s «>%

J J

BURNLEY

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB

Established 1873

TRANSACTIONS

VOL. XXXIII

1915-16

MEMBER’S COPY

GEORGE ANDERSON (Burni.ey) Ltd.

ST. JAMES’ STREET.

MDCCCCXVI.

BURNLEY

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLUB

Established 1873

TRANSACTION'S

VOL. XXXIII

1915-16

MEMBER’S COPY

GEORGE ANDERSON (Burnley) Ltd.

ST. JAMES’ STREET

MDCCCCXVI.

Burnlep Citerarp ana Scientific Club

Established 1873.

OFFICERS OF THE CLUB

Year 1915 — 1(5.

President :

H. L. JOSELAND, M.A.

Vice-Presidents :

Fred. J. Grant, J.P. Wm. Thompson

W. Lewis Grant Arthur A. Bellingham

Jas. Lancaster, J.P. Frank Hudson, LL.B.

Hon. Treasurer : Frank F. Thornton.
Hon. Secretary : Arthur Lewis, B.A., F.G.S.

Committee :

John S. Mackie
T. G. Parkinson

G. S. Ritchie

G. A. Wood, M.A.
J. T. Lupton
T. Foster

4

Rule 1
Rule 2

Rule :i
Rule -1

Rule :

Rule (
Rule ’

Rule

RULES OF THE CLUB.

That the Society be named the “ Burnley Literary and
Scientific. Club.”

That the objects of the Club shall be the instruction and
mental recreation of its members by means of original papers,
discussions, and conversation of a literary and scientific
character. Part}' politics and religious controversies to be
excluded. That arrangements be made during the summer
for excursions to places of historic and natural interest.

That the Club consist of Ordinary and Honorary Members
and Lady Associates. That the Committee shall have power
to accept the services of other than members.

That Associateship be open to ladies, who shall be elected
as mentioned in Rule 7 and shall have the privilege of
attending all meetings of the Club. They shall not take
part in the management of the Club, nor shall they be
entitled to introduce a friend.

> That the Club meet on Tuesday evenings at 7-45, the
meetings being weekly from September to April. Any
meetings held in the summer months to be preparatory
to the excursions.

1 That the Secretary shall commence the proceedings at each
meeting by reading the minutes of the last meeting.

1 That candidates for membership or associateship be pro-
posed and seconded at any meeting of the Club, and shall
after the expiration of five days be considered as elected
unless two members object to such election. Any such
objection shall be stated to the Secretary in writing, signed
by both objectors, within five days from the nomination ;
and shall as soon as conveniently possible thereafter be
considered by the Committee, who shall have hower to elect
or refuse the proposed candidate. Candidates for honorary
membership shall be proposed only after a recommendation
from the Committee.

That the officers consist of a President, six Vice-Presidents,
Treasurer, Secretary, and a Committee of six members, who
shall manage the affairs of the Club ; four to form a quorum.
Such officers to be chosen by ballot at the Annual Meeting,
which shall be held on the first convenient Tuesday in April.
Nominations to be received only at the three meetings next
preceding the Annual Meeting.

5

Rule 9 That the reading of any paper shall not occupy more than
one hour, the remaining portion of the time, up to ten o’clock,
to be spent in conversation and discussion. No speaker to
occupy more than five minutes, or to speak more than once,
except by permission of the chairman.

Rule 10 That a Sessional Programme shall be prepared by the Sec-
retary, and printed, in which the business of each evening
shall be stated. All subjects proposed to be brought before
the Club to be approved by the Committee of Management.

Rule 1 1 That each member shall have the privilege of introducing a
friend* but no friend so introduced shall be allowed to take
part in the proceedings unless invited by the Chairman, to
whom the said person’s name shall be communicated on his
entrance into the room. The Committee shall have power
to declare any meeting “ Special,” and to make such
arrangements as to admission of friends at such meetings
as they shall think proper.

Rule 12 That an annual subscription of 10s. be paid by ordinary
members, and of 5s. by associates, and any person whose
subscription is in arrear for three months shall cease to be
a member of the Club.

Rule 13 That the Accounts of the Club shall be made up by the
Treasurer to the end of December in each year ; and a Bal-
ance Sheet shall, after having been audited, and passed by
the Committee, be laid before the members at the Annual
Meeting.

Rule 14 That the Rules be altered only at the Annual Meeting in
April, or at a Special Meeting ; in both cases a fortnight’s
notice shall be given to the members, stating the nature of
the proposed alteration. The Secretary shall be empowered
to call a special meeting on receiving a requisition signed by
six members.

* No gentleman residing within the Parliamentary Borough,
not being a member, will be eligible for admission. A friend is
considered to be “introduced” (Rule 11) to the meetings of the
Club when he or she attends with the sanction (by card or other-
wise) of a member.

\

ANNUAL REPORT

1915—1916.

The Forty-first Annual Report of the Club herein presented
by the Committee is a record of work done under unprece-
dented conditions. The heavy cloud of depressing uncer-
tainty which darkened our horizon at the outbreak of war
has lifted and revealed brighter rays of hope ; and the nation
has now settled down to a state of war which suggests a pro-
tracted struggle. Military needs have become so gigantic
that the life and habits of people have been vastly changed
to satisfy these demands. It is especially gratifying there-
fore to your Committee in presenting this reivew of the
Session to be able to state that, despite the war conditions,
the character of that work has maintained the best traditions
of the Club and thoroughly justifies the continuance of the
meetings.

The Committee are pleased to note an increasing interest
in the Club as shown by a better average attendance at the
lectures. Notwithstanding the fact that those who are left
behind to carry on civil life have immeasurably greater de-
mands on their time, yet there was a higher average atten-
dance than last year. For the session 1914-1915, the average
attendance was 68 (36 members and 32 associates and friends) ;
for the session just completed it was 72 (40 members and 32
associates and friends). This is the more gratifying for two
reasons. Firstly, some members who take an active interest
in the work of the Club are now serving in the ranks of war :
and the Committee have elected these, — Dr. W. G. Evans,
Graham B. Kay, J. V. Kershaw, A. K. Lancaster, T. Edgar
Lancaster, Dr. W. W. Munro, Maclaren Founder, G. S. Ritchie,
W. A. Welch, John Whitaker, to be honorary members of
the Club during their period of active service. Secondly,
flic total number of members at present is slightly less than
it was at this time last year. The actual figures at present
are : 12 Honorary Members, 167 Ordinary Members, and 52
Associates, making a total of 231 members and associates,
as compared with 10 Honorary Members, 175 Ordinary Mem-
bers, 49 Associates, and a total of 234 members and associates
at the end of Session 1914-1915.

7

The Committee regret to record that during the past year
death has taken away one of the founders of the Club, Mr.
T. P. Smith, J.P., and the Hon. Auditor, Mr. Thomas Proctor
A.C.A.

It was not without considerable misgivings that the Com-
mittee received the tendered resignation of the late Honorary
Secretary, Mr. Frank Hudson, LL.B., who had given nine
years’ unstinted and devoted service to the work of the
Club. His resignation was accepted with mingled feelings,
of regret at his retirement, and of admiration of the ability
which had characterised his tenure of office. The Committee
were pleased with the response to the appeal for subscriptions
which they addressed to you, by which you showed your
approval of their desire to mark the Club’s appreciation of
the late Secretary’s services.

The exigences of war have been more noticeable in the
construction of the Syllabus than in any other aspect of
the Club life, as may be inferred from the fact that twelve
new lecturers have been introduced. Nevertheless the
Committee in providing a wide range of topics to suit the
diversity of taste, succeded in maintaining a high standard.
And in order to attain one of the first objects of the Club,
members in particular, and men closely connected with
Burnley were invited to contribute to the Syllabus. One
half of the lectures were provided in this manner. That
you appreciate the efforts of the Committee in this direction
is evident from the higher attendance on these evenings.

An analysis of the lectures delivered during the past
session reveals the following interesting details : 8 were devoted
to Travel, 4 to Literary Subjects, 3 to Science, 2 each to Edu-
cation and War Topics, and 1 each to History, Art, and Music.
At a time when war literature is so abundant, only two topics
closely connected with the war were introduced into the
Syllabus, and these were treated by two lecturers eminently
qualified to deal with the subjects. In such a splendid
series of lectures it would be invidious to single out any for
special comment.

Lantern slides were used to illustrate fourteen of the
lectures, and the expert manipulation of the lantern by
the Honorary Lanternist, Mr. T. G. Parkinson, invariably
commented upon by the lecturers, greatly enhanced the
pleasure affored by the use of illustrations. It is, therefore,
with much regret that the Committee view Mr. Parkinson’s
retirement from this position, in which he has displayed such
skill and earned the well-merited confidence of the Club.

8

The Committee feel in presenting this report that their
satisfaction will be shared by the members. Yet they wish to
remark that the meetings could be improved if certain features
were remedied. It is unfortunate that so many members
leave the room immediately at the conclusion of a lecture.
Very often an interesting discussion brings out the very best
in a lecture, and provides an opportunity of raising questions
which are in the nature of difficulties to individual members.
To the Committee it would be a pleasure to hear fresh voices
in these discussions, and to see a more active part taken by
the members in the meetings. In this way would members
obtain the maximum advantage for themselves and assist
the Committee in increasing the usefulness, and promoting
the best interests of the Club.

A. Lewis, Hon. Sec.

PAST SECRETARIES.

W. A. W ADDINGTON

... 1874—79

W. Lewis Grant

.. 1879—83

J. Mackenzie, M.D

.. 1883—84

V/. Lewis Grant

.. 1884—87

T. Lloyd, B.A

.. 1887—88

William Thompson

.. 1888—90

Thomas Hartley Roberts

.. 1890—92

Arthur E. Grant

.. 1892—93

T. G. Crump, B.A., M.B. ...

.. 1893—98

T. E. Rodgers, LL.B

... 1898—02

Thos. Crossland, B.Sc

... 1902—04

Charles Hargreaves

... 1904—06

Frank Hudson, LL.B

... 1906—15

10

Oct.

> )

>>

Nov.

>>

))

Dec.

SYLLABUS

OCTOBER TO DECEMBER, l'.Hj.

5 — “The Formation of the Sun and Stars”

Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., F.R.A.S.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

1 2 — “ Education and National Efficiency ”

A. R. Pickles, M.A.

19— "Delphi and the Greek Oracles”

Rev. J. H. Hopkinson, M.A.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

26—” The Water we drink ”

Karri Heap, M.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

2 — " Where Three Empires Meet — Poland ”

Samuel Wells, F.R.G.S.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

9 — “Incidents in an Indian Tour” .. Robert S. Heap.

16 — “Persia, Past and Present” .. .. W. Leonard Flinn.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

23 — “Masefield’s Sea Chronicles” I F. Rhodes.

30 — “ How to enjoy a good Picture”

Hen. H. Mu li en, M.A.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

7 — “Sir Francis Drake” Norman R. Lancaster.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

14 — “ Schubert as a Song-Writer - an Appreciation ”

Rev. I Gordon Mee .

(Illustrated by Selections).

11

SYLLABUS

JANUARY TO APRIL, 1916.

Jan. 18 — “British Columbia and the Pacific Coast”

Councillor Richard Leigh, J.P.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

25 — “ Submarines, Mines, and Torpedoes ”

Thomas Wiiyman.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

Feb. 1 — “Municipality and Medicine”

Councillor Dr. J. W. Clegg.

,, 8 — “ Yorkshire, its Folk-lore, Customs, and Broad Acres”

Henry Crowthkr, F.R.M.S.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

,, 15 — “The Sahara and its Fauna”

Graham Renshaw, M.D., F.R.S.E.
(Illustrated by the I an tern).

,, 22 — “Wanderings in Venezuela”

F. G. Percival, B.Sc., F.G.S.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

,, 29 — “Concerning Likes and Dislikes”

Rev. T. Walton Meredith.

Mar. 7 — “ The Balkans and its Peoples ”

L. B. dc Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S.

,, 14 — “ Education and National Efficiency ”

Thomas Foster.

,, 21 — “Recital : Nicholas Nickleby ”

Rev. A. R. Runnels-Moss, M.A.

,, 28 — “A Trip to the Jotunheim ”

Samuel Pope, Recorder of Burnley.
(Illustrated by the Lantern).

Apr. 4— ANNUAL MEETING.

Burnley Literary and Scientific Club.

Treasurer's Account for the year ending the 3 1st day of December, 1915.

Ut

Pt

rc 10 10 35 iq c

05

O.

cd

o

o

u

rf W C - O C
— < CM

t/3

.2

■4-J

o
a

'£ CM

ro
cd *
£ d>

.2 • C ‘ .O r3
*5 I^o

c

o

O

o

</5

c

■p

cd

4-»

W>

W < O CU Oh

5 ^
aT H
£ :

u

c

CD

Id

o

bX>

O

ttj

O

3

C/5

05

o ;

cd

05

X CO

05

O

cd

cd

CQ

05

1:^-0

I .,: r - •• - - - - ■*

> W C O « d1 O iC - C-l -i 1^ o

05 CM — CM

^ Cl

O -f
Gi CM

•£

<M —

, 1 j

A -

CM

•-C CM

<3*

— 1

X <M <M

—

>0 -t

—

-S. ~

O'- <M

1

_

^ iO 1.0 C

• 0 CM C »C

FRANK E. THORNTON, Hon. Treasurer. Audited and found correct,

January 20th, 1916. G. A. WOOD, Hon. Auditor. March 16th, 1916.

TRANSACTIONS,

1915-16.

15

THE FORMATION OF THE SUN AND

STARS.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By Rev. A. L. CORTIE , S.J., F.R.A.S. October 5th, 1915.

The lecture opened with a review of certain aspects of the
solar system. Astronomers have established the existence
of several remarkable concords among the bodies of which
the solar system is composed. It was pointed out that—

(1) All the planets rotate on their axes in a counter-

clock-wise direction

(2) All the planets revolve round the sun in the same

direction as the sun itself rotates

(3) The orbits of the planets all lie in the same plane

(4) The distances of the planets from the sun are in

accord with a certain fixed formula known as

Bode’s law.

These concords, the lecturer argued, can scarcely be fortui-
tous. They unify the solar system and strongly suggest that
the bodies composing it belong to one family and perhaps
have a common origin.

With this in mind and with the aid of long exposure photo-
graphs obtained by high-power telescopes, the audience was
invited to survey the general stellar system. Attention was
first directed to those blurred indeterminate patches of light
known as nebulae and several photographic slides of great
beauty were thrown upon the screen displaying their shape-
less and filmy forms. These were followed b} photographs
of similar nebulous masses clearly revealing the existence of
a certain amount of central condensation or “ kernel.” Other
slides shewed the nebulous areas with the “ kernel ” more
clearly defined and of starlike luminosity and in some the
existence of a distinctly spiral form in the nebulous mass
itself was revealed, with the stars strung on the spirals like
pearls on a string. As this appearance is general, the connec-
tion between the stars and the nebulous spirals is probably
physical and not purely optical. Further examples of stellar
photography made it clear that in certain cases, series of
stars and nebulous condensations take a spiral conformation
when considered in relation to a well-defined and starlike
centre.

16

The lecturer pointed out that this gradation — from shape-
less filmy form, through nebulous nuclei, to starlike conden-
sations related to a kind of central mass — would seem to
suggest that we really have exemplified various stages in an
evolutionary process. Just as an ordered series of relation-
ships establishes the unity of our solar system, so the many
examples of nebulous matter in all the various stages of a
condensing process, would seem to establish an essential
connection between the stars, as we know them, and the
faint nebulous areas which only the high-power telescope can
reveal. Spectroscopy confirms this connection for the stars
and the nebulae give similar spectra — that is, though the
materials are the same in the celestial spaces, there is a gradual
complexity of arrangement and appearance as we pass from
the nebulae to the white and yellow and on to the red stars —
through helium, hydrogen, calcium, and metals to the chemical
compounds. What differences there are in these spectra are
due to differences in the “ age ” of the bodies, i.e., to differ-
ences of temperature. For it should not be overlooked that,
in the nebulae and in the stars, among which we must class
the sun, there must be going on during the working out of
this evolutionary process a tremendous expenditure of
energy which is gradually dissipating itself in heat and
luminosity.

