", MAR 1333 .S3. — BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. Established 1873. TRANSACTIONS. VOL. XXVII. 1909. MEMBER’S COPY. GEOEGE ANDERSON (Burnley) Ltd. ST. jambs’ street. MDCCCCIX. H. L. JOSELAND, M A , President of the Club 1908-7 AND 1907-8. BURNLEY LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB. Established 1873. TRANSACTIONS. VOL. XXVII. 1909. MEMBER’S COPY. GEORGE ANDERSON (Burnley) Ltd. ST. JAMES’ STREET. MDCCCCX. Burnlcp Ciierarp and ScieiiliHc Club Established 1873. OFFICERS OF THE CLUB. Year 1 909-10. President : WM. THOMPSON. Vice-Presidents : Fred. J. Grant, J.P. James Kay, J.P. W. Lewis Grant. Jas. Lancaster, J.P. H. L. Joseland, M.A. Wm. Lancaster. Hon. Treasurer : Frank E. Thornton. Hon. Secretary : Frank Hudson, LL.B., Committee : T. G. Crump, B.A., M.B.j A. A. Bellingham. John S. Mackie. T. G. Parkinson. George Gill, J.P. G. S. Ritchie, 4 Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule Rule RULES OF THE CLUB. 1. That the Society be named the “ Burnley Literary and Scientific Club ” 2. That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and mental recreation of its members by means of original papers, discussions, and conversation of a Literary and Scientific character. Party Politics and Religious controversies to be excluded. That arrangements be made during the Summer for Excursions to places of Historic and Natural interest. 3. That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary Members and Lady Associates. That the Committee shall have power to accept the services of others than members. 4. That Associateship be open to ladies who shall be elected by ballot of the members and shall have the privilege of attending all meetings of the Club. They shall not take part in the management of the Club, nor shall they be en- titled to introduce a friend. 5. That the Club meef on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the meetings being weekly from September to April. Any meetings held in the Summer months to be preparatory to the Excursions. G. That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings at each meeting be reading the minutes of the last meeting. 7. Candidates for Membership or Associateship to be proposed and seconded at one meeting, and balloted for at the next ; a majority of three-fourths of the members present being required to secure an election. Candidates for Honorary Membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation from the Committee. 8. That the officers consist of a President, six Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who shall manage the affairs of the Club ; four to form a quorum. Such officers to be chosen by ballot at the Annual Meeting, which shall be held on the first convenient Tuesday in April. Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next preceding the Annual Meeting. 9. That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock, to be spent in conversation and discussion. No speaker to occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once, except by permission of the chairman. 10. That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Sec- retary, and printed, in which the business of each evening shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before the Club to be approved by the Committee of Management. 5 Rule 1 1. Each member shall have the privilege of introducing a friend* but no friend so introduced shall be allowed to take part in the proceedings unless invited by the Chairman, to whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power to declare any meeting “ Special,” and to make such arrangements as to admission of friends at such meetings as they shall think proper. Rule 12. That an annual subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary Members, and of 5s. by Associates, and any person whose subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be a member of the Club. Rule 13. The Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the Treasurer to the end of December in each year ; and a Balance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by the Com- mittee, be printed and sent to the members before the Annual Meeting. Rule 14. That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in April, or at a special Meeting ; in both cases a fortnight’s notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered to call a Special Meeting on receiving a requisition signed by six members. * No Gentleman residing within the Parliamentary Borough, not being a member, will be eligible for admission. A friend is considered to be “ introduced ” (Ride 11) to the Meetings of the Club when he or she attends with the sanction (by card or otherwise) of a member. 6 ANNUAL REPORT, 1908-9. Presented to the Members of the Club on April 6th, 1909. The Committee have pleasure in presenting to the Members the Thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Club. They venture to think that at the 22 meetings which have been held during the year, many subjects of an interesting and useful nature have been brought before the Club, properly fulfilling its objects in providing instruction and mental recreation for its Members. There have been given 20 lectures, 12 being literary (including one lecture recital), (1 on travel, and 2 on scientific subjects. There have also been held one recital and one musical evening. The attendance has averaged 35 Members and 34 Associates and friends, as compared with respective averages of 36 and 30 last year. The aggregate attendance has been 772 Mem- bers and 740 Associates and friends, total 1512, as compared with 784 and 660, total 1444 last year. During the year there have been elected 13 new Members and 9 Associates. The membership is composed of 14 Honorary Members, 185 Ordinary Members, and 35 Associates, being a total of 234, as compared with 232 last year. An Excursion of the Club took place on May 27th last, and consisted in a visit to Farnley Hall near Otley. Mr. F. H. Fawkes, J.P., kindly shewed the party over the Hall, which contains a magnificent and unique collection of pictures by Turner. Charming weather made the excursion a most delightful one. A second Excursion, arranged for July 25th, was less fortunate. It was intended to take a walk via Barley and Barrowford. under the leadership of Mr. A. Wilmore, B.Sc., of Colne, to study certain features of the Calder River System. The day turned out to be very wet, and the walk was" aban- doned. 7 The Committee have much pleasure in again recording their gratitude to Mr. A. A. Bellingham, of whose services as Honorary Lanternist the Club have been able to avail themselves on the twelve evenings on which their lectures have been illustrated by lantern slides. On no occasion has any hitch in the working of the lantern occurred, and on each occasion the pleasure of the evening has been materially increased by his services. The Committee hope for the continued support of the Members and Associates of the Club in their next year’s work, and trust that the results will be equally gratifying with those of the year just passed. 8 SYLLABUS. JANUARY TO APRIL, 1909. Jan. 12 — “Rambles in Hungary W. H. Shrubsole, F.G.S. (Illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 19— “ Humour and Pathos of Lancashire Life” George Nuttall. „ 26 — “Cup and Glass” J. W. Rneesiiaw. Feb. 2 — Debate : “ The Influence of the present uncontrolled flood of cheap literature on our educational progress”.. .. Introduced by F. Hudson, LL.B. ,, 9 — “St. Paul’s Cathedral” (Illustrated by the Lantern). Rev. Jocelyn Perkins, M.A., F.R.Hist.S ,, 16 — “Guatemala — Travels and Experiences.” (Illustrated by the Lantern). W. S. Ascoli, F.R.G.S. ,, 23 — “The Scottish Covenanters” Rev. Thos. Hamer. (Illustrated by the Lantern). Mar. 2 — " A journey round Africa, with visits to some of our African Dominions ” (Illustrated by the Lantern). Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ,, 9 — “Oliver Goldsmith” G. S. Ritchie. ,, 16 — “ The Chemist’s Aim in Various Ages ” (With experiments) Levi Walton. ,, 23 — “Some Old English Inns” Rev. G. S. Sargisson. (Illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 30 — Musical Evening. Director : T. H. Pemberton. April 6— ANNUAL MEETING. 9 SYLLABUS. OCTOBER TO DECEMBER, 1909. Oct. 5 — ‘‘Dr. Johnson”.. ..(In Commemoration of Bicentenary) (Illustrated by the Lantern). Rev. C. S. Sargisson. ,, 12 — “ The Report of the Commission on the Poor Laws — A Review and Criticism ” J. TI. Sinkinson, M.A. ,, 19 — " Mrs. Gaskell and Knutsford ” .... Rev. G. A. Payne. (Illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 26 — “ Henry de Laci, The Great Earl of Lincoln ” The last Norman Baron who owned Burnley and District. (Illustrated by the Lantern). S. Compston. ( John Holden. Nov. 2 — " The York Historic Pageant ” . . J. S. Sutcliffe. ( W. Lewis Grant. ,, 9 — “ The Renaissance ” C. A. Hoyle. (Illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 15 — “Wind and Weather” The Bishop. (Illustrated by the Lantern). ,, 23— “ Alpine Peaks and Valleys (From Tyrol to Dauphine) ”.. (Illustrated by the Lantern). J. Walter Robson, Member of the Alpine Club. ,, 30 — “ Life and Conduct in Modern England ” R. Hope Bowdler, J.P. Dec. 7 — “ Richard Jefferies — Naturalist and Idealist ” Henry D. Shawcross. ,, 14 — “ A Walking Tour in the Tyrol ” The President. (Illustrated by the Lantern). „ 17— ANNUAL DINNER. Treasurer's Accounts for the Year ending the 3lst day of December, 1908. 03 o F“H I> © 0 0 © •H - CO © CL X 10 . * JD • £5 O a 73 r £ • .5 5 5 M D : q 5 ■*-< C 4—1 * r_i "c/3 o D 73 73 .2 4-* o ; ctf b r-1 r- 6 s Cu 4-* CO d • O X W D o £ u rC • 4-1 4-1 &U0 c • o O C/3 C 73 c3 D X X « W W o Cd tuC ^ 8 O o ^ u 2 O 3 2 o o S3 3 h-< o o pq 03 C cr D r-j U rt PQ nj m 30 M O 2 o Qh CO O co D ,Q D ^ m S o o O ±J 73 2 W +■» CL I>» <1; T3 O rt D ^ O D E D J— i D O D £ 15 -5 co pq j— !>■ O CL CO cc JO CL o D Q U D Audited and found correct, FRANK E. THORNTON, Hon. Treasurer THOS. PROCTOR, A.C.A., Auditor. Burnley, March 27th, 1909. TRANSACTIONS. 1909. . r- 13 RAMBLES IN HUNGARY. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By W. H. SHRUBSOLE, F.G.S. January 12th, 1909. Very little is known of Hungary by the people of the British Isles, and not merely is there negation of knowledge with respect to the country, but there is also very much positive error. As far as the Lecturer could gather during his travels at home, it seemed to him to be the general belief of the majority of the English people that Hungary was a part of Austria, and that the Hungarians were subordinate to the Austrians. The actual fact was that Hungary and Austria were two independent states who had agreed to perform certain details of the national business in common, but in so doing neither of them had surrendered one jot or tittle of its national individuality or independence, and in the arrangements between the two nations it has always been most expressly stipulated that in making these arrangements, the Hungarians still maintained the independence for which their forefathers had fought and bled and died for a thousand years. The errors which prevail in the British press at the present time with regard to Hungary 7are veryjstaggering and very numerous. We read in almost every paper we take up that “ Austria ” is doing this and “ Austria ” is doing that when the fact is that it is Austria and Hungary, for while the present agreement continues in force neither country can move a step in foreign affairs without the consent of the other. It is of course true that Emperor Francis Joseph rules over both countries ; he is Emperor of Austria and he is King of Hungary but as Emperor of Austria he has no power or authority in Hungary. He has two distinct characters to fulfil, just as the same gentleman may preside as managing director over two banks or insurance companies, and yet no one would make the mistake of believing that the two companies, having the same managing director, necessarily become one company. 14 Austria and Hungary are two distinctly independent countries, and Austria-Hungary means Austria and Hungary. There are two distinct states, two thrones, two crowns to be worn, two states in limited partnership on equal terms. Hungary is a very compact country, as will be seen from a correct map. An excellent natural frontier is furnished by the great range of the Carpathians, which extend nearly a thousand miles. Hungary is not merely compact, but is also complete in itself. It is not part of any other state or kingdom. It is not a part of the “ Austrian Empire,” or any Austro-Hungarian Empire ; there is no such thing. In all arrangements and treaties that have been made, Hungary has specially stipulated that in so doing she has not become part of any other state, by whatever name it may be called. Hungary contains twenty millions of people, all of whom are animated by the most friendly feelings to the British. Anyone from England going there and making it known that he comes from this land is pretty sure to be at once received with open arms. The English are so admired that all the better-class Hungarian children are taught to speak the English language, and indeed, the Lecturer has come across one charming Hungarian lady who had her children taught English before they were taught Hungarian. Agriculture at the present time is almost the only industry that the Hungarians have. They very much want to do a great deal more commercial business with us than they at present do. Our merchants appoint an agent in Vienna and when Hungarian merchants send to England asking for lists of goods they are referred to “ our agent at Vienna.” The Hungarians do not and will not go to Vienna, and they consequently do not do the business with us which they would like to do, but go to Germany and elsewhere for the goods they want. There is really an immense amount of business to be done by the British Isles with Hungary, if our merchants would be more enterprising. There is an immense amount of spinning still done in the country by hand which could be replaced by British manufactures if we would show our customary, energy. Hungary is larger than either Great Britain, Austria, or Italy. About one-third of the country is a plain. The country is well wooded, there being about 40,000 square miles of oak, beech, and fir trees. T- Practically the whole of the vast plain which forms the centre of the country is inhabited by the Magyars who founded the kingdom over a thousand 15 years ago. The fringe of the country is occupied very largely by those who have overlapped from the adjacent countries. Many of them were sent there by former kings of Hungary in order to try and break down the supremacy of the Magyars. In this way they had hoped to be able to absorb the Empire of Hungary into the Empire of Austria, but they have not yet succeeded. The Magyars are still the leading race in the country. Then come the Roumanians, Slovaks, Germans, Croatians, Servians, and Ruthenians. The capital of the country is Budapest (pronounced Buda- pesh), one of the finest cities in Europe. It is divided into two parts by the Danube. The two parts were originally distinct, one being called Buda, and the other Pest. The older portion is very hilly ; off-shoots from the Alps extend right to the Danube. On the hill top is the very fine Royal Palace. The slopes of the hills are covered with vineyatfds ; apricots and other rich fruits grow there in the same way as apples and pears grow in our orchards. In the centre of the river is a small island known as S. Margaret’s, about a mile and a half in length, which has been laid out for pleasure purposes and makes a very charming resort. The older part of the city presents a most charming panoramic view when seen from the other side of the river. Several bridges join the two halves of the city. The first which was built was erected sixty years ago by an English firm, and re- placed an old bridge of boats. Since then the Hungarians have themselves erected several other large and beautiful bridges. One is called the Elizabeth Bridge, named in memory of their Oueen Elizabeth, whose premature death was a sad event for Hungary. It is one of the very largest single span bridges in the world. The royal palace on the hill is not only the largest, but probably the finest royal palace in Europe. It remains empty for the greater part of every year, but royalty with Hungarian people is by no means an empty name. They contribute to the maintenance of royalty in connection with this palace over £1,000 a day, almost half a million pounds a year, from what is practically a poor country, and they reasonably expect, and hope, and wish, their King to bestow a reasonable amount of his time upon them ; yet there have been some years, even in recent times, when he has not spent more than a fortnight of the whole year amongst them. He lives almost exclusively in Austria, and all the money the Hungarians contribute is spent in Austria, whereas were he to divide his time more equally between the two countries, the representatives of other countries and their Courts would also have residences J 6 in Budapest, and the money would be more fairly divided between the two countries. In this respect the Hungarians have a distinct grievance, but in spite of his defects they really love their King and simply say he is too old to alter his habits. There is a beautiful old church in the city which dates from the thirteenth century. The interior is magnificent and baffles description. It was used as a Turkish Mosque for 164 years, and it is here that the Kings of Hungary are crowned. At this ceremony the King has to swear a solemn oath giving the fullest guarantees that are possible for one to give, that he will maintain the country as a free and independent kingdom. The Hungarian Magna Charta, which is called the Golden Bull (Aurea Bulla, from the gold seal which was attached), was granted in 1222, so that next to Great Britain, Hungary is the oldest constitutional state in the world. It may be mentioned that it is entirely by the magnanimity of Hungary that Austria has the political privileges which it possesses. Austria’s constitution is not so free as that of Hungary, because, if the Austrian Parliament refuses to supply a grant of money the Emperor can issue a decree and get as much money as he wishes. In Hungary the King cannot get a shilling or a soldier without the vote of the Parliament. The wonderful bathing establishments are a great feature of Budapest. The water is derived from hot springs which have been flowing uninterruptedly for more than a thousand years and show no sign of diminution. The water is so hot that it is impossible to plunge into it. It is mineralised and has a most exhilarating effect on the body. The very moderate prices charged for these wonderful baths are a great boon to the whole community. The highest jirice charged is only fivepence, and this includes a tram ride from any part of the city. Poor people are admitted for one penny. The Houses of Parliament, with their fine hall, form a magnificent building. They are built of very costly material and their decorations are gorgeous, and yet har- moniously beautiful. It may be mentioned that ' all the religious sects are represented in the Upper House by Bishops or persons of equal rank. The Government helps airdenomin- ations and pays wholly or in part the salaries of all the clergy- men. The Baptists, however, have no Bishop, and are not represented ; they applied some time ago to Dr. Clifford for advice, and he went over there and conferred with them ; he advised them to have nothing whatever to do with the state and to maintain their own independent existence, and this they are doing. 17 The Palace of Justice, the Stock Exchange, the Grand Hotel, the Market Place, and the Opera House are all beautiful buildings. The opera is, it may be said, subsidised by the state, and hence the charges for admission are veryTnoderate. The music is distributed to all parts of the city by means of the telephone, so that people are able to enjoy the pleasures of an opera without leaving their homes. They also have a telephonic newspaper with its editors, reporters, etc., whereby information is collected but nothing is printed, the news being supplied to the subscribers by means of the telephone, all at a very small cost to the subscriber. The theatre at Budapest is also state-aided. Every Monday night one of Shakespeare’s plays is given ; this has been done for fifty years and the theatre is crowded on each occasion. Shakes- peare is loved and studied there much more than here. One of the features of the town is the magnificent collection of agricultural exhibits. The collection is absolutely unique and is visited by experts from all over the world. A move- ment is on foot to establish a similar exhibition in London. Pipes from the hot water springs are laid in the town and taps are in several of the streets. Perhaps nowhere else are the inhabitants of a town provided with a natural supply of water in this way. Railway travelling in the country is exceedingly reasonable, due to the fact that the state owns and works the railways. The longest journey, third class, costs only 8s. 4d., which is at the rate of about 2-1- miles for a penny. Model farms are to be found all over the country. The Government acquires the land, puts up the buildings, and provides the stock. The tenant is selected largely by the vote of his neighbours. He is called upon to set a good example to his fellows and to assist them in account-keeping, lend them implements, advise them when necessary, and generally to do his best to promote the improvement of the agricultural industry. On the River Tisza and other Hun- garian rivers may be found hundreds of floating corn mills, to which the peasants bring corn to be ground. Steam mills also abound. Indeed, in Budapest they are as numerous and as large as in Chicago. The preservation of useful birds is a department of the Hungarian Government. Such birds as will destroy noxious insects, or will otherwise be useful to mankind, are carefully preserved, and during the winter proper food and shelter is provided for them in the state forests, nesting boxes being attached to tree-trunks for them. This is done on a large scale, and subsidised steam factories produce an immense number of boxes annually. 18 Debreczen, the largest city on the plain, is well worth a visit. A cordial welcome is always given to English parties. The Burgomaster himself and other officials and many of the inhabitants greeted the Lecturer and his friends. At Arad will be seen a monument to thirteen Hungarian generals who surrendered to the Russians and Austrians in 1849. Though of noble birth the Austrians put them all to an ignominious death, and this dreadful deed is kept in memory by the Hungarians by anniversary days, processions, monu- ments, and so on. Yet in spite of this and other indignities which the Hungarians have suffered at the hands of the Austrians, they would be willing to shake hands with the latter and be friendly, provided that the Austrians will frankly acknowledge the equality of Hungary. One feature of the district is that along the roads miles of fruit trees are to be found, the product of which goes towards paying for the upkeep of the roads. Since 1897 250,000 fruit trees have been planted along 2,150 miles of state roads in Hungary, and of these 98,000 were mulberry trees. The others are chiefly apple, cherry, pear, plum and almond trees. In conclusion the Lecturer expressed the hope that Britons and Hungarians would soon become better acquainted and by mutual help increase each other’s prosperity. 19 HUMOUR AND PATHOS OF LANCASHIRE LIFE. By GEORGE NUTT ALL. January 19 th, 1909. Mr. Nuttall, at the outset, said that as Lancashire folks we ought to try and cultivate respect for our native county, as Southerners often regarded our manner and speech inferior in quality to their more polished style. Doubtless the brusque and uncouth exterior was sometimes undesirable, yet after all, in the main, the Lancashire man was “ a gradely fellow, and jannock.” In quoting from the works of Harland and Wilkinson, proof was adduced that substantial contributions to the traditionary lore had been made by the settlement in these Northern parts of the various Teutonic, Saxon, and Scandinavian races and tribes. Every county had its records in story-legend and ballad, and by these means were kept alive many interesting, quaint, and racy features of its humble life. Falling into a reminiscent mood, Mr. Nuttall recalled the names of men formerly well known in the Burnley district — Henry Houlding, C. Slater, Harry Nutter, T. B. Spencer, Mr. Sutherland, and James McKay — whose efforts to encourage the youth of the past generations have been a lasting blessing to the town and neighbourhood, especially in the organisa- tion of elocution classes, where the sketches of Edwin Waugh, Ben Brierley, Oliver Ormerod and Samuel Laycock were given with such acceptance in what was termed “ The Penny Readings.” Thus was encouraged a taste and desire for more substantial literature. In referring to John Collier (Tim Bobbin), the lecturer asked for the opinion of the members of the Club as to whether the distorted face painted on a certain popular hostelry in Burnley was to be taken as in any sense a portrait of this memorable writer of “ Tummas and Meary ?” Or was this a caricature, and the result of a common misconception as to the personality of a humorist ? The correct idea of a humorist is certainly not that he is a buffoon with cap and bells, or a grinning clown. As in this case, the true humorist is a person of deep, sensitive feeling. Tom Hood himself protested that men would so completely 20 recognise him as a comic writer that they never considered that he had also done real serious work. As the Editor of the “ Comic Annual,” as well as the author of “ The Song of the Shirt ” and “ The Bridge of Sighs,” Hood will ever be remembered. He himself has written, “ There is no music in the life, That sounds with idiot laughter only ; There is no note of human joy But hath its chords in melancholy.” As showing the pathetic side of Lancashire life, Mr. Nuttall referred to the conditions under which very many of the people li\ e and the class oi labour which is so destructive of life and limb. A strong claim was put in by the speaker on behalf of the villages and hamlets surrounding Burnley, from whence had come many of the most astute and useful men who now are such a valuable asset to town and city life m its civic and commercial, as well as its moral and religious activities. Some rousing illustrations were given of their readiness and shrewdness in reply. Their frugality and judgment were often an object lesson to town dwellers. Per- sonal experiences, witty and comical stories anent the amuse- ments, music-loving propensities, and the oddities of character incident to country life, brought to a close what was styled a most interesting and instructive address. 