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TRANSACTIONS ~

OF THE

CUMBERLAND ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

Advancement of Literature and
Science,

PART VilI,—1881-82,

Erte ee. CL GOODCHTED:
Of the Geological Survey of England.

Prick To Mempers, ONE SHILLING,
Non-Mempers, Two SuHInines AND SIXPENCE.

CARLISLE :
G, & T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.
1882. ‘

CO BE ENCES.

Page
RoLes a $e Bee 33: on ee v.
List oF OFFICERS oe ne eee fees Wit.
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED Biecatins Be Se =e ae
REporT oF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY a a. ... XXVii.
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT .. XXViil.
Part I.—PROCEEDINGS ar tHe ANNUAL MEETING Role:
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT (ROBERT FreRGuson, M.P.)
‘*Concerning the Future of the English Language.” ... 1
**Notes on the Land and Fresh-Waiter Shells of Cumber-
land.” By Miss Donato, of Stanwix Be: 51
“The Glacial Deposits of West Cumberland.” By J. D.
KENDALL, C.E., F.G.S. 61
*‘On the Distinctive Colours of the Cisteastariin sis
Permian or Triassic (Poikilitic) Rocks of North Cum-
berland.” By T. V. Houmes, F.G.S. 79
“Contributions towards a List of the ne growing in fas
District around Carlisle.” By Dr. Cartye 89

‘*Contributions towards a List of the Minerals occurring in
Cumberland and Westmorland.” By J. G. GoopcHip,
of the Geological Survey of England : 101

“On the Geological Evidence of the former Mecihtands of
Coal Measures over Edenside.” By J. G. GoopcHip,
of the Geological Survey of England i 163
CoMMUNICATED AT THE WORKINGTON ANNUAL MEETING :—
“A List of Works relating to the Geology of Cumberland

and Westmorland.” By Wu. WuirakeEr, B.A., F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of England ee Ay 13

Part I].—PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Session 1881-82, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION
CouUNCIL FoR PUBLICATION :—

“Local Entomology.” Part 3, Geometre. ay GEORGE

Dawson (Carlisle)... 41
‘*Notes on the Flora of the Ullswater District, ” By wae

Hopeson (Penrith) . : 127
“Our Northern Wine,” (Abstract, By imac

Harrison (Carlisle)... 155

‘* Additions to the List of Mowating Plants of West Game
berland.” By J. GuaisTer and Dr. Lerrcu (Silloth) .. 159

Addenda to the List of Minerals seri he in Gunitevatid
and Westmorland ... 178

The Council of the Association is indebted to Mr. KENDALL,
Mr. Hoimes, and Mr. GoopcuiLp Jor the gift of the ilustra-

tions accompanying their respective communications.

RA anon
ane e pS al Puls
Bt ae Age inva,
ae eye's:

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Proceedings at the Annual Meeting at Carlisle, 1882.

(Taken from the Carlisle Journal and the Patriot. )

The AnNvuAL Meetine of the CuMBERLAND ASSOCIATION was held this
year at Carlisle, on Tuesday and Wednesday, the 30th and the 31st of May.

The proceedings were opened at One p.m. in the Fisher Street Hall, by
an Address from the President of the Association, Mr. Ropert FERGUSON.
M.P. The Hall was well filled with representatives of each of the local
Societies. Business of a formal nature connected with the Association was
next taken, and then the members proceeded to inspect the Gas Works
under the guidance of Mr. Hepworth, the manager. The various
objects of interest were successively pointed out, and the stages of manu-
facture of the gas were described, from the charging of the retorts, to the
purifying process, and the final storage in the great meter, which is capable
of passing 60,000 cubic feet of gas per hour. The place where the gas is
tested was also visited.

Leaving the Gas Works, the party divided, one section visiting the works
of Messrs. Hudson Scott and Sons, where Mr. Scott and Mr. B. Scott con-
ducted the visitors, first to the letterpress and block-printing department,
where about thirty machines were producing a variety of colour work ; then
to the designing room ; then to the transferring department, the stereotyping
department, the colour-grinding and ink-making rooms, the composing room,
the enamelling and paper-surfacing room, on to the making-up department,
where between thirty and forty young women were busily employed.

The other section visited the hat manufactory of Messrs. Carrick & Sons,
and inspected the interesting processes employed in the manufacture of felt
hats.

Votes of thanks were passed to Mr. Hepworth, the Messrs. Scott, and
the Messrs. Carrick.

In the Evening a goodly number again assembléd in the Fisher Street
Hall, to hear a lecture by Pror. WitutAmson, F.R.S., on ‘‘Pre-Historic
Arctic Vegetation.”

On Wepnespay Morning, business was resumed at the same Hall, and
papers by various contributors were read, and discussed : most of these will
be found printed in the present volume of the Transactions.

In the Afternoon a large party proceeded by train to Wetheral, en route
for Corby Walks. Here the Secretary read some ‘‘Geological Notes on
Corby Walks,” by Mr. Goodchild, who was detained in London on official
business. After the party had examined the beautiful scenery of the
neighbourhood, the Mayor of Carlisle (R. S. Ferguson, Esq.) gave a short
history of Corby and the Howards, and the party then dispersed. Through-
out the gatherings the weather was all that could be desired, and the
Annual Meeting proved one of the best that had been held for some time
past.

Reo ber kb

OF THE

Cumberland Association for the Advancement
of Literature and Science,

1.—That the Association be called the ‘‘CuMBERLAND
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND

SCIENCE.”

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Whitehaven Scientific Association, Keswick Literary and Scientific
Society, Cockermouth Literary and Scientific Society, Workington
Scientific and ‘Literary Society, Maryport Literary and cewine
Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific Society, Carlisle Scientific
Society and Naturalists’ Field Club, Ambleside and District Literary
and Scientific Society, Silloth and Holme Cultram Literary and
Scientific Society, Brampton Literary and Scientific Society and
Field Naturalist Club, Penrith and District Literary and Scientific
Society, and of such other Societies as shall be duly affiliated.
Also of persons nominated by two members of the Council; this

latter class of members shall pay the sum of 5s. annually.
B

vi.
3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled

by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members

of the Cumberland Association.

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary Members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, and Editor
shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the

Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi-
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affiliated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.
The Council shall have the power of obtaining the assistance of

persons who are not members of the Association.

8.—The Council may publish at the expense of the Association
such portions of its own or of any of the affiliated Societies’
communications as may be deemed advisable, subject to the

consent of the author.

9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among
existing societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones; it
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with
any of the associated societies.

vil.
10.—Affiliated societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the Association, Sixpence for each of their
members ; but when the number of members of the affiliated
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess

of that number.

11.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held.

12.,—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent

members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.

13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed

by the Society assisted.

The Eighth AnnuaL MEETING will be held at AMBLESIDE early
in 1883, and due notice of the arrangements will be issued to all

members of the Association.
Members willing to contribute original articles on subjects of

local interest should communicate with the Honorary Secretary,
J. D. Kenpatt, Esq., C.E., Whitehaven.

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1882-83,

President.
ROBERT FERGUSON, Esq., M.P., F.S.A.

Past Presidents.

THE Lorp BisHor oF CARLISLE.
Tue LATE I. Fiercuer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Ture Hon. P. S. WynpHam, M.P.

Vice-Presidents.

T. F. PAnson, Esq., M.D., F.R.H.S., (Whitehaven.)
Rev. T. K. Ricumonp, (Keswick. )

Rev. J. J. THornury, (Workington.)

W. Hine, Esq., (Maryport. )

Rev. Jos. WALLACE, B.A., (Longtown.)

Mites MacInnes, Esq., (Carlisle.)

Rev. H. S. Cannenper, M.A. (Ambleside.)

Rev. 8S. Hesert, M.A. (Silloth.)

G. J. Jonnson, Esq., (Brampton.)

M. W. Taytor, Esq., M.D., (Penrith.)

]

Council.
T. F. T’Anson, M.D.,
J. Vivian, C.E., Whitehaven.

Canon BATTERSBY,
A. A. H. Kyiceut, ae Keswick

C. J. VA NE, :
W. Wiison, . Workington.

J. CARTMEL,

Francis WALKER, Maryport:

S. F. Mc. LacHian,

JoHN WILSON, Longtown.

R. S. Ferevsoy, M.A., LL.M., F.S.A., :
Henry Barnes, M.D., f Carlisle.
C. W. Smits, :

JAMES BENTLEY, } Ambleside,

Rey. A. F. SHEPPARD, -

H. L. Barker, Silloth.

Rev. H. WuHirrHeap, B t

Gero. Barton, rampton.

M. W. Taytor, M.D., F.S.A., 2

W. B. ARnison, Penrith.

Hon, Association Secretary and Treasurer.
J. D. Kenna, C.E., F.G.S., Whitehaven.

Editor.
J. G. Goopcnrip, Grou. Survey or Eneuann, Penrith.

HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE LOCAL SOCIETIES,

enitchaven

Keswick ...

Workington

Maryport tee

Longtown
Carlisle ... sim
Ambleside

Se

Brampton SAS

Penrith ...

Joun Viv1an, C.E., Scien. Assoc., Howgill Street,
W. H. Kirctin, Scien. Assoc., Howgill Street,

JOHN PosTLETHWAITE, Eskin Place, Keswick.
W. WILson.

J. Hewetson, Scientific Society, Maryport.
P. Macintyre, Scientific Society, Maryport.

JouN Wison, Eskbank, Longtown.
Joun Srncxiarr, 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle.
Cuartes W. Smita, Ambleside.

H. L. Barker.
J. GLAISTER.

J. B. GRawam.
F. J. Riee.

Rey. J. 8. Ostie, Beaconside, Penrith.

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.

WHITEHAVEN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,
HOWGILL STREET.

—— __

15TH SESSION, 1881-82.

President ee ye Ey T. F. PAnson, M.D., F.R.H.S.
Vice-President... Sak ae as ... JOHN S. HELLON.

Past-Presidents.

T. F. Anson, M.D., F.R.H.S. H. A. Frercuer, F.R.A.S.
W. Jackson, J.P., F.S.A. JAMES BatRp.
AvuGustus HELDER. R. Russeny, C.E., F.G.S8.
W. H. Krircuiy. A. Krrcuty, F.C.S.
Committee.
E. Asrert, M.D. E. Doszson.
JosEPH ADAIR. W. Mc.Gowan.
B, Taytor. J. G. DEEs.
T. Gorpon.
Curator of Museum ... shy oh oat W.TAnson, M.B.
Curator of Building ... Ls she AC R. Pickerine, C.E.
Treasurer... ase rice WAS i J. S. Hetton.

Hon. Librarian ae nee ae Bt H. Apatr,

Hon. Secretaries.
J. Vivian, C.E, | W. H. Krrcut.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

Oct. 25.—CoNVERSAZIONE.—ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT.

Nov. 8.—J. D. Drrs.—New Zealand.

Noy. 22.—Atrrep FRrEEmMAN.—Sound: its Production and Variations,
With Experiments.

Dec. 6.—J. W. Monreomery, F.C.S.—Food and its Adulterations.

Dec. 20.—Mermpers or THE Amateur Dramatic Cius.—Representations
from the Works of Charles Dickens, &e.

Xi.

Jan. 6.—Prof. Sreney, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—Crocodiles: their Progenitors
and Allies.

Jan, 24.—G. H. Kinestry, M.D.—Amongst the Whales and Sharks.

Feb. 7.—J. H. Ropinson.—A Trip to Egypt.

Feb. 21.—Rev. W. T. Newsoxip, M.A.—Holiday Rambles Abroad.

Mar. 7.—G. W. Harriry.—Climbing in the Higher Alps.

Mar. 21.—R. S. Fereuson.—Potsherds and Pipkins.

Apr. 4.—T. L. Banks, A.R.I.B.A.—Architecture.

Apr. 18.—Business Meeting, Election of Officers, &c.

The Committee, in presenting the fifteenth Annual Report, have
much pleasure in announcing the past Session has been one of the
most successful of the Association.

The number of Members has increased from 280 to 336—87 of
whom are Associates.

The financial position of the Association is satisfactory, as the
balance of £31 odd due to the Treasurer has been reduced to
419g odd, and the Subscriptions have been reduced to within
about £15.

The Session was commenced with a Conversazione, which was
as popular as those of past years. \

Ten ordinary lectures have been given, and one special one by
Professor Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., on “Crocodiles, their Pro-
genitors and Allies.” The whole of the lectures have been well
attended.

The Library now numbers 266 volumes, exclusive of Patent
Specifications, Magazines, and Periodicals.

The Science Classes are again conducted by Mr. Freeman and
his staff, but the number of students have not been so large as last
Session. Several additions have been made to the Museum, and
the Committee would be glad to receive further gifts from the
Members and their friends.

Zoological Classes have been held, but they were poorly
attended.

Xi,
KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

13tH SESSION, 1881-82.

President... h sia uns Rev. A. Howson.
Vice-President... if a Rey. Canon Barrerspy, M.A.
Secretary... ae as me Mr. J. PosTLETHWAITE.
Treasurer sis jus oe Mr. Epwin JAcKsoN.

Committee.

Grorce Biack, M.B. T. E. Hicuron.
Rey. Wm. CoLvite. Rev. T. K. Ricumonp, M.A.
J. FISHER CROSTHWAITE. Wixi1am Woop.

Hon. Curators of Museum.
A. A. H. Knicut, M.D. | JoHN BIRKETT.

PUBLIC LECTURES.
1881.

Oct. 24.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esa., F.G.S.—Birds of Prey.

Nov. 7.—Jouy Hormes, Esg.—Ancient Life by the Light of Ancient
Lamps.

Nov. 28.—R. RussE.t, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.—Cyprus.

Dec, 12.—Rev. T. K. Ricumonp, M.A.—Sir Joshua Reynolds: Life and
Works.

1882.

Jan. 12.—Pror. Seetny, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—The Influence of Natural
Phenomena in the Mental and Moral Development of the British
People.

Jan. 16.—C. Gore Rinc, Esa., M.D.—The Knights of St. John.

Jan. 30.—GxEoRGE Buack, Esq., M.B.—Physical Culture.

Feb. 13.—Rrv. AuexaypER Natry.—Thomas Carlyle.

Feb. 27.—Rry. Canon Barrerspy, M.A.—William Wilberforce.

Mar. 13.—Rrv. A. Howson.—Discoveries at Nineveh.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1881.

Oct. 17.—Tue PRESIDENT.—The Theory of Evolution in reference to Man.
Oct. 31.—Ruy. E. P. Srantey.—Life of George Stephenson.

Noy. 21.— Mr. T. E. Higuton.—Changes in the Map of Europe in the
19th Century.

Dec. 5.—Mr. Jonn RicHarpson.—Scottish Life and Character.
Dec. 19.—Mr. Jonn Batrerspy.—Notes of Travel.

Xili.

1882.
Jan. 23.—Mr. Grorce E. Lowruran.—The various Forms of Water.

Feb. 6.—Mr. J. PostterHwatte.—Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates.
Feb. 20.—Mr. Joun BromiEy.—Sun Dials.

Mar. 6.—Mr. JosepH Hati.—Sports and Pastimes.

Mar. 20.—Mr. R. S. Canmz.—English School of Painting.

There were two Field Days or Excursions last summer. The
first to Honister Slate Quarries and Buttermere, on the 22nd June,
at which thirty-six members and friends were present. A short
paper was read by the Secretary, on the “Geological Features and
History of the Honister Slate Quarries, together with some account
of the quarrymen, their work, and the dangers to which they are
exposed.” The second was to Greystoke Castle and Park, in
company with the Carlisle and Penrith Societies, on the 3rd August,
when thirty-three members and friends were present. On this
occasion a very excellent paper was read by J. G. Goodchild, Esq.,
on “The Physical History of the Scenery of the Neighbourhood.”

The attendance at the Public Lectures and Ordinary Meetings
was better than in some of the preceding Sessions.

The number of members on the books at the commencement of
the Session was 154; of these thirteen failed to make good their
membership, while ten new members were elected, making a total
at the end of the Session of 151, being three less than the number
reported last year.

The total income of the Society, including the balance from last
year, amounted to £50 tos. 1d., and the expenditure—including
410 presented to the Keswick Library—amounted to £39 5s. 5d.,
leaving a balance on hand of £11 4s. 8d. The accounts connected
with the Museum of Local Natural History also show a credit
balance of £64 11s. t1d., after defraying all expenses up to the
end of the Session.

The Hon. Curators of the Museum report that considerable
progress has been made in extending the collection. In this they
have been aided by the contributions of several friends, some of
whom have on previous occasions made donations to the Museum.
A few articles have been sent in on loan, and one or two specimens
have been purchased.

XIV.

The Collection, which consists of about 2,500 specimens, is
entirely confined to articles illustrative of the Natural History and
Antiquities of the District.

During the past winter the Museum has been open to the public
free of charge, on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons. The
number of visitors has been only small, but on the latter day the
opportunity has been taken advantage of to an extent, that at least
justifies the experiment. During the summer months the Museum
was exhibited as heretofore by the Messrs. Mayson, but at all times
the members of the Society and their friends have free admission
to the Hall.

On the visit of the Geologists’ Association to Keswick in August,
the members were invited to the Museum, and several of them
bore cordial testimony to the excellence of the collection of rock
specimens, minerals, and the other valuable illustrations of the
geology and physical features of the district, which are the monu-
ment of the devoted labours of the late Mr. J. Clifton Ward. His
work in founding and so richly furnishing the Museum, ought to
stimulate the people of Keswick to do all in their power to complete
it in a worthy and satisfactory manner.

The following are the Officers and Committee for next Session :—
President, Rev. T. K. Richmond; Vice-President, Rev. A. Howson;
Hon. Secretary, Mr. J. Postlethwaite ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Edwin
Jackson. Committee: Rev. Canon Battersby, Rev. W. Colville,
Mr. J. Fisher Crosthwaite, Dr. Black, Mr. T. E. Highton, Mr.
William Wood.

XY.

WORKINGTON SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY
ASSOCIATION.

SESSION 1881-82.

President... ste 4% oe Rev. J. J. THorniry, M.A.
Vice-President ite he oe C. J. VALENTINE, Esq.
Treasurer... a a Sn W. Patstry;, Esq. ,
Secretary W. Witson, Esa.

Members of Council.
Messrs. THORNLEY, VALENTINE, and WILSON.

Committee.
Mr. H. Bowes. Mr. G. F. SAUNDERS.
Mr. Gro. GRAHAM. Mr. J. BLapon.
Mr. C. HINDMARSH. . Mr. Tos. IREDALE.
Mr. JoHn HIGHET. Mr. Rozr. GARDNER.
Mr. T. CrostTHWAITE. Mr. Joun TaAyLor.
Capt. Rice.

The following Lectures were delivered during the Session :-—
1881.
Nov. 16.—Rev. W. SHerweN, M.A.—History of the English Language.
Nov. 29.—ConvERSAZIONE. (In Assembly Rooms.) PrEsiIDENT’s OPENING
Appress. Recitals by W. S. Vatuance, Esq., Professor of
Elocution, Glasgow University. Vocal and Instrumental Music.
Dec. 7.—J. G. GoopcHILD, Esq., F.G.S.—Birds of Prey.
Dec. 28.—J. Newsy Heruerineton, Esq., F.R.G.S.—The Beginnings of
the English Drama.
1882.
Jan. 5.—Professor Sretzy, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—The Influence of Natural
Phenomena in the Mental and Moral Development of the British
People.
Jan. 18.—R. S. Cant, Ese., of the School of Art, Keswick.—Art and
Artists.
Jan. 25.—J. W. Monrcomery, Esq., F.C.S.—Food and its Adulterations.
Feb. 8.—Wm. FiercHer, Esq.—Our Colonial Empire.
Feb. 22.—J. Nixon, Ese., B.A.—Science in Education.
Mar. 22.—Rev. J. T. Pottock, M.A.,—Pope.

The Meetings of the Session were well attended—on an average
about seventy or eighty members attending each lecture.

We are glad to report an increase of membership as against
former years; the number now on the books being 111 members.
More general interest has been taken in the work of the Association.

XVI.

MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIEIC SOCIETY.

6th SESSION, 1851-82.

President at ae eae ast W. Hinz, Esq.

Vice-President ... ft aes a Dr. MatTHras
Past Presidents.

J. Appison, Esq. | Dr. Crerar. | Rev. J. S. Craic.
Hon. Secretaries.

Mr. J. B. Barney. | Mr. L. Apatr.
Treasurer ee Nae xf ... Mr. W. WHARTON.
Committee.

Mr. A. Hine. Rev. W. P. ScHAFFTER.
Mr. P. MaActntyReE. Mr. A. Nose.

Mr. J. Hopeson. Mr. W. H. Eckers.ey.
Mr. F. WALKER. Mr. J. CARTMELL.

Mr. R. Aparr. Mr. J. Hewetson.

Mr. J. RicHARDSON.
PUBLIC MEETINGS.

1881.
Nov. 8.—W. IT’ Anson, Esq., M.B.—Ultima Thule.
Dec. 6.—W. H. Kirconry, Esq.—The Air we Breathe.

1882. ‘
Jan. 4,.—Prof. Suenny, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—The Influence of Natural

Phenomena in the Mental and Moral Development of the British
People.

Jan. 10.—J. Newsy Heruerineton, Esq., F.R.G.S.—The Origin and
Dispersion of Popular Stories.

Jan. 19.—Rev. J. W. Topp, D.D.—A Holiday Ramble in America.

Feb.. 7.—Rev. C. H. Gem.—Tom Hood.

Mar. 7.—J. Nrxon, Esq., B.A.—Science in Education.

April 5.—J. G. Gooponip, Esq., F.G.S.—Birds of Prey.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1881.
Oct. 25.—Rev. W. Harvey.—The Services of Science or, Knowledge

can make People Happier and Better.

Nov. 22.—Rev. R. Bowzr.—Some American Poets.

Dec. 13.—Conversazione (in Atheneum).

Dec. 20.—Mr. Foxcrorrt.—What is Man’s best Food according to the
Teaching of Science and Experience ?

1882.
Feb. 21.—Rev. H. C. Battey.—The Stoics.
Mar. 21.—Mr. T. Tuomrson.—Cumberland, Past and Present.
Apl. 18.—Business Meeting, Election of Officers, &c.

XVil.

The Committee in presenting this its Sixth Annual Report, has
the pleasing duty to again chronicle an increase in the number of
members, viz. 136 this year—of whom 35 are ladies—against 131
last year, 31 of whom were ladies.

The attendance at the Lectures has not been quite so good as
during the Session of 1880-81; still, it has been far from
discouraging.

Several changes have been made in the Rules this Session, and
with the best results. The Subscription previously was 5s. to both
ladies and gentlemen, young men under twenty-one being admitted
for 2s.6d.; but this was altered, so as to make the Subscription for
ladies 2s.6d. also. Besides, Non-Members were admitted /vee to
all Public Lectures, but sixpence each is now charged for their
admission to ad// Lectures, both public and ordinary. Next Session,
family tickets are to be issued, the price of the same being tos.
each.

The best thanks of the Society are due and tendered to those
gentlemen who so kindly volunteered their services during the past
Session.

The following new Honorary Members have been added to the
list, viz:—Professor Seeley, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.; W. T’Anson,
Esq., M.B.; W. H. Kitchin, Esq.; J. G. Goodchild, Esq., F.G.S.;
Rev. J. W. Todd, D.D.; Rev. C. H. Gem; J. Nixon, Esq., B.A.

Financially, the Society is in a flourishing condition. The
balance is not so large as last year; but this is to be accounted for
by the reduction in the Subscription of the Lady members.

XVIIL.

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

5TH SESSION, 1881-2.
President... on .. Rey. JoszepH Watuace, B.A.

Vice-Presidents.

R. A. Auuison, Esqg., M.A. | Rev. P. CARRUTHERS.
Mr. S. F. Mo.Lacuzan, M.B.

Treasurer and Secretary ae a Mr. JoHN WILSON.
Committee.
Mr. I. Rice. Rev. Wm. LytTTeEIn.
Mr. James PEEL. Mr. J. Burton.
Mr. Wm. Litre. Mr. Wm. Drxon.
Mr. A. P. WILKIE. Mr. LoNnsDALE.
Mr. Mc. Adam,

PUBLIC LECTURES.
1881.
Noy. 3.—Inaugural Meeting. Chairman, Guo. G. KrrKuinTon, Esq., J.P.

R. A. Auuison, Esq., M.A.—Our English Bible: its History, &c.

Nov. 22.—G. C. Matn, Esq., J.P.—Material Progress ; or, Our Position as
a Nation, as it was and as it is.

Dec. 20.—Rev. J. Mc.Inpowre.—Burns.

1882.
Jan. 17.—Mr. W. I’Anson, M.B.—Ultima Thule.
Feb. 14.—R. J. Bariure, Esq., F.R.A.S.—Other Worlds than ours.
Mar. 14.—W. Easton Rogertson, Esq.—Ancient Cities of the Mediter-
ranean.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1881.
Nov. 8.—Mr. F. C. Harrison.—Northern Mosses.

Nov. 15.—Debate: Should Museums and Picture Galleries be opened on
Sundays? Afir. Mr. LonspaLe; Neg. Mr. JNo. Wison.

Nov. 29.—Mr. 8S. F. Mc.Lacuian, M.B.—Functions of the Brain and
Nervous System.

Dec. 6.—Mr. Mc.Apam.—The Use and Power of Language.

Dec. 13.—Mr. Joun Witson.—Geology of this District.

Dec. 27.—Musical Entertainment.

1882.
Jan, 3.—Rev. Wm. Lyrrem, M.A.—Caves and Cave Dwellers.

Jan. 10. —Mr. A. P, Wiix1z.—Aun Hour with Dr. Johnson.
Jan. 24.—Rev. Jos. WAttaAcE, B.A, --Amusements.

XIX.

Jan. 31.—Select Readings.

Feb. 7.—Mr. Jas. Mc.Conocuie.—Shakespeare and Milton compared.

Feb. 21.—Rev. P. CarrutHEeRs.—A Paper on Professor Wilson.

Feb. 28.—Debate: Does true Temperance necessarily imply Total Absti-
nence? Afr. Rev. W. Lyrrntt, M.A.; Neg. Rev. JosEPH
Watuace, B.A.

Mar. 7.—Mr. Jno. CuarKk, M.H.S.—Horology,

Mar. 28.—Musical Entertainment.

Apl. 4.—Mr. R. G. Baty.—Botany of this District.

Apl. 16.—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c.

The number of members on the roll now amounts to sixty-six,
being an increase of ten over last year.

The Programme of Meetings published at the beginning of the
Session was fully carried out, with the exception of a Paper by the
Rey. T. H. Irving, and a Lecture by J. D. Kendall, Esq., both of
these gentlemen having been prevented by unavoidable causes
from fulfilling their appointments this Session.

It is a matter of regret that few beyond the members of the
Society attend the Public Lectures. Considering the great merit
of the Lectures, and the kindness of the Lecturers who give their
services so readily, itis much to be desired that larger audiences
could be brought together to profit by them. The Ordinary
Meetings of the Society were well attended, and the several Papers
and Discussions created very much interest.

During the summer Excursions were made to Langholm, Corby
Castle, Kirkandrews-upon-Esk, and Kingfield. At these Meetings
Papers were read by members on subjects of local interest; and
especial mention must be made of the kindness of the Rev. F.
Taylor, rector of Kirkandrews-upon-Esk, and Mrs. Taylor, who
explained to the party the method of working his extensive apiary,
and exhibited several most interesting experiments with his bees.
Before leaving the rectory, the party was entertained to a most
excellent tea. Mr. White likewise deserves the thanks of the Society
for his kindness in conducting the members through the grounds
and gardens of Kingfield House.

At the Annual Business Meeting it was resolved that all gentle-
men who give two Public Lectures to the Society, should thereby

XX.

become Honorary Members, and entitled to all the privileges of
the Society. In accordance with this resolution, the following
gentlemen were enrolled:—R. A. Allison, Esq., Scaleby Hall ;
W. Easton Robertson, Esq., Marsh House, Canobie; and R. J.
Baillie, Esq., Grosvenor College, Carlisle.

The Income of the Session from all sources amounted to
49 4s. 8d.; Expenditure (including a deficit from last year of
42 5s. 5d.), £8 7s. 2d., leaving a balance in hand of 17s.6d.

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

5tH SESSION, 1881-82.

President ... oe Ae .. Migs MacInyss, Esq.

Past-Presidents.

Tue Ricut Rev. tHE Lorp BisHor oF CARLISLE.
Rogert Frereuson, Esq., M.P.

Vice-Presidents.

8. J. Brynine, Esq. | Rey. James ARLOSH,
Treasurer ee R. 8S. Fereuson, Esq., Mayor of Carlisle.
Hon. Secretary ves JOHN SrncLarr, 6 Hawick Street.

Committee.

Mr. W. I. R. Crowper. Dr. BARNES.
Mr. R. J. BatLiis. Mr. R. M. Hut.

Dr. MAcLAREN. | Dr. CARLYLE.
Mr. W. B. Dopp. | Mr. Gro. Dawson.

Rev. CANON CHALKER, Mr. JNo. JACKSON.
Mr. Tom Duckwortu. Mr. Wm. Duckwortu.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LOCAL LECTURES.

A course of Twelve Lectures on ‘‘SHAKSPERE,” was given by C. H.
HerrorD, Esq., B.A., Trinity College, Cambridge, during the months of
October, November, and December.

XXL

1882. PUBLIC LECTURES.
Jan. 10,—Professor SrrLey, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—On the Habits and
Domestic Life of Fishes.

Feb, 7.—A. Kitcutin, Esq., F.C.S.—A Beam of Sunlight and its Lessons.
Mar. 7.—R. S. Fercuson, Esq.—Carlisle : its Corporation and its Guilds.
April —J. G. GoopcniLp, F.G.S.—Monkeys.

1881. ORDINARY MEETINGS (held in the Museum).
Noy. 3.—Dr. CartyLe.—On Fungi.

Dec. 1.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., F.G.S.—The Land Folk of Cumberland
and Westmorland.
1882.
Jan. 12.—Mr. Gro. Dawson.—Local Entomology. Part 4.

Feb. 2.—Mr. Harrison.—Rise and Progress of Agriculture in Cumber-
land.

Mar. 2.—Rev. R. Woop, Rosley.—British Spiders,
Apl. 6.—H. U. Mc.Kiz, Esq., City Surveyor.—Public and Private Sewers
and Drains.

The Committee, in presenting their Fifth Annual Report, have
to congratulate the members on the success of another season.

During the year four Field-days have been held, commencing
on Whit-Monday to Naworth Castle and Lanercost Priory; the
second, to Gelt ; the third, to Greystoke Castle; and the fourth,
to High Head Castle. Owing to the heavy rain on Whit-Monday,
the attendance of members was not large; but the three last days
were marked by a numerous attendance. Some excellent papers
were read.

Upwards of one hundred copies of the Zransactions have been
distributed among the members.

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

5TH SESSION, 1881-82.

President... ane .. Rev. H, 8. Catntenper, M.A.
Past-President ue aes “te R. Crewopson, Esq.
Vice- Presidents.

Rey. E. M. Reynoups, M.A. | Rev. J. W. Astron, M.A.
Treasurer .. bes Hc giant Mr. Wm. Lister.
Secretary... a Li .. Mr. James BEntTLey.

XXIl.

Delegates.
Mr. C, W. Surra. | Mr. James BENTLEY.
Commitéee.
Mr. Wm. Barron. Rev. H. D. Rawnstey.
Mr. J. FLEMING. Rev. E. A. Rippie.
G. Gatsy, Esq. | Mr. Joun Russe...

Dr. JOHNSTON. | Dr. TENANT.
F. M. T. Jonzs, Esq. Mr. C. W. Smira.

PUBLIC LECTURES.

1881.

Oct. 21.—C. A. Parker, Esq., M.D.—Our Birds.

Nov. 18.—R. Rossztr, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.—Our Coal Seams, and the
Process by which they have been formed,

Dec. 16.—J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., of St. John’s College, Cambridge.—
Geology and Scenery of the Lake District.

Dec. 22.—J. E. Taytor, Esq., Pu.D., F.L.S., F.G.S.—The Story of a
Flint Pebble.

Dec. 30.—J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., of St. John’s College, Cambridge.—

Early Man in Britain.
1882.

Jan. 13.—Professor Sretey, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—On the Habits and
Domestic Life of Fishes.

Jan. 27.—J. D. Kenpatt, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.—Lakes, and how they are
formed.

Feb. 10.—R. WooprHorrr Browne, Esq.—Mendlessohn. (Biographical
Sketch, and short Selection from his Works.)

Feb. 24.—Arcup. Krrcnin, Esq., F.1.C., F.C.S.—A Beam of Sunlight,
and its Lessons. (Illustrated with Experiments. )

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1881.

Noy. 4,—J. C. SuerHerp, Esq.—Words.

Dec. 2.—Rey. E. M. Reynoups, M.A.—Debate: That Life in the Country
is preferable to Life in Town.
1882.

Mar. 24,—Rey. H. 8S. CatuenpErR, M.A., President.—Local Museums.
AnnvAL M&etTine '—Election of Officers.

In presenting the Fifth Annual Report, the Committee have
pleasure in being able to record a markedly revived interest in the
Society, and to congratulate the members on the completion of a
very generally successful Session.

On July 8th, a very interesting and pleasant Excursion was
made to Barrow-in-Furness. The Steel Works were visited, and
the various processes in the manufacture of steel rails were very

XXill.

ably and courteously explained by gentlemen connected with the
works. Afterwards the Jute Works were visited.

During the past Winter Session, nine public lectures have been
given, and three ordinary meetings held. The increased attend-
ance both of members and non-members, shews that they have
been appreciated. The thanks of the Society are especially due
to the lecturers for their valuable services.