Apart from its main theme, the lecture was remarkable for
the striking way in which the great immensities of space and
distance were vividly brought home to the minds of the
audience. The vast field of stellar photography and teles-
copy was well illustrated by the fact that whereas about
6,000 stars were visible to the naked eye, it was certain that
not less than a hundred million stars could be distinguished
by the great telescope of the Lick observatory. Again,
something of the tremendous distance of the stars from the
earth was revealed when the lecturer incidentally remarked
that a sphere, of radius equal to a million times the distance
of the eaith from the sun, would probably contain only about
eighteen stars ; and las+ly, after reminding his audience that
light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles per second, the
lecturer said that, if by some universal catastrophe the whole
of the stars were instantly rendered extinct, four and a half
years would elapse before th\ inhabitants of earth missed
the nearest of the stars, and 38,000 years before they would
observe the disappearance of the last.

17

EDUCATION AND NATIONAL
EFFICIENCY.

By A. R. PICKLES, M.A. October 12 th, 1915.

Mr. Pickles first of all stated that no great national upheaval
could fail to touch more closely the great problem of the
educational needs of our homes ; and of all domestic subjects
brought into prominence by the war, that of education was
easily foremost. Optimists had declared that education had
saved the State, while, on the other hand, pessimists pro-
claimed that there was much lacking in our educational
system. Still it was beginning to be recognised that it was
foolish to allow education to be crippled. Public opinion
was more surely grasping that British tenacity significant
of the people of the nation. The latter numbers were small
compared with our world-wide interests, and we must there-
fore make up in the quality of our people what we lacked
in numbers, by developing every individual to the height of
his capacity. It would be unwarrantably foolish in this
great national crisis to confuse the personnel of education
with economy. Next to the actual necessaries of life and
ammunition of war, education ought to be our very first
concern.

Mr. Pickles then went on to give examples of the success
which had attended education in the last fifty years, and he also
gave some startling examples, from various sources, of educa-
tional shortcomings. We had, he said, made great educational
progress since 1870, and this progress had given us some
fine new material in our people. We had, however, lost in
carefulness and accuracy and commonsense, because we had
dulled the sense of responsibility in the parent and the sense
of effort in the child. To say that our education as a whole
had failed was a kernel of truth covered with a thick husk
of fallacy. Mr. Pickles followed with a strong plea for more
efficient and more effective physical training in the school.
We had not yet given half the attention to physical training
which it deserved. At the time of the Boer War, 8,000 out
of 11,000 Manchester men who offered themselves for the
Army were rejected, and quite recently the Lord Mayor had
said that if all had been able to pass, Manchester would have
sent 200,000 men to the new Army instead of 90,000. There

18

should be compulsory physical training for every boy in the
land from the age of ten or eleven to about seventeen or
eighteen. Some hard things had been said about mental
training. The greatest hindrance to education was the
indifference of parents and the indifference of pupils. There
was no lack of ability or lack of opportunity, yet only a few
showed any real love of learning or ardent energy in pursuit
of it.

The removal from the schools of the old annual examin-
ations rid the schools of some great evils, and also withdrew
some of the effective stimulus of individual effort in the
school. The present system of instruction had its good
points, but it was too accidental in its nature, and was prone
to err grievously in its estimates. We had probably gained
in our general intelligence ; we had gained, too, in our quali-
fications ; but we had decidedly lost in our sense of honour,
in definite purpose in our patient preparation. The average
child of the present day had few incentives to exertion, and
so long as he avoided extreme misconduct and paid the mini-
mum of attention to his teachers, he could enjoy a very com-
fortable life, free from effort. We should have to go back
to some of the drudgery of education— getting to know one
thing at a time, and knowing it well. We should attempt
fewer subjects, and wrestle with those we did attempt until
we forced from them their blessing. Developments of
character and intelligence were of the first value, and in a
school where honest hard work was carried on regularly the
character of the pupils was in a great measure assured. A
child was not educated by doing anything anyhow, but by
doing something well.

The bulk of our educational wastage, said Mr. Pickles,
lay between the years of 13 and 17. Children left school
just as intelligence began to broaden and character to expand,
and we were losing half the value of the elementary schools.
A large number of those who attended our continuation
schools were those who had done well at school, and those
who most needed continued education used the continuation
school least. A system of compulsory continuation schools
was needed. Part time at the right time was good, and
the conditions of industry should be adapted to meet the
needs. In our secondary schools the effect of early leaving
was largely to cripple their usefulness, especially in those
higher forms where education really began to tell. A secondary
school was not a place to “ put on a polish ” in twelve months
or two years. We should have much to do in the next few'

19

years in shaping higher education so as to direct it more
into our industrial, commercial, and technical activities,
and possibly in developing the scope of the secondary schools
to meet this end.

But when all our organisation had been done, what most
counted was the teacher. Really successful teaching deman-
ded from the teacher great skill, energy, and perseverance,
much devotion and self-sacrifice. Teaching could be made
the hardest of all occupations or the easiest. Given self-
sacrifice and the rest, teaching, though hard, was full of
absorbing interest, or it could be conducted in a very per-
functory fashion. Under present-day conditions, given a
head teacher with a high standard for the work of himself
and his staff and his children — a standard pursued with
devotion and self-sacrifice— and you could not give too much
honour and emolument. For over fifty years we had been
building a system of national education which still had many
imperfections and many lacuna. We were learning the value
of thoroughness of education, and we should need greater
effort devoted to national efficiency. The problem for us
was to get out of the Britisher the best of his capabilities,
and to cultivate to the highest possible extent individual
and collective efficiency, and to direct all our efforts to true
and noble ends, and Britain would still stand four square
to the blasts of the murderous Hun.

0

20

DELPHI AND THE GREEK ORACLES.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By Rev. J. H. HOPKINSON, M.A. October 19///, 1915.

The subject was approached by the mention of the various
ways in which the term “ oracle ” is used ; sometimes the
word denotes a place, sometimes the answer given by the
deity associated with the place ; sometimes, the god himself.
There were, said the lecturer, in ancient Greece considerably
over two hundred oracles though not all of them were of
importance. Many of them were concerned with petty and
domestic questions and some inscribed leaden strips found
at Dodona were instanced as shewing the trivial nature of
the queries ; but certain oracles, notably that of Delphi,
were sought to solve problems of public and national import
requiring a wisdom such as neither statesmen nor philosophers
could give.

By the aid of lantern slides the lecturer described the
country round Delphi and Mount Parnassus. Ancient Delphi
itself standing high up on a ledge or shoulder of Parnassus
and near the gorge of the Pleistos, must have been invested
by its natural surroundings with a peculiar and mysterious
sanctity. Add to this, the fact that Parnassus itself is the
geographical centre of Greece and the pre-eminence of this
Delphic shrine of Apollo will be quite understood.

The sanctuary itself consisted of a miscellaneous collection
of buildings, set close round a central shrine. The temple
itself stood elevated on a terrace and was approached from
the outer gates of the sanctuary by a winding way. On
either side this way were to be found statues, porticoes for
shelter and rest, an open-air altar, various forms of dedica-
tions to the gods and, most striking of all, the miniature
temple-like buildings known as treasuries. The latter were
built by the individual Greek states and were intended to
house special offerings to the gods, and the robes and other
appurtenances of ritual to be donned by those seeking the
wisdom of the oracle within the sanctuary. Two of the
most interesting examples were treated at length ; the
Treasury of the Athenians, though damaged in past centuries

21

by stones which have fallen from the cliffs above, has been
partially restored through the skill and industry of French
savants and lantern slides shewing the Doric pillars, the
metopes representing the labours of Hercules and the
bright colouring of its stones were thrown upon the screen ;
the other example — the Treasury of Cnidus — was of rather
different style and in its richness of sculptural decoration
displayed the taste of the Asiatic Greeks rather than that
of the Athenians.

The temple was next described and illustrated in detail.
Within the portico were inscribed wise sayings of the Greeks
(“ It is hard to be good,” “ Water is best,” “ Know thyself,”
“ Go bail and be sorry for it ”), while over the inner doorway
was the mysterious symbol, E, the precise significance of
which has never been satisfactorily explained. One theory
interprets it as equivalent to “ if ” as though questioning
the presence of the god, while another construes it as “ thou
art ” thus definitely asserting the god’s existence. Beyond
this portal lay the main hall of the temple containing the
“ seat of Pindar ” and beyond it an inner chamber of the
priests containing the venerable “ omphalos ” or central stone
of the world. Below this chamber was the rift in the rock — the
reputed cause of the existence of the oracle. The lecturer
stated that, though search had been made in the rock under-
neath the building, no trace of any rift had been discovered.
Literary evidence is so strong however, that one cannot
doubt its former presence and it must be presumed that some
seismic disturbance has since obliterated all trace of it.

The subsequent portion of the lecture was devoted to the
manner in which the oracle was delivered. On certain days
of the month the enquirers gathered and handed in their
questions to the priests of the sanctuary. Deep down below
the floor level sat the priestess — an unlettered peasant —
who, having prepared herself by the drinking of water and
by chewing the leaves of the laurel, sat over the rift in the
rock until the fumes and vapours which rose therefrom
produced a kind of intoxication. The priests then pro-
pounded to her the questions submitted and from her inco-
herent cries culled answers which were delivered by them
in hexameter verse to the anxious seekers. It is noteworthy
that none were sent away unanswered through the practical
value of the answers varied very considerably. Some conveyed
really valuable advice, some were ambiguous or purposely
misleading or mysterious, others were tragically ironic. In
conclusion the lecturer dwelt for a time upon the influence of

22

the oracles on Greek national life. As far as their influence
is traceable it can certainly be said that they achieved some
valuable ends. The oracles encouraged emigration and the
founding of new colonies, they fostered humane principles
at a period of the world’s history when methods of strife
were stark and cruel ; but, above all, oracular wisdom made
for moral righteousness, it enjoined respect for oaths and for
women, it warned the malefactor, it comforted and encouraged
the penitent.

23

THE WATER WE DRINK.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By HARRI HE A P, M.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. October 26th, 1915.

The most striking and yet the most fascinating phenomena
of nature are wrought by water, and without it life itself
would be extinct. In a perfectly pure state water was never
met with in nature, and could only be so obtained by the
most refined operations. Impurities in water were derived
from the materials— solid, liquid, or gaseous — with which it
came in contact, and they might be present either in a state
of solution or suspension or in both conditions ; but owing
to the great solvent powers of water all its natural forces
contained matters in both states. Waters might be con-
veniently classified according to their origin : — (a), rain, snow,
hail, hoarfrost, and dew, containing only impurities which
they derived from the atmosphere ; (b), upland surface waters,
which contained chiefly the remnants of decomposing vege-
table matter ; and (c,) surface waters from cultivated land
or partly cultivated land which were rich both in organic
matter and living organisms. Shallow well waters were similar
in their nature to surface waters, but deep wells generally
offered the characteristics of mineral waters. These — thermal,
saline, sulphated, alkaline, iron, or chalybeate — were interest-
ing more as medicinal waters than as types of the so-called
drinking waters.

The chief sources of drinking supplies were either surface
waters, lake waters, well waters, or artesian well waters.
Upland surface, cultivated land, and shallow well waters
presented more or less the same features ; whilst another
class, with similar properties, was formed by the deep well
and the artesian well waters. Primitive people draw their
supplies from the rivers, wells, lakes, or springs, but where
these supplies were periodic they had either to seek other
supplies or resort to storage in times of plenty. The Car-
thaginians and the Romans drew their supplies direct from
the freshly-thawed waters of the high mountains, and led
them down to their cities in huge aqueducts. In England
we generally resorted to artificial reservoirs, but of late we
had bridled the natural lakes and conducted the waters,
which were, so to speak, pure supplies, by the less picturesque

24

subterranean aqueducts. Later still, through sheer shortage
and economy, we had had to draw upon the waters of our
short, rapid (and polluted) rivers, but only had this been
possible with the advance of science, which had enabled us
to purify these waters, and so amend our supplies to our ever-
increasing needs.

Rain and snow waters were generally fairly pure, in that
they only contained dissolved atmospheric gases ; but when
they passed through atmospheres poUuted by our industrial
smokes, and other effluvia, which were carried by the winds
for miles and miles, and all manner of organic and inorganic
matters absorbed by the clouds, rain waters were contaminated
before they reached the earth. The nature of the land upon
which the rains fell also conditioned the quality of the
water, which now began to form our streams and rivers.
Open lands, over which both man and beast were free to roam,
offered further sources of contamination, but on enclosed
areas for gathering, these causes of contamination were dis-
pensed with in some degree. Then the nature of the land
itself played another role. Land where vegetation had
flourished offered the decomposing organic vegetable matters
to the water ; whilst rocky mineral areas offered saline
matters to the waters. These agencies thus produced a
certain amount of pollution for the water which served as
the food for the lower forms of animal and vegetable life. Of
the waters which sank into the ground, as distinct from the
river waters — these, because of longer period of contact, and
meeting with more variety of earthy matter, became more
heavily charged with both suspended and dissolved bodies ;
and so we found the deep wells and the springs always to
contain more solids than the surface waters. The consti-
tuents of the various strata through which the water per-
colated conditioned the nature of the saline contents of the
water, and determined the composition and extent of
the hardness of the water — which was a most important factor.
Simultaneously with all these processes of addition to the
water, we had the natural agencies at work for purification.
Purification consisted essentially of an oxidisation or a moist
combustion — that was, a striving of the forces of nature to
resolve dead organic matter into mineral matter. This
process was brought about by natural agencies, such as
the lower forms of vegetable and animal life, and ended
when there was nothing left in the water to support the exis-
tence of those forms of life, whilst the gaseous oxygen of
the atmosphere we breathed accomplished the final oxidi-
sation.

25

During the percolation of water through the layers of
soil a most effective purification took place. Suspended
matters were removed, and the matters in solution were
further oxidised ; and the deeper the water sank into the
bowels of the earth, the more was it likely to become freer
from the smaller forms of life which were spoken of as microbes.
One of the previously-mentioned types of water generally
served some community as a supply. In some cases the
water was utilised in its native condition, in others it under-
went a partial treatment, and yet in others it was subjected
to a prolonged and intricate treatment before distribution
to its consumers. The question as to the nature of the treat-
ment which a water ought to undergo before usage, depended
almost entirely on the nature and composition of the par-
ticular supply. Aesthetic tastes preferred a water which was
clear and sparkling, to a dull-coloured water, such as one
generally found in a moorland supply ; but, on the other
hand, the “ spring ” or the calcareous “ deep well ” supplies,
which were, as a rule, clear and sparkling, were not suitable,
nor yet economical, for domestic or industrial usage.. Again,
the heavily-charged river waters were both ugly and extrava-
gant when they were used without treatment. These remarks,
said the lecturer, were made on the assumption that the water
was, of course, primarily safe to use for drinking purposes.

All the objections he had made could be overcome by a
system of chemical treatment, followed by artificial filtration,
or, in some cases, by merely one of these processes. Where
it was necessary to draw the supply from a polluted source,
more stringent and more costly methods, of course, had to
be adoptecl. Even with supplies which were considered to
be unpolluted, it was oft times more economical to regard it
as polluted, and to subject the water to the same rigorous
treatment as would be meted out to a known contaminated
supply. In certain districts, after a series of epidemic out-
breaks, experience had persuaded them of their false economy,
and they now treated their water by processes exhibiting
all the skill which science could suggest. Accidental contam-
ination of a supply could occur at any moment, and it was
only by carefully thought-out treatment that these grave
dangers might be overcome.