21 CUP AND GLASS. By J. W. KN KESHA W . January 26th, 1909. Drinking is necessary, and many will be surprised if they calculate for a moment how much of the thought and labour of the world is given to considerations connected with drinking. The lower animals drink from necessity, but round the practice of drinking man has wound the chains of custom, habit, taste and social pleasure. Man has a palate to be tickled, a social instinct to be fostered, and he has powers of observation and adaptation. Drinking is an essential feature of our life-birth, social pleasures, death customs, good wishes, sorrow and rejoicing. Man further differs from the animal in that he brings his beverage to the place where he needs it — into his own home, while the animal must go to the place where it is. Vessels have therefore been invented for the carrying of liquid. Various substances and articles have been used for this purpose, hollowed wood, shells of fruits or of fish, skins, hollowed stones, etc., and in savage nations these are still in use. They do not, however, fulfil the conditions needed by more luxurious people. From the earliest period clay has been utilised, its plastic character and its feature of hardening by fire making it admirably adapted. The art of the potter is one of the oldest in the world. Very ancient specimens may be seen in Towneley, and others have been found on our moors in burial mounds. From the earliest days little improvement to the earthenware vessel has been achieved save the addition of a hard enamel. Glass is said to have been introduced into this country about 676, and the Romans were acquainted with it, but it was not common for drinking vessels until much more modern times. At one time in the eighteenth century among roysterers a custom sprang up of eating the wineglass. Wealthy people in Saxon and Norman days were ostentatious of drinking vessels of great value, gold, ivory and gem-studded cups. It was the custom also for people to make presents of rich vessels as tokens of affection. This was done by the Lady Ethelgina and is mentioned by 22 Longfellow. This was probably the origin of gifts of christen- ing cups. Vessels also accompanied the transfer of land as visible tokens. Pewter was, of course, in common use, as was also leather in the form of the “ black jack.” Fermented drinks which produced an agreeable taste were discovered in very early times. We hear of it so far back as the days of Noah. These drinks, were, of course, intoxi- cants, and mankind has ever been trying to take these fer- mented beverages with the pleasant effects without suffering from the evil effects — to enjoy the exhilaration without the suffering. One of the earliest attempts was that of Dunstan, who arranged pegs in the drinking vessels as a measure of precaution. This is the origin of the phrase “ in merry pin.” In early and mediaeval times ale and mead were the principal drinks. There was no choice between those and water or milk. Vast quantities of intoxicants were consumed. Dr. \\ hitaker refers to the enormous quantities of wine consumed at Skipton by the Clifford family, and notes that spirits did not seem to be used. The Saxons were noted for their deep potations. Ale was the chief beverage, though the immense quantity of honey then produced shows that the consumption of mead was very great. Mead continued a common drink down to the seventeenth century. Hops were introduced about 1425 and the beverage so made was called beer, as distinguished irom ale. More than one writer condemned this beer and praised ale. It was further charged against beer that there was heresy in hops. In days of universal drinking of intoxicants at all times there was no moral reprobation of the custom. So it was not regarded as out of place for each parish to hold a formal “ Church ale ” each year, when the wardens brewed ale and sold it at a great merry-making, the profits filling the parish exchequer. Oats were used for the making of ale. Dr. Whitaker tells us that the monks of Salley annually brewed 253 quarters of oats and 104 quarters of barley for an estab- lishment of 70 persons. Wine has always been a beverage for the wealthy classes. There were flourishing vineyards in England in Saxon times, the vale of Gloucester being specially noted. In the time of the Commonwealth the price of wine was fixed by proclama- tion : Canary, Muscadel and Alicant, 1/- a quart ; Sack and Malaga, 9d. a quart ; Gascoigne and French wines, 6d. a quart ; Rochel and other thin wines, 6d. a quart. Sack and Malmsey were the favourite wines in the middle ages and we constantly read of their praises. Sack is associated with Falstaff and Malmsey with the Duke of Clarence. In the Shuttleworth accounts in Elizabeth’s time, we have claret, sack, and white wine at from 1/6 to 2/- a gallon. In 1777 the Burnley churchwardens’ accounts show wine at 7/- a gallon. Curious drinks were concocted in the middle ages. Thus we have mention of Upsee Dutch, a strong malted liquor ; Eyebright, also strong malted liquor ; Mum, so called from its power of making its votaries speechlessly drunk ; cock’s ale, in which the body of a cock had been soaked and pounded ; buttered ale, flavoured with sugar and cinnamon ; lamb’s wool, made of roast apple pulp ; capon beer, in which a fowl’s body had been allowed to rot ; roasted porter, which was poured into red-hot silver cups, etc. Women have always played a large part in the making of drinks. Ale- wives were responsible for ancient brewing of ale, and down to Hanoverian times the stillroom was a part of every large establishment and the source of much care to the housewife. Addison more than once ridiculed the counterfeit wines and other cordial productions of the still-room. There were other methods tried of limiting drinking, punish- ing drunkenness or avoiding it, than Dunstan’s pegs. Ale tasters or founders were appointed to judge the quality of the ale ; the Court Eeets held an assize of ale ; each parish was compelled to have its stocks for punishment of offenders, mostly drunkards ; and preparations of drugs, etc., were used in the belief that they would neutralise the effect of alcohol, and render the drinkers immune from intoxication. In spite of everything there was much drunkenness, and there were periods when it grew to the proportions of a national plague. It was alleged that our connection with Holland twice resulted in periods of terrible drinking, and that drunken- ness came from Holland both in Elizabeth’s day and in Georgian times. Spirits were introduced about the beginning of the eighteenth century — brandy 1671, gin 1710, grog 1740. There was a perfect frenzy of gin-drinking about 1730. In 1736 a bill to restrain spirit drinking led to serious riots in many places. The introduction of coffee and tea was the greatest tem- perance movement. Coffee was introduced from Turkey by Daniel Edwards about 1650, but a coffee house was established earlier at Oxford by a Jew named Jacob. Previous to that it was a common beverage at Balliol College, prepared by Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan. Within a very short time the beverage had become popular, and a writer says it had led at once to greater sobriety. Tea was introduced about 1658, when an advertisement appeared about “ that approved 24 China drink, called by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations tay, alias tee. ’ At iirst it was very dear, and in 1661 the East India Company considered two pounds a lit present for the king. In 1667 the importation of 4,713 lbs. glutted the market for several years. In 1660 it was first taxed, — the impost being levied on the liquor brewed, viz., 8d. per gallon. Many amusing stories are told of the way in which it was used by ignorant people, e.g., boiled and served as a vegetable. The new beverages had much prejudice to overcome. The practice of tea and coffee drinking was looked on as effeminate ; the beverages were derided and slandered. The advertise- ments of the time are very fulsome and flattering, detailing the new drinks as beneficial for all complaints. Queen Mary did much to make tea popular. She introduced the tea urn, and her tea-service of cups without handles was famous. The introduction of tea and coffee led to the establishment of coffee houses. In 1708 there were 3,000 of these in London. They were the meeting places of the wits, the literary people, business men and men of fashion. Each class affected its own coffee house — the physicians at Child’s, merchants at Garraway’s, lawyers at the Grecian, Tories at White’s, shippers at Lloyd s. The latter gave origin to the shipping insurance exchange. Rigid rules were laid down for the conduct of the company. It was at a coffee house (Elford’s) that Defoe saw the narrative of Alexander Selkirk which inspired “ Robin- son Crusoe.” Button’s was the haunt of Addison, Will’s of Dryden and Pope. Saltero’s was famous for its extraordinary collection of curiosities. The coffee houses in turn gave rise to clubs. Of these the most famous were the Calf’s Head Club, October Club, Kit-Kat Club, and Almack’s, the latter of which ruled fashion. Some fantastic clubs were in existence, e.g., Heaven, Hell, the Fat Men, the Skeletons, etc. 25 DEBATE : THE INFLUENCE OF THE PRESENT UNCONTROLLED FLOOD OF CHEAP LITERATURE ON OUR EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. Introduced by F. HUDSON, LL.B. February 2nd, 1909. The President, Mr. Win. Lancaster, in opening the meeting, referred to the efforts of Messrs. Chambers to print a journal containing nothing but what was best in literature ; at first the attempt almost failed, but later, when the people were educated up to the proper level, proved a great success. Publishers would tell us that there was now a very wide demand for the classics, and that more were being printed and sold than ever before. There was still, however, a great demand for “ trashy ” literature, which had been described as “ lurid in imagination and extravagant in plot and incident, and pernicious in effect,” and he said it was this “ trashy ” element rather than what was “ cheap ” in literature which they were going to consider. The Secretary, Mr. F. Hudson, LL.B., opened the debate, and said that in his view there was nothing in cheap literature specially injurious to the cause of education. Though there was certainly a vast amount of such read which was merely temporary, and not worth keeping, it was not necessarily because it was cheap, for a large quantity of what is poor literature costs far more than what is necessary to purchase the classics. A few months ago the Rev. J. D. Robertson, after making careful enquiry, gave us full particulars of the quantity and nature of what Burnley reads. He (Mr. Hudson) had read these particulars and did not think them dangerous, but rather a healthy sign than otherwise. The cheap literature for boys and girls referred to by Mr. Robertson, and stigmatised by him as “ pernicious,” did not enervate the mind. It is a fallacy to suppose that the minds of the young people who read these publications are in the beginning strong, healthy, and fully developed, capable of reading and understanding the classical works. These latter books were not the off-throw 26 of an immature mind, but the product of long and laborious thought and great genius, and to understand and enjoy them the reader must bring to them a mind capable of appreciating the author. The imagination must not be raw, but must have been already stimulated and fed, and the reader must have learnt to look beyond mere incident. We had not got these conditions in the mind of our young people. Reading too is not necessarily always to be done for the cultivation of the intellect, but ought to give some pleasure ; life is not all work. We must avoid the mistake that what is not worth keeping as classical is not worth reading. We must try and realise the mental condition of the people who read that for which we do not care and which we would condemn. Many people condemn the literature for boys and girls described as “ penny dreadfuls.” He did not, nor would he, sentence novelettes. They give a touch of the romantic to lives otherwise dull and sordid. They arouse the hitherto sluggish and unawakened mind in a healthy direction and give a taste for reading of a better kind. The people who read them would probably read nothing were they deprived of this simple literature which they can understand and enjoy. Such literature would be an empty dish to ourselves and it would require no effort to peruse it ; but the people who read it cannot digest what we can, and they need as much mental concentration for their reading as we do. We must imagine them struggling through the classics which would give them nothing but mental indigestion. The assumption is often made, too, that these stories for boys and girls are ‘‘ pernicious.” This assumption was quite without founda- tion. He himself had read a great many, and had never found anything pernicious in them. They were exciting in incident ; but so also were the tales of Henty, Doyle, and Haggard, which we put into the hands of our young people without hesitation. Their moral was always “ virtue will triumph in the end.” It would be suggested later by Mr. Rothwell that we ought to subsidise the classics so that they would displace these cheaper publications. But many of our classical works which are fit for the fully formed minds of adults, would have a grossly pernicious effect if studied by the young, and would develop a very unhealthy side of their imagination. In considering the present vast output of new novels, he thought very few of them indeed were worth reading and would live, but he thought that even the “ trash ” of this kind was not without its place in the world. It was better, he thought, that reading of any kind, even though unsub- stantial or “ trashy,” should be done rather than nothing 27 at all. He quoted Mr. H. G. Wells, the novelist, who says that “ thought is the life of a community ; a community which thinks freely and fully throughout its population is capable of a thousand things impossible to an unthinking mass of people. For 3,000 years the book has been becoming more and more the evident salvation of man.” Mr. Wells considered the “ penny dreadful ” was good for boys and made them more imaginative and clearer than the boys without them, whose imagination “ aborts and bestialises.” They anticipate, he said, Haggard and Stevenson. Mr. J. H. Rothwell took the opposite view, and said that the trashy literature could not but have a depre- ciatory effect on educational progress, which surely meant the acquiring of a capacity to do good. He included in “ trashy ” the novel which was not a standard one, the novelette, the scrappy story-teller and the blood and thunder tale, which must have a debilitating effect on the mind. No effort was required to read them, not even a minimum of concentration, and they rendered the mind unfit for serious reading. We had to enjoy our lives, but we ought to do so to great profit. The huge mass of cheap literature choked what was good and made it hard to find. The “ penny dread- fuls ” had no literary style in them and could not be compared to the works of Henty, Ballantyne, Conan Doyle and Haggard. He thought too much time was spent on promiscuous and purposeless reading, which weakened the memory and must also have a bad effect on the national character. He suggested a remedy, that a Board of Control should be established, which should be formed of people whose literary excellence was acknowledged and who should peruse all modern publications, except newspapers, and should hall-mark the good, and issue it at a cheap rate. To enable them to subsidise what was worthy he thought they might tax that which was not worthy of the hall-mark of excellence and with the money obtained buy the copyright of what was good. They required protection in some such way as this from what was not worth reading, just as they were protected by the government in the trying of precious metals and in food stuffs. Authors ought not to be allowed to foist off any kind of rubbish on the public. A good discussion followed. Mr. G. S. Ritchie, while agreeing with what Mr. Rothwell said as to the enervating effect of trashy literature, criticised his scheme and said that to approach a subject such as the present with a remedial Act of Parliament up his sleeve was a strange act of worship to the fetich of practicality. He thought the scheme would 28 not do, owing to the personal element in the estimation of what was worth reading. Mr. John Bradshaw referred to the fact that most classical books were now being printed and sold at a penny, but in an abridged form, and he thought the result was being shown in the very marked falling off in the sales of “ penny dreadfuls.” To appreciate the classics, however, one must bring an understanding mind. Mr. Albert Lupton further criticised Mr. Rothwell’s proposition, and said such a Board of Control was unnecessary, as there was already a sufficient one in the form of public opinion. Messrs. J. S. Sutcliffe, A. A. Bellingham, W. Lewis Grant and Geo. Gill also spoke, and a vote of thanks to the debaters, moved by Mr. Grant and seconded by Mr. Gill, was passed by the meeting. Mr. Hudson in replying, said he did not consider the effect of trashy literature as “ debilitating.” If some publications were objected to as “ suggestive,” what about the effect which some classical works would have on the youthful mind which studied them. It was good rather than otherwise that these works were not read until the mind was more developed. He described the scheme of hall-marking as chimerical. It could not be made practical. Reading, too, was not like silver or food stuffs, as we could each act as our own assayers of reading matters. He did not see any reason for the complaint that good literature was bad to find. If we require good literature to read and have no faith in the reviewers, we do not need to peruse what is now being written, but can read what has already shown itselt capable of living, of which there is sufficient to last a hundred life-times. Further, the mere hall-marking of what a certain body of men thought good w'ould not have any effect in preventing the poorer and more temporary forms of literature from being used, and it was only educational progress which could do this. It is one of the best features of our modern educational system that teaching is done on lines which are directed towards awakening the youthful imagination and teaching the child to think. O 29 ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By The Rev. JOCELYN PERKINS, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. February 9th, 1909. On Ludgate Hill, where St. Paul’s Cathedral now stands, the Romans erected their temple to Diana, the goddess of hunting. In early days all over this spot waved the branches of a mighty forest, tire name of which is still perpetuated in the district of “St. John’s Wood.” When the Romans left Great Britain the Christianity they had introduced disappeared, and the temple they had erected was destroyed. The centuries passed along and once more the cross of Christ was uplifted in this land. About 604 Ethelbert built a cathedral to the glory of God and in memory of St. Paul, on the same spot on which the Roman temple had stood. Fire seems to have claimed the old St. Paul’s Cathedral for its own. The building underwent no less than five successive burnings. In 1086 a fire almost as disastrous as that which gutted the great building in the early part of Charles II.’s reign, took place. After that, Bishop Maurice set to work -with great vigour to build a new cathedral and at length a mighty building was completed. Later, in the reign of Henry III. a majestic choir was added, and as time went on we find the building becoming more and more important in the life of London. Stephen Langton produced in St. Paul’s Cathedral Henry I.’s Charter, on which was based Magna Charta. A few years later the evil monarch John handed over himself and his kingdom to Pope Innocent III. in this historic building. At Paul’s Cross eminent divines used to hold forth week by week for many generations. This beautiful building underwent terrible vicissitudes. The spirit of profanity and sacrilege predominated, and all kinds of vices might have been found here. Buyers and sellers carried on their traffic in the precincts of the building, in fact 30 in the nave itself. John Colet, the eminent Dean of St. Paul’s and founder of St. Paul’s School, tried hard to mend this state of things, but failed owing to the supremity of vested interests and the slackness of the Chapter of that day. Before the reign of James 1. decay had begun in the old building, and an effort was made to raise money to put it in order and improve it, Inigo Jones being the appointed architect. A classical portico was erected in the hope that the buyers and sellers would do their business there, but the hope was disappointed. In the reign of Charles I. Bishop Laud did a great deal to improve the existing state of affairs. Then came the period of the Long Parliament, during which the the historic Paul’s Cross was pulled down and the building suffered much in other directions. Another twenty years of neglect under Puritan rule and we find the old cathedral, with the advent of the Restoration, entering upon its last phase. It served as a hospital during the Plague. Then the great fire of 1666 took place, which completely destroyed the old Cathedral of St. Paul’s. Pepys gives a very interesting account of the fire, and tells us how the Cathedral was thought at first to be quite safe, and large quantities of furniture and books were allowed to be stored in the churchyard for safety. It was the setting fire of these by flying sparks which caused the building itself to take fire. It was decided to pull down the remnants of the old building. The magnitude of the task may be judged from the fact that it took 16 years to clear the site for the purpose of rebuilding. Christopher Wren, son of an eminent Dean of Windsor and a Fellow of All Souls’, Oxford, was appointed architect. His uncle was then Bishop of Ely, at whose place Wren, in his younger days, was a frequent visitor. It was largely Ely’s grand old Cathedral which gave him his ideas for the re-con- struction of St. Paul’s. One leading idea was that ample space should be provided for preaching, chiefly because the outside preaching, of which the former St. Paul’s Cross was the great centre down to the time of its destruction during the Civil War, had ceased. This idea was carried out by the erection of a great central dome in preference to the long-drawn aisles of a Gothic Minster, and a great central space was to be provided for the accommodation of as large a number of worshippers as possible. This central space was perhaps the main desideratum. Wren had to submit his plans and designs to a very incompetent body for approval. In 1675 his design was accepted by Charles II. The original plans of the “ approved design ” can be seen to-day in the Library of All Souls’ College, Oxford. The design was poor, 31 but Wren improved upon it a great deal in the course of its being carried out and it developed finally into the present majestic building. The foundation stone was laid in the year 1675. Another ten years saw the choir erected and the beautiful edifice was ready for divine service in the year 1697. Later the north-west Chapel, St. Dunstan’s Chapel, was opened for service, and at the commencement of the reign of Oueen Anne, who often attended the Cathedral in state, the nave was ready. Wren continued to work at the great dome until 1710. He was then an old man of 78. He had the pleasure of seeing the topmost stone laid in that year and the work was then at an end, having been accomplished under one architect and under one Archbishop. Wren was not treated at all well in the way of being paid for his great work. He only received £200 a year, afterwards cut down to £100, as it was thought he was unduly prolonging the task for his own benefit. He stood this treatment uncom- plainingly, being a man of wonderful piety, a great Christian, and possessed of a most serene and lovable disposition. He worked hard for the glory of God and for the benefit of pos- terity, and the present St. Paul’s Cathedral remains to-day as his monument. The building cost altogether about £875,000, which was raised by means of subscriptions, and by a coal tax on all sea-borne coal brought into the City of London. It speaks well for the English people that so large a sum could be raised at the time, seeing that during the previous 50 years the City had, amongst its many vicissitudes, passed through a plague, a great fire, a revolution, Jacobite plots innumerable, a change of dynasty, and various wars. Of course the building was not ornamented in any sense. Its decoration is only just beginning. On an inspection of the inside of this grand edifice we find that we have a great Church and a Roman temple together in one. The building is 513 feet in length and the dome is 365 feet in height. When we consider that the scheme of St. Peter’s at Rome was carried on under 19 Popes and engaged twelve architects, we appreciate the wonderful fact that Christopher Wren should be the sole architect of this mighty conception, and that too in the face of all manner of difficulties. Wren had a strong dislike to the Gothic in architecture, and the absence of buttresses is a noticeable feature of the Cathedral. The great dome, which stands out so prominently in the bird’s-eye view of the metropolis, although open to adverse criticism regarding its construction, is a majestic piece of work. Inside It is octagonal in shape. The railings round the Cathedral 32 are themselves unique, having been made in Sussex, prior to the carrying of the iron industry to the North of England. The inside of the Cathedral is a triumph in architecture. The reredos is a beautiful piece of work, but otherwise there is a marked absence of general decoration. Wren had got a grand scheme simply blazing with ornamentation, which for some reason was not carried out. A scheme for the decora- tion and ornamentation of the interior is now on foot under the skilled guidance of Sir William Richmond. The organ is one of the finest to be found in Europe. The woodwork designs are exquisite and of great interest. In the Cathedral we find monuments erected to the memory of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Dr. Johnson, Howard the Philanthropist, Sir John Moore, Canon Liddon, General Gordon, Wellington, Nelson and other great men. It must be admitted that some of the sculpture is of a very poor order. In the crypt lie Wren and his family. Wonderful have been some of the scenes which have been enacted in this grand Cathedral. The service of Thanksgiving for our present King’s recovery from typhoid fever, the Diamond Jubilee of the late Queen Victoria, the welcome home of the C.I.V.’s, the Pan-Anglican Congress, are some of the notable events which have taken place in it. The lecturer concluded with a reference to the present much respected Bishop of St. Paul’s, Dr. Winnington- Ingram, who has done so much for the comfort and relief of the poor and the oppressed of London. May he long preside o\ er the Church of the metropolis, which is dearer to him than anything else in the whole world. 33 GUATEMALA— TRAVELS AND EXPERIENCES. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By W. S. ASCOLI, F.R.G.S. February 1 6th, 1909. Guatemala is the most northerly of the five republics which constitute Central America. No very accurate survey of the country has been made, and the area is variously estimated at between 48,000 and 60,000 square miles. The population numbers about 2,000,000, of which about three quarters are Indians and the remainder are descendants of Spaniards and “ ladinos ” or half-castes. Very little is known of Guatemala previous to its occupation by the Spaniards at the beginning of the 16th century. The Spaniards appear to have taught the natives to read and write, and they left accounts which, though meagre, suffice to show that the Indians were no savages ; they had a code of laws, an organised government, and a religion based on fire-worship and human sacrifice. The two principal tribes were the Cachiquel Indians and the Quiches. The Quiches offered a strong resistance to the Spaniards, and were over- come only with difficulty after several pitched battles. In 1524 the Spaniards finally broke through the Indian lines, and founded the city of Guatemala. The name is probably a corruption of Juatimol, the then king of the Cachiquel Indians, who gave valuable aid to the Spaniards during the early years of their occupation. In 1541 the town was destroyed by a torrent of water ; but its situation was so beautiful that the survivors of the catastrophe, with the consent of the Spanish crown, rebuilt the city some two miles north of the ruins. The new town was equally unfortunate, for it was destroyed or partially destroyed no less than ten times in 250 years. In spite of this the city grew in size and power, and in the 18th century was one of the richest and largest cities of America. At this period the country governed by the city extended 2000 miles, and was one of the greatest assets of Spain. 