’ that the fires were made on Teanla night, but why that field of his is called “‘ Purgatory ” is as much a puzzle to him as ‘‘ The Rookery” was to Betsy Copperfield. But the antiquary will give you, as Mr. Weld, of Leagram Hall, does in the current number of the ‘‘ Stonyhurst Magazine,’ a vivid picture of the observance of All Hallowtide in the good old times. He will tell you how the night of All Hallows closed in but not with shadows; that Pendle and Parlick and Beacon Fell, and highland and moorland all the county through were bright with flame; how in every village the simple rustics might have been seen, in anticipation of the night, bear- ing to the high places armfuls and lapfuls of withered leaves, straw, whins, bushes, and boughs of trees, driftwood, and along the coast even dried seaweed; how these were thrown together in a huge pile, the top of which was crowned with a garland of such flowers as still survived; how stools and benches were placed around for the spirits of the dead of their village. Teanla night was the most awful, the most fortunate, the most import- ant in all the year. The fires on the hills that night burned to miraculous effect: the souls of dear ones, whether their bodies mouldered under the sod, or clung to the corals at the bottom of the sea were released from Purgatory, and were purged and made happy by these earthly fires kindled by loving hands. Cattle were made fruitful, fields fertile by these flames, the very embers of which were spells against thunder and infection. It was a very pertinent question to ask whether these fancies were any part of Christian teaching imparted by the earliest missionaries or whether the missionaries did not find them in full play when they came. In reviewing the whole subject Mr. Me Kay in his concluding observations said, that though we may laugh at the nonsense of boggarts till we are stiff and weary, we cannot give any serious heed to this particular phase of old Kast Lancashire belief without putting ourselves in touch with myths that were familiar to the earliest races of men that ever trod the earth ; and, therefore, with some of the oldest and grandest of earth’s cherished delusions. For our part, we have far less patience with the vulgarity of the man who laughs at the aged East Lancashire believer in boggarts, than we have with the so- called vulgarity of the man who has not yet wholly lost all power ot belief in the supernatural. 128 THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF JOHN RUSKIN. ; By JOSIAH MONK. December 4th, 1888. Ruskin’s first and most necessary principle in political economy is honesty, and he half quotes Pope's line that an ‘‘ honest man is the noblest work of God.” He says some people may not agree with this, but at least they must admit that he is among God’s best works, and, as things stand, a somewhat rare one. ‘ Some people ’’ in their aspirations to be more than this have to some extent lost sight of the propriety of being so much as that; in other words, we may have desired to become very religious, and yet have lost faith in common honesty and in the working power of it. If we cannot find honest men we cannot even make an attempt to carry out the political economy of John Ruskin. Mr. Ruskin states that no political economy can be sound, nor no code of social action right that leaves out the influence of social affection; and that the soul in man ig his highest and noblest force. Ruskin’s attempt to introduce social affection or soul into political economy has been attended with much pain and trouble to those who have been or are now practising the ordinary modern idea of political economy. It calls up the soul- less relations between employers and employed, and the wanton speculation of individuals, and rings formed to withhold bread, copper and cotton in the time of scarcity. This kind of self- interest is always as if mankind were sworn enemies of each other. In illustration of this Ruskin gives the following to show that it need not be so. ‘Tf there is only a crust of bread in the house, and mother and children are starving, their interests are not the same. If the mother eats it, the children want it; if the children eat it, the mother must go hungry to her work. Yet it does not necessarily follow that there will be ‘antagonism’ between them; that they will fight for the crust and that the mother being the strongest will get it and eat it. HEvenif this were so, and it were as just as it is convenient to consider men as actuated by no other moral influ- ences than those which affect rats or swine, the logical conditions of the question are still undeterminable. Or, in other words would you get the best results from this course of conduct? The largest quantity of the best kind of any work, will never be done by men for pay or under pressure. It will be done only when the motive force, which is the will or spirit of the man, is brought to its greatest strength by its own proper fuel; namely by the affections.” TE ee Re 129 All labour ought to be paid by an invariable standard. We pay the good or bad Prime Minister, Bishop, Clergyman, Doctof, Lawyer, Civil Servant, and Domestic Servant all alike. Nay, say you, if I want any of the above I choose them, Very well, then by all means choose your Weaver, Joiner, Ironworker, Bricklayer‘and Labourer. To be chosen is the proper reward of a good workman. ~ The false, unnatural, and destructive system is, when the bad workman is allowed to offer his work at half price, and either takes the place of the good, or force him by his competition to ‘work for an inadequate sum. ~ Why is not the profession of the Merchant, Manufacturer and Tradesman esteemed as honourable as that of the Soldier, the Pastor, the Physician, and the Lawyer? It is because the public believe that it is the first object of these men connected with trade in their dealings, to get as much for themselves as they can and leave as little to their customer as possible; they go about proclaiming vociferously for a law of the universe that the buyer’s function is to cheapen, and a seller’s to cheat. The public nevertheless involuntarily condemn the man of commerce for his own compliance with their own statement and stamp him as belonging to an inferior grade of human personality. ' The great want of manufacturing commerce and trade is men of a heroic temper, and honest courage. Then the market will have its martyrdoms as well as the pulpit, and trade its heroisms as well