There were many methods which could be adopted for the
artificial purification of waters, the most important being
sedimentation, sand filtration, mechanical filtration,
aeration with air or ozone, the treatment with chemicals
and also with bleaching powders. Sterilisation with ultra

26

violet light, and submitting the water to periods of storage,
were amongst the recent developments. In most cases two
or three of these processes were applied to one water, with
the idea of removing as much of the undesirable matter as
possible, producing a water of the required composition,
and rendering the water as free as possible, from any
chance of containing those organisms which gave rise to
specific diseases. Sedimentation basins were used for
removing the grosser suspended impurities, and, at the
same time, the water was slightly aerated, and, if need
be, might at this stage be treated partially, so as to
remedy any injurious feature. Sand filters were used
with the object of removing as much of the suspended
matter as possible, so that the water issuing from
them contained as few living forms as possible, and that the
organic matter in solution should be liable to easy oxidisa-
tion, and eventually removed altogether. When the organic
matter had been perfectly removed, the water contained no
appreciable quantity' of those compounds which were capable
of supporting microbic and the lower forms of animal life ;
and so, should any accidental contamination occur at this
stage, the organisms so introduced would have a less chance
of propagating, there being only food for them such as was
introduced along with them in the actual pollution.

Mechanical filters were used, with much the same object
as the slow sand filters, but it was general nowadays to
accomplish a partial chemical treatment of the water at
the same time. Aeration with air was a pure attempt
at oxidisation, so as to reduce the amount of soluble
organic matter, and consequently make the water such that
it was difficult for animal life to flourish in it. Oxidisation
was an intensification of the simple aeration treatment, but
was probably more efficient. Chemical treatment with
chlorine or chlorine compounds was directly a poisoning or
a killing off of the smaller forms of life, and eventually an
oxidisation due to the nascent oxygen liberated. This
method had its objections, in that the chlorine or chlorine
compounds produced in the water were nauseous in flavour.
One of the most recent attempts at sterilisation of a water
supply, after treatment, was by making use of ultra-violet
light. These particular light rays were deadly in their
effect on the smaller forms of life, and in order to dispense
with these germs the water containing them was made to
pass, in thin layers, over an area upon which these light ray's
were focussed. The advantage of this method was that
nothing was added to, or abstracted from, the water, and

27

where electricity was cheap it was very economical. But,
of all the artificial treatments to which water was subjected,
storage was probably the most simple, and yet the most
effective. It had been found that by storage the organisms
gradually diminshed, and that the pathogenic types perished
fairly early, being unable to survive under these conditions
for any prolonged period. On distribution, the water might
be altered by further sedimentation in the service pipes,
or growths might begin to flourish which altered the charac-
ter of the water as regarded its appearance, taste, or odour,
or the number of organisms it contained ; but it was extremely
unlikely and seldom that any further organic contamination
took place after the water had left the service reservoir.

There were certain diseases which were conveyed by water,
and known as water-borne. Water played its part by
carrying the organisms producing the disease, and such exam-
ples were cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever. Again,
the water contained small organisms, spoken of as animalculse,
which acted as intermediate hosts to certain parasites, and
we had the diseases resulting from the guinea worm and the
malaria parasite. Waters carrying the ova and embryos of
certain worms were known to produce diseases in Egypt and
India, but these were not known, fortunately, to occur, in
England. Some waters contained fine suspended matters,
which acted as intestinal irritants, and so caused diarrhoea.
Others contained dissolved salts, and were generally
characterised by producing diarrhoea, whilst others produced
constipation. Others, again, were said to give rise to
conditions of goitre. Lack of certain salts in some waters
had condemned them as being unsuitable for young children.
Another important matter, which often was overlooked, was
lead poisoning, caused by the water attacking the leaden service
pipes, and so becoming contaminated with lead compounds,
either in solution or in suspension. The waters which were
naturally the purest were generally those which exhibited
this dangerous quality in the most marked degree Treat-
ment for a defect like this, whilst simple, required to be
carried out with caution, and was in the end efficiently
economical, because of the great blessing which it conferred
on the consumers.

28

WHERE THREE EMPIRES

MEET— POLAND.

By SAMUEL WELLS, F.R.G.S. November 2nd, 1915.

The lecturer at the outset stated that his purpose was to
discuss Poland and its peoples as they were in normal times
and not Poland and the part it has played and is playing in
the present European War.

Poland consists of two geographically distinct areas. In
the north are found enormous windswept plains with here
and there ruined towers — reminders of troublous times long
ago. To the south, in the Carpathian area, lies a rocky and
mountainous region and a land of almost illimitable forest
through which the lecturer on one occasion travelled for
sixty-four miles without meeting with so much as a simple
hamlet. Many of the roads which traverse Poland can only
be described as execrable and this in the lecturer’s opinion
was one of the reasons for the lack of civilization and advance-
ment in the areas remote from the larger towns. Moreover
the country is practically isolated and considerable difficulty
is put in the way of travellers seeking entry. All round
the frontiers a triple line of guards is posted and no unauthor-
ised person is allowed to cross the border.

In the middle ages Poland was of much greater extent
than it is now and it formed for many centuries a barrier
between the civilized west and the savage hordes of the
east. Then came the period when the greater part of the
country was snatched from its rightful ruler and shared by
the Russians, the Prussians and the Austrians. The Poles
in their defensive warfare were led by the great patriot
Kosciusko, who was honoured in after years by a monument
unique in its nature, a huge mound of earth on the outskirts
of Cracow, to which people from every part of the original
Poland contributed each a handful of local soil. Poland
has passed through many anxious periods and to this day
many of the churches are surrounded by fortifications — for,
in ages long past, they formed sanctuaries for stricken people
harassed by the terrors of invasion.

29

Of the Polish towns, the lecturer spoke at some length of
Cracow and Warsaw. In Cracow the whole history of
Poland may be said to be centred although many of the
relics of the country’s past greatness have been removed to
Russia. In Cracow the first university established in Europe
was to be found and the Cloth Hall in the market place was,
in the middle ages, one of the great marts of the western
world. The town possesses no less than thirty-nine impor-
tant churches, of which the Cathedral with its lavish display
of wealth and magnificance is especially noteworthy.

Warsaw is an important centre of trade and fashion not-
withstanding the fact that the authorities have permitted
no new buildings to be erected since 1863. Mr. Wells spoke
enthusiastically of the pleasure-park at Praga, near Warsaw,
where public entertainment on a lavish scale is provided all
the year round at a very moderate charge for entrance. He
referred also to the Polish Jew who, in Warsaw, is of quite dis-
tinct type and still wears the corkscrew curls so reminiscent
of jewry in the middle ages. Warsaw has, in one of its
public squares, a fine example of the caravanserai where
the empty and unfurnished rooms for the temporary accom-
modation of travellers startle the unwary pilgrim who expects
in a capital city the luxurious service of the modern hotel.

The lecturer’s remarks upon the people of Poland were
especially interesting. Originally there existed a true Polish
type, belonging to one of the branches of the great Slav
family of peoples. But in the middle ages vast emigrations
took place and a mixed stock representing many of the con-
tiguous races gained a footing in the country. Not infre-
quently it may be found that a Polish village to-day contains
three distinctly “ foreign ” types — Hungarian, Saxon, and
Gypsy. The peasantry of Poland are the poorest people in
Europe ; in the rocky region many of the people are merely
cave-dwellers and the children in all parts of the country
are scantily clad and poorly tended. Not only are they
the poorest of European peoples, but they are also the
laziest. Inured for centuries to serfdom, they were unfitted
for the responsibilities of freedom when freedom came.
Mr. Wells recounted how, in 1861, forty million Poles were
set free and assigned twelve acres of land per man. In
twenty years the twelve acres had become five and this
proved totally insufficient to provide for family needs. Nor
in the meantime had the people paid any appreciable pro-
portion of the very moderate sum settled upon as the price
of the land under the original agreement.

30

Occasionally in the course of the evening the lecturer gave
his audience interesting glimpses of Polish manners and
customs. He told the legend of the Polish princess whose
tragic death in Cracow some two thousand years ago has
been connnemorated annually ever since by the women of
Poland. The annual blessing of the animals by the parish
priest and the consecration of the food intended for the
Christmas feasts were described. The curiously low status
of the dog and the strange ritual governing matrimonial
arrangements were referred to. The lecturer also spoke of
the caves of the rocky region being used for sepulture — the
bones and skulls being arranged in orderly manner on shelves
and in recesses, all being marked, registered and made easily
accessible to the friends of the departed.

£

31

INCIDENTS IN AN INDIAN TOUR.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By ROBERT S. HEAP. November 9th, 1915.

Guided by the axiom that “ personal ” experiences con-
stitute for us the only abiding reality, the lecturer emphasised
throughout what proved to be a most delightful evening,
just those incidents of his journey which touched his own
imagination most nearly and in which he individually was
most intimately concerned. The lecture was not therefore
of the type which records with minute fidelity all places
visited, distances travelled, and things seen ; it was rather,
a series of detached impressions from the store gathered by
an impressionable and acute mind when confronted by wholly
new experiences.

Mr. Heap visited India during December and January
some two or three years ago. Passing lightly over the earlier
incidents of his journey, he told how, when in the Straits of
Bonifacio, a “wireless” informed the passengers that Stromboli
was in eruption. He arranged to be called to see it, as the
ship passed in the night. It proved a sight not easily
forgotten for the molten lava in the crater was reflected in
the cloud which seemed to hang over the mountain and so
produced an effect at once fascinating and weird. Messina,
which was passed the following dawn, displayed to the trav-
eller’s view some evidence of recent earthquake havoc in the
number of chain-bound houses which were clearly visible
through binoculars. At Port Said the gateway to the East,
Mr. Heap witnessed by night the interesting process of coaling
ship, and he gave a most vivid word-picture of the scene
presented by the swarthy figures moving in steady and
regular order, from wharf to deck and back to wharf again,
amid the flare lights and the night shadows.

After an ideal voyage across the Indian Ocean — a voyage
during which ship and deck seemed for days quite motion-
less— the outer sentinel light which guards Bombay harbour
was observed one night as our lecturer was standing on deck
with the watch. On landing next day the first impressions
gathered were of the seething crowds, the varied colours

32

and the unceasing vivacity which are everywhere in evidence.
While in India Mr. Heap was fortunate in having as guide,
philosopher and friend, a Parsee, through whose kind offices
he saw phases of Indian life which the ordinary tourist
seldom or never sees. He was in this way privileged to
attend a Parsee baptism and during the ceremony was
accorded a place of honour. In a pithy and picturesque way
the lecturer recounted how the aged priest, surrounded by
elders, admitted the novitiate to full communion. The
ritual was described — the burning of sandal-wood, the donning
of the “ sudra,” the making of presents to the boy, the
casting of garlands upon the guests. On another occasion
Mr. Heap was an invited guest at a large Parsee reception
given in honour of Lord Brassey. It took place on a January
evening and in the grounds of the house were English military
bands playing, among other items, selections from “ The
Gondoliers.” In the reception room itself, the traditional
pearl and gold of the opulent East seemed typified in the
lavish and gorgeous display of dress and jewels which met
the eye on all sides. During the evening our lecturer was
accorded the honour of a special personal introduction to
Lord Brassey and a few days later enjoyed Lord Brassey ’s
hospitality on board the famous “ Sunbeam.” Mr. Heap
recounted to the Club, some interesting personal memories
which his lordship retained, of Mr. Gladstone.

The lecturer then went on to speak of the Taj Mahal,
at Agra, and, in exquisitely chosen words, very skilfully
pictured something of the witchery and glamour of that
noted shrine. It is a building the charm of which increases
with familiarity, for the mind needs time and preparation
before it will register all the finer distinctions which here lie
open to it. To see this wonderful edifice at its best the trav-
eller should arrange to visit it during the period of full moon.
He should first see it in burning sunshine, then at the sunset
hour when it appears like warmly tinted ivory, and again at
moonrise when its dome seems to assume a mysterious
fullness and to be enveloped in a blue translucent haze.
Though the Taj Mahal cost some three or four hundred
million pounds to build its great scenic charm lies not so
much in the costly detail of its fabric as in its proportions,
its setting, and the charm which the varied play of light
and atmosphere create about it.

In the course of the evening, various photographs taken by
the lecturer himself at different points in his tour, were
thrown upon the screen. They consisted of snapshots of

33

typical scenes in Indian life, pictures of Alnnedabad, and
scenes in Delhi, Cawnpore, and Lucknow, closely connected
with the momentous events of the Mutiny in 1857. One
slide was especially noteworthy and was obtained under
exceptional difficulties — a picture of the underground chamber
from which Jessie Brown heard the welcome skirl of the
Scotch pipes as the relieving force entered Lucknow.

*

34

PERSIA.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By LEONARD FLINN. November 16//?, 1915.

Mr. Flinn began his lecture by calling attention to the
geographical features of Persia. Two-thirds of the country
consists of a stony and salt desert ; to the east of Teheran
is the most arid desert in the world and what few villages
there are in this region are little more than oases in the vast
and silent waste ; there are no railways in Persia and only
one navigable river, while in all parts of the country the
roads are mere tracks. The sole seaport in Persia is Bushire
and even here only lighters of shallow draught can enter-
ships having to discharge their cargo some seven miles away
from the port. Persia is divided politically into three “spheres
of influence ” — the Russian, the English, and the neutral
areas.

The history of Persia as a nation goes back some 2,500
or 3,000 years, though her native poets and historians in their
myths and legends penetrate still further into the “ dark
backward and abysm of time.” The lecturer passed under
review the various dynasties which have held sway in Persia
and illustrated his remarks by slides shewing ancient sculp-
tures of dynastic notabilities, the ruins of Persepolis, old
palaces and monuments, many of which closely resemble
in their workmanship, the main characteristics of Assyrian
architecture. The story of Persia is the story of a country
which has ever been the prey of foreign agression ; it has
often been overthrown but in spite of all its varying fortunes,
the character of its people has been very little changed.
The Persians, said the lecturer, are suave, eager to be agree-
able at all times and in all circumstances, but much given to
lying and deception. As far as mendacity is concerned their
moral code is well represented by the saying of the greatest
of Persian poets, Sadi, “Falsehood mixed with good inten-
tions is preferable to truth, leading to strife.”

35

By the aid of lantern slides Mr. Flinn took his audience
over one of the routes he had travelled when visiting Persia
in his capacity as an Eastern trader. From London he
went by rail to Tiflis and thence by road to Tabriz, Teheran,
Ispahan, Sultanabad, Hamadan, arriving ultimately at the
Caspian port of Enzeli en route for Baku. In the course of
his remarks he made abundantly clear how formidable are
the difficulties of travel in Persia. The usual procedure is
to travel in a very primitive type of carriage drawn by four
horses, which should be changed every 15 or 16 miles. On
arrival at the posting stations more often than not a change
of horses is impossible as there are none in waiting. In winter
the plight of the horses is pitiable and it is quite possible
that the traveller may have to walk as far as he rides
and his aid is frequently necessary in order to push the vehicle
over the difficult ground. If time is not a consideration
and if the bagagge is heavy, it is by far the better plan to
travel by caravan, i.e., with a train of pack animals — either
mules or camels. Twenty miles per day is a good average
by this mode of conveyance, the traveller sees much more
of the country he is passing through and he is moreover
a perfectly free agent as to when he pauses and when he
proceeds. But by either method the cost is considerable
being anything between £5 and £8 per day. On some of
the routes, notably on the mountainous passes between Sultan-
abad and Ispahan, robbers and raiders abound. It is well,
therefore, at all times to be well armed and to engage extra
guards for these journeys. To illustrate the arduous nature
of travel in Persia the lecturer related how on one occasion
he travelled for fifteen days without the opportunity of
either taking off his clothes or of sleeping in a bed, and on
the same occasion he travelled for forty-five consecutive days
by post horses. The caravanserais on the main routes are
often infested with vermin and not always weather-proof.

Of the towns of Teheran, Ispahan and Tabriz the
lecturer gave very interesting accounts. Sultanabad, the
great centre of carpet manufacture, was described, as
also the conditions under which the carpets are produced.
Teheran, a thirteenth century town, is the centre of European
society and the principal town in Persia. Beside containing
the town residence of the Shah and these at of the Court, it in-
cludes within its walls the British legation, and also the Imperial
Bank of Persia which, in spite of its name, is in reality a
British Bank. Ispahan is a town whose previous glory has
departed. The ruins which abound on the outskirts of the
present town give some indication of its size and importance

36

under Shah Abbas — a contemporary of our Queen Elizabeth.
The river Zendali Rud, which separates the town from
Julfa, is spanned by five noteworthy bridges all different
in construction — one of which is three hundred and eighty-
eight yards long and fourteen yards broad.