The Committee have again to regret a falling off in the number
of ordinary meetings. The debate opened by the Rev. E. M.
Reynolds was well attended, and the discussion very fairly main-
tained.

New members continue to join the Society ; nineteen have been
elected this Session. The number of members is now 116.

The Treasurer’s report shews that the Society is in a very
prosperous condition financially,

The Committee deeply regret the loss the Society has sustained
in the past year, through the death of one of its Vice-Presidents,
the late Rev. J. W. Aston.

oo

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

—_——_.

SESSION 1881-89,
President se ae ess Rev. S. Hesert, M.A,
Vice-Presidents,
Rev. A. F. Suepparp, B.A. | W. Crass, Esq.
Committee.
Mr. H. L. Barxer, Mr. F. Gratenr.
Mr. G. T. Carr. Mr. R. Hornspy.
Mr. J. Guarsrer. Mr. J. Lerron.
Mr. R. Guarster, Mr. R. Pear,

Mr. G. Torpzer,
Hon. Treasurer a aes one Mr. J. Srronacu,

Hon. Secretaries,
Mr. W. M. Hupson. | Mr. L. Luoyp.

Xx1V.

1881. PUBLIC LECTURES.

Oct. 19.—J. T. Witson, Esq., Edinburgh.—Heat. Illustrated by experi-
meuts.

Nov. 2.—Rev. W. SHEeRwen, M.A.—History of English Language.

Nov. 9.—J. D. Kenpatt, F.G.8., Whitehaven.—Lakes, and how they are
formed.

Dec, 7.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A., Wray.—A Journey in the East.

1882.

Jan. 9.—Professor SzrLey, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.—Habits and Domestic
Life of Fishes.

Feb, 1.—Rev. C. H. Gem, M.A., Torpenhow.—Tom Hood.

Mch. 1.—R. J. Barium, Esq., F.R.A.S., Carlisle. —The Literature of the

Bible.
Apl. 6.—J. G. GoopcuiLp, Esq., F.G.S.—Birds of Prey.
Apl. 7.— Do. do. —Monkeys.
Apl. 12.—W. T’Anson, Esq., M.B., Whitehaven.—Ultima Thule.
1881. ORDINARY MEETINGS.
Nov. 28.—Mr. H. L. Barxer.—The Air we Breathe. Illustrated by
Experiments.
Dec. 21.—Rev. S. Hesert, M.A.—Life and Times of Alfred the Great.
1882.

Jan. 18.—Rev. A. F. SHepparp, B.A.—Layard’s Discoveries at Nineveh.
Feb. 15.—Mr. G. T. Carr.—Literary Men of the Eighteenth Century.
Mch. 15.—J. Lerrcu, Esq., M.B.—A Unique Community.

Mch, 29.—Mr. R. Hornspy.—The Changes made by Man on Animals and

Plants. _

The Committee have again to report the close of a successful
Session.

A charge of sixpence each has been made to non-members for
admission to the Public Lectures; but the Ordinary Meetings
have been made free to all—and to this fact, probably, may be
attributed the uniformly good attendance throughout the Session.

Although the Subscription is so low (2s.6d. for the Session), the
Society was again able to place a small balance to the sum lying
at their credit; but this would not have been the case had not a
handsome sum remained after paying the expenses of the Marine
Excursion, which was so ably managed by Dr. Leitch. This
Excursion was the only one to which many of the members went ;
the one arranged along with the Longtown Society partly failed
through that Society being obliged to change the date at the last
moment, owing to the floods in their neighbourhood.

The number of members is not equal to that of last Session,
there being go now against 103 for last year.

XXV.

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
AND FIELD NATURALIST CLUB.

SESSION 1881-82.

President... fe aes .. G, J. Jonnson, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.
Rev. H. WHITEHAD. | JoHN Brain, Esq.
Committee.
Mr. G. Burton. | Mr. G. STEEL.
Mr, J. FARRAR. | Mrs. THOMPSON.
Mr. W. Hvci11. Miss Brown.
Mr. P. T. LEE. Miss E. Ler.
Mr. T. RIDLEY. Miss THom.
Secretaries.
Mr, T. B. GRAHAM. | Mr, F, J. Riae.
Treasurer... We ast .. Mr. J. B. Hopeson.
1881. PUBLIC LECTURES.

Oct. 20.—Rev. H. WurreHEAD.—Crabbe’s Poem on the Parish Register,

Nov. 3.—Rev. W. Lyrren.—The Border Clans: a Narrative of the
Heroic Age.

Nov. 17.—Rev. Canon Drxon.—Pegasus : the Story of an Old Horse.

Dec. 1.—Mr. G. Dawson.—Butterflies of Cumberland.

Dec. 15.—Rev. W. T. Mc.CLENAGHAN. —The Crusades.

Dec. 29.—Mr. J. Jackson.—The Folk Lore of Flowers.

1882.

Jan. 11,—Professor Sretey, F.R,S., F.G.S.—The Influence of Natural
Phenomena in the Mental and Moral Development of the British
People.

Jan. 26.—DrummonD, Esq., M.D.

Feb. 9.—R. S. Fercuson, Esq., F.S.A.—Stone and Bronze Implements.

Feb. 23.—Rev. H. BuiKeLey.—Eminent Persons who died during 1881.

Mch. 9.—R. A. AtLison, Esq.—Evolution—its Strength and Weakness.

Mch. 23.—T. A. WoruErspoon, Esq., M.D.—The Geology of Coal.

Number of members on the register, 64.

XXVI.

PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

Ist SESSION, 1881-82.

President aC M. W. Taytor, Esq., M.D., F.S.A. (Scot. )
Vice-Presidents.

W. B. Arnison, Esq. | J. G. Gooponrip, Esq., F.G.S.

Hon. Secretary... ee ... Rev. J. SHarpe Ostier, B.A.

Hon. Treasurer pa es ...J. B, SHAwyer, Esq.

Committee.

Rev. E. W. CuHapman, M.A. _ | Mr. JoHn Pattinson.

Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. Mr. T. Lasver.

Rev. J. Ouston. Mr. J. THompson.

Rev. J. Tannanity, M.A. Mr. GrorGE WATSON.
MEETINGS.

1881. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LOCAL LECTURES.
Oct. to Dec.—C. H. Hntrrorp, Esq., B.A.—A Course of Lectures on
Shakespere.

Dec. 15.—J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., F.G.S.—Inaugural Address,
1882,

Jan. 3.—Professor H. Srrtxy, F.R.S.—The Habits and Domestic Life of
Fishes.

Jan. 19.—C. H. Herrorp, Esq., B.A.—Tyrol and the Tyrolese.

Jan. 26.—W. Hopeson, Esq.—Notes ou the Flora of the Ullswater District.

Feb. 17.—R. 8S. Fercuson, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., Mayor of Carlisle.—
Stone and Bronze Implements.

Feb. 23.—M. W. Taytor, Esq., M.D., F.S.A. (Scot.)-Gems and Precious
Stones.

Mch. 16.—Rev. A. Narrn.—Carlyle.

Mch. 30.—Reyv. J. SHarre Ostiz, B.A.—Thackeray.

Apl. 10.—J. G. GoopcHtp, Esq., F.G.S.—Monkeys.

Apl. 13.—J. E. Marr, Esq., B. A, F.G.S.—The Seceroes of Civilization.

Our Public Lectures and Ordinary Meetings have been well
attended during this, our first Session; and, as a Committee, we
have reason to congratulate ourselves’ on the success that has
attended the formation of our Society.

The number of members is now about 150. On Easter Monday,
April roth, 1882, the first Field Excursion was made. The party
met at Appleby Station, and started thence for Helton Beck and
Keisley, under the guidance of Mr. Goodchild as Geologist, and
Mr. Hodgson of Watermillock as Botanist. We were also accom-
panied by Mr. Marr, and for some time by Professor Hughes of
Cambridge.

The best thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. T. V.
Holmes, F.G.S., for a valuable present of Books, forming as it
does the nucleus of our proposed reference library.

XXVil.

Report of Association Secretary,

Durinc the past year the number of members has been larger
than in any previous year, being 1380, or 231 more than in 1880-81.
This is partly due to an increase in the membership of some of the
older affiliated Societies, and partly to the accession of the Penrith
Literary and Scientific Society, which joined the Association during
the past winter. The Cockermouth Society seems to be extinct.

The financial condition of the Association is satisfactory, but
less so than it might have been if some of the affiliated Societies
had taken more copies of the Zvansactions. One Society has not
taken any. This is to be regretted, because it is undoubtedly the
best volume the Association has yet produced, containing, as it
does, almost nothing but original papers on local subjects.

The Grant to the Public Lecturer last year was £5 more than
in former years.

The printing of the Zvansactions costs about one shilling per
copy of 200 pp.; and as the volume is sold for one shilling, it is
not possible to increase its size beyond 200 pp. Last year, several
very interesting papers had to be left out on this account. It
might be desirable to increase the price to one shilling and sixpence,
and thereby allow the volume to be enlarged to about 300 pp.

It has been suggested that members of the Association should
have the privilege of attending the Lectures and Meetings of any
of the affiliated Societies. If the suggestion be approved, it might
be embodied in a new Rule.

eee

XXV1ll.

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CONCERNING THE FUTURE OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

By ROBERT FERGUSON, M.P.

(Presidential Address at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

A CELEBRATED French writer, M. de Gerville, has lately put
forward a calculation that in a hundred years hence, the English
speaking population of the world will number 140,00¢,000, as
compared with 40,000,000 speaking French, and 50,000,000
speaking German. Without taking this particular estimate as
anything more than an intelligent speculation, we cannot doubt the
general fact that the English language is destined to a remarkable
predominance over all the other languages of the world. I donot
propose here to go into the question how far this is due to the
characteristics of the language itself, and how far to those of the
race who speak it, and to the institutions, staunch and yet elastic,
evolved from those characteristics, though both are no doubt very
important factors in the case. I propose rather to enter into a
few considerations on the interesting question as to what is likely
to be in the far-distant future the condition of that language. Will
it maintain its essential unity when a thousand years shall have
passed away, when Australia shall contain a population to which
that of the mother country can bear no comparison, and when
America shall have filled up with teeming myriads all her vast
continent, and still pressing on to the fulfilment of her destiny,
shall have crowded out the weaker races and the less stable
institutions of the Southern Hemisphere? Or will it, as is the
opinion of some writers on the subject, become ultimately divided
1

2

into say three great branches, the Britannic, the American, and the
Australian, differing perhaps as do the Danish, the Swedish, and
the Icelandic, the last named, like the Britannic, representing the
parent speech. Under the old conditions of the world, this
separation would take place with even greater rapidity than was
ever the case in former times, inasmuch as men are now projected
to greater distances, and thrown into new and strange modes of
life, which involve new trains of thought, and require new modes
of expression. But the restraining forces, namely, the ever-
increasing personal inter-communication, the interchanges of the
press, and—most effective agent of all—the possession of a
common literature coming home to all, are so entirely new in the
experience of the world, that the past affords no guide whatever
for the future.

I am disposed, then, to come to the general conclusion, that
unless circumstances should arise which it would be unreason-
able to contemplate, it is impossible that the literary language
should ever be otherwise than one and the same throughout the
English-speaking domain. And, if that view hold good, I take it
to be equally impossible that the language should split up into
three or into any number of branches.

At the same time, within the limits of a literary language
essentially uniform, there is room for a very considerable diversity
of spoken dialects, and this is, I think, the direction which the
course of events will take. I think it even possible that such
diversities of dialect may, in the course of time, become so great
as to amount to something like a diversity of language within the
fold of the common language; so that there would be two
languages—the language of every day life, and that taught in the
schools. The speech of the miners of the Far West, for instance,
as made familiar to us by the writings of Bret Harte and others,
has even in this short time become something differing very
considerably from standard English, and yet these men read and
enjoy the works of the best English authors. This is not a new
thing to us even in Europe. In Germany, for instance, there is,
in addition to the High German which has become the standard

0 eee a eae a

3

language, a Low German spoken in the north, which any of you
as a German scholar would not understand. Now this is in itself
quite as good language as the other; but mainly by the accident
of the Bible having been printed in it, High German has become
the standard language, and so Low Germans speak one language,
and learn another in the schools. The same thing obtains to
some extent in England, and still more in Scotland; and the
reason why they speak such good English about Inverness is said
to be, that it is so far different from the native speech, that it is.
more than elsewhere book—that is to say, classical—English.

I think it then possible, that differences of dialect may arise, in
the course of time, so considerable as to make one member of the
English-speaking family unintelligible to another, and that then
they will agree, by mutual consent, to fall back upon the standard
English which both of them have learned at school. I say that
this may be so, and that it will be compatible with the existence
of a uniform literary language. I do not say that it will be so, for
the restraining influences will be ever increasing with the advance
of science ; and what the achievements of science will be in the
ages that are to come, what man is there who will venture to
foretell ?

But I am inclined further to the opinion, from the current
indications that come before us, that as regards what we may call
the more civilised speech—that is, the language of the press and
of the better educated—the changes which occur will take place
to a great extent fart passu throughout the English-speaking
range, and that these changes will come not from the mother
country, but from outside, and mainly—for some time to come at
least—from America. Of this I shall bye and bye proceed to give
the indications. Now, the only English-speaking community
outside our own which has lasted long enough to give us any data
for comparison is of course American. Let me observe in passing
that English people are apt to look rather unfairly upon what are
called Americanisms. We take our own speech as the standard,
and any colloquial variations from it we look upon as partaking of
the nature of oddness, if not of vulgarity. Now this I conceive to

4

be altogether uncalled for. During the period which has elapsed
since the separation took place, various colloquial changes have
taken place in both countries—the Americans are quite as much
entitled to make them as we are; and, indeed, certain of what we
call Americanisms are simply words or phrases originally common
to both, which have been retained by them, but which with us
have died out. On the other hand, the claim has been advanced
by some of their writers on behalf of the Americans, that they
speak better English all round than we do. In a certain narrow
sense this may be the case That is to say that we have a number
of provincial dialects that do not exist with them, and which are
more or less different from standard English. But these are for’
the most part ancient forms of speech, in most cases equally
correct with, and in certain cases more correct than the standard
speech. Let me give an illustration which may be interesting to
Cumbrians. Is there any single word which may be taken to be
the shibboleth of the Northerner? ‘That is to say, any expression
by which a man educated so as not generally to be distinguished
from another man, betrays his Northern origin? I have heard my
late brother-in-law, Dr. Guest—than whom there is no higher
authority on the subject—say that that shibboleth is the way in
which he renders the past tense of the verb fo deat. The ordinary
Englishman makes no difference between the present and the past ;
the Northerner, as he says meet, met, says also beat, bet. While then
the ordinary Englishman would say, ‘He thought he could deat
me, but I deat him,” the Northerner would say, “He thought he
could beat me, but I de¢ him.” This is as old as (no doubt older
than) the time of Chaucer, for Chaucer was, it is supposed, a
Northern man :—
‘* And still upon his breast he de¢.”

I adduce this as a casual instance of a provincialism in reality
more regularly formed than the equivalent word of standard
English.

It is difficult for us to form a just comparison between English
and American speech, for the error which is new to us, naturally
strikes us more than that with which we have been all our lives

5

familiar ; yet I am disposed to think that in America, the lower
middle class, and to some extent the middle class, speak rather
less correctly than they do in England, and I account for it by
two different causes. The first is the prevailing sentiment of
equality, which gives a man the half-unconscious feeling that he
has no right to speak better English than his neighbours. This
naturally does not apply so much to large places where men can
form themselves into sets, as to small places, where I have
observed that the one or two persons of better education, clergy-
men, for instance, who are probably graduates of a University,
instead of striving to maintain a higher standard of language,
succumb, in ordinary conversation, to the influence of that which
they hear around them.

The second cause of the corruption of the language I take to
be the peculiar circumstances of the local press in all the smaller
places throughout the country. The English country paper is a
property which descends from father to son often for many
generations, and he who is intended to succeed to it is educated
more or less with reference to the post which he has to undertake.
His journal appears as a rule once, or at most twice a week, and
he has ample time to prepare careful and well-considered summaries
of the events of the week. He is from his training qualified to
write good English, so that throughout the district which his paper
serves, to many of the people of which it is probably, the only
literature they read, the standard of the language is not suffered to
be degraded. In America, where a town of four or five thousand
people has a couple of daily papers, all this is entirely changed.
A man comes to a new place, and he says to himself—“ What
does this place want?” If he thinks it wants an eating-house, he
will start an eating-house ; if an hotel, he will start an hotel ; if he
thinks there is room for a preacher, he will perhaps even start in
that line. There is—to the honour of the Americans—one thing
he cannot do—he cannot start a school. But it is as likely as not
that he may elect to try a paper for a while, and, if that does not
answer, try something else. Thus he comes to his task with no
special qualification. While the English country editor is as one

who from a more or less higher stand-point lays down the law to
his fellows, the American editor is like a man standing chatting on
equal terms with his neighbours. As an illustration of the free-
and-easy terms upon which they stand, I quote a little notice in
which the editor of a Memphis paper announces the forthcoming
marriage of one of his assistants. The account is headed, “Our
strong arm cleaned out by Cupid,” and concludes with the hope
that the lady will “curl his ambrosial locks for him.” While,
then, the extinction of a paper in England is an event always more
or less worthy of notice, papers in America come and go without
remark. In the city of Sacramento, out of seventy-nine papers
that had been started during the previous twenty-six years, there
were at the time I was there only thirteen remaining, and now
perhaps not so many. Now, men of this sort, who have no special
qualifications for the work themselves, and of course are not in a
position to command it from others, are men who so far from
assisting to keep up the standard of the language, tend rather to
degrade it. These are the men who have no scruple in coining
any word that suits them. ‘A store was durglarised,” “a body
was resurrected,’ “a man dilitated on his journey,” &c. This,
however, is only a passing phase ; for as these towns rise in wealth
and population, we may be sure that journalism of a higher class
will not lag behind in the advance ; and meantime, from one point
of view, it is an honourable characteristic of the Americans, that
they will have a Press of some sort ; indifferent it may be, but still
the best that they can get.

I have already made the remark that the changes which have
taken place in the language of late, and, I may add, those which are
foreshadowed in the future, come not from the mother country,
but from America. And on this point it is worthy of note that we
do not seem to have adopted any of the older words formed in
America, before the intercourse between the two countries became
such as it is now. But the new words which come to the front in
America at the present, seem mostly to find their way into English
speech. One of the last words which we have adopted from them
is collide, which certainly avoids a periphrasis. We now say,

7

“two trains collided,” instead of, as formerly, “came into collision.”
Another word which has lately come into general use is /engthy, in
the place of /ong, applied more specially to a speech or article.
The word dengthy, as it used formerly to be used, always involved
more or less of the sense of tediousness. And if, ten years ago,
any one had happened to make the remark (which I noted in a
paper a day or two ago) “that Gladstone had made a lengthy
speech,” he might probably have met with the retort, “ Not a bit
too long ;” whereas now the word is accepted as simply doing
duty in place of long. This substitution, then, I take to be by no
means a gain to the language. Instead of our word dig, as applied
to a man, woman, or child, the Americans have for some time
used the word /arge, and I perceive that in this also we are now
beginning to follow suit. Looking at the origin and the etymo-
logical connections of the respective words, I cannot think that
this is a change for the better. Then again, the word woman
seems, at least in common speech, to be in a fair way of becoming
extinct in America, where it is superseded by the word Zady. The
same seems to be to a great extent the case in England; and if
you should happen to cast your eye over a list of public-houses to
let in the columns of a newspaper, you will find in not a few cases,
after a recapitulation of various attractions, such as “good drinking
neighbourhood,” &c., the concluding remark, “ would suit a lady.”
But of all the words they have made us a present of, there is none
to my mind more objectionable than the word mammoth, as
applied to something very big. In America everything on a great
scale is a mammoth thing, from the great cave of that name in
Kentucky, to the last large grain elevator; and the word, I am
sorry to say, is becoming completely naturalised in England. I go
along the railway, and I see on the station walls an advertisement
of a “mammoth turnip ;” in one of the very first of provincial
papers, I read of the “mammoth yacht built for the Emperor of
Russia ;” and even as I am writing this I take up one of the
London evening papers and am informed that Cook made a
* mammoth break” at billiards. Fancy a word taken from a

8

gigantic-extinct animal applied to a turnip and to a break at
billiards !

I now come to speak of the more general tendencies of the
language in America, and following at some distance in England.
Now, there is in America a process going on the reverse of that which
has taken place in the case of words derived by us from the Latin
through the French. In the rapid torrent of Gallic speech there
are many words which have had as it were their edges smoothed
away, like pebbles rounded in the torrent’s bed. Thus softened
from the Latin probare we have prove, from recuperare we have
recover, from dilitare we have delay. Now, the American is sparing
of speech, and at the same time craving for energy of expression,
and he likes to use words of which he can as it were get a good
gripinhis mouth. Hence his tendency is to restore all those words
thus softened to their original form. Thus fvove he makes back
again into probate, approve \into approbate, reprove into reprobate
(we also have “reprobate,” but in a sense rather different from
reprove, reprobate expressing the passive sense of disapproval,
and veprove the active). Announce again he changes back into
annunciate, recover into recuperate, and delay into dilitate. Now, I
do not mean to say that all those words are as yet established in
American speech ; the only one that can be said to be regularly
adopted is recuperate for recover, though probate for prove is also
in certain cases, but all the others may be found in the speech
and in the newspapers of the country. And I have once or twice
of late remarked the use of recuperate in this country.

To the same craving for energy of expression may be owing
that redundancy of negatives which is such a distinctive feature of
American speech. When Mrs. Stowe made Topsy say, “‘ Nobody
didn’t make me, I don’t think,” she only expresses what you may hear
any day in America. “This train don’t stop at no more stations,
I don’t think,” I remember a man saying to me on a railway as we
were approaching our journey’s end. These are rather the grosser
forms of the abuse; but nine hundred and ninety-nine Americans
out of a thousand whom you may meet, will say, “I couldn’t get

a basket nowhere,” and ‘“‘there is no more, I don’t think,” even
if they avoid the more common—“ there ain’t no more, I don’t
think.” And I am sorry to say that, though not in such an
aggravated form, the same abuse is becoming so common in
England, that you will seldom find one of the younger generation
who would not make use of the phrase, “ There is no more, I
don’t think.”

I have before made the remark, that while there is in this country
a strong tendency to adopt the new words that may be coined in
America, yet that we abstain from adopting the older words that
were in use before the inter-communication became such as it is at
present. We have escaped, for instance, the word donate, which
has almost entirely supplanted the word gzve in America. To this
word, severely as it has been condemned by English, and even more
severely by American critics, there is not, in an etymological point
of view, any objection; and it does in a few cases avoid the
periphrasis of “give as a donation.” Yet it is a pretentious and
therefore objectionable word, which if it once got a footing in
England, would very probably in common speech supersede, as it
has done in America, the good old Saxon gzve. Another vicious
expression from which we have escaped is the use of as for ‘hat,
as in “I think as I will go to Penrith to-morrow,” a word which,
though here a rank vulgarism, I have heard used in America by
graduates of Harvard.

I notice also in America a habit of applying to inanimate things
a phrase which is only applicable to human beings. Thus in the
Scientific American (an admirably conducted periodical by the
way, and one of which I desire to speak with all respect) that a
tornado “demolished one story of a building, and demoralised
another.” Fancy speaking of the morals of a building! Again,
the expression Aigh-toned is a favourite one in America, as applied
to a man of high honour and character. But now I observe that
a tradesman in Washington advertises a stock of “high-toned”
boots and shoes. An American might, however, reply, and with
justice, that this is not any more objectionable than our use of the
word genteel, as similarly applied. I have noticed in America the

10

rise of a curious phrase. When a man retires from the army, he
is said to be “mustered out of the service.” This had its origin
at the time of the close of the war, when a regiment was mustered
in order that the men might be paid off before returning to civil
life. Thus the phrase became synonymous with leaving the army,
so that I now read how General So-and-So was “mustered out of
the service.” However, the critic on the other side would, I
doubt not, be able to bring forward a list of offending expressions
in this country which do not strike us, because we are so familiar
with them.

There is certainly one thing from which the ‘Americans can
claim an exemption, and that is the abuse of the letter H. Now,
this abuse the Americans, not recognising that it is the special
attribute of the ’Arry of Punch, generally adduce as the shibboleth
of Englishmen in general, and that without the slightest attempt at
discrimination. Thus an American comic paper makes Lord
Dundreary (of all persons in the world) talk about “Hold
Hengland.” And happening to be in the States at the time of the
visit of the Prince of Wales to India, I noticed in the ew York
World a skit, not at all an ill-natured one, upon his proceedings in
that country. But in this article the suite of the Prince, repre-
sented as composed of dukes, archbishops, &c., were invariably
made to address him as, “Your ’Ighness.” Dr. Russell, the
literary associate of the expedition, was made to vaunt himself as
having “‘the heye of an aak;” and even the Prince himself, apropos
of shooting a tiger, was made to give utterance to the magnanimous
observation, “‘Hengland hexpects hevery man to do ’is duty.”
Now the World is one of the four principal journals of New York,
and we can hardly suppose it possible that any of its contributors
really believe that the language of the British court is such as
above quoted ; this is rather an example of what is too common
in America—writing down to the prejudices of the people.

Now, in conclusion, to summarise the ideas which I have
ventured to put upon paper. I cannot conceive, in the first place,
that the literary language of the English-speaking race will ever be
otherwise than one and the same. How grand will be the position,

11

how vast the responsibility of the great author of the future, who will
have for an audience possibly half the world! I think also that
within the range of this common language, there may be room for
a great diversity of spoken dialects, all leading up by graduated
lines to the one common centre. Whenever that far distant time
shall come of which I have ventured to speak, it may find the old
country far surpassed in population, in wealth, and in material
resources, by the younger and more unfettered races to whom she
has given birth. But it will find her, let us venture to believe,
still the great centre of civilising influences, still the honoured
mother of mighty nations, and the parent of great and free
institutions.

13

A LIST OF WORKS RELATING TO THE GEOLOGY
OF CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND.

By W™M; WHITAKER, B.a., F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of England,
Editor of the Geological Record.

(Communicated at the Workington Annual Meeting.)

[The following bibliographical list was collected in the first instance
almost entirely by Mr. Wuiraker. Part of it has already appeared in
Mr. Warv’s Memoir on the Keswick District, and it is reprinted here in
order that the list may be presented in as complete a form as possible.
Reference to the Works published since 1873 will be found in the volumes
of the GroLocicaL REcorD, which contain fuller abstracts of the contents
of each article than it is possible to print in our Transactions. ]

1693.
1, Anon. ws Two Letters (dated 1684) concerning Several
Copper Mines. Phil. Trans., vol. xvii. p. 737.
1709.
2. Roprnson, Rev. An Essay towards a Natural History of Cumber-
THOMAS land and Westmorland. 8vo.
1720.
3. ——— 5 Magna Britannia, vol. i. p. 397.
1733 ?

4. LowrTHer, SirnJ. An Account of the Damp Air in a Coal Pit.
Phil. Trans., vol. xxxviii. (No. 429) p. 109.

1740.
5. ANON. ste Account of the Black Lead Mines. Gentleman’s
Mag., p. 583.
6. Snort, Dr. ... Essay on the Mineral Waters of Cumberland and
THOMAS Westmorland. 4to. Sheffield.

7. Smira, WILLIAM Geological Map of Cumberland and Westmorland.
Lond.

13.

14,

15.

17.

18.

19.

21.

Catcorr, Rev.
A. [S8.]

Gray, THOMAS ..

WALKER, J.

FILPIN’S.

JARS.

Jars, ?M.5S. ...

WITHERING, W.

HuUTCHINSON

West, THOMAS

Kirway, R.

Sopwitu, THos.

Musuet, D.

Hovusmay, J.

14

1761.
A Treatise on the Deluge. S8vo. London.
Ed. 2 in 1768.
1769.
Journal of a Tour in the North of England.
(Letters. )
Account of the Irruption of Solway Moss. Phil.
Trans., vol. lxii. p. 123.
1772.
Guide to the Lakes. Account of a Water Spout
in the Vale of St. John’s in 1749. Vol. i. p. 36.
Account of a Water Spout on Grasmoor in 1760.
Vol. ii. p, 4.
1774.
Voyages Metallurgiques. 4/0. Lyons. pp. 235.
1780.
Voyages Metallurgiques, tom. 2. 4to. Paris.
Cd. pp. 536, 554.

1784.
Experiments and Observations on the Terra
Ponderosa, &c. Phil. Trans., vol. [xxiv. p. 293.

1794.
History of Cumberland, vol. ii. p. 212

1796.
Guide to the Lakes, by the Author of ‘‘The
Antiquities of Furness.” Flood in St. John’s Vale.
Ed. 6, p. 140.

1798,
Experiments on the Composition and Proportion
of Carbon in Bituminous and Mineral Coal. Journ.
Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, (4to.) vol. i. p. 487.

N.D.
- Geological Section of Holyfield, Hudgill Crossvein
and Silver Band Lead Mines in Alston Moor and
Teesdale. 4to. Newcastle. (Privately printed.)

1799.
On Primary Ores of Iron. Phil. Mag. vol. iii.
p. 350.

1800.

A Topographical Description of Cumberland,
Westmorland, Lancashire, and a Part of the West
Riding of Yorkshire. (Map of the Soil, Accounts
of Caves, Soils, Minerals, &e.) Svo. Carlisle.

22.

24.

25.

26.

27.

29.

30.

31.

32,

Mittot, W.

15

Section of the Lead Measures. (? Alston Moor).
Carlisle.

1801.

Drxon, Dr. JosHua An Account of the Coal Mines near Whitehaven.

Anon. (D. J. P.)

Brirton, J.,
BRAYLEY, E. W.

ANON.

ANON.

Foster, Werst-
GARTH.

SOWERBY, JAMES

ScHRADER.

TuHomson, Dr. T.

ANON.

8vo.

Some Observations on the Agitation of the Lake
of Derwentwater, and its Floating Islands. By a
Correspondent. Phil. Mag., vol. xi. p. 163.

1802.
The Beauties of England and Wales. 8vo.
London. Vol. iii. pp, 22-30.

1804.
Observations (chiefly lithological) in a Five
Week’s Tour. 8vo.

1805.

A brief statement of some particulars relative to
the Sinking, &c., of William Pit, near the Sea
Shore at Bransty, Whitehaven. Phil. Mag.
vol. xxi. p. 275.

1809.

A Treatise on a section of the Strata commencing
near Newcastle-upon-Tyne and concluding on the
West Side of Cross Fell. With remarks on
Mineral Veins in General. To which are added
Tables of the Strata in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, &c.
8vo. Newcastle. Hd. 2 (greatly enlarged) 8vo.
Alston, 1821.

1812-15.
The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain.
8vo. London.

1813.
Analysis of Graphite. Ann. Phil., vol. i. p. 294.

1814.
A Geognostical Sketch of the Counties of
Northumberland, Durham, and part of Cumberland.
Ann. Phil., vol. iv. pp. 337, 410.

1814.
On the Vitreous Tubes found near to Drigg in
Cumberland. rans. Geol. Soc., ser. 1, vol. ii. p
528,

33.

34.

39.

36.

37.

38.

39.

41.

42,

43.

44.

45.

Ho.me, Rev. ..
JOHN

Lonemire, J. B.

ANON.

Anon. [S.N.] ...

Crianny, Dr.
W. R.

Atay, T.

Borie.

BuckLanp, Rev.
W.

JAMESON, J.

Ortey, J.

_ CLARKE, Prof.

K. D.

DuFrEnoy, P. A.,
Beaumont’, E. de

16

1815 (2)

An Analysis of Satin Spar from Alston Moor in

Cumberland. Trans. Lin. Soc,, vol. xi. p. 164.
1815,

An Essay on the Shapes, Dimensions, and
Positions of the Spaces of the Earth which are
called Rents, and the arrangement of the matter in
them. Ann. Phil., vol. v. pp. 81, 275, and vol. vi.
pp. 43, 213, vol. vii. p. 122.

1816.

Geological Sketch of Part of Cumberland and
Westmorland. Phil. Mag., vol. xlvii. p. 41.

Remarks on the Geological Sketch of Part of
Cumberland and Westmorland. Phil. Mag.
vol. xlvii. p. 130.

Observations on the Mineral Waters of Gilsland.
8vo. Sunderland.

1817.

A Geological Account of the Lead Mine of
Dufton, in Westmorland. Journ. Soc. Arts, vol. ii.
p. 198.

Caldbeck Fells. Ann. Phil., vol. ix. p. 161.

Description of an isolated Group of Rocks of
Slate and Greenstone in Cumberland and Westmor-
land on the East Side of Appleby. Trans. Geol.
Soc., ser. 1, vol. iv. p. 105.

1819.

On the Black Lead of Borrowdale and of Ayrshire.
Edin. Phil. Journ., vol. i. p. 139.

Account of the Floating Island in Derwent Lake,
Keswick. Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2,
vol. ili. p. 64.

Account of the Black Lead Mine in Borrowdale.
Manchester Mem., ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 168.

Remarks on the Succession of the Rocks in the
Districts of the Lakes. Phil. Mag., vol. lvi. p. 257.

1820.

Observations upon the Ores which contain Cad-
mium, and upon the Discovery of this Metal in the
Derbyshire Silicates and other Ores of Zine. Ann.
Phil., vol. xv. p. 272.

Sur le Gisement, |’ Exploitation et le Traitement
des Mineraux d’Etain, et de Cuivre du Cornouailles.
Ann. Mines., t. x. p. 407.

47.
4S.

49.

50.

51.

53.

58. BRocCHANTDE VIL-

LIERS, DuFRENoy, &
E. de BEAUMONT.

59.

Murray, J.
Ottey, J.

CriarKeE, Prof.
BK. D.

Tron, E. L.
ANON.

Brooke, H. J...
ANON.