as war. ‘ The condition of things at present is that while many a zealous person loses his life in trying to teach the form of a gospel, very few will lose a hundred pounds in showing the practice of one. The only reasons why a man should be raised above his fellow- man ought to be, that in his dealings he is more honourable; in danger more noble and brave, in adversity the most enduring and self-denying; and along with these, capable of giving to hig fellow-men virtuous counsel, full of good sense and wisdom. A man who holds fast to these things is rooted in honour. Justice consists in absolute exchange, and with a true Ruskin home-thrust he goes on to’say—or, ‘if there be any,respect to the stations of the parties it will not be in favour of the employer. There is certainly no equitable reason in a man’s being poor; that if he gave me a pound of bread to-day I should return him less than a pound of bread to-morrow.” The abstract, idea, then, of just and due wages as respects the labourer is that they will consist of a sum of money which will at any time procure for him at least as much labour as he has given, rather more than legs. The wealth of the work may not be easily known ; but it has a wealth just as fixed.and real as the specific gravity of a substance, though such specific gravity may not be easily ascertainable when t) 130 the substance is united with many others. Lest, however, the reader should be alarmed at some of the issues to which Ruskin’s inyestigations seem to be tending, as if their bearing against the power of wealth they had something in common with those of Socialism, he wishes us to know in accurate terms one or two of the main points he has in view. Whether Socialism has made more progress among the Army and Navy, ‘“ where payment is made on his principles,’”’ or among the manufacturing operatives ‘‘ who are paid on his opponents’ principles,’’ he leaves it to those opponents to ascertain and declare. Ruskin takes it for granted that we saw that just payment of labour consisted in a sum of money which would approximately obtain equivalent labour at a future time. He says we have now to examine the means of obtaining such equivalent. This ques- tion involves the definition of wealth, value, price, and produce, It were to be wished that our well-educated merchants recalled to mind always this much of their Latin schooling that the nominative of valorem (a word already sufficiently familar to them) is valour, a word which therefore ought to be familiar with them. Valour, from valere, to be well or strong, strong in life (if a man) or valuable. To be “valuable,” therefore, is to avail towards life. A truly valuable or availing thing is that which leads to life with its whole strength. In proporttion as it does not lead to life, or as its strength is broken, it is less valuable ; in proportion as it leads away from life itis unvaluable or malignant. The value of a thing, therefore, is independent of opinion and of quantity. For ever it avails or avails not; no estimate can raise, no disdain depress the power which it holds from the maker of things and of men. The real science of political economy is that which teaches nations to desire and labour for the things that lead to life; and which teaches them to scorn and destroy the things that lead to destruction. ‘“‘T'o be wealthy,” says Mr. Mill, ‘‘is to have a large stock of useful articles.’ Ruskin says he accepts this definition. Only let us perfectly understand it. What is the meaning of ‘“ having ”’ or the nature of possession ? Then what is the meaning of “ useful”’ or the nature of utility ? As thus: Lately, in the wreck of a Californian ship, one of the passengers fastened a belt about him with two hundred pounds of gold in it with which he was found afterwards at the bottom. Now, as he was sinking, had he the gold or had the gold him? And if instead of sinking him in the sea by its weight, the gold had struck him on the forehead, and thereby caused incurable disease—suppose palsy or insanity—would the gold in that case have been more a possession than in the first ? He presumes the reader will see that possession, or having, is not an absolute but QO LOT is dates om AT Se ee TORE BESANT Oe LL 1381 a graduated power; and consists not only in the quantity or nature of the thing possessed, but also, and in a greater degree, in the suitableness to the person possessing it and in his vital power to use it. And Ruskin’s definition of wealth, expanded,becomes—the pos- session of useful articles which we can use. Thisis a very serious change. For wealth, instead of depending mostly on a ‘ have,” is thus seen to depend on a ‘‘can.’’ And what we reasoned of only as accumulation of material is seen to demand also accumu- lation of capacity. He next goes on to explain “ useful,’”’ and says that what is of use in the hands of some persons is in the hands of others only capable of ‘‘ from use’’ or ‘‘ab-use,’’ wine, and our own bodies, he mentions as equally liable to use or abuse. Wealth, there- fore, is—the possession of the valuable by the valiant. Ruskin next considers the name of price; that is to say, of exchange value and its expression by currencies. Note first, of exchange there can be no profit in it. It is only in labour there can be profit, [Whenever material gain follows exchange, for every plus there is a precisely equal minus.] The plusses makes -a very positive and venerable appearance in the world, so that every one is eager to learn the science which produces results so magnificent ; whereas the minuses have, on the other hand, a tendency to retire into back streets and other places of shame ; also prematurely put out of sight in graves. Labour rightly applied is the means of production. This may be constructive labour, as agriculture; nugatory, as jewel cut- ting; or destructive, as in war. Ruskin believes that nearly all production may be shortly divided into positive labour, that which produces life, and negative labour, that which produces death; the most directly negative labour being murder, and the most directly positive, the bearing and rearing of children. It is strange that men always praise enthusiastically any person who by a momentary effort or exertion saves a life; but praise very hesitatingly a person who by exertion and self-denial prolonged through years— creates one. Capital signifies ‘“‘head’’ or source, or root materials. It is material by which some derivative or secondary good is