Tabriz though not so large as Ispahan is perhaps more
beautiful. It is surrounded by gardens which cover an area
of many square miles and which produce the raisin-grape
and almond for which the town is noted. A fine slide
was thrown upon the screen illustrating the Blue Mosque,
a wonderful building once encrusted with blue tiles. Tabriz
unfortunately suffers greatly from earthquake and quite
recently the ancient citadel of the town was entirely des-
troyed by seismic disturbace.

The other towns described were Kashan, Hamadan, and
Kum.

In an exceedingly interesting portion of his lecture, Mr.
Flinn was able to give his audience some information as to
the course of events in Bushire and Ispahan during the
present war. He read to his audience a letter, dated August
16th, 1915, and received from a colleague in Bushire, describ-
ing how Bushire had fared at the hands of marauding bands
which made nightly incursions on the British populace. The
letter was more than usually interesting as it was brought
to the notice of the audience on the day the British Foreign
Office announced the outrages against the representatives of
the Allies in Teheran and elsewhere.

#

37

THE SEA NARRATIVES OF
JOHN MASEFIELD.

By T. E. RHODES. November 23rd, 1915.

With a few exceptions the sea narratives of John Masefield
comprise the early work of a writer from whom great things
are expected, and justly so, for he has now reached the age
which ripens and steadies a man’s outlook on life.

From his works we know that his early life was full of the
adventures of a sailor in those glorious sailing ships which
once crowded our ports and traded to all the corners of the
earth. We can imagine his love for literature being developed
in the watch below, which we have reason to believe was
passed in the company of the Elizabethan poets ; the virility
of his literary style may be fairly traced to their influence
coupled with the energy of sea-life. We know also from
his poem “ Biography ” that he spent many studious days
on shore and formed some literary friendships — one with
J. M. Synge — which left a very strong impress on him espec-
ially noticeable in his plays and narrative dramas.

The sea narratives were developed in several ways. They
comprise

(a) Studies of the old buccaneers and pirates told in clear
outline and with insight into the characters of the differ-
ent men ; amongst those the finest is his study of Sir William
Morgan and his doings in the West Indies. ( b ) Studies of the
very varied folk-lore of the sea out of which Masefield has
created many good stories, (c) Word pictures of the sea and
ships in their more romantic aspects. Of the varying colour
of the sea Masefield gives many good pictures and his des-
cription of a “ White Night ” is almost Whistlerian in its
subdued and delicate handling ; his description of a ship
seen at dawn if translated to canvas would need the brush
of a Turner to do it justice.

38

From the point of view of sea narratives, many of Mase-
field’s shorter poems are well worth reading. Among these
we have “ The Wanderer ” — a story of a ship in its fight
against adverse weather and of its final coming into port
after long absence ; “ The River ” is the tragedy of the
loss of a fine ship just as she makes the Hoogly and for sheer
power in the description of terror this is hard to beat ; but
by far the finest of his sea poems is “ Dauber ” which is
full of the glowing colours of the sea and his description of
the ship, nearing Cape Horn, in the fog is full of mystery
and sombre grandeur. His novels “ Captain Margaret,”
“ Jim Davis,” and “ Martin Hyde,” should be read by all
who love the old world of the sea, but it is in his poems
that his best work lies.

*

39

HOW TO ENJOY A GOOD PICTURE.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By BEN H. MULLEN, M.A. November 30 th, 1915.

Mr. Mullen prefaced his lecture by saying that pictures live
and endure by their excellent qualities of form and colour
rather than by their subjects, although it is well known that
the average person is more interested in the latter than in
anything else associated with a picture. The essential
qualities of a picture are form or the qualities of line, colour,
the distribution of light and shadow, and the ordered and
harmonious disposition of form and colour.

Alluding to the numerous and complex laws of composition
the lecturer quoting Ruskin, said that there are multitudes of
such laws that could not be defined although associated with
the deepest powers of the art of painting. “ The best part
of every good work is always inexplicable ; it is good because
it is good. But though you cannot explain the pictures,
you may always render yourself more and more sensitive
to their higher qualities by the discipline which you generally
give your character.”

Lightly touching upon the origin of the painter’s art, the
lecturer reminded his audience that form preceded colour
and an illustration was shewn of a reindeer drawn by a palaeo-
lithic cave-dweller. As to colour it theoretically includes
form, the outline of form being the meeting place of different
colours in the field of vision. Colour is also associated with
light and shade for each shade of each colour is a light in regard
to the shades that are lower in the scale and a shade to those
that are higher. The lecturer then dealt briefly with the
qualities by which all good pictures must be judged. They
include composition, harmony, tone values, atmospheric
envelopment, design, perspective, and balance. He pointed
out that all such elements for criticism were infinitely diver-
sified by the technical skill of the artist, by his personal
refinement and aesthetic culture, by his character and educa-
tion, by his perception and power of interpreting truth and
beauty, and by the dexterity of his hand.

40

The subsequent portion of the lecture was divided under
four principal heads, viz. : (1) Portraits, (2) Genre Pictures,
(3) Historical and Allegorical pictures, (4) Landscapes and
Seascapes.' These sections of art were all lucidly treated by
the lecturer and were illustrated by photographs of canvasses
in the Salford Art Gallery, over which Mr. Mullen presides
as Curator. Of course, there are in a colour picture many
features and qualities which the camera cannot reproduce
but apart from this the lecturer’s descriptions and criticisms
of the numerous portraits and pictures were most valuable
as to methods of criticism which should be adopted by the
visitor to any art gallery. He certainly conveyed to his
audience in a suggestive and practical manner the method
of fulfilling the aspiration embodied in the title of the lecture
— “ How to enjoy a good picture.” On the other hand he did
not fail to point out that some have eyes yet see not, and that
unless the spiritual and intellectual sides of man are to some
degree sensitive to receive and develop the impressions which
gain entrance through the physical eye, the man is blind
and cannot see. What we find in a picture depends firstly
upon what has been put into it, which, in its turn, depends
upon the artist and the diversified qualities of his personal
and professional character and abilities. The complemental
understanding and appreciation of the artist’s work is excited
only so far as corresponding emotions can be aroused in the
man looking at the picture. To teach taste is inevitably
to form character.

41

SIR FRANCIS DRAKE.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By NORMAN R. LANCASTER. December 1th, 1915.

The lecturer took as his subject Drake’s life as far as the
close of his voyage of circumnavigation and in his introdu-
tory remarks paid a high tribute to the spirit of the British
navy which he spoke of as being essentially “ the Drake
spirit.” Its chief characteristics are an intrepid courage,
unfailing resourcefulness in the presence of great difficulty,
pious devotion to the country’s dag and a consummate skill
in all that pertains to seamanship. Drake perhaps is not
the greatest of British seamen but he certainly must be placed
among the first half-dozen.

After commenting upon the scantiness of our information
concerning Drake’s early years, the lecturer proceeded to
survey the known facts of his life. Drake was born at
Tavistock about 1540 and after a brief visit to Spain in his
boyhood, he became apprenticed to a North Sea skipper and
so laid the foundation of the magnificent seamanship he was
destined later to display. Frequently travelling, as he did,
to the Low Countries, he was early brought into contact
with the inhuman persecution which the Protestants suffered
there, at the hands of the Spaniards — a fact which, in no
small degree, explains his unceasing and life-long antipathy
towards Spain. After his apprenticeship was over, Drake
joined his kinsman, William Hawkins, on the latter’s third
voyage to America. This expedition was presumably for
the purpose of trading with the Spaniards but the commercial
results were insignificant for by a piece of dire treachery
the Spaniards attacked the English ships as they were lying
peacefully in harbour. It was only after desperate fighting
that Drake and Hawkins managed to escape.

Diplomatic means having failed to secure redress for losses
sustained, Drake took the law into his own hands and made
two voyages to Mexico the details of which are but little known.
It is probable however that they were undertaken in order
to reconnoitre the coasts of Central America as a basis for

42

future action. On his fourth voyage in 1572, Drake sacked
Nombre di Dios and, crossing the narrow peninsula near the
site of the present canal, he gained his first view of the Pacific
which he vowed one day to navigate in an English ship.

After a short period of service in Ireland, Drake, began in
the year 1577, his great voyage which resulted in the circum-
navigation of the globe. In a most interesting manner
Mr. Lancaster gave a detailed account of the events which
culminated in the execution of Thomas Doughty for mutiny
and much new information concerning this striking episode
had been obtained by the lecturer from the recently discovered
log-book of the Portugese pilot of the “ Golden Hind.”
Drake sailed via the Straits of Magellan up the western coast
of America as far as Vancouver, sacking numerous towns on
his way and sinking treasure ships after having first appro-
priated their cargoes. Unpropitious weather drove him
homewards by the East Indies and round the Cape of Good
Hope ; after having been absent from England nearly three
years he sailed into harbour with a rich haul of plunder
on board, the value of which has been computed to be no
less than eight hundred thousand pounds.

The lecturer in conclusion quoted the well-known saying
of Sir Walter Raleigh : — “ Whosoever commands the sea,
commands the trade ; and whosoever commands the trade
of the world, commands the riches of the world and conse-
quently the world itself ” — and contended that the example
of the doughty deeds of Drake had shone like a beacon light
through the ages and had led our sailors to fulfil the destiny
to which nature seems to have called the British race. Emula-
tion of such deeds has caused to be enshrined in our island
story some of the most heroic pages in the history of man.

-a-

43

SCHUBERT AS A SONG-WRITER.

(Illustrated by Selections).

By Rev. F. GORDON MEE. December 14 th, 1915.

Franz Peter Schubert was born in Vienna three years
before the close of the eighteenth century and though he
lived only thirty one years he well earned the title, accorded
to him by Mr. W. H. Hadow, of “ the greatest song-writer
that ever lived.”

His home was humble and unromantic but one that was
religious in tone and where education and music were taken
seriously. At the age of five Franz was taught to play the
violin and piano and by the time he was eleven had become
an Imperial chorister, an appointment which carried with it
a good musical education and, in Schubert’s case, laid the
solid foundation of his life-work. It was at the age of thir-
teen that he first began seriously to compose and thence-
forward overtures, pianoforte pieces, quartettes, vocal and
church music came freely from his pen. Two years later he
composed his first complete orchestral symphony which was
soon followed by his Mass in F. The public success and
commendation which attended the production of this mass
seems to have given new ardour to Schubert’s mind for from
this time an extraordinary impulse to compose seems to
have possessed him more entirely and more powerfully than
in the case of any other composer known to history. In his
eighteenth year he completed seven operatic works, two
symphonies, two quartettes, two sonatas, two masses and
considerably over one hundred songs. Though this quantity
is large, the perfection of his workmanship is strongly
marked and some of his finest songs date from this period.
Examples of his many-sided genius may be seen in his musical
interpretations of the solemn stillness of nature in ‘‘ Sea
Calm,” of the sweetness and joy of home-life in “ The
Cradle-song,” and of the gay fancies and sharp sorrows of
youthful love in “ Hedgeroses.” Schubert could also find
scope for his talents in the narrow limits of a hymn-tune as
for example, in his spirited setting to the hymn “ Stand
up, stand up for Jesus,” known as “Fairfrid.”

44

The full ability of the man may be seen in one of the most
powerful and difficult of his songs, “ The Erl-king.” It is
interesting to notice how many stages there are in the form-
ation of a great song like this. First there is the underlying
idea of the Erl-king — the dread spirit of the dark forests,
seductive and attractive, yet rising at last to be the awful
symbol of death itself. Then comes the legend story making
the idea concrete for simple minds. After this comes the
play of the poetic fancy upon it seeking to give to the story
an imperishable form of beauty that shall make the legend
dramatically effective and easily remembered, and lastly
there is the musician who, commencing with the poem, supplies
the “ atmosphere ” of the tale, suggests or recalls details of
the sound that would accompany the action, and so arouses
the emotions of the audience. In this song we have deep
tones suggestive of darkness and dread. The soughing of
the wind and the fierce galloping of the horse are unmis-
takably detected ; and many other artistic embellishments
corresponding to fluctuations of the theme are easily recog-
nised by the discerning, but even those unable to pick out
this parallel between music and theme cannot fail to be moved
by the various emotions of this song when they hear it. All
must feel that the music gives to the story an impressiveness
and a power that no mere reading of the poem could approach.
The wonder with which all must regard these songs is
increased when it is remembered how thoroughly spontaneous
much of Schubert’s composing was ; the song, “ Hark, hark
the lark,” came like an inspiration on first reading the poem
and was written down complete on the back of a menu-card
in an open-air restaurant. It is at first sight surprising that
Schubert did not gain a wider fame during his lifetime, but
his shy and sensitive nature constantly hindered him from
” getting on ” in a worldly sense. He enjoyed however
many noted friendships in the world of letters and music,
all of which form a part of his short life-story. Towards
the close of his career Schubert became acquainted with
Beethoven who said as he perused his music “ Surely the
Divine Spark is in Schubert.” His songs number over five
hundred and many of them will always live in the affections
of music lovers. So slowly did recognition come and so
little did he possess the art of selling his productions that
when he died, all his worldly effects were officially valued at
fifty shillings !

Like Goethe’s " Wanderer,” which he so beautifully set
to music, Schubert was a stranger and a pilgrim on the earth,
but he lived in a world of heavenly melody ; and whilst some

45

might denounce his life as “ economically unproductive,”
others will realize that he has cheered and enriched us beyond
all count or computation.

During the evening illustrative selections were rendered
in excellent style by Miss Mary Foulds (Soprano), Madame
Totterdell (contralto), Mr. Herbert Hargreaves (tenor),
Mr. Hartley Thompson (bass), and Miss A. Preston, L.R.A.M.,
at the piano. The programme was as follows : —

1. Pianoforte Solo ... Impromptu in A [7. Opus 142.

Miss Preston.

2.

Song

“ Sea Calm

Madame Totterdell.

3

Song

“ Cradle Song;

Miss Foulds.

4

Song

“ The Wild Rose

Mr. H. Hargreaves.

5

Quartette

Hvnm Tune : “ Fair f rid

6

Song

"The Erl King

Mr. H. Thompson.

7

Song

" Who is Sylvia

Miss Foulds.

8

Song

“ Hark, Hark, the Lark

Mr. H. Hargreaves.

9

Song

" Peace

Madame Totterdell.

10

Song ,

“ The Wanderer

Mr. H. Thompson.

Presentation
to Mr. Frank Hudson.

During an interval, Mr. Frank Hudson, LL.B., Secretary
to the Club for the past nine years, was presented with a
purse of gold, containing twenty guineas, and a rose-bowl,
suitably inscribed.

46

Mr. Bellingham, who made the presentation, said that
during the forty years the Club had been in existence
the position of Secretary had been held by some of its
most distinguished members. Such had given to the
office traditions which it was no easy matter to maintain,
but none had carried out the work with greater efficiency
and thoroughness than Mr. Hudson who had filled the office
with distinction to the Club and honour to himself.

Mr. Hudson, in reply, spoke of the pleasure the work had
brought to him and of the many personal friendships it had
been his privilege to make both among officials aftd members.
He appreciated, far more than the actual gifts, those feelings
of goodwill and esteem of which they were the mark.

0

47

BRITISH COLUMBIA AND THE
PACIFIC COAST.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By Councillor RICHARD LEIGH, J.P. Jan. 18th, 1916.

Councillor Leigh remarked that “ the West ” has been
gradually receding since the old El Dorado days, and to-day
has come to refer to the land immediately on either side of
the Rockies.