SEpewick, Rev.
Prof. A.
VANUXEM, L. ...

Vanvxem, L.

60. Whrrnam, H.

17

Naphthain Coal. Ann. Phil., vol. xvi. p. 466.

Remarks on the Succession of Rocks in the
District of the Lakes. Phil. Mag., vol. lvi. p. 257.
(From the Lonsdale Mag., vol. i. p. 433.)

1821.

On Crystallized Magnesian Carbonate of Lime
from Alston Moor in Cumberland, crystallized
Plumbago and some other Minerals from the Mines
of Cumberland. Ann. Phil., ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 415.

On Crystalline Plumbago and other Minerals from
the Mines of Cumberland. Ann. Phil., ser. 2,
vol. xv. p. 273.

On Vitreous Tubes found at Drige, Cumberland.
Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 1, vol. v. p, 617.

1822.

A few Notes on a Subterraneous Excursion into
a Lead and Silver Mine, in the Parish of Alston, in
the County of Cumberland. Phil. Mag., vol. lix.
p. 62. (From the Newcastle Mag.)

1824,
On Baryto-calcite. With a Chemicalexamination
by J. G. Campren. Ann. Phil., ser. 2, vol. viii.
p. 114.

1824.

Baryto-caleite, a new Mineral Species. din.
Journ. Sci., vol. p. 378.

English Locality of Metallic Lead. Jbid., p. 380.

On the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial Formations.
Ann, Phil., ser. 2, vol. ix. p. 241, vol. x. p. 18.

Experiments on Anthracite, Plumbago, &c.
Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, and Phil.
Mag., vol. \xviii. p. 161.

1826.
Sur les Mines de Plomb du Cumberland et du
Derbyshire. Ann. Mines, ii. 339

Experiments on Anthracite, Plumbago, &c.
Ann. Phil., 2nd Ser., vol. xi. p. 104.

Notice in regard to the Trap Rocks in the
Mountain Districts of the West and North-west of
York, Durham, Westmorland, Cumberland, and
Northumberland. Mem. Wernerian Soc., vol. v,
pt. 2, p. 475. é

2

61.

62.

63.

64,

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

OTLEY, J.

PARSON AND
WHITE

Pures, Prof.
JOHN

Parrrnson, H. L.

Ottery, J.

Pritz, WILLIAM

Woop, NIcHOLAS

CoNYBEARE, Rev.
W. D.

Horton, W™. ...

PEILE, Wm.

18

1827.
A concise Description ‘of the English Lakes
and adjacent Mountains. 8vo. Keswick. Hd. 6
in 1837.

1829.

History, Directory, &c., of Westmorland and
Cumberland, with a Descriptive and Geological
View of the Lakes, &c. Svo.

On a Group of Slate Rocks ranging E.S.E.
between the Rivers Lune and Wharfe, from near
Kirkby Lonsdale to near Malham, and on the
attendant Phenomena. Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 2.,
vol. iti. p. 1.

1830.

On the Discovery of a number of Hazel Nuts, in
working a Lead Ore Vein in the Manor of Alston
Moor. Yrans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland,
Durham, vol. i. p. 79.

1831.

Further Observation of the Floating Island of
Derwentwater, with remarks on certain other
Phenomena. Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manch., ser. 2,
vol. v. p. 19.

Description of a Group of Dykes, termed Riders,
discovered in the Whitehaven Colliery. Tvans.
Nat. His. Soc. Northumberland, Durham, vol. 1.
pp. 160-164.

On the Geology of a part of Northumberland and
Cumberland. 7'rans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumber-

land, Durham, vol. i. pp. 302-334.

1832.

Inquiry how far the Theory of M. E. de Beaumont
concerning the Parallelism of Lines of Elevation
of the same Geological Era is agreeable to the
Phenomena as exhibited in Great Britain. Phil.
Mag., ser, 3, vol. i. p. 118.

On the Stratiform Basalt associated with the
Carboniferous Formation of the North of England.
(Abstract in Proc, Geol. Soc., vol. i. p. 341.) Trans.
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19

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20

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21

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24

On some new Carboniferous Limestone Fossils.
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Further Observations on Glacial Phenomena and
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A Monograph of the British Fossil Corals.

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On the Jointings in the Carboniferous and
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On the Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers in the Lake
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On New Fossil Crustacea from the Silurian
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On some Species of Eurypterus and Allied Forms.
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A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part 1.
Paleontographical Soc.

Presidential Address to the Geological Section.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1863, Trans. of Sections, p. 59.

On a Section of the Strata from Howness Gill to
Cross Fell. Rep. Brit. Ass. for 1863, Trans. Sections,
p. 88.

Geological Sections of Holyfield, Hudgill Cross
Vein, and Silver Band Lead Mines in Alston Moor
and Teesdale, &c. 4to. Newcastle. (Privately
printed. )

Sorpwirn, T.,and Onthe Local Manufacture [N. of England]of Lead,

Ricuarpson, T.

Sorwirs, T.

Copper, &c. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1863, p. 715.
On the Lead Mining Districts of the North of
England. Trans. N. Inst. Mining Eng., vol. xiii.
pp. 187-199. Discussion, vol. xiv. pp. 9-14, 34-36,
(1865).
On the Lead-Mines of England. Proc. Geol.
Assoc., vol. i, p. 312.

1865.

Brovtg, Rev. P.B. Remarks on three Outliers of Lias in North

MacrrntosaH, D.

Puitiies, Prof.
JOHN

SALTER, J. W.

WALLACE, Wm.

ANON. ...

Bonney, Rev.
TG,

Shropshire and South Cheshire, Staffordshire, and
Cumberland, and their correlation with the main
Range. Proc. Warwicksh. Field Club, p. 6.

A Tourist’s Notes on the Surface Geology of the
Lake District. Geol. Mag., vol. ii. p. 299.

On the Distribution of Granite Blocks from Wast-
dale Crag. Brit. Assoc. Rep. for 1864, Trans.
Sections, p. 65.

On the Formation of Valleys near Kirkby
Lonsdale. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1864, Trans. of
Sections, p. 63.

A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part 2.
Paleontographical Soc.

On the Growth of Flos Ferri, or coralloidal
Arragonite. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxi. p.
413.

Mining Notes. Geol. Mag., vol. ii. p. 94.

1866.
On Traces of Glaciers in the English Lakes,
Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 71.

221.

224,

225.

228.

229.

230.

231.

232.

233.

234.

DAvipson, THos.

GREENWELL, J. C.

Harkness, Prof.
R., NIcHOLSON,
D. H. A., and
SALTER, J. W.

Houeuss, Prof.
T. Mc.K.,
Morris, J. P....

Puriurrs, Prof.
JOHN
WaALuace, W.

Woopwarp, Hy.

Curry, J.

Hueues, Prof. T.
Mc. Kenny

SALTER, J. W.

TaTE, Gro.

Harkness, Prof.
R. and Dr. A. H.
NICHOLSON.

Hicers, W. M.

39

A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
Part VII. No. 1. Silurian Brachiopoda. With
Observation on the Classification of the Silurian
Rocks, bySir R. I. Murcuison. Paleontographical
Soc.

On the Hematite Mines of the Ulverston District.
Trans. Manch, Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 248.

Additional Observations on the Geology of the
Lake Country. With Notes on the Fossils, by J.
W. Satrer. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii.
p. 480.

Note on the Silurian Rocks of Casterton Low
Fell, Kirkby Lonsdale. Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 206.

Report of Explorations conducted in the Kirkhead
Cave at Ulverston. Memoirs Anthrop. Soc., vol. ii.
pp. 358-363.

On Glacial Striation (Wastdale). Rep. Brit. Assoc.,
1865, Trans. Sections, p. 71.

The Laws which regulate the Deposition of Lead
Ore in Veins, illustrated by the Examination of the
Geological Structure of the Mining District of Alston
Moor. 8vo. London.

On the occurrence of Ceratiocaris in the Wenlock
Formation (Upr. Silurian) of England. Geol. Mag.,
vol, iii. p. 203.

1867.

On the Drift of the North of England [abstract].
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiii, p. 40.

On the Break between the Upper and the Lower
Silurian Rocks of the Lake District, as seen between
Kirkby Lonsdale and Malham. Geol. Mag., vol. iv.
p. 346.

A Monograph of British Trilobites. Pt. IV.
Paleontographical Socy.

The Geology of the District traversed by the
Roman Wall, with Map and Section. In the ‘‘Roman
Wall . . . . of the North of England,” by the
Rey. J. C. Bruce. 3 Hd. 4to. London.

1868.

On the Coniston Group. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 206.

The Geological Distribution of the Ores of Iron.
(Reprinted from the Colliery Guardian). 4to, London.

235.

236.

237.
238.

239,
240.
241,

242,

243,

244.

245,

246.
247.
248,
249,

250.

Hueuss, Prof.
T. Mc. K.

Hont, R.

Moon, G. A. ...

NicHoxson, Prof.
H. A.

WEssTER, C. ...

AVELINE, W. T.

Berwick, T.

Bo.ron, Joun

Brockbank, W.

Daxyns, J. R.

Macgrntosa, D.

31

Notes on the Geology of parts of Yorkshire and
Westmorland. Proc. Geol. Polytechnic Soc. W.
Riding Yorkshire, vol. iv., no. 8, p. 565.

The Iron Ores of Great Britain. Quarterly
Journ. of Sci., vol. v. p. 31. ;

Geological Notes on Iron Ores, with special
reference to West Cumberland and North Lanca-
shire Hematite Deposits. Whitehaven.

On the occurrence of Fossils in the Old Red
Sandstone of Westmorland. Trans. Edin. Geol.
Soc., vol. i. p. 15.

An Essay on the Geology of Cumberland and
Westmorland. 8vo. London.

On the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Series.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 125.

On the Granite of Shap, in Westmorland. Trans.
Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. i. p. 133.

On the Graptolites of the Coniston Flags; with
Notes on the British Species of the Genus Grap-
tolites. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiv. p.
521.

On the Farming of Westmorland (note on the
Geol.). Journl. Roy. Agric. Soc., ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 1.

1869.

(Letter) On the Relation of the Porphyry Series
to the Skiddaw Slate in the Lake District. Geol.
Mag., vol. vi. p. 382.

On Mining in the Mountain Limestone of the
North of England. Trans. N. Inst. Min. Eng.,
vol, xviii. pp. 163-182.

Discussion. Vol. xix. pp. 92-95, 102-111. (1870.)

Geological Fragments, collected principally from
rambles among the Rocks of Furness and Cartmel.
8vo.

The Hematite Iron Ore Deposits of Whitehaven :
Notes on the Aldby Limestone, Cleator Moor.
Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manch. Geol. Mag., vol. vi.
p. 141. (Abstract.)

Notes on the Geology of the Lake District.
Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 56.

Additional Note on the Unconformity between
the Green and Skiddaw Slate Series. Geol. Mag.,
vol, vi. p. 116.

Lithodomous Borings 667 feet above the Sea.
Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 96.

253.

254.

255.

256.

267.

Maw, G.

Moors, C.

Morris, Prof. J.

32

On some Raised Shell-Beds on the Coast of
Lancashire. Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 72.

Preliminary Report on Mineral Veins containing
Organic Remains in the Carboniferous Limestone.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1868, p. 423.

The Lead-bearing Districts of the North of

_ England. Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 317.

NicHotson, Dr.
H. A.

De Rance, C. E.

Macxinrosu, D.

Parrinson, S. R.

Ricketts, Dr. C.

BROCKLEBANK.
Curry, JOHN...

Everett, Prof.

HARKNESS,
Prof. R.

Notes on Certain of the Intrusive Igneous Rocks
of the Lake District. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxv. p. 435.

On the Occurrence of Plants in the Skiddaw
Slates. Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 494.

On the Relations between the Skiddaw Slates
and the Green Slates and Porphyries of the Lake
District. Geol. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 105, 167.

Notes on the Geology of Derwentwater. Trans.
Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. i. p. 274.

Notes on the Green Slates and Porphyries of the
Neighbourhood of Ingleton. Greol. Mag., vol. vi.
p. 213.

On the Surface Geology of the Lake District.
Geol. Mag., vol. vi., p. 489.

On the Correlation, Nature, and Origin of the
Drifts of N.W. Lancashire and a Part of Cumber-
land. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv. p. 407.

The Scenery of England and Wales, its Character
and Origin. 8vo. London.

Note on Post-Glacial Lake Basins in Westmorland.
Geol. Mag., vol. vi. p. 222.

The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Ingleboro.
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., session 10, p. 34.

1870.

Glacial Action around Bow Fell. Man. Phil. Soc.

Observations relative to the Throw of the Pennine
Fault. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. 9, no. 3,
pp. 2-14. ‘

Report of the Committee for the purpose of
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downward in various localities of Dry-
land and under Water. D. Burns’ Observations
near Allendale. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1869, p. 176.

On the Distribution of Wastdale Crag Blocks in
Westmorland. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol, xxvi.
p. 517.

268.
269.
270.
271.

272.

273.
274.

275.

280.

281.

282.

33

Hopeson, Miss E. On the Situation of the Iron-Ore Fossils in the

Hopkinson, J.

Der Konrinck,
Prof. L.

Macxintosu, D.

Moorg, C.

Rut ey, F.

Warp, J.C. ...

WOLLASTON,
G. H.

Woop, SEARLES,
Junr.

AINSWORTH,
THOMAS

AITKEN, JOHN

Water Blain Mines, South Cumberland. Geol.
Mag., vol. vii. p. 113.

On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus
Dicranograpsus. Geol. Mag., vol. vii. p. 353.

On some New and Remarkable Echinoderms from
the British Paleozoic Rocks. Geol. Mag., vol. vii.
p. 258. (Translated from Bull. Ac. Roy. Bruzelles,
ser. 2, t. xxviii. p. 57. 1869.)

Mr. De Rance and the Rev. T. G. Bonney on
Surface Geology and Lithodomous Perforations.
Geol. Mag., vol. vii. p. 47.

On the Dispersion of Shap Fell Boulders and the
Origin of Boulder Clay. Geol. Mag., vol. vii. p. 349.

On the Origin of the Drifts, so-called Moraines,
and Glaciated Rock-Surfaces of the Lake District.
Tbid., p. 445,

On the Dispersal of Criffel Granite and Caldbeck
Porphyry over the Plain of Cumberland. Jbid.,
p. 564.

Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Lime-
stone and their Organic Contents. With Notes on
the Foraminifera, by H. B. Brapy. Rep. Brit.
Assoc. for 1869, p. 360.

Geology of the Lake District [Note]. Geol. Mag.,
vol. vii. p. 584.

Ice. A Lecture delivered before the Keswick
Literary Society. 8vo., pp. 27. Triibner & Co.

On the Denudation of the Lake District. Geol.
Mag., vol. vii. p. 14.

On the Erratic Blocks of the Skiddaw District.
Geol. Mag., vol. vii. p. 587.

On the Relation of the Boulder Clay without
Chalk of the North of England, to the Great Chalky
Boulder Clay of the South. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxvi. p. 90.

1871.

Facts developed by the Working of Hematite
Ores in the Ulverston and Whitehaven Districts
from 1844 to 1871. (Brit. Assoc.) Chemical News,
vol. xxiv. pp. 104-6.

The President’s Address. [Notes on a Lecture
at Stockport on Furness and Settle, pp. 26-8]
Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. x. (no. 1) p. 8.

3

283.
284.

285.

286.

287.

288.

289.
290.
291.

292,

293.
294.

295.

296.

297.

298,

299.

CAMERON,
A. C. G.
CROLL, JAMES

CrossLEY, Wm.

CurRY, JOHN ..

Eccirs, JAMES

Harkness, Prof.
R., and NicHoL-
son, Dr. H. A.

Macxr osu, D.

Nicwotson, Dr.
H. A.

De Rancr, C. E.

Ruttey, F.

Situ, J. T. ...

34

Description of the Newly-discovered Caverns at
Stainton. Geol. Mag., vol. viii. p. 312.

On the Transport of Wasdale Crag Blocks. Geol.
Mag., vol. viii. p. 15.

The Manufacture of Iron in the Hematite District.
Mechanical Eng. Middlesboro. Noticed in Journ.
Tron and Steel Inst., 1871, vol. ii. p. 157.

Some New Views on the Formation and Distri-
bution of the Superficial Accumulations over a
Northern Portion of the Pennine Chain. Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. x. (no. 2) pp. 88-105.

On some Sections of Permian Strata near Kirkby
Stephen. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. x. (no. 1)
pp. 30-37.

On the Green Slates and Porphyries of the Lake
District. Report Brit. Assoc., 1870. Trans. Sections,
p. 74.

(Letter.) Messrs. Rutley and Wollaston on
Drift. Geol. Mag., vol. viii. p. 44.

Mr. Croll on the Dispersion of Boulders. Jbid.,
p. 94,

On the Drifts of the West and South Borders of
the Lake District. Jbid., pp. 250 and 303. y

Notes on the Lower Portion of the Green Slates
and Porphyries of the Lake District between Ulls-
water and Keswick. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxvi. p. 599.

On the Two Glaciations of the Lake District.
Geol. Mag., vol. viii. p. 107.

(Note on) The Geology of the Cumberland Lakes.
Ibid., p. 238.

On the Glacial Phenomena of Western Lancashire
and Cheshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvi,
p. 641,

On the Glaciation of the North-West of England.
Geol. Mag., vol. viii. p. 412.

Report of the Commission appointed to inquire
into the several matters relating to Coal in the
United Kingdom, vol. ii. Fol. Lond. (Coal under
New Red, &c.) :

Glaciation of the Lake District. Geol. Mag.,
vol. vill. pp. 44, 93. (Letter) Glaciation of the Lake
District. Jbid., p. 93.

Iron Ores Committee, Cumberland and Lanca-
shire. Iron and Steel Institute, vol. ii. p. 2.

303.

304.

Warp, J. C....
WOLLASTON,
G. H.

Woop, SEARLES,
Junr.

AVELINE, W. T.

AVELINE, W. T.

& Hueues, T. Mc. K.

305.

306.

307.

308.

309.

310.

311.

314.

Deane, Dr. GxEo.
Evans, JOHN...

Horner, CHAs.

MacxrintosH, D.

NicHotson, Dr.
H. A.

TIppEMAN, R. H.

Woopwarbd, Hy.

35

On the Development of Land. Geol. Mag., vol.
vili. p. 11.

(Note.) Glaciation of the Lake District. Geol.
Mag., vol. viii. p. 148.

(Letter.) Mr. Croll’s Hypothesis of the Form-
ation of the Yorkshire Boulder Clay. Jbid., p. 92.

1872.

On the Continuity and Breaks between the various
Divisions of the Silurian Strata in the Lake District.
Tbid., vol. ix. p, 441.

Explanation of Quarter Sheet 98 N.E. Geol.
Survey Memoir.

The Skiddaw Slates. Proc. Birmgh. Nat. Hist.
Soc., no. 2, pp. 64-69.

Ancient Stone Implements '(References to Cum-
berland and Westmorland).

The Presence of Didymium in a specimen of
Pyromorphite (from Cumberland). _ Chem. News,
vol. xxvi. p. 109.

Glacial Drift of the Central part of the Lake
District, up to 2800 feet above the Sea. Geol. Mag.,
vol. ix. p. 399.

On the Correlation of the Silurian Deposits of the
N. of England with those of the S. of Scotland.
Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. ii. pt. 1, p. 105.

A Monograph of the British Graptolitide. Black-
wood & Sons, Edinburgh and London.

On the Coniston Limestone of Cumberland and
Westmorland and its Associated Rocks. Trans.
Edin, Geol. Soc., vol. ii. (pt. 7,) pp. 84-94.

On the Occurrence of the Genus Eudoceras in
Britain. Geol. Mag., vol. ix. p. 102.

On the Evidence of the Ice-Sheet in North Lanca-
shire and adjacent parts of Yorkshire and West-
morland. (With Map.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. XXvili. pp. 471-491.

A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea
belonging to the Order Merostomata. Part III.
Pterygotus and Stylonurus. (Note on Geological
Localities.) Palentographical Society.

A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea
belonging to the Order Merostomata. Part IV.
Stylonurnus, Eurypterus, and Hemiaspis. Palconto-
graphical Society.

316.

317.

318.

319.

320.

321.

322,

323.

324,

325.
326.

327.

328.

329.

330.
331.

332.

HARENESS,

Prof. R.
Horxrmson, J.
JENKINSON, H. I.

MackintosuH,'D.

NicnHo.son, Dr,
H. A.
De Rance, C. E.

TIppEMAN, R. H.

Warp, J.C. ...

GoopDcHILD, J. G.

Macxrntosu, D.

Kenpatt, J. D.

36

1873.

On the Occurrence of Faults in the Permian
Rocks of the Lower Portion of the Vale of Eden.
Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1873, Sections, p. 81.

On some Graptolites of the Upper Arenig Rocks
of Ramsey Island, St. David’s. Geol. Mag., vol. x.
p. 519.

Guide to the Lakes, with Articles on the Geology,
and also with a List of the Minerals by Bryce M.
Wricut. Stanford, London.

Observations on the more remarkable Boulders
of the North West of England and the Welsh
Borders. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxix. p. 351.

On the Silurian Rocks of the English Lake
District. Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iii. no. 3, p. 105.

On the Occurrence of Lead, Zinc, and Iron Ores
in some Rocks of Carboniferous Age in the North
West of England. Part Il. (East Cumberland.)
Geol. Mag., vol. x. pp. 303-309.

On the Surface Geology of the Neighbourhood of
Cross Fell in Cumberland. Jbid., pp. 337-341.

The Age of the North of England Ice-Sheet. Jbid.,
p. 140.

The Relation of Man to the Ice-Sheet in the
North of England. Nature, vol. ix. no. 210, p. 14.

On Rock Fissuring. Geol. Mag., vol. x. p. 245.

Scenery of the Lake District Geologically Con-
sidered. Science Gossip, June, 1873.

On some Archeological Remains in the Keswick
District. Trans. Cumb. and Westmd. Archeological
Soc.. pt. 2, p. 215.

Glaciation of the Northern Part of the Lake
District. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxix. p. 422.

1874.

Note on some Carboniferous Conglomerates in the
Eden Valley. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., November,
1874, p. 394.

On Drift. Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, vol. i. p. 496.

On the Traces of a Great Ice-Sheet in the Southern
Part of the Lake District, and in North Wales.
Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. p. 174.

The Hematite Deposits of Whitehaven and Fur-
ness. Colliery Guardian, vol. xxviii. pp. 157, 230,
374.

333.

334,

335.

Warp, J. C. ...

37

On the Origin of some of the Lake Basins of
Cumberland. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx.

pp. 96.

Daxyns, J. R.

and Warp, J. C.

336. GooDcHILD, J. G.

337.

338.

339.

340.

342.

344,

345.

346.

347.

348,
349.

Hopkinson, J.
& Lapworta, C.

Hunt, Rogert.

KENDALL, J. D.

MackrnTosu, D.

Ward, J. C. ...

On the Old Glaciers of Cumberland. 2st Rept.
Brighton and Sussex Nat. Hist. Soc., p. 37.

1875.

(Letter.) Volcanic Rocks of the Lake Country.
Geol. Mag., Decade 2, vol. ii. p. 38. ;

The Glacial Phenomena of the Eden Valley and
the Western Part of the Yorkshire Dale-District.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 55.

Glacial Erosion. Geol. Mag., Dec. 11, vol. ii.
pp. 323, 356.

The Origin of Coums, Corries, or Cirques. Jbid.,
p. 486.

Discovery of Wulfenite at Caldbeck Fell, and of
Hausmannite in West Cumberland. Geol. Mag.,
Dec. 2, vol. ii. p. 565.

Description of the Graptolites of the Arenig and
Llandeilo Rocks of St. David’s. Quart. Journ,
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 631.

Mineral Statistics for 1875. Memoirs Geol. Survey.
8vo. London.

Hematite in the Silurians. Read at the Geol.
Soc., March 8th.

The Hematite Deposits of Whitehaven and
Furness. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 231.

On some important Facts connected with the
Boulders and Drifts of the Eden Valley, and their
Bearing on the Theory of a melting Ice-Sheet
charged throughout with Rock Fragments. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 692.

Ice Phenomena in the Lake District. Nature,
Feb. 18. ;

The Glaciation of the Southern Part of the Lake
District and the Glacial Origin of the Lakes of
Cumberland and Westmorland. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 152.

(Letter.) Distribution of Shap Boulders. @eol.
Mag., Dec. 2, vol. ii. p. 285.

Modern Vulcanicity. Jbid., p. 38.

Notes on the Microscopic Structure of some
Ancient and Modern Volcanic Rocks. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 388.

350. Warp, J.C. ..

On the Granite, Granitoid, and associated, Meta-

morphic Rocks of the Lake District. Parts I., II.,

WE A0Ve

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi.

p. 568, and vol. xxxii. p. 1.

INDEX OF AUTHORS AND OF THE NUMBERS OF
THEIR WORKS.

Agassiz, L., 103

Ainsworth, T., 281

Aitken, John, 282

Allan, T., 38

Anon, 1, 5, 17, 24, 26, 27, 32, 35,
36, 52, 54, 150, 173, 174, 219

Aveline, W. T., 303, 304

Bainbridge, W., 194

Barker, R., 170

Barrie, Capt., 194

- Beaumont, E. de, 46, 94

Binney, E. W., 141, 151, 165,
187, 196

Bland, J. S8., 197

Bolton, J., 182, 198

Bonney, T. G., 220

Borie, 39

Brayley, E. W., 25

Britton, J., 25

Brodie, P. B., 213

Brooke, H. J., 53

Bryce, J., 125, 142

Buckland, Rev. W., 40, 99

Bury, F., 90

Calvert, J., 133

Cameron, A. C. G., 283

Catcott, Rev. A., §

Chambers, R., 134, 143

Clanny, W. R., 37

Clarke, E. D., 45, 49

Conybeare, W. D., 68

Coste, 94

M‘Coy, F., 123, 126, 127, 128,
130, 135

Croll, J., 284

Crossley, W., 285

Crowder, W., 152

Curry, J., 179, 229, 286

Davidson, Thos., 158, 159, 166,
221

Davy, Dr. J., 118, 144, 153, 167

Day, Dr. A., 138

Dickinson, William, 129

Dixon, J., 23

Dufrénoy, P. A., 46, 58, 94

Dunn, Matt., 111, 175, 189, 199

Eccles, J., 287.

Edwards, Milne, 131, 145

Evans, J., 306

Fairbairn, W., 112

Foster, Westgarth, 28

Geinitz, Dr., 200

Gibson, E., 183

Gilpin, 11, 12

Gray, T., 9

Greg, R. P., 176

Greenwell, J. C., 222

Goodchild, J. G., 329, 330, 336,
337, 338, 339

Haime, Jules, 131, 145

Harkness, Robert, 160, 161, 168,
184, 190, 201, 202, 204, 223,
233, 288, 316

Heddle, 154

Higgins, Wm., 234

Hill, E., 177

Hodgson, Miss, 191, 268

Holme, J., 33

Hopkins, Wm., 105, 119, 136

Hopkinson, J., 269, 317, 340

Horner, Chas., 307

Hughes, T. Mc.K., 224, 2380, 235
304

Hull, E., 180, 203

Hunt, R., 236, 341

Hutchinson, 16

Hutton, Wm., 69, 74

Irton, E. L., 51

Jars, 13, 14

Johnston,"J. T. W., 77, 85, 95

Jones, T. R., 146

Jameson, John, 192

Jenkinson, H. I., 318

Kakle, R. B. J., 155

Kendall, J. D., 342, 343

Kirwan, R., 18

Knipe, J. A., 100, 113a

Koninck, L. de, 270

Lapworth, C., 340

Longmire, J. B., 34

Lowther, Sir J., 4

Macintosh, D., 213, 271, 272, 273,
274, 289, 290, 291, 308, 319,
331, 334

Marley, J., 193

Marshall, J. G., 101, 169, 185

Millot, W., 22

Moore, C., 275

Morris, J., 225

Murchison, Sir R, I., 204, 205

Murray, J., 47

Mushet, D., 20

Nicholson, H. A., 223, 233, 288,
292, 309, 310, 311, 312, 320

Otley, J., 42, 61, 65, 108

Parson, 62

Pattinson, H. L., 64, 102

Peile, W., 66, 70, 80, 84

Perdomet, 94

Phillips, John, 63, 78, 78a, 86,
87, 87a, 115, 156, 170, 171,
172, 215, 216, 226

Rammelsberg, C., 139

Rance, C. E. de, 293, 294, 295,
296, 297, 321, 322

39

Ransome, T., 120

Richardson, T., 210

Riley, E., 186

Robinson, T., 2, 3 A

Ruthven, J., 147, 148, 163

Rutley, F., 276, 298

Salter, J. W., 157, 178, 181, 192,
206, 217, 223, 231

Schrader, 20

Sedgwick, A., 56, 71, 73, 75, 79,
80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 91, 92, 104,
106, 114, 116, 118, 121, 122,
132, 137, 140, 149, 164

Sharpe, D., 107, 109, 110, 117, 124

Short, T., 6

Smith, J. T., 299

Smith, W., 7

Smyth, W. W., 207

Sopwith, T., 19, 76, 93, 96, 208,
209, 210, 211, 212

Sowerby, James, 29

Tate, Geo., 232

Taylor, J., 193

Thomson, T., 31, 88, 97

Tiddeman, R. H., 313, 323, 324

Tooke, A. W., 39

Vanuxem, L., 57, 59

Villiers, B. de, 58

Walker, J., 10

Wallace, Wm., 218, 227

Ward, J. C., 277, 278, 300, 325,
326, 327, 328, 333, 334, 335,
345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350

White, 62

Witham, H., 60

Withering, W., 15

Wood, N., 67, 98, 193

Wood, Searles V., junr., 280, 302

Woodward, H., 228, 314, 315

Woolaston, G. H., 279, 301

Wright, Bryce, senr., 318

The Editor will be glad to receive notices of the titles of any original
articles on the Geology of Cumberland and Westmorland published prior to

the last date in the List.

Many original contributions may have escaped

notice, especially such as have appeared in the local newspapers, or in the

technical periodicals,

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41

LOCAL ENTOMOLOGY,

Part 3. GEOMETRA.

By GEORGE DAWSON.
(Read at Carlisle.)

On looking over the lists of Geometers collected by other entom-
ologists, I find that a greater number occur here than in any other
locality, and that our list includes several species that have hitherto
been regarded as peculiar to the New Forest, or to other parts of
the South of England. These will be noticed in the order
observed in Newman’s British Moths.

Fam. I.—UROPTERYD&.

Swallow-tailed Moth ( Uropteryx sambucata). This large insect
is of common occurrence here, especially in the evening and the
early morning, from July to the end of August. They are to be
found at Rickerby, Morton, and Kingmoor ; and I have seen them
also at Langholm, across the Border.

Fam. II.— ENNoMID&.

The Dark-bordered Beauty (Zpione vespertaria); The Bordered
Beauty (Zpione apiciaria ), are both common at the localities just
given, as are also, The Brimstone Moth (Rumia crategata) and
The Light Emerald (Metrocampa margaritaria ).

49

The Barred Red (£Uopia fasciaria ), occurs in the fir plantations
at Warwick, Newby Cross, and Orton. The pupez of this northern
moth often occur along with the pupz of the Bordered White,
and they may be recognised by their larger size, and the pale yellow
colour of the wing cases.

The Scorched Wing (Zurymene dolabraria)is rare here. I have
taken only five, and these occurred in a wood near to Dalston
Low Mill, but on the opposite side of the river. The first one I
took many years ago, while beating some hazels; and for the last
two seasons I have not seen any, nor have I been able to find the
insect in any of our local collections.

The Thorn Moths (Seenia, Odontoptera, &c.,) may be easily
obtained by searching the gas lamps at night or early in the morning,
especially about Stanwix and in the Warwick Road. They may be
obtained by beating the trees, as they make no attempt to fly after
coming to the ground, and are easily taken with the hands. I have
taken them on the wing in Newbiggin Woods and in the woods
about the Gelt. They are often found sitting on the Honeysuckle,
and are easily captured as they are very weak fliers, and they often
fall at once to the ground when a tree is beaten, and can then be
easily taken with the hands. The species of this genus I have
found here are the Lilac Beauty (S. or Pericallia syringaria) ; The
Early Thorn (S. unaria); The Lunar Thorn (S. Zumaria); and
The Purple Thorn (SS. dlustraria). This last is double brooded,
the first brood appearing in May and the second in August. The
May brood is so much larger and brighter coloured than the
second as to look like a different: species. I have reared insects
from eggs laid in May which developed into moths quite unlike
the products of the August batch.

The Thorn Moths can be easily distinguished from the other
genera by their scalloped wings and feathered antennz.

Of the remaining genera, The Scalloped Hazel (Odontoptera
bidentata) ; ‘The Canary Shouldered Thorn (Zxnomos tiliaria) ;
The Feathered Thorn (Aimera pennaria), are the species I have
met with here.

43

Fam. IJJ].—AMpuHypDASyYDAz.

The Pale Brindled Beauty (Phigalia pilosaria). This, one of
our earliest moths, may be commonly found in February and
March sitting on the trunks of trees in the neighbourhood of
Carlisle. The female is wingless, and looks more like a beetle
than a moth. The pupz are about three quarters of an inch in
length, and may be found by digging at the roots of the Oak and
the Beech.

The Oak Beauty (Amphydasis prodromaria). This is another
very early species. I have taken them at rest on the large oak
trees in Rickerby Park and at Kingmoor ; though they are never
very plentiful anywhere. Most of mine came from Newbiggin
Woods, and especially from the Wreay side of the Petteril. The
pupa is about three-quarters of an inch in length, and of a very
dark brown colour, coated over with a dirty-looking mud-like crust.
They may be distinguished from other pupz by the presence of
two sharp points at only the smaller end. This pupa is often
neglected by the collector, because, at first sight, it has the appear-
ance of being dead; but its living state may be at once detected
by pressing the pupa between the finger and thumb. I have
found them chiefly at the roots of the Oak and the Ash.