34 In July, 1773, the town was totally destroyed by a violent earthquake during an eruption of the neighbouring volcano, the Volcan de Fuego. The survivors were so disheartened that they decided to abandon the ruined city and began to build their homes on the site of the present city, some 20 miles north of the old town and at a greater distance from the volcanoes. The former place, however, was not entirely deserted, for some of the inhabitants returned, and “ Antigua Guatemala,” as it is now called, has to-day a population of 20,000. The so-called Kingdom of Guatemala did not long survive the old capital. In 1821 the country declared herself in- dependent and commenced self-government as a republic. Since her independence, continual political strife has quite crippled her, and this petty strife will have to be definitely quelled before this richly endowed country can be drawn out of the mire into which she has sunk. The country is mountainous. The principal chain is that which runs along the Pacific coast, composed mainly of a series of great volcanic cones, and forming the chief watershed of the country. Only one of the volcanoes is constantly active. 1 o the north of the volcanic system is a region of highlands occupying the whole of the centre of the republic, and being about 6,000 feet above the sea level. The country is well watered. There are plenty of mountain torrents, few rivers of importance. The climate is varied. On the Pacific coast and the low-lying plains and valleys it is hot, but the highlands have a temperate and healthy climate. There are two seasons, the dry which lasts from November till April, and the wet, for the rest of the year. Certain parts of the country vary greatly, one portion having but one month’s rain, and another portion having, it is said, “ thirteen months’ rain in the year.” The capital of the country is Guatemala, and is the largest town of the country. It is situated in a broad valley about 25 miles from the volcanic chain, at an elevation of 4885 feet. The population, consisting chiefly of ladinos or half-castes, is about 90,000. There are few buildings of importance there. Railways connect the capital with both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. The journey from Liverpool can be made in a fortnight. The town next in importance to the capital is Quezaltenango. This place is still known as the capital of the Altos or highlands. At present it has a population of some 20,000, and is sadly impoverished. It derived its importance from the fact that 35 it is the centre of a large coffee growing district. The collapse of the coffee market in the 90’ s ruined a great many of the planters. In 1897-8 political troubles and revolutions added to the miseries of the town. In 1902 it was entirely destroyed by the great earthquake, and six months later the greater part of the coffee belt on which its existence depends was devasted by a tremendous eruption of the neighbouring volcano, the Santa Maria. To-day Quezaltenango is but a shadow of her former self. The town is situated on the northern slopes of the Cerro Quemado, at an altitude of almost 8,000 feet, and is rather difficult of access, part of the journey to it from Champerico, the nearest port, being by roacl through hard country. From Champerico there is a railway to San Felipe, a distance of 41 miles, and from this point a cart road of rather poor surface, leads to Quezaltenango. The journey lies through country full of beauty. Midway en route lies the lake of Atitlan, the beauties of which are unsurpassed anywhere in the world. The lake is some 2,000 feet below the road, and is encircled by an unbroken ring of precipitous mountains. Far away on the other side three great conical volcanoes stand solemn sentinels over the peaceful waters ; great masses of black clouds encircle their summits and cast a sombre shadow over the further waters of the lake. The waters of the lake have no visible outlet, and it is surmised that they escape through cracks in the bottom. The lake is of great depth, and though plumbing experiments have been carried out, no bottom has been reached in the centre of the lake. It is supposed that the lake is really an old crater, as its length is about 20 miles and its mean width 10 ; this would mean that is is probably the largest crater in the world. The journey forward from the lake takes us through the valley of Nahuala, inhabited by a tribe of independent Indians who have practically no duties toward the state. They speak nothing but their own language and it is practically im- possible for the traveller to obtain anything from them in the way of sustenance, either for himself or his beast. They are peaceful and industrious. They number fully 60,000, and, with the exception of the priest, no white man lives amongst them. Guatemala, through its situation on one of the most active volcanic centres of the earth, has always been remarkable for the number of disastrous earthquake shocks and volcanic outbursts. History does not, however, record any disasters of the magnitude of those of the year 1902. The disturbances of that year began apparently on January 18th, when a 36 heavy earthquake partially destroyed the village of San Martin, a few miles from Ouezaltenango. Between that date and April 18th, no sign or warning whatever was given of the fearful disaster which was to follow. Ouezaltenango was then a bright busy little town of some 25,000 inhabitants, possessed of many fine buildings built of stone and two stories in height. At 8-20 p.m. on the 18th of April the first movements of the earthquake began. Then there came a series of tremen- dous vertical jolts, lasting for half a minute. At the time the Lecturer was reading in his room on the first floor of the house. When the heavy jolting began the electric light went out, due to the overturning of the plant at the generating station, and it was impossible to see the damage done. One does not keep a very clear recollection of what exactly happens at such moments, but the Lecturer remembered the fearful noise that accompanied the disaster, caused by the collapse of buildings. He was almost choked by a cloud of dust caused by the falling walls. The door of his room was jammed by a fallen wall, but after some minutes of suspense he was released by the stable boy. On the following morning he found he had had a very narrow escape ; the light shewed that his room had been completely wrecked and a large piece of statutary from the adjoining room had been flung into the very centre of his room through an opening in the wall. The scene outside was one of utter confusion. Owing to the darkness and the thick pall of dust under which the town lay, nothing could be seen. The shocks were incessant. About 150 occurred during the 24 hours. In the morning the full magnitude of the disaster became apparent. No one who has not witnessed a catastrophe of this kind can fully realize what it means. On the evening of the 18th the sun went down on a beautiful and prosperous little town, full of the hopes of the morrow, but the morning light broke on a desolate chaos of ruins, without shape or life — the work of many years destroyed within the space of a minute. Nothing sadder can be imagined. Not a single house escaped damage, and the great majority were completely destroyed. It is no exaggeration to say that many parts were quite unrecognisable, and it was quite impossible to find one’s way among the ruins. The work of rescue began immediately, but was necessarily very slow. More than 1,000 perished, and it was not for several weeks that the bodies were all recovered. The flock of vultures which settled on the ruins was a most repulsive sight. 37 The government, took prompt measures, at once issuing a proclamation in Quezaltenango that anyone found looting would be summarily shot and that any doctor leaving the town would be dealt with in like manner. For some three days the town was absolutely cut off from the rest of the world. The telegraph wires were down all over the country. The survivors were threatened seriously with famine. The Indians who were accustomed to bring supplies daily thought that the “ Xivalvaj,” or evil spirit, was stalking among the ruins, and refused to come near the ill- fated town. After a few days the authorities alleviated the distress somewhat by ordering a few mules and horses to be slaughtered daily and distributed in the plaza among the poorer inhabitants. During the week following, shocks were incessant, but towards the end of May everything became quiet again. In July rebuilding operations were begun. On September 23rd a heavy earthquake again shook the country side and shocks became frequent. On October 24th a great eruption of the Santa Maria occurred. This volcano is 12,000 feet high. It had not previously been known to be active. From summit to base the whole mountain was clothed with mighty forests. In April the Lecturer had been to the summit and found there the vestiges of a small crater, but no signs of any activity. The scene of the eruption was on the slopes of the mountain, about 6,000 feet above sea-level, and in a direct line between the summit and the Pacific Ocean and some 100 miles from the town of Guatemala. The first paroxysms of the eruption lasted 3 days, and during that period the whole of the sur- rounding district was wrapped in complete darkness. The greater part of the southern side of the mountain was blown away. The area of destruction was immense ; all the country between the volcano and the Mexican frontier, 600 square miles, was completely devastated. Ashes fell at the frontier, 60 miles away, to a depth of 13 or 14 inches, and fell in a thin layer at Acapulco, in Mexico, 600 miles away. Captain Saunders, of the Pacific Mail S.S. Newport, took measurements of the cloud of ejecta, which was found to be 17 or 18 miles in height. The scene of the disaster was one of the richest coffee zones in the country, and preparations for the crop, requiring a great deal of additional labour, were just beginning at the time. The Indians working on the estates and the people in the villages were trapped where they were, without chance of escape. Flow great the loss of life was nobody will ever 38 be able to tell. It has been estimated that 10,000 Indians perished. The luxuriant mass of vegetation and well ordered estates was a huge desert of grey ashes and sand. What was formerly the richest coffee zone in the country was now an arid desert. It is calculated that something like 20,000 million tons of ashes and pumice fell in Guatemala territory alone. Curiously enough this eruption, undoubtedly one of the greatest of modern times, escaped with the barest mention in the English press. Some of the coffee estates have been restored and re- organised. There are many others where the ashes still remain to a depth of many yards which will never rise till, in course of time, Nature once more converts her destructive elements into a rich bed of creative energy. Though disas- ters of this kind mean ruin to many there can be no doubt that the ultimate result will be beneficial, for the principal constituent of the rich soil necessary for the cultivation of coffee is this very debris. The effects of the eruption already prove beyond doubt that the volcanic ejecta contains most valuable manuring properties, for the class of coffee has improved throughout the district since the disaster. The coffee planters have a curious labour question to trouble them. Owing to the extreme fertility of the soil and to their very few requirements, the Indians, who con- stitute the labour element of the country, can supply their wants by tilling their fields for a few weeks in the year. Should their crops of maize and black beans be good they have no need to go to the estates for work. The authorities have to compel them to work. Once on the estates the Indians are tempted to get into debt by advances of money, to such an extent generally that it is quite impossible for them to pay it back during the harvest. This is what the planter wants, for as long as there is a sum owing in the little book which the Indian has to carry, he is bound by law to work it off. Many planters suffer great losses through these difficulties in securing labour and frequently coffee has to be allowed to rot on the trees. The Indians are a very curious study. Centuries of Spanish oppression have crushed out the fierce spirit they once possessed and left them but poor broken-spirited beings, without the wish or the will to better their lot. They are extremely conservative ; still speaking their own varied languages and often refusing to learn or speak Spanish, the official language of the country. They adhere to their old customs, and it is practically impossible to introduce among them a new notion or method. They still spin and weave their own cloth, using )39 rude frames of a primitive type, and refusing to use more modern machinery. They have villages of their own to which they tenaciously cling. San Martin, for instance, was com- pletely destroyed under a great depth of ashes and pumice thrown by the great erupton, but the Indians have dug out their old quarters and have rebuilt their huts in the hollow. The whole village with its huts is thus hidden below the level of the surrounding country. Many of the people had even begun to replant their fields, which meant that a hole some 5 or 6 feet deep had to be dug in the ashes for each corn stalk. In their dress the people are equally conservative, and every stitch of clothing worn by either men or women is made themselves or by other Indians in localities where weaving forms the principal industry. These hand-made clothes are very well made and are generally of heavy texture. The Indians are expert dyers, especially with indigo. Many curious customs are handed down among the people, but the Lecturer had not been in close enough contact with them to speak with any authority on the subject. He was, however, on one occasion present at one of their festivities, a curious feature of which is that all the Indians carry in their right hands small snakes, very venomous by nature, but with fangs extracted, and as a sign of friendship, hold them to one another’s faces. The Lecturer had the bad luck to know some of them, but, having undergone the ordeal once, managed to escape into a place of safety. To refuse to allow this act of friendship might be very dangerous and it is best to endure it and submit to the discomfort. Nearly all the Indians nowadays profess the Roman Catholic faith, and in every village is to be found a church with its officiating clergy. But among some of the Indians there still exists a belief in their old religion, part of which apparently consisted of fire worship. o^o <^o THE SCOTTISH COVENANTERS. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Rev. THOMAS HAMER. February 2'Zrd, 1909. The story of the Covenanters, whose struggle for religious liberty had its main impulse from that mighty uprising against spiritual tyranny of which Martin Luther was chief leader, really covers the history of the establishment of the Reformation in Scotland, from the time of Patrick Hamilton, a young nobleman of royal blood, who was burnt at the stake for his Protestantism in 1528, to the Revolution of 1688. The struggles of the Covenanters were really a conflict, not so much between Protestantism and Romanism, as between the Prelatical Protestants and the Presbyterian Protestants, and had more to do with forms of government and ritual than with creed and doctrine. The Protestant movement in Scotland, though bitterly opposed by the Court, really began with the nobles, who, headed by the Earl of Argyle, on December 3rd, 1557, entered into^ the first covenant, binding themselves by solemn oath to “ maintain, set forward and establish the most blessed word of God and His congregation,” and to strive to the uttermost “ against Satan and all wicked power that doth intend tyranny and trouble against the aforesaid congregation.” These nobles were known as the “ Lords of the Congregation ” in their bond. The Queen Regent, widow of J ames V. and mother of Mary, Queen of Scots, was then ruling Scotland. Though a bigoted Roman Catholic she temporized at first with the reforming nobles. She soon revealed her true attitude by a proclama- tion which forbade preaching or the administration of the sacraments except by leave of the Bishop, and ordering all her subjects to celebrate Easter according to the Roman Ritual. This order was disobeyed, and four offending ministers were brought before the court at Stirling. 41 It was at this juncture that John Knox, by the invitation of the reforming nobles, landed at Leith. Preaching at Perth he so roused the people that a riot ensued, several monasteries were wrecked, and at Perth several noblemen solemnly renewed the covenant made two years before. Protestantism was finally established by the first free Parliament assembling after the death of the Queen Regent. The first General Assembly of Scotland was held in 1560, and the Presbyterian form of Church government was settled by the “ First Book of Discipline.” Under the regency of Morton, attempts were made to inter- fere with the government of the Church, and there grew up a constant struggle between the Court and the Kirk. When James VI. assumed the reins of government at the age of twelve years, his chaplain, John Craig, drew up the “ King’s Confession,” which was sworn and signed by the king and his household, and afterwards subscribed by the whole nation through the General Assembly, thus becoming a National Covenant. In this document the subscribers pledged them- selves to defend the reformed religion to the death, and bound themselves also “ to defend his Majesty’s person and authority with their goods, bodies and lives, in defence of Christ’s evangel, liberties of their countries and ministration of justice.” James, however, though a Protestant, never seems to have been a Presbyterian, and soon made attempts to overthrow that form of church polity. In 1587 his Parlia- ment passed the Black Acts, quite destroying the liberty of the Church. But in 1592 these Acts were formally repealed by Parliament, and in 1596 the Covenant was again solemnly renewed by the nation. Notwithstanding all this, in the following year the king again showed his hostility to Presbyterianism by publishing two books “ The true law of Free Monarchies,” and “ Basilicon Doron.” In the former he claimed the most arbitrary powers for the king. In the latter he claims for the king the supreme headship of the Church and contends that Presbyterianism is not favourable to monarchy, as it is a kind of government by the people. Hence his favourite maxim, “ No Bishop, no King.” From this time onwards James took bold steps to re-establish prelacy ; he got bishops appointed with a seat in Parliament, and got the new bishops invested with the temporal estates belonging to their sees before the Reforma- tion ; and later he got the bishops appointed Moderators or Presidents of the Synods, and formed a Court of High Com- mission, in which the bishops were sole judges, to try ecclesias- tical cases. 42 Charles I. carried on James’s work. He ordered the bishops and canons to draw up a form of liturgy for the Scottish Church. The scene which took place in Edinburgh when this liturgy was introduced is well known, the church of St. Giles being filled with an uproar, started by the throwing of a stool by Janet Geddes. The bishops and dean barely escaped with their lives. The use of the liturgy was tem- porarily suspended, but Charles was obstinate and renewed the proclamation commanding its use. But Scotland had been stirred to its centre, and it was resolved to renew the National Covenant, with certain additions suggested by the change. This was done on February 28th, 1638, at Grey- frairs Church, Edinburgh, a thoroughly representative gathering of Fords and Commons being present. The Covenant, written on parchment, was first read and then signed by all present. Some signed with their blood, adding the words “ until death.” Copies were circulated and eagerly signed throughout the kingdom. This Covenant has well been called the Magna Chart a of Scotland, for it saved the land from absolute despotism, and made the name of Coven- anters, thenceforth distinctively borne by its adherents, a glory and an inspiration. All this meant open war with Charles, and several battles were fought in the north of England between his army and the Covenanters. The Covenanters were not the less loyal to the king, and showed it on his death by immediately pro- claiming Charles II. his faithful successor. Meanwhile, “ The Solemn League and Covenant ” between England, Ireland and Scotland was drawn up and sworn. This bond extended to both England and Ireland and was really an attempt to secure religious uniformity in creed, ritual and polity. We now come to what was called the persecuting period, from the severities which the Covenanters endured for their faith, covering the 28 years from the Restoration to the Revolution in 1688. In January, 1661, the Rescissory Act was passed, repealing all laws and statutes enacted during the previous 22 years, with other acts pronouncing the Covenants illegal, and pro- hibiting their renewal. This was to overthrow, as by a stroke of the pen, the whole Presbyterian system and to set up Episcopacy in its stead. The next step was to bring to account certain of the more prominent of the supporters of Presbyterianism. The most illustrious of these was the Marquis of Argyle, who received sentence notwithstanding he had helped Charles II. to recover his throne. An Act of Uniformity for Scotland was passed in October, 1662, by which 400 ministers and their families were turned out of house and home in the depth of a severe winter, with nothing but privation, hunger and hardship before them. In 1663 the Scots Mile Act was passed by which all non- conforming ministers, with their families, were driven from their parishes and not allowed to reside within twenty miles on pain of punishment. A Court of High Commission, consisting of nine bishops or prelates and thirty-five laymen, saw to the enforcement of these and other statutes. So infamous did it become that no layman would serve on it. The ejected ministers began to hold secret meetings, at first in houses, afterwards in fields and lonely glens. To suppress these field gatherings or “ conventicles,” bands of troops known as mosstroopers, were quartered in villages where nonconformity was strongest. The bishops, too, had passed a special act called the “ Bishops’ Dragnet,” under which a roll call of parishioners was held after service, and absentees were visited by the soldiers, who exacted heavy fines for their non-attendance at service. If the fine could not be paid, the furniture, clothing, and even food was taken, and in this way many families were reduced to beggary and utter want. One of the cruellest agents in this service was Sir James Turner, who, in the course of three visits to the West, is said to have collected £90,000 in Scots money, wringing it from the people by the most horrible cruelties. Matters were brought to a crisis by the seizure of an old man, and his rescue by some peasants, in the course of which one of the troopers was killed. Fearing the consequences the peasants resolved to keep together ; and being joined by a number of county gentlemen, they marched, nearly 2,000 strong, into Dumfries and made Sir James Turner prisoner. A small army under General Dalzell was sent against them, and the Covenanters were utterly routed, fifty being killed. Several of the survivors of this, the Pentland rising, were caught and executed in batches of five and ten at a time. For a time there was a lull in the storm. At this time the king issued his first Letter of Indulgence, which on certain conditions permitted some of the ejected ministers to return to their parishes. Only fifty ministers, however, availed themselves of this permission. Field meetings continued to be held. Three years later the king issued a second Indulgence, and imposed heavy penalties on those who refused to accept it. Letters of Intercommuning were then issued forbidding the inhabitants of a district to help rebels by food, drink, clothing or shelter, or even to write or speak a word to them. The 44 “ Highland Host,” composed of from six to eight thousand half-wild men of the north, was let loose on the western lowlands to enforce these “ letters.” This “ host ” was subsequently replaced by regular troops under the command of the notorious John Graham, of Claverhouse, whose name became an abomination and a terror for the fiendish cruelties he practised in carrying out the orders of the Privy Council. He seemed literally to enjoy butchering the people. In May, 1679, Archbishop Sharp, formerly a Presbyterian minister, who had changed his faith and become a bitter persecutor of the people, was murdered near St. Andrews. His death seemed to heat the furnace of persecution seven times hotter. The government resolved to avenge his death by exacting reprisals from the whole body of the Covenanters. Attendance at field meetings was declared high treason. John Balfour of Burley, one of the people who had assisted in putting Sharp to death, and others, seeing there was no hope of mercy, fled to the West and gathered round them a body of kindred spirits. They soon got together a formidable band, and Claverhouse set out to meet and destroy them. After a desperate engagement at Drumclog, Claverhouse was routed and fled. This was the sole victory of the Covenanters on the battlefield. Three months later, though their numbers had grown to six or seven thousand, they were defeated by the royalist forces under the Duke of Monmouth at Bothwell Bridge. No mercy was shown, and over 400 of the Coven- anters were killed. Their defeat was perhaps attributable partly to dissensions in their own camp. From 1680 to 1685 tyranny was absolute. Claverhouse and his soldiers were supreme, being empowered to question, apprehend, punish, and even kill on the spot any they deemed of the fanatical party. The people indeed were in the most abject condition, yet the spirit of the Covenanters remained unbroken. James II. was even more rigorous in his oppressive measures than his predecessors had been. The year of his accession was known as the " killing time.” In February of 1688 James Renwick, the last to suffer death in Scotland for the cause of the Covenanters, was executed at the Grassmarket, Edinburgh. This closed the roll of Scottish martyrs, for the Revolution came and James had to fly. With the formal abolition of Prelacy and the establishment of Presbyterianism the Scottish Church found rest. It is said that upwards of 18,000 endured the extremest hardships by imprisonment and exile during these persecutions, many suffering death in its cruellest forms. 45 The heroism of this story shines so brightly that every noble nature must be stirred by it to admiration. But the Covenanters did "not always see the full sweep of their own principles. They often denied that freedom to others which they claimed for themselves. The Solemn League and Coven- ant was really an Act of Uniformity binding three kingdoms to one form of church order, ritual and creed. But though the Covenanters held the principle of religious liberty in narrow limits “ they budded better than they knew.” The sapling they planted has become a mighty tree, sheltering all peoples. We shall best honour these heroic souls by carrying the principle of spiritual freedom to its ultimate issues until the iron rod of tyranny, social, political, and religious, has become the sceptre of righteousness and peace. 46 A JOURNEY ROUND AFRICA: WITH VISITS TO SOME OF OUR AFRICAN DOMINIONS. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Professor H. B. DIXON, F.R.S. March 2nd, 1909. The journey described by the Lecturer was organised three years ago by the British Association. It was an important one, inasmuch as it was the first big organised visit since the British toops were sent out ; but this was a mission of peace, and on the whole it is believed the visit served to eradicate some erroneous impressions both of Boers and of Britons. The party were certainly treated most hospitably and enjoyed a most interesting journey, being shown every- thing with the utmost kindness wherever they went. Sailing from Southampton in the R.M.S. Saxon, the party had a most enjoyable voyage out. They were informed by the captain that it was the first time he had carried a “ scientific cargo,” and he had never had passengers who talked so much or were so little “ put out ” by the Bay of Biscay. After a voyage which seemed much too short they were received by their hosts at Capetown in a most enthusiastic manner. Capetown has the appearance of a newly built town, the fort built by the Dutch in 1660 being practically the only old building. Here are some of the old posting stones at which vessels going to India used to leave letters at a spot twenty yards or so from the stone, the direction being in- dicated by an arrow cut on the stone. We greatly enjoyed a drive in a Cape cart round the Table Mountain, through groves of eucalyptus trees, and on the way got a glimpse of Rhodes’ house and the park containing its collection of curious animals. Anemones and masses of arum lilies grow wild on Table Mountain. After four days in Capetown most of the party sailed round Cape Agulhas, calling at Port Fdizabeth and East London. The landing here was effected by means of small launches, getting into which is by no means an easy task a mile from shore. A noticeable feature of the country here is the absence of grass. They say that ‘ up country ’ the golf greens are laid with garnets ! 47 The policemen o f the country are Kaffirs. The Kaffir, though he can endure plenty of clothing in the upper part of his body, must have his legs bare, and the policeman in his uniform, with his lower limbs unclothed, presents a novel appearance. The rickshaw boys have a similar prejudice in respect of their legs, which they are fond of adorning with simply bands of whitewash, looking very quaint. They are great runners and can cover immense distances at a good speed. From Durban we went through the “ Garden of Africa ” to Pietermaritzburg, and from here made an expedi- tion into the hills to visit some native tribes. We found these tribes holding high festival, partly in honour of our visit and partly in honour of the marriage of one of the native chiefs. We had the pleasure of watching the ceremony, which was conducted with great splendour by the natives in full warpaint. The male costume was full and gaudy, but the female idea of dressing for such special occasions seems to be that of wearing as little as possible. Leaving this quaint scene we went along northwards, passing the partly restored bridge over the Tugela River in front of Colenso. The bridge was blown up by the Boers but has been patched up since the war. Ladysmith itself is very flat, lying in the middle of hills which were crowned by Boer guns in the great siege. Inside Ladysmith we notice the Town Hall with its clock tower partly demolished by a Boer shell, remaining as a grim monument of the war. Passing up the Clip River, which runs through the town, we get a good view of Ladysmith and the British and Boer positions. Waggon Hill and Caesar's Camp, captured and recaptured in that stern attack of January 6th, are the object of a special pilgrimage. On these heights sixteen men of the Manchester Regiment held a small stone fort or “ sangar ” throughout the day, two wounded men alone surviving. The stone monument erected over the “ Manchesters ” has the in- scription : — “ Tell England, ye who pass this monument, That we, who died to serve her, rest content.” From the scenes of Ladysmith we went up to quite a different country, the great Rand district of Johannesburg, from which it extends about twenty miles northwards. The country here is most uninteresting from a scenic point of view. The Lecturer, having lived in a ‘ compound ’ and worked a shift in a gold mine with Chinese labourers, was able to give a most interesting description of the life of the workers in the mines. The Chinese, who were engaged chiefly for the purpose 48 of shewing the native nigger that he was not master of the situation, are excellent workmen, and the Lecturer himself heard no complaint of any illtreatment. The Chinese work where Englishmen cannot. The depth at which they have to work is exceedingly great, and the atmospheric conditions almost impossible for white men. The ore from the mines is not rich but rather poor. It can only be worked at a profit by working it, obtaining and crushing it on a very large scale. Much of the ore only contains about eight penny- weights of gold in a ton, not much more than the expense of working. After a week in Johannesburg with visits to Pretoria and the “Premier” mine where the Cullinan Diamond was found, the journey was continued through the Orange Free State (now the Orange River Colony), to Bloemfontein. This town is in the middle of an agricultural district and is well laid out. The “ Orangemen ” at the time seemed to resent the annexation more'than the Boers. Passing southward over the Orange River, the party visited the Stormberg district and then passed northwards to Kimberley. Here two days were spent among diamonds — underground and above ground. The most interesting sight was the Wesselten open mine, a quarter of a mile across and already nearly a thousand feet in depth. The diamond “ blue rock ” is most interesting to the chemist and the mineralogist, and many rare minerals were brought home for European collections. Proceeding northwards by Mafeking, we pass into Rhodesia and put up at Buluwayo. This is a curious town, the houses being built very wide apart. Like Washington, it might be called “ the city of magnificent distances.” A short distance from Buluwayo we come to the Matoppo Hills, where wild animals abound. In this wild district lie the remains of Cecil Rhodes, his grave being on the top of the highest of the many granite hills. After the President of the Association had opened the new railway and bridge over the great Zambesi River, we crossed the river above the Falls in canoes and visited' the island where Livingstone lived, on the edge of the Falls ; on the other side we find the Rain Forest which is kept fresh by the continuous spray which dashes up from the great fall of water. Travelling eastwards, the Portuguese territory is reached. At Beira we found that bonfires were lighted and dances were being held in honour of our visit. At Beira we joined our “ special ” steamer and went along by the coast visiting Mozambique, Zanzibar and Mombasa. The former is a very old port built many years ago. Mombasa, 49 a little island close to the shore, has the aspect of an Indian town, there being a large number of Indians there, who are greatly disliked by the natives, the compliment being returned in the same way by the Indians. It is somewhat difficult here to obtain good water, and water carriers can be seen hawking their vessels of water. Mombasa is only four degrees from the equator. We had one day’s trip by the Uganda Railway through splendid vegetation and palms, on to the great plateau of East Africa. That night we enter- tained Mombasa on our ship. The homeward journey up the Red Sea was made in a temperature varying from 90 to 96 degrees in the shade, and this somewhat interfered with the usual sports and pastimes in which our party daily indulged. Reaching Egypt we spent a veryjmerry week in Cairo. The many bazaars there were a great attraction to the ladies of our party. A grand view of the town is obtained from the mosque at the top of the capital, from which can be seen the tombs of the kings, and across the flood-waters of the Nile the great Pyramids of Ghizeh. Of course we made an excur- sion to the Pyramids and raced up “ Cheops ” without native help. The “ climb ” took us under eight minutes, the descent however, not being so quickly made. Our homeward journey was made via Port Said, the Straits of Messina, the Straits of Bonifacio, Marseilles and Gibraltar. The Lecturer, in response to a hearty vote of thanks, mentioned that, in his opinion, Boers and Britons would quickly settle down together and work peaceably ; but if any doubt existed as to the country reaching a settled and quiet state, it was raised by the question whether the coloured races would live together peacefully under the constraint of the “ Pax Britannica.” By far the most formidable political problem before Boer and Briton was the problem of the prolific native. 50 OLIVER CxOLDSMITH. By G. S. RITCHIE. March 9 th, 1909. None of the men in “ Boswell,” except the author and his hero, affords us more entertainment than does Oliver Goldsmith, the admired and versatile essayist, novelist, poet, and dramatist ; the warm hearted egoist, sensitive to affront and unready of speech, the butt of the least skilful in conversational sarcasm. He was born in 1728, the son of Charles Goldsmith, Rector of Lissoy, in Ireland, and at the age of sixteen went as a sizar to Trinity College, Dublin. At college he passed three unsuccessful years, crowned in June 1747 with an exhibition of the value of thirty shillings. This trifling success was made the occasion of rather disproportionate rejoicings at a supper party in his college lodgings where appeared his tutor, who knocked down the host and broke up the company in disorder. Indignant at such treatment, Goldsmith sold his books next morning and left with the intention of going to Cork and America. Straitened means compelled him to give up his project and he went home to his now widowed mother at Lissoy. He was persuaded to return to Dublin, where he sat for his arts degree, passing lowest on the list. His next two or three years were idly given to songs and cards, to roving and poetry, and playing the flute, by way of pre- paration for holy orders, on application for which in 1751 he was rejected. His uncle, Mr. Contarine, found him a tutor s post, but Goldsmith, after saving thirty pounds, threw up his engagement, bought a horse, and started a second time for Cork with visions of America. After six weeks he appeared again at Lissoy. His next notion was to be a lawyer. His uncle found the necessary money and Goldsmith started for London, but took to gambling on the way, and again returned penniless home. He next proposed to study medicine and his uncle equipped him with means to go to Edinburgh. Here he appears to have studied for two years in earnest. He then thought it desirable to go abroad to study under the professors of Leyden. He went to Leyden in 1754, but soon spent all his means and set out to 51 walk through Europe. He visited Flanders, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, supporting himself chiefly by his flute and occasionally by engaging in public debates at convents and universities in exchange for lodging and enter- tainment. In 1756 he landed at Dover, mentally and spiritually enriched, but in material destitution. During his wanderings he had sent to his brother Henry, in Ireland, the first sketch of his poem, “ The Traveller,” and by his own account received the degree of M.B. at some continental university unspecified. He next successively adopted the roles of strolling player, apothecary’s assistant, poor physician, press reader to Samuel Richardson in London, and usher at a private school in Peckham. Lastly and unwillingly he drifted into literature, binding himself for a year to supply the bookseller Griffiths with copy of all descriptions for his “ Monthly Magazine.” The correction his work received from his master’s wife became intolerable at the end of five months, and we next find him as a successful applicant for the post of surgeon to one of the factories on the coast of Coromandel. This appointment came to nothing ; and an application he made at Surgeons’ Hall for the office of hospital mate proved unsuccessful. In 1759 in a wretched room in Green Arbour Court, Bishop Percy discovered Goldsmith writing “ An Inquiry into the Present State of Polite Learning in Europe.” It is characteristic of Goldsmith that his comprehensive title, with its suggestion of twenty volumes, is followed only by a pamphlet of some thirty pages containing his impressions of contemporary literature. He assumes the decline of European letters (literature being apparently in a perennial decline) and attri- butes it to the tendency of scholars to forsake creative art for criticism. The publication of his “ Inquiry ” gave Goldsmith a market value, and a demand arose and spread for his work as a maga- zine writer. Towards the end of 1759 he was engaged to write a series of periodical essays which he called “ The Bee.” The magazine closed with its eighth number, but the failure caused Goldsmith no depression ; he had no hesitation in ascribing it not to the quality of the matter itself, but to lack of discernment in the people who failed to appreciate and purchase. Shortly afterwards Goldsmith began his series of letters which, in 1762, were published in book form as “ The Citizen of the World,” and in which, in the character of a Chinaman bitten with love of Western travel, he satirises 52 the manners, fashions, and foibles of London life. By the time “ The Citizen ” was published, Goldsmith’s circumstances were much improved and he was able to move to more spacious quarters in Wine Office Court. He could not, however, long remain possessed of what he earned. He 'exhibited in a marked degree the natural preference for generosity before justice. His pockets were ever open at the call of the needy, and what was due to landladies, butchers, and grocers, went to friends and beggars and the indiscriminate relief of real or fictitious distress. His only personal extravagance was in dress, but he could never forego the pleasures of entertaining and giving and lending. One day, in response to an urgent message, Dr. Johnson sent a guinea and followed in person to find his friend arrested by his landlady for rent. For means of extrication Goldsmith searched his papers and produced the manuscript of “ The Vicar of Wakefield,” which Johnson read, approved, and sold to a bookseller for sixty pounds. The novel, however, remained unpublished until “The Traveller” had appeared and raised its author to the highest rank amongst his literary contemporaries. In writing this poem Goldsmith’s wanderings gave him food for thought, and he made very happy use of his experiences abroad. “ The Vicar of Wakefield ” appeared in 1766. The sweet air of the country and the flowing easy style of the narrative made the novel immediately popular. The year afterwards Goldsmith’s first play, “ The Good Natured Man,” was produced at Covent Garden, and after a further interval of two years, appeared his second poem “ The Deserted Village,” perhaps the happiest effort of its author’s muse. With its delightful suggestions of country life and scenes and sounds we are all familiar. Goldsmith’s second play, “ She Stoops to Conquer,” was triumphantly produced in 1773. In addition to his greater works, Goldsmith put forth during his literary career an unceasing flow of verses, bio- graphies, essays and histories. The characteristics of all his work are his easy command of a flowing familiar style, and matter compact less of invention than of reminiscence touched by the alchemy of a rich and lively mind. Youthful memory and maturer observation provide his chief material — the common things of life viewed by one gifted with that luminous perception which distinguishes the true holder-up of Nature’s mirror. At the age of thirty-six, when his “ Traveller ” was published, Goldsmith passed into the highest intellectual society of his 53 clay. He became the associate and friend of Johnson, Burke, Reynolds, Gibbon, and the rest of the brilliant circle whose fame is enshrined in the pages of Boswell. In society Goldsmith was bashful and painfully modest, hopelessly unequal to taking part in the conversation in which Johnson and his friends excelled. His figure and appearance were insignificant and he was nothing of a social success. His seemingly effortless command of language, the unerring touch which distinguished him as a writer, forsook him utterly when he opened his mouth to talk. Men who were his hopeless inferiors made sport of his imperfections, but his discerning friends loved and admired him for his modest unselfishness and his shining merits as a writer. By the time he was forty he had grown famous, and with care might have been rich. He struggled, however, always under a load of debts, having no heart to resist the importunate. He was still struggling, still writing to order, when he was taken suddenly sick of a fever. He dosed and doctored himself with disastrous effect. Skilled assistance was called too late and on 4th April, 1774, he died, in his forty- seventh year. We have travelled far since Goldsmith’s day and the world of letters is sworn to newer traditions than his, yet in his writings there still remains much of real and permanent value that takes and will keep no mean position among the classics of English literature. 54 THE CHEMIST’S AIM IN VARIOUS AGES. (With Experiments). By LEVI WALTON. March 1 6th, 1909. The historical sources of information as to the aims of early chemists are small, and are obscured by many mythical traditions. The earliest chemists of whom we can learn are Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Jews. The word “ chemistry ” is attributed by some to the word “ Chemic,” the old name for northern Egypt. The earliest chemical record is the Leyden Papyrus. Another valuable source is the writings of the Alexandrians from the third to the seventh centuries A.D. The chemists of that period made imitation gold and silver, probably identical with our alloys of copper. These imitations were looked upon as actual changes in matter, and for more than a thousand years people believed in the transmutation of metals such as copper and lead into the nobler metals, gold and silver. To effect this change was the principal object of chemists up to the end of the sixteenth century. Tradition says that the art of ennobling metals was brought from heaven to earth by demons. Alchemy was considered as a divine art and was kept secret and fostered by the priesthood, the sons of kings and a few eminent philosophers only being initiated. Among these we find the names of Solon, Pytha- goras, Herodotus, Plato, Democritus, and Aristotle. The astrologers of Babylon fused astrology and magic, and it is to this that we owe the supposed relations of the metals with the sun and the planets. Gold corresponded to the sun, silver to the moon ; we still have silver nitrate described as lunarcaustic. Pliny treated the transformation of copper into gold and silver as an accomplished fact. We find this belief in the transformation of metals carried down continually, the 55 attempts to transmute owing their origin to superficial obser- vation and probably to the teachings of Aristotle and the famous Arabian alchemist, Geber, of the seventh century. Aristotle regarded the four elements, earth, air, fire, and water, as one original substance simply possessing different properties which he assumed could be altered, and from that he deduced that substances could be transformed. The actual methods of transformation differed of course in the various teachings. Geber taught that all metals were different mixtures of mercury and sulphur, the noble metals being rich in mercury, the base ones in sulphur, and transmutation meant the increase of mercury or the decrease of sulphur. It may be mentioned that the colours of the metals played an important part in these alchemistic theories. It was a great achievement when they had made a metal to look like gold. A deposit of copper on iron left in a solution of a copper salt was considered a transformation of the iron into copper, an observation of the most superficial nature. Transmutations of this kind required, of course, so-called “ medicines ” of different order and strength. The philos- opher’s stone, the “ great elixir,” or “ the magisterium,” was one of such “ materia prima,” and we find early chemists working up in every conceivable way all kinds of imaginable substances with a view to the discovery of a philosopher’s stone. The knowledge of the stone was kept a profound secret. In its description by the alchemists, mystical drawings were used to prevent its supposed discovery by outsiders. The unsoundness of the theory is shewn by the assertions of a few of its most prominent champions from time to time. Roger Bacon (1214-1294) says “ It was able to transmute one million times its weight of mercury.” Others, more modest, said one hundred times. Raymond Lully (1235-1315) gave a most elaborate recipe for the successive transmutation of mercury into gold by means of the stone. Van Helmont (1577-1644) says that 11 a quarter of a grain of the philosopher’s stone turned eight ounces of mercury to gold in 1615.” Shortly afterwards, Helvetius, Physician to the Prince of Orange, published a detailed account of transforming lead to gold by means of a small quantity of a certain preparation. The philosopher’s stone was supposed to preserve life and health, and the long lives of the patriarchs were explained by the assumption that they knew of this universal medicine. Towards the end of the middle ages the belief was taught that by means of the philosopher’s stone living beings could 56 be created. Small wonder then that the discovery of the stone was the main end of the alchemists. The work of the alchemists had very little beneficial effect on chemistry as a science. Discoveries of technical importance seldom sprang from it. Nowhere in their writings do we find definitely planned experiments to gain an insight into chemical processes. Ihey did however obtain in an incidental way knowledge as to the different substances used in their attempts to trans- mute metals. We cannot imagine, however, the enormous loss sustained when for centuries many of the best intellects were circumscribed by the vain notion of transmutation. With Basil Valentine, a Benedictine monk of the second half of the fifteenth century, a new epoch in chemistry was begun. He was the first to attempt the application of chemical preparations for medicinal purposes. His work was advanced by Paracelsus Theophrastus Bombastus, a Swiss, who taught that the aim of chemistry was not to make gold but to prepare medicine. He held that the operations in the human body were chemical ones and that the state of health depended upon the composition of the juices in the various organs. 1 his was a distinct advance on the previous aims of the chemist. Paracelsus, however, believed with Valentine that organic bodies were composed of mercury, sulphur, and salt. He taught that an increase in sulphur gave rise to fever and plague ; of mercury, to paralysis and depression ; of salt, to diarrhoea and dropsy, and a decrease of sulphur to gout. He explained the chemical processes of digestion by assuming the aid of a personified force called Archeus. The diseases of the stomach were produced by this good genius becoming Paracelsus brought into use as medicine several compounds which until his time had been looked upon with dread on account of their poisonous properties. He gave a great impetus to the apothecary’s calling. Their stores had till then contained nothing more than roots, herbs and syrups, but they now had to make an acquaintance with chemical facts and processes, and from this time pharmacy may be said to have its source. Van Helmont, who has been previously mentioned, is worthy of a distinguished place in the medico-chemical school. By his researches on milk, blood, and saliva, the first foundation of chemical physiology was laid. He taught that copper displaced from a copper salt by iron was not newly created, and that chemical changes did not destroy substances but that they remained present in the new products. 57 Much progress was made during the period of medical chemistry ; clearer ideas were obtained of chemical com- pounds and chemical affinity. For some time chemistry remained under the influence of the medical school. From the time of Robert Boyle, however, the aim of chemistry gradually changed, and the discovery of new facts purely for the sake of arriving at the truth became the chief aim of the science. Boyle (1626-1696) rendered undying service to chemistry. He taught that the aim of chemists was to set themselves diligently to make experiments and to collect observations and thus work out the funda- mental principles of chemistry ; that it begins with an ordered knowledge of fact, makes deductions from this and from the deductions again designs new experiments. With methods such as these chemistry can now claim to be admitted amongst the exact sciences. No one before Boyle had treated so successfully the main problem of chemistry, namely the investigation of the composition of substances, and his work in this direction gave a great impetus to analytical chemistry. For about a hundred years after Boyle’s time all the eminent chemists gave their attention to the question of combustion and the calcination of the metals. John Mayo, a practising physician in the middle of the seventeenth century, stated that atmospheric air contained a substance which combined with metals, sustained respiration and converted veinous blood into arterial. He died early, otherwise the theory of combustion would have been satisfactorily explained long before it actually was. The increased weight resulting from combustion was recognised, but the explana- tions given to it by the chemists were ridiculously short of the truth. The chief theory was that all combustible sub- stances contained a “ fire material,” or a “ phlogiston.” Stahl (1660-1734) formulated the theory that this phlogiston was a constituent of all combustible bodies and that in the process of combustion it escaped. No attempt, however, to isolate this phlogiston was made by the chemists of the time. Phlogiston was said to have a negative weight, i.e., it was lighter than nothing ; hence the increase in weight on combustion. Joseph Black (1728-1799) professor of chemistry in the Universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and Henry Cavendish, both great chemists, were believers in this phlogiston theory. Cavendish discovered hydrogen as a gas and regarded it as the phlogiston. Even Joseph Priestley, who in 1774 discovered oxygen, remained a firm disciple of the phlogiston theory. 58 Lavoisier (1743-1794) the French chemist and scientist and mathematician, was the first to form a new combustion theory, namely, the taking up of oxygen, and from this time the phlogiston theory was quickly discarded. Lavoisier laid great stress on the use of the balance as a reliable guide in chemical work. He turned the science of his day into a new path, and it is with his name that the aims of the chemists of the present day are associated. In a summarised form these aims are now to find out the composition of substances either by analysis or synthesis, and to find out the laws regu- lating the chemical combination of matter. During the course of the evening Mr. Walton performed experiments of an interesting character for the purpose of illustrating the points of his paper. 59 SOME OLD ENGLISH INNS. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Rev. C. S. SARGISSON. March 23 rd, 1909. Alter a brief reference to the somewhat obscure origin of inns in this country, the Lecturer dealt with the subject specially from the fourteenth century downwards. A distinction was drawn between the mere ale-house of Saxon times and the succeeding “ ale-stake ” of Chaucer’s day, which made pro- vision for the needs of the passing traveller only, and the hostel which provided board and lodging for the sojourner. The monastic origin of the “ guest-house ” was touched upon, and several pictures of such guest-houses and of the “Pilgrims’ Inns’’ of a rather later period, were exhibited, and it was shewn how the abuse of hospitality on the part of those who could afford to pay for entertainment led to the “ paying-guest ” system at the “ hospices,’’ and the eventual establishment, through the subsidised hostel, of the inn proper. Proof was given that extensive provision was necessary for the much-travelled community in the ages following Chaucer’s time, and many illustrations of still-remaining old inns were given. “ Signs ” were dealt with episodically, and their origin, and the picturesque, quaint, and otherwise interesting character of many illustrated. After sketchily dealing with the intervening period, the Lecturer spent some time on the imposing roadside inns of coaching days, shewing some fine examples of these. It was stated that after the decline of coaching many of the old inns languished until the recent revival of road-travelling by cycle and automobile, and that the old houses had now come into their own again and had reverted to something approaching their former position and use. Inns of historic interest were next dealt with, and many pictures of such houses at which important historical events had happened were placed before the audience. It was noted that a number of inns in various parts of the country were associated with the disturbed period of Charles the First, the Protectorate, and the Restoration. 60 Inns having literary associations were then treated at some length, nearly thirty prominent authors being named as having written, etc., at various inns. Among those illustrated were over a dozen visited and described by Charles Dickens. After running through a series of presentments of picturesque old inns, the lecturer touched on sporting houses (angling inns, etc.) ; inns connected with highwaymen — Dick Turpin and others ; old inns curiously situated (such as Tan Hill, the Cat and Fiddle,” and others) ; the principal inns with University associations and interest at Oxford and Cambridge ; the Lecturer concluded with reference to the oldest inns remaining. It was shewn that the “ Royal Fountain,” at Canterbury, as far as definite documentary proof is concerned, has claim to be considered the oldest, having been described as the best in Canterbury ” by the German Ambassador, who stayed there in 1229, and having entertained guests as far back as 1070. The house itself, however, is composite, and a good deal of it of comparatively modern building. Among the oldest inns remaining in practically their original condition were mentioned and shewn on the screen, the “ Seven Stars,” Manchester, which has held a licence for nearly six hundred years ; the “ George and Dragon,” Speld- hurst, in the ” oak room ” of which Kentish bowmen held revel on their return from Agincourt ; the “ George,” at Norton St. Philip’s, which was a licensed house in 1397 and earlier. In illustration of the various classes of old inns touched upon (though definite classification is a difficult matter— there being many inevitable over-lappings), considerably over two hundred lantern slides were exhibited. 61 MUSICAL EVENING. March 3 Oth, 1909. The Musical Evening was under the directorship of Mr. T. H. Pemberton. The programme comprised two instru- mental trios for violin (Miss Winnie Sargisson), violoncello (Miss Plilda Sargisson), and piano (Miss Gill) ; flute solos by Mr. Kenneth G. Thomas ; a piano solo by Miss Gill ; and songs given by Miss Maggie Gregg, Miss Rothwell, Mr. William Trafford, Mr. T. H. Pemberton, and Mr. G. S. Ritchie. 62 EXCURSION TO ELSLACK. May 2 6th, 1909. On this date some of the Members and Associates made an afternoon excursion to Elslack to see the excavations at the Roman Camp at Burwen Castle. The party was con- ducted by the Rev. C. W. Hamilton, M.A., of 'Broughton Rectory, who recounted what was known of the origin and history of the camp, and what had been learned of its structure and details. The camp lies close to Elslack Station, and is cut through by the line of the Midland Railway. It is rectangular in shape, with rounded corners, and has a gateway in the middle of each side. It appears to have been twice fortified, once by an earthen wall, with a V-shaped fosse outside it, and smaller ditches outside that ; and later by an inner wall of stone. In places the stone wall is well preserved, as many as six rows of stone still standing at one point ; in other parts it is very imperfect, having suffered, apparently, like many of the monuments of antiquity, from the depredations of utilitarians, who, to the chagrin of antiquaries, have per- verted history’s witnesses to the building of farms. Among other interesting finds, the excavators have come upon a corn-grinding mill of stone, which is said to be one of the most perfect specimens of its kind ever found. 63 EXCURSION TO GISBURN. June 24 th, 1909. On this date thirty of the Members and Associates went by motor char-a-banc through Nelson and Barrowford to Gisburn. After looking through Lord Ribblesdale’s gardens and conservatories at Gisburn Park, the party went on by Bolton-by-Bowland to Sawley, where tea was taken, and later went back to Bolton Hall, the residence of Mr. C. B. E. Wright, and spent a short time in inspecting the grounds and the stables, which have more than a local reputation. The return journey was made by way of Clitheroe and Whalley. The afternoon was bright and sunny, and the country looked its best. 64 EXCURSION TO YORK. July 28th, 1909. „ A party of some forty Members and Associates went to York to see the York Historic Pageant on Wednesday, July 28th, leaving Burnley at half past nine and reaching the ancient city shortly after noon. 1 he party viewed the pageant and the city, and left for home at 7-5 p.m. arriving at Burnley about 9-15. The pageant formed the subject of papers given by three of the Members at the meeting of the Club on November 2nd, of which papers synopses appear in their appropriate place* 65 THE NEW SESSION. October 5 th, 1909. On taking the Chair, the new President, Mr. William Thompson, thanked the members of the Club for the honour they had conferred upon him. He recalled his association with the Club from its foundation, and claimed that the Club provided a common meeting-ground for people of literary, scientific, and artistic tastes, irrespective of creed, politics or social status. He urged the members to remember that they constituted a Club and should be on easy terms of speech with one another. He believed that a kindly feeling existed among the members and referred to the late Mr. Angelo Wacfdington, who, he thought, was so frequently called to mind, not so much for his professional distinction, as for the assiduity and devotion of his work in connection with the Club. He, described the new syllabus as replete with variety and interest, and counted it specially suitable that it began by a paper in celebration of the Bi-centenary of Dr. Johnson, one of the corner-stones of literature, the founder of a literary club, and the father of all such institutions as this one. 66 Dr. JOHNSON. (In Commemoration of Bicentenary). (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Rev. C. S. SARGISSON. October 5th, 1909. The J ohnson of common apprehension is the hero of Boswell’s ‘ Life,” a study incomparable, indeed, but incomplete in giving results only, not processes. The introduction of most readers to Johnson is coincident with Boswell’s meeting with him in 1763, when Johnson was fifty-four and had two-thirds of his life behind him. Of his early life little is known, and his ancestry has received scant attention. His father was Michael Johnson, sometime of Cubley, in Derbyshire, and afterwards a bookseller in Lichfield, where he held office as Junior and as Senior Bailiff and built the house in which his son was born. Michael Johnson was a Tory, a High Church- man, and an almost Jacobite Royalist, unsuccessful in business, and of melancholy temperament. His wife , Samuel’s mother! was Sarah Ford, a woman of narrow views and tastes, locally esteemed, and the daughter of a substantial Warwickshire yeoman, whose family produced several men of note. Her uncles, Henry and Joseph Ford, were eminent practitioners, the one of law and the other of medicine ; and the notorious “ Parson Ford,” chaplain to the Earl of Chesterfield, was the physician’s son. The discerning searcher of records will find family qualities which come out more or less markedly in Samuel Johnson. To every true mother a son owes much, and in the matters of intellectual force, moral qualities, and counterbalancing breadth and freedom Johnson owed much to the stock from which his mother sprang. Samuel Johnson was born on 18th September, 1709. He suffered early from scrofula, which, in spite of the touch of Queen Anne, much disfigured his face ; and his childhood was marked by precocity and physical weakness. He left school at the age of sixteen, when he began reading omni- vorously and indiscriminately in his father’s shop- feeding 67 his mind as afterwards he fed his body — and laid the founda- tions of his wide and varied knowledge. He went at the age of eighteen to Pembroke College, Oxford, where he did little and whence he departed without a degree. He became “ Dr.” Johnson by virtue of honorary degrees from Dublin (1765) and Oxford (1775). The father died in the year in which the son left the Uni- versity. The latter inherited a patrimony of £20, and, after being usher in a school, he married, in 1735, Mrs. Elizabeth Porter, an affected widow old enough to be his mother. It was a curious match, but Johnson adored his wife and mourned her dead. Mrs. Porter brought him £800, on which he set up a school at Edial, near Lichfield, where he had three pupils. The school being a failure, Johnson went to London and took to literature. He followed for many years the hard and hungry trade of a literary hack, writing translations, parliamentary reports, poems, memoirs, etc., until he took up the Dictionary, upon which he employed six amanuenses and slaved himself. It was in connection with the Dictionary that he wrote his tremendous letter to the Earl of Chesterfield, who had, he judged, played him false in the matter of patron- age. His “ Rambler,” though “ a heavy class of lay-sermon- ising,” did more to attract the reading world, and he escaped from the danger of being unemployed. As long as diligence was necessary he wrote, but no longer. In 1762 he received a pension of £300 a year for distinguished literary service and came to the front in intellectual circles. As a conversationist he was unrivalled, and argumentative to a degree. Said Goldsmith, “ There is no arguing with Johnson : if his pistol misses fire, he knocks you down with the butt-end.” His wit was of a robust type and his humour sometimes rather rollicking, but he could say a neat “ pawky ” thing upon occasion. Johnson wrote little during his last twenty years or so, but what he did write shews how his talking had improved and simplified his style, which in his earlier years lifid been too full of heavy Latinisms. He was bulky and uncouth of frame, strange of gesture, and unaccountable in many of his habits, scarred of face and blinking of vision, unkempt, and sometimes unwashed. He fed noisily and laughed “ like a rhinoceros,” yet he con- sidered himself a very polite man, “ well-bred to a degree of needless scrupulosity,” He was never rough or overbearing to the weak and helpless ; was unspeakably good to the poor, 68 staunch in friendship, devoted to children, and considerate even of the feelings of his cat. Those who knew him best loved him most. Said Goldsmith, “ He has nothing of the bear but his skin.” During one of his later visits to Staffordshire he stood for an hour bareheaded in Uttoxeter market-place in penance for an early act of disobedience in refusing fifty years before to go there to take charge of his father’s bookstall. He was deeply religious. His written prayers and recorded determinations are among the most pathetic documents in the language — so sad, so indicative of fraility and of a bravery of intention that would never acknowledge itself beaten. It is easy to speak of his faults, but though anyone can sin like Johnson, it takes well-nigh a saint to repent as honestly and heart-brokenly as he did. He had a paralytic siesure in 1783. He had gone in fear of death all his days, but he bore his last afflictions patiently, and when he really faced death, which took him in 1784, he seems to have forgotten to be afraid. His books are not much read, and will probably be less read of the many in the future, but no man who wants to know the best of the eighteenth century can afford to be entirely ignorant of his Johnson. As a talker he was never excelled, and one wonders “ that one small head could carryall he knew.” His whole personality was remarkable and his influence on the side of good. It may confidently be asserted that in a hundred years reading and thinking Englishmen the world over will be celebrating his ter-centenary with even greater heartiness of appreciation than that with which we now honour the bi-centenary of him whom Hawthorne happily called “ The Mountainous Doctor.” Mr. Sargisson’s paper was illustrated by many quotations and anecdotes, and by a large number of lantern pictures, comprising portraits of Johnson and his friends, and photo- graphs of places associated with him and his relatives. 69 THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE POOR LAWS— A REVIEW AND CRITICISM. By J. H, SINKINSON, M.A. October 12 th, 1909. The Commission was appointed on 4th December, 1905, by the late Conservative Government, and after more than three years’ patient work, it reported to the present Liberal Government on 17th February, 1909. These facts are of hopeful augury. The worst day’s work for the country would be for legislation on the lines of the Report to be undertaken by either political party for party purposes, and when legislation is attempted all must hope that the problem will not be dealt with on party lines or for party ends, but that the sole object of all will be the greatest and most lasting good of the common weal. This Minority Report is significant : there have been other minority reports in the past, but, as a rule, a minority report has contented itself with expressing its points of difference from the majority on minor matters. This Minority Report, however, is in itself a comprehensive and masterly survey of the whole field of investigation, and there is hardly a conclusion, and certainly no major remedy of the majority, which the Minority Report does not scout and ridicule. When experienced sociologists of the stamp of these Commissioners, all sitting at the same time, hearing the same witnesses, and visiting the same institutions, set up at the close of their labours two mutually contradictory ideals, the authors of each, moreover, criticising and pointing out the utter im- practicability of the other’s proposed solution, it is not surprising that the man-in-the-street stands nonplussed, that Parliament, puzzled, stays its hand, and that legislation, if not leisurely conceived, wisely planned, and fully debated, is likely to bring in its train economic and moral disaster. 70 The Lecturer thought the Commissioners’ conclusions were sad, gloomy, and disquieting, and that the questions raised must, in the near future, engage the earnest attention of all thoughtful men. The remedies suggested, whether by majority or minority, demand nothing short of a revolution. The Commission reports that notwithstanding the huge sums spent on Poor-law Relief since 1834 (£597,000,000 has been spent on Poor-law alone since 1850), notwithstanding an annual expenditure of well-nigh £60,000,000 on poor relief, education, and public health, a population equal to that of the city of Liverpool is quartered on the rates : this must be ended or mended. How ? ' The Majority Commissioners would set about it thus : Abolish the Guardians, abolish Union areas, abolish work- houses, abolish the term “ Poor Relief,” and call it “ Public Assistance ” instead — an abolition programme which may or may not effect the abolition of poverty and pauperism, but which will certainly add in an incalculable degree to the present sixty millions of annual expenditure. In place of the present Unions set up two new areas— in county boroughs, the county borough to be the area ; outside county boroughs, the administrative county to be the area. Thus Nelson’ Colne, Padiham, Brierfield, Hapton, and all the rest of the Burnley Union outside the county borough would be admin- istered, not from a natural centre such as Burnley, as now, but from far-away Preston. Will this lead to economy or efficiency of working ? Instead of Guardians, a new Public Assistance Authority, to be a statutory committee of County and County Borough Councils, is to be set up ; half of the committee is to be formed of members of the Councils and half to be appointed by the committee. Instead of the general mixed workhouse, special institutions are to be established on separate sites for (1) children, (2) the aged and infirm, (3) the sick, (4) the able-bodied men, (5) the able-bodied women, (6) vagrants, and (7) the feeble- minded and epileptics. The new Public Assistance Authority is to set up Public Assistance Committees to deal with the applications for out-relief or assistance. Alongside these, voluntary aid councils, with subsidary voluntary aid com- mittees are to be set up ; these councils and committees arc to re-organise and have the handling of all the charities within the area for which they are formed. “ To these irresponsible committees of benevolent amateurs,” — the Lecturer quoted from the Minority Report—” all applicants for relief will apply in the first instance,” and in cases of refusal the assistance authority must relieve. And, finally, county and local medical assistance committees are to be established, to deal with a monster net-work of medical dispensaries to be set up throughout the country. Ihere is some excuse if the plain man’s brain reels at this mad maze of councils and committees. When one considers that the starting-point from whence these conclusions were reached was a system involving the annual expenditure of £60,000,000, and thinks of the enormous initial capital ex- penditure that will be involved by the scrapping of our present Poor-law buildings and their replacement by new ones on separate sites, the huge annual expenditure entailed by their separate staffs of highly qualified officials, the suggested additions to every grade of officer high and low, the additional inspectors, auditors, and visitors recommended, it lies badly in the mouth of this “ Daniel come to judgment ” to reproach the present system on the score of expense. Add State provision of labour bureaux under the Board of Trade, aiid agencies for insurance against unemployment, and the Majority proposals are stated in outline. The Minority proposals are frankly socialistic in character, and have been labelled by one of the Minority Commissioners, Mr. Lansbury, “ Socialism for the Poor.” The Minority Report is the joint work of Mr. and Mrs. Sidney Webb. How Mr. Webb, who was not a Commissioner, comes to be a joint author of the Report is not known, but it certainly gives point to the criticism that it would appear that the Fabians, having obtained seats on the Commission, set out to use their opportunity to promulgate their own special views on the problem of poverty and its solution. If this criticism be well founded, it goes far to damn the Minority recom- mendations. The purpose of a Commission like this is to weigh, sift, and test every shred of evidence before reaching a conclusion, and not to make the facts square with a pre- conceived theory. Their scheme is known as “ The break-up of the Poor-law,” and a national propaganda has been set afoot to bring their proposals into practical effect. In outline their suggestions are to abolish Guardians and Union areas, and in their place to establish no new authorities, but, taking the county and the county boroughs as units of administration, to let the present county councils and county boroughs take charge of the several sections of the poor — the Education Committee of the children of school age ; the Health Com- mittee of the sick and permanently incapacitated, the infants under school age, and the aged needing institutional care ; the Asylums Committee of the mentally defective of all ages and grades; the Pensions Committee* of the aged. They, too, would abolish the general mixed workhouse, and in its place establish specialised institutions, each for one class of persons only. Moreover, the institution for the non-able- bodied is to be wholly separate from that for the able-bodied ; the four committees just mentioned are to provide for every person in their charge the appropriate treatment, either in institution, hospital, or school, that such person needs. Mem- bers of families would be separated, and what of the sanctity of the home and family that Englishmen pride themselves upon ? Surely long-headed Englishmen are not going to abolish our present Poor-law and dip their hands into their pockets for untold millions to set up a social babel such as this. The Lecturer here pointed out that the Minority Com- missioners themselves recognised the difficulty they had raised by this proposed handing over of the various members ol families to different committeees, for, to dovetail the whole, they invent an official hitherto unknown to English Local Government. He is to be a sort of official super-man, is to be styled the Registrar of Public Assistance, and in many respects is himself to exercise all the powers exercised by the present Guardians collectively ; in particular, he is to sanction the relief grants proposed by the several committees — a reversal of the present system that no self- respecting committee or body would tolerate for a moment. 1 he damning criticism of the Majority Commissioners alone on these points is sufficient, if not to put the Minority scheme at once entirely out of court, to make the sober-minded ratepayer pause before he puts his money on such a madcap horse as this. Even to-day, one often looks with anxiety on the ever-increasing local rates and national taxes, but what are the rates and taxes likely to be when these schemes get afoot ? Nowhere in either Report is there any estimate of the cost in cash of these panaceas for all social ills ; such an omission is a fatal one, and one that must be made good tie Parliament seriously undertakes their consideration. Each of the suggested remedies is revolutionary, and the Lecturer distrusted revolutionists and set his hopes upon the evolutionists working upon the basis of the present system. One point the Reports have brought before the public as it has never been brought before, is the root cause, (or rather root causes, for they are many), of pauperism. These are old-age, sickness and disease, drink, casual labour boy 78 labour, unwise relief, and unemployment. Abolition of Guardians and Unions, however, won’t remedy these, nor can Guardians be blamed for them. The reforms needed are the raising of school age, labour bureaux, insurance against sickness and unemployment, housing schemes, and land reform. All these are national reforms, but still local agents will be required. As to these local agents, the Lecturer suggested that the present Guardians with fuller powers should be retained. The difficulties that daily confront Guardians were then dealt with, and many typical examples in this and neigh- bouring Unions were quoted to indicate how complex and intricate is the problem of poverty with which they have to deal : cases of desertion, illegitimacy and vagrancy, of work-shys, drunkards, and workhouse habitues, of disease and vice, were instanced, and the inadequate powers of the Guardians to deal effectually with them clearly brought out. By the aid of charts and diagrams, the advance that had been made since the present Poor Law system’s being initiated in 1834 was indicated : in particular, the great decline in pauperism from 56 per 1,000 in 1850 to 22 per 1,000 in 1908 was emphasised as well as the rise of Poor-law Infirmaries and of a new and better era for Poor-law children. Finally the Memorandum of Dr. Downes, the Senior Medical Inspector of the Local Government Board, himself a member of the Commission, as well as one of its principal witnesses, and possibly the member possessed of the widest and best informed knowledge of the present system, was quoted at length. Inter alia, Dr. Downes says : — “ I have signed the Majority Report because I desire to support the principle that public relief in every form should be administered and controlled by one local authority in each area. “ The control of assistance from public funds is a foremost function of Government, but it is not one which the people of this country would willingly surrender to the regime of officialism, however this may recommend itself to the ultimate aims which have inspired the Minority Report. " But I regret that I must dissent from the scheme of administration proposed in the Majority Report. I view with grave misgiving the wholesale and imminent disruption 74 of existing agencies and the transference of the work of relief to a complicated, untried, and, as I venture to think, unworkable system of machinery, with manifold and inherent dangers. ' ‘ A proposal to sweep away all directly elected representa- tion in this great field of local government is so contrary to the national instinct and to our established principles, and so fraught with contingent dangers, as to demand the most rigid proof of its necessity. I have studied the list of defects on which the sweeping changes advocated in the Majority Report are based. My experience convinces me that there is not one which could not be met, and I venture to say, better met, by a revision, a strengthening, and an extension of existing powers on lines already established. 1 fully agree that the provision of public relief made by the Poor-law should be such as may be offered without loss of self-respect to the well conducted man who is obliged to resort to it. To every man should be given a chance in the first instance, and a possibility of hope even in the last resort. It needs no great enlargement of present powers Vto (secure this, and to extend the arrangements whereby a decent home shall not be broken up in time of depression. “ I regret that the financial considerations of public relief generally have not been more fully dealt with by the Commission, and especially so, because the proposals of either Report must, in my judgment, inevitably involve an immediate but uncalculated outlay of public money.” MRS. GASKELL AND KNUTSFORD. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Rev. G. A. PAYNE. October 19/A, 1909. Mr. Payne is, and has been for some time, a resident of Knutsford, an interesting old-world town where memories of Mrs. Gaskell are affectionately cherished to this day. Mrs. Gaskell was born at Chelsea in 1810, her mother being a daughter of Mr. Holland, of Sandlebridge, near Knutsford, a descendant of an ancient Lancashire family. Within a month after her birth her mother died, and the baby was taken to Knutsford to live with an aunt. At fifteen she was sent to a school near Stratford-on-Avon, where she was taught Latin and Greek. As a girl she knew the Knutsford district very well. In a letter to William and Mary Howitt, written in 1838, she prettily describes the old hall at Tabley, so faithfully portrayed in Chapter 5 of “ Mr. Harrison’s Confessions.” She occasionally visited London and New- castle-on-Tyne. In the Knutsford Parish Church she was married in~1832 to the Rev. William Gaskell, a Minister of Cross Street Uni- tarian Chapel, Manchester, Dissenters then being unable to marry in their own Chapels. It was a happy marriage, and each was able to help the other very considerably. She was ready at all times to engage in works of charity, and during the cotton famine in Manchester she shewed a practical sympathy with the poor which won for her a place in their hearts. It is a matter of controversy whether or no Mrs. Gaskell drew her characters directly from life, and described places with which she was actually associated. Knutsford is believed to be the original of “ Cranford,” and it is just as likely to be the “ Duncombe ” of “ Mr. Harrison’s Confessions,” the “ Hollingford ” of “ Wives and Daughters,” and the “ Eltham” 76 of “ Cousin Phyllis.” At any rate it seems certain that her Knutsford experiences were woven into the tine texture of these and other works. The Lecturer exhibited a slide shewing the house in which lived Edward Higgins of “ The Squire’s Tale ” fame, and gave an interesting account of this high- wayman’s methods. He shewed also a picture of the Royal George Hotel at Knutsford, with its ancient staircase and panelled wainscot. Mrs. Haskell's first literary achievement was “ Mary Barton.” When first sent to the publishers the work was returned, and it was some time afterwards, in 1818, when she was offered £100 for the copyright, that it was published. For a time its authorship was a mystery, but when disclosed the writer received many letters of congratulation, including one from Thomas Carlyle. In this book Mrs. Gaskell draws a striking contrast between the opulent ease of the manu- facturer on the one side and the extreme poverty of the worker on the other, and the following extract shews her feelings in the matter : — “ Large houses are still occupied, while spinners’ and weavers’ cottages stand empty because the families that once filled them are obliged to live in rooms or cellars. Carriages still roll along the streets, concerts are still crowded by subscribers, the shops for expensive luxuries still find daily customers, while the workman loiters away his un- employed time in watching these things and thinking of the pale, uncomplaining wife at home and the wailing children asking in vain for enough of food, of the sinking health, of the dying life of those near and dear to him. The contrast is too great. Why should he alone suffer from bad times ? ” Hers was not a one-sided view, as some have maintained, but she drew her characters faithfully, giving types of good and bad workmen and employers. After the publication of “ Mary Barton ” she made many friends on her visits to London, amongst whom were Charles Dickens, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Ruskin, and Miss Florence Nightingale. In 1853 came the publication of “ Ruth ” and “ Cranford.” The former is an extremely well-written story. In this book and in “ Lizzie Leigh ” we have every-day characters. When “ Mary Barton ” came out, there were many people who said that Mrs. Gaskell had no humour, but this notion was dispelled when “ Cranford ” was written. 77 Tn 1855 was published “ North and South,” a story which shews Mrs. Gaskell’s knowledge of, and ready sympathy with, the poor. Mrs. Gaskell made the acquaintance of Charlotte Bronte at the Lakes in 1850, and later wrote her biography. In 1863 she wrote “ A Dark Night’s Work,” and this was followed by “ Cousin Phyllis,” a story well worth reading, for it contains a combination of the sunniest humour with the tenderest pathos. The Lecturer eulogised this book in particular, and said that for absolute perfection in execution there is strong weight of testimony that Mrs. Gaskell never surpassed, if ever she even approached, “ Cousin Phyllis.” “ This prose idyll,” says Dr. Ward, “ is, beyond dispute, the most perfect of her works.” A lantern view was shewn of the Hope Farm of " Cousin Phyllis,” where Mrs. Gaskell’s grandfather lived and died, and this was followed by some interesting pictures of old Knutsford, including one of the town before the railway was constructed in 1862. Brief reference was made to some of Mrs. Gaskell’s shorter stories — publications which were at once very popular — the choicest, in the Lecturer’s view, being “ Mr. Harrison’s Con- fessions,” “ A Dark Night’s Work,” and " The Grey Woman.” Apart from the novels, Mrs. Gaskell wrote for Charles Dickens in the “ Cornhill Magazine,” and was also a con- tributor to the “ Daily News.” Edna Lyall declares Mrs. Gaskell to be her favourite writer of fiction, and this is only one of the many tributes from writers who have spoken in the warmest terms of Mrs. Gaskell’s works. No one, concluded the Lecturer, ever came near her in the gift of telling a story. “ In her harids the simplest incident — a meeting in the street, a talk with a factory girl, a country walk, an old history — becomes vividly picturesque and interest- ing. Her fun, her pathos, her graphic touches, are inimitable. When all the world was admiring her novels, it was felt that what she had actually published was a mere fraction of what she might have written, had her life been less complex. Fine as her literary work was, it scarcely gave an adequate idea of her highest powers ; her other occupations left her little time for writing.” Her untimely death on the 8th of February, 1865, was deplored by all, because she was one of our most popular writers whose influence was always good and wholesome. 78 HENRY DE LACI, THE GREAT EARL OF LINCOLN. The Last Is orman Baron who owned Burnley and District. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By S. COM PSTON. October 26th, 1909. The Lecturer made short reference to the ten Lacies, mostly barons of Pontefract and Clitheroe, from Ilbert (or Albert), born in 1090, to Henry de Laci, who founded Whalley Abbey, and who was born about 1250 and died in 1311. This last of the local Norman barons was a ward of Henry III., was brought up at Court with Prince Edward, his senior by about ten years, and was destined to be the last, but the greatest, of his race. As a little boy, Henry de Laci was married to Margaret, daughter of Sir William Longspee or Longsword, who was a grandson of Henry II. by “ Fair Rosamund.” This association with the royal blood, and the esteem in which he came to be held in later years, led to his being frequently styled “ our cousin ” in the King’s writs, and to the appearance of purple in the quarterings of his coat-of-arms. In 1270 letters patent were issued granting to him the Blackburn Hundred or Honour of Clitheroe, with other ancestral possessions; and in 1772, when full of age, he was made keeper of Knaresborough Castle, shortly afterwards receiving also full investiture as Earl of Lincoln. Henceforth this young Lord of Clitheroe and Pontefract was not only an important factor in the cousels of kings, but an energetic actor in the national concerns of war and peace, religion and government. When Edward I. came to the throne, de Laci, after being engaged in the Welsh wars, served in 1279 as Joint Lieutenant of England during the King’s absence from the realm (April 27th to June 19th). During the eventful years 1282-3, Henry de Laci was engaged in checking the Welsh revolt ; and probably in celebration ERRATA. P. 78 line 17 for " 1772 ” read “ 1272.” „ 18 for “ full of ” read “ of full.” „ 22 for “cousels” read “counsels.” P. 80 ,, 4 for “Compote” read “ Compoti.” ,, 27 for “ monastries ” read “monasteries.” ,, 32 for “or” read “on.” 79 of the birth of a daughter he gave the advowson of Whalley to the monks of Stanlaw. Henry de Laci, now Lord of Ros and Rewynok, as well as Constable of Chester, and Earl of Salisbury and of Lincoln, lived a strenuous life, being always in motion, in armour or otherwise. His personal appearance seems to have been that of a well-built energetic man, less tall than the “ long-shanks ” king, and in his later life he probably became stout, for a bitter enemy, Piers Gaveston, once called him “ burst belly.” But Hemingburgh describes him as “ courteous, handsome and active.” Seldom had he leisure for domestic ease, whether at Clitheroe Castle or at his chief northern home, Pontefract Castle, or at Denbigh, Lincoln, or his mansion by the Hole- bourne (Holborn) near the city of London. His capacity for work must have been great. As Trokelowe records, “ he was active in war and ripe in counsel.” Moreover, his bene- factions came from no grudging hand. Yet he was not without domestic sorrow, his eldest boy being drowned at Denbigh Castle, and his other son killed by a fall from a window at Pontefract Castle. During a period of peace de Laci acted in various national arbitrations. In 1293 or 1294 he secured a royal charter granting him market and fair rights in the locality of his manor house at Ightenhill — though the site was later changed to Burnley proper — and in some other manors. In 1294-5 he was engaged in Gascony and in Wales, and again in Gas- cony in 1296, where, on the death of Earl Edmund, he was chosen as commander “ by the voice of the whole army.” Having given land at Whalley to the monks of Stanlaw, a number of them took possession in 1296, in order to found an Abbey there, to which De Lacy was a great contributor, though the older Abbey of Salley (Sawley) was favoured by him also. How often the great Earl visited his Lancashire stronghold is unknown. But even when his appointed representatives attended a Court Baron at the castle or at his Ightenhill Manor or elsewhere, to receive suit and service, the country- side for miles around must have seemed animated as men trooped over the hills — superior ones on horseback and humbler men on foot — from Blackburn and Rochdale, the Forests of Rossendale and Trawden, from Accrington and Colne, Padiham and Tottington, to render their accounts and make their complaints. 80 The water-mill here or there, where the people had their corn ground, needed renewal ; cottages needed repair ; barns and fences were faulty. Moreover allowances had to be made sometimes as the Compote or Computi for 1296 and 1305 shew. From the vaccaries or pasturages in the Forest of Rossendale, a cow or two had been “ taken away by robbers,” or had been “ strangled by the wolf ” ; ancl wages were paid for “ guarding the calves from the wolf.” The very early fulling-mill near Burnley required attention, etc., and the lord s agents kept account of the expenses incurred. Burnley then had a population of about 50 families. A visit from the warrior Lord of the Honour himself, in almost regal style, must have been a great occasion. Whether the Earl arrived at Clitheroe from his greater castle at Ponte- fract, via Wakefield, Halifax, Heptonstall, the Long Cause- way, Burnley, Padiham, Sabden, and over the nick of Pendle ; or by way of his Manor of Bradford, his Forest of Trawden! Colne, the Barrow-ford, and Downham ; or whether he came direct from the south by Denbigh, Chester, Warrington, Wigan, and his Blackburn Manor, his own retinue, with the gathering from dependencies in the three near counties, would make a great cavalcade. And if, as is held by some! the 12th June, 1296, were such an occasion, when “ the great and good Earl, in person,” laid the foundation-stone of Whalley Abbey, attended by an array of abbots, monks and ecclesiastics from other monastries, the scene would indeed be impressive. Two persons in particular would attend : one being Oliver de Stanesfield, of Heasanford, the Earl’s faithful keeper of Pontefract Castle ; and the other his young, light-hearted daughter, Lady Alice de Laci, only surviving child, now about thirteen years old. She. or her richly adorned palfrey, would be attended by her lady-in- waiting, Mabota, also mounted, and other waiting-maids. At any rate, in the Clitheroe accounts for 1296 appears 10/- allowed to the Lady Alice’s maid for certain expenses. The Lecturer made reference to many events of national im- portance in which Henry de Laci played a responsible part, in- cluding the great battle of Falkirk, July 22nd, 1296, when at’the head of a division containing a thousand men from his manors of Lancashire and Yorkshire he greatly helped to win the victory ; and to the fact that the Earl was with the king on his ill-fated journey to Scotland in 1307, in the course of which he (Edward I.) “ greatest of English kings ” of the past, died at Burgh-on-Sands, July 4th. Before dying he expressed misgivings concerning young Edward, his successor, 81 giving his long-trusted friend the Earl strict instructions regarding him. When Edward II. was crowned, it was the Earl of Lincoln who bore the Sword of State ; and in 1310 it was the Earl who was Justiciar of the kingdom during the king’s absence in Scotland. But de Lad’s own life was drawing to a close. He spent his last Christmas at Kingston Lacey in Dorset, returned to London to his house by Holborn soon afterwards, and died “at cock- crowing ” on the 5th February, 1311, aged 60 years. He was buried at St. Paul’s, in the crypt, with great pomp and ceremony, as one of the greatest men of his time, as a pious benefactor to the church, and as a munificent contributor to the extension of the cathedral in which he was laid to rest. Though the St. Paul’s of that time was afterwards wholly destroyed by the great fire of 1666, an engraving of the tomb and inscription existed, a photographic slide of which the Lecturer had been favoured to secure and to exhibit for the first time. The public life of such a man as this, in the greatest century of the Middle Ages, could not be traced without admiration, and a sense of pride that he was for so long intimately associated with Burnley and the district around. 82 THE YORK HISTORIC PAGEANT. Mr. JOHN HOLDEN, Mr. J. S. SUTCLIFFE, and Mr. W. LEWIS GRANT. November 2nd, 1909. Mr. Holden opened by giving a brief account of his impressions on entering the City of York on the festive day, and a detailed description of the organisation of the Pageant.’ Credit for the inception of the Pageant was given to Mr. George Kirby, Curator of the York Exhibition, who addressed a letter to the Yorkshire Herald ” on the subject in April, 1907. The i’dea was warmly taken up ; it was definitely decided to promote a pageant, and Mr. Louis Parker was appointed Pageant Master. Of this Pageant Master no praise is too great, and \ ork was exceptionally fortunate m securing the services of such an ardent and enthusiastic worker. In his eloquent address to the citizens of York in February, 1908, Mr. Parker explained what a Pageant was, what were its ends and justification, and pointed out the grave responsibility of such an uridertaking, and the great demands it would make upon the people of York of all classes, trades, and professions, outlined its organization, estimated its cost, and explained its utility. He declared that the uses of Pageantry were not financial but educational ; the children of York would be shewn the entire history of their city, which formed a large fragment of the history of England. The Secretary of the Pageant, in reply to Mr. Holden’s enquiry, gave some interesting particulars ; the secretarial duties entailed two and a half years’ work, arid this with the assistance of eight clerks, thirty servitors and one hundred stewards ; £5,000 was received as a guarantee against loss • the sale of tickets realised £11,605 13s. Od. ; the expenditure was £12,000; costumes and properties cost £2,100 and the band £850; the performers numbered 3,000 and hundreds ol them paid for their own costumes ; every subscriber had his money returned, and £800 was divided amongst York 83 charities. It was estimated that 63,000 persons witnessed the Pageant, allocated seats were obtained without the slightest difficulty, and not a single accident occurred. Mr. Sutcliffe gave a resume of the seven episodes of which the Pageant consisted. The episodes embraced the period from B.C. 800 to A.D. 1644. Scenes were depicted of the early Brigantes at their daily avocations, and the founding of the settlement called Caer Ebrauc. Then followed the arrival of the Romans and subsequent warfare, the Latinising of the name of the city into Eboracum, and later the visit of Adrianus when the city was thoroughly Romanised and called Altera Roma. The conquest of the Saxons was then vividly portrayed and the city’s name is again changed to Eoferwic. Christianity is introduced, the foundation is laid of the wooden structure which was the embryo minster, and the first Archbishop of York is created. Some hundred years later a school is erected by King Eadbert as a thankoffering for victories. After a lapse of two centuries, King Athelstan, after vanquishing the Danes, founds the hospital of St. Peter for the sick and poor. Scenes were given shewing the struggles between the Northern kings for supremacy, during which time Eoferwic becomes Iorwick. Then comes the news of the victory of William the Conqueror and the influx into the city of Norman captains, the building of the Minster, and subsequent peace- making. The twelfth century is now reached and Iorwick has become York. These are stirring times ; for the Battle of the Standard is fought at Northallerton ; in the same scene the great miracle of the Ouse bridge is related and the massacre of the Jews takes place. The Scots attack the city and the White Battle of Myton-on-Swale is fought and the Archbishop of York defeated. Quieter times ensue and the city is visited by Edward III. and his queen, and sub- sequently by Queen Anne of Bohemia, with her retinue ; the city is made into a county ; a Lord Mayor is created, and William Selby is knighted. The troubled period of the Wars of the Roses follows, and Edward enters York on Palm Sunday. The reign of Henry VIII. is reached ; the citizens are astir, for the Pilgrimage of Grace resists the destruction of the Monasteries ; the King visits the city, but his wrath is appeased by monetary presents. The last episode deals with the siege of York, during which Charles the First enters and his son James is created Duke of York. Ultimately the city surrenders on honourable terms, and the Pageant closes with a final tableau. 84 Mr. W. Lewis Grant said that none could dispute the claims of York to be the scene of a great Pageant in which should be presented episodes of the events which so richly endow the history of the great northern city. The city contains numerous relics of the past, and her characteristic glories have not been swept away. The purpose of the Pageant was put forth ; it was essentially a part of a great religious celebration, a festival of thanksgiving to God for blessings received, a festival of friendship, brotherhood and loyalty. One thing stood out clearly in the York Pageant — - the part which religion has played through the nation’s long history. It has been associated with royal acts and military movements ; with civic schemes and labours ; with education- al institutions ; with architectural and artistic achievements. In this connection Mr. Grant touched upon the episode which set forth the foundation in the eighth century of the celebrated school of York — St. Peter’s. Archbishop Egbert figured in the scene and also Alcuin, the great teacher and man of learning. Then Mr. Grant referred to the Master of the Pageant — Mr. Louis N. Parker— the one to whose genius the modern Commemoration Pageant owes its inception. Their thanks were due to one who had done so much to bring home to the people of England the glory of her history. The fascinating evolution of the name of the city as dis- closed in the Pageant was touched on, and two scenes were specially selected for description. In one of them appeared the treacherous Queen Cartismandua ; the spirited Venusius, stubborn in his patriotism ; and the brave, high-minded, but luckless Caradoc. The other depicted the death of Siward, the great Earl of Northumbria. Then came reference to Brunanburgh, the place of the famous battle associated with King Athelstan. To commemorate that victory the great Hospital of St. Peter was founded. This renowned institution was dissolved in the time of Henry VIII., and within the Pageant grounds stand only the ruins of it. Great praise was bestowed on the music of the Pageant, which was under the mastership of Mr. T. Tertius Noble, Organist of the Minster. Mr. Grant instituted comparisons with the Pageants of Sherborne and Winchester with regard to magnitude, the impressiveness of the episodes, and the site upon which the scenes were enacted. The Pageant was a triumph of organization, of instruction, of comradeship, of patient and persistent effort, and of literary, musical, scenic and dramatic skill, 85 THE RENAISSANCE. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By Mr. C. A. HOYLE. November 9th, 1909. The re-birth or re-awakening of Europe from the long sleep of the Dark Ages is a subject of great importance, for the extent of its far-reaching influence, its temporal manifestations, and its permanent results can hardly be comprehended. When the Renaissance began cannot definitely be stated, for it gradually spread from mind to mind, and from nation to nation, until the whole of Europe was affected, and the history of that continent from so remote a period as 500 B.C. must be reviewed in order to obtain an idea of its gradual progress. “ The Glory that was Greece,” the subsequent conquest by the Romans, followed in the course of centuries by the ravages of the Goths, Vandals and Huns, resulted at length in the establishment of the system known as feu- dalism. Europe became Christianised and various monastic orders were founded. All through the Dark Ages the Church was the chief civilizer arid educator of the people and in time became the wealthiest and most powerful force in Europe. In the seventh century, however, Mohammedanism arose in Arabia, and threatened Europe and Christianity with des- truction. It conquered Western Asia, Northern Africa, and the south of Spain, and after centuries of warfare the Christians, to win back Jerusalem, fought the Crusades, but failed, and the Turk holds the Holy City to this day. The Crusades were instrumental, however, in keeping back the Turks until Europe had been consolidated into nations. Finally, after many years of fighting, the Turks captured Greece, in 1413, arid Constantinople in 1453. This latter date forms a con- venient starting point from which to study the Renaissance proper, the Middle Ages having resulted in feudalism in government, monasticism in religion, and Gothicism in architecture. 86 Eastern knowledge had reached Italy during the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries owing to the trade carried on between Italian cities and the East. Then, at the fall of Greece and Constantinople into the hands of the Turks, refugees fled into Italy taking with them Greek manuscripts, dramas, histories, philosophies and specimens of sculpture. They imbued the Italians with their ideas of life arid culture, and a marvellous change came over Italy. It was indeed a Renaissance ; not merely a revival of learning, but a revival of living, and humanity rejoiced in its emancipation. To appreciate the change properly it is necessary to contrast the radically different conceptions of life of the Eastern Empire, which had preserved the tradition and the remains of Greek culture in its palmiest days, and of Western Europe, which was dominated largely by the Roman Church. The essence of the monastic ideal was renunciation. This is seen in Dante’s conception of life ; it whs the main idea of S. Francis of Assisi, and was the theological basis of the writings of the Fathers of the Church. The Greek, however, had a frank, glad acceptance of life as a gift of the grids to be enjoyed to the uttermost. The root word of Greek phil- osophy was that untranslatable word “sophrosyne,” which may be defined as “ moderation,” “ the happy mean,” “ everything right in its place,” or “ the perfect balance.” The knowledge of Greek literature and arts opened men’s eyes to the dignity and worth of human life, and the monastic ideal was abandoned. Thus the first result was the Emancipation of Reason. Men were filled with an eager curiosity to learn all they could of the world in which they lived, and gave themselves up to the pursuit of knowledge. Schools, academies, and uni- versities were founded, paper and printing were invented, Copernicus explored the heavens and modern astronomy was founded, the first mariner’s compass was made, and gunpowder was adapted to firearms. The most astonishing achievements of the Renaissance were in the fine arts, and the artists set the standard so high that no succeeding genera- tion has ever attained to their level. All arts received a tremendous impetus. In architecture a new type of building resulted, in sculpture a new idea of the meaning of form, and in painting a perfect equipment, and a corresponding increase in the powers of expression. The second great result of the Renaissance was the Emanci- pation of Conscience. As the new learning gradually per- meated the minds of all classes, men clearly recognised that 87 the monastic ideal of life was utterly inadequate to meet the needs of their expanding natures. So many of the assertions of the Church were seen to be false that all religious institutions were suspected of being worthless, and the wholesome con- ditions of social and family life were disintegrated. The new spirit transformed men’s ways of regarding the Church, and the Renaissance thinkers on the subject may be classified as (1) those who regarded Christianity as a divine institution in need of reform ; (2) those who thought it a profitable fallacy ; (3) those who considered it an exploded super- stition ; and (4) those who wasted their lives in trying to harmonize Moses and Plato, scholastic theology and Greek philosophy. Thus a rapid lowering of the moral tone was produced although such astonishing advances were being made in all the arts of civilization. Italy paid full penalty for this licence in later years, and was eventually conquered by Charles V., King of Spain and Emperor of Germany, only regaining her independence after 300 years of subjection. The misfortunes of Italy were, however, productive of good results elsewhere, for the new spirit was thus dispersed through Western Europe, and France, Spain and England were in turn affected by it. If it is a difficult matter to date the beginning of the Renaissance it is impossible accurately to indicate its end, for the ideals born during that period are still actively at work transforming and developing all those conditions known as modern civilization. We may fitly conclude with Tennyson’s words : — “ Yet I doubt not thro’ the ages one increasing purpose runs, “ And the thoughts of men are widen’d with the process of the suns.” Oi to 88 WIND AND WEATHER. By The BISHOP OF BURNLEY (Dr. HENN). November 15 th, 1909. The phenomena of wind and weather are due to the state of that great blanket which surrounds the earth, the atmos- phere. The movements of the atmosphere, its temperature, and the amount of moisture it contains, are the sole conditions which go to form wind and weather. The combination of gases which forms the air we breathe always contains invisible moisture. This atmosphere has great elasticity and considerable weight, and envelopes the earth to a thickness of some 45 miles. Its density is not uniform, being greatest near the earth’s surface and becoming gradually rarefied towards its outer circumference. The weight of the atmosphere is measured by the barometer. Wind, whether a gentle zephyr or a roaring tempest, is simply the atmosphere in motion. In a strong wind the air travels at about 30 miles an hour, in a gale at about 50, in a strong gale at 60 or 70, and in a hurricane at 80 or 90. Nor- mally the atmosphere is inert as all other bodies are until some force is applied. The force which causes the atmosphere to move and creates wind is the application of heat. When air is heated it expands, becomes lighter in proportion to an equal volume of the surrounding cold air, rises in consequence, and is displaced by the colder air which by its inrush makes a wind. The sun, the source of all natural heat, is thus the creator of winds. The simplest and most constant example of its action is the regular daily alternation of landward and seaward breezes upon an island. The air is warmed but little by the passage through it of the sun’s rays, taking most of its heat from contact with the heated earth. The earth is both heated and cooled more quickly than the sea. At 89 sunrise on the island the air is still. As the sun gets hotter, the land and the air upon it are more rapidly warmed than the sea and the air in contact with its waters, and a wind begins to blow in from the sea. The sea-breeze becomes stronger as the day goes on, reaching its maximum force at about 3 p.m. As the sun’s power decreases, the ground gives up its heat much more readily than the water of the sea, and as the evening approaches the air over the land becomes cooler than that over the neighbouring sea, so that a wind is set up blowing from the land out to sea, which continues until the slowly-cooling sea has fallen to the same temperature as the land. This process is repeated daily with the utmost regularity. In some parts of the world the winds are regular and constant all the year round. The earth receives the directest and hottest of the sun’s rays at the equator, and at the equator becomes warmer than elsewhere, so that the air at the equator is continually rising, cold air from the north and south taking its place and forming the trade-winds blowing towards the equator from the north-east and south-east. The reason that these winds do not blow directly south and north is that their initial eastward speed, taken from the eastward rotation of the earth, remains constant, while as they travel the earth’s belt is growing constantly wider and wider and the earth’s surface moving faster and faster, since things nearer the equator have farther to go in 24 hours than things more remote from it. The winds, therefore, keep dropping behind the eastward-flying surface of the earth, and instead of coming towards the equator directly from the north and south approach it from the northern hemisphere in a south-westerly, and from the southern hemisphere in a north-westerly direction. In many places the configuration of land and sea causes irregularities in the atmospheric movements. In the Indian Ocean, for instance, the trade-wind periodically reverses itself owing to the proximity of the great land-mass of Asia. During the summer the Asiatic continent becomes intensely hot compared with the waters of the Indian Ocean, and as a result a current of cokl air, known as the south-west monsoon, flows from the south-west across India between April and October. Zones in which there is very little circulation of the atmos- phere occur round the earth in different latitudes. One immediately north and south of the equator is known as the Doldrums, and there are similar zones at the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. 