The first portion of the lecture was taken up by a review
of the early stages on the route to the Far West, and interest-
ing references were made to Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto,
as well as to the French element which is still in consider-
able strength in the Eastern provinces. Niagara, though
often considered as an exclusive possession of the United
States, is, to the extent of three-quarters, entirely Canadian,
and the lecturer made some interesting comparisons between
the district round Niagara to-day and the same district as
he first knew it forty-two years ago. Passing on to Winnipeg,
Mr. Leigh said that less than fifty years ago the present town
was a comparatively small settlement in the midst of prairie
country, given over almost completely to Indians and the
buffalo ; to-day it is a town of vast extent and rapid growth ;
sky-scrapers are everywhere rearing their heads to the sky, and
it has become a great emporium which serves the smaller prairie
towns for miles around. As for the prairies themselves, the
buffalo is almost extinct and the land is used for the more
utilitarian purposes of cattle-rearing and farming. On the
vast stretch from Winnipeg to Calgarry, there is a general
rise in level, with the result that the atmosphere becomes
drier ; the snow seems to alter its character and become
lighter and much more powdery as the mountains are ap-
proached.

Near Calgarry is a large Red Indian encampment where
the last remnants of a dying race are kept in security and
contentment by a beneficent government. The lecturer
praised the Canadian policy in dealing with these natives
who, in reality, are a dispossessed people. Regular weekly
supplies are given to them as long as their conduct is peace-
ful and orderly. A comparatively small number of mounted

48

police are in charge who, to the credit of the Indians them-
selves, have very little difficulty in perfect maintaining control.

In Calgarry itself, where forty years ago there was a miscel-
laneous collection of wooden huts and Indian tents, there is
to-day a vast and growing railway centre. Forty miles on
the east side of Banff the traveller notices the first peaks
of the Rockies, viz., The Three Sisters.

Mr. Leigh spoke at some length of Banff and its neigh-
bourhood, which, thanks to the enterprise of the Canadian
Pacific Railway, has become since the opening of the line
in 1887, a health resort of no mean importance. A magni-
ficent hotel has been built amid some of the most charming
scenery it is possible to conceive and a warm sulphur swimming
bath has been made by conveying the medicinal waters of
Sulphur Mountain to the hotel in huge barrel-like pipes.
Banff is a centre for almost every kind of sport and in the
locality is the National Park of Canada (5,000 square miles),
containing huge game preserves and herds of buffalo.

From Banff to Vancouver, the traveller passes over 600
miles of mountain country, crossing in succession after the
ridge of the Rockies, the Selkirk Range, the Gold Range, and
the Cascade Range. Various pictures were thrown upon
the screen showing the engineering difficulties which con-
fronted the promoters of the railway. Mr. Leigh described
and illustrated the method of constructing both the wooden
trestle bridge and the newer steel trestle bridge which has
now superseded the early type. He mentioned, too, the
various ways in which the engineers have dealt with the
difficulty of the avalanche and snowdrift. Here and there
right through the most mountainous regious, the railway
passes under snowsheds so designed as to carry the avalanche
over the railway, thus leaving the line beneath quite free.
These sheds are built of lengths of timber, square in section
and about a foot thick. The snowploughs in use are not
of the usual type, but consist of huge revolving disc-like
fans which cut their way through the vast drifts.

The Rockies are crossed by the Kicking Horse Pass, and
at Field, a town by Kicking Horse River, amid beautiful
scenery, there are important engine sheds and several tourist
hotels. It is from here that a wonderful drive, passing
between lines of giant trees, leads to the famous Emerald
Lake. The lecturer described the dainty “ Glacier Lily ”
which is found in great abundance in this region ; it has
stem and leaves very like the tulip, a flower shaped like
the single hyacinth and a bright daffodil colour.

49

On the western slopes of the Selkirks, nature is much more
gentle and luxurious, but in crossing the Gold Range by
Eagle Pass, we seem to enter a distinctive region, with very
little rainfall and, at times, quite arid. The last stage of
the railway journey follows the valley of the Fraser River
whose course is marked by the constant addition of mountain
streams, which carry down into its bed tremendous boulders.
Of Vancouver itself, Mr, Leigh was able to give some interest-
ing reminiscences, for, on his first visit, giant cedar trees
were growing practically in the town itself. The fjord-like
channel between Vancouver and British Columbia is full of
charm. Here and there one sees on the shores quaint Indian
villages decorated with the totem poles on which family
genealogies are recorded, often more imaginative than well-
founded. One of the most common sights in these waters
is the spectacle of moss-covered trunks of trees which by a
tidal freak are tossed eternally to and fro on conflicting cur-
rents. Vast areas of the island are as yet uncharted and
uninhabited, though it is known to possess a full and rich
fauna. Two days journey from Vancouver city brings one to
Prince Rupert, a town of queer planked roads were the land
is in the hands of speculators and often changes hands at
considerably enhanced prices. In closing, Councillor Leigh
referred to the whole region as one where the streams are
prolific in salmon and described the great “ runs ” upstream
which take place about every four years. Salmon here is
so plentiful that dogs can catch them and even bears have
been known to lay up a store for winter use.

*

50

SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By THOMAS WHYMAN. January 25th, 1916.

Mr. Whyman first spoke, in general terms, of the naval
situation at present obtaining in the North Sea. The German
navy is, so far, in hiding ; yet the very fact of its existence
renders constant patrol work necessary and the hardy crews
of the patrol boats are supported by the knowledge that
behind them, at their beck and call, lie the vessels of the
Grand Fleet. The dominant factor in the North Sea is the
battleship even though it fires no shot and even if it does
not emerge from its base. Undersea warfare has, however,
become a matter of no mean importance and the weapons
by which it is waged are the mine, the mine when aimed
and propelled (i.e., the torpedo), and the submarine which
carries the torpedo for use as occasion arises.

Dealing first with mines, the lecturer said that during the
present war mines had been scattered broadcast over Euro-
pean seas, in spite of the fact that it had been agreed by the
Hague Convention that such should not be used more than
three miles out from any coast. Mines are of two kinds,
anchored mines and floating mines ; and the lecturer by the
aid of diagrams demonstrated how mines were anchored so
as to remain stationary either at a prearranged distance
from the sea-bottom or actually on the surface. To coun-
teract the danger arising from their presence, vessels of the
Steam Trawler Reserve patrol mine-infested waters locating
the mines, sweeping them up and bringing them to the surface
by the aid of huge steel hawsers used in the same manner
as trawl nets. When thus captured, the mines are either
perforated by rifle fire and thus rendered non-buoyant or
they are carefully transferred to other areas in the hope
that the enemy may be “ hoist with his own petard.” Other
mines are of the freely floating type ; mines of this kind are
so arranged that, after a certain period, unless previously
detonated by contact, they will sink automatically. Such
mines are most often used in estuaries or straits where cur-
rents run strong ; they are set free in large quantities to float

51

down the faii'way in the hope that they may strike any
craft which may be in the vicinity. To deal with this menace
wherever it is suspected, countermines are exploded beneath
the water and the concussion set up, fires, sympathetically,
any floating mines which are near.

Speaking of the torpedo, the lecturer pointed out that in
its most primitive state it consisted of an explosive fired
at the end of a long pole which projected from the bow of
the boat. When the boat had been manoeuvred so that
the explosive was quite close to the hull of an enemy craft,
it was fired by means of a trigger, pulled by a rope or wire
connection. The torpedo became the formidable weapon it
is to-day by virtue of the addition of engines which render
it self-propelling. The modern torpedo contains a chamber
of compressed air to operate its engines and by their means
it can travel at the rate of forty miles per hour, under its
own power. The lecturer carefully explained the construc-
tion of the war-head of the torpedo and the many intricate
devices which render it fool-proof ; he also made clear by
the aid of diagrams the use of the torpedo-director for accu-
rately firing a torpedo from a moving vessel at a moving
target. Since a single torpedo costs about nine hundred
pounds it is desirable that, in case the mark is missed, the
torpedo should not be liable to be picked up by the enemy
and used against us. To obviate this a cunningly devised
stopping gear has been arranged so that, after running a
set distance, the torpedo shall automatically sink.

Mr. Whyman told the story of the early submarine,
“ David,” which was tried during the American War in 18G4.
The “ David ” was driven by' manual power and before any
measure of success was attained, it brought many of its own
successive crews to their doom. By sectional diagrams,
the internal arrangements of the modern submarine were
explained. When running at surface level, submarines are
propelled by oil engines, but when submerged they are driven
by electric power supplied by accumulators. The periscope
was described in detail, and an excellent series of slides
illustrated the submarine in various stages of the process
of submersion. The lecturer then spoke of the veryr rapid
development which had taken place in submarine construc-
tion and compared the H.I., an early British submarine,
with the later E.20. The H.I. was a vessel of 120 tons,
developing 120 H.P., and capable of a speed of 7-| knots ;
whereas the E.20. is a vessel of 800 tons, developing 1,600
H.P. and capable of 20 knots. Moreover compared with the

52

H.I., the E.20. can truly be styled luxurious in its fittings
and appointments.’ On the question of offence and defence
against submarines and torpedoes, Mr. Whyman discussed
and illustrated the harbour boom, ship’s nets, vessels of
shallow draught — the “monitor” type, the development
of tactics calculated to baffle the submarine, and the very
active warfare waged against submarines by aircraft.

In conclusion, the lecturer spoke at some length of the
failure of the submarine blockade of our shores which the
Germans declared on February 18th, 1915. By diagrams
and statistics, he made his audience realise the almost neg-
ligible damage done to the vast volume of our merchantile
traffic and the rapid waning of the enemy’s activities after
August, 1915 — and this, in spite of the feverish activity of
the Germans in submarine construction during the early
summer, when flushed by their first successes.

-»■

53

MUNICIPALITY AND MEDICINE.

By Councillor Dr. J . W. CLEGG. February Is/, 1916.

Dr. Clegg gave the monastic system credit for the intro-
duction of hospitals for isolation, and stated that the great
hre in London after the Plague led to the widening of streets
and the giving of greater space in houses. In the 18th Century
they saw the humanising of British politics and the improve-
ment of conditions in prisons through the influence of John
Howard, and the great efforts of Chadwick in sanitary science.
The first medical officer of health was not appointed until
1847, and it was not until 1871 the attempt was made to
consolidate most of the laws relating to health and sanita-
tion when the present Local Government Board was formed.
If this problem had been tackled from the beginning, as it
ought to have been, they would have had a ministry of public
health, but being an industrial nation, we set up a Board
of Trade, and had not time to set up a real Board of Health.
They had that condition remaining to-day. Part of the
laws relating to the health of the people were controlled by
the Local Government Board, another part by the Board
of Education, and yet another part by the Home Office.
The reports presented by medical officers led to the passing
of the Public Health Act of 1875, which was practically the
foundation of all our health measures. The result of this
had been the very slow growth in teaching preventive medi-
icine and a great many evils had been allowed to go on
unchecked, and the consequence had become so serious that
at the end of the last century — especially after the Boer
War — the nation become greatly alarmed. It was then found
that our lunacy was increasing, our workhouses were too
full, our crippled people were too numerous, and our unfit
were out of all proportion to what they ought to be. That
led up to the formation of a commission to endeavour to
rectify matters. He would not like to divorce public health
work from the ordinary work carried on by the medical
profession, as any attempt to do so would be disastrous.
They were trying to stamp out consumption in this country,
and the ideas of dealing with it were still undergoing great
changes. They knew very definitely that it was not a disease
passed on from father to child. They knew there was a
predisposition for the organism to lodge in such children.

54

Those who had tried to kill the germ after it had reached
the soil, as it were, had been disappointed, and there was
nothing to hope in that direction. Clearly it was evident
that it was their duty to stamp out the disease if they were to
deal properly with the soil, and in doing that they opened
up one of the biggest questions connected with public health
administration. They knew the organisms found lurking
places in ill- ventilated, badly-drained and small dwelling-
houses, and that they attacked people who lived in such a
way that they lessen their resistance to disease. Sanatoria
had been erected to send people to, but it was curious that
Edinburgh, which evolved the finest institution, was beign-
ning to doubt the wisdom of it all, and to think that what
ought to have been done was the tackling of the surroundings
of the people before they were attacked by the disease. That
meant that public opinion must be roused in such a way
that through the ballot box it would demand better housing
and home conditions. We were spending large sums of
money with little benefit, but whatever national and local
authorities might try to do for a person, it ultimately resolved
itself into what a person could do for himself. Unless a
person would endeavour to help himself, the efforts of the
authorities would not meet with the success they ought to do.
In 1907 Parliament decided that they should make a begin-
ning with the child — there should be medical inspection at
school which would carry with it the feeding of children.
It meant the seeking out of troubles that, in an early stage,
could be remedied, and of which a parent did not realise
the lull significance. The school doctor had to anticipate
defects. In this matter they came across the question :
Had the municipality any right to try to help a child against
its parents’ wishes ? He pointed out that 'when the fran-
chise was extended in the late 60’s, it was bound to follow
that they must have a scheme of compulsory education if
they were not going to have people voting who were not tit,
and just as they compelled attendance at the elementary
school they were bound to see that that attendance was
under proper conditions. If a parent had no choice in sending
his children to school, the authorities should see that the
conditions did not interfere with the child’s natural growth.
If the authorities had a properly ventilated and thoroughly
equipped school for the child to go to, it ought to go a step
further and see that no child was in attendance which was
not in a lit and proper condition to profit by the instruction
given, lie advocated medical examination in secondary
schools.

55

Dr. Clegg added that just as medical inspection was bound
to follow compulsory education, so treatment was bound to
follow medical inspection. Contrary to the fears expressed,
in actual practice it had not turned out very expensive, or
clashed with the interests of the interested parties. The
children dealt with at the places of treatment unfortunately
were from the class which would be allowed to grow up and
become useless members of the community, ultimately
becoming a charge on the town in many directions. There-
fore, in his opinion, it was far cheaper to spend pennies in
preventive work rather than pounds in redemptive work.
He was one of those who believed — and his opinions were
hardening in this direction — that most of our social problems
would have to be solved during school life, and that it was
incumbent upon us to see that not only would they have the
best teachers they could get, but also the best health
conditions. Then they would not be confronted, as they
were to-day, with the great amount of indifference and
ignorance on the part of the parents. They would have to
make the children, who would be the future parents, under-
stand and realise in many respects the importance of what
was being done for them. When they approached education
in that spirit, and carried it out to its fullest extent, they
might, he thought, reasonably look forward to a lessening
of many of their present social problems. Upon the teachers
fell a work which was not always sufficiently appreciated ;
it was not merely imparting education, for this was the least
part of their work. The children were the future men and
women, and their characters were moulded in the most
plastic period of their lives, when certain truths could be
driven home. There would never be the same opportunity
again for doing it. All children were not alike, and conse-
quently they had special schools for backward children.
Authorities who looked ahead now said that they ought not
to compel children to do something they were physically
unfit to do, and thus increase the cost to the community
in later years. Children, he said, drifted into tubercu-
losis and other defects through this, who, had they been
taken from the ordinary school at the beginning and placed
under proper conditions in open-air schools, would have
improved, and so saved the town a lot of money, besides being
preserved for the nation. The idea of open-air education
was not to set up elaborate establishments in which to freeze
a child to death, but simply meant they were to take a small
percentage of children who could not follow the school curric-
ulum and give them a judicious mixture of rest and work
in inexpensive open-air premises. Such schools, it was

56

thought, were expensive, but the Central Authority would
repay a large proportion of the money spent on such schools.
Therefore, there was no excuse for not doing it.

If there was a time for doing it, it was surely necessary
now with a continually declining birth-rate and a heavy
infant death-rate. It did not need much to see that they
were not going to burn the candle at both ends long. The
nation was getting alarmed, and in recent years attempts
had been made to check this state of things. Into the ques-
tion of the declining birth-rare they could not enter, but the
problem of the infant death-rate was one which concerned
Burnley particularly. He found from the health report of
1874 they were discussing the same problem. The problem
confronting them was, could they do anything to prevent
this wastage of child life ? It varied very much in different
parts of the country, and it was remarkable that towns so
closely together as Nelson and Burnley, and so alike in their
industries and conditions, should vary as much as they did
in the death-rate. This was not time time to analyse the
figures, but they must realise the fact that the rate, particu-
larly in Burnley and in Lancashire, was far too high. They
seemed to have got to the place where they ought to have
started centuries ago — with the unborn child. It was sad
to think that a large number of children were, so to speak,
dead before they were born ; they never had a chance of
living after birth. What it was proposed they should do
was to set up certain centres where expectant mothers would
be invited — not compelled — to go, where they would be
welcomed and would receive advice according to their indi-
vidual cases. As in many cases the feeding of mothers had
a great deal to do with the offspring, certain authorities
were undertaking to see that during the latter months, at
least, the mother should be properly fed. If they could get
the women to attend these centres it would arouse in them a
greater interest and show them they were thought more of
than mere units of the population. That involved setting
up Maternity Centres. Many women lost their lives in
childbirth, and an attempt would be made to minimise this
as far as possible by placing at the disposal of every mother,
no matter what her social position was, the best nursing and
surgical skill the town possessed. It was hoped by those
things, first of all, to interest the mother with sensible advice
as to obtaining the best prospects of having healthy children,
then to assist them in their hour of need, and afterwards to
get them to continue regularly visiting centres in order that
tin1 growth and development of the child might be followed.