The Peppered Moth (Amphydasis betularia). This is a very
common moth here, and it may be often taken while at rest on
trees, walls, and gas lamps. The pupa is commonly met with in
digging for other pupze during the winter. They are about the
same size as those of 4. prodromaria; but are of a very dark
brown, with bright cases. The moth is on the wing in April and
May, and is a very weak flier, looking as if its wings were heavy
with being wet.

Fam. IV.—BoaRMID-.,

The Dotted Carpet (Céeora glabraria). I have taken great
numbers of this generally-rare moth in three localities here. It is
in great demand, and collectors will gladly exchange any of the
other Geometers for specimens of this species. Newman gives as
the only British localities known to him the Lake District of

44

Westmorland, and the New Forest in Hampshire. The Westmor-
land specimens I have not seen; but I have looked over a series
obtained from the New Forest and from the Continent, which are
all very much alike, but are all decidedly different from the

‘specimens taken in Cumberland. The Cumberland specimens
are of a greenish tint, and the markings, instead of being of a
dark grey, are black and very distinct. Our insect too, is generally
larger, and its body is more thickly covered with a much finer coating
of down or hair, than in those from the South. I think that the
specimens recorded from the New Forest must have been imported.
It is a very strong flier, and is on the wing from about the 15th of
July to the middle of September. It generally keeps to the higher
branches of the trees in the thickest parts of the woods; but I
have sometimes found them sitting on the trunks of oaks in the
day-time. It is generally a very difficult insect to capture, as
instead of flying out when the tree is beaten, and settling on the
grass or on low branches near, as the other moths commonly do,
the Dotted Carpet comes nearly to the ground, and then suddenly
returns upward to the top of another tree near, where it is difficult
to dislodge it a second time. I have found it easiest to capture
between five o’clock and seven at night.

I have found only three specimens of the larva of the Dotted
Carpet, which were marked as described by Newman (Brit. Moths,
p. 63.) But it does not always feed on the lichens that grow on
fir trees, I think, as the specimens I have taken were obtained
from the Oak.

The Brussels Lace (Cleora lichenaria); The Mottled Beauty
(Boarmia repandata); The Willow Beauty (B. rhomboidaria) ;
The Satin Carpet (B. adietaria) ; The Small Engrailed (Zéphrosia
crepuscularia); The Engrailed (Z: diundularia) ; The Grey Birch °
(TZ: punctulata). These are all to be found at Newbiggin, Newby
Cross, and Orton; and are on the wing from March until August.

The Satin Carpet is very common in Scotland, and is also
widely distributed around Carlisle ; but is rare, or quite unknown,
in any southern locality. They are very active on the wing, and
difficult to capture ; for even when they are detected at rest on the

45

trunk of a tree-and an attempt is made to pin them, or to approach
them with the killing bottle, they are apt to go off suddenly far up
the tree, and out of reach of the net.

Of the Emeralds I have taken four species here, chiefly at
Kingmoor, Newby Cross, Orton, Dalston, and most plentifully at
Newbiggin. The larve feed on the Birch, and can easily be
obtained by beating the trees over a large piece of wrapper sheeting
spread on the ground, which will catch, at the same time, many
other larvee not easily to be obtained in any other way.

Next comes the group of small moths called the Waves. Of
this section I have taken here twelve or more species, viz: The
Maiden’s Blush (Zphyra punctaria) ; The Birch Mocha (£. pendu-
aria); The Small Yellow Wave (Asthena /uteata); The Small
White Wave (A. candidata); The Dingy Shell (Zufisteria heparata);
The Dark Cream Wave (Acidalia interjectaria); The Dotted Border
Cream Wave (A. straminata); The Satin Wave (A. subsericata) ;
The Cream Wave (A. vemutata) ; The Smoky Wave (A. fumata) ;
The Ribbon Wave (A. aversata and var. remutata).

These are very plentiful at Orton and Thurstonfield, and at
many other localities where the birch grows commonly, especially
at Kingmoor and Newbiggin. They are easily taken, because of
their weak flight and their habit of flying for only a short distance.
The two varieties last mentioned I have taken together only at
Orton.

The Latticed Heath (Strenia clathrata) ; The Common Heath
(Fidonia atomaria), are both common here ; The Bordered White
(¥. piniaria) can easily be taken in great numbers on the wing in
the fir woods here, and they are also easily reared from the pupa,
which may be found by turning over the moss that grows on the
ground at the foot of the fir trees, where also may be found at the
same time the pupa of the Barred Red, and of the Noctua, the
Trachea piniperda.

The pupa of / gimzaria is very small in proportion to the size
of the moth, and it is of a very light green colour with light brown
wing cases, and a general bright aspect. It is common at Thurston-

46

field, and is easily found, along with pupz of several other species,
by peeling back the moss there.

(Abraxas grossulariata and Lomaspilis marginata. )

The Early Moth (Aybernia rupricapraria) ; The Spring Usher
(HZ. leucophearia); The Scarce Umber (H. aurantiaria); The
Dotted Border (. progemmaria) ; The Mottled Umber (#7. defol-
iaria) ; The March Moth (Anisopteryx @scularia). These are all
found commonly in our woods, and some may be taken on our
gas lamps and windows from the end of October until the middle
of March. The females are wingless, and have much difficulty in
keeping out of the way of mice, and of the small birds, such as the
Blue Tit, which destroy them in great numbers, thereby helping
to protect our fruit trees from the ravages of these destructive
insects. These moths are generally plentiful at the right season
around Rickerby, Warwick Woods, Kingmoor, and Newbiggin.
I have found the pupz of most of them by digging in August and
September. They are very easily reared. I have found that the
females considerably outnumber the males; for, out of thirty I
bred last year, only eight were males. I should like to know
whether other collectors have noticed this fact.*

The Winter Moth (Chimatobia brumata). This is a very delicate
looking little moth, resembling the last in the nearly-wingless
condition of the female. The larve are one of the greatest pests
the gardener is troubled with, for they seem to devour almost
anything that grows in a garden. We are troubled with two other
such pests here besides Chimatobia brumata, namely, The Small
Ermine Moth (Yfonomeuta padellus), and one of the Saw Flies,
belonging to the Hymenoptera. The larve of all these must be
well known to everybody that has a piece of garden, whether the
perfect insect is known or not. I have paid great attention to the
natural history of these insects for some years, and have come to
the conclusion thatthe best plan for preventing their ravages is to

* Yes; the reason why there are more females than males is that their
inability to escape from their pursuers by flight would long since have led to
the extermination of the whole group, had not the initial proportion of females
reared been adjusted so that enough individuals should escape to continue the
species. (ED.)

47

go round the fruit trees in the dark with a lantern, and destroy the
females, which may be found sitting on the outer ends of the
lower boughs of the fruit trees, and are easily taken. Another
good plan is to prune the fruit trees not earlier than February, and
then to prune away and afterwards burn all the twigs that have any
eggs upon them. Last year I adopted this plan, and searched the
trees two evenings a week for some time, and my fruit crop that
year was the best we ever had.*

With the larve of the Saw Fly it is more difficult to contend ;
but the old plan of making use of powdered hellebore is the best
I have yet been able to hear of. They are double brooded, but
the first brood does not do as much harm as the second, which
generally clears the trees of all the leaves, and then all the fruit
drops from the branches.

Another plan found to answer the purpose of preserving fruit
trees from the attacks of the Winter Moth larve is that of placing
pieces of string coated with birdlime around the lower part of each
tree. In crawling up the trees for the purpose of depositing their
eggs, the females are caught by the birdlime, and effectually pre-
vented from reaching that part of the tree where their presence
could be productive of any kind of harm. A little perseverance
with this plan will generally result in keeping the fruit trees entirely
clear of this pest.

The other insect pest I named—the Small Ermine Moth—
attacks the buds and the fruit blossoms of the Apple. The larvze
live in broods, under the shelter of a tough, silky-looking web,
which even the Tits and the Sparrows seem unable to penetrate.
I have found it a good plan to tear the web open with a bent wire
fastened at the end of a long stick, so as to enable the birds to get
at and demolish the entire horde, which, unless artificially exposed
in some such way, seems to be entirely safe from the attacks of
even such birds as would eat them with avidity whenever they
have an opportunity of doing so.

The Northern Winter Moth (C. boreata); The November Moth
(Oporabia dilutata); The Autumnal Moth (0. Jiligrammaria) ;

* On this subject see Newman’s British Moths, pp. 106-7. (ED.)

48

The Twin Spot Carpet (Zarentia didymata); The Mottled Grey
(Z. multistrigata). These are all very common moths here, and
they are found about all the woods and fields where their respective
food-plants occur. C. doreata is very like C. brumata, but is less
destructive. The females—which have the wings imperfectly
developed, as in most of the group just described—may be found
on thorn bushes in January and February.

The Grey Mountain Carpet (Zarentia cesiata)’; The Yellow
Ringed Carpet (LZ. ruficinctata). These moths are very local in
their distribution, and are rare, or absent entirely in many parts of
the kingdom, especially in the South, I have taken them near
Keswick, and have also met with them commonly near Buttermere,
and again near Wasdale Head. Other specimens I have taken at
Barrock, and at Bleas Fell, and once took a fine specimen, about
the end of June, from the garden wall at Wreay Mill. [Z. ceesiata
is very common late in June on the limestone crags at one place
high up on the fell side east of Ousby; but I have hardly met
with a single specimen anywhere else, even at spots precisely
similar that are only a hundred or so yards from the locality
alluded to. £d,.]

The Beech-green Carpet (JZ. olivata); The Green Carpet
(7. pectinitaria). Many collectors fail to recognize ZL. olivata on.
the wing, and it is not unusual to find more specimens in the
collections of beginners and others that capture all the lepidoptera
that come in their way, than in the cabinets of collectors of more
experience. I have found this one in plenty at Newbiggin Woods,
and at Moss Poal, and have taken it also at Rickerby; but both
species are fairly common with us.

The Rivulet (Zmmelesia affinitata); The Small Rivulet
(Z. alchemillata). Both of these little night-flying moths are local
in occurrence; but they may be found here in the summer
evenings, flying along the outsides of woods, and in lanes. In the
day time they may occasionally be met with at rest on the trunks
of trees or on walls, but they are not easily seen.

49

The Genus ZAUPITHECTA.

Of these moths, known to collectors under the general name of
Pugs, about fifty species are enumerated in the British list, and of
these I have taken twenty-three in Cumberland. They are difficult
to name, and I have sent all that I have taken to other collectors,
so as to have them named correctly. I have taken a great many
in the pupa state; and the perfect insect chiefly at rest on trees,
walls, and fences. Rose Castle and Newbiggin are among the
chief localities, but I have taken them most commonly at Orton.

As a representative of the entire group, I shall choose The Green
Pug (L. rectangulata). This is another of the moths whose larve
do much mischief to the apple and the pear trees. They feed on
the blossom of the fruit trees, as may be seen by examining the
discoloured blossoms that fall off the trees, nipped as if by the
frost. ‘These shew the small perforation and the fine silk threads that
clearly point to the former presence of this destructive little pest.
I have seen the apple trees at St. Ann’s Hill covered with blossom
one day, and in less than a week afterwards, completely stripped
through the ravages of the larve of the Green Pug. The Tits and
the Bullfinch render great service in keeping down their numbers,
and instead of being destroyed under the impression that they
are themselves the authors of the mischief, these birds deserve
protection and all the encouragement the owners of fruit gardens
can possibly afford them.* They feed also on the Crab (Pyrus
malus), and I have found them in abundance on this tree at
Orton. They are also plentiful at Bellevue, where I use every
endeavour to keep down their numbers. The larve are very
active and quick-sighted, and soon make their escape when they
are disturbed, or even when only looked at.

[ Ypsipetes elutata. Common in Cumberland. £d.]

The Beautiful Carpet (Melanthia albicillata). This local moth
is found with us in all our woods around Carlisle in June, when
they may be easily seen resting on the trunks of trees. On the wing
they are difficult of capture, on account of their habit of flying very

* See the remarks upon this subject by Messrs. Guenée and Newman, in
Newman’s British Moths, p. 145. (ED.)
4

50

high. The best plan is to make use of a net with a long stick to
it, and to place the net gently over the insect as soon as it is
observed at rest, when it will rise, and may easily be captured.
Once on the wing, it is next to impossible to follow it through the
undergrowth of its natural habitat.

The Argent-and-Sable Moth (Melanippe hastata); The Small
Argent-and-Sable Moth (J. tristata). Both of these locally rare
moths I have taken in our neighbourhood. I have them from
Orton, Hethersgill, and Gelt Woods.

M. tristata I took in Gelt Woods in July, 1881, while collecting
there with Mrs. Routledge of Stone House, and other members of
this Society. The flight of this little moth is very like that of the
Twin Spot; but #/. tristata settles only on the branches of trees
instead of on the grass as the other insect does. ‘They are very
strong on the wing, and in this respect resemble the Noctuas
rather than the group they really belong to. The Wood Carpet
(M. rivata) also occurs with M. hastata and WM. tristata at Orton
and at Gelt.

The Common Carpet (4. subtristata); The Silver Ground
Carpet (Mf. montanta); The Galium Carpet (1M. galiata); The
Garden Carpet (. fluctuata); The Royal Mantle (Anticlea
sinuata); The Streamer (A. derivata); The Flame Carpet (Coremia
propugnata) ; The Tissue (Scotosia dubitata) ; The Streak (Chesias
spartiata), and many other Geometers I have not named occur here.
Collectors from other parts of England agree with me in thinking
that, if the Butterflies are not as well represented here as they are
in other parts of England, the Moths—and especially the Geometers
—are better represented here than in perhaps any other locality in
the British Islands.

In concluding this part of my paper, I would suggest that it
would be a good plan to have a book kept at the Museum wherein
should be recorded opposite the names of our Lepidoptera, the
date and locality of each capture, so that collectors in search of a
particular insect might know when and where to go in order best
to attain the object desired.

51

NOTES ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS
OF CUMBERLAND4 Westarvrerctan ee.

By Miss DONALD, or STANWIX,
(Read at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

I ave collected most of the shells recorded in the subjoined list
myself in the immediate neighbourhood of Carlisle; but a few
have been obtained from greater distances, where I have had
opportunity to search for them. I have inserted in the list the
names of the mollusca mentioned by Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys in his
British Conchology, and by Capt. Brown in his Land and Fresh-
water Conchology, as being found in localities in Cumberland and
Westmorland which I have been unable to visit myself.

The abundance of land-shells depends greatly upon the nature
of the soil; they are most plentiful on calcareous rocks. Slates,
grits, and igneous rocks form the higher hills of the Lake District
in the south of the county ; north of this a lower range of hills is
composed of alternate beds of limestone, sandstone, and shale ;
then comes a narrow strip consisting chiefly of sandstones. The
rocks of the remainder of the county may in a general way, be said
to consist of the sandstones and marls of the New Red Series—
limestone only occurring again in the north-east. The surface of
the county is thickly covered with glacial drift over a wide area in
the north-west, where but little rock crops out. One could hardly,
therefore, expect to find a great number of species in Cumberland,
as but a small portion of its area is occupied by the outcrop of
limestone.

52

About a hundred and thirty species, besides numerous varieties,
are recorded as British; and of these, about seventy-five species,
as well as many varieties, are found in Cumberland and Westmor-
land. Seven species only are peculiar to Westmorland, not yet
having been taken in Cumberland.

I have no doubt that further research will cause many more
species and varieties to be added to. these; but I thought it
advisable to draw up a few notes upon those I have already
found.

The chief localities for fresh-water shells are the Lakes, the
Eden and its tributaries, and numerous ponds and ditches. Land
shells are to be found all over the ground, and some bury them-
selves several inches below the surface. The pretty woods along
the margin of our lakes and rivers may be especially mentioned as
favourable localities for them; while others are to be found
adhering to walls and to the bare surface of rocks, or in natural
exposures on hill-sides.

The specimens of Helix arbustorum collected on the limestone
at Bothel, are stronger than those from the Red Rocks in the
immediate neighbourhood of Carlisle; but there is no apparent
difference in the solidity of the other shells on the limestone ;
indeed, of the two varieties of A. rufescens mentioned below, only
the thinner one exists there.

The foreign species, Bulimus goodalli, was found in the cucumber
beds in the Botcherby Gardens ; and I am indebted to Mr. Duck-
worth for my acquaintance with this, for he kindly gave me some
specimens. Mr. Turton says that 2. goodalli inhabits Guadaloupe,
and has been naturalised in Bourbon and England. It was first
introduced into the Fauna, and indeed first described in 1822, by
Mr. Miller, who found it in some pine-beds at Bristol. It is also
common in the same situations in the neighbourhood of London,
especially in Kensington Palace garden ; and has been found near
Manchester by Mr. Williamson. It was first observed by the late
Mr. Drummond, the botanist, in 1816.

53

AQUATIC MOLLUSCA.
Cuass I. CONCHIFERA, OR BIVALVES.
Order LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Fam. Spheride.

Spherium corneum, L. Abundant. Specimens fine, and most of them very
dark coloured, especially the largest specimens. I have obtained
the finest shells in a pond at Corby, one of which is 0°5” in breadth.
In Rickerby Beck, and also in ponds near the Eden at Rickerby,
both dark-coloured and paler specimens arefound. Other localities
are—the Eden, Petteril, and a pond in the Willow Holme.

var. flavescens, Macgill. I have taken this in the Derwent at Peil
Wyke. Capt. Brown, in his ‘‘Land and Fresh-water Conchology,”
says that a small, pale lemon-coloured variety of S. corneum has
been found by Mr. Glover in the Leven, near Ambleside, which I
think must be this ; but I have not had an opportunity of searching
for it there.

S. lacustre, Mull. Finest specimens in ponds at Rickerby and Blaithwaite,
smaller ones in a pond at Corby. ‘‘Ullswater and a pond at
Corby.” (Capt. Brown.)

Pisidium amnicum, Mill. Abundant in the dam at Denton Hill, and in
Rickerby Beck. Inthe latter I have obtained the finest specimens,
one of which is 0°45” in breadth, length 0°35”.

P. fontinale, Drap. Abundant in a pond at Blaithwaite.

P. pusillum, Gmelin. Common. Wreay, Rockcliffe, Blaithwaite.

P. nitidum, Jenyns. Ditch at Dalston ; in Wreay Wood.

P. roseum, Scholtz. Pond at Blaithwaite.

Fam. Unionide.

Unio pictorum, L. River Brathay, near Ambleside. (Capt. Brown.)

U. margaritifer, L. River Irt. (Capt. Brown.) Pearls are frequently
found in this mollusk, and Camden says that Sir John Hawkins
had a patent for fishing pearls in the Irt.

var. minor, Rossm. Capt. Brown states that this variety is found in
the Mint at Kendal.

var. arcuata, Brown. In the Derwent, Bassenthwaite. (Capt. Brown.)

var. olivacea, Brown. In the Leven, a little way below Windermere
Lake. (Capt. Brown.)

Anodonta cygnea, L. In the River Petteril at Wreay. The shell is
remarkably solid even in young specimens; it seems to approach
the var. incrassata, Shepp.

var. zellensis, Gmelin. Borrowdale. (Capt. Brown.)

54

Crass II. GASTEROPODA, OR UNIVALVES.
Order PECTINIBRANCHIATA.

Fam. Paludinide.

Bythinia tentaculata, G. Ditch near the Water Works ; Rickerby Beck.
var. decolata, Thurstonfield Lough.

Fam. Valvatide.

Valvata piscinalis, Mull. Ditch near the Water Works; Petteril, Eden,
Rickerby Beck, Derwentwater.

Order PULMONOBRANCHIATA,

Fam. Lunneide.

Planorbis nitidus, Mull. Very abundant. Ponds in the Willow Holme, at
Rickerby, and at Blaithwaite. The specimens are most numerous
in the pond in the Willow Holme, and are very small at Blaithwaite.

P. nautileus, L. On dead leaves in a pond at Corby, in company with
P. albus.

P. albus, Mull. Very abundant on dead leaves in a pond at Corby ; Moss
Pool, Wreay ; and Thurstonfield Lough.

P. glaber, Jeffry. Very rare. The only locality I know where this shell is
to be found is a pond at Blaithwaite ; and it is scarce there.

P. spirorbis, Mull. Tolerably common. Occurs in abundance in ditches
near the Water Works, and at Rockliffe ; and in ponds at Rickerby
and near Bassenthwaite Lake.

P. vortex, L. Somewhat rare. I have only found it in a ditch near
Stanwix, where it is not by any means plentiful.

P. complanatus, L. Very abundant. This is the commonest species of
Planorbis in this neighbourhood. It swarms in ditches near the
Water Works, in Rickerby Beck, and in a pond near the Eden at
Rickerby. Ona bright day the animals rise to the surface of the
water, and it is very interesting to watch them and P. spirorbis
swimming about with their shells downwards.

P. contortus, L. Not common. Derwentwater, Rickerby Beck, and in a
ditch near the Water Works.

Physa hypnorum, L. Pretty well distributed. Ditches near the Water
Works and at Rockliffe ; ponds at Rickerby and Blaithwaite.

P. fontinalis, L. Common, The finest specimens may be obtained in a
stream near the Water Works. It is also found in Rickerby Beck.

Limnea glutinosa, Mull. Pond near Windermere. (Bulwer.)

55

ZL. peregra, Mull. Very common. May be found in nearly every lake,
stream, and ditch. There are several different forms of this species
besides those mentioned below, which I believe may be named
varieties that I am not yet acquainted with. One specimen, taken
in a ditch near the Water Works, has a remarkably reflected outer
lip. A small strong variety occurs in the Eden and Petteril,

var. lacustris, Leach. Derwentwater.

var. ovata, Drap. Numerous and very fine in ditches near the Water
Works.

var. decolata, Pond in the Willow Holme.

L. palustris, Mull. Rickerby Beck; Thurstonfield Lough; and ditches
near the Water Works. I have taken a small shell with a purplish
mouth in a ditch in the Abbey Holme, which seems to approach
the var. tincta. (Jeffr.)

Z. truncatula, Mull. Common. In the Eden; at Blaithwaite; and very
abundant on the mud at the edge of ditches near the Water Works
and of Rickerby Beck. Ihave found a shorter shell, with more
swollen whorls, and so much coated with iron as to be nearly black,
in a ditch in the Abbey Holme.

var. minor. On pieces of limestone in the Roman vallum near Laner-
cost, and also on pieces of limestone in a quarry at Bothel. The
stones are lying on the damp ground, and there is no water in
either locality.

L. glabra, Mull. I have only taken this shell in a ditch at Corby, where it
is abundant. The specimens are fine, but are all decollated.

Ancylus fluviatilis, Mull. Common. In the rivers Eden, Caldew, Roe,
Petteril, and Irthing, attached to stones. The specimens are fine
and plentiful.

A. lacustris, L, The only locality I know for this shell is a pond at Corby,
where it is to be found in profusion sticking to dead leaves.

TERRESTRIAL MOLLU, SCA.

Fam. Limacide.

Arion ater, L. Verycommon. May be found nearly everywhere, especially
just before or after rain. Black is the commonest colour ; and the
young ones are pale green. In Scotland I have met with this
mollusk not far from the summit of Ben Lomond, near a spring, on
a very dry, hot day. Stanwix, Grinsdale, Wetheral, Blaithwaite,
&e.

A, hortensis, Fer. Common at Stanwix and Blaithwaite.

56

Limax agrestis, L. Very common. In gardens, woods, and hedgerows.
T have observed it crawling about during a mild winter. Stanwix,
Grinsdale, Wetheral, Blaithwaite, &c.

L. levis, Mull. Rickerby ; upon dead leaves on the damp ground near the
beck.

L. maximus, L. Not so common as ZL. agrestis. I have taken it in the
greenhouse and cellar, as well as in woods. Stanwix, Wetheral.

Fam. Helicide.

Succinea putris, L. Commonand abundant. Ditch near the Water Works;
Wreay ; Gelt ; and very small ones in a pond at Blaithwaite.

S. pfeifferi, Rossm.; var. parvula, Pascal. I found some small specimens of
Succinea adhering to wood at the edge of Rickerby Beck which
answered to the description of S. pfeifferi in Turton’s ‘‘ British
Shells.” The shell is much smaller than that of S. putris, and
pearly in the interior ; and the spire is less produced than that of
S. elegans. I forwarded the shell to Mrs. Fitzgerald, who kindly
determined it to be S. pfeifferi, var. parvula.

Vitrina pellucida, Mull. Generally distributed ; but the individuals are not
numerous. Dead specimens are more abundant than live ones.
Stanwix, Wreay, Sandysike, Blaithwaite, Patterdale.

Zonites cellarius, Mull. Not so common as L. nitidulus, but generally dis-
tributed. The commonest form is small and very flat above, and
may be the var. complanata, Jeffr. Stanwix, Grinsdale, Wetheral,
Wreay, and Gelt.

var. albida. Rare. Wetheral and Stanwix.

Z. alliarius, Miller. Generally distributed. The presence of this shell can
generally be detected by the strong smell of garlic it emits.

Z. glaber, Studer. This snail was first discovered in this country by Mr.
Thomas Rogers of Manchester, in 1870. Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys recorded
it as British in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in
May of that year; and also states that he had previously found it
at Grasmere, but had overlooked it. I found some snails at
Wetheral which I thought were this species, so I forwarded them
to Mr. Rogers, who kindly identified them as LZ. glaber. I believe
this is the first record of L. glaber being found in Cumberlard.
Mr. Rimmer, in his ‘‘ Land and Fresh-water Shells,” says that it
has a wide range, and that he has found it both in Devonshire and
Dumfriesshire.

Z. nitidulus, Drap. Very common, and widely distributed. It may be
found in nearly every hedgerow, bank, and wood. Very plentiful

on the rockery in our garden ; Stanwix, Wetheral, Wreay, Grins-
dale, Blaithwaite, &c.

57

Z. purus, Ald. Rare. Wreay Wood.

Z. radiatulus, Ald. Somewhat scarce. Amongst moss and dead leaves in
woods at Blaithwaite and Hayton.

var. viridescenti alba. Very rare. Only in Wreay Wood.

Z. excavatus, Beau. Not plentiful. I have taken it among moss in Corby,
Gelt, and Wreay Woods.

Z. crystallinus, Mull. Common, and widely distributed. Among moss and
dead leaves in Wreay, Wetheral, and Grinsdale Woods ; also at
Stanwix, Blaithwaite, and Borrowdale.

Z. fulvus, Mull. Cannot be called scarce, though it is by no means abun-
dant. Corby, Wreay, and Blaithwaite Woods; and also on the
Scaur, Stanwix.

Helix lamellata, Jeffr. Somewhat scarce. It occurs in the same localities
and situations as L. fulvus and H. aculeata. It is most plentiful

' on dead leaves in Wreay Woods; Borrowdale.

Hi aculeata, Mull. Not common. In Wreay, Blaithwaite, and Grinsdale
Woods.

Hi. aspersa, Mull. This snail, generally so common in other places, is quite
a rarity in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. I have found a few
specimens on the bank by the Hyssop Holme Well, and have
observed a dead shell on the Scaur.

var. tennis. Miss J. Hele has taken this shell at Harraby on a wall.

H. nemoralis, L. Much more common than H. aspersa, and widely dis-
tributed. I find it and the var. hortensis together in great numbers
on the Scaur among the grass and willows. Some of the shells
are entirely yellow or pinkish in colour, while others are variously
banded ; and one taken on the Brampton Road is somewhat thinner
than usual. Other localities are Silloth, Bothel, and Tarraby.

var. hortensis, Mull. Abundant on the Scaur. Many of the shells are
ornamented with dark coloured bands of different widths, while
some are greenish yellow, and others yellow without bands. Some
of the yellow coloured shells are very thin and transparent, I have
also obtained yellow shells without bands in the woods near High
Head Castle. The older specimens of this mollusk thrive pretty
well in confinement, but the young ones generally die. I have
observed it crawling about on a mild day in winter at Heads-Nook,

var. hybrida, Poiret. Very scarce. Corby Woods.

Hi. arbustorum, L. Abundant in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. They are
very plentiful in a lane near the Spa Well, where they may be
seen feeding on nettles, thistles, and the young leaves of the wild
cherry. H. arbustorwm thrives well in confinement. Ihave kept
an adult specimen alive for more than eighteen months; its shell

58

was much broken, and it has gradually mended it, with the excep-
tion of a small bit of the inner lip.

var. fusca, Fer. Grinsdale, Wetheral, and near the Spa Well.

var. flavescens, Wetheral.

var. marmorata. Near the Spa Well.

H. rufescens, Pennant. Very common. I find two distinct varieties ; one
of which is light coloured, nearly white, marked transversely with
reddish brown blotches, and has a white spiral band ; the shell is
thin, and usually very flat above. The other, variety is decidedly
stronger, dark brown with sometimes a reddish tinge, but not
marked transversely like the other, and generally destitute of the
white band. The spire of this variety is raised, though that of
some specimens is nearly as flat as the other variety. First var.,
Grinsdale, Corby, Gatesgill, Bothel. Second var., Grinsdale,
Corby.

var. minor. Grinsdale.

HZ, concinna, Jeffr. Abounds in the limestone quarries at Bothel. Other
localities are Stanwix and Blaithwaite.

I. hispida, L. Common. Plentiful on the bank by the Hyssop Holme
Well, and on the Scaur. Corby; Blaithwaite ; near Rose Castle ;
and at Castle Carrock.

var. albida. Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys states that this is to be found in osier
beds as well as on the limestone at Kendal.

HT, sericea, Mull. This delicate little snail is found plentifully at Wetheral,
Corby, and on the Scaur, both among moss and on nettles.

H. caperata, Mont. Not widely distributed. Plentiful in the limestone
quarries at Bothel. Ihave also found it on a wall built of red
sandstone at Blaithwaite, as well as in an old quarry near the
gypsum at Cotehill, and on a wall in Borrowdale.

var. ornata, Picard. A few among the ordinary form at Bothel.

HH. ericetorum, Mull, I have not met with this snail in the neighbourhood
of Carlisle ; but Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys states that the var. minor is to
be found at Kendal.

Hi, rotundata, Mull. This and L. nitidulus are the commonest snails in the
district. H. rotundata may be found on nearly every hedge and
bank. I have also seen it in great abundance on old walls covered
with ivy. Stanwix, Blaithwaite, Wetheral, Wreay, Bothel, Arma-
thwaite, &c.

HH, rupestris, Studer. I have never met with this shell on the Red Rocks
in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. It occcurs in great abundance
on the limestone at Bothel and Castle Carrock ; also on the Brock-
ram at Burrels, near Appleby, which rock is chiefly composed of

59

fragments of limestone. This snail is found at great heights, and
seems to be equally unmindful of the heat of the sun and the rigour
of winter. It was plentiful at Burrels during intensely cold
weather, just after a recent snow-storm had left the neighbouring
hills covered with snow. It may also be found on the walls of the
churchyards at Bowness, Windermere, and Troutbeck. Dr. Gwyn
Jeffreys gives Kendal as another locality.

I, pulchella, Mull. In a sandy hedge at Rockliffe, and among moss at
Furness Abbey.

var. costata, Mull. In damp moss in Gelt Woods.

Bulimus obscurus, Mull. Nowhere very abundant. Rare at Corby ; more
plentiful on the limestone at Castle Carrock and Bothel. I have
also taken it on the terrace walls at High Head Castle. and at
Gatesgill.

Pupa secale, Drap. I have not yet met with this snail in Cumberland.
Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys states that it is to be found in Westmorland.

P. umbilicata, Drap. Common, and widely distributed. Nearly everywhere
at the roots of grass, among moss and on walls. Stanwix, Heads-
Nook, Wetheral, Rose Castle, Bothel, Patterdale, &c.

P. marginata, Drap. Scarce. I have only found one specimen, in a
Brockram quarry at Burrels, near Appleby.

Vertigo pygmea, Drap. Very abundant on the limestone at Bothel. I have
also taken it at Burrels, near Appleby, and on Troutbeck church-
yard wall.

V. alpestris, Alder. I have not yet taken this shell in Cumberland. Dr.
Gwyn Jeffreys, in his ‘‘ British Conchology,” states that it has
been found by Miss Sarah Bolton on slate near Ambleside. In
‘Science Gossip,” 1880, p. 216, Mr. Sutton offers for exchange
specimens taken in Patterdale.

V. pusilla, Mull. Ihave not taken this shell in Cumberland. Dr. Gwyn
Jeffreys says that it is to be found in various parts of Great Britain
from Westmorland to Devon.

V. edentula, Drap. Abundant, and fairly well distributed. It abounds on
the back of the fronds of Lastrea dilatata in Wreay and High
Head Woods. It seems to have a partiality for this fern, for I
rarely find it on any other. I have taken it on Lastrea jilix-mas
in Grinsdale Woods, where there are few if any roots of Lastrea
dilatata ; and on the Stanwix Marls in the same locality. It
occurs also among moss at Blaithwaite and Bothel, but not
nearly so plentifully as on Lastrea dilatata. My brother found an
elongated shell in High Head Wood which I think must be the
var. columella.

60

Balia perversa, L. Somewhat scarce. On walls in Borrowdale and Patter-
dale.

Clausilia rugosa, Drap. Common, and well distributed. Some of the
varieties are also to be found, I fancy. It abounds on the east side
of the breakwater below Edentown, where most of the specimens
are bleached. Other localities are—Grinsdale, Wreay, Corby,
Rose Castle, Gatesgill, Bothel, and Troutbeck.

C. laminata, Mont. Rare. I have taken two specimens on the Stanwix
Marls; in Grinsdale Woods; and two dead shells in High
Gelt Woods. The former were not full grown, so I kept them
alive for eighteen months, when the mouths were completed.