produced. The best and simplest general type of capital is a well made ploughshare. Now if that ploughshare did nothing but beget other ploughshares it would have lost its function of capital. It becomes true capital only when it is seen to grow bright in the furrow rather with diminution of its semblance than of addition _ by the noble friction. And the true home question to every capitalist and to every nation is not, ‘‘how many ploughs have you?” But ‘where 132 are your furrows?” Not ‘ how quickly will this capital repro: duce itself?” but,—‘‘ what will it do during reproduction?” What substance will it furnish good for life? What work con- struct protective of life? If none, its own reproduction is useless. For as consumption is the aim and end of production, so life is the end and aim of consumption. Ruskin says, in closing this series of introductory papers, that he desires to leave this one great fact clearly stated, there is no wealth but life—life, including all its powers of love, of joy, and of admiration. That country is the richest which nourishes the greatest number of noble and happy human beings; that man is richest who, having perfected the functions of his own life to the utmost, has also the widest helpful influence, both personal, and by means of his possessions, over the lives of others. I have only taken one small book, ‘‘ Unto this Last,’”’ contain- ing four essays. Of these four essays, Ruskin says that he believes them to be the best, that is to say the truest, rightest worded and most serviceable things he has ever written, and the last of them having had especial pains spent on it, is probably the best he will ever write, and though they were reprobated in a violent manner, he says I yet rest satisfied with the work, though with meee else I have done. NOTES OF A TOUR IN SWITZERLAND. By WILLIAM WITHAM. December 11th, 1888. Introducing the ‘‘ Notes” by a glowing description of Switzer- land, with her entrancing Alpine scenery, roseate sunbeams at dawn and eve on the virgin snow, wreathing clouds of mist,—like gossamer veils enfolding the crags and precipices,—the thundering avalanches of snow, and also the sweet-smelling pine woods and alpine pastures, a carpet of many coloured flora beautifully blended ;—the reader, after a reference to ‘“‘ vast glaciers, snow- fields, torrents and waterfalls,’’ passed on to describe Geneva, ‘‘a city divided by the Rhone into two parts, on the left the Geneva of history, on the right the modern town.” The banks of the lake are flanked with broad quays and substantial buildings, after the Parisian style, with huge hotels here and there, and behind on the hill side the old town with the church of St. Pierre. There are fine bridges connecting the two halves of the town, and from the Mt. Blane Bridge, when the atmosphere: is clear, there is a beautiful view of that mountain reminding one of George Eliot’s well-known words :— 133 _‘ And I will get to some far off land, Where higher mountains under heayen stand, And touch the blue at rising of the stars, Whose song they hear, and no rough mingling mars The great clear voice.” Leaving Geneva you have a charming drive by diligence to Chamouni, the roadsides being shaded here and there with walnut, chestnut and fruit trees. The scenery gradually gets wilder and more picturesque until the climax is reached on entering the Valley of Chamouni with the monarch of HKuropean mountains, and the Aguilles surrounding. Chamouni is now quite a large Alpine village or -town, situated in a lovely valley, on one’ side pine-clad rugged rock- capped mountains, on the south and west side Mt. Blanc, with white dome-like summit, in the far background, and the Aguilles piercing the blue sky, rivers of ice or glaciers descending from the snow-line into the valley, dark gine forests, and below Alpine pastures dotted with chalets on both sides of the river. After describing the interest taken at Chamouni in watching through telescopes the struggling attempts of mountain climbers; the reader went on to state that Mt. Blane is not a difficult mountain to attack if the snow is firm and in good condition,— the great danger on Mt. Blanc as on any other mountain is the weather, if a storm arise during an ascent, the cold is extreme— many have been frost bitten, and many lives lost in dense snow storms on this comparatively easy mountain. Among the adjoin- ing peaks which make the Aguilles of Chamouni, there is none equal in grandeur to the Aguille Dru as seen from Montanvert, it resembles a great spire of rock rising with unbroken cliffs for some thousands of feet above hardly less steep slopes of rock and snow, its form as striking as the Matterhorn, behind it is the Aguille de Vert, also an imposing mountain, and amongst the other Aguilles of Chamouni is the Midi, which faces into the valley of Chamouni. Graphic descriptions of rambles in the Tete Noire and St. Bernard Passes were given, and the paper con- ‘eluded as follows :—As to mountaineering, volumes might be and are written about it, there is great caution required, it is perilous, and proper precautions and rules must be observed and also good guides engaged by the inexperienced. Mountaineering is fascin- -ating—starting in the lovely star-lit nights of July or August, the sky of a deep turquoise blue color, and the floor of heaven thickly inlaid with patines of bright gold, first through the silent pine woods, in the soft stillness of the night, the rushing river in the distance giving a musical harmony to the scene, then the weird white moon-lit glaciers surrounded with spire-like -precipices and crags, exhilarated with the crystal air, the morning flush of gold and rose, and last, the finishing climb up the sharp ‘ridge of the final peak, and from it a glorious view;—a sea of peaks and vast expanse of mountain land ! 