57

The. mortality was largely in the first year, and in towns like
Burnley epidemic diarrhoea and chest troubles were largely
responsible. In many of the houses it was impossible, how-
ever intelligent and willing the mother might be, to nurse a
child with those ailments with any prospect of success.
Authorities were now providing a recognised children’s hos-
pital treatment of the children whose homes were not satis-
factory.

Dr. Clegg mentioned that there was also a big gap between
the age of thirteen and sixteen, and asked what was to become
of the two million young people going to waste. There was
nothing arranged for dealing with them. But, on the other
hand, there was nothing to prevent any local authority
keeping in touch with them. With our lessening birth-rate
and heavy infantile mortality, and the unfortunate wastage
which went on during adolescence, we were going to be faced
with some very serious problems.

58

YORKSHIRE, ITS FOLK-LORE, CUSTOMS
AND BROAD ACRES.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By HENRY CROWTHER, F.R.M.S. Feb. 8th, 1916.

The Pennine Range has exercised an enormous influence
upon both Yorkshire and Lancashire. To a great extent it
has determined the types of character to be met with in those
counties and to some extent the industries carried on. Turn-
ing first to the botany of the Pennines the lecturer explained
in what various ways the different moorland grasses and
mosses are adapted to their environment, and he spoke of
how the vast expanses of moss to be found on the moors
ensures a never-failing supply of water for our streams even
in periods of long drought. After specific references to some
of the most beautiful Pennine hill-plants, the lecturer pro-
ceeded to illustrate, by means of artistically coloured slides,
the most typical features of Pennine moorland scenery-
weathered crags, heathery valleys, and extensive stretches
of undulating moorland. A tribute was paid to the privi-
lege, which both Lancashire and Yorkshire enjoyed, of prac-
tically free access to a vast moorland area.

Turning specially to Yorkshire, the lecturer spoke of the
varieties of geological phenomena and t lie wide range of
rocks, from the oldest formations to the newest, which the
county contains within its borders. The influence of the
glacial period upon the general contours of Yorkshire was
discussed and many illustrations given of rocks which had
been transported by the agency of ice from distant regions
into areas where the surrounding rocks were geologically
different. Fine photographs were shewn of the “ folded
limestone near Holton Abbey, of Brimham Rocks, and of
the calcareous grits surmounted by fantastically weathered
boulder clay in the Filey coast district ; special mention
was made of the freakish tricks of nature to be seen in the
Malliam and Gordale districts and in Clapham Cave.

59

The lecturer then proceeded to review picturesque York-
shire, dealing first with the dales and then with the coast.
Particularly delightful were the slides illustrating such
quaint spots as Redcar, Staithes, Runswick Bay, Sandsend,
and Robin Hood’s Bay. In many places on the north
Yorkshire coast the sea is gradually gaining upon the land
at the rate of two yards per year, though in the region of
the Spurn new land is being deposited.

Yorkshire is a county of an infinite variety of interests.
Apart from the moorlands and scenes of quiet pastoral
beauty, Yorkshire contains some of the finest architectural
monuments in the country. Beverley Market Cross — the
Bars of York and other ancient towns — ruined abbeys like
Kirkstall, Fountains, Jervaulx, Whitby, and Bolton —
mediaeval castles such as those at Skipton and Richmond,
were all illustrated by the lantern and suitably commented
upon. The county has proved itself to be rich, too, in
archeological remains. Flint implements, celts, and objects
belonging to the Bronze Age have been frequently unearthed.

In such a large area as Yorkshire, in which so many different
types of country are to be found and in which different
influences have operated in different regions, one must not
expect to find any one type, constant and well-defined. On
the whole, whoever, it can be said that Yorkshiremen are
inclined naturally to be mathematical and musical ; but
above everything they are practical in their outlook upon
life. In the country districts they rather tend to be “wise
after the event ” and it has been said, with some truth,
that they “ have more humour than wit.” They are hos-
pitable but most strongly resent anything savouring of
patronage.

60

THE SAHARA AND ITS FAUNA.

(Illustrated by tiie Lantern).

By GRAHAM RENSHAW, MD., F.R.S.E. Feb. 15, 1916.

Mr. Renshaw opened his lecture by pointing out the exis-
tence of close regional limitations which obtain in the animal
world. Though the northern and southern deserts of Africa
are very similar in climate and vegetation, the fauna of the
Sahara is, apart from one or two instances, quite distinct
from that of the southern deserts. The lecturer took as the
basis of his remarks some half-dozen sketches of the
grouping of desert animals, made jby Sir William ^Harris,
one of the early African explorers, from the scat of his waggon.
The sketches were reproduced as lantern slides and skilfully
used for interesting deductive studies of the ways and habits
of desert fauna.

In one picture, obviously a morning scene, the close bunch-
ing of the animals (antelopes, wild asses, &c.) shews signs
of breaking up — the antelopes “ stringing out ” while the
wild asses assume crescent formation. Among the ostriches
in the foreground are to be seen the gazelle and wild ass ;
this grouping is accounted for by the fact that the extremely
acute hearing of the gazelle helps out the deficiencies, [in this
respect, of the ostrich. By the aid of another picture the
lecturer skilfully deduced the story of a wilderness tragedy.
The sketch shewed an oasis in the desert with a lion in the
foreground and the fragmentary skeleton of an antelope or
gazelle in the middle distance. The obvious deduction was
that the lion was just leaving the carcase of a desert animal
it had overpowered and eaten. This was not so, for the
lion had certainly not recently fed upon the carcase. The
lion invariably gnaws the hind quarters of its prey, then
the body and lastly the head. After the body has thus been
mauled there is next a gradual gathering of vultures which
circle round and round and ever closer and closer to the
torn carcase until they are sure life is extinct. They alight
upon the body and take their toll. Lastly the liyamas are
attracted by the presence of vultures who thus serve as a
means of indicating the presence of food. Thus the tragedy
is completed and the mere bones are left to bleach in the
desert.

61

Dr. Renshaw dealt in a very interesting manner with the
ostrich and giraffe. The ostrich is essentially a bird of the
desert. Its prominent eyes and long neck ensure safety from
attack. When the ostrich is young the legs and neck are not
unduly elongated, and it therefore seems probable that the
ostrich is descended from a bird not speciallyadapted to the des-
ert and that the adaptation arose gradually during the history
of the race to meet new circumstances of environment. Like
the domestic fowl it has lost the power of flight, its wings
being used only to steady itself in running, for which activity
its long stout legs seem to have been specially developed.
The ostrich has a very small foot for, during its racial history,
it has lost two of its original digitals, with great gain, how-
ever, to its running powers. The remaining digits are large
and well padded. From the skeleton of the ostrich it is
seen that the breast-bone is not keeled as in birds adapted
for flight. The keel seems to have disappeared because the
muscles operating the wings gradually ceased to be fully
functioned ; hence the keel which originally served as a
point of attachment for the large muscles of the wings grad-
ually became less and less pronounced and finally non-
existent.

The giraffe is an animal whose entire organization is com-
pletely adapted to its environment. Its long mobile thick-
ened upper lip and the ability to close completely the nostril,
serve as a protection against the thorns on the acacia tree,
on the leaves of which it feeds. The neck would seem
to have become long in the course of its racial development
for there are only seven vertebral bones in the neck, and
the neck of the young giraffe is quite short. The high withers
of the giraffe allow of suitable attachment for the supporting
ligaments of the long neck and also serve to secure speed
and sure-footedness. Similar full treatment was accorded
to the oryx, the bubal, the gazelle, and interesting reference
was made to the jerboa, the desert fox, black stork, and
the wild dog.

■»

62

WANDERINGS IN VENEZUELA.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By F. G. PERCIVAL, B.Sc., F.G.S. Feb. 22nd, 1916.

The lecturer visited Venezuela in the spring of 1910 as one
of a scientific party, sent out from England for the purpose
of investigating the oil and petroleum supplies. Their mis-
sion 4often took them away from the comparatively civilised
coast regions into the lesser known parts of Venezuela, for
the country contains great contrasts and one day’s journey
may separate a region almost up-to-date in its modernity
from one which reproduces all the crudities and inconven-
iences of our middle ages. The party travelled via the Azores,
Barbadoes, and Trindad, in which latter island some research
was carried out in the southern part during an enforced
quarantine of a month. In order to finish the journey a
boat had to be chartered from Trinidad to Venezuela.

The visitor makes his first acquainance with the country at
La Guaira, built on a steep hillside by the sea ; it is the port
for Caracas with which it is connected by a railway. The
coast range that intervenes between La Guaira and Caracas
makes the journey extremely interesting, but the engineering
difficulties encountered reduce the efficiency of the line very
considerably for the loads must needs be small and the cost
of transit high. This is characteristic of the whole district, the
rocks arc steep, twisted and contorted, and the gorges con-
stitute formidable obstacles to both rail and road. The
route from Caracas via Valencia to Puerto Cabello is similarly
difficult— -at one point it is so steep as to necessitate a rack-
rail. La Guaira has a reputation for its heat, yet Macuto,
a few miles along the coast, has cooling breezes which render
it the Brighton of Venezuela ; this is probably to be explained
by the break in the hills behind Macuto. Caracas, the capital
of the country, has, owing to its altitude, a much more toler-
able climate and may be likened, in its life and its appear-
ance, to a southern European city.

63

Venezuela is a republic, governed by a congress of repre-
sentatives from the United States of Venezuela. Repre-
sentatives are of two orders, deputies and senators. Each
state has its president and each town its magistrate. But
the country is young and it is not until one gets away from
the capital that one realizes how undeveloped the country
really is. The smaller towns and villages consist of single-
storeyed houses, the walls are mud plastered and the roofs
thatched with palm leaves. There is a very elementary
education given in the villages, but the Government is awake
to the need for a more systematized scheriie for, apart from
Caracas which has a university, the facilities are very meagre.
As is usual in young countries there is much corruption in
official circles and little security for life and property ; until
quite recently the carrying of revolvers was quite the common
thing. In spite of this, the people, whether of pure Spanish
or of a mixed descent, have a natural courtesy and hospi-
tality that is charming, and place their best at the disposal
of the traveller. As the}' live in a primitive manner the
traveller must be prepared at times to accept a rather rough
monotonous diet. In many places wheaten bread is un-
known and in its place, very insipid cakes of coarsely ground
maize are used. Milk is often difficult to obtain, though
the coffee is excellent. Where goat farming is carried on,
as in the district round Coro, delicious goat milk and cheese
can be had, while on the inland sugar farms the diet invariably
consists of fowls with zams, boiled bananas, thin sheets of
dry cassava cake, with crude brown candied sugar as a sweet.
For a people whose tastes are so simple life is easy and com-
fortable ; if they feel inclined to work they will and for fairly
low wages ; but very few types of exertion are thought
worth while, so long as they can obtain the simple neces-
saries of life.

Venezuela is waiting for foreign capital to come and
organize things and to bring the mixed blessings of modern
industrialism in exchange for their copper and petroleum.
British companies are, to some extent, already dealing with
cattle and petroleum, but during the next few years Euro-
pean capital will be needed in Europe. It is to Venezuela’s
interest to encourage her people to develop the natural
resmxrces for themselves without awaiting the initiative of
foreign capitalists.

64

CONCERNING LIKES AND DISLIKES.

By the Rev. T. WALTON MEREDITH. Feb. 29 th, 1916

Humanity is composed of a strange mixture and
contains some astounding surprises. By reason of the vast
variety of differences which exist within it — differences of
race, nationality, historical development, differences of
politics and of social customs. The physical differences
which separate individuals are considerable, but the mental
differences are more important and more varied. The differ-
ent ways of looking at things exemplified by different indivi-
duals are products of mental constitution and education.
Beyond physical and mental differences there are spiritual
differences ; many and varied are our conceptions of God,
some people seem gifted by a kind of spiritual intuition and
are easily moved by devotional sentiment, while others of a
more practical turn tend to approach spiritual problems
through the syllogism. In practical life all these varieties
of difference are displayed through our likes and dislikes.

Likes and dislikes often sharply distinguish even brothers
right from childhood, for apart from common traits, due to
parental influence, there are other likes and dislikes which
most decisively differentiate members of the same family
and which are apparently inexplicable. It is precisely
through these personal predilections that we assert our real
selves for taste is the most individual thing about us. Pictorial
art, physical form, music, all provide material upon which to
exercise taste and thereby to exemplify the wide differences
which even educated people display in their choice of what
is best. Taste, too, appears fickle, for the good taste of one
age is often the mockery of the next. Our likes and dislikes
bring us pleasure and fine taste in music or in art makes
for personal enjoyment. Likes and dislikes determine also
our recreations and our worship, decide our companionships
and influence our judgments upon our fellows — “ condoning
things we are inclined to, by damning those we have no
mind to.”

The general characteristics of life during any period of
history are determined by the particular objects of the preva-
lent likes and dislikes of that period and from this point of

65

view it may be said that the fashion plates, music, pictures,
poems, novels, styles of furniture, of any particular age,
constitute the true mental history of that age. The grand-
iloquent oratory of our grandfathers’ days has given place
under changing standards of taste, to a quieter, more direct,
and simpler style of speech. Similarly in higher matters ;
no age sees Truth completely, one age emphasises one aspect
of Truth and delights in its contemplation, and another,
another aspect.

In conclusion, the lecturer shewed what an important
place in education the cultivation of taste should take. The
mere imparting of information was of comparatively small
moment when measured against the importance of forming
a taste for the best that has been thought and said and done
in the world. If such a taste can be developed it provides
a sure defence against the insidious dangers of low and
vulgar pleasures.

66

THE BALKANS AND ITS PEOPLES.

By L. B. de BE A UMONT, D.Sc.,F.L.S. March 1th, 1916.

It must be recognised that there is much in the Balkan
problem to puzzle and mislead outsiders. The Balkan
peoples live in their past to an extent which may well seem
inexplicable to us. Imagine a land strewn with the wreckage
of empires, inhabited by peoples who, for many centuries,
have been in turn conquerors and conquered, masters and
slaves. Then the Turk came, and darkness fell upon the
land, and nations were blotted out of existence, so that the
West forgot even their names. When at last the awakening
came, those unhappy races could only think again in terms
of what they had been ; they did not understand anything
else — as has been often and well said, their only desire was
to go on from the point at which they had left off. The
world had changed much during their long sleep, but to them
the only real things were the questions left unsolved for
more than 400 years. And to-day they still deplore the
fact that those problems, so intensely vital to them, remain
vague and obscure and apparently of minor importance to
us Westerns.