Cochlicopa tridens, Pulteney. Plentiful in Wetheral and Grinsdale Woods
among moss. (It may be observed that both localities are on the
banks of the Eden.) In Wetheral Woods I have taken on the
same bank shells varying in colour from brown, paler shades of the
same colour, light horn to transparent greenish white.

var. crystallina, Dupuy. Rare. Wetheral Woods.

C. lubrica, Mull. Common. May be found in nearly every hedge, bank,
and wood in the neighbourhood. Stanwix, Grinsdale, Wetheral,
Blaithwaite, Wreay, Sandysike, Borrowdale, &c.

Fam. Carychiide.
Carychium minimum, Mull. Very common. On dead leaves in ditches
and damp woods everywhere. Stanwix, Wetheral, Blaithwaite,
Sandysike, Borrowdale, &c.

Fam. Cyclostomatide.
Acme lineata, Drap. Very rare. I have only found a few specimens among
damp moss at the edge of a little spring in Borrowdale.
var. alba, With the type-form in Borrowdale.

61

THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF WEST CUMBERLAND.
By J. D. KENDALL, C.E., F.G.S.
(Communicated at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

CONTENTS.

1. IntRopuction—Liysical Geography and Physical Geology.
2. OBSERVED Facts—Lxtent, Form, and Inner Nature of Deposits.
3. DEepuctions— Origin of Boulder Clay, Sand and Gravel, &c.

I. INTRODUCTION.

Physical Geography. The surface of West Cumberland is in
form extremely varied, and it has a great range of altitude—
extending from the sea shore to more than 3000 feet above that
level.

Along the eastern part of the district stand some of the largest
mountains of the Lake Country. In the West and North West,
between these mountains and the sea, the ground is much lower,
lying almost entirely below the five hundred feet contour line, and
much of it is within one hundred feet of the sea level. This low
ground forms, at the base of the large mountains, a kind of
undulating terrace having a general inclination seaward.

Inland extensions of this lower ground are formed by the valleys
which traverse the mountainous part of the district. In some
cases these valleys lead almost to the very heart of the higher
ground.

The valleys in the lower ground, when they have certain direc-
tions, are as a rule steeper on one side than on the other; and
generally it is found that the more gentle slopes face the sea, whilst
the steeper slopes oppose the mountains towards the East,

62

Physical Geology. The geographical feature just pointed out,
of high ground in the East and low ground in the West, is the
accompaniment and the result of a change in the geological
character of the two areas; the high ground being formed of
Skiddaw Slate and the Volcanic rocks of Borrowdale, and the low
ground of rocks of Carboniferous and of Permian age.

Within the area occupied by the Skiddaw Slate and the volcanic
rocks, that is, among the mountains, there occur, at different
places, patches of rocks of various kinds, each presenting characters
so peculiar, that once they have become thoroughly known, they
may be recognised anywhere. Boulders of these rocks are of
frequent occurrence in the drifts hereafter to be described. (The
positions of the rocks were indicated in the author’s paper on
“The Distribution of Boulders,” &c. See Zransactions, Part V.,
and they are shewn on Fig. 11 herewith.

The Carboniferous and Permian rocks occurring in the lower
ground are developed as below :—
PERMIANS.
Prevailing Colour of Rock.
1 St. Bees Sandstone’ - - - - red
2 Magnesian Limestone Ce ee “) grey

3 Breccia - - - - - - red

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS.

Whitehaven Sandstone reddish grey
Coal Measures | Lower Coal Measures _ bluish grey & black
2 Millstone Grit - - . - - reddish grey

3 Carboniferous Limestone’ - - - grey

I

The St. Bees Sandstone, the Permian Breccia, and the White-
haven Sandstone, being harder rocks than those forming the bulk
of the Coal Measures, frequently occupy higher ground and form
the ridges separating valleys, whilst the softer Coal Measures
appear in the sides and bottom of valleys.

The general dip of the Carboniferous and Permian rocks is
toward the sea, its direction varying, but being everywhere nearly
normal to the line separating the higher from the lower ground.

63

These few prefatory remarks are intended to render more clear
the observations that are to follow.

2. OBSERVED FACTS.

Lixtent of Deposits. The deposits to be considered approxi-
mately correspond with the area of the lower ground skirting the
base of the hills. They may be said to be almost continuous
from the sea shore up to the five hundred feet contour line.
Above that level they extend at a few places over small areas to
about eight hundred feet; and in tongue-like prolongations, up
valley bottoms and hillside gullies, they reach, and in some cases
pass beyond, 1ooo feet. I speak now of the Boulder clays and
the sands and gravels only, for glacial deposits in the form of
Boulders and moraines occur, in places, at twice the above altitude,
as will hereafter be seen.

The valleys passing inward, from the lower ground, through the
mountains, contain but few deposits comparatively, even when the
bottom of such valleys is far below the five hundred feet contour
line, the height fixed above as the upper limit of the continuous
drift. The main mass of the deposits is outside the mountains
altogether.

Form of Deposits. Where fullest developed, the glacial deposits

of this district admit of a threefold division as below :—
1. Upper Boulder Clay.
2. Middle Sands and Gravels.
3. Lower Boulder Clay.

Numerous sections have at one time or another been laid open
in railway cuttings and other places, shewing these three members
in superposition; but for the present purpose it will only be
necessary to consider a few of them, as they are all very much
alike in their inner nature. Fig. 1 is a cross section of a cutting
on the Cleator and Workington Railway, near Cleator Moor. The
longitudinal section of this cutting is a low flattened dome, and
the band of interbedded sand and clay (B and C) runs almost
throughout, passing out of sight at each end of the cutting below
the formation of the railway. Where seen, the band is roughly

64

parallel to the surface of the ground. This feature I have very
frequently observed in other places; in one case, near Moresby,
on the Ullock and Parton Branch of the London and North
Western Railway, it was so notwithstanding that the longitudinal
section of the cutting resembled a steep-sided dome as shewn in
Fig. 2.

Fig. 3 represents a section that was exposed near Walk Mill, in
the highway which was altered during the construction of the
Cleator and Workington Railway. There also the two Boulder
clays and the interbedded sands and gravels were to be seen.

This tripartite form of the deposits is most frequently met with
in valley bottoms overlying the Coal Measures, or in similar situ-
ations over limestone or sandstone where they are adjacent to
rocks of an argillaceous character. At places, in any of these
positions, the deposits may be found with an aggregate thickness
of more than one hundred feet. At Salter Hall, on the Carbon-
iferous Limestone, but not far from the Skiddaw Slate on the rise,
they are, at one point, one hundred and thirty-two feet thick. On
the Coal Measures near Keekle, they are one hundred and eight
feet thick ; and on the same formation near Crossfield, they have
a thickness of one hundred and twenty-three feet.

Frequently the triad form of the deposits is incomplete, and
only one or two of the members are represented. Sometimes only
the Lower Boulder Clay is found. In other sections this layer is
capped by the Middle Sands and Gravels, which in such cases are
often more fully developed than when they occur between the two
clays, as in Figs. 1, 2, 3.

Fig. 4 is a section of the Middle Sands and Gravels, as seen in
a tramway cutting near Crossfield. The upper clay is absent, but
the lower clay, though not shewn in the section, occurs just below
the formation line of the tramway.

At Salter Hall there is a well marked instance of the thickening
of the Middle Sands and Gravels where the upper clay is absent
as just mentioned. Between the two clays the sands and gravels
seldom exceed four or five feet in thickness; but in one or two

places where the upper clay is off, they are above twenty feet
thick.

65

In some cases the line of separation between the Lower Boulder
Clay and the Middle Sands and Gravels is somewhat indistinct,
and the two beds are partly mixed together, as shewn in Fig. 5,
which represents a section seen near Branthwaite edge, on the
Ullock and Parton Branch of the London and North Western
Railway. The transition from the Boulder Clay (C) to the upper-
most bed of coarse gravel and boulders (B) was in some parts of
this section so very gradual that it was impossible to say where
one ended and the other began.

Imperfections, such as the above, in the tripartite arrangement
of the deposits, I have found most frequently on the sides of valleys
or on the ridge separating two valleys. Thus, from the bottom of
a valley where the whole three members of the series are present,
we may frequently, on passing up the sides of that valley, see the
upper clay disappear altogether, and the Middle Sands and Gravels
come out at the surface. Farther up again the Lower Boulder
Clay may be next the surface—the Middle Sands and Gravels, as
well as the Upper Boulder Clay, having disappeared.

The Middle Sands and Gravel, where they present any appear-
ance of bedding, are often curiously contorted, both when they lie
next the surface and when they are covered by the Upper Boulder
Clay.

It has been already mentioned that the ridges separating valleys
on the lower ground are often capped by either St. Bees Sandstone,
Permian Breccia, or Whitehaven Sandstone. When this is the
case, the superimposed glacial deposits are, as a rule, extremely
scanty, seldom exceeding five or six feet in thickness, and, so far
as my experience goes, they are undivided ; that is to say, they
are not split up like the deposits shewn in Figs. 1, 2, 3, into
different layers, but occur as one layer only. Whether this single
undivided layer, which usually presents the general characters of
boulder clay, is the equivalent of the Upper- or of the Lower
boulder clay, or of both, as they occur in the valleys, I have not
been able to determine by observation.

In many cases the deposits are accumulated mainly on one side
of a valley, as shewn in Fig. 6, which is a section taken through

5

66

part of the Whitehaven Hematite Mining District, where so many
explorations have been made by boring and sinking, that a very
accurate idea of the disposition of the Glacial deposits can be
' formed. On the seaward side of valleys on the line of strike, the
rocks may be concealed only by a thin layer of the Upper Boulder
Clay, whilst on the opposite side of such valley there may be an
immense deposit representing each of the three divisions.

In the valleys winding through the mountainous part of the
district, I have never seen the tripartite arrangement of the deposits.
Isolated patches of boulder clay occur here and there, having
sometimes the characters of the Lower Boulder Clay, at others
resembling the Upper Clay ; but the more prominent deposits in
these valleys assume the form either of mounds of sand and gravel
or of moraines.

One of these sand and gravel deposits may be seen in the Vale
of Keswick, near Castle Head. A section of it is given in Fig. 7.
Another occurs in the Vale of Lorton, and is represented in section
by Fig. 8, and they may be found more or less frequently in almost
every valley in the hilly part of the district.

Similar accumulations, but generally of much greater extent, are
frequently met with where these valleys open out on to the lower
ground. In the mouth of Whicham Valley there is a large mound-
like mass of sand and gravel, and several smaller ones near it. At
Ullock there are numerous mounds of the same kind, one of them
forming a dam to Mockerkin Tarn. In the mouth of Ennerdale
there are a number of like deposits, and they may be found almost
everywhere in similar situations. Asa rule, they occur mainly on
one side of the valley. For instance, the deposit in Whicham
Valley lies close up to the side of Black Comb, the other side of
the valley being almost free. The deposits in the mouth of Enner-
dale occur on the same relative side of that valley, that is, on the
the north side. A like relation exists in the Ullock deposits.

Sometimes in the lower ground lying between the hills and the
sea, where valleys open out on to lower ground still, similar

mound-like deposits occur. A large one may be seen at the south
end of St. Bees Valley, numerous sections of which have been
produced by the cutting action of the sea. One of these sections
is represented in Fig. 9.

Accumulations of gravel are occasionally met with on the ridge
between two valleys ;"one of these occurs near Cockhow, on the
water-shed between the head of Ulldale and of Ennerdale, at an.
altitude of about seven hundred feet.

At the upper end of some of the mountain valleys, clusters of
moraine-like mounds are met with. One of the most interesting
of these occurs in Greenup Gill, at the head of Borrowdale. A
perspective sketch of it is given in Fig. 10. An equally interesting
group occurs at the upper end of Ennerdale, and another in Long-
strath.

True glacial moraines are met with among the hills. Sometimes.
at considerable altitudes they may be seen on the ridges dividing
two valleys. At Ore-gap, on the water-shed between Green Hole
and Angle Tarn, on the flanks of Bowfell, at an elevation of 2500
feet, there occurs a long, low and irregular mass of morainic matter,
the nature of which closely resembles the terminal or lateral
moraines of Swiss Glaciers.

Such are the different forms assumed by the deposits. The
next feature to be considered is their inner nature.

Inner Nature of Deposits. In examining the inner nature of
most of the deposits that have just been described, so far as relates
to their form, almost the first thing that obtrudes itself before the
attention of an observer is the mixed character of the boulders
they contain. (See 7; vansactions, Part V.)

The curious commingling of boulders from different sources, as
they occur in the Upper- and Lower Boulder Clays, will be best
understood by putting in tabular form the contents of these beds
as they are found at several places in the district,

68

ROCKS OCCURRING AS BOULDERS IN THE UPPER- AND
LOWER BOULDER CLAYS.

3 Neg 5 ¥
ee Es) . o|N . o |
SElesig/S/elg lf |e/8lsle] 818g
2iley.o| = ]'s o a Sarl WAC =P] ase Me tre
aes(SMela | §| PiZ.j5 J ela) 2/4 22
. . << ~o eo
gAlee| || a Csog| 21/5 |2 a) 3] 8 es
» em ont 3 -_=—+>
tocatity. |Asistsiolels essa 2/ els) el@] 263
. = (2e9| co | Plo el & ~o}/ 2] 91] 6 los
& gd |o.9 3) 8 = Tom) am olog|s o pte}
cslsesle le] ele le |Bl ell e)al aie
1 n H I ) wn Col
mo) esl |e] § ja |< BG |@ | 3
c =| wm oO
Near 7)
> Upper] + la | * |s x | * x
Moresby Church | 60 Lower| + & * |8 * | * | *
Moresby Park ...|4s0 Upper] + [S| + 2 * | * *
***1450 lTower! 8 * | x | * | * *
. (5)
Cc AAVBINE Upper 22 * ES o * *
ogr Y +++! 73° |Lower| “|S ] * |7 3! 5 * * | *
oy) |e8/A
Upper asi jigs * | * * |x
ry ao ,
Cleator Moor 250lliowerlmeeel: S| = | 8 3 ealibe * Ie
Walk Mill Upper] « |8 | + [2 alia :
a 1 +++1 390 |Lower| * |g x |2 * | * *
Upper| * 2 * 2 * | * | * *
*
Salter Hall ant 500 Lower| ce * * * * * * *

The boulders occurring in the Middle Sands and Gravels are as
much mixed as those in the Upper- and the Lower Boulder Clays,
and, generally, they are of the same kinds of rock in the three
members of any given section.

In the boulder clays, the sand and gravel mounds, and the
moraines occuring in the valleys of the higher ground, there is not
this mingling of boulders of different kinds of rocks from various
directions. Usually they are only of rocks found higher up the
valley in which the deposit is situated.

When gravel mounds occur at the mouth of a valley, there is
sometimes a mingling of boulders from opposite directions, that is,
from both up and down the valley, as near Whicham Hall; but
this is not invariably the case.

The vertical range through which the rocks met with in the
glacial deposits occur both zz place and as boulders is shewn by
the following table :—

69

Height at which they have been found,

Rocks.
IN PLACE, AS BOULDERS.

FT. FT. FT.
Hypersthenite so ... | from 700 to 2174 | from sea level to 700
Spotted Schist ue ae », 1200 ,, 2500 53 33 1250
Eskdale Granite ... a Ps 50 ,, 1286 m5 Pe 1000
Ennerdale Syenite ... ts 330s, 2LSS 55 . 2084
St. John’s Quartz Felsite ... 1 '§00'5, -T500 =f ‘ 1250
Armboth Quartz Felsite ... 3, 1250 ,, 2000 * 7 1200
Coal Measure Rocks une 5, sea level 810 oH ee 700
St. Bees Sandstone ... oes a + 500 sb aS 700
Permian Breccia... REE Uc be 691 » ” 500
Carboniferous Limestone ... Ef A 1221 53 - 1100

The horizontal range of the more important boulders is shewn
by Fig. 11. Only a few are shewn, to prevent overcrowding
These few are intended rather to indicate the directions of boulder
dispersal than the number of each kind found.

In the moraines and moraine-like mounds the boulders are
either angular or sub-angular. In the sand and gravel mounds
and in the Middle Sands and Gravels, they are angular, sub-angular,
and rounded. So are they in the Upper- and the Lower Boulder
Clays; but the number of rounded boulders, which are often
severely glaciated, is much greater in the Lower- than in the
Upper clay ; and, as a rule, the boulders are larger in the Lower
than in the Upper clay, and there are more of them. Sometimes
a boulder of hard rock, rounded and glaciated, may be seen lying,
embedded in boulder clay, by the side of a piece of soft shale,
quite angular, and readily acted on by either pressure or the
atmosphere.

The proportion of local- to far-travelled stones in the deposits
varies ; sometimes they are nearly equal in numbers, in other cases
the local rocks preponderate, particularly when the underlying
strata are of a sandy nature. Then the included stones are mostly
of the same kind as the rocks below, and they are nearly all
angular, except the few far-travelled ones which are associated with
them in the deposit.

The size of the boulders included in any of the deposits varies
extremely—ranging from pieces of rock less than an inch in

79

diameter up to stones weighing several tons. Some of the largest
in the different kinds of deposits may here be mentioned. In the
boulder clays stones three feet in diameter are frequently met with,
and occasionally they may be seen as large as six feet. In the
Middle Sands and Gravels they are generally smaller, although a
few of the size just named may be met with. In the sand and
gravel mounds, as well as in the moraines, there are also some large
boulders. In the section shown in Fig. 9, boulders three and four
feet in’diameter are common; and some are nearly twice that
size. In the section represented by Fig. 8, boulders three feet in
diameter have been seen. The moraines at the head of valleys'
and on ridges between valleys, also enclose some large stones,
plenty of themJbeing two feet or three feet in diameter.

In all the deposits noticed, there seems to be no absolute
arrangement of the stones, except in some of the more bedded
sands and gravels, in which the larger axis of the stones is roughly
in the line of bedding; but in most other cases the stones lie in
all directions. Sometimes flag-like pieces of stone may be seen
standing on end in both the Upper- and the Lower Boulder Clay.

The character of the matrix of the boulder clay is variable, but
it may be stated as a rule that the lower clay is much more
argillaceous than the upper one, and it is much stiffer or tougher.
Over sandstone rocks the matrix is usually very sandy.

The colour of the upper clay is generally a yellowish grey, but
that of the lower clay varies, partaking in a great measure of the
colour of the underlying rocks. When they are red, the matrix of
the over-lying boulder clay is also red. When the subjacent rocks
incline to blue or black, like the Coal Measures, then the clay is
bluish grey. On the Whitehaven Sandstone, which is reddish
grey, the sandy matrix of the Boulder Clay has the same colour as
the underlying rock.

This correspondence in the colour of the lower clay and the
rocks below it does not, however, prevail everywhere. It some-
times happens that the colour of this clay is not influenced at all
by the colour of the underlying rock, but has the colour of some
adjacent rock which, so far as I have observed, always lies to the

71

eastward. Take the section shewn in Fig. 1 as an instance. It
is underlaid by Coal Measures; but the colour of the lower clay
in that section is like that of clay found overlying Carboniferous
Limestone, which rock actually occurs about a third of a mile to
the east of the point at which Fig. 1 was taken. Then again, the
clay overlying the Permian Breccia near Low Wreah is coloured
reddish grey, like the Whitehaven Sandstone; whilst the Breccia
is a deep red. Whitehaven Sandstone, however, occurs a short
distance away in an easterly direction.

Associated Phenomena. As bearing on the subject under con-
sideration, it may be of advantage to make a few observations on
the grooving, smoothing, and rounding which certain rocks in the
district have undergone. These phenomena are confined to the
higher parts of the district, and may be best seen where the rocks
are hardest, as for instance on the Eskdale Granite and the
Volcanic rocks of the Borrowdale Series.

The grooving has already been carefully worked out by the late
Rey. J. C. Ward, and therefore little need be said about it here.
As a rule, the grooves correspond in direction with that of the
valley in which they occur. There are however some exceptions
to this in which the grooves or strize are sometimes nearly, at other
times quite, at right angles to the valleys. This being so in some
cases on very high ground.

Of the rounding and smoothing of rocks there are some very
fine examples, especially in Eskdale and Borrowdale. Generally
these effects are produced on the up-valley side of rocks; but in
one place, on the side of Great Arming How, opposite Boot, in
Eskdale, they are on the down-valley side.

In Borrowdale, beside the well-known “Sow’s Back” at Grange,
there are numerous interesting pieces of rock rounding and
smoothing. One of these is shewn in section in F ig. 12.

Sometimes this smoothing and rounding may be seen beneath
deposits of boulder clay.

Nowhere can the rounding be seen over a large area ; it occurs
interruptedly, on knolls and small bosses of rock. The general
outline of the valleys is not now affected by it.

72

Such are some of the more salient points presented by the
glacial deposits of West Cumberland. The deductions to be
drawn from them are numerous, and may now be considered.

3. DEDUCTIONS.

Origin of Lower Boulder Clay. The first inference to be drawn
from the facts just described is that floating ice seems to have
played a most important part in the formation of all the deposits
that have been noticed. The mingling of boulders from different
sources, sometimes in quite opposite directions, as shewn in
Fig. 11, cannot be explained in any other way. And since these
variously-derived boulders are found side by side in both the
Upper- and the Lower Boulder Clay, it follows that floating ice
must have been largely concerned in forming these deposits. But
a difficulty occurs here. The matrix of the Lower Boulder Clay is
clearly local, having, no doubt, been derived from rocks very near
where it now lies, whence its sandy character when over-lying
rocks that are sandy,“and its clayey nature when resting on rocks
that are argillaceous. Many of the included stones are also of
local origin. These results could only have been brought about
by glacier-action, so that there is in every deposit of Lower Boulder
Clay the results of ‘the action of ice in two very different forms—
as icebergs, by which many of the local and far-travelled stones
were deposited, and as glaciers, which produced the matrix of the
deposit ; and also imbedded therein, many of the local boulders,
as well as some of the far-travelled ones, the?source of which was in
the direction whence the glacier moved.

Fig. 13, which is a sketch-section of a glacier terminating in the
sea, will illustrate the manner in which I conceive these actions to
have taken place.

In its downward motion the glacier would pass into the sea at B,
and would move along the sea-bottom until it arrived at C, where
the weight of ice in the glacier would equal that of the sea-water
displaced. ‘Thence it would leave the sea-bottom and float on
toward D, where in all probability it would be broken off into
icebergs, and be borne away by currents to other places. The

ym wre
Yi

formation of Raxtioay 5 Bee! E *s x ‘ Seq ' : hag ee
: at <4 j - : apne: eee =
A aes Feer J incu = = = - ie : eael "il aan
‘a Upper | Seamer Cray rath yellowish Srey) Au Seale Ee en Inc: \ \
ep Car & Sais Stones, .) Middle Sand 4 Gravel PPER Bouper cLay(Mubvie, yellowiel, Scale 40 sty fo an In Fa
% Ewer Boutber Cray (Matnx brownish ry) 5 Mippie sano & crave “ab Zi 4) A Upper Bourcer cosy (Mt (Matrrx Afo yllagrich § ) Scale 4 fel an inal,
C Lower BOULDER CLAY Boise, Huish & ¥) B Mippie Sanno & aoe ie) A Graver

© Lower Bouosrcisy(Malix 1 ery) B Yestowie sano

be teHille

Sallor Hal Mines

*y Fi
Fia ic
Seale a fat aerallall, Fea E.Coarse: Gpey SAND: erieonfall Gcate Sree be aM, ie Seale 40 “il fo an Inela

& Fine GREY Sancwirn Lenzic REAMDS/Pr Conrser op
F YeLlowisy Chay, fcticad Seake SEB fal & an |
bay ener eel om arey Oy DE (Matric |uichgrey) G Coanse GRAVEL A Urran Gowen Bodvoer crave ke, Sanpy ef SET wirh BOULDERS
D Fine Yeriowish Sanp CLAY B Skiponw Stare BLuIsH SAND & GRaoveL
© Carsonirerous Limeeronn

NAS VE
iy oe

~ ll

— GLACIAL DEPOSITS ——

—_—_—_—— or ———

Pia & Fy
Sele 50 feb ls an ele Seal D eet loaw eel

BR SAND with THIN LAYERS ©F GRAVEL B S Bets ANDETONT :
B GRaveL c Coa. Measure SANDstToNe St WEST , J M BE RLAN [)

——

Head f Naley a

B AnesutarR FRAGMENTS er Rock

FiglS

G GiacieR Moving IN DIRECTION cr ARROW
| I[ceBeRaS From GLASIER,.G

L . ~ OTHER GLACIERS

M GLAuER BED

N Bourocer CiAy

73

moving glacier would denude—partly by abrasion, and partly by
the removal of fragments of different sizes—the rocky bed over
which it passed. Some of the powdery material produced by
abrasion of the rocks lying adove the sea level, would be carried
down by the subglacial streams to the sea. But the quantity thus
deposited would not be great, as the formation of this powder
would be mainly confined to those parts of the glacier-bed where
there was a sufficient quantity of water, passing down from the
surface of the glacier, to remove the comminuted matter as it was
formed. In other places, where, from the absence of crevasses, there
was no running water below, the accumulation of fine powder
would soon put an end to abrasion of the underlying rocks in the
same way that we know it does in certain operations in the Arts.
Take for instance the sharping of a joiner’s chisel. But for the
application of oil to gather up and localise in a small compass the
material rubbed off the stone, the joiner would be long in edging
his chisel.

Reverting to Fig. 13, between B and C the case is different.
The mud formed there—unlike that formed at the higher part of
the glacier-bed—could not be washed away by a stream, but it
would be squeezed out at the end of the glacier and be deposited
partly on the sea bottom in front, and partly beneath the floating
end of the glacier, so that the rock between B and C would always
be clean for the ice to act upon. The mud already referred to as
being brought down by subglacial streams from the upper end of
the glacier, and which would have a tendency to deposit on
entering the sea, owing to its motion being arrested, would also be
pressed out to the front of the glacier, and be deposited along with
the locally-formed mud.

Many of the rocky fragments. included in the glacier would be
similarly carried forward and deposited in the mud in front of the
glacier. Some of these fragments might be from the upper end of
the valley, and either have been torn up by the glacier from its
bed, or, having first fallen on to the surface of the glacier, might
afterwards have found their way to the bottom of it through
crevasses. Other fragments might remain on the surface of the

74

ice until it assumed the form of bergs, and then be'deposited.
Many pieces of rock would, in all probability, be detached from
the glacier bed on what is now the lower ground. ‘They too would
be deposited in the mud issuing from beneath the glacier.

It was previously mentioned that the rocks in the lower ground
dip seaward. ‘Their broken ends thus oppose the mountains
whence came the glaciers, so that a glacier, moving outward over
the lower ground, would, in certain parts of its course, as for
instance where the ends of strata cropped out in the side of a
valley, have the best possible chance of tearing up rock fragments
from its bed. Again,-rocks from totally different localities might
be borne on icebergs, which in time, through the influence of
currents, might be so mingled as to drop their stony contents at or
near the same place.

Thus we get an explanation of all the main facts presented by
the Lower Boulder Clay. The mingling of the boulders and the
local derivation of the clay are both satisfactorily accounted for.
Those curious facts mentioned by Mr. James Geikie as occurring
in other localities are also explained. I refer to streams of boulders
embedded in the lower clay, and but little removed from their
parent rock, as if they had just been torn up from the glacier bed
and dragged away in a string by the ice. Other phenomena, such
as the occurrence in the clay of flag-like fragments of rock standing
on end also receive an explanation. It is only the lower part of
the clay that would be formed under the glacier, that is asa
moraine profonde ; the upper part of the clay would be deposited
outside the glacier altogether, and rock fragments falling there
might be expected to be imbedded vertically as well as horizontally,
but such a thing could not occur in a moraine profonde.

It has been asserted by some that the tough character of the
lower clay is due to the kneading it received under the glaciers ;
but that is not so, for I have seen clay as tough as any boulder-
clay in lough-holes twenty fathoms below the upper surface of the
solid rock, probably having been washed down joints from the
overlying glacial deposits. Again, the matrix of boulder-clay, after
it has been taken up by water and thrown down in another place,

75
is as stiff as it was before, as I know from having frequently cut
through it in old mine workings.

The courses taken by some of the boulders in the lower clay,
whilst travelling from their parent rock, are shewn in Fig. 11. The
different currents by which the boulder-bearing bergs were swept
along, probably came into existence at different stages of submer-
gence. With a subsidence of nine hundred feet, there would be
a water passage from the southern part of the Lake District through
by Dunmail Raise and St. John’s Vale, to the northern part of that
district. A northward current through this strait would carry with
it bergs laden with Armboth- and St. John’s Quartz-Felsite, which,
subject to the effect’ of other influences, might turn towards either
Keswick or Penrith, or through by Mosedale to Caldbeck, where
the operation of other currents might change their course and
carry them through the Tyne Valley, or southward along the
western foot of the hilly ground by Maryport, Whitehaven, and
Ravenglass, on into Furness. A further submergence of seven
hundred feet would form a water passage over Stainmoor, Thus
an explanation is forthcoming of the occurrence of Lake District
boulders in that locality.

If now it be assumed that there was a gradual submergence of
the district under consideration at the time that the Lower Boulder
Clay was formed, there is at hand a complete explanation of all
the facts hitherto observed in the district. For then the glaciers
would gradually recede, and icebergs from other localities would
float over and drop their contents on to ground that was but
recently occupied by those glaciers, and so produce the observed
mingling of boulders from sources sometimes lying in very different
directions from the point at which they are enveloped in the clay.

Origin of the Middle Sands and Gravels. The Middle Sands
and Gravels may have resulted partly from the action of the sea
on the Lower Boulder Clay during a period of gradual emergence,
and partly from the action of rivers and streams. The angularity
of many of the stones in the gravel and the coarseness of some of
the sand being probably due in a great measure to the comparative

76

absence of wave motion in the sea, owing to the presence of icefloes
on its surface, or to the rapidity of the emergence.

Origin of the Upper Boulder Clay. The Upper Boulder Clay
was probably formed in the same manner as the Lower Boulder
Clay, but during a second submergence of the land. The receding
glaciers would then move over the Middle Sands and Gravels,
which would no doubt, in some cases, be contorted, in others
removed altogether. At the same time the Lower Boulder Clay
might be denuded in places, especially on valley sides facing the
moving glacier. The sands, gravels, and boulder clay over which
the glaciers moved this time being everywhere nearly uniform in
mineralogical character, the resulting clay would no doubt be ot
the same colour throughout, and be more sandy than the lower
clay, owing to the presence of sandstone boulders in the beds
over which the glaciers passed. These inferences are in strict
correspondence with the results of observation.

An explanation which requires two submergences to produce
the tripartite form of the deposits is no doubt complicated ; but
nevertheless, it seems right, for I have elsewhere shewn from positive
observation, that in the neighbouring district of Furness there
occurred an inter-glacial period of sufficient duration for the
accumulation of immense quantities of vegetable matter character-
istic of a temperate climate ; so that two invasions of the glaciers
seem necessary, and consequently two recessions of the same.

Origin of Mounds of Sands and Gravels. The mounds of sand
and gravel occurring at the mouth of valleys probably originated
at a time when the glaciers were shrinking back into the hills, and
the Upper Boulder Clay was being formed. Sea-currents having
the directions indicated by the boulder dispersal, would move
right across the mouth of most of the valleys, which would at that
time be fiords. The water in those fiords would be almost motion-
less, except near the mouth, where there would be an eddy, produced
by the current outside striking against the farther point of the fiord,
and being thereby deflected inward, asshewn in Fig. 14. Bergs passing
along the coast outside the fiord would no doubt often find their

77

way into this eddy and be thereby detained, in the same way as
pieces of wood are detained in the eddies of a stream. In time
they would melt, partly or wholly, and so, on a small area, mingle
their stony contents with those of other bergs moving down the
fiord which also would be detained in the eddy. Thus we get an
explanation of the deposits occurring at one side of the valley ; for
bergs entering the eddy would be carried round and detained in
the still water near A, Fig. 14. At that time, it must be remem-
bered, bergs would be laden largely with sand and gravel, partly
gathered up by the glaciers in their passage over the Middle Sands
and Gravels, and partly by the icefoot from glacier streams.

The gravel mounds found on ridges such as that at Cockhow,
may have been formed by the stranding of bergs carried into such
positions by sea-currents, as these mounds generally occur in
places where it is likely that currents would exist at a certain stage
of submergence. Take for instance the Cockhow deposit. It lies
exactly on the lowest part of the ridge separating Ennerdale from the
head of Ulidale, down which valley a current wOuld be likely to set
after the ridges referred to had become covered with water. One
point in connection with this deposit is curious, and that is the
existence in it of boulders of St. Bees Sandstone. The altitude
of the deposit is about two hundred feet higher than St. Bees.
Sandstone has been found iz lace in the district. This curious
fact may have arisen in this way. It is known that large pieces of
ice separate from the upper part of icebergs, carrying with them
into the water their cargo of stones; but it is not known that
similar pieces of ice separate from the lower part of icebergs, for.
the simple reason that such a thing cannot be very well observed.
But it seems much more likely that masses of ice should be
detached from the lower part of icebergs than from their upper
part. If so detached, they would at once rise to the surface,
bringing with them their imbedded stones, which, as the ice melts,
would be dropped on to the bottom of the sea. Pieces of ice thus
separating from bergs several hundred feet thick, might bring to
the surface stones that had been torn from a glacier bed some
hundreds of feet below the surface of the sea; and these stones

78

might be deposited at a point where the sea was only a few fathoms
deep. In this way a simple explanation is afforded of a fact which
has hitherto been a source of trouble to glacialists.