134 ON LOCAL AIDS FOR PROMOTING THE CULTURE OF ART, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE. By the REV. JOHN STROYAN. December 8th, 1874. The aim of this paper is not so much to impart information as to excite enqniry, in the hope of its issuing in some practical result. Man has an intellectual nature which requires to be cultivated, if he is to rise to the higher life of which he is capable. Before the members and patrons of a Literary and Scientific Club, it is unnecessary to dwell on the desirableness of providing for this culture. The only question for us to consider is how it can best be promoted. Our attention this evening is directed to local aids in furtherance of this object. Can anything be done to increase their number or improve their efficiency ? Without undervaluing, in the slightest degree, other local institutions that have previously ‘been in existence, which have done and are still doing service in promoting the mental culture of the community, I am disposed to rank first in importance our own Literary and Scientific Club. \ For the last twenty years, I know of no Institu- tion or Society in our midst that has given so general and power- ful a stimulus to intellectual pursuits. One proof of its efficiency hitherto is that it has already revealed to us larger wants and new desires. Our soireés have brought to light an unsuspected amount of wealth in objects illustrative of Science and Litera- ture, in the possession of private individuals. The limits of a single evening in the year are too short to admit of much benefit being derived from their inspection. We need a local museum that should be frequently accessible to the members and also to the public. I never visit the museums in Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, and London, without a feeling of regret that we have not something similar, though on a smaller scale, in our own town. Museums are of benefit chiefly to those who can frequently inspect them. My idea is that every town of any size, say of more than 20,000 inhabitants, should have some public building in which might be gathered samples of objects specially charac- terizing the locality. We have geologists who would gladly furnish samples of the rocks in our district, and botanists who would supply dried specimens of the plants. Manufacturers would furnish illustrations of our local industry. A museum almost necessitates a /ibrary. There is no greater auxiliary to a literary and scientific culture than easy access to an excellent library. Is it too much to expect that Burnley may soon have a museum and a library supported out of the rates, and open to Has >) = 135 the entiré population? Is the burden of local taxation already too heavy for us to contemplate an increase? Without however waiting for any movement of the ratepayers or the decision of our town senate, might we not have in connection with our club a small museum, and a well-assorted selection of books limited to the objects of our association, that should be free to the members and available to the general public on the payment of a small charge? We are greatly indebted to our local press for the valuable service it has rendered in reporting the doings of our elub. Might not our committee enter into some arrangement with the proprietors and editors, whereby a column, or even half a column, of each weekly issne, should be reserved for literature and science. Short accounts of the botany and natural history of the district, hints to beginners how to observe, collect and arrange, together with occasional notes of such books as would aid them in their attempts, would furnish an abundant and con- stant supply of material. Is there any insuperable difficulty in the way of Burnley having a School of Art? There are, 3 night art classes, and some 7 or 8 science classes in connection with our elementary schools and Literary and Mechanics’ Institutions. But these, in practice, are restricted almost to the young. We desire to see a school of art and science that should offer induce- ments to frequent it to persons of both sexes who have ceased to attend school, but who are desirous of continuing their self- improvement. Let me here say that our lady friends have it in their power to do much to promote a love of science and litera- ture in our midst. Ladies’ associations for the engagement: of teachers to instruct classes of ladies have been formed in several towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire. Why not in Burnley ? The presence of those ladies who have graced our meetings shows that there are not a few who appreciate our aims, and who are themselves inclined to our pursuits. Might not our new Grammar School, which has been opened so auspiciously, furnish instruc- tors? What is needed is, for some earnest-minded ladies to take the initiative by forming themselves into an association to organ- ize classes, obtain teachers, and make and superintend the necessary arrangements. Let me here state that in connection with the Grammar School evening classes for the study of botany and geology, and open to the public, have already been com- menced, A chemical laboratory is in the process of being fitted up, which will be available to others besides the pupils of the school. This will prove a most valuable local aid for the advancement of chemical science. Is it not time to think of providing some better public occupation for our winter evenings. There is one recreation which fairly comes within the province of both science and art,-—that of music. Our choral and musical societies have already done something to promote the culture of 136 vocal and instrumental music, but much more remains to be accomplished, we have plenty of the raw material for song; it requires only developing and training. Further, might it not tend to develope a taste for scientific pursuits, if an occasional lecture on some particular science, illustrated by diagrams, fossils, specimens, or experiments, were given by gentlemen associated with our club? Free to the members and friends introduced by them; as at present, it might be open to the public on the pay- ment of a small charge. It did not occur to me to mention the theatre as one of the local aids for promoting a literary culture. It has not hitherto done much to promote science, nor even to advance art. We must, however, concede that it has been an auxiliary in the cause of literature, of which the drama forms an important part. Most, if not all, the literary benefits derivable from the drama may, I venture to think, be obtained from its perusal without a theatrical performance. How often a pleasant and instructive evening might be spent by a party of friends in the reading of a play or a poem, when there would be all the advantage arising from free conversation and discussion, and attention would be far more called to the literary merit of the work than can be the case when it is acted on the stage. A gallery of paintings would be a valuable local aid in promoting a taste for the fine arts in our midst. There is only one serious objection that I anticipate to this proposal, as