Perhaps the most difficult problem of all lies in this singular
fact that each of the present Balkan States represents only
a part of the population which bears its name and shares
its political aspirations. The Serbs cannot take a portion
of territory without the Albanians or the Bulgarians at once
feeling themselves robbed of some villages which in their
eyes are Albanian or Bulgarian villages. The Bulgarians
cannot occupy any part of Macedonia without the Serbs
or the Greeks asserting that Serbian or Greek people are being
unfairly compelled to become Bulgarians. Thus, each
Balkan State regards itself as being but the nucleus of a
nation whose legitimate citizens are to be found outside
of its political frontiers. And this is true enough, for when
those States were formed, with so much difficulty and so
much bloodshed, out of the shattered fragments of the
Turkish Empire, all sorts of considerations quite indepen-
dent of sound ethnography preoccupied the Western Powers
and influenced their decisions. Not without some reason
do the Balkan peoples complain that Europe did not under-
stand them. Uncertain frontiers were created, and these

67

have left painfully acute the problem of uncertain expansion.
Diplomatists, in despair, may plead that the problem is insol-
uble, but it has perhaps been made even more so by hasty,
artificial, and often selfish solutions intended to satisfy
Western requirements rather than the legitimate aspirations
of peoples earnestly feeling about in search of their true
affinities. In every school, whether in Greece, Macedonia,
Bulgaria, or Serbia, you will see on the walls maps displayed
on which are shown the present frontier in one colour, and
the frontier that ought to be the ideal frontier in another
colour. Those maps eloquently set forth the great Balkan
difficulty, and they also enable us to understand what a splen-
did opportunity is thus afforded for the political intrigues
which have created the position in the Balkans, Iwith which
to-day the Allied Powers have to deal.

Referring to the Albanians, the lecturer admitted their
claim to be probably the oldest inhabitants of the Balkan
Peninsula. The Albanian always is and remains an Albanian.
Unlike the Serb or the Bulgar, who, having become a Moslem,
often exhibits a fanaticism which even a Turk might envy,
the Albanian never allows his nominal allegiance to Islam,
if he be a Moslem, to interfere with the fact that he is an
x'Ubanian. In fact, as has been often remarked, they seem
to lack the religious sense. Christianity and Islam are
political labels which have left practically untouched the
old pagan beliefs and superstitions of that most ancient
race. “ We Albanians,” once said one of their chiefs to a
distinguished English traveller, “ we must have freedom ;
we will profess any form of religion which leaves us free to
carry a gun ; therefore the majority of us are Moslems.”
But they are very lax Moslems, and their religious ideas are
curiously mixed. Red eggs at Easter are, in some places,
given amicably by Moslems to each other ; if verses from
the Koran fail to cure an ailment, not having yet heard of
Christian Science, they try a Christian relic or medal. Yet
it must be acknowledged that the Albanians are a very
intelligent people, and can adapt themselves to modern ways
of life. They are excellent men of business. In Cettinje,
the capital of Montenegro, more than half the trade is in
their hands ; along the coast of Dalmatia, and on the shores
of the Adriatic, even in Italy, Albanians are found success-
fully engaged in commercial pursuits. All that seems to be
required for those interesting people is education and good
government in the place of the selfish political intrigues
which, so far, have been their chief acquaintance with Western
civilisation.

The Bulgar is hated to-day in the Balkans even more
than the Turk. The other Slav peoples call him the “ Judas
of the Slav race,” because in the course of history the Bulgar
has never hesitated to put his own interests before those of
the Slav family. The Bulgars, although partly Slavonic in
blood, are very unlike the Slavs, and especially their imme-
diate neighbours the Serbs, both in physical appearance
and in character. The Serb is essentially sentimental, even
to dreaminess ; a lover of art and poetry. He is excitable
and easily swayed by his feelings and his ideals ; his sym-
pathy with the other Slavs is intense and generous even to
to a fault. The Bulgar is entirely different. He is essen-
tially positive and practical ; somewhat cold and reserved,
shrewd and suspicious ; a man of few words. His neigh-
bours may go mad about Slavism. To him all that matters
is what will pay. He never trusts you fully, and it is not
perhaps safe to treat him otherwise. It must, on the other
hand, be said that if the Bulgar is not particularly pleasant
and sympathetic, if his Hunnish descent undoubtedly
qualifies him for Teutonic associations and alliances, still
he is no doubt a valuable ally up to a certain point. He is
the best worker in the Balkans ; you can give him his job
and then leave him to do it without supervision. He will
go on working steadily and well without taking advantage
of the freedom given to him. This certainly cannot be said
of all workmen in the Balkan Peninsula.

In Roumania politics are hardly controlled by public opinion.
The power lies with small groups of politicians, and ulti-
mately with the Court, about which Teutonic influences are
considerable. Large profits are being made by politicians
and commercial men out of the war. so that although the
common people are openly favourable to the Allies of the
Entente Cordiale, sentimental grounds are not likely to be
the basis of Roumania’s action at present. Allied successes
in the West, or in the East, or in the Balkans will probably
alone decide favourably the attitude of Rumania.

Although the memories of ancient imperial days may create
false ideals and dangerous ambitions in the hearts of the
Balkan peoples, yet it must be recognised that they have
a future not unworthy even of their memories. The rapidity
with which they have progressed, and, at least in part, assimi-
lated the civilisation of Europe since their liberation from
the Turkish yoke, shows what can be expected from them
under favourable conditions, when being no longer pawns

in the game of some great Powers, they will be able to fulfil
their destiny as free nations. The best and most enlightened
men among those Balkan peoples are fully conscious of the
fact that their future is bound up with the result of the
mighty struggle of the Allied nations against the present
associates of the Turk, the old enemy of their race. In
fighting for the final regeneration of those Balkan lands,
England, they feel, is adding another page to the noble record
of her efforts on behalf of human freedom.

70

EDUCATION AND NATIONAL
EFFICIENCY.

By THOMAS FOSTER. March 14 th, 1916.

Mr. Foster described “ education ” as training and
“ efficiency ” as fitness. Training might produce desirable
or undesirable types, useful members of society or useless
ones, and the result of the training depended upon the
motive or ideal by which the training is actuated. What
we mean by national efficiency depended upon our ideal
of what a nation should be. The lecturer therefore asked
whether we, as a nation, had a definite and desirable ideal
towards which to train.

The lecturer then went on to speak of the clearly con-
ceived German ideal of man being considered as existing
solely for the state and said that Germany with this ideal
of a" state-controlled life had a very thorough system of
which led her citizens to a very high degree of one type
of efficiency. This country however seemed to the lecturer
to have divided and conflicting ideals — some similar to those
of Germany, e.g., a governing state and a governing caste
—others, intensely individualistic, based upon the economics
of the Manchester school. These latter were largely respon-
sible for the idea that life is an opportunity for the accumu-
lation of material riches with resulting power over the lives
and services of others. At the same time, we were con-
scious of our professed religious and moral standards which
commend personal service and sacrifice as the basis of duty
to our neighbours. All these ideals tending in different
directions were confusing, for to travel in contrary directions
at one and the same time is impossible.

Mr. Foster then proceeded to lay down certain fundamental
axioms. Membership of a community has its obligations
and that nation is the most efficient which has the largest
number of its citizens able and willing to discharge those
obligations. On the other hand, a citizen has his rights ;

71

chief among these is his claim upon the community to be
trained and fitted for his place in society and an ideal educa-
tional system would be one which fits the citizen for his position
and the due discharge of his obligations.

To what ends, then, should the citizen be trained ? Firstly,
to maintain himself and to help to maintain those dependant
on society, viz., the young, the old, and the infirm ; to
contribute his share to the national wealth (i.e., well-being)
by engaging in a useful work ; to realise that to live without
working usefully is the greatest disgrace and that no work
that is necessary is menial. The obligation upon each to
contribute his best to the welfare of the state places a corres-
ponding obligation upon society to provide an opportunity
for the highest possible development of every child. On
economic grounds alone this is desirable, for the economic
value of one great industrial genius is sufficient to cover
the expense of the education of a whole town. Secondly,
the citizen should be trained to take an intelligent part in
the government of his country. In an ideal democracy all
would be actively interested in public affairs. Thirdly, a
citizen should be so trained as to be able to use his leisure
wisely. During the time in which the citizen is not directly
discharging his debt to society there should be due time
for recreation, both physical and intellectual and for the care
of the spiritual side of his nature. Fourthly, there is the
obligation (which implies, of course, ability) on the citizen
to defend his country. Until such time as other states
arrive at approximately the same stage of moral develop-
ment, the danger of interference from outside is possible ;
hence some system of national service should be inaug-
urated.

Speaking of the steps now available to help our country
to achieve its best, the lecturer instanced the provision in
our primary schools of the happiest possible environment
— so good that even the richest cannot procure better. In
arranging our curricula the first objects should be sound
character and healthy bodies, together with the develop-
ment of the child’s natural aptitude to acquire knowledge.
Too much mental discipline should not be attempted, for
that often results in the stifling of personality. All, if pos-
sible, should go through a full secondary school course, or,
at least, attend day continuation schools for a few hours
weekly up to the age of eighteen. The state cannot afford
either on economic or on moral grounds to waste the found-

72

ational training given in our primary schools. Furthermore,
all capable students should reach the technical college or
university ; while as a preparation for industry and com-
merce, in spite of what “ practical ” men said, the best pos-
sible scientific training was necessary.

Finally, before it was ever possible to realise in the state
a true efficiency, it was necessary to cast away the material
standards of success in life ; we should then perhaps have
fewer men rich in material possessions but we should have
a country rich in the Ruskinian sense, for our chief national
concern would be the production of souls of good quality.
Surely the consummation of wealth for a state lay in the
possession of as many full-breathed, bright-eyed and happy-
hearted human creatures as possible. Such a consummation
was an ideal of national efficiency worth striving for, and
the way that led to it was the truest education.

73

RECITAL : Nicholas Nickleby.

By the Rev. A. R. RUNNELS-MOSS, M.A.

March 21st, 1916.

On this date the Rev. A. R. Runnels-Moss, M.A., gave
a greatly appreciated dramatic recital of the complete theme
of Dickens’ " Nicholas Nickleby.”

74

A TRIP TO THE JOTUNHEIM.

(Illustrated by the Lantern).

By SAMUEL POPE, Esq., March 28th, 1916.

Recorder oj Burnley.

The purport of the lecture was to indicate by a series of
views the character of the scenery to be enjoyed on the
high plateau of the Jotunheim and the suitability of the
district for a walking holiday. For a first visit, a steamer
journey direct to the selected point of entry to the mountain
country was not recommended, and the lecturer in fact
began ‘the story of his travels at Stavanger. From this
point the journey was made up the beautiful Bukken Fjord
to Sand, a charming resting place at which to recruit from
what has gone before and for what will come after in the
way of travel.

From Sand the well-known overland route to Odde, or
the Sor Fjord, was followed. The scenery on this route
is of the most varied and attractive kind and includes the
Suldals Vand with its precipitous rock walls and the gorge
scenery of the Bratlands valley. The road through the
Brattansdal is the pride of Norwegian engineers, and the
scenery has justified the expenditure. Pleasant upland
country is reached above the gorge and the road, after passing
by the side of several lakes, is carried to the snowline by
a notable zig-zag ascent at Breifond and an even more strik-
ing descent to the Laatefos waterfalls and Odde. This part
of the route was adequately depicted by a series of views.

From Odde down the Sor Fjord to Fide and thence to
Ulvik was the next stage. I'lvik is deserving of notice as
a charming resting place. From Ulvik a long drive past
Gravensvand to Vossvangen and thence to Stalheim, the
Naerodal and Gudvangen, brings the traveller once more
to sea water. The traveller should time his arrival at Stal-
heim for the afternoon as the lighting of the. famous Naerodal
is then the most favourable for viewing it. At Gudvangen

75

the steamer is taken down the Naero fjord into the Sogne
Fjord and so to Laerdalsoren. An interesting detour can
be made by crossing the Sogne Fjord to Balholm and so into
the Fjaerland Fjord to view the great glaciers descending
from the Jostedal snowfteld, the largest glacier area in Europe,
but the visitor to the Jotunheim will spend the night at
Laerdal (it seems impossible to escape this penance) and
take steamer up the Lyster Fjord to Skj olden. Skj olden is
is the gateway to the Jotunheim and lies at the most remote
point of the Sogne Fjord, 112 miles from the sea.

From Skj olden a mule track leads in the course of a steady
pull of four hours to Turtegro, the headquarters of the climb-
ing fraternity. The mountain plateau here is just under
3,000 feet above' sea level, and innumerable walks and moun-
tain excursions await the visitor. Views were shown of the
various peaks and glaciers of this district, also some panor-
amic views taken from the summit of one of the mountains.
Leaving Turtegro, a tour of unusual interest was illustrated
embracing nearly every point of note in that part of the
Jotunheim. The route described took the pedestrian across
the tableland forming the summit of the Sognefjeld (or
Dolefjeld) affording exceptional views of the great glaciers
descending from the Fanaroak mountain almost to the
waters of the Praestesteinvand, along the shores of which
the walker proceeds for nearly an hour and a half. The
point of greatest interest then appears in the famous Smorslat
glacier from out of the centre of which the sharp pinnacle
of Store Bjorne (Great Bear) mountain rises with peculiar
effectiveness. The route lies across the glacier close to the
rock walls of the mountain and affording fine panoramic
views on every side. On leaving the Glacier, accommodation
is found at the Norwegian Tourist Club Hut on the shores
of the Leirvand. Here a fresh series of “ climbs ” are avail-
able for those who seek them, but the walking tourist will
proceed to the Spiterstulen Saeter under the Goldhoppig
mountains, the highest in Norway. From here a fine glacier
excursion across the Heilstugubral and the Memurubral to
Memurubad on Lake Gjende, brings the walker into fresh
country and the well-known mountain lake region. Views
were shown, freely illustrating the walk up to this point.

The panoramic views from the highest parts of the Smorstab
glacier and the seracs and crevasses on the Memurubral
were all of interest and indicated something of the solitary
grandeur of the country. Lake Gjende now boasts a motor
boat and the trip to the end of the lake to the Gjendebod

7<»

" Club Hut ” is most conveniently made in this way. From
here the path leads to the Svartdal, with another fine glacier,
and the Thorfindel to Nybod on Lake Bygdin. Again by
motor boat the traveller can proceed to Eidsbrigaren and
so to Tyinholmen on Lake Tyin. From Trindehang, which
adjoins, the ascent of the Skinegg mountain for the fine
panoramic view is strongly recommended, but the finest
walk of the tour lies before the pedestrian in crossing the
glaciers of the Uranaastind, ascending this commanding
peak and descending to Skogadolsboen. The top of the tind
is an eerie place consisting of a narrow ridge with a drop
on either side of some 3 — 4,000 feet into the valleys below.

At Skogadolsboen, the very heart of the climbing district,
the Norwegian Touist Club maintains an excellent hut. The
interior view shown by the lecturer, depicting an aged guide,
seated by the prmitive corner fireplace with the implements
of his craft near at hand, was specially selected for favour-
able comment. From Skogadolsboen the return was made
to Tyin Lake through the wild and little visited Uradal
—a valley which for a long time was blocked by the gigantic
debris of a shattered mountain side — called locally “ Ure.”
The walker has a toilsome straggle for hours across this remark-
able catastrophe of nature.

The journey down Tyin Lake can now be accomplished
by motor boat, and the journey homewards commenced on
reaching the great trunk road connecting Christiania and
Laerdal by proceeding in either direction. The lecturer came
out of the country by Nystuen, Maristuen, Borgund, Laerdal,
Gudvangen, and Vossevangen, and thence by railway to
Bergen. It is worthy of note that the first week of September
is not too late for Norway, and on the high plateau the
autumn tints will amply compensate for the shorter days.
The lecturer arrived back in England on the 1 8th of September.

1877

1880

1886

1895

1895

1899

1904

1910

1911

1911

1915

1915

77

LIST OF MEMBERS.

April.. 1916.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L.,
F.L.S., Boscombe.

Charles Rowley, M.A., Manchester.

Tattersall Wilkinson, Roggerham, near Burnley.
Rt. Hon. Lady O’Hagan, Pyrgo Park, Essex.

L. B. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S., Metliwold, Norfolk.
J. Langfield Ward, M.A., Bath.

Fred H. Hill, St. Annes-on-Sea.

A. Wilmore, D.Sc., Colne.

Sir James Mackenzie, M.D., LL.D., London.

Rev. Canon H. D. Rawnsley, M.A., Keswick.
Fred. J. Grant, J.P., Oak Bank.

Dr. Brown, Capetown.

78

MEMBERS.

Anderson, George, 247, Manchester Road.