Origin of Moraines and Moraine-like Mounds. The true
moraines probably originated in the same way as such like deposits
are forming now in Switzerland ; but the conical hillocks clustered
in the upper end of some of the higher valleys seem to have been
deposited in water, and probably were formed at a time when
these valleys—once fiords—were converted into straits by union
with other valleys having the same direction, but falling the
opposite way. If it be assumed that a current then set up the
valleys in which the deposits occur, we have all the conditions
necessary for the formation of the moraine-like mounds. Laden
bergs carried along the strait would doubtless congregate over
what is now the upper end of the valleys, either on account of the
shallowness of the water over the ridge, or because of the narrow-
ness of the strait at that point preventing the free onward move-
ment of the bergs. While thus detained, they would deposit part
of their rocky burthen at the upper end of the valley out of which
they were passing, and so give rise to the moraine-like mounds
under consideration.

Generally. ¥or the purpose of shortening this communication
as much as possible, I have specially avoided entering into argu-
ments to shew the inadequacy of previous explanations, but have
confined myself entirely to the task of framing another more
agreeable to the facts of observation.

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79

ON THE DISTINCTIVE COLOURS OF
THE CARBONIFEROUS AND PERMIAN OR TRIASSIC
(POIKILITIC) ROCKS OF NORTH CUMBERLAND.

By T. V. HOLMES, F.G.S.
(Read at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

My object in this paper is not to discuss the chemical differences
in the colouring-matters tinting the Carboniferous and Permian
rocks, but to show the importance of these variations of colour as
guides to the geological classification of the rocks of North Cum-
berland. For the sections in these formations are often so few
and far-between that, but for the reliance to be placed on the
colour-test, the mapping of their boundary lines would be occasion-
ally almost impossible. On the other hand, the remarks I have to
make will also demonstrate the fact that colour is an attribute
that may lead the geologist very far astray, if unchecked by evidence
of a more fundamental character. In short, the importance of
colour, in any case in which it affords the sole available evidence,
depends upon the extent to which it has been found a true guide
where there has been additional evidence sufficient to settle the
question without its aid. And the colour-test that might be
sufficient in itself where there is much rock exposed to view,
might be almost worthless where but two or three square feet are
seen.

The usual, and most characteristic, colours of Carboniferous
sandstones are various shades of brown or buff, varying from a
deep brown to an almost pure white, The shales interbedded

80

with them may be light- or dark-brown, light- or dark slate-coloured,
or black. These colours thus contrast decidedly with the wholly
or mainly red tints of the overlying Permian and Triassic (or
Poikilitic) sandstones and shales. But exceptions occur. In the
Yorkshire Coalfield a massive sandstone, known as the “Red Rock
of Rotherham,” and some other rocks towards the Permian, or
eastern, boundary of the coalfield, are so much redder in tint than
is usual in Carboniferous beds, that they were formerly classed
with the overlying Permians. But the evidence collected during
the Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coalfield showed that the
Red Rock, though it lies unconformably on the Carboniferous
rocks below, is also unconformable to the Permian Rocks above.
For in a railway cutting a little S.W. of Rotherham, Coal Measure
rocks of ordinary appearance are seen overlying the Red Rock.

A very similar state of things is found in Cumberland, where
the “Whitehaven Sandstone” takes the place occupied by the
Red Rock of Rotherham in Yorkshire. And, like the Red Rock,
the Whitehaven Sandstone was, till quite lately, considered to be
either Permian or Triassic, instead of Carboniferous. For at
Whitehaven, where it is best shown, it rests unconformably on
Coal Measures of ordinary hue, and differs from them in its redder
tint. But the classification of the Carboniferous Whitehaven
Sandstone as Permian or Triassic has led to errors of more
importance than the Red Rock has occasioned in Yorkshire.
For, near Rotherham, the Red Rock and the other reddish beds
invariably belong to the upper part of the Coal Measures, and no
important practical error could arise from supposing them to be
Permian. But in Cumberland the red or reddish Carboniferous
rocks are of very various ages; from Upper Coal Measure (for
instance) about Bullgill and elsewhere in the west, to Millstone
Grit or Yoredale age in the Caldew on the east. In both counties
there are both conformable and unconformable red-stained Car-
boniferous rocks. But the unconformity between the Carboniferous
and Permian formations is much greater in the district, for example»
south of Wigton, than in that east of Rotherham. Two simple
diagrams will illustrate better than many words could do, the

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81

comparative effects of a slight and of a very decided unconformity
along lines of the same length. The first figure may be supposed
to show (diagrammatically) the relations of the Permian and
Carboniferous rocks east of Rotherham. The second, their
relations south of Wigton.

Now, it is obvious that everywhere near Rotherham Upper
Coal Measures form the surface, and that a boring there would
reach the more productive Middle Coal Measures sooner or later ;
while in Cumberland it might, though equally near the Permian
boundary, be entirely through Lower Carboniferous rocks. And
as the coal seams of the Lower Carboniferous rocks are very
inferior both in number and thickness to those of the Coal-
Measures proper, and are, indeed, seldom worth working, it is
evident that to ascertain the true geological horizon of the
red-stained rocks is a matter of very considerable practical
importance. But as no distinction of colour invariably separates
Coal-Measures from Lower Carboniferous rocks, the horizon to
which red-stained Carboniferous beds belong, in any given locality,
can only be made out after long and careful study of the whole
district. On the other hand, the colour-test distinguishing Car-
boniferous from Permian rocks has never hitherto been found to
fail. But as the older geological writers on the district missed the
true significance of the various colours, I will first give some
account of the older views, which are set forth in the valuable
paper by the late Mr. Matthias Dunn on the Coalfields of Cum-
berland, which was written more than twenty years ago.*

When Dunn wrote, the evident unconformity of the Whitehaven
Sandstone to the ordinary Coal-Measures (at Whitehaven) had
caused it to be classed as Permian, or, as he prefers to term it,
“New Red Sandstone.” In the neighbourhood of Rose Gill
Colliery (S.W. of Bullgill Railway Station), the Whitehaven Sand-
stone is shown in many quarries, and is called by Dunn the
“Lower Red Sandstone.” He notices the difference of colour
between the “Lower” and “Upper” Sandstones, and writes :—
“The formation of the New Red Sandstone is comprised in two

* North Eng. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. viii., 1859-60.
6

82

distinct characteristics, viz., the upper and lower, of indefinite
thickness, but very frequently divided by a formation of magnesian
limestone. The upper division is remarkable for its redness,
whereas the lower part is pale and closely approximates in colour
to the ordinary sandstones of the acknowledged coal formation.’
I would prefer saying, myself, that while the Permian (or New Red
Sandstone) colour is brick-red, the stained Carboniferous rocks
never quite attain that tint, but are pinkish or purple-grey, especially
the latter, which is their most characteristic hue. And rocks of
ordinary Carboniferous brown are often found in close connexion
with the more brightly coloured beds.

As localities at which stained Carboniferous rocks may be seen,
it will suffice to mention the River Waver, about Bolton Low
Houses, and the tributary which joins it near Pasture House ;
Shalk Beck, south of the road connecting Near Welton and Rosley
Rigg ; and the Caldew, between the Permian stone under Rose
Castle Bridge and Sebergham. A sketch-map of this district
appended to Dunn’s paper shows, accordingly, Westward, Rosley,
and Sebergham all standing on the “ New Red Sandstone.” And
Dunn’s map resembles in all essential points the older editions of
the geological maps of Ramsay and Greenough, and even the
geological map of Cumberland in Mr. Jenkinson’s excellent
Handbook to the Lakes, 5th Ed., 1876. The differences in the
above maps refer mainly to the boundary lines between Permian
and New Red Sandstone, not Permian and Carboniferous rocks.

I have now to prove my case that the “ Lower Red Sandstone”
of Dunn is not Permian or New Red Sandstone, but Carboniferous.
To do this it is necessary to ascend the stream known as Chalk,
Shawk, or Shalk Beck for less than two miles above East Curthwaite.
Starting from that place, we speedily enter a gorge, the sides of
which are composed of brick-red sandstone, capped by glacial
drift. This is the Permian sandstone, known to geologists as the
St. Bees Sandstone, as it is identical with the rock which forms the
promontory of St. Bees Head. The dip being northerly, we find
the stream cutting through lower and lower beds as we advance
‘southward. The stone is much quarried here, as it is between

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83

Aspatria and West Newton. Though mainly red, rock of a
yellowish-buff colour is occasionally seen, the best example being
at “Tom Smith’s Leap.” South of this point the stone gradually
becomes flaggy and shaly, and more and more unfit for building.
Some small faults are beautifully shown in the left, or western, bank
a little beyond a small hut, and just below the sharp easterly bend
made by the stream towards Chalk Cottage. At the most easterly
point of this bend, above the “old course of the stream,” a little
Carboniferous Limestone is visible in the high bank, below the
glacial drift. This limestone has been formerly burnt for lime, as
the adjacent limekiln testifies. On the east side of the road
leading to Chalk Cottage, and beside the kiln, the breccia at the
base of the St. Bees sandstone may be seen, together with a fault
which is probably the result of the union of the smaller ones lower
down. Ascending the stream, the Permian beds are still visible in
its bed and banks for a few yards more ;.but.on crossing a small
alluvial flat on its eastern side, and reaching a spot at which, as
we proceed, we find the beck turning sharply westward, the un-
conformity at the junction between the brick-red Permian beds
and certain purple-grey and pinkish rocks on which they rest,
becomes manifest in the high eastern bank. The footpath now
begins to ascend the western bank, and the unconformity between
the purple-grey (or Carboniferous) and the brick-red (or Permian)
beds is again visible close to the path, as the base of the Permians
rises southward higher and higher above the beck. In the bed of
the stream purple-grey and light-coloured Carboniferous rocks
appear. They have an easterly dip instead of a northerly one; and,
altogether, nothing can be clearer than the unconformity between
the two formations and the marked change of colour accom-
panying it. But before the road from Rosley Rigg to Near Welton
is reached, a fault crossing the stream, with a direction nearly east
and west and a downthrow to the south, brings in the Permian
rocks again, so that the whole of the field north of the road and west
of the beck is covered with fragments of St. Bees Sandstone from
the water’s edge upwards. A small quarry in the higher part of
this field shows that the Permian beds brought in again by this

84

fault are the flaggy ones towards the base of the St. Bees Sandstone.
A very pretty surface contortion may be seen in this quarry. The
breadth, from north to south, of this faulted piece of Permian
ground is slightly greater than that of this field. Crossing the
road, and continuing to ascend the stream, Carboniferous rocks
may be seen here and there for more than four miles ; and, for the
most part, they are purple-grey or pinkish in colour. But it would
be almost, if not quite, impossible for the most careful observer to
pick out even a hand-specimen from these stained Carboniferous
rocks that would pass as an example of Permian stone; the brick-
red tint being precisely the shade that is not to be found.

From this district I will now turn to one about an equal distance
from the Border City, but in the opposite direction, and review

the evidence afforded by the streams flowing into the Solway from —

the north-east, beginning with the Esk. From the Scotch Dyke
railway bridge northward, St. Bees Sandstone is visible for about
three-quarters of a mile. The church at Canobie stands on stained
Carboniferous rock, above which, on the opposite cliff, is an outlier
of what I have termed, in my paper on the Carlisle Basin, read
before the Geological Society last year—the Kirklinton Sandstone,
and consider to be of later date than that of St. Bees. But the
junction between the two formations is not visible. In the Liddel
also it is not apparent, but it must be a few yards below the Lang-
holm Branch railway bridge, at, and above which, are stained
Carboniferous beds. In Carwinley Burn the junction is about
one-third of a mile above the point at which the road from Long-
town to Penton Bridge crosses the stream. The banks at the
junction are low, but the bed of the stream shows brick-red flaggy
beds, having a breccia at their base, resting on purple-grey and
other rocks which are dipping at a much higher angle. This
marked difference of dip, combined with the presence of the breccia
at the base of the brick-red beds, affords ample evidence of an
unconformity on the same horizon as that in Shalk Beck, though
the additional proof given in the high banks of that stream is here
wanting.

Crossing to the River Lyne at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, we there

85

find the Kirklinton Sandstone. Ascending the stream, the same
rock is seen about as far up as Shield Green, being especially well
displayed where the grounds of Kirklinton Hall come down to the
river. Between Shield Green and Brackenhill Tower, the under-
lying St. Bees Sandstone forms the bed and banks of the Lyne.
But, close to Brackenhill Tower, a fault, having a nearly north and
south direction, and westerly downthrow, is seen crossing the
river-bed, and eastward of it the brick-red rocks disappear, and
their place is taken by variously tinted beds of the Carboniferous
series. A massive sandstone, which, about a mile above Bracken-
hill Tower, forms the “Fairy Tables,” suggests, at first sight, either
that Permian rock is again appearing, or that we have an exception
to the rule as to colour. But here, as elsewhere, stained Carbon-
iferous rocks which do not at a first glance show their true affinities
beyond a doubt do so on breaking off a good-sized fragment.
Then, beneath the perhaps uniformly almost brick-red exterior,
purple-grey, or some other tint, is shown to be the colour of the
mass. This rock of the “Fairy Tables,” however, deserves especial
mention, not only on account of its goodness as an example of
stained Carboniferous rock, but because there is no river in
Cumberland whose beauties as well as geological sections so well
deserve a visit, and yet are so little known, as those of the Lyne
about Kirklinton.*

Lastly, the Hether Burn, a small stream which falls into the
Lyne at Cliff Bridge, shows the unconformity between brick-red
and purple-grey as well as, or better than, Shawk Beck itself. But
this unconformity is about six miles from the nearest railway station,
and in a very thinly populated and little visited neighbourhood,
that of Hethersgill. If we ascend the Hether Burn from its outfall,
we pass from the bright red Kirklinton Sandstone to the duller-
tinted Sandstone of St. Bees at Hether Bank Bridge, above which
are quarries. Above Howford Bridge the rock is of the flaggy char-
acter shown towards the base of the St. Bees Sandstone in Shalk

* Even the late Professor Harkness, whose knowledge of Cumberland rocks

was singularly extensive, paid his first visit to Kirklinton in the summer of 1876.
He was much surprised at the beauty and geological interest of the Lyne there.

86

Beck and Carwinley Burn. A farm called Grainhead stands on the
north side of the Burn, above Prior Rigg and Hethergrove,and below
Fieldhead. The unconformity may be seen in the stream where
it bounds the field south-east of the Grainhead farm buildings, and
is a little above the bridge. There is breccia at the Permian base,
and the brick-red beds are seen to rest on Carboniferous rocks of
various colours, which dip at a much higher angle.

In this, which may be called the Border district, misapprehension
as to the true affinities of the various red or reddish-tinted rocks
has led, as in the Wigton district, to an undue enlargement of the
Permian boundary. This may be seen on comparing the map
attached to Mr. Gibsone’s paper on the Border districts of Cum-
berland* with the remarks I have made as to the real amount of
Permian ground on the Esk and Liddel. Thus: in Mr. Gibsone’s
map the Permian boundary line crosses the Esk about three-quarters
of a mile north of Canobie church. But, as I have already
remarked, the church stands on Carboniferous rock, the boundary
crossing the river at least half a mile south of the church. Again,
on the Liddel, Mr. Gibsone places the boundary line a mile and a
half, or thereabouts, higher up the stream than the presence of
brick-red rocks would justify him in doing. But in the Wigton
district so much larger is the amount of territory improperly
annexed to the Permian formation than on the Border, that the
importance of the true colour-test near Wigton is worth showing
by means of a sketch map illustrating the older and the newer
views. For this purpose I give the boundaries of the Carboniferous
and Permian rocks south of Wigton, as they appear in the sketch
map appended to Matthias Dunn’s paper, and also as they are
drawn in that illustrating my paper on the Carlisle Basin, already
referred to.

I trust, in conclusion, that sufficient evidence has been given to
prove my case that brick-red is the characteristic Permian red, and
that purple-grey and pinkish rocks, being invariably found to be
Carboniferous where there is plenty of evidence besides that of
colour, may fairly be presumed to be Carboniferous where colour

* North Eng. Inst. Min, Eng., vol. xi,

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87

affords the only available evidence. We have seen, however,
that buff, besides being a characteristic Carboniferous colour, is
occasionally Permian. But in the St. Bees Sandstone the buff
stone is in very small quantity compared with the red, and although
the upper beds of the Kirklinton Sandstone at and west of Carlisle
are mainly light grey or whitish, that rock does not in our district
directly overlie Carboniferous beds, except in the cliff opposite
Canobie church, and there it is brick-red. Whether we have to
deal with the St. Bees- or the Kirklinton Sandstone, the ved is
always brick-red, and not pinkish or purple-grey. The colour-
distinction thus holds good between the whole of the Carboniferous
rocks on the one hand, and all the overlying red or mainly red
rocks—call them Permian and Triassic or Poikilitic,* as you will
—on the other.

My colleagues of the Geological Survey could bring forward
precisely similar evidence, as to the distinctive colours of these
rocks, from their own districts. But my object here is simply to
record what I have seen myself, in the hope that it may prove
useful to local observers, and prevent either a waste of time in
searching for evidence where none exists, or its neglect where it
abounds.

“Tt is probable that the whole of these red rocks will shortly be united
together under some comprehensive name such as Poiklitic, a term proposed
originally by Conybeare.

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89

CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS
A LIST OF THE FUNGI GROWING IN THE
DISTRICT AROUND CARLISLE.

By Dr. CARLYLE.
(Communicated at the Carlisle Annual Meeting.)

TuE following contribution towards a list of the Fungi growing
within a radius of five miles around Carlisle has been drawn up at
the request of the Committee, from the substance of some lectures
delivered before the Carlisle Scientific Society in 1881 and 1882.
It contains the results of a systematic study of these organisms
dating only from the early part of 1881, and it is therefore
necessarily incomplete in its present form ; and it will, doubtless,
require to be considerably extended as further observations are
made. Such forms as require for their identification a minute
examination by the aid of the microscope are not referred to in
the present list.

OrpeR 1. AGARICINI.
AGARICUS :—Series 1.*

Amanita vernus. Found in field opposite Orton Park, under trees.

A. phalloides. Found in a plantation on the left beyond Newby Cross.

A. muscarius, The Fly Agaric. A very common fungus around Carlisle.
Wood, Hill-House-Nook; by ‘‘Red Cat;” Great Orton; near
Alstonby : from the middle of September to October.

A. rubescens. Very abundant in many of our plantations, appearing about
middle of July. At High Knells; Floriston; Durdar ; Cornhill ;
near Orton Park ; ‘‘Red Cat.” Edible.

A. vaginatus. In a plantation at Cringles ; at back of ‘‘Red Cat ;” Wood
Side ; Prior Wood, in September.

A. nivalis. Ina plantation between Rockcliffe and Castletown ; Durdar.

_ ..* The specific names throughout this list refer to the genera, which are printed in
italic capitals. —Ep1ToR.

90

Lepiota rachodes. Found in a hedge on the left hand at corner of field on
the Carlisle side of Holme Eden Church.

L. gracilentus. Has been found in considerable numbers on 2nd October,
growing on the earth bank of a hedge on the right hand in going
from Carlisle to the ‘‘ Golden Fleece.” Edible.

L. procerus, The Parasol Mushroom. The only district in which this fungus
has been found is that of which Cumwhitton may be fixed as the
centre. In this district I have found it by the side of the main
road beyond Hornsby-gate, on Ist of October ; in September, near
to Carlattan Mill; on a bank between the stables and the river at
Corby Castle. It grows singly, though several may appear in
succession on the same spot. Kdible.

Armillaria melleus. Is a very common fungus here. It grows in large
tufts on or about the stumps of trees; abundant in the lane
between Linstock Castle and the river; in woods at Houghton
House ; on the right hand before reaching Blackhall; near Bank-
end, Rockcliffe ; near Castletown.

A. auranteus. Near Thurstonfield.

Tricholoma personatus, Blewitts. Occurs from the beginning of October till
the end of November. Found near Whamtown; on earth bank
beyond Blackford farm; near ‘‘Golden Fleece ;” Union Street.
Edible.

T. gambosus, St. George’s Mushroom. This is one of our early spring
mushrooms. I have found it on the 27th of April in the lanes
near to Hill-house-nook ; near Moorhouse; over Railway Crossing,
Kingmoor ; wood beyond blacksmith’s shop, Harker ; and several
other situations. It is an excellent mushroom for use.

T. equestris. Ina plantation on this side of Hill Lodge, Harker.

T. imbricatus. In plantation west of park, Harker Lodge.

T. sulfureus. Ina plantation beyond the blacksmith’s shop, Harker ; near
“Red Cat” plantation ; Prior Wood.

T. nudus. In a plantation below The Hill; near four-roads by Lonning,
Durdar ; Corby Castle.

Clitocybe nebularis. In woods near Grange, Harker; Houghton House ;
Durdar.

C. dealbeatus. In a wood on the left near ‘‘ Red Cat ;” Woodside; Prior
Wood.

C. giganteus. The large white funuel-shaped fungus we often see in hedges,
Found near Knells stackyard; beyond Bankend; on the right
hand, this side of Floshes,

C. laccatus. In a plantation beyond watcher’s house, Corby Castle ; near
Heathlands,

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Collybia radicatus. In a hedge on both sides of the lane leading northwards
by Castletown Lodge ; Harker woods.
C. fusipes. In plantation by Hill-house-nook ; side of road beyond King-
moor Crossing ; Woodbank works.
C. velutipes. On stumps at Old Grey Stone ; Durdar; Rickerby.
C. stipitarius. Wood above Corby Castle. Very common.
C. platyphyllus. Found among trees south side of park, Harker Lodge.
C. dryophilus. Very common among leaves, Moorpark plantation and
Corby Castle ; Woodside.
Mycena pelianthinus. Found in Corby Castle woods.
M. rosellus. Found in fir plantation on left hand, Carlisle side of ‘‘ Red
Cat.”
M. alcalinus. At Harker; Monkhill.
Pleurotus euosmus. On old decayed tree near Harker Grange ; Dykeside.
P. ostreatus. On tree stump, Durran Hill; and also near Newbiggin lane.
P. mitis, This is very common. Found on sticks, wood yard, Rickerby
House ; Sowerby Wood ; Lough, Woodside.
AGARICUS :—Series 2.
Volvaria loveianus. Found in the high wood, beyond Corby Castle.
Pluteus chrysopheus. On wood. Plantation below Wreay Mill; between
Castletown and Rockcliffe.
Entoloma clypeatus. First field on left, Brampton Road, beyond Whiteclose-
gate ; plantation on the right beyond Crown Inn, Broadfield.
AGARICUS :—Series 3.
Pholiota aureus. Found on old stump or root in a yard at Burgh-by-Sands.
P. precox. Ina garden, Bellevue.
P. squarrosus. At stem of ash tree near Cliff, Kirklinton.
P. mutabilis. In plantation opposite Grange farm; and at the back of
**Red Cat.”
Hebeloma fastigiatus. Found in field on Brampton Road beyond White-
, close-gate ; plantation beyond Crown Inn, Broadfield.
HI. rimosus. In the same situations as the last.
H, trechisporus. In plantation on hill above Corby Castle.
Naucoria semiorbicularis, In the same situation as the last.
Crepidotus variabilis. On stumps near Graitney Green; near Raffles, on
shavings off wood.
C. mollis. Old stumps by Caldew side, near Rose Castle; Low Moor Park.
AGARICUS ;—Series 4.
Psalliota campestris, Meadow Mushroom. Found abundantly in our
pastures. Well known to every one.
P. silvicola. Found by road side between Highwoods and Morley Hill,
Cumwhitton.

92

P. exquisitus, or arvensis, The Horse Mushroom. Found in field beyond
Highwood, Corby ; various situations.

P. silvaticus. Found in hedge of stackyard, Birkhill, beyond Corby.

P. eruginosus. Found in plantation on left from Upperby to “Red Cat ;”
Woodside.

P. squamosus. On a hill among the trees above Corby Castle.

P. semiglobatus. Very common on dung in our pastures.

Hypholoma fascicularis. Very common about the roots of trees, at Harker
and Woodside.

Hi, velutinus. In plantation about Harker.

H. appendiculatus. Wood above Corby Castle.

AGARICUS :—Series 5.

Pancolus separatus. Very common on dung in meadows. Burgh Marsh.

P. fimiputris. Same as the last.

COPRINUS comatus. Verycommon. Found ina field on the left of King-
moor House; by Newbiggin Railway Bridge; along wall south
side of Henry Street ; Bog Wood-yard.

C. atramentarius. Wood, south end of park, Harker Lodge ; Newbiggin.

C. micaceus. On old stumps,.Monkhill and Harker.

GOMPHIDIUS gracilis. Found by road side from Upperby, near the
“Red Cat.”

Hygrophorus eburneus. In woods at Woodside and at back of the ‘‘ Red
Cat.”

H., distans. Plantations near Woodside.

H. conicus. Over Bellevue ; Kingmoor Crossing, on hedge bank.

LACTARIUS torminosus. Found in Highwood, Corby; Harker; Hill-
house-nook,

L. turpis. In plantation at Kingmoor; between Rockcliffe Cross and

Todhills.
L, blennius. Newbiggin; back of garden, Harker Lodge; in plantation by
bridge, Blackford ; Houghton House. ‘

L. deliciosus. In wood by side of avenue going to Houghton House.

L. fuliginosus. In plantation on Broadfield, beyond Crown Inn.

RUSSULA nigricans. Very common in most of our woods. Houghton
House ; Moorpark ; Thurstonfield ; Corby.

R. sanguinea. In woods: Hill-house-nook; Woodside; Floriston; Harker.

R. rosacea, In same situations as last.

R. furcata. At Gelt Woods; Houghton House.

R. heterophylla. Gelt Woods ; Woodside.

R. virescens, Wood, Hill-house-nook.

R. alutacea. Woods by Floriston.

R. rubra. Wood, Hill-house-nook.

93

CANTHARELLUS cibarius. Very common in woods. Near Floriston ;
Woodside ; near Low Burthwaite ; Kingmoor ; by Knells.

C. umbonatus. In wood by Houghton House avenue.

C. cinereus. Neay Heads-Nook.

MARASMIUS urens. On hedge banks by Reservoir farm.

M. oreades. By Reservoir farm ; beyond Kirkandrews.

M. peronatus. Among leaves, Woodside ; Durdar.

LENTINUS dunalii. Onash trees by road side beyond Durran Hill.

PANUS stipticus. Tn plantation at back of the ‘‘ Red Cat.”

OrvER 2. POLYPOREI.

BOLETUS luteus, Found in wood by “Red Cat ;” by Orton Park Lodge.

B. elegans. Wood by cross roads, Woodside.

B. flavus. In wood on left beyond Newby Cross; Hill-house-nook ; Durdar.

B. laricinus. Found only in a small plantation on left by beck between

Durdar and Lonning.
piperatus. In wood between Upperby and ‘ Red Cat” ; Thurstonfield
Woods.

chrysenteron. In field near Blackwell Hall; Cornhill ; Durdar.

subtomentosus. At St. Ann’s Hill.

satanas. By road side beyond Newby Cross.

luridus. By Crosshill; Houghton House ; Orton Park.

purpureus. Wood opposite Orton Park Lodge.

edulis. Very common by Knells ; Floriston.

viscidus. Wood near ‘‘ Red Cat.”

scaber. Wood uear Scarrow Hill; by Hill-house-nook ; Knells.

sanguineus. In woods near Orton Park ; Durdar.

bovinus. In plantation on left between cross roads and ‘‘ Red Cat.”

calopus. Between Upperby and ‘“ Red Cat,” by side of road.

POLYPORUS lentus. Found in Corby Woods; also on stem of beech
beyond Alstonby ; woods, Thurstonfield.

P. perennis. Found very abundantly in August in a plantation at the back
of the garden, Harker Lodge.

P. rufescens. Ina plantation at Harker ; by the garden, Houghton House;
Hill-house-nook.

P. sqyuamosus. Very common at Durran Hill; Rickerby House; Long-
park ; Great Orton.

P. quercinus. ~ At roots of oak near Rose Castle.

P. lucidus. Found on oak beyond Whiteclose-gate.

P. giganteus. Rare. In lane opposite Castletown Lodge, towards Floriston.

P. heteroclitus. In field at the back of the stackyard at Kingmoor House ;
and on roots at Houghton.

by

whet bbb bbb

94

P. sulphureus. On oak trees near Rose Castle and Whiteclose-gate in June.
P. frondosus, or intybaceus. Rare. On oak roots, hill above Corby Castle,
in October.

P. salignus. On old stumps, near High Northsceugh.

P. hispidus. Found among trees at the back of Woodside Mansion.

P. dryadeus. On oak trees near Rose Castle.

P. betulinus. On birch trees near Hill, Sprunston; and beyond Corby
Castle.

P. pallescens. On peeled oak by Harker ; posts by Durdar.

P. nigricans. In wood near Hill-house-nook.

P. igniarius. On plum trees, Sprunston; Great Orton; Houghton;
Raughton Head, &ec.

P. conchatus. On willow tree, Brunstock ; Rickerby.

P, salicinus. Very common. Near Drawdykes Castle; The Cliff; Rock-

cliffe ; Garriestown, &c.

P. frazineus. Very common. Near Tarraby; Linstock; Drawdykes
Castle ; Sandsfield ; Durran Hill.

P. connatus. On the trunk of crab-tree in stackyard at Brighton-flat
Scaleby.

P. strobiliformis. At the root of oak tree, Newfield ; Longpark ; in May.

P. versicolor. Very common on stumps in woods at Harker ; Castletown.

P. abietinus. Woods by Durdar ; near Orton Park Lodge.

P. ferruginosus. On decayed larch along stream below Sprunston.

P. purpureus. On fir stems in wood on left beyond Newby Cross.

P. cinctus. On larch stem near Hunley.

DADALEA quercina. Found on oak stumps at Corby Castle; Kingmoor ;
and near Rose Castle ; Thurstonfield.

D. unicolor. Found on fir trunk in a wood at the back of the garden,
Harker Lodge.

MERULIUS lachrymans. Found in shop English Street, Carlisle.

M. corium. On sticks, at Sprunston.

POROTHELIUM friesii. Found in a plantation near Hill-house-nook.

FISTULINA hepatica. Near Rose Castle; Woodside; Corby Castle;
Houghton.

ORpDER 3. HYDNEI.
HYDNUM repandum. Wood by Orton Park ; by Hill-house-nook ; Wood-

side.
H. udum. Wood by Orton Park.

Orpver 4. AURICULARINI.
STEREUM purpureum. Found on beech stumps at Harker; sticks,
Whiteclose-gate ; Orton.

>

95

S. hirsutum, Hairy Stereum. Very common. We find it in woods at
Houghton House; Harker; Hill-house-nook; and many other
places ; very common by Rickerby House.

S. spadiceum. Found on old stumps at Little Orton.

S. sanguinolentum. Found near Blackhall, on oak stumps.

AYMENOCH ATE rubiginosa. Found on oak stumps at Charlesfield; gate
posts, Houghton ; Corby Castle.

H. corrugata. On sticks in the hedge of a wood near Houghton House ;
also in a hedge near Hill-house-nook.

Hf, tabacina, On sticks in a wood near Hill-house-nook ; and Houghton
House.

CORTICIUM giganteum. Found abundantly on stumps, Durdar ; Little
Orton ; Rickerby House.

C. cerulewm. Found on old stumps in hedge back beyond Little Orton ; on
the stem of a wild rose-tree, river side, near Rose Castle Bridge.

C. sanguineum. Found on chips and on furze stems by Hill-house-nook ;

Great Orton ; Little Orton.

atrovirens. Found on sticks near Little Orton.

lividum. On stumps near Little Orton.

incarnatum. .On furze sticks near Great Orton ; wood, Hill-house-nook.

sambuci. On elder stumps, Houghton House wood; Bowe; Little

Orton.

C. quercinum. Found in the hedge of a plantation near Hill-house-nook ;

near Rickerby House; Harker.

QAR

OrpEer 5. CLAVAREI.

CLAVARIA fastigiata. Found on hedge bank near Blackford in October ;
on the road, and before reaching Rockcliffe ; beyond Kingstown ;
Corby, by watcher’s house ; Carleton Hill.

C. vermiculata. By the road side, near Heathlands toll-gate; and Newfield,
Longpark.

C. rugosa. Wery common in hedge banks in October, beyond Rickerby
farm house ; Knockupworth ; Cargo Hill.

C. abietina. Under trees, Houghton House avenue, in September.

C. amethystina. Found at Kingmoor, by Crossing.

C. cinerea, Found in October in a plantation along the road from The Hill
to Blackford.

C. stricta. Found in a wood on the left hand beyond Newby Cross.

C. purpurea. Found by the road side south of Houghton House Lodge.

CALOCERA viscosa. In the woods near Woodside ; and on the Carlisle
side of Durdar.

C. cornea. Corby Woods, on oak.

96

OrpER 6. TREMELLINI.
TREMELLA fimbriata. Found in June on wood in a stick-yard at
Rickerby House.
T. frondosa. On oak branches or trunks by Thurstonfield ; Monkhill; and

beyond Bow.
T. mesenterica. On sticks in a wood at the back of Harker; also ina

wood on the left from Carlisle beyond Newby Cross.
T. moriformis. On sticks in a plantation on the right hand beyond Harker.
T. sarcoides. In the wood beyond Moorpark ; near Thurstonfield.
7. torta. Found in June on a rotten gate-post near Cotehill Station.
EXIDIA glandulosa, Found onan alder stump opposite Woodbank Works ;
also in Houghton House woods ; near Heads-Nook.
#. recisa. On old wood in stick-yard near Rickerby House, in June.
THELEPHORA mollissima. Found in a wood near Hill-house-nook ;
and by Scarrow-hill; Thurstonfield, in September and October.

OrpER 8. PHALLOIDEI.
PHALLUS impudicus, Stink-horn Fungus. Grows in many places around
Carlisle. Sometimes in woods, as near Castletown, Rockcliffe ;
by the wayside about Houghton ; Woodside.

OrvER 9. TRICHOGASTRES.