well as those of a free library and public museum—that is the expense. How can our Corporation obtain money for these schemes when the necessary sewerage works are absorbing all their available resources ? Leaving the discussion of these larger proposals to our local parliament, let me refer to helps which it is in the power of this Club to supply. Iam but giving utterance to projects that have already begun to form themselves in the minds of some of our vice-presidents and members of committee when I say.that the time has come for us to aim at a more systematic cultivation ‘of literature and science. The arrangements hitherto have been admirably adapted to awaken and foster a literary and scientific spirit, but unless we soon take a decided step in advance we shall be in danger of retrograding. Permit me to state what, in my opinion, are our requirements, and the most feasible way of pro- viding for them. The members of the Club, who are so inclined, should be induced to form themselves into sections for the special study of some one branch of science, as in the meetings of the British Association. Let each have its president, vice-president, and secretary, who, with one or two more, would constitute the committee of that section. Further, as a certain amount of edu- cation is necessary in order to reap or impart benefit at such sectional meetings, we need classes for instruction where the 137 elementary principles of the sciences might be systematically taught. Our club could, I believe, furnish persons both able and willing to conduct classes in mathematics and physical science, in physical geography, chemistry, geology and botany. Membership in any section might be made dependent on passing a preliminary examination of a very simple character. I would not debar any member of the Club from attending any sectional meeting he chose, but membership giving the right to take part in the deliberations and to vote, should be restricted to the initiated. For these meetings and classes separate rooms are indispensable. At present the club is homeless. We owe much to the Town Council for the generous and hearty manner in which they have granted us permission to occupy their chamber. But, convenient as this room is for our meetings, we need, in addition to it, one or more compartments where a class, a sectional, or committee meeting could be held at any time, and which might also serve as a place of safe deposit for apparatus or other property belonging to the Club. My idea is that a site should be selected and obtained as early as possible, in a central locality, though not necessarily in a main street, sufficiently large to admit of the erection of a building eapable of seating 1,000 persons, and of a series of class-rooms around it. The suite of buildings, when completed, would com- prise this central apartment suitable alike for a lecture-room, a concert hall, or exhibition building. . Outside, and surrounding this central hall should run a corridor opening into class-rooms, some of which might be used for meetings of sections. Above these should be another corridor and series of rooms, communicating with a gallery running round the central hall, and having a flight of steps at each corner to admit of ready access to every part of the premises. The remainder of the paper was the sketching out of a plan by which the cost of this erection could be provided for. The chief points of it were :— (1) An increased entrance-fee shall be charged. (2) Donations should be solicited. (8) Exhibitions should be held. (4) Lectures by outsiders of eminence should be delivered. The conversation that followed was directed mainly to the desirableness of admitting ladies as members, of establishing a free library, and of selecting a central site for the erection of a building. ; 138 DINNER. December 18th, 1888. The Annual Dinner was held at Mr. Cronkshaw’s Hotel, and was attended by about 25 or 80 members. The usual Toast list was followed. EXCURSIONS. THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL;—A WALK FROM PORT ELLESMERE TO EHASTHAM. Saturday, June 28rd, 1888. Along with some 180 members and friends of the Manchester Geographical Society, about 50 went from Burnley on this Excursion. The party were under the direction of Mr. Lloyd, Honorary Secretary, and Liverpool was the Port of embarkation. Here Mr. Thompson, of the Ferry Hotel, had placed one of the best boats on the station at the special service of the visitors, which conveyed them to Port Ellesmere, on the Cheshire side of the Mersey. Luncheon had, meanwhile, been served on board. Arrived at their destination, Councillor B. T. Leach and Mr. T. Sellars,—both associated with the Ship Canal Company, kindly undertook the guidance of the party during their four-mile inspection, from Port Ellesmere to Eastham. The walk which was somewhat trying, owing to the heat, lay directly along the line of works, the excavations of the soil, the blasting of the rock, the work of the steam excavators, the swift running of the small locomotives, the arrangements for nocturnal lighting, the so called Roman Road which had been bared in one. portion of the works, the line of the canal embankment at the point of its impingement with the river, the comtortable, clean and pretty dwellings of the workmen, numbering in this section about 1800, and the evidence of oreat skill in laying out the work, and its orderly progress, gave the members great pleasure to observe, and all were thoroughly satisfied after the inspection, with the character and progress of an undertaking which bids fair to be one of the most wonderful engineering achievements of the cen- tury. Tea was partaken of at the Ferry Hotel, Hastham, the members ultimately reaching Burnley in safety after enjoying a most delightfully fine and profitable day. 139 LANCASTER. Thursday, July 12th, 1888. Although not largely attended, yet the visit of the Club to the County town was more than ordinarily enjoyable. The arrange- ments for the conduct of the party were undertaken by Mr. Lloyd, Honorary Secretary, who, with the assistance of Mr. James Lancaster, had prepared a most attractive programme. The Town Clerk, who unfortunately was not present on the occasion, haying been suddenly called from Lancaster, had interested him- self largely in promoting the welfare of the visitors, and had generously secured some important privileges on their behalf. Mr. J. S. Slinger, a veteran Archeologist and inhabitant of the