90 The Lecturer directed the Club’s attention to the atmos- pheric disturbances which more nearly concern ourselves — those prevailing around the British Isles. The Lecturer first shewed, by means of a map, the prevailing winds which blow in our part of the northern hemisphere. Unsettled and irrational as our climate appears to be, it may yet be explained and fairly accurately foretold if we take the trouble to avail ourselves of the daily information supplied to us by the Meteorological Office. This useful institution issues daily a chart, which is published in The Times, several of which charts, shewing the weather conditions in the British Isles from day to day, the Lecturer put upon the screen. The charts consist of a rough map of our islands with the seas about them. They shew a number of dotted lines called “ isobars,” indicating that at places along any such line the barometrical pressure is the same, and the height of the barometer along each line is shewn by figures at the end. The temperature and the strength and direction of the wind at various places are also shewn. All these records are obtained daily by telegraph, and enable us to get simultaneous readings from all parts. As might be expected, the tendency is for air to move from a district where the pressure is high to a district where it is low, and the speed with which the motion takes place depends upon the distance and difference in barometrical pressure between the two districts. Where the isobars are shewn near together, we get, as we should expect, a rapid wind from the higher to the lower, and where they are far apart the wind is light. The charts also shew what are known as cyclones and “ anticyclones.” The cyclones are centres of low pressure, i.e., places in the atmosphere where the pressure is lower than at any surrounding spot, and consequently the air from all round comes in to fill the pit. In the northern hemisphere, for the reason given respecting the direction of the trade-winds, wind from the north falls to the west of its object, and wind from the south is carried eastward, whereby is set up an anti-clock-wise circular motion of the air around the centre of depression. If we observe the position of these cyclones in the weather charts and their motion across our islands, we have an explanation of what might otherwise seem mere haphazard changes of wind. As a cyclone, for instance, moves eastward we get, it it passes o\ er us, first southerly winds with a falling barometer, then com- parative calm, and then northerly winds and a rising glass. An anticyclone is a centre of high pressure, and in this case 91 the air is continually flowing outwards to the surrounding districts of lower pressure, and round the anticyclones we have a series of winds moving round in the direction of the hands of the clock. So regular are these movements that it is safe to say that if we stand with our backs to the wind the barometer is lower on our left than on our right. The common rules of sailors, founded on observation without scientific knowledge, will be found to be fairly accurate. The Lecturer instanced, among others, the couplet “ Long foretold, long last, Short notice, soon past.” — as illustrating the difference between a cyclone of large dia- meter and a narrow one. As to whether these wind disturbances mean rain or not, no general rules can be laid down, as the local configuration of the country has a good deal to do with the rain in each district. With the aid of general theory and particular knowledge of local circumstances each district can form fairly accurate rules of its own. The Lecturer concluded with a note of regret that the collection and publication of information relating to the British rainfall had been left by an indifferent State to private enterprise. The organisation for recording our rainfall was founded by a private person and supported by private sub- scriptions. The Lecturer himself, when in Ireland, had endeavoured to get established a system of recording the rainfall of each district at the local police offices ; the Chief of Police would have given permission for his men to do the work, which was easy and not uninteresting ; but on applying to the Government he got merely an approval of his scheme and an inquiry as to whether he could indicate any source from which funds could be obtained for the pur- chase of rain-gauges. “ There was nothing for me to do,” concluded the Lecturer, “ but to send the correspondence to the press and to add John Ruskin’s comment — ‘ We have despised science.’ ” 92 ALPINE PEAKS AND VALLEYS (FROM TYROL TO DAUPHINE). (Illustrated by the Lantern.) By Mr. J. WALTER ROBSON. November 23rd, 1909. The chain of The Alps — well called the “ Playground of Europe ” — comprises nearly 800 miles of peaks, passes, and glaciers, stretching from the Austrian Tyrol in the east, to the Dauphinc and Maritime Alps on the French shores of the Mediterranean. A lifetime of wandering will not exhaust nor can familiarity stale their charms ; for, added to the changes wrought by the seasons, the wanderer will find among them a wealth of enchanting scenery and an almost infinite variety of form and beauty. The dwellers in the recessses of the mountains differ widely ; the hardy and musical Tyrolese, the stolid German-Swiss, the romantic Italians, and the industrious French have all their patois-speaking countrymen in the upland valleys. The physical features of the country, and more especially the mountains themselves, vary in each district. The rock turrets and ice fortresses of the Dolomites merge into the glittering snow-clad domes of the Swiss Alps, which in turn give place to the cathedral spires of the Chamonix Aiguilles, and farther south to the rolling purple and less savage grandeur of the Graian and Cottian Alps. Zinal, in the Val d’Anniviers, about 17 miles from Sierre in the Rhone Valley, is a favourite starting point for the ascent of the Zinal Rothhorn, also for the Grand Cornier. Gabelhorn and Morning Pass. From the summit of the Rothhorn, to reach which presents innumerable difficulties to the climber, a view is obtained of the magnificent mass of the Dent Blanche like an immense perpendicular wall, the Matterhorn standing alone in grandeur, the Weisshorn and multitudes of other glistening and towering peaks stretching away to a distance on all sides of 60 or 70 miles in uninterrupted array. 93 The Matterhorn is, of course, a famous mountain, and from Zermatt hundreds of people make the ascent each summer. The Lecturer gave a graphic account of his ex- perience in climbing the Matterhorn, traversing to Breuil on the Italian side in a snow storm. From the south-east ridge a good view is obtained of the Dent Blanche on the opposite side of the valley. Its south and north ridges shew on the sky line with the Col d’Herens on the left. Climbing in the Swiss Alps requires considerable previous preparation and training, on account of the constant and long-drawn-out demands upon the powers of endurance and nerves of the climber. The Lecturer dealt at some length with the precautions necessary, particularly with the question of refreshment, for the party may be overaken by bad weather and delayed for several hours. The climb of a snow mountain, broadly speaking, divides itself into three stages ; — first, the trudge from the village in the valley by the lower and very often steep slopes of the mountain to a mountain hut ; secondly, the crossing of a glacier and ascent of a snow-field ; and lastly, the scaling of the citadel of the mountain by the ascent of the rock or snow ridge leading to the summit. The knowledge and skill required for the scaling of a rock peak may be acquired in our own country among the crags of Cumberland, or the buttresses of Snowdon, or in the Coolin Hills of Syke, but it is impossible to acquire knowledge of snow and ice without actual experience in the Alps. Many attempts have been made to describe views from mountain summits. Of course, no two views are alike, nor is the view the same on two different days. There is the abnormally clear and distant prospect, a contrast in shades ; at times one is cut off from the earth above a still and fleecy sea of cloud, the sharp tips of the higher peaks standing out like lonely rocks in a great ocean ; and at others rolling masses "of seething vapour are hurled against the climber by the wind with tremendous force, and the pinnacle on which he stands trembles with the heavy onslaughts made upon it by the mighty hurricane, when suddenly the veil is riven and for an instant a glimpse is caught of fairyland in roseate colours far below. Arolla, one of the most charming spots in the Alps, is situated at the head of the Val d’Herens, 19 miles from Sion in the Rhone Valley. It is a favourite centre for some magni- ficent rock climbs such as Aiguille de la Za, Aiguilles Rouges, Grande et Petite Dents de Veisivi, Bouquetins, etc. Its altitude of 6000 feet above sea-level makes it one of the most 94 healthful of Alpine resorts, and the glistening dome of Mont Collon, the needle peaks on either side of the valley, the noble pine woods, the noisy torrent and the slopes carpeted with flowers, combine to give it an irresistible charm. Chamonix, the Alpine centre most accessible from England, has to-day little claim to fame except as a starting-point for Mont Blanc ; nevertheless one can start from Chamonix by way of Montanvert and get into the heart of the snow and ice region, into scenes of unparalleled grandeur. Along the great glacier a delightful expedition may be made to the Jardin, a huge rock 11,000 feet high, surrounded by everlasting snow. From this point is to be seen a vast amphi- theatre of gigantic peaks, with the round dome of Mont Blanc over-topping all. At the eastern end of the Alps, the Dolomites of Tyrol are the most striking group. Innsbruck, the ancient capital of Tyrol, is the gateway to this region. Passing southward through the famous Brenner Pass and by way of the fortified town of Franzensfeste, the line for Vienna and Trieste is reached. For the Southern Tyrol most travellers alight at the station of Toblach. From it a good road winds through the defiles to Cortina, and by way of the beautiful Durrensee, where Monte Cristallo is perfectly reflected in the smooth waters, to the village of Schluderbach. This country is to Austrians, Germans, and Italians what the Fells of Cumber- land are to the north countryman. In the Ampezzo Valley (the Cortina District), the rock climbing is superb. The Lecturer described his ascent of the north face and descent of the south face of the Kleine Zinne, said to be one of the most difficult climbs in the Alps. In Sanger Davies’ “ Dolomite Strongholds ” appear terrifying accounts of its difficulties, which have no doubt caused many anxious moments to mountaineers. The rock stands 9,700 feet above sea-level, and the top resembles the roof of a castellated tower which is falling into decay. Pieces of splintered rock are continually breaking off and falling away. In the 800 miles from Tyrol to Dauphine, there is scarcely a peak which has not been ascended, and the passion for the conquest of new peaks will continue in the breasts of true mountaineers till every summit in the world has been trodden by the foot of man. The Lecturer gave detailed accounts of several of his climbs, and illustrated his paper with an exceptionally fine series of lantern pictures, 95 LIFE AND CONDUCT IN MODERN ENGLAND. A Short Sketch of some Features of the Life of the People, especially the Middle Classes. By R. HOPE BOWDLER. November 30 th, 1909. A careful survey of the modern conditions of life, beside being of great importance, is extremely interesting in such wonderful and changing times as the present. The welfare of our country is the concern of every citizen, but it is too often served by profession rather than by practice, and difficulties in life and conduct are often regarded as of less importance than the trend of a particular social or political movement. The England of to-day is a very different place from the England which our fathers knew ; the country itself is different materially and the people are different in character. According to some observers the foundations of national stability in social, political and religious life are being under- mined, and the decay of our power is at hand if not actually in progress. According to others, we are passing out of darkness into light. The old order is changing, and the new order to which it must yield place is Filed with the hopes of happier times and the ideals of a golden age. Now it is true that there is much of the best of human nature and much of its worst in our midst, but how far do they counteract one another, and which side has the advantage ? Looking back over the ages of history, can we say that we have reached a higher state of development than any our forefathers have known ? Perhaps we are passing through a transitional stage, and if so, we are living in critical times. 96 The middle classes have done a great deal for English life ; they are characteristic of England, they possess a con- trolling voice in the affairs of their country, they probably make the greatest contributions, good and bad alike, to national life. Therefore we can hardly do better than choose the middle classes for purposes of examination. England’s problem lies in them. The greatest features of modern life which fall under the following heads are mainly the concern of the middle classes. Take in the first place the power of wealth. It has been said that the first of all English games is money-making, and wealth has been exalted into an object of worship by this generation. We are living at a time when philanthropic and educational institutions cry aloud for money and brains, and at a time when the contrast between riches and poverty has become a most striking feature, and we see that wealth is being lavished upon pleasures which carry with them no trace of public service and bring in no return to enrich the character of the spenders. The greatest periods in the history of our country have not been characterised by an excessive regard for wealth and a selfish pursuit of the indul- gences to which it can minister, and there is great danger that this selfish indulgence will unfit us not merely for ex- tending, but even for maintaining, the power and influence which our forefathers have handed down to us. Relaxation is essential and serves a useful purpose, but that craving for excitement which pervades modern life and which causes so many people to spend far too large a pro- portion of their time in bridge, motoring, roller-skating, etc., deprives it of much of its purpose. The pleasure of true sport is real enough, but it can only be served by manly discretion, and now-a-days discretion and discrimination are not so common as they ought to be. These tendencies poison the wells of idealism, degrade the highest objects of ambition, and set up false standards of aim and conduct. Wealth has come to be regarded as an object of ambition because it provides the means of pursuing childish rivalries and perverted emulation. Modern conditions tend to undermine the freedom of the press. The commercial spirit has invaded this sphere with degrading results. There is a demand for scrappy informa- tion conveyed in the most sensational form, and the people wish to have their opinions ready-made without troubling to think for themselves. 97 The selfishness of the middle classes makes it difficult to persuade men to take up useful public work or think out municipal problems, and consequently they are in great danger of lessening their capacity for leadership. Many defend their attitude on the ground of moderation, but the impartial mind is rare, and the moderate man is not nearly so common as one might be led to suppose. This affectation of moderation is assumed as a disguise for selfish- ness. These modern tendencies in life and conduct seriously undermine every useful activity which demands time and attention. Friendship demands more self-sacrifice, generous appreciation, and constant effort to understand motives and aims than this age is generally prepared to give. There is neither time nor place to cultivate close friendship. Con- versation also seems to be suffering from the spirit of the age. It is trivial and superficial, for real conversation is only possible among friends of long and settled intimacy. From the foregoing brief sketch many conclusions may be drawn. There is conformity to standards, but they are mostly false, and there is also much superficial criticism of social, religious and political institutions. Life seems to have lost its idealism and reality, and education is misused. But there are great counteracting forces at work, and the outlook into the future is hopeful. Education is now within easy attainment of all classes ; the best literature is inexpensive ; schools, museums, picture galleries, and public libraries are multiplying. Philanthropic and humanitarian institutions flourish, the church is awake with new life, and there is great evidence of a growing social sympathy. With a higher standard of personal responsibility, and more dicipline of character, this age of great possibilities and increasing oppor- tunities would be a great age in every respect. 98 RICHARD JEFFERIES— NATURALIST AND IDEALIST. By HENRY D. SHAW CROSS. December 1th, 1909. The story of Richard Jefferies’ life is simple and sad. He was born in 1848, the son of a yeoman farmer of Coate, in Wiltshire. As a boy he gave no special promise. He had an inborn love of books, and became an eager and wide, though somewhat indiscriminate, reader. He spent much of his time in wanderings in the fields, during which he was making extensive observations of nature. His literary genius did not mature till long afterwards. As a young man he was occupied for a time in journalistic work at Swindon. He tried fiction, but failed. Through the medium of a chance letter to “ The Times,” he caught the public ear, and in a little while he found some success and recognition. He married and settled down in London, and there he began to write the series of rich, warm, and exquisitely beautiful essays on country scenes and aspects of nature by which he is best known. In these essays Jefferies brings, as perhaps no other writer does, the very atmosphere of the country-side to his readers. It is very sad that at the very period when Jefferies’ genius reached its greatest heights and most beautiful ex- pression he was slowly sinking to a premature death. Always delicate, almost incessant ill-health afflicted him during his residence in London ; yet it was in the darkest hours of his life that his work took on an immortal loveliness. In 1881 he fell ill of a painful internal malady in which he lingered for six years, dying in 1887. He worked to the last, dictating when he could no longer write. He lies buried in a secluded spot on the south coast, his grave within sound of the everlasting voices of the sea which he loved so well. Richard Jefferies was more than a son of the soil in the narrow sense of the words : he was a veritable child of the earth in the wider sense, a man who entered fully into the 99 spirit of earth and sky and sea. His whole soul was enraptured with the delight and beauty of the outside world. Nature was to him full of inexpressibly beautiful thoughts. In his essay on “ Meadow Thoughts ” (an extract from which the Lecturer read), he likens the inexpressible thoughts quivering in the azure overhead to the swallows hovering yet not alighting He tells us in beautiful words of the sublime extravagance of nature, saying that prodigality and superfluity are stamped on everything she does : “ There is no natural lack. Wherever there is lack among us it is from artificial causes which in- telligence should remove.” Jefferies was an intent observer of the habits of the creatures of the open air. He acquired also a deep knowledge of the details of the life and customs of the country people. His “ Wild Life in a Southern Country,” “ Round about a great Estate,” and “ The Game- keeper at Home ” are full of interesting records of natural history and rural life, and will be of permanent value because of their faithful presentation of the conditions of the English country life of the period. In these books Jefferies struck a new note. They are full of interest to the countryman whose life is passed in the surroundings they depict ; but they are of equal interest to the townsman to whom the country- side is as yet an unopened book. Jefferies was both botanist and naturalist, but he had the gift of conveying to the ordinary man his deep knowledge of nature gained through these media in plain and simple English without recourse to technical terms. Here then is the first thing we owe to Jefferies. He made the country, and nature as a whole, intelligible and simple to the ordinary man. These earlier books are untroubled by speculative thought, or reflection upon the problems and mysteries of life. Later, after he has left the scenes of his youth, and come into sharp contact in London with the hardships of life, there comes into his work a deeper and more personal note, and he often invests the happenings of nature with something of a human feeling of the joy and sorrow of life. In his essay,” The Hours of Spring,” this new poetic interpretation of nature is seen at its fullest. Side by side with this more personal interpretation of nature, there comes yet a wider and broader human feeling into Jefferies’ writing. In all his later work there is a profound sympathy with the aspirations of the common people, whose struggle for existence, he considered, prevented their enjoying to the full the beautiful, glorious, joyful world which he knew so well. In his little idyllic story, “ St. Guido,” he expresses his indignation against the shortsighted, jealous 100 and selfish infatuation of the people for things that are worthless. The whole of Jefferies’ later life displays the struggle of a temperament which was utterly antagonistic to the spirit of his age. He rebels against the fight for mere existence, so bitterly and hopelessly oppressive to the thought- ful and sensitive mind. More and more the human note comes into Jefferies’ work, which at the same time takes on a new beauty and a new impassioned fervour. But though his new feeling of divine discontent with the unhappy lot of large masses of the human race becomes more and more strong, it never overshadows his perception of the intense joy there is in existing life, and he paints vivid pictures of nature, full of light and colour and sunshine. “ The Pageant of Summer ’ ’ is one of the finest of his writings of the kind. Jefferies expresses his belief that ultimately the spirit of the sunshine, the flowers, and the azure sky will become interwoven into human life. He carries this idea further in his “ Sunshine in a London Square,” where his optimism finds definite expression. “ To look backwards . . . there is sadness ; to-day in the thick of cloud there is unrest ; but forward in the broad sunlight there is hope.” In “ The Story of my Heart ” are epitomised the con- clusions to which Jefferies’ thinking brought him, and the ideals after which he yearned. There is no truth in the allegation which has been made, that this book was not a genuine self-revelation, but something written wildly and at random under stress of physical pain. The book contains Jefferies’ strongest and most beautiful work, and from it alone can we adequately learn the philosophy of his life. In it he contradicts some of the opinions he held in his earlier years. Its avowed purpose was to persuade’people to abandon traditional theories and well-worn groves of thought, and enter upon another and larger circle of ideas. Jefferies appears to have seen two things ; first, a beautiful world to be enjoyed ; and second, a people anxious for the fullest and most joyful life, yet in some unaccountable way failing to enter upon the glorious heritage awaiting them, to which he endeavoured to point new pathways. He strongly attacks superficial thinking, the habit of thinking along accepted lines of theory. But although the message of the book has a profound social bearing, the book itself is wholly a personal revelation. It is, as Jefferies himself described it, “ the autobiography of a soul.” It is the record of the struggle of a man’s soul with the mystery of things. It is a book which gives the complacent, self-satisfied mind many a rude shock ; it shakes to the very foundations the pretentious 101 but hollow structure of dogmatism and formalism. He sets himself deliberately to efface from his mind all the learning of the ages, all long-stored traditions, and all the accepted rules of thought ; it is a final and supreme rejection of ortho- doxy. To him only three discoveries made by man were of importance, — the existence of the soul, the idea of im- mortality, and the idea of deity. Constantly throughout “ The Story of my Heart,” Jefferies has his social ideal in view, and urges the application of his teaching to the future good of the race. He lays great emphasis on the duty of the individual to the common fellow- ship of humanity. He possessed a boundless belief in the possibilities of the race ; any change for the better must come through ourselves, and we must change our whole mode of thought. Jefferies taught that everyone should do some- thing to forward the future ideal. To the social reformer he is a source of continual inspiration and courage, for he lifts all movements for reform and improvement above the narrow limits of party interests, and shews them to be at one with the mighty irresistible tide of progress which flows through all the ages. 102 A WALKING TOUR IN THE TYROL. (Illustrated by the Lantern). By WILLIAM THOMPSON. December Uth, 1909. The Lecturer exhibited on the screen a sketch-map and contour map shewing the course of his tour, and after briefly describing the physical features of the Austrian Tyrol, \t he character of the Tyrolese, and commending the accommodation provided for all classes of travellers, particularly atjthe smaller hotels, and the excellent means of communication for pedestrians, proceeded to give a graphic account of^his travels. The walk was commenced at Otzthal, a station about 40 miles before reaching Innsbruck, the capital of the Tyrol. Otzthal is at the entrance to the Otzthal valley which is south of the River Inn. This valley is 60 or 70 miles long and is the longest of the lateral valleys of the Inn. Fifteen miles up the valley is Langenfeld, with its sulphur springs, a sort of Harrogate Spa, and fifteen miles higher is Solden, a charm- ingly situated centre for mountain excursions. The valley is divided at Sweiselstein, and, by taking the right branch, Vent is reached, whence the Niecler Joch Pass, 10,000 feet high, may be traversed. The Lecturer rested some two hours from Vent, at the Somaur Hntte, and the following morning crossed a line glacier. The descent from the pass is on the south side and leads into a most picturesque valley, the Schnalzerthal, from which exquisite views are obtained. This valley leads down to the Vintschgau and thence to Meran. Travelling by train from Schnalzthal to Meran, thence to Bozen, and further to the Mendel Pass, the top of Penegal (5,685 feet) is gained after a walk of about an hour and a half. This presents one of the most extensive and attractive views. 