TULOSTOMA mammosum. I have found specimens of this fungus, but
have not noted the locality.

GEHASTER bryantii, Karth Star. I have found this species in a hedge near
Kingmoor House ; also on the main road to Cumwhinton, below
the Garlands Asylum.

BOVISTA nigrescens. Found in the meadows; at Wreay and Corby.

B. plumbea. Found near Wreay Mill ; in plantation near Justustown.

LYCOPERDON giganteum. Found in many situations. Cargo Hill;
Cumwhinton.

LI. celatum, Found near to river side below Beaumont.

L. atropurpureum. Found near Hill-house-nook; wood beyond Corby
Castle.

L. saccatum. Site not noted.

ZL. gemmatum. Found in the woods along the avenue leading to Houghton
House.

L. pyriforme. Found near Cumwhitton. Woods beyond Corby Castle.

SCLERODERMA vulgare. Found in wood between Rockcliffe and
Castletown ; by road side on the Carlisle side of Durdar.

S. verrucosum. Found by the road side between Cross-roads and ‘‘ Red
Cat.”

97

POLYSACCUM olivaceum. I have found this fungus about fir stumps
in a plantation near Crosshill.

CHNOCOCCUM geophilum. Found in fir wood between Dalston and
Grange.

OrvDER 10. MYXOGASTRES.

LYCOGALA argentea. Grows on the stem and on the stumps of willows
in April. Found near Drawdykes Castle; Ambrose Holm; Durran-
hill.

L. miniata. Found on the old stump of a large willow tree in a fence
between a field and the plantation in front of The Hill mansion, in
April; near *‘ Red Cat.”

ABCYRIA pumicea, The Red Arcyria. Found growing on rotten wood in
plantation east side of park, Eden Grove.

OrpER 11. NIDULARIACEI.

CYATHUS striatus, Striated Bird’s Nest. Found on the 9th June, 1882,
on a thorn stump in the yard where old wood is collected for
fuel, opposite Rickerby House.

C. vernicosus, Bell Bird’s Nest. Found in a hedge along the main road
opposite Aglionby ; in the garden, Blackrigg, Rockcliffe.

CRUCIBULUM vulgare, Crucible Bird’s Nest. Found in October in Corby
Castle Woods; near to an old sand pit between Wetheral and
Warwick Bridge. It grows on the stems of nettles, and also on
sticks of furze.

SPH ZROBOLUS stellatus. I have frequently found this fungus, but have
not noted the situation ; probably about the plantations at Harker,

RHIZOMORPHA subcorticalis. This spreads like a network under the bark
of old rotten stems. Found at Little Orton ; near Castletown ; and
near Houghton, in May.

STELBOSPORA profusa. Found ou the stems of wild roses in the hedge
of a plantation near Hill-house-nook.

Orprr 23. ELVELLACEI.

MORCHELLA esculenta. Found near the Spa Well, Stainton; and in
meadows above Ambrose Holm. It is found about the end of May.

HELVELLA crispa. This delicious fungus is very abundant in many situ-
ations near Carlisle. It appears about the 1st of November. Found in
the avenue approaching Houghton House; by Crosshill farm-yard ;
on the side of the road near Blackford Bridge ; in plantation, on
cart track, Moorpark ; near Thurstonfield ; Woodside ; and many
other places,

7

98

HH, lacunosa, Single specimens are occasionally found in some of the same
situations as the last. Found in a wood on the hill above Corby
Castle ; in the avenue to Houghton House; plantation on the left
by Blackford Bridge. It appears about the end of October or
early in November.

HT, elastica. I have noticed only one specimen, which was growing in a
plantation near to Blackford Bridge, on the 1st of November.

SPATHULARIA flavida. Found on Ist June, 1882. It was growing
abundantly on decayed oak leaves inside the west fence of the
plantation, on the left hand going towards Hill-house-nook from
Carlisle.

LEOTIA lubrica. Very common in the month of October in most of the
plantations in this district. Found in the woods beyond Corby
Castle ; Houghton House; Hill; Harker, &c.

L. infundibuliformis. A much larger plant than L. lubrica, quite funnel-
shaped ; its pileus is also much darker in colour. I have found it
in a corner of the plantation on the west side of lane going towards
Crosshill farm, Harker ; wood by Thurstonfield lane.

GEOGLOSSUM viride, The Green Geoglossum. Is found about the middle
of October, growing amongst grass and moss in the woods. Corby
Castle ; also in plantation on west of lane going up to Crosshill
farm.

G. glabrum, The Black Geoglossum. Issmooth and dry. Found in October
in the same plantation as last ; also in that at Hill-house-nook.

G. hirsutum, The Black and Hairy Geoglossum. Found growing amongst
grass in a damp hollow in the plantation beyond The Hill, near to
Blackford Beck ; in October ; hedge, near Longpark.

G. difforme. Found in October, in a plantation at Hill-house-nook ; and in
another on the west side of lane going to Crosshill farm.

PEZIZA venosa. Found early in May among grass in a pasture by the west
side of Petteril, within a few yards of the foot-bridge at Wreay
Mill.

P. badia, Site not noted.

P. leporina, In meadow near Newbiggin Quarry; avenue leading to
Houghton House,

P. aurantia. One of our bright scarlet-coloured fungi. It grows abun-
dantly in hollow of plantation on the left before reaching Harker
Lodge.

P. coccinea. Is somewhat of a funnel- or wineglass-shape. Found about
the middle of March, growing on hazel twigs in a plantation beyond
Cummersdale ; also in the district of Sebergham,

99

BULGARIA inquinans. Found on 24th of September, growing on the bark
of a cut oak tree, lying near Orton Park Lodge ; and also near Draw-
dykes Castle, and at Wigton Railway Station, in a like habitat.

B. sarcoides, Found on the 14th of November, on beech stumps, in a
plantation on the left on entering Houghton House avenue; Harker.

OrpEr 24. TUBERACEI

ELAPHOMYCES variegatus. Found in April in the plantation between
Rockcliffe and Castletown Lodge ; Hill-house-nook.

ORDER 25. PHACIDIACEI.

HYSTERIUM rubi. Found on bramble branches. Site the same as the
last.

DACRYMYCES stellatus. Very common on beech trunks and rotten
sticks about Harker.

D. chrysocomus. I have only noticed this fungus growing on a thorn stick
covered with Hypoxylon. It is very minute and cup-shaped.

OrvER 26. SPHARIACEI.

CORDICEPS militaris. Found ina lane leading to the Moss beyond Scaleby-
hill; Durdar; Harker.

C. entomorhiza, Found in the woods at Orton in October, 1878 ; and also
in Corby Castle Park.

XYLARIA polymorpha. In the woods at Harker 3 Houghton House; in
lanes near Castletown, Rockcliffe; Linstock. Growing on old
beech- and ash stumps at all seasons.

X. digitata. In the same situations as the last.

X. hypoxylon. Found in woods at Harker.

X. carpophila, On tree stumps near Springfield ; London Road.

HYPOXYLON multiforme. Found on stumps at Great Orton; near
Durdar.

THE FOLLOWING EDIBLE FUNGI ARE FOUND GROWING
IN THE DISTRICT.

Agaricus (Amanita) rubescens, The Red-fleshed Mushroom 3 A. (Amanita)
vaginatus ; A. (Amanita )strobiliformis, The Fir-cone Mushroom 3 A. (Lepiota)
procerus, The Parasol Mushroom; A. (Lepiota ) gracilentus; A. (Armillaria )
melleus; A. (Tricholoma) personatus, Lilac-stemmed Mushroom, (Blewitts) ;

100

A. (Gambosus) tricholoma, St. George’s Mushroom; A. (Clitocybe) nebularis,
The Clouded Mushroom ; A. (Clitocybe) dealbeatus, White Fir-wood Mush-
room; A. (Collybia) fusipes ; A. (Pleurotus) ostreatus, Oyster Mushroom ;
A. (Psalliota) campestris, The Meadow Mushroom : vars. pratensis, silvicola,
silvaticus, edulis; A. (Psalliota) exquisitus, or arvensis, The Horse Mushroom ;
A. (Coprinus) comatus, Maned, or Shaggy Mushroom; A. (Coprinus)
atramentarius ; A. (Cortinarius) atramentarius ; A. (Lactarius) deliciosus,
Orange Milk Mushroom ; A. (Lactarius) volemwm, Pear Milk Mushroom ;
A, (Russula) heterophylla, Variable Mushroom ; A. (Russula) virescens and
eruginosa ; A. (Cantharellus) cibarius, The Chantarelle; A. (Marasmius)
oreades, The Fairy Ring Ohampignon, ‘‘Scotch Bonnets ;” Boletus edulis,
Edible Tube-Mushroom ; B. scaber; Polypodus frondosus, or intybaceus ;
P. giganteus ; Fistulina hepatica, The Liver Fungus; Hydnum repandum,
Spine-bearing Mushroom; Clavaria rugosa, Furrowed Clavaria; C. vermicu-
lata, Candle Clavaria; C. cinerea; Bovista plumbea; Lycoperdon giganteum ;
Giant Puff-ball ; L. pyriforme, Pear-shaped Puff-ball ; Morchella esculenta,
Edible Morel ; Helvella crispa, Pallid, or Curled Halvallas H, lacunosa,
Mitre, or Cinereous Helvella.

————

101

CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A LIST
OF THE MINERALS OCCURRING IN CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND.

By J. G. GOODCHILD, oF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND.
(Communicated at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

Tue following list of Minerals occurring in Cumberland and
Westmorland has been drawn up chiefly from notes collected by
myself during a stay of several years in Edenside. ‘To these notes
a careful examination of the fine series of Cumberland and West-
morland Minerals collected by the late Professor Harkness, F.R.S.,
and now belonging to Mrs. Pearson of Penrith, has enabled me to
add several others, especially of the rarer minerals from the Cald-
beck Fells. The Collections in the British Museum, the Museum of
Practical Geology, the Carlisle Museum, and elsewhere, have
added further to the list. I have also consulted Townshend Hall’s
Mineralogist's Directory, Greg and Lettsom’s British Mineralogy,
Ward’s Geology of the Northern Part of the Lake District, Bristow’s
Glossary of Mineralogy, Rutley’s Zext Book of Mineralogy (the
cheapest good book on Mineralogy we have), and lastly, Mr.
Postlethwaite’s Zssay on Mines and Mining in the Lake District.
My colleagues, Messrs. Rudler and Meade, and Mr. Bauerman,
have also helped me with information that I have embodied in
these notes. :

The list is not put forward as an exhaustive one, in regard to
either the species of minerals, or their characteristics, or their mode
and place of occurrence ; and I may add that I shall be very glad

102

to have any further information regarding Cumberland and West-
morland Minerals that will help to make the list complete; and
that the source of any information so received shall be acknow-
ledged in due course.

The Classification adopted here is that employed in the arrange-
ment of the admirable collection in the British Museum; as, all
things considered, this system is by far the best that has yet been
devised.

According to this the minerals are primarily arranged in four
Divisions :—

I. The Native Elements.

II. The Compounds of the Metals with Elements of the
Arsenic Group, or of the Sulphur Group, or with
Elements belonging to both those groups.

III. The Compounds of the Metals with the Chlorine Group.
IV. The Compounds of the Elements with Oxygen.

Each of these divisions is again divided into sections containing
minerals chemically related to one another ; and the sections are
further subdivided into groups arranged according to the crystallo-
graphic forms assumed by the several minerals composing it.

The first Division, or that of the elements found native in an
uncombined state, generally embraces a very small number of
mineral species ; and in the district referred to in this list it may
well be doubted whether more than three or four species may be
safely included.

The first of these is GoLp.

This metal is said to have been obtained in small quantities at
Goldscope and Brandley Mines, on the south-west side of Derwent-
water ; but whether part of the metal so obtained occurred in the
form of specks and isolated grains sparingly disseminated through
the vein stuff, or whether all of it occurred in intimate association
with the Chalcopyrites and Pyrites found in those mines, does not
seem to have been recorded, Traces of Gold may, it is said,
usually be detected in nearly every carefully-conducted analysis of
the two ores just mentioned; but there seems to be some doubt

ee a

103

whether the mineral occurs in the metallic condition under these
circumstances, or whether it may not exist in combination with the
associated ores in the form of an hypothetical sulphide. At any
rate, the percentage of gold obtainable from any given quantity of
ore is usually so small that, in the majority of cases, it might
almost as well be left unmentioned.

In regard to the second species, SILVER, the same kind of
difficulty exists. Silver, in the form of Native Silver, has never
yet been found in our district, so far as I can learn, except in
intimate association with other ores.

Considerable quantities of Silver are, as is well known,
extracted by Pattinson’s and other processes from the Galena
raised in the two Counties. In 1873 the Greenside Mines alone
yielded 16,000 ounces of silver from 942 tons of lead, which is in
the proportion of about seventeen ounces to the ton. Smaller
quantities have been found to exist in other ores, especially in
Fahlerz ; but it is not known for certain whether this silver occurs
in the metallic, or uncombined state, or whether it exists, as it is
considered to do by many competent authorities, in the form of
the sulphide, Argentite, which is ismorphous with Galena.

Native Leap, one hears of now and then as having been found
in one or other of the mines around us ; but any well-authenticated
instance of its occurrence under circumstances that leave no doubt
that its metallic condition is due to the action of purely natural
causes does not seem yet to have been brought forward.

The occurrence of one metal, at all events, seems beyond a
doubt. The world-renowned mines of the Caldbeck Fells, Brandy

Gill especially, have now and then yielded indubitable specimens

of NATIVE BISMUTH.

Native BisMuTH crystallizes in the hexagonal system ; but the
crystallographic form of minerals obtained from the quartz-vein
stuff of the Brandy Gill Mines is not always very apparent. The
general aspect of our mineral is that of laminar masses of thin
plates, which have a bright silvery lustre, and, on the freshly-fractured
surface, a tint between that of silver and of copper, which gives

104

place to an iridescent tarnish after the mineral has been exposed to
the air for any length of time. Besides the cleavage parallel to the
general lamination of the mineral, two sets of subordinate cleavage
planes cut it in directions perpendicular to the first, and intersect
each other in such a manner as to cut the laminz into rhombs.
This is an important source of the Bismuth of commerce, but
with us it occurs only in very small quantities, and is then usually
associated with Telluric Bismuth, Bismuthine, Bismuth Ochre,
Wolfram, Scheelite, and other interesting mineral species.

The last element on the list is GRAPHITE, Plumbago, or Black
Lead. This was formerly be considered as more or less of a Car-
buret of Iron; but it is now usual to regard the Iron, or the other
matter associated with the Graphite as adventitious, and to class
Graphite as one of the two allotropic mineral forms of Carbon.
The mode of occurrence and the method of working the Plumbago
found in the renowned mines of Borrowdale have been so fully
described by my colleague, the late Mr. Ward, in the Geological
Survey Memoir on the Northern Part of the Lake District; and
again by Mr. Postlethwaite of Keswick in his essay on ‘ Mines
and Mining in the Lake District,” that it would be out of place for
me to repeat the substance of their remarks here. Plumbago is
said to occur at Bannerdale Mine on Saddleback, as well as in the
better-known locality of Borrowdale.

Il.

The next division comprises the compounds of the Metallic
Elements (z.) with the Elements of the Arsenic Group—the
Arsenoids, viz., Bismuth, Antimony, and Arsenic; (¢.) with the
Elements of the Sulphur Group—the Thionids, viz., Tellurium,
Selenium, and Sulphur ; and, (2z.) with the Elements of both the
Arsenic and the Sulphur groups.

(z.) Amongst the minerals recorded by Mr.:Ward as occurring
in the Lake District mention is made of NicKEt, which is stated
to have occurred in the form of specks in a quartz-vein in High
Snab Bank, north of Robinson. Nickel has not yet been known

105

to occur native in the metallic state ; and it is more likely that the
ore in question occurred in the form of KUPFERNICKEL, Copper
Nickel, Nickeline, or Nickel Arsenide. Further information, on
this point is very desirable.

SMALTINE, Cobalt Diarsenide, has been recorded from Force
Crag Mine, Keswick, where it was associated with Manganite,
Tourmaline, Stoltzite, and several other minerals of interest. Mr.
Ward makes mention of Cobalt as occurring in small specks in a
quartz-vein between Sail Crag and Scar Crag, west of Derwent-
water; but I have not yet been able to discover whether the
particular form of Cobalt ore referred to by Mr. Ward belongs to
this species or not.

(z.) ‘The next subdivision, or compounds of the Metals with
the Thionids, includes some species of considerable importance.

ARGENTITE, or Silver Sulphide. Assuming that the view is
correct that the silver obtained from our argentiferous galena
occurs in the form of Argentite, which is isomorphous with Galena,
its proper place in the list should be here. But as the presence of
silver in this form is only inferred from analogy, no description of
our specimen is possible.

Some idea of the importance of this mineral production may
be gathered from the fact ‘that in the year 1880, when our mines
were not much worked, no less than 24,998 ounces of silver were
raised in Cumberland and Westmorland alone.

Copper GLANCE, REDRUTHITE, or Copper Sulphide, is mentioned
by Townshend Hall (of. ¢z#.) as occurring in Cumberland ; but
the precise locality, mode of occurrence, and local form are not
mentioned. I have not seen.a specimen of this mineral from our
district myself.

Some time last year a notice went the round of our local news-
papers to the effect that Ciynapar, or Mercury Sulphide, had
been discovered somewhere or other out Caldbeck Fells way,
There is, of course, no valid reason why. this important, ore of

106

Mercury should not occur where it was said to have been found ;
but hitherto no ore of Mercury has been detected within the limits
of the British Isles; and then again, one has heard so often of
such things being dropped by accident or otherwise in places
much frequented by people interested in mining matters, that until
the existence of the ore zz situ has been actually demonstrated to
the satisfaction of mineralogists, Cinnabar cannot be included in
the list of minerals occurring in Cumberland and Westmorland.

The case is far different with the next mineral on the list—
BLENDE, BLack JACK, or Zinc Sulphide. This is one of the most
widely-distributed ores, and at the same time one of the most
easily-recognised of the minerals occurring in our district. It is
found principally, perhaps exclusively, in fault-fissures, or in the
adjoining rock ; generally in association with the lead-veins and
the copper-veins occurring throughout the two Counties.

Blende is sometimes mistaken for Cassiterite, or Tin Oxide; but
Blende may be known at once by yielding to the knife more easily
than the ore of tin does, as well as by its presenting a much more
even fracture. Blende crystallises in the Cubic System, and its
crystals are in great request among spar-hunters on account of their
beautiful lustre. Beautiful examples of Blende, coated with pearly
crystals of Dolomite, from Keswick, and others from the Alston
district, adorn the National Collection; while other equally-fine
specimens from our district may usually be found in most collections
of minerals. 991 tons, 8 cwt. of Zinc, having a money value of
£3612 15. od. were raised from the Cumberland mines in 1880;
but part of this may have been obtained from the Zinc Carbonate,
or Calamine.

Great quantities of Blende will remain unutilised in the dead-
heaps of our mines until Metallurgists shall teach us some
more economical method of reducing this ore to the metallic
form.

Traces of Cadmium Sulphide usually occur in association with

Blende in the same way as Argentite is associated with Galena,
and Gold with Chalcopyrites; but its actual existence in the

107

Blendes of Cumberland and Westmorland in the form of the
particular species GREENOCKITE, has been questioned by competent
authorities.

GaLeENna, Blue Ore, or Lead Sulphide, is the mineral species
ranking next in economic importance to the Coal and the
Hematite raised in Cumberland and Westmorland. The greater
part of the lead employed in the arts is derived from this
ore; and the mines of Cumberland and Westmorland contribute
very largely to the total quantity raised in the United Kingdom.
In the year ended with the close of 1880—an exceptionally bad
time for lead-mines and miners generally, no less than 3781 tons
of lead ore, having a money value of 438,658 75. tod. were
raised in Cumberland and Westmorland 3 and in former years,
when trade was good, and mining enterprise in the ascendant, the
tonnage raised per annum was considerably in excess of this. As
it would be unfair to select any individual mine for special mention,
it is better to refer to Mr. Robert Hunt’s “Mineral Statistics,”
compiled at the Mining Record Office for further information on
this head.

Galena usually occurs in connection with some of the vertical
lines of dislocation, or faults, that traverse all our older rocks ;
where it is found irregularly disseminated through the fault-breccia,
or ramifying thence into the contiguous strata, in interrupted strips,
nests, bunches, strings, or pockets, each generally consisting of aggre-
gations of galena crystals associated more or less with other minerals
of less importance in a commercial aspect. ‘The greatest extension
of the mineral deposit is nearly always in the direction of the
length of the vein, while its extension downward may not exceed a
few hundred feet, and its width may vary from a few feet down to
a mere fraction of an inch. Only too often it is found to terminate
abruptly, even within a short distance of an extensive deposit.
Not unfrequently, especially where the vein traverses limestone, or
other rocks that yield readily to chemical erosion, the ore extends
into the chambers and cavities formed by the partial removal of
the rock adjoining the vein, and these cavities are often lined, or
even entirely filled, by masses of crystals of galena.

108

Less frequently what are called flots (not fas) or irregularly
ramifying strings and sheets of ore, traverse the rock adjoining the
vein in planes ranging within a few degrees of the perpendicular to
the plane of the fault, in such a manner as occasionally to give rise
to a kind of stratified appearance.

Our galena is generally met with in the form of the cube; but
other forms belonging to the Cubic System are far from uncommon,
and beautiful examples of octahedral crystals, many of them of
large size, have been met with at Dufton, Helton, Murton, and
elsewhere.

Galena occurs here and there through all the great upland tract
of Carboniferous rocks that extends away to the east and the
north-east from the Pennine Faults. It is worthy of remark that
hardly a trace of any lead ore has yet been detected in the portion
of the self-same Carboniferous rocks that occupies the low ground
of Edenside on the skirts of the Lake District, notwithstanding
that the beds of rock are, above a certain horizon, identifiable bed
for bed, and are in almost perfect agreement even in minute
particulars with the rocks wherein most of the ore has been
obtained in the more elevated tracts. Yet these same Carbon-
iferous rocks on the outskirts of the Lake District are traversed by
faults and smaller fractures in exactly the same way as are the
ore-yielding beds just mentioned. This would seem to prove that
the ore has not always been derived from the rock adjoimng the
veins, if it has been so derived anywhere else. Here and there
the older rocks that compose the Lake District have yielded
galena; but, although it is true that, in individual mines, very large
quantities of ore have been derived from veins traversing these
older rocks, the metalliferous veins occur in a more sporadic and
disconnected way, and the yield of ore is even more uncertain than
it is in the metalliferous part of the district occupied by rocks of
the Carboniferous Limestone series.

In regard to the origin of the ore occurring in our district, a
series of observations extending over a mining area of several
hundred square miles, has led me to conclude that our ore dates
from comparatively recent times, geologically speaking ; and that

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109

in all probability it originated during the last upheaval ‘of the
district, when the volcanic forces that had produced so important
effects in Miocene times were gradually expending themselves in
the formation of hot and mineral springs. These forced their way
upwards along the old lines of weakness and deposited the minerals
held in solution as soon as the temperature of the upflowing current
was reduced to the depositing point by contact with colder
currents flowing downwards from the surface or by actual proximity
to the surface itself. I have also been led to conclude that the
lead ore, at the close of the period of its formation, extended
through the rocks of our district as shallow, detached vein deposits,
whose general contour, if the disconnected deposits could be joined
over large areas, would be that of irregularly concavo-convex sheets
or inverted saucer-shaped masses. The way the ore works down-
wards as we recede from particular centres seems to point to these
centres marking approximately the position of the principal seats
of hydrothermal action ; as, where the temperature of the thermal
springs rose highest it would be there that the mineral matters
would rise to the parts nearest to the surface before the temperature
of the medium was reduced to the depositing point. Of course,
where the form of the surface, or the lie of the rocks, favoured the
accumulation of larger quantities than usual of water derived from
the surface, this cause would act in an opposite direction, and
induce deposition at a lower horizon than would otherwise be the
case. Variations in the thermal conductivity of the adjoining
rocks would also produce important modifications of the same
kind of effect. It is causes of this nature that have led, I believe,
to the ore in one part of a district occurring only in rocks high up
near the tops of the fells, and in another in a part of the same
series lower by mariy hundreds of feet; and, again, to the ore
occurring exclusively in connection with limestones in one area,
while elsewhere it is found only in arenaceous beds. The same
causes will help to explain why the concurrence of a downfold of
the rocks with a dislocation should have been favourable to
mineral deposition, and in another, why it seems to have exercised
no perceptible influence at all. The whole body of facts seem to

110

point to the deposition of the ore having been the result of an
extremely complex, and delicately-adjusted, series of causes
variously combining to reduce the temperature of the mineral
solutions that were rising through the deeper-seated fissures until
the depositing point was reached. This must have taken place
during a period of w-heaval, because the evidence often clearly
shews that the walls of the vein were repeatedly stretched asunder
during the formation of the mineral vein ; thereby shewing that the
rocks were being subjected to /ateral tension as the rocks adjusted
themselves from a smaller horizontal extension to a larger during
their last upheaval.

Another sulphide of some importance is CHALCOPYRITE, Copper
Pyrites, or “Yellow Ore”—a double Sulphide of Copper and
Iron. The principal mines of Copper Pyrites in this district
are in the neighbourhood of Keswick and of the Caldbeck
Fells. On the south side of the Lake District, there are
the well known mines at Coniston, and here and there, chiefly
amongst the Cambrian and the Silurian rocks of the Lake District
isolated mines of more or less importance have been worked.
Copper in the same form has been wrought in the Carboniferous
Limestone of the upper parts of Edenside at Clouds Mine, and in
Mallerstang ; and again close to Harcla, near Kirkby Stephen ;
and traces of the same ore occur about Helton, where the vein
stuff consists of quartz.

The ore usually occurs in the form of interrupted strings and
irregular masses varying greatly in form and size, and traversing
the vein stuff, which is most commonly quartz, in much the same
way that galena does. Crystalline forms are not commonly met
with. The general aspect of the ore occurring with us is that of
metallic-looking masses more or less of the colour of gold, but with
a marked disposition to assume a tarnished surface. Copper pyrites
cannot be hammered out in the way that gold can, and it is further
distinguished from the only other mineral that bears any superficial
resemblance to it—Pyrites—by its inferior hardness. The ore of
copper can be cut with a knife, whereas Pyrites is sufficiently hard
to strike fire with steel.

111

In and around the Caldbeck Fells this ore has undergone a
good deal of decomposition where it occurs near the surface, and
its constituents have entered into numerous fresh combinations.
In 1880 no copper was returned as having been raised in Cumber-
land and Westmorland, although in former years it was one of the
most important ores of the district.

The well-known Iron Pyrites, Mundic, Sulphur Ore, or Iron
Bisulphide, occurs in tolerable abundance in nearly all the mines
throughout our district, whatever the ore may be that the veins are
especially worked for. Hence the mineral is tolerably familiar to
nearly all. Very beautiful cubical crystals of Pyrites occur in some
of the mines near Keswick, and are in great request for ornamental
purposes. At one time some pyrites was systematically worked
in the Alston district for the manufacture of Sulphuric Acid; but
the demand for this purpose is now more generally met by supplies
from foreign sources, especially from Spain and Portugal. But
even yet five hundred tons, worth about £250, were raised in
Cumberland in 1880.

The general distribution of Iron Sulphide in veins may really be
due to the circulation and the downward flow of water from the
surface, which would have the effect of constantly removing the
products of decomposition in solution and redepositing them
at lower levels where suitable conditions for their reduction
obtained.

Pyrites itself crystallizes in forms belonging to the Cubic System;
but we have another species of the same compound, called Marca-
SITE, or White Pyrites, that assumes crystalline forms belonging to
the Rhombic System. It is rather rare with us, and I have not been
able to discover any locality for it besides that of the mines in the
Alston district. At Garrigill Mine it occurs crystallized upon
Calcite, and there is a specimen of this mineral in the British
Museum, from Snappergill Mines, which consists of an irregular
aggregation of rhombic crystals with pointed ends, shaped some-
thing like the knives of a mowing machine, and which has the
entire surface of the mineral tarnished, as usual, to nearly black.

112

Marcasite was at one time much used for making into ornaments,
brooches and the like.

MOLYBDENITE, Molybdenum Sulphide, is one of the rarer
minerals found in our district. It seems to occur most commonly
in small scaly patches in the granite now so extensively worked
at Shap; and a visit to the quarry will generally enable almost
anyone to secure more or less perfect specimens. Less commonly
it may be found in the same form, and occurring in the same way,
in the quartz matrix of the veins traversing the Skidda Granite at
Brandy Gill Mines, where it is associated with Wolfram, Scheelite,
Mispickel, Telluric Bismuth, and a host of interesting mineral
species. It bears some resemblance to Graphite, but may be
distinguished by its paler colour, its somewhat more decidedly
metallic lustre, and its greener streak. It also resembles Galena,
but may be at once distinguished by its property of marking on
paper.

Brandy Gill Mines yield occasional specimens of the beautiful
mineral known as TELLURIC BISMUTH, or Tetradymite. This is
described in the British Museum cases as ‘‘ Bismuth with telluride,
sulphide, and selenide of Bismuth.” The specimens in the British
Museum are said to be from Roughten Gill, but the character of the
matrix associated with the specimen is exactly like that of the well-
known quartz-with-muscovite matrix of Brandy Gill. The mineral
occurs in laminar masses with a foliated structure, and a very
perfect cleavage. The freshly-cleaved faces present a very beautiful
bright silvery lustre. Brandy Gill is the only known British
locality, and the mineral is not by any means of common occur-
rence there.

Professor Sedgwick refers to an Antimony mine in the Skidda
Slate near the foot of Bassenthwaite; but the precise locality and
the exact species of the mineral are not mentioned.

ANTIMONITE, Stibnite, or Antimony tersulphide, is given in Greg
and Lettsom’s British Mineralogy, and in Bristow’s Glossary, as
occurring at Robin Hood Mine, Bassenthwaite, which is probably
the locality referred to by Sedgwick.

1.

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A singular discovery of a lump of Stibnite in the Glacial drift
near Troutbeck Station (Cockermouth, Keswick, and Penrith
Railway), is mentioned in Ward’s Geology of the Northern Part of
the Lake District.

BISMUTHINE, Bismuth Glance, or Bismuth tersulphide, is
another ore of Bismuth found at Brandy Gill. Our specimens
have the aspect of dull, greasy-looking, lead-coloured scales, with
somewhat more lustre than that of lead. They occur chiefly in the
quartz vein-stuff along with the minerals already enumerated from
the same locality. The British Museum specimens are almost
certainly from the Brandy Gill locality.

MisPIcKEL, Iron Arseno-Sulphide, has already been mentioned
as occurring along with Molybdenite at Brandy Gill. It occurs as
granular steely-looking masses in the interstices between the faces
of the quartz crystals in the vein-stuff; and is generally remarkable
for the peculiar tarnish developed on the surface of the mineral
after some exposure to the weather. Much of the quartz around
the Mispickel is often stained, or coated, with a ferruginous deposit,
probably due to the partial decomposition of the ore.

Another ore of copper of considerable importance in some
districts is FAHLERZ, Fahlore, Grey Copper ore, Tetrahedrite, the
Tetra-basic Sulph-Antimonide of Copper.

This occurs at only two localities that I am aware of, and these
are in the veins traversing the disturbed mass of Mountain Lime-
stone adjoining the Great Pennine Faults at Clouds, to the south
of Kirkby Stephen; and, in smaller quantities, under the same
circumstances to the east of Harcla, Kirkby Stephen. The ore
occurs in the form of irregular lumps of a grey colour, with a
sub-metallic lustre on the freshly-fractured surface ; but exteriorly
more or less tinged with an ochreous rust due to the oxidation of
part of its iron. The interior of each lump is frequently occupied
by irregular cavities lined with the blue and the green carbonates
of copper; while traces of Chalcopyrites may be detected here
and there in the solid parts of the ore. It is associated with

8

114

Galena, Chalcopyrites, Fluor, Calcite, and Barytes in both
localities.

Ill.

The Third Division comprises the compounds of the METALS
with the Halogen elements—Iodine, Bromine, Chlorine, and
Fluorine. Of these only the two following species are represented
here.

One of the best-known and most widely distributed minerals
occurring in our district is FLuoRITE, Fluor spar, or Calcium
Fluoride. As a rule Fluor spar occurs chiefly in the lead veins
traversing the Carboniferous rocks, and it does not occur in any great
quantities in the non-calcareous rocks, even where the other minerals
that usually accompany it are found in tolerable abundance. In
the lead-mining districts it occurs perhaps in nearly all the veins of
one part, while in the veins of an adjoining area, traversing precisely
the same rocks, and, to all appearance, produced under precisely
similar conditions, it is frequently conspicuous by its absence. Its
vertical distribution also seems to be equally irregular ; and the
vein-stuff that in one part of a lode contains this mineral in
abundance may be totally devoid of it a hundred feet or so lower
down. Like the Galena it is so frequently associated with, Fluor
does not often occur, perhaps it hardly ever occurs, except in the
rock in connection with a fault. Our Fluor usually occurs in the
form of cubes, and its colour varies so much that, beyond the
statement that its commonest tint is that of the amethyst, no
general description can be given. In the mines around Cross
Fell beautiful examples of the dichroic variety of Fluor spar
occur. These appear of different colours, according as they are
viewed by reflected or by transmitted light. The most beautiful
specimens of Fluor obtained in Cumberland generally come from
the mines of the Alston district, which has furnished examples of
this species to nearly all the leading collections in the kingdom.