town, had also taken great interest in the visit, and met the party on their arrival at the station, remaining with them as their active cicerone and guide throughout the whole of the day. The morning was devoted to an examination of the venerable Church and Castle externally and internally, the special features being pointed out and explained by Mr. Slinger, who, previous to luncheon, introduced the Members to the Grand Jury room, in which he had placed for exhibition the whole of his valuable collection of Maps, Pictures and Drawings of ancient and modern Lancaster, which selected with great care, had taken him a life- time to collect. These objects of art, some of them perfectly unique, illustrating the topographical, architectural, political and social progress of so important an historic town proved of the highest interest. Some of the exhibits were of the utmost rarity and value. The afternoon was spent in the ‘ open’:—first in visiting the famous Williamson Park, from which picturesque and commanding rendezvous, a drive was taken through some of the rural and old world bye-ways lying on both banks of the Lune to the east and north of the town. 140 LIBRARY. The Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows :— Vol. 1.—1878.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys, 43 99 ” 9) 1649 to 1655. 2,—1879.—*‘ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester, 1545 to 1620. 3.—1880.— Lancashire Inquisitions,”’ now existing in the Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period. Part I, 1 to 11, James I. 4,—1881.—* An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1621 to 1650. 5.—1881.—“‘ Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1636. 6.—1882.—“ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certificates,” 1600 to 1678. 7.—1882.—* Lancashire and Cheshire Records,’’ preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. 8.—1882.—‘‘ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,’’ preserved in the Public Record Office, London, Part II. 9.—1884.—* Rolls of Burgesses at the Guilds Merchant of the Borough of Preston,’ 1897 to 1682. 10.—1884.—*‘ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,’ 1457 to 1680.. 11.—1885.—* Lancashire and Cheshire Exchequer Deposi- tions by Commission,” 1558 to 1702. ,, 12.—1885.—* Miscellanies, relating to Lancashire and Cheshire,’’ Vol. I. », 18.—1886.—* Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1681 to 1748. », 14.—1886.—* Annales Cestrienses.”’ ,», 15.—1887.—*‘ Wills at Chester,” 1660-1680. Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Vol. xxxiii., 1880-1; Vol. xxxiv., 1881-2; Vol. xxxv,, 1883; Vol. xxxvi., 1884; Vol. xxxvii, 1885; Vol. xxxviii, 1886. Reports and Proceedings of the following Societies :— Manchester Field Naturalist and Archeologists’ Society, 1860 (the year of its formation), to 1879 (1871 excepted), 1884, 1885, Manchester Scientific Students’ Association (Established 1861), 1878, 1879, 1883, 1884, 1885. 141 ~¢ Manchester Geographical Society (Established 1885), Journal for 1885 in 4 volumes, 1886 in 4 volumes, 1887-8. Catalogue of Exhibition of Appliances used in Geographical Education (held March and Apvril, 1886). © Report of Educational Committee, and Address delivered in connection with the Exhibition. Liverpool Literary_and Philosophical Society (Established 1812), ~ 1888-4. Liverpool Geological Association (Established 1880), 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-8, 1883-4, 1885-6, 1886-7. Liverpool Science Students’ Association (Established 1881), é 1883-4, 1884-5, 1886-7. Chester Society of Natural Science (Established 1872), Reports “for 1878-9, 1879-80, 1880-1, 1881-2, 1882-8, 1883-4, 1884-5, 1885-6, 1886-7, also Proceedings, Vols. 1, 2, 3. Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science (Established 1876), No.- IX., 1883-4, No. X., 1885, No. XII., 1886-7. Halifax Literary and Philosophical Society (Established (1881), 1883-4. Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society, 1888, Part 1. “s Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1835), 1883-4. Reports and Proceedings of the Manchester Field Naturalists’ and Archeologists’ Society, 1887. Manchester Microscopical Society Transactions, 1887. North Staffordshire Naturalists Field Club and Archeological ' Society, 1883-4, 1884-5, 1886-7, 1888. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1822), 1878, 1879. beans. Montreal Natural History Society (Established 1832), «The Canadian Record of Science,” Vol.I., Nos. 8,4, Vol. Il., 1 (oN RE Para are: YW f cna "Types of Sepulchral Urns, 1888. H. Colley March, M.D. (Lond.) Year Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great ' Britain and Ireland, 1884, 1885, 1886. eae *«« A Synopsis of the British Mosses,” by Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S. “** Art in Lancashire and Cheshire;”’ a List of Deceased Artists, with Brief Biographical Notes. By John H. Nodal. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th, to 26th, 1883. Catalogue of the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 1883 (containing prices realised). ; Baptisms and Anniversaries, &¢., 1705. Manuscript, evidently "the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley, on the Vigil of St. John the Baptist, 1705. teats 142 John Towneley’s Diary, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library. Manuscript. John Towneley’s Account Book, 1601-8. The following papers have been read before the Club :— *«« Geoffrey Chaucer,’ by Henry Houlding, read January 13th 1874. ‘The Philosophy of Recreation,” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874. ‘« Edmund Spenser,” by Henry Houlding, read October 26th, 1875. ‘The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,” by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P., read September 16th, 1879. “The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. «Science Two Hundred Years Ago,’ by C. J. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,” by Thomas Holgate, read October 18th, 1882. ‘‘Odours, Perfumes, and Flavours,’ by Alfred Edward Mason, F.C.§., Liverpool, read February 20th, 1883. «Some Aspects of Destructive Distillation,’ by Thomas Holgate, read March 8rd, 1885. ‘Sanitary Matters—Past and Present,’ by T. N. Dall, read March 10th, 1885. *«¢ Bi-Metallism,” by Joshua Rawlinson, read Feb. 8th, 1887. Those marked * may be purchased, price 6d. each. Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June Ist, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, July 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. «Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,’’ by Edward 1’. Bellhouse, a paper read before the Manchester Statisti- cal Society, April 13th, 1881. Guide to Cambridge, by G: M. Humphrey, M.D., F.R.S. The Railway Traveller’s Walk through Cambridge. Guide to Chester and its Environs, by Thomas Hughes, F.S.A. Handbook to Ely Cathedral. , 143 Photographs may be obtained of the following :— Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, 1881. Old House in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May, 1881. Price 1s. and 2s. according to size. The Four Cinerary Urns discovered in the neighbourhood of Burnley. Price 6d. and-1s. — : Transactions of the Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, Vol.I., 18838, Vol. II., 1884, Vol. III., 1885, Vol. IV., 1886, Vol. V., 1887, Vol. VI., 1888, may be obtained. Price 2s. 6d. each. ‘TITIO HOUOUD ‘g901100 PUNO} pUB pouUIeXy ILL ¥8F : rom ILL P8F 0F O ‘TTT ttttt* ‘09 » uEMO pred suredoy “ 9 z I sree cmiotslamiartlovesjeinis sosuedxy IouUIg iti Z STE vtec t tt tse" WOLssrmUt0D 8,10}09][09 Ss € OL ST ‘‘siodvg W}IM uoroeuu0o ul sosuedxg “* 6 0 0 eeeeeresreeecores UOISsIuMOD Yue “ 9 9 I eee eee ee eee eeeee eereee SUISTIAOAPY “cc Os Wem es Seema rede cenenne yy “ F 9 op (;,suoyovsuery,,, Supnyour) Suu “ Or #1 L. Peet ee eee eeeeeeeneees sees soSBisog “ OTT gegeeeeeteeeesasenes L9100G p1000%T 6c ZB GLP De eeee sneer e ae seooeooresaaseseereres QOURIBT sc 9 0LO Peper ees vane eenene Aqoroog o1l0qstpy “ 0¢ 0 serene ee tess eeeeaeeeeeseseseeess TOT JO UBOT “ 6 0 0 9 coves eees Jequreyy [lounog Jo yuexyT ‘“c LT 0 peeeeeeetensavevenooneessererrergcoraUy HUB “cc I StI Sere ecececececonseeveesees oouyieg LG—4IsTE 00d 0 OT 8L ee suodiosqng siequiey OT, oa OG : *L88T ‘p's F ‘2D ‘888L ‘ISLE 4equieoeq Sulpue seed ey} JO} JUNCDOY syweunseed | ey "a8 > 145 HONORARY MEMBERS. PAST AND PRESENT. Year of Election. 1874 Col. Fishwick, F.S.A., Rochdale. 1874 Thos. Mackereth, F.R.A.S., Manchester. 1875 Rev. J. S. Doxey, Whalley. 1876 William Naylor. 1876 Philip Gilbert Hamerton. 1876 W. B. Bryan, C.H., London. 1877 F. J. Faraday, F.S.8., F.L.8., Manchester. 1877 OC. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield. 1877 Edwin Waugh, Manchester. 1877 J.H. Nodal, Manchester. 1877 Samuel Laycock, Blackpool. 1877 R. R. Bealey. 1877 W.A. Abram, J.P., F.R.H.S., Blackburn. 1877. D. Morris, B.A., F.G.S., London. 1877 Joseph Hough, M.A., F.R.A.S. 1878 Alf. H. Mason, F.C.S., Montreal. 1879 H. Stolterfoth, M.A., M.D., Chester. 1879 Jno. Edw. Price, F.S.A., F.R.S.L., London. 1880 Chas. Rowley, Junr., Manchester. 1881 Jas. Croston, F.8.A., Prestbury. 1884 Jas. Monckman, D.Sc., Perowne Street, Cambridge. 1886 ‘Tattersall Wilkinson, Swinden, Burnley. 1887 Sagar, Ben, Manchester. 1887 Houlding, Henry, Burnley. MEMBERS. Anningson, Dr. J. W., L.R.C.P., Yorkshire Street. Briscombe, Rev. W., Prospect Terrace. Baldwin, Alexander, Ormerod Street. Barlow, J. A., 2, Padiham Road. Barlow, W. H., 18. St. Matthew’s Street. Baron, Arthur, 22, St. Matthew’s Street. Bell, Thomas, 14, Grimshawe Sireet. Birnie, Joseph, Post Office. Bolton, Edgar, Bank Hall Terrace. Booth, James, Manchester and County Bank. Booth, Thomas, 22, Sand Street. Bradley, John, 21, St. James’s Street. Briggs, B. W., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. Briggs, Dr. H., J.P., 68, Bank Parade. Q 146 Brotherton, Lawrence, Hapress Office. Brown, Dr. J., Bank Parade. Broxup, J. Greenwood, Gannow House. Broxup, John, Gannow House. Brumwell, Dr. J. C., J.P., Hargreaves Street. Bulcock. Henry, Hargreaves Street. Burrows, Thomas, 26, Padiham Road. Butterworth, Jno., Junr., J.P., Brooklands Road. Butterworth, Tom, Brooklands Road. Brotherton, H., Preston Guardian Office. Button, F. S., Corporation Offices. Camm, Dr. Ralph. Catlow, A. W., 77, St. James’s Street. Calvert, A. E., Oak Mount, Nelson-in-Marsden. Clement, Leonard, Forest View. Collinge, John, Spring Hill. Collinge, John §., J.P., Park House. Collinge, William, J.P., 110, St. James’s Street. Cooke, Samuel, 5, Carlton Road. Coulston, W., 21, Rectory Road. Cowgill, Bryan H., 48, Manchester Road. Crabtree, Robert, Brooklands Road. Crook, Campbell, Osborne Terrace. Crook, Thomas, Rose Hill Road. Dall, T. Naylor, Borough Surveyor’s Office. Dean, Dr. Thomas, Manchester Road. Dickingen, Alfred, Rose Cottage. Drew, Alexander, Holme Lodge. Duckworth, Joshua, 6, Manchester Road. Dufton, A., B.A., D.Sc., Grammar School. Durham, Rev. W. E., St. Matthew’s Vicarage. Eastwood, Henry, 40, St. James’s Street. Edmondson, Thomas, J.P., Fern Hill. Fletcher, J. H., Healey Grange. Fletcher, John, 84, St. James’s Street. Fleming, J. G., Spring Terrace, Habergham. Foden, C. M., 4, Sefton Terrace. Folds, James, J.P., Brunshawe House. Folds, James, Junr., Fair View Road. Fox, Charles, 12, Nicholas Street. Flack, Fred. Accrington Road. Gill, George, Woodleigh. Grant, Fredk. J., J.P., Bank Parade. 147 Grant, W. Lewis, 22, Carlton Road. Grant, James, 14, Manchester Road. Grant, Arthur E., 14, Palatine Square. Gray, Nathan P., J.P., Manchester and County Bank. Greenwood, James, J.P.. 138, Manchester Road. Harwood, Dr. T., Wilfield House. Hargreaves, Fredk., 83, St. James’s Street. Harrison, J., Dilworth, Sunny Bank. Haslam, Tom, Mount Villa. Heaton, Tom, 1, Palatine Square. Hedges, Alfred, Healey Villa. Hesketh, James, 189, St. James’s Street. Higgin, Cain, 37, Rectory Road. Hill, Fred. H. Thorn Hill. Hitchon, Robert, 54, St. James’s Street. Hoghton, Thos., 1, Carlton Road. Hoghton, W. H., 1, Carlton Road. Holden, John, Holme View. Holden, Ralph, Brooklands Road. Holden, Thomas, Chancery Street. Hopwood, Fredk. Jas., Corporation Offices. Horn, J. 8., 15, Palatine Square. Horner, Thomas, 67, Standish Street. Houlden, John Wm., The Cemetery. Howard, William R,, Manchester and County Bank. Howorth, John, J.P., Park View. Howson, Charles J., Craven Bank. Hudson, Samuel, 9, Sefton Terrace. Howarth, Adam, Union Workhouse. Handsley, Robert, J.P., Reedley Lodge. Holt, Dr., Holme View. Holden, E., 42, Colne Road. Heap, John, 2, Nelson Square. Jobling, Albert, Carlton Road. Jobson, Rev. H., B.A., S. Luke’s Vicarage, Brierfield. Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa. Kay, W. E., Warm Lake, Sutton, Kent. Kay-Shuttleworth, Right Hon. Sir U., Bart., M.P., Gawthorpe Hall. Lancaster, Alfred, Fern Bank, Coal Clough Lane. Lancaster, James, Carlton Road. Lancaster, Wm., Junr., 13, Carlton Road. Lawson, Dr. S., Brierfield. 