103 The road which leads from Bozen up the Eggenthal over the Rarer Pass and on to Cortina is known as the Dolomitten Strasse, and is about 50 miles long. It passes through some of the finest and most characteristic scenery of the Tyrol. It traverses the Eggenthal, goes between the Rosengarten and the Latimer, crosses the Rarer Pass and descends to the Fassathal. The road turns north along the Fassathal, passing several villages, until it arrives at Canazei. From this town the Fedaja Pass to Caprile was taken. This is a charming route : from the pass the near view of the snow- clad Marmolata is very fine, and at the top of the pass is the dividing line between Austria and Italy. From Caprile, an Italian village, after a steep walk of three hours, Andras was reached, and by traversing the new main road over the Falzarego Pass, Cortina may be approached. Cortina is becoming quite a town and stands in a fairly wide valley guarded on both sides by heights of peaked and serrated rock giants. There are some towns of considerable size in the Tyrol, but not many. Innsbruck, the capital, has a population of 50,000. It has one very wide principal street, the Maria Theresienstrasse, and the Hofkirche is noted for the Emperor Maximilian’s tomb, surrounded by 28 bronze statues. Botzen is a large busy town with a population of 15,000. Meran flourishes as a health resort in winter on account of its mild climate. Sterzing is a small town on the Brenner and ranks easily first for quaint and attractive beauty. The lecture was made very enjoyable by some interesting accounts of Tyrolese life and scenes, and of episodes in the Lecturer’s own experience. Some of the lantern slides exhibited were coloured, and all of them were exceptionally good, and much appreciated. 104 ANNUAL DINNER. December 18/A, 1909. Twenty-five of the members of the Club attended the Annual Dinner, held at Cronkshaw’s Hotel on Saturday, December 18th. The chair was occupied by the President and the vice-chair by Mr. F. J. Grant. After dinner came the loyal toast with musical honours, which was followed by the toasts of “ Literature,” proposed by Mr. W. Lewis Grant ; “ Science and Art,” acknowledged by Mr. Frank Hudson and Mr. A. A. Bellingham ; “ The President,” proposed by Mr. George Gill ; “ The Past Presi- dents,” proposed by their successor and acknowledged by Mr. F. J. Grant; “The Professions,” acknowledged by Mr. W. T. Fullalove ; “Our Guest,” proposed by Mr. James Kay and acknowledged by Mr. F. H. Hill ; and “ The Ladies and Associates,” to which Mr. G. S. Ritchie responded. The toast list was interspersed with the reading of verses from the pens of Mr. Thomas Preston and Mr. Gill, and with pianoforte solos by Mr. J. F. Heap, and songs by Mr. T. H. Pemberton, Mr. T. B. Nowell, Mr. J. H. Rothwell, and Mr. Ritchie. 105 THE LIBRARY. Transactions of The Burnley Literary and Scientific Club : — Vols. 1 to 4, 1874-86,2 Copies Bound and One Copy Paper Cover. „ 5 to 7,1887-89,3 „ 8 to 12, 1890-94,2 ,, 13 to 17, 1895-99, 1 Copy Bound. „ 18 to 23, 1900-03, 1 Unbound Vol. 1, 1874-83 ; Vol. 2, 1884 ; Vol. 3, 1885 ; Vol. 4, 1886; Vol. 5, 1887; Vol. 6, 1888; Vol. 7, 1889; Vol. 8, 1890; Vol. 25, 1907. The Publications of the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society, as follows : — - Vol. 1 — 1878 — “ Lancashire and Cheshire Church Surveys,” 1649 to 1655. „ 2 — 1879 — “ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1545 to 1620. ,, 3 — 1880 — “ Lancashire Inquisitions,” now existing in the Public Record Office, London, Stuart Period. Part I., 1 to 11, James I. „ 4 — 1881 — “ An Index to the Wills and Inventories in the Court of Probate at Chester,” 1621 to 1650. ,, 5 — 1881 — “ Registers of the Parish of Prestbury,” 1560 to 1636. „ 6 — 1882 — “ Cheshire and Lancashire Funeral Certi- cates,” 1600 to 1678. „ 7 — 1882 — “ Lancashire and Cheshire Records,” pre- served in the Public Record Office, London, Part I. *,, 9 — 1884 — “ Rolls of Burgesses at the Guilds Merchant of the Borough of Preston,” 1397 to 1682. , 10 — 1884 — “ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1457 to 1680. t> 11 — 1885 — “ Lancashire and Cheshire Exchequer Deposi- tions by Commission,” 1558 to 1702. 12 — 1885 — “ Miscellanies relating to Lancashire and Cheshire,” Vol. T. tt 13 — 1886 — “ Lancashire Wills proved at Richmond,” 1681 to 1748. 14 — 1886 — “ Annales Caestrienses.” 15 — 1887 — “ Wills at Chester,” 1660-1680. 16 — 1887 — “ Lancashire Inquisitions,” Stuart Period, Part II. 106 M 17 — 1888 — “ Lancashire Inquisitions,” Stuart Period, Part III. 18 — 1888 — “ Wills at Chester,” 1681 to 1700. M 19 — 1889 — “ Civil War in Cheshire,” &c. „ 20 — 1889 — “ Wills at Chester,” 1701 to 1720. *„ 21 — 1890 — “ Leyland Registers,” 1653 to 1710. ,, 22 — 1890 — “ Wills at Chester,” 1721 to 1740. The Transactions and Reports of various Societies as follows : — Chester Society of National Science and Literature (Established 1872) : — Reports, 1889-1892, 1893-4. Proceedings, 1894. Reports and Proceedings, 1901-1903 and 1906-8. Classical Association of England and Wales, Manchester and District Branch, Second Annual Report. Colne Literary and Scientific Society 1899, Vol. 1, Part >1. Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the advance- ment of Literature and Science (Established 1876) : — No. xii., 1886-87 ; No. xiv., 1888-89. The Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire : — Vol. xxxvi., 1884. 1885 to 1906. New Series, Vols. I. to XXII. Liverpool Geological Association (Established 1880) : 1886-7, 1888-1902. Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1812) Vol. xxxviii., 1883-4 ; Vol. LVil., 1902-4 ; Vol. lviii., 1904-5. Liverpool Science Students’ Association (Established 1881) 1886-1890. Manchester Field Naturalist and Archaeologists’ Society, 1887 and 1888. The J ournal of the Manchester Geographical Society Vols. 1 to 9, 1885-1893 (Incomplete Series) ; Vol. xv., 1899 (Incomplete) ; 1901, Supplement ; Vols. xvm. to xxiv., 1902-8 (Incomplete Series). Manchester Microscopical Society, 1887. Manchester Scientific Students’ Association, 1889. National Trust for Places of Historic Interest Report, 1901, and “ Derwent water.” North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club and Archaeological Society : — 1886-90, 1892-95, 1901-2. Reading Literary and Scientific Society, 1890. Entomologists’ Record, Vol. I., No. 8, Nov. 15th, 1890. Year Books of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, 1884 to 1887, and 1889. 107 Memoirs of Papers read before the Club : — “ Geoffrey Chaucer,” by Henry Houlding, read January 13th, 1874 (several copies). “The Philosophy of Recreation.” by J. C. Brumwell, M.D., read January 27th, 1874, (Several copies). “ Edmund Spenser,” by Henry Holding, read October 26th, 1875. ‘The Burnley Grammar School Library,” by J. Langfield Ward, M.A., read February 22nd, 1881. “ The Re-imposition of the Indian Import Duties on Cotton Goods and Yarn,” by J. Whittaker. (3 copies). The following other Memoirs : — “ Bury Art Gallery and the Wrigley Collection,” by Archibald Sparke. “ Decimal Coinage Explained,” Sir G. Molesworth and J. E. Dowson, M.I.C.E. “ Founding of the Burnley Parish Church,” John Allen. “ Glacial Geology of Colne and District,” A. Wilmore, B.Sc. F.G.S. “ Hungary, A Vindication of,” Count Joseph Malath. “ Pendle Hill and Pendle Forest in Song and Story,” by J. McKay. (Nine copies). “ Rare Arachnids captured during 1906,” A. Randall Jackson, M.B., M.Sc. “ Roman Ribchester,” by John Garstang. “ Sewage Deposit Works at Burnley, Historical and detailed description of,” F. S. Button, A. M.I.C.E. “Sulphur, Properties of,” Jas. Monckman, D.Sc. “ Todmorden Road Council School, Historical Sketch of, 1908,” John Allen. “ Ye Dole of Tichborne,” Lord Nugent. The following Books and Volumes : — Barclay’s English Dictionary. (Mutilated copy). Baptisms and Anniversaries, &c., 1705. Manuscript evedently the Memorandum Book of a Priest who entered upon his duties as Chaplain of Towneley on the Vigil of St. John the Baptist, 1705. Catalogue of the Towneley Library, sold in London, June 18th, -26th, 1883. Catalogue of the Towneley Manuscripts, sold in London, June 27th and 28th, 1883, and containing prices realized. Court Roll of the Honor of Clitheroe, Vol. I., 1377-1567. Excavations at Toothill and Melandra, F. A. Brunton, M.A. History of the Parish of Ribchester, The, by Tom C. Smith, F.R.H.S. and Rev. Jonathan Shortt, B.A., 1890. 108 Hungary, A Sketch of the Country, Julius de Vargha. *John Towneley’s Account Kook, 1601-8. John Towneley’s Dairy, 1807, with Catalogue of his Library (manuscript). John Hallow’s Bible. (Old copy). Lancashire Dialect, Glossary of (Part 2 only), J. H. Nodal and George Milner. “ Mountains of the Moon, The,” J. E. S. Moore, F.R.G.S. Photo Pictures of East Anglia, Payne Jennings. “ Roman Fort at Manchester, The,” F. A. Brunton, M.A. Sun Pictures of the Norfolk Broads, Payne Jennings. A Number of Glaciation Maps of Burnley Basin, Eastern Section. Photographs of the four Sepulchral Urns discovered in the neighbourhood of Burnley. (Copies of these photographs, ' 6d. and 1/-). Stone with Glacial Scratchings, discovered by Sir Daniel Morris. Books marked with an asterisk are included in previous Catalogues of the Library but are now missing. There are also missing other books and papers as mentioned below. Anyone knowing of their whereabouts will greatly oblige the Librarian by giving such information as will assist in their recovery. Geo. Gill, Librarian. Other books and papers formerly in the Society’s Library and now missing : — Transactions of the following Societies and Institutes : Halifax Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1831), 1883-4. Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1881 to 1883. Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society, 1883, Part 1. Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, (Established 1831), 1883-4. Manchester Field Naturalists’ and Archaeological Society, 1860-1879, 1884-1885 and 1895. Manchester Scientific Students’ Association, 1878, 1879, 1883- 1885. Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society (Vols. xliv. to xlix.) , 1889 to 1895. Liverpool Geological Association, 1880-1886, 1892-1895. Liverpool .Science Students’ Association, 1883-84, 1884-85. Chester Society of Natural Science and Literature, Proceedings, 1889-1894. Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the Advance- ment of Literature and Science, 1880 to 1886, 1887-88, and 1889 to 1892. 109 Montreal Natural History Society (Established 1832), “ The Canadian Record of Science,” Vols. I., Nos. 3 and 4 ; Vol. II., Nos. 1 and 4. North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club and Archaeological Society, 1883-4, 1884-5, and 1895. Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society (Established 1822), 1878, 1879. The following Papers read before the Club : — “ The Dietetic Value of Alcohol,” by J. W. Anningson, L.R.C.P. read September 16th, 1879. “ Science Two Hundred Years Ago,” by C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S., Huddersfield, read March 9th, 1881. “ The Efficiencies of Gas and Steam Motors,” by Thomas Holgate, read October 18th, 1882. “ Odours, Perfumes and Flavours,” by Alfred Henry Mason, F.C.S., Liverpool, read February 20th, 1883. “ Some aspects of destructive Distillation,” by Thomas Holgate, read March 3rd, 1885. “ Sanitary Matters — Past and Present,” by T. N. Dali, read March 10th, 1885. “ Bi-metalism,” by Joshua Rawlinson, read February 8th, 1887. The following other Memoirs : — Account of Excursion to Irlam Hall, near Manchester, June 1st, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. Account of Excursion to Knutsford and Nether Tabley, June 17th, 1878, by the Urmston and Flixton Literary and Scientific Society. “ Art in Lancashire and Cheshire,” a list of deceased Artists with brief biographical notes, by John H. Nodal. “ British Mosses, Synopsis of,” Chas. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S. “ History and Antiquities,” George C. Yates. Local Rhymes by Henry Nutter. “ Sepulchral Urns, Types of, 1888,” H. Colley March, M.D., London. “ On the Whirling and Vibration of Shafts,” by Stanley Dunkerley, M.Sc. Catalogue of Exhibition of Appliances used in Geographical Education, held March and April, 1886. Report of Education Committee and Address delivered in connection with the Exhibition. “Technical Industrial Education in connection with Mechanics’ Institutions and other kindred Associations,” by Edward T. Bellhouse, a Paper read before the Manchester Statistical Society, April 13th, 1881. 110 Reprints from the “ Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society ” : — Vol. vii. — Letters from Syria and Palestine before the Age of Moses,” by A. H. Sayce, M.A. „ — “ Manchester and the Rebellion of 1745,” by J. P. Earvvaker, M.A., F.S.A. — “ The Field of Archaeological Research,” by W. E. A. Axon. ,, viii. — “ Bibliography of Lancashire and Cheshire Anti- quities,” by E. Axon. ,, — “ Warton Church,” by W. 0. Roper. ,, x. — ‘‘The Towneleys of Towneley,” by G. C. Yates, F.S.A. „ — “ Architectural Features of Astbury Church,” by Wm. Pullinger. ,, — “ Leaden Tokens,” by G. C. Yates, F.S.A. ,, — “ Nobberley,” by the Rev. H. L. Mallory, M.A. ,, — “Fiji and the Fijians.” ,, xi. — “ Visit to Extwistle Moor, Burnley.” Geographical Pamphlets by Osmond W. Jeffs. Guide to Cambridge, by G. M. Humphrey, M.D., F.R.S. The Railway Traveller’s Walk through Cambridge. Guide to Chester and its Environs, by Thomas Hughes. F.S.A. Handbook to Ely Cathedral. Photographs of Ancient Market Cross and Stocks, Church Street, Burnley, removed May 24th, 1881. Photographs of Old Houses in Church Street, Burnley, pulled down May 21st, 1881. 1874 1875 1877 1877 1877 1880 1886 1895 1895 1899 1904 1906 111 LIST OF MEMBERS ON December 31st, 1909. HONORARY MEMBERS. Col. Henry Fishwick, F.S.A., The Heights, Rochdale. Rev. J. S. Doxey, B.A., Bacup. Major W. B. Bryan, C.E., Chislehurst. F. J. Faraday, F.S.S., F.L.S., 17, Brazennose Street, Manchester Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L., F.L.S., Colonial Office, London, S.W. Chas. Rowley, F.R.S.L., Manchester. Tattersall Wilkinson, Roggerham, near Burnley. Rt. Hon. Lady O’Hagan, Pyrgo Park, Essex. L. de Beaumont Klein, D.Sc., F.L.S., London. J. Langfield Ward, M.A., Weston Lawn, Bath. Hill, Fred H., Thorn Hill, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea. Hudson, John H., M.A., H.M.I., Pendlemoor, Goldthorn Road, Wolverhampton. 112 LIST OF MEMBERS ON December 31st, 1909. ORDINARY MEMBERS. Ainsworth, John R., 29, Manchester Road. Allen, John, 44, Thursby Road. Armistead, Herbert, 53, Scott Park Road. Ashworth, Edwin, J.P., Thornhill. Ashworth, Richard, Ivy Cottage. Ashworth, James, 33, Bridge Street. Aspinall, Robert, 116, Todmorden Road. Aspinall, T. J., 118, Todmorden Road. Baldwin, Samuel, Park Hill, Pasture Gate Avenue. Bardsley, Arthur, 127, Woodgrove Road. Bardsley, R. S., 237, Manchester Road. Barnes, John, 14, Rose Hill Road. Beetham, George E., 234, Manchester Road. Bell, Arthur, 57, Ormerod Road. Bell, Thomas, 57, Ormerod Road. Bellingham, A. A., Rose Hill Road. Birtwistle, G. R., M.A., Edenholme, Park Avenue. Bolton, E. O., J.P., 76, Bank Parade. Booth, Thomas, 42, Thursfield Road. Bosworth, H., 224, Manchester Road. Bowker, James, 101, Manchester Road. Bradshaw, J., 42, Yorkshire Street. Bulcock, Henry, J.P., Vernon Lodge, Duchy Rd., Harrogate. Burrows, J. T., Highcliffe, Queen’s Park Road. Burrows, W., 51, Scott Park Road. Burrows, W. H., Bur Royd, Colne Road. Butterfield, John, Inglewood, Rose Hill Road. Butterfield, Thomas, 2, Appletree Carr. Butterwortii, Tom, Fern Royd, Padiham Road. Button, F. S., A.M.I.C.E., Inglewood, Scott Park. 113 Chadwick, Councillor Wm., 78, Belvedere Road. Chorlton, John, 3, Carlton Road. Clarkson, Alexander, 45, Thursby Road. Colbran, Arthur, 108, Manchester Road. Collinge, Edgar S., Brentwood House, Brooklands Road. Collinge, John S., J.P., Park House. Collinge, Thomas A., Greenfield, Burnley. Crook, Campbell, 236, Manchester Road. Crook, Thomas, J.P., Rosedale. Crossland, Tiios., B.Sc., Asburton, Ightenhill Park Lane. Crossley, Arthur, 9, Carlton Road. Crump, T. G., B.A., M.B., Brown Hill. Dent, Harry, 133, Manchester Road. Dickinson, G. E., Hazel Mount. Dickinson, G. S., 3, Brooklands Avenue. Drew, Alexander, Holme Lodge. Drew, Daniel, J.P., Powerhouse. Drew, Edward, Holme Lodge. Drew, J. M., Ighten Grange, Padiham Road. Duckworth, Joshua, 6, Manchester Road. Elsden, Charles, B.A., 169, Healey Grove. Emmott, Alderman Hartley, J.P., 9, Knightsbridge Grove. Fenton, Jas., 161, Oxford Road. Flint, Rev. F., 81, Rectory Road. Flynn, Jas., Arkwright Street, Ightenhill. Fullalove, W. T., Woodlands, Scott Park. Gardner, James, M.B., C.M., 1, Piccadilly Road. Gill, George, J.P., Woodleigh. Grant, A. E., 6, Scott Park Road. Grant, Bertram D., Oak Bank. Grant, F. J., J.P., Oak Bank. Grant, J. Selwyn, Oak Bank. Grant, John Murray, Lansdowne Street. Grant, Walter M., 67, Halifax Road, Brierfield. Grant, W. Lewis, 14, Palatine Square. Gray, N. P., J.P., 10, Coppice Drive, Harrogate. Grey, H. D., 104, Albion Street. Hacking, John, 71, Rectory Road. Halstead, Edmund, Healey Grove. Hargreaves, Luther, 57, Scott Park Road. Hargreaves, F. A., 7, Park Avenue. 1U Marling, Richard T., 181, Coal Clough Lane. Hartley, T. H., 21, Hawthorne Road. Hartley, W. H., Hoarstones, nr. Burnley. Harrison, Rev. T., St. Mary Magdalene’s. Haworth, James, M.B., Ch.B., Wilfield House. Haworth, Thos., 13, Lee Green Street, Duke Bar. Haythornthwaite, Robert, Reedley Road, Brierfield. Heap, John F., Hood House Grove. Heap, Wilkinson, 175, Todmorden Road. Hitchin, Robert, 15, Ormerod Road. Hodgson, W. H., B.A., 11, Palatine Square. Holden, John, Rose Bank, Manchester Road. Horn, J. S., J.P., Glenmere, Scott Park. Hough, Alderman Wm., Simonstone. Howarth, J. H., F.A.I., 259, Manchester Road. Howorth, John, J.P., Park View. Huck, William, Rose Hill Road. Hudson, Frank, LL.B., Manchester Road. Hudson, ]ames, Junr., Holme Hill, Coal Clough Lane. Hudson, Samuel, 14b. Piccadilly Road. Hurtley, John, 181, Manchester Road. Hynd, James Francis, Reedley Terrace, Reedley. 1 sherwood, Wm., Windgate, Higher Brunshaw. Jobling, Col. Albert, Springwood. Jones, E., Broomieknowe, Padiham Road. Joseland, H. L., M.A., 6, Piccadilly Road. Kay, Graham B., Towneley Villa. Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa. Kershaw, Wm. H., 83, Woodgrove Road. Kettleborough, Rev. G. W., Ightenhill Manse. Kneeshaw, J. W., 173, Todmorden Road. Lancaster, Arthur Iv., Morningside, Carlton Road. Lancaster, James, J.P., Westholme, Carlton Road. Lancaster, Norman R., Morningside, Carlton Road. Lancaster, Thomas Edgar, 25, Palatine Square. Lancaster, William, Morningside, Carlton Road. Landless, Stephen, 271, Manchester Road. Lfa, Richard S., 22, Piccadilly Road. Leedam, James, 41, Ormerod Road. I.upton, Albert, 7, Scott Park Road. 1. upton, Arthur, 12, St. Matthew Street. I.upton, J. T., 7, Carlton Road. 115 Mackie, John Stevenson, 33, St. Matthew Street. Mather, W.. Brentwood, Brierfield. Mawson, Fred, 22, St. Matthew Street. Mercer, Robinson, 478, Padiham Road. Midgley, C. W., 19, Scott Park Road. Norman, Edwin, 15, Knightsbridge Grove. Nowell, T. B , Willow Bank, Brooklands Road. Nuttall, George, 73, Thursby Road. Nutt all, H. R., 18, Glen View Road. Ogden, Harry, 71, Ormerod Road. Overton, G. E., 50, Colne Road. Parker, Wilkinson, Yorke Street. Parkinson, Herbert, Lark Hill, Manchester Road. Parkinson, Isaiah, 3, Park Avenue. Parkinson, T. G., Carlton House. Pearse, Frank, 4, Nicholas Street. Pemberton, J. C., L.R.C.P., &c., 102, Accrington Road. Pemberton, Thomas Herbert, Sunny Bank. Pemberton, Wm„ Junr,, Sunny Bank. Pickles, A. R., M.A., 128, Todmorden Road. Pollard, John T., 36, Westgate. Preston, Thomas, Ravens Holme, St. Anne’s. Procter, Harry, LL.B., 95, Ormerod Road. Proctor, Wm. Henry, 19, Colne Road. Proctor, Thomas, Hazel Mount, Manchester Road, Nelson. Ouarmby, W. A., 18, St. Matthew’s Street. Ralph, Wilfred, 266, Manchester Road. Redman, Thomas, 14, Hawthorne Road. Ritchie, G. S., Palace House' Roberts, Arthur, 59, Colne Road. Roberts, Thos., 70, Bank Parade. Robinson, H. J., B.A., M.R.C.S., Springfield House. Rothwell, James H., 158, Coal Clough Lane. Ryder, William, Newlands Villa. Sargisson, Rev. C. S., 17, Heaton Road, Withington. Scowby, Francis, Ormerod Road. Shuttleworth, The Rt. Hon. Lord, Gawthorpe Hall. Simpson, H. W., 170, Todmorden Road. Simpson, Robt., Rose Cottage, Todmorden Road. Simpson, W. F., Hapton. 116 Slater, Joseph, The Summit. Smirthwaite-Black, J. L., M.B., C.M., Coal Clough House. Smith, James, 122, Manchester Road. Smith, John, 21, Curzon Street. Smith, T. Freeman, Pendle View, Coal Clough Lane. Smith, T. P., J.P., Mountsorrel, Manchester Road. Snowball, Thomas, M.B., 83, Bank Parade. Southern, Guy, Palace House. Southern, Walter, Palace House. Stephenson, P. H., 4, Carlton Road. Stuttard, Thos., Duke of York Hotel. Sutcliffe, J. S., Causeway End. Swift, James, Briercliffe Road. Tate, William, 16, Piccadilly Road. Taylor, Samuel, 50, Rosehill Road. Thomas, Peregrine, Woodleigh. Thompson, James, 328, Padiham Road. Thompson, J. W., J.P., Oak Bank. Thompson, W., Park Side. Thornber, Alderman T., J.P., Healey Hall. Thornton, F. E., Syle Croft, Padiham Road. Thorp, Thos., 11, Manchester Road. Thursby, Sir J. 0. S., Bart., J.P., D.L., Ormerod. Towers, Adam, 112, Brougham Street. Waddington, J. H., 22, Palatine Square. Walmsley, G., J.P., Estcourt, St. Annes-on-the-Sea. Walmsley, J. F., Brooklands Avenue, Walsh, John, 16, Palatine Square. Walton, Donald, Lynwood, Manchester Road. Walton, Levi, 79, Woodgrove Road. Walton, Robert, Willow Bank, Warburton, Alderman W, J.P., Park Side, Scott Park. Watson, Tom, 87, Albion Street. Webster, George, 69, Tarleton Street. Whittingham, Richard, Sunny Mount, St. Matthew Street. Witham, Wm., J.P., Rockwood. Witham, W. F., Fir Grove. Wolkenberg, Marcus A., 4, Piccadilly Road. Wood, G. A., M.A., 58, Glebe Street. Wood, J. W., Brooklands Road. 117 LIST OF LADY ASSOCIATES ON December 31st, 1909. Allen, Miss Mary L., B.Sc., Hazel Mount. Allen, Mrs. Joseph, Hazel Mount, Padiham Road. Ashworth, Miss Sarah, 6, Sackville Street. Barritt, Miss Ellen, 67, Church Street. Bates, Miss M. A., 11, Carlton Road. Bowker, Miss Mabel A., 101, Manchester Road. Bulcock, Mrs. E., 124, Hollingreave Road. Button, Miss Catherine, Inglewood, Scott Park. Capstick, Miss Emma, 15, Scott Street. Colledge, Miss, Outwood Grove. Cowpe, Miss Maggie, B.A., Park Avenue. Dickinson, Miss M., 8, Harriet Street. Dodgeon, Miss J., 13, Spencer Street, Padiham. Farrer, Miss E., 15, St. Matthew Street. Ferguson, Mrs., 72, Colne Road. Fletcher, Miss Elizabeth, 124, Hollingreave Road. Gill, Miss Elsie, L.R.A.M., Woodleigh. Hardwtck, Mrs., 10, Hawthorne Road. Hargreaves, Miss, 24, St. Matthew Street. Hargreaves, Miss F., 24, St. Matthew Street. Harty, Miss, 18, Scott Park Road. Heap, Miss F. A., B.A., Thursby Square. Heaton, Mrs., 99, Rectory Road. Holgate, Miss M., 16, Glen View Road. Holt, Mrs. Mary, 1a, Scott Park Road. 118 Latham, Miss A., M.Sc., Northleigh, Mayville Rd., Brierfield. Nugent, Miss B., The Infirmary. Pickles, Miss Jessie, Tonderghie, Padiham Road. Pratt, Miss, Hollin Bank House, Brierfield. Pratt, Miss Annie, Hollin Bank House, Brierfield. Riley, Mrs. Ada, 14, Thursby Road. Roberts, Miss M. A., Stoneyholme Cottage, Holme Road. Rothwell, Miss Annie, 158, Coal Clough Lane. Smith, Mrs. T. Freeman, Pendle View, Coal Clough Lane. Strange, Mrs. Mary I.., Greenfield House. Watson, Miss Ethel M., Ighten Grove. Wilkinson, Miss M. E., 44, Herbert Street. Wood, Miss, 268, Manchester Road. Wright, Miss E., 116, Coal Clough Lane. 119 INDEX TO CONTRIBUTORS. Ascoli, W. S., F.R.G.S “ Guatemala — Travels and Experiences ” Bowdler, R. Hope, J.P “Life and Conduct in Modern England ” Compston, S “ Henry de Laci, The Great Earl of Lincoln ” Dixon, Professor H. B., F.R.S. “ A Journey round Africa, with visits to some of our African Dominions ” Grant, W. Lewis “ The York Historic Pageairt ” Hamer, Rev. Thos “The Scottish Covenanters”.. Henn, The Rt. Rev. Canon, D.D. “Wind and Weather” Holden, John “ The York Historic Pageant ” Hoyle, C. A “ The Renaissance ” Hudson, F., LL.B Debate Kneeshaw, J. W “ Cup and Glass ” Nuttall, George “ Humour and Pathos of Lancashire Life”.. Payne, Rev. G. A “ Mrs. Gaskell and Knutsford ” Pemberton, T. H Musical Evening Perkins, Rev. Jocelyn, M. A.. F.R.Hist.S. “ St. Paul’s Cathedral ” Ritchie, G. S “ Oliver Goldsmith ” Robson, J. Walter “ Alpine Peaks and Valleys (from Tyrol to Dauphine) ” Sargisson, Rev. C. S " Some Old English Inns ” .... Sargisson, Rev. C. S “ Dr. Johnson ” Shawcross, Henry D “ Richard Jefferies — Naturalist and Idealist ” . . Sluubsole, W. IT., F.G.S “Rambles in Hungary” Sinkinson, J. H., M.A “ The Report of the Commission on the Poor Laws — A Review and Criticism ” Sutcliffe, J. Stansfield "The York Llistoric Pageant” Thompson, W “A Walking Tour in the Tyrol ” Walton, Levi " The Chemist’s Aim in Various Ages ” 33 95 78 40 82 40 88 82 85 25 21 19 75 61 29 50 92 59 60 98 13 69 82 102 54 120 INDEX TO SUBJECTS. Africa. A Journey round, with visits to some of our African Dominions (Professor H. B. Dixon) 4(1 Alpine Peaks and Valleys (J. Walter Robson) 92 Chemist’s Aim in Various Ages, The (Levi Walton) 54 Cup and Glass (J. W. Kneeshaw) 21 Debate (F. Hudson) 25 Dinner, The Annual 104 Elslack, Excursion to G2 Gaskell, Mrs. and Knutsford (Rev. G. A. Payne) 75 Gisburn and Bolton -by-Bovvland, Excursion to (13 Goldsmith, Oliver (G. S. Ritchie) 50 Guatemala — Travels and Experiences (W. S. Ascoli) 33 Henry de Laci, The Great Earl of Lincoln (S. Compston) .... 78 Hungary, Rambles in (W. H. Shrubsole) 13 Inns, Some Old English (Rev. C. S. Sargisson) 59 Jefferies, Richard— Naturalist and Idealist (Henry D. Shawcross) 98 Johnson, Dr. (Rev. C. S. Sargisson) 60 Lancashire Life, Humour and Pathos of (George Nuttall) .... 19 Modern England, Life and Conduct in (R. Hope Bowdler) .... 95 Musical Evening (T. H. Pemberton) 61 Poor Laws, The Report of the Commission on — A Review and Criticism (J. LI. Sinkinson) 69 Renaissance, The (C. A. Hoyle) 85 Scottish Covenanters (Rev. Thos. Hamer) 40 St. Paul’s Cathedral (Rev. Jocelyn Perkins) 29 Tyrol, A Walking Tour in (Wm. Thompson) 102 Wind and Weather (Right Rev. Canon Henn) 88 York, Excursion to .• 64 York Historic Pageant (John Holden, J. S. Sutcliffe and W. Lewis Grant) . . 82 INDEX. Illustration ; — Portrait of Mr. H. L. Joseland, M.A Frontispiece. List of Officers ... ... 3 Rules 4 Annual Report 6 Syllabus 8, 9 Balance Sheet 10 Transactions 13—103 Annual Dinner 104 Library 105 Lists of Members and Associates Ill Index to Contributors 119 Index of Subjects 120 This Volume of Transactions WAS PREPARED FOR THE PRESS BY Mr. G. S. RITCHIE. ‘,9 MAR 1936