Armistead, Herbert, 61, Sackville Street, Brierheld.
Armistead, Herbert, 53, Scott Park Road.

Ashworth, Edwin, J.P., Thorn Hill.

Ashworth, James, 33, Bridge Street.

Aspinall, Robert, J.P., 116, Todmorden Road.

Atkinson, Robert, 35, Thursby J^oad.

Balderstone, John H., 11, Fair View Road.

Baldwin, Samuel, Park Hill, Pasture Gate Avenue.
Bardsley, Arthur, 127, Woodgrove Road.

Bardsley, R. S., 237, Manchester Road.

Bell, Arthur, 57, Ormerod Road.

Bell, Thomas, 57, Ormerod Road.

Bellingham, Arthur A., Rose Hill Road.

Birkett, M., Bank Parade.

Birtwell, J. E., 4, Woodfield Terrace, Brierheld.
Birtwistle, G. R., M.A., B.Sc., Edenholme, Park Avenue.
Bowker, James, 101, Manchester Road.

Bradshaw, Harry, 396, Padiham Road.

Broxup, R. E., Bank Royd, Scott Park Road.

Burnley, The Rt. Rev. the Bishop of, (Dr. Henn),
Reedley Lodge.

Burrows, J. T., Highcliffe, Queen’s Park Road.

Burrows, W. H., Bur Royd, Colne Road.

Butler, Charles, 93, Woodgrove Road.

Butterfield, John, Inglewood, Rose Hill Road.
Butterfield, Thomas, 2, Appletrec Carr.

Catlow, Howard, 23, Scott Park Road.

Chorlton, John, Carr Road.

Clegg, Herbert, Overpark, Queen’s Park Road.

Clegg, W. T., 195, Coal Clough Lane.

Colli nge, Edgar S., Brooklands Avenue.

Collinge, John S., J.P., Park House.

Coi.linge, T. Allen, Greenfield.

79

Crabtree, J. H., 91, Ormerod Road.

Crook, Campbell, 236, Manchester Road.

Crook, Thomas, J.P., Rosedale.

Crossley, Arthur, 9, Carlton Road.

Dickinson, Archibald, 71, Colne Road.

Dickinson, G. S., 3, Brooklands Avenue.

Drew, Alexander, J.P., Holme Lodge.

Eastwood; Arthur, 59, Ennismore Street.

Emmott, Hartley, J.P., Lodge Villa, Brunshaw.
Evans, W. G. , Denstone, Scott Park Road.

Fielden, Smith, 15, Lark Street.

Flack, W. H. D., J.P., Brookside.

Flintoff, John, 112, Hollingreave Road.

Foster, Thomas, Newlands, Ightenhill Park.
Fullalove, A. L., B.A., LL.B., Cornfield.

Fullalove, W. T., Cornfield.

Gardner, James, M.B., .C.M., 1, Piccadilly Road.
Garner, Edwin, 82, Blackburn Road, Padiham.
Grant, A. F., Castle Hill, Towneley.

Grant, Bertram D., Oak Bank.

Grant, F. J., J.P., Oak Bank.

Grant, John Murray, 35, Lansdowne Street.

Grant, Walter M., 42, Ashfield Grove, Reedley.
Grant, W. Lewis, 14, Palatine Square.

Green, George, Palace House.

Halstead, Edmund, J.P., Rokeby, Colne Road.
Hargreaves, F. A., J.P., 7, Park Avenue.
Hargreaves, Luther, 57, Scott Park Road.

Hartley, W. H., Hoarstones.

Haworth, Thos., 253, Brunshaw Road.
Haythornthwaite, Robert, Reedley Road, Brierfield.
Heap, John F., Hood House Grove.

Heap, J. W., 61, Scott Park Road.

Heap, Robert S., Meadow Bank, Ightenhill Park.
Holden, John, Kenmare, Manchester Road.

Holmes, J., 9, Park Avenue.

Horn, J. S., J.P., Glenmere, Scott Park.

Hough,' Alderman, Wm. Simonstone.

Hudson, Frank, LL.B., 12, St. James’ Row.

Isherwood, Wm., 75, Woodgrove Road.

80

Jobling, Col. Albert, Brampton.

Joseland, H. L., M.A., 6, Piccadilly Road.

Judson, T., Edgehey, Western Avenue.

Kay, Graham B., Towneley Villa.

Kay, James, J.P., Towneley Villa.

Lancaster, Arthur K., Morningside, Carlton Road.
Lancaster, James, J.P., Westholme Carlton Road.
Lancaster, Norman R., Green Bank, Manchester Road.
Lancaster, Thomas Edgar, Kiaora, Todmorden Road.
Lancaster, William, Morningside, Carlton Road.
Landless, Richard, 78, Bank Parade.

Landless, Stephen, Rosemount-, Manchester Road.
Landless, T. A., Vailima, Reedley Road.

Lane, M. Adair, 4, Piccadilly Road.

Lawrie, Robert, The Ochils, Ightenhill Park.

Lea, Richard S., 22, Piccadilly Road.

Lewis, A., B.A., 11, Carlton Road.

Longbottom, Charles, 35, Scott Park Road.

Lupton, Albert, 7, Scott Park Road.

Lupton, Arthur, 12, St. Matthew’s Street.

Lupton, J. T., Parkdene, Fern Road.

Mackenzie, B., Newfield House, Red Lees.

Mackie, John S., 6, Bank Terrace, Simonstone.

Mather, W., Brentwood, Brierfield.

Mawson, Fred, 22, St. Matthew Street.

Mercer, Robinson, 478, Padiham Road.

Moffitt, Robert, 105, Manchester Road.

Munro, W. W., 187, Colne Road.

Munn, Rev. T., 78, Blackburn Road, Padiham.

Nowell, T. B., Willow Bank, Brooklands Road.

Nuttall, H. R., 18, Glen View Road.

Ogden, Harry, 71, Ormerod Road.

Overton, G. E., 50, Colne Road.

Parker, Wilkinson, Portsmouth House, near Todmorden.
Parkinson, E. E., 56, Ightenhill Park Lane.

Parkinson, Herbert, St. Annes-on-Sea.

Parkinson, Isaiah, 3, Park Avenue.

Parkinson, 'I'. G., Carlton House.

Pemberton, Thomas Herbert, Sunny Bank.

si

Pemberton, Wm„ Junr., Sunny Bank.

Phillips, VVm. C., Haverbrack, Ightenhill Park.
Pickles, A. R., M.A., Woodthorpe.

Pollard, John T., 37, Scott Park Road.

Pounder, M., 39, Bankhouse Sti'eet.

Preston, Thomas, Ravens Holme, St. Annes-on-Sea.
Procter, Harry, B.A., LL.B., 181, Manchester Road.
Proudlove, John, Sefton Terrace.

Ouarmby, W. A., Glen View Road.

Ralph, Wilfred, 5, Ennismore Street.

Redman, Thomas, 14, Hawthorne Road.

Rhodes, T. E., 265, Brunshaw Road.

Ritchie, G. S., Parkfield, Scott Park.

Roberts, Arthur, 59, Colne Road.

Roberts, Thos., 70, Bank Parade.

Robinson, H. J., B.A., M.R.C.S., Springfield House.
Ryder, William, Newlands, Heasandforcl.

Shuttlewortii. The Rt. Hon. Lord, Gawthorpe Hall.
Simpson, Robt., Rose Cottage, Todmorden Road.

Simpson, W. F., Hapton.

Slane, H. J., M.B., C.M., Dilkusha, Todmorden Road.
Smith, David, 2, Elizabeth Street.

Smith, James, 179, Manchester Road.

Smith, Tom, Town Hall.

Smith, T. Freeman, Pendle. View, Coal Clough Lane.
Snowball, Thomas, M.B., 83, Bank Parade.

Southern, Walter, Palace House.

Stanworth, John, 103, Barden Lane.

Stanhope, Rev. A. J., 156, New Hall Street.

Sutcliffe, A. F., 4, Western Avenue.

Swift, James, 118, Briercliffe Road.

Tate, William, 16, Piccadilly Road.

Taylor, Samuel, 50, Rosehill Road.

Thompson, J. W., J.P., Oak Bank.

Thompson, Wm., Park Side.

Thornber, Fred, Clevelands.

Thornber, Luke, 1, Montague Road.

Thornton, F. E., Syle Croft, Padiham Road.

Thorp, Tilos., 11, Manchester Road.

Thursby, Sir J. O. S., Bart., J.P., D.L., Onnerod House.

82

Waddington J. C., Overdale, Skipton.

W addington, Thos. W., 74, Blackburn Road, Padiham.
Walkden, A. C., 42, Ightenhill Park Lane.

Wallis, The Rev. J. E. W., M.A., Holy Trinity Vicarage.
Walton, Robert, Willow Bank.

Walton, T., 101, Ormerod Road.

Watson, Tom, 12, Hargreaves Street.

Welch, W. A., London City and Midland Bank.
Whittaker, John, 33, Ormerod Road.

Whitaker, W. J., 12, a Hargreaves Street.

Wilkinson, Thomas, Ivy Mount, Brunshaw Top.

With am, Wm„ J.P., Rockwood.

Witham, W. F., Fir Grove.

Wood, G. A., M.A., Red Leigh, Summit.

Wood, G. G., 53, Ennismore Street.

Wood, J. W., 45, Brooklands Road.

83

LADY ASSOCIATES.

Armistead, Mrs. James, Runnymede, Oueensgate.
Ashworth, Miss Sarah, 0, Sackville Street.

Bannister, Miss S. E., 116, Accrington Road.

Barritt, Miss Ellen, 67, Church Street.

Bebbington, Miss Edith, 31, Westgate.

Burrows, Miss F. A., Bur Royd, Colne Road.

Catlow, Miss Jane, 23, Scott Park Road.

Colledge, Miss, 10, Kingsland Grove.

Dodgeon, Miss J., L.L.A., Stockbridge House, Padiham.

Gardner, Miss C. A., Bank Hall Terrace.

Gott, Miss, Lyndene, Reedley.

Grant, Miss Annie A., 144, Coal Clough Lane.

Grant, Miss E., 18, St. Matthew Street.

Green, Miss Evelyn, Palace House.

Hargreaves, Miss, 24, St. Matthew Street.

Hargreaves, Miss F., 24, St. Matthew Street.

Hartley, Miss Florence, 16, Tennis Street.

Heap, Miss Maud M., 61, Scott Park Road.

Helm, Miss, Spafield House, Padiham.

Holgate, Miss M., 16, Glen View Road.

Hudson, Miss A., Holme Hill, Coal Clough Lane.
Hudson, Miss O., 21, Grove Lane, Padiham.

Lupton, Miss G., 12, St. Matthew Street.

Mason, Miss M., 118, Brunshaw Road.

Nicoll, Miss A., Healey Grange.

Nicoll, Miss E., Healey Grange.

Nicoll, Miss J., Healey Grange.

Nugent, Miss B., The Infirmary.

Ogden, Mrs., 71, Ormerod Road.

84

Proctor, Miss, 130, Manchester Road.

Proudlove, Miss A. M., 8, Selton Terrace.

Roberts, Miss M. A., 17, Holme Road.

Robinson, Miss Edith, 65, Colbran Street.

Robinson, Miss F., Hill Cot, Ightenhill Park Lane.
Robinson, Miss G., Springfield House.

Robinson, Miss I., Springfield House.

Robinson, Miss L., Hill Cot, Ightenhill Park Lane.

Ryder, Miss, Newlands, Heasandford.

Seddon, Miss M. E., 410, Padiham Road.

Smith, Mrs., J. R., Roslyn, Todmorden Road.

Smith, Miss I., Beck Side, Glen View Road.

Smith, Miss M., 23, Brooklands Road.

Smith, Miss Nora, Beck Side, Glen View Road.

Smith, Mrs. T. Freeman, Pendle View, Coal Clough Lane.
Stevenson, Miss Alice, 1, Thursby Road.

Strange, Mrs., Greenfield House.

Tate, Miss S. E., 10, Piccadilly Road.

Taylor, Miss I., 10, Kingsland Grove.

Veale, Miss, 17, Reedley Road.

Wilkinson, Miss D., Ivy Mount, Brunshaw Top.
Wilkinson, Miss M. E., 73, Rosehill Road.

Wood, Miss L. J., M.A., 389, Manchester Road:

85

CONTRIBUTORS.

Page.

de Beaumont, L. B., ..." The Balkans and its

D.Sc., F.L.S. Peoples.” 66

Clegg, Councillor Dr. J. W. ..." Municipality and Medi-
cine ” 53

Cortie, Rev. x\. L., S.J., ..." The formation of the sun

F.R.A.S. and stars ” 15

Crowther, Henry, F.R.M.S. .." Yorkshire, its Folk Lore

Customs and Broad
Acres ” 58

Flinn, Leonard " Persia, Past and Present 34

Foster, Thomas " Education and National

Efficiency ” 70

Heap, Harri, M.Sc., F.I.C. ..." The Water we Drink ” .. 23

F.C.S.

Heap, Robert S " Incidents in an Indian

Tour” 31

Hopkinson, Rev. J. H. ..." Delphi and the Greek

M.A. Oracles ” 20

Lancaster, Norman R " Sir Francis Drake ” 41

Leigh, Councillor Richard ..." British Columbia and the

Pacific Coast ” 47

Mee, Rev. F. Gordon " Schubert as a Song-writer

— an appreciation ” 43

Meredith, Rev. T. Walton ..." Concerning Likes and

Dislikes ” 64

Mullen, Ben H., M.A " How to enjoy a good

Picture ” 39

Percival, F. G., B.S.c., ..." Wanderings in Venezuela” 62

F.G.S.

80

CONTRIBUTORS— Continued.

Pickles, A. R., M.A “ Education and National

Efficiency ”

17

Pope, Samuel

“ A Trip to the Jotunheim”

74

Renshaw, Graham, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

...“ The Sahara and its Fauna ”

60

Rhodes. T, E

.“ Masefield’s Sea Narratives”

37

Runnels-Moss, Rev. A. K.

...Recital — “ Nicholas Nickle-

ky”

73

Wells, Samuel, F.R.G.S. ..

“ Where three Empires

meet — Poland ”

28

Why man, Thomas

“ Submarines, Mines and

Torpedoes ”

50

87

SUBJECTS.

Page.

Art — How to Enjoy a Good Picture (Ben H. Mullen)... 39

Balkans and its Peoples (L. B. de Beaumont) 66

British Columbia and the Pacific Coast (Richard Leigh)... 47
Delphi and the Greek Oracles (Rev. J. H. Hopkinson)... 20

Drake, Sir Francis (Norman R. Lancaster) 41

Education and National Efficiency (A. R. Pickles) 17

Education and National Efficiency (Thomas Foster) ... 70
India- — Incidents in an Indian Tour (Robert S. Heap) 31

Jotunheim — A Trip to the (Samuel Pope) 74

Likes and Dislikes (Rev. T. W. Meredith) 64

Masefield’s Sea Narratives (T. E. Rhodes) 37

Medicine and Municipality (J. W. Clegg) 53

“ Nicholas Nickleby ” — Recital (Rev. A.* R. Runnels

Moss 73

Persia, Past and Present (W. Leonard Flinn) 34

Poland, Where three Empires meet (Samuel Wells) 28

Sahara and its Fauna (Graham Renshaw) 60

Schubert as a Song-writer (Rev. F. Gordon Mee) 43

Submarines, Mines, Torpedoes (Thomas Whyman) 50

Sun and Stars, Formation of (Rev. A. L. Cortie) 15

Venezuela, Wanderings in (F. G. Percival) 62

Water we Drink (Harri Heap) 23

Yorkshire — Customs, Folk-lore and Broad Acres (Henry

Crowther) 58

88

INDEX.

Page.

List of Officers 3

Rules 4

Annual Report 6

List of Past Secretaries 9

Syllabus 10, 11

Balance Sheet 12

Transactions 15 — 70

List of Members and Associates 77

Index to Contributors 8.7

Index to Subjects 87

This Volume
Transactions

HAS BEEN PREPARED FOR THE PRESS
BY

G. A. WOOD. M.A.

aft