148 Lea, Richard §., 66, Albion Street. Lee, George, 96, South Parade. Lee, J. L., 96, South Parade. Leyland, Rev. Thomas, Shakespeare Terrace. Lloyd, Thomas, B.A., Sefton Terrace. Lupton, Arthur, 22, Carlton Road. Lupton, J. T,, 28, Manchester Road. Lupton, William, Trafalgar House. Lupton, William H., Trafalgar House. Mackenzie, Dr. James, Bank Parade. Moore, B., Gazette Office. Mossop, William, Bank Parade. Mozley, H., Queen’s Gate, Colne Road. Myers, Fred., Westgate. Monk, Josiah, Brookfoot, Padiham. Moffat, C. W. P., B.A., Grammar School. Massey, J. Bennett, 64, Burns Street, Nelson, Richard, 11, Nicholas Street. Nicoll, Peter L., Manchester Road. Nowell, Thomas, Healey Grange. Nutter, Henry, 44, Queen's Gate. Ogden, Geo. C., Thorn Hotel. O'Sullivan, Dr. D. A., Westgate. Parkinson, A. W., 74, Manchester Road. Parkinson, William, Palatine Square. Parsons, Charles, 9, Grimshawe Street. Pickup, Peter, 40, Westgate. Preston, Thomas, 92, Manchester Road. Procter. Richard, Oak Mount. Pullon, Dr. G. 8., Westgate. Preston Herald Office. Parker, R. Hartley, Belgrave Street. Ratcliffe, Abraham, 128, Manchester Road. Ratcliffe, Dr. J, R., University of Edinburgh. Ratcliffe, David, 9, Carlton Road. Raweliffe, Geo. B. Pickup Terrace. Raweliffe, James, Oak Mount. Raweliffe, James H., 65, Manchester Road. Rawlinson, Joshua, J.P., Oak Bank. Riley, Holden, St. James’s Street. Roberts, Thomas, Bank Parade. Riley, William, Reedley, near Burnley. Ruttle, Dr., Accrington. 149 Scowby, Francis, Craven Bank. Shaw, Smith, 11, St. James’s Street. Slater, Christopher, Manchester Road. Smith, James, Yorke Street. Stafford, J. E., 7, Hargreaves Street. Steel, Fred. Wm., Cuerden Terrace. Storey, Geo., J.P., Brunshawe. Strange, Alfred, Greenfield House. Sutcliffe, Dr. Alfred, Trinity House. Sutcliffe, George, J.P., Oak Hill. Sutcliffe, James, Bull Hotel. Sutcliffe, John, 8, Hargreaves Street. Sutcliffe, J. S., Fir Grove. Southern, Walter, Rydal Mount. Simpson, Robert, Todmorden Road. Thompson, James, 26, Cuerden Street. Thompson, James, St. James's Street. Thompson, Jas. W., Oak Bank. Thompson, William, Oak Bank. Thornber, Thomas, J,P., 16, Piccadilly Road. Thornton, John, The Poplars. Thorp, Thomas, 11, Manchester Road. Thursby, J. O. S., J.P., Bank Hall. Tovey, Rev. A. H., D.Sc., Hollin Hill, Towneley. Tunstill, Henry, Oak Mount. Waddington, William, Thorn Hill. Waddington, W. Angelo, 'Thorn Hill. Waddington, J. Arthur, Thorn Hill. Walmsley, George, Lark Hill. Walmsley, Thomas, Coke Street. Ward, H. T., Palatine Square. Ward, J. Langfield, M.A., 111, Manchester Road. Watson, Dr. A. A., Colne Road. Watson, Richard, 12, Hargreaves Street. Whitaker, James H., Wilfield Terrace. Wignall, Jno. Wm., Market Street. Willey, Rev. W., Palatine Square. Witham, William, Todmorden Road. Wood, Martin, Westgate. Winfield, Rev. B., B.A., St. James’s Vicarage. Walton, Robert, Manchester Road. Witham, W., Junr., Ormerod Road. Watson, A., Manchester Road. 150 NAMES OF READERS OF PAPERS AND DIRECTORS OF SOIREES. Pace. Brumwell, J. C., M.D., J.P. ......‘¢ Wanderings on the Banks of the Lower Moselle and a Visit to German Watering Places”... Buleock.v Els tase siclelels/sieleiaiciwie ele s/s “A Trip on the s.s. St. Sunniva” .. Butterworth, John, Jun., dale, pars M‘Kellen, 8. D. (Directors) . . Photographic Soirée ........... Carey, Rev. 8. Pearce, M.A....... “¢ Charles Kingsley ; ; His Life and Works” Cortie, Rev. A. L., S.J.... ..‘* Heat of the Sun Oe Gets : Dean, Thomas, M.D.........-++ v“ Place Names i in and Around ‘Burn- LOW rovarese stetel ofaiey ote prarsienevetavetstotats Dufton, A., B.A., B.Sc... .... eee cUWVeitr, Gai’ alcveteserdsalecieverst areas anos Fleming, Zz. Di Ghins cleleusl tate delete: eleieists . Dramatic Recital, ‘‘Hamlet” .... (eho Haden ales © Ronbocoosoods: ‘Literature and Men of Business ” Grant, W. Lewis MO BUA OTE OtHO 0 Dic ‘‘ Burnley Street Names’’.......... Holt, R. C., F.R.C.S.. .....‘* Charles Darwin’s Life and Letters” Jobson, Reva iliss) bs Aiswtet elelefeistelia ciate CUD TG MEOOIN 22 cs steele vac armceise oeeterateretete McKay, James......--+eeeeees ..“ The Evolution of East Lancashire OP PATUS) isis) efeleloiiesasiecsiaiterets; tai Monk, Josiah .......+.eseeeeees ‘““The Political Economy of John ARI SHATINAT fepetaie's te /otelclaie's’ solar eters Parkinson, W..... Wiahereictelstarstate ...‘ Disposal of "Sewage and Town FROTUSE 2) caiatcieralele wisie.nistelefotntots 4 Rawcliffe, G.B. ..... Rucyorstors ..... Half-Hours in the Green Lanes ”’.. Rawcliffe, G. B. (Director) ...... Readings and Recitations .......+ Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S.(Director) Geographical Soirée ...,....... Thompson, J. W. ...-.+ AS ee ‘Norway and the Land of the Mid- abet fewiel 4? annodnoono bone ais Waddington J. Arthur eLReE . Soirée, Shakesperian Music ..... : Weeks, W. S.,F.R.H.S.. ..‘*Some Lancashire Legends”’...... Whittaker, J ohn ROMO ..... The Local Government Act and its j Effect on our Neighbourhood.. Winfield, Rev. B., B.A.....05 wees COB CHULY corectesisheisiaielele ¢haminalsielsreisieis)s Witham, W..... eaetaimecnetesis .....** Notes vf a Tour i in Switzerland ue EXCURSIONS. MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL ....+6. BE AN AAO OOU A aGiOd COLO wT OT OULIG LANCASTER vc cc cece e cers ce se sees cesseeseeeseeraeeeen® Kerragououon 35 23 84 . 132 151 Pace List oF OFFICERS ....... a ejarcl erate at orereratar ene M tera ctrara/elet crave WOCOUOSOCAOUATS 3 HUTTE Bseicfajeieie soc! si siciew « Sieisisiaw eves oe aeisjcvelernts Ret fersictotsia/cisieta’slesialereia'e nine 5 ANNUAL REPORT .....c cc cece ee ceee ceees eh carota tenas\oloia Shercvclatevereverts cheer List OF MEETINGS ...cceceececse cece ces Bc dO SoI0 DORE OOO An DOO IE: 9 SUMMARIES OF PAPERS READ DURING THE YEAR....+.. RI Noretece clare 11 to 133 Srroyan, Rev. Joun, on ‘‘ Local Aids for Promoting the Culture of Art, Science and Literature,’’ read December 8th, 1874.......... e000. 134 EXXCURSIONS ....ecceeeceees Pacers stetarsparaeree sya cteustetniepaiarals (sre's 6 wee 138-139 LrBRARY ...... Se ORO nee Beet, wor Se calonenitdeewc sae ees 140-143 STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS ...ccccecccccccccees List or MemBERS—HONORARY AND ORDINARY ...e.eseceeeeesecees 145-149 ALPHABETICAL List oF READERS OF PAPERS.....e.e++.. BURGHOPE & STRANGE, PUBLISHERS, &C., RURNLEY. 4 OMAR 1936 tro } ’ i 1a Sieerasy a, » * &