Ha.ite, Common Salt, or Sodium Chloride, may justly be claimed
as a Cumberland and Westmorland mineral for more than one

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115

reason ; the principal reason that I would give being that of the
discovery by Professor Harkness of the characteristic hopper-shaped
pseudomorphs of the crystals of this mineral in the New Red
Rocks of the Eden Valley. Doubtless, when the Stanwix Marls
come to be thoroughly explored we may succeed in meeting with
existing crystals of the salt itself; if it should not be proved to
occur in the more commercially-important form of regular beds.
The origin of Rock salt has given rise to many different theories ;
but that most commonly accepted is the one advocated in
Sir Andrew Ramsay’s Physical Geology of Great Britain. In an
address to the Carlisle Scientific Society on the “ Penrith Sand-
stone,” delivered at Nunnery Walks in the summer of 1880, I gave
a resumé of these theories, with some additional remarks bearing
upon this important subject.

IV.

In the Fourth, and remaining Division are placed the compounds °
of the Elements with Oxygen. This group includes all the chief
rock-forming minerals of our district, as well as some of the mineral
compounds that are of much importance in an economic respect.

PROTOXIDES.

In the British Museum list the first of our minerals included in
this category is MELaconiTE, Tenorite, or Copper Monoxide.
Townshend Hall states that this ore of copper occurs at Roughten
Gill along with Chalcopyrites (“Towanite”) and Brewsterite. I
have not seen a specimen of Melaconite from any of our localities,
but there is every reason for expecting to meet with it under the
circumstances that obtain at Roughten Gill and the neighbour-
hood.

SESQUIOXIDES.

In Hall’s Mineralogist’s Directory ConunDvum, Aluminium-Sesqui-
oxide, is mentioned as occurring along with Tourmaline at Carrick.
This mineral, which amongst its varieties includes the Sapphire
and the Ruby, as well as the Emery employed in the Arts, is, next

116

to the Diamond, the hardest known body. I have not seen any
of the Cumberland specimens ; but they are said to occur in the
form of hexagonal crystals. It would be interesting to know
whether this mineral occurs with us in the Hypersthenite of
Carrick, or whether it was found, where so many other minerals
were, associated with the quartz-vein traversing the Skidda Granite
at Brandy Gill.

Next after Corundum, but second in point of economic import-
ance to none in the list, follows our well-known ore of Iron,
Hematite, Red Iron Ore, Iron Sesquioxide, or Ferric Oxide.

The mineral is so well known that not much need be added
here to what has been before written about it. It occurs in the
form of pockets, veins, and flots, chiefly in the Carboniferous
Limestone Series skirting the Lake District; though here and
there veins of the same mineral are found traversing the older
~rocks. In the same Carboniferous Limestone rocks that form the
Cross Fell escarpment and the great upland tract.of mining country
that extends away to the east and the north-east from the line of
the Pennine Faults, Hematite is nearly or quite unknown: the
iron ores occurring there being chiefly the Iron Carbonate, and
the hydrated oxide known as Limonite.

The origin of our deposits of hematite is a subject I have felt a
keen interest in ever since the time when I picked up a piece of
West Cumberland ore containing perfect impressions of Carbon-
iferous corals and encrinites while geologically surveying the
railway sections near Tebay in 1867. Since that time my official
connection with the Geological Survey has enabled me to collect a
large store of facts and observations bearing upon this important
subject. These, it is to be hoped, will appear eventually in the
regular Survey publications, and they cannot, therefore, be more
than referred to here.

So far as my own observations have gone, they long since led
me to a similar conclusion to that so ably advocated by our Associ-
ation Secretary, Mr. Kendall, in his paper on the Hematite Deposits

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of West Cumberland,* and in others, published in various scientific
journals. Mr. Kendall has brought forward abundant evidence to
convince anyone that the hematite is a substitutional deposit,
which has, in some way or another, taken the place of part of the
chemically-altered rock adjoining the natural fissures. I would,
myself, further, attribute this replacement, not to the infiltration of
a ferriferous solution during the deposition of the Red Bocks, but
to the complex series of changes initiated by the infiltration of
mineral solutions soaking downward through the New Red strata
after their deposition. Where permeable strata underlaid the New
Red these solutions were diffused throughout a considerable mass
of rock, and affected them in few other ways than by staining.
But where the downward flow was arrested by meeting with strata
impermeable except along certain divisional planes, the solutions
were concentrated along those planes, and were kept in contact
with the adjoining rock long enough to initiate the important
chemical changes that have ended with the replacement of portions
of the rock by hematite. That this process of replacement was a
very gradual process, and the result of feebly acting causes continued
through a long period, is, I think, sufficiently evidenced by the
mineralisation of such specimens as that above referred to. Slight
as is the difference either in the physical characteristics, or in the
chemical composition, between the carbonate of lime of the car-
boniferous fossils, and that of the limestone matrix enclosing them,
it has been a difference sufficient to determine whether the delicately-
adjusted chemical forces should act by removing all the carbonate
of lime of the one, leaving the space formerly occupied by the
fossil empty ; or whether, concurrently with this, it should, while
removing the carbonate of lime of the matrix, replace it atom by
atom with other compounds, and end by converting it entirely into
solid ore.

The almost perfect gradation traceable, in the case where the
matrix consists of carbonate of lime, from this, through stained, and
dolomitized rock into the hematite, may often be traced in hand

* «Hematite Deposits of West Cumberland.” Zvans. North of E. Institute
of Mining Engineers, vol. xxviii. p. 107.

118

specimens ; and the one extreme shades into the other in such a
manner that it is occasionally hard to say where the altered rock
ends and the ore begins. .

I remember noticing, when the hematite was being worked
in Harcla Pastures, in 1872, that even crystals of calcite had
been replaced by pseudomorphs of hzematite, while the charac-
teristic appearance of the original crystal was still retained. The
same deposit of hematite traversed beds of limestone wherein
chert nodules occur. In this case the carbonate of lime of the
limestone was alone replaced by the hematite, while the nodules
of chert remained, in some cases, to all appearance quite unaltered,
and appeared as flinty nodules surrounded by the ore of iron. It
is probably to this selective action that the conversion of the galls
of calcareous shale in the Carboniferous Rocks and of the fragments
and pebbles of a calcareous nature in the New Red Breccias into
a kind of hematite is in great part due. The replacement has
proceeded so far in a few cases as to mislead observers into
believing that the pseudomorphs represent veritable pebbles, and
that the hematite is therefore older than the deposit they occur in.
Much of the limestone adjoining the. hzmatite veins is often
changed more or less into Dolomite, from the infiltration of
Magnesium Carbonate; and this Dolomite seems to graduate
further into Siderite, or Iron Carbonate. Many of the drusy
cavities occurring along with the Heematite where it is found in
limestone may be due to the contraction or shrivelling up of the
rock consequent upon its general diminution in bulk in passing
from the unaltered condition to the state of Dolomite. It seems
possible that this partial rearrangement of the constituents of the
calcareous rocks adjoining the veins may, to a certain extent, have
favoured the deposition of the hzematite.

Traces of Hematite are found here and there through all the
Carboniferous Limestone tract that skirts the Lake District ; but
although a few hundred tons or so have been obtained near Kirkby
Stephen, and smalier quantities have occasionally been met with
here and there in other parts, it is not until we follow the outskirts
of the Lake District round to West Cumberland that deposits ot

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119

any great importance are met with. Without doubt such deposits
will hereafter be found in Edenside when the district shall be
explored under the guidance of competent persons having that
special object in view. In all the parts of the Carboniferous
Limestone Series whence the Red Rocks have been, geologically
speaking, lately denuded, Hzematite may be looked for with some
prospect of success.

In form our ore varies from earthy ruddle, through the mammil-
lated aggregations with a more or less radiating fibrous structure,
to the beautifully crystalline varieties known as Specular Iron.
Many of these, although lacking some of the exquisitely beautiful
iridescence observable on the specimens of the same kind of ore
from Elba and elsewhere, are yet of very great beauty ; and there
are Cumberland specimens in the British Museum, the Collection
of Minerals at the Museum of Practical Geology, and the fine
private collection of the late Professor Harkness that, for lustre
and beautiful play of colours, will bear favourable comparison with
specimens from any part of the world.

1,491,440 tons of this ore, worth £1,154,613 were raised in
Cumberland alone in the year 1880. }

Another ore of iron very commonly distributed throughout our -
district, and yet differing from hzematite inasmuch as it never occurs
in any considerable quantity, is ILMENITE, Titanic Iron, or Ferric
Titanate. Unlike the other metallic ores, this rarely occurs here in
the form of veins; but it is found as a constituent of our crystalline
rocks ; most commonly in the rocks of an igneous origin. The best
example of its occurrence I am acquainted with is that of the
Hypersthenite of Carrick, wherein it occurs in the form of irregular
granular masses of a silvery-steel lustre and colour, ‘and generally
more or less of a black tarnish, amongst the crystals of Hypersthene
or Diallage and of plagioclase felspar that constitute the bulk of
that rock. The Gabbro found at Walla Crag, Hawes Water, and
that of Cuns Fell, near Melmerby, also yield the same mineral.

Similar remarks apply to MacNnerTITE; for although this ore
occurs abroad in lodes and large masses in quantities sufficient to

igo

constitute it an important ore of iron, with us it occurs chiefly,
perhaps almost exclusively, in the form of granules disseminated
throughout the mass of many of our igneous rocks.

In Vol. ii. p. 565 of the Geological Magazine, I called attention
to the occurrence of a mineral new to the British list in the
Hematite mines of West Cumberland. This is HAUSMANNITE,
the tetragonal form of Manganese Protoxide and Sesquioxide ; or,
according to some, Manganese Deutoxide.

Since the notice appeared, Mr. Kendall informs me _ that
considerable quantities of the ore have been found.

-An ore of considerable commercial importance, when found in
large quantities, is PyroLusirez, Manganese Bin-Oxide, which
differs from Hausmannite in crystallizing in the Rhombic instead
of in the Tetragonal system. This ore of manganese is very
generally diffused throughout our district, but nowhere occurs in
workable quantities. It is found in greater or lesser abundance in
association with most veins of iron, and is also found along with
the lead and copper ores of the Caldbeck Fells. One very
common form of the mineral is that of the singular dendritic, or
moss-like aggregations that occur on the divisional planes of many
of our harder rocks, especially on the Penrith Sandstone. A very
beautiful example of this kind was presented to the Carlisle
Museum by my colleague Mr. Colvin, and others exist in most
collections, where they are not unfrequently regarded as examples
of fossil plants.

This ore is much used in the preparation of oxygen for various
purposes, and the beautiful amethystine tint it imparts to glass
is turned to account in neutralizing the objectionable bottle-green
tint resulting from the ferruginous impurities occurring in the
materials employed in glass manufacture.

Like the ores of iron, this ore of Manganese seems to have its
origin connected in some way or another with the deposition of
our Red Rocks.

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121

HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDES,

Under this head comes the important ore of iron known as
LimonireE, Brown Hematite, hydrated Iron Sesquioxide, or Ferric
Hydrate. Mention has already been made of the occurrence of
this ore amongst the vein-stuff associated with the lead ores along
the higher parts of the district around Cross Fell.

Its mode of occurrence suggests that, in this case, at least, it is
simply Hematite altered iz situ. The ore graduates into the
surrounding limestone in the same way that much of the Hematite
does, and the individual masses frequently present the peculiar
mammillated and hbotryoidal forms, and the radiating fibrous
structure observable in the Hematite itself. Indeed, although
the characteristic brown streak of the Limonite is easily obtained,
these Cross Fell deposits are sufficiently like the West Cumberland
ore to have been described more than once as genuine Hzematite.
I have elsewhere expressed my belief that the great upland tract
where these occur is merely the modified descendant of the great
plain that, before its continuity was interrupted by the Faults, once
extended beneath the New Red over a very large part of the North
of England. And just as I regard the Hematite occurring in the
low ground of Edenside as the result of infiltration from the lately-
denuded New Red still represented in the neighbourhood, so I
would refer the origin of these deposits of Limonite to infiltration
from part of the eastward extension of these same beds, and would
regard their present hydrated condition as being due to the greater
length of exposure they have undergone.

Another form of hydrated iron oxide occurring in Cumberland
and Westmorland is TurGITE. Part of the ore occurring at Aral
Head, or Ardale Head, near Cross Fell, is referable to this species,
as are also some botryoidal masses with a radiating fibrous structure
occurring in the hematite mines near Harcla, Westmorland.

GceruirTE, the Rhombic Monohydrated Ferric Oxide, frequently
occurs in association with Hzmatite and Limonite. I have not
yet noticed it myself; but it has been found in West Cumberland
by our Association Secretary, Mr. Kendall.

122

MANGANITE, the Monohydrated Manganese Oxide, which is
isomorphous with Geethite, has already been mentioned as occurring
at Force Crag Mine, near Keswick, in association with Smaltine,
Tourmaline, Stoltzite, Cerussite, Blende, and many other minerals.
It will probably be detected when properly looked for also in the
Roughten Gill Mines, especially around Dry Gill; but I have not
yet seen a specimen from our district myself.

The commonest ore of Manganese, at least in the Caldbeck
Fells, is the amorphous, Hydrous Peroxide of Manganese, known
as PsILOMELANE. ‘This occurs in considerable abundance at Dry
Gill Mine, where the barrel-shaped crystals of Mimetesite or
Kampylite are found. Beautiful specimens of both of these are in
the British Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology, the Hark-
ness Collection, and others.

This, like Pyrolusite, is a valuable ore of Manganese, but, unless
it occurs in large quantities, it hardly pays for working at places
where transport is costly.

The most important rock-constituent in our district is, without
doubt, one form or another of the mineral Quartz. As the mode
of occurrence of this mineral in the Lake District has already been
treated of by Mr. Ward in Vol. iii. of our Zvansactions and else-
where, it would be out of place for me to repeat any of his
observations here. The mineral, in one form or another, is to be
found almost everywhere ; but in the form of veins it is found but
rarely in the Carboniferous Rocks, and hardly ever in any of the
newer rocks of our district. There is abundant proof that this is
owing to the fact that most of the quartz veins traversing the older
rocks of the Lake District are of older date than the Carboniferous
period. Veins of quartz of Carboniferous age do, however, occur,
and there is this of interest about many of these Carboniferous
quartz veins—that they afford remarkable instances of a kind of
replacement, similar in its nature to that of the Heematite, the
Dolomite, and one or two other minerals already referred to. One
instance of this kind, well known by name, is that of the Great
Sulphur Vein of the Alston district. This has already been

123

pointed out to the Carlisle Scientific Society on our Whit-Monday
excursion to Melmerby in 1880. The vein there coincides, as
such veins nearly always do, with the line of a fault; and right
and left of the line of the fault the limestone adjoining the vein is,
in great measure, replaced by rock of a more or less silicious
nature, which, in its most highly-altered portions graduates into
pure vitreous quartz. In the less-highly-altered portions of the
vein the bedding and the traces of fossils are distinctly visible.
Several other veins of this nature are to be found elsewhere in
Edenside: one set occurring at the Scordale Mines near Roman
Fell; while another equally well marked set occurs close to the
head-waters of the Eden near Hanging Lunds in Mallerstang.
Here the limestone adjoining the veins has been altered to a width
_ of nearly fifty feet at one place into a hard silicious quartzite,
which, nearer the centre of the vein, graduates into pure vitreous
and crystalline quartz. Like the Hematite, the Quartz in this
case exercises a well-marked selective influence ; and, while the
limestone fragments of the fault-breccia in each case are more or
less metamorphosed, the accompanying fragments of sandstone
and of shale remain in their original condition, just as do the chert
nodules in the case of the Hematite deposit at Harcla, already
_ mentioned.

___ All these veins contain Pyrites, and at least traces of Copper—
" generally in the form of either Chalcopyrites, or else in that of
Chessylite or of Malachite. Other minerals are rare.

Nearly all the metalliferous veins of the Lake District are quartz
veins, which is probably due to the fact that, as veins, they date
from Precarboniferous times, and that, once formed, they have

acted as upward vents for thermal springs from the date of their
formation down to the time when they received their latest deposits
of ore. No one can look at the spongy quartz—so light and
cellular that it will almost float—that is found in the Caldbeck
Fells and elsewhere, without feeling assured that its present
condition points to a long and complex series of changes it has
undergone in the course of the long geological periods that have
elapsed since its formation.

124

Quartz crystals, as is well known, occur along with the Hematite,
perhaps as one result of the complex series of chemical changes
initiated by the infiltration of the solutions that brought down
the Gypsum, the Rock Salt, and the Carbonate of Magnesia into
the Red Rocks, Crystals of quartz occur now and then lining the
interior of Carboniferous fossils, but such instances are far from
common.

Quartz is not the only form of Silica that occurs in Edenside.
CHALCEDONY, which is regarded as a mixture of the crystalline
form of quartz with the opaline form, is found here and there,
generally in association with nodules of chert, in various parts of
the Carboniferous Limestone series, notably in the part of the
Mountain Limestone about the upper part of the Lune Valley
between Tebay and Ravenstonedale.

The CHERT just mentioned is another form of crypto-crystalline
silica, which differs from flint in having a more splintery fracture,
and in including, in its impure forms, much Calcic Carbonate in its
composition. Chert occurs in interrupted nodules in the Mountain
Limestone of the part of the Lune Valley just mentioned ; and
some of these nodules are clearly the result of segregation around
a fossil nucleus ; generally one of the corals, already partly silicious
to begin with. Nodules of chert occur also in particular beds of
the Yoredale Limestones all through Edenside, as far, at least, as
Hesket-Newmarket, on the south-west side, and as Renwick, on
the north-east.

JASPER is another form of crypto-crystalline silica occurring in |

Edenside ; but its mode of occurrence is different from that of any

of the other forms we have been considering. Jasper occurs

principally as one of the constituents of the pebbles that go to
make up our Upper Old Red Conglomerates—that group of

conglomerates and sandstones whereof patches are left here and —

there between the Carboniferous Rocks and the Older Paleozoic
Rocks of the Lake District. This Jasper is found in deposits of
the same age and character on the flanks of the Cheviots; and as
many of the rock fragments occurring in our deposits of the Upper

dietitians

a

Old Red are identical with part of the constituents of their chrono-
logical equivalents on the Border, it may be not altogether unsafe
to conclude that our Jasper came from some older conglomerate
out Scotland way, whose disintegration and subsequent rearrange-
ment have given rise to our Upper Old Red Conglomerates here.
If this view should hereafter prove to be correct, we need not
wonder that the constituents of our Mell Fell and other Upper
Old Red deposits do not represent the waste of the rocks of the
area adjoining.

Yet another form of silica occurs in Edenside. This is found
in the form of finely laminated siliceous beds associated with the
limestones of the Yoredale Rocks. In the south-eastern part of
the valley these beds assume considerable importance, and they
there occasionally pass into beds of-nearly pure chert, notwith-
standing their obviously sedimentary and fossiliferous character.
These beds graduate horizontally into ordinary limestones in one
direction, and in the opposite direction, where we have reason to
believe that deep sea conditions obtained during the formation of
the Yoredale Rocks—they tend to develop into beds a hundred

_ or more feet in thickness.

One is tempted to regard these siliceous beds as representing a

_ palzeozoic series of deposits of siliceous mud derived, it may be,

from the exuvize of the Diatoms, Radiolarians, and Sponges
inhabiting the deep sea at that remote period. Professor Huxley
has shewn how deposits of this nature may, by the partial, or the
total, dissolution and the subsequent redeposition of their siliceous
particles, be ‘converted into amorphous opaline silica. Such
deposits as have lately been brought under the notice of the
scientific world as one of the results of the Challenger Expedition,
would give rise to a set of rocks essentially like those I have just
now referred to, if there were frequent oscillations of level bringing
about alternate deposits of siliceous mud and calcareous ooze, and
these again alternating with ordinary sedimentary and drifted
deposits, as the physical conditions changed,

The quartz crystals occurring in the Penrith Sandstone, represent
another and a later period of development. I have before ex-

126

pressed my belief that many of these were formed prior to the
deposition of the rock in its present form; as a microscopic
examination of thin slices of the rock shewed that crystals occur
with distinct traces of the kind of attrition that would be produced
by rolling, and with both the worn and the unworn portions of the
crystal alike coated with the film of Hematite that is generally
supposed to have been produced contemporaneously with the
deposition of the rock material itself.

That other crystals occurring in the same rock have been
actually built up around grains of sand 7x si#u, and subsequently to
the formation of the rock, I am now quite convinced from a
microscopic examination of other preparations of the rock shewn
me by my friend Mr. William Atkinson of Penrith, and by Mr.
John Arthur Phillips, F.R.S.

“To be continued. ).

127

NOTES ON THE FLORA OF THE ULLSWATER
DISTRICT.

By WILLIAM HODGSON.
(Read at Penrith, 1882.)

THE boundaries of the district referred to in these notes may be
briefly described as coinciding with the water-shed of the lake and
its tributaries. This area comprises portions of the two counties
of Cumberland and Westmorland, the latter county claiming
precedence in point of extent. It embraces the entire parishes of
Patterdale and Martindale, and the upper part of Barton; the
whole of Watermillock, a considerable portion of Matterdale, and
the western extremity of Dacre.

Portions of Watermillock and Dacre towards the lower end of
the lake rest upon the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate. On
Moordivock the Mountain Limestone forms the surface, but the
major portion of the rugged hills that embosom the lake are of
volcanic origin.

The arable portion of the district has, within my experience,
undergone considerable modifications. Extensive tracts of common,
inclosed rather more than fifty years ago, had been brought under
tillage just previous to my first sojourn in Watermillock. Large
crops were raised upon the virgin soil, which, in a few years,
began to decline, until gradually the cultivation of cereals was
abandoned, and the numerous Cruciferze, Papaveracez, and other -
crop-weeds, have, in consequence, almost entirely disappeared. The
district is peculiarly rich in grasses, sedges, rushes, and sub-aquatic

128

plants, using this adjective in its botanical sense. The lake itself
from its rocky, or clear gravelly bottom, is comparatively barren of
vegetation ; greatly resembling in this particular the secluded lake
of Ennerdale.

In running my fingers along the columns of the London Catalogue

of British Plants, 7th Edition, 1877, I find that nearly five hundred
and twenty different species of plants may be claimed as indigenous
to the district, exclusive of Ferns, Equiseta, Lycopods, and Mosses.
A fair proportion also of casuals, waifs of cultivation, &c., may be
found, whose introduction into the neighbourhood would appear
almost unaccountable under ordinary circumstances. Amongst
these casuals I may mention Camelina sativa, which I found in
1878 growing near the course of a stream flowing into Dacre Beck.
On subsequent enquiry it appeared that the soil where it was found
had been shot there out of the grounds of an old residence close
by, where the plant had, in former times, been grown along with
Flax.
A yet more curious instance happened to me so recently as
October last. Passing along the road near the old steamboat
landing at Floshgate, my eye caught some diminutive purple-
flowering plants growing on the gravel bed there. I got over the
rails to examine the spot, and was surprised to find several other
plants, all of which I thought were exotics. I afterwards found
that one of the residents in the neighbourhood had brought away
from Mr. Seatree’s, in Penrith, a quantity of refuse cleared out
from a corn-dressing machine, and had been in the habit of
throwing it on the gravel where the plants were found, to feed his
poultry ; and here was the result. Among others was a plant of
the Sizapis tribe which in its younger condition of growth his
daughter had cut and used as an ingredient in a salad.

It cannot of course be expected that in the limits of a paper like
the present I should be able to descend to minute particulars of
each of the five hundred plants to be found within the area I have
mentioned. I will therefore describe such particular species of
each family as I may deem expedient, either on account of their
beauty, comparative rarity, or economic utility. Before doing so,

—_——

129

I would just remark that during the three last summers I have
spent some time in endeavouring to verify the accuracy of the lists
of unusual plants of the district left behind by former observers,
including the Rev. W. Richardson of Dacre 3 Mr. N. J. Winch of
Newcastle; Rev. J. Harriman of Eaglescliffe, Durham; Mr. Hutton
of Keswick, and others. Several plants named by these gentlemen
as occurring in the vicinity of Ullswater have hitherto eluded my
observation ; while, on the other hand, I have found many which
they either had not discovered, or, at any rate, if found, had not
recorded.

Of the first family in the Catalogue, the RANUNCULACE#, I may
mention the occurrence of Thalictrum alpinum in some of the
little rills at the eastern base of Helvellyn, close to the head of the
Red Tarn. Hundreds may be collected there, but I have never
yet been able to find them in the flowering stage, or even with
stems fairly developed. Another of the family, Thalictrum minus,
var. /lexuosum, may be found on both shores of the lake, where
dry gravel beds occur. Ranunculus fluitans, a most peculiar
looking plant, may be seen in the bed of the River Eamont a little
below Pooley Bridge. As far as I can discover, I have been the
first to notice its existence in Cumberland. Its long, delicate,

thread-like’stems, of a light green colour, form a very pretty object

floating®in the water and waving backwards and forwards in the
current. Its leaves are all submersed, forked, and setaceous. In
a rapid stream the flowers are rarely developed ; but where the
roots are anchored behind some protecting block of stone, its
lovely white flowers may be found about midsummer. Examples
occur close to the ancient weir at the Eelstank. Aquilegia vulgaris
may also be found on the Cumberland shore of the lake, about
half a mile above Gowbarrow Hall, and near the mouth of Airey
Beck. Last summer I was astonished to discover this plant
growing in a rugged ravine on the mountain side, immediately
above Dowthwaite Head, at an elevation of little under 1 500 feet
above sea level, on the ‘face of rocks perennially wet with water
dripping from a still higher level.

9

130

~The second family, BERBERACEA, includes only one species, the
-Common Barberry, well known in our gardens and shrubberies.
Next in order stand the NYMPHEACE#, or Waterlilies, of which
Nymphea alba occurs in Brothers Water, on the side next to the
highway, below Brownrigg’s hotel.

The PAPAVERACEZ are but poorly represented, having declined
in numbers considerably with the withdrawal of land from tillage.
One of its members, however, AZeconopsis cambrica, appears to have
established itself more firmly than of yore, and may be found
about old walls and hedgerows in close proximity to gardens,
whence it has probably escaped.

The next family, the FUMARIACE&, have diminished in numbers
from the same cause as the poppies. ‘The trailing Corydalis
claviculata may be noticed in several localities. It is probably
best represented by several patches which occur on the Gowbarrow
Fells, near Collier Hag; also on the breast of Place Fell, near the
Patterdale slate-quarries.

The extensive family of CRUCIFERA, like the preceding, have
decreased with the decline of tillage. One of the rarest of the
tribe, Raphanus raphanistrum, may be seen occasionally about the
old farmsteads at Bennet Head, in Watermillock. Another com-
paratively scarce member of the family is Arabis hirsuta. It
appears on the conglomerate rock at Sparket Mill, just where the
tail race re-enters Dacre Beck. Our friends in Penrith may find
this plant on the top of the wall on Slapestones brow, and about
the gateway leading to the Red Hills lime works. The little hairy
rosette in which the root leaves are enveloped, before the stem
shoots forth, affords an admirable example of simplicity and
completeness in arrangement of the parts intended for the protection
of the plant from injury during the early stages of its growth.
Cochlearia officinalis, v. alpina, is to be found in many of the
mountain rills. It is difficult perhaps to make out that this plant
differs materially from C. officinalis; and I question the propriety
of increasing the number of species in our lists on apparently
trivial, and, it may be, accidental, varieties of form. I have

131

already referred to the circumstances under which I have observed
Camelina sativa. Teesdalia nudicaulis occurs on dry hill-sides in
different parts of the district, especially where the surface has been
disturbed.

The only member of the CisTacE# is probably Helianthemum
vulgare, which flourishes among the limestone rocks that crop out
to the surface on Moordivock. A patch of it occurs by the road
side not far from the foot of Slapestones brow, going in the direction
of the old Snuff-Mill.

Of the VIOLACE# several species occur. Vola odorata is found
by the road side near Watermillock House, where, as well as at
the summit of Slapestones, it may rank as a casual. Viola lutea
is extremely abundant and widely distributed in the district. It is
a very handsome species, and I have a pleasant recollection of the
manner in which I saw some meadows above the village of Dockray,
in Matterdale, enamelled with its flowers in the summer of 1880.
A variety with petals wholly yellow occurs near the footpath leading
from Stoddah to Penruddock, not far from the former place. Viola
flavicornis, on the rocks near Kailpot Crag.

DrosErRAc#. Of the many thousand plants of Drosera that I
_ have observed growing in the boggy grounds at the base of every
mountain, they have ever turned out to be specimens of Drosera
rotundifolia. It has the reputation of being to some extent sensi-
tive, and, as many writers allege, insectivorous ; its beautifully
fringed leaves, closing upon the unwary fly that may settle upon
them, and preventing all escape, until the juices of the insect’s
body have been in some mysierious manner absorbed by the plant:
Whether such food is essential to the healih of the vegetable, I
cannot undertake to affirm; but the fact is undoubted, that a very
great majority of the leaves of the Sundew are found to contain the
remains of insects so entrapped and destroyed.

Of the PoLtyGALacE# we possess but one species, Folygala
vulgaris, of frequent occurrence on mountainous heaths. A very
pretty little plant, the flowers varying much in the hue of their

132

petals, being sometimes white, sometimes delicate rosy-pink, and
sometimes bright blue.

The CARYOPHYLLACEE is a somewhat extensive group, which
has many species of frequent occurrence. Saponaria officinalis,
old writers say, grew in their time at Akebeck Bridge, near Pooley,
and also near Howtown. I have examined both stations without
success. Sz/ene inflata, at the top of Slapestones. Svel/aria nemorum,
uncommon in many parts of Cumberland, is fairly plentiful.
It is found by many brooklets in Watermillock ; and in the summer
of 1878, I noticed it growing far up in the mountain ravine
at the head of Fusedale, in Martindale. Its congener, the Common
Chickweed, is one of the most formidable pests of what little
agriculture remains to us. Sagina apeta/a is not unusual by road
sides and at the edges of cultivated ground, though far less plentiful
than S. procumbens. For the benefit of Penrith folk again, I may
state that the former species may be found by the side of the
highway going towards Carlton, on the left hand.

Of the ILLECEBRACE#, only a single species is found among us,
and that but very rarely. This is Scleranthus annuus, sometimes
met with at the edges of cornfields. In the West of Cumberland,
where this plant is more frequent, it seems to prefer soils of an
argillaceous nature. i

Of the PorTuLacE& we possess only one species, Montia
Jontana, the brilliant green chickweed-like foliage of which may be
seen in almost every mountain spring or “ well eye.”

HyperRicace®. Inasmuch as many members of this genus
affect sub-alpine regions, our district produces more than an average
quota. AWypericum androsemum is found only in some old-fashioned
gardens as an ornamental shrub, and cannot fairly be regarded as
indigenous. . ¢retrapterum loves moisture, and is frequently
found where its roots are always submerged. Very fine specimens
occur in rills on the pastures above Glencoin farm, on the Cum-
berland side of the brook which here forms the boundary line
between Cumberland and Westmorland. A. humifusum, the least
member of the family, is of common occurrence on dry banks,

A pill

133

especially by woodland hedgerows. Near the bridge at Hartsope,
and elsewhere.

Matvacez. Althea officinalis, a plant largely used by the rural
population as an emollient for sprains and swellings, is chiefly
found about the boundaries of old gardens and orchards, nowhere,
perhaps, truly wild. Its congener, however, Malva moschata,
frequently makes its appearance about quarry grounds, where its
roots strike deeply into the rubbish heaps thrown aside by the
workmen. A very handsome plant bearing large flowers of rosy-pink
hue, with deeply-notched petals. About Birk-Crag quarry, &c.

TiLiacE&. Of this family only one member is present, Z77/ia
europea, or T: intermedia, of De Candolle and other writers ; the
Common Lime Tree of our shrubberies and avenues,

LINACE& is represented by a single member, Linum catharticum,
of almost universal occurrence, from an altitude of 2000 feet to the
level of the lake.

GERANIACE. Of this elegant genus of plants, many representa-
tives are indigenous to the district. Geranium pheum is found on
a shady hedgebank at Stock’s-nook, in Watermillock, an outcast
possibly from the ancient garden of the mansion-house. G. lucidum,
with its glossy leaves, which assume a lively reddish tinge when the
plant has reached maturity, is everywhere common in the vicinity
of dwellings. The well-known Oxalis acetosel/a is abundant.

Inicace&, of which the Common Holly is the only British
species, also has its home with us. In the woods about Gowbarrow
and Lyulph’s Tower, as well as in many parts of Patterdale, this
fine evergreen grows luxuriantly and spontaneously.

CELASTRACEA, like the last mentioned genus, can boast of only
a single type indigenous to Britain, Zwonymus europeus, which old
writers mention as occurring by the shore of the lake in Gowbarrow
Park, where I have hunted for it without success.

RHAMNACEZ includes but two British species. I only refer to
it here, because in the course of last summer I detected one of its
members growing near the top of Slapestones. In the absence of

134

blossom or fruit, I failed to identify the shrub correctly, and it has
lately been cut down. It will, I trust, sprout again from the
bottom, and so enable some of our members to identify the plant.
I believe it to be Rhamnus catharticus.

SAPINDACEZ. Of these forest trees, the Common Sycamore,
Acer pseudo-platanus, alone claims notice. It appears to have
been greatly appreciated by the rude forefathers of our several
hamlets, almost every toft being sheltered by its umbrageous
branches. At Rattlebeck, in Glenridding, a splendid specimen
may be seen.

LEGUMINIFERZ. Of this most extensive family, we cannot
pretend to have more than a moderate share of species. Of Gorse,
or Whins, two species are of frequent occurrence. Three forms of
Broom are likewise found. The Common Rest-harrow appears at
rare intervals, in deep soils of dry sandy nature. Respecting the
next plant in the catalogue, Amthyllis vulneraria, I feel tempted to
offer a passing remark or two. Frequently as I have found it
growing in Cumberland within the last quarter of a century, it has
ever been in some locality—some railway-cutting or embankment
—some quarry ground—near some coal or iron-ore mine, &c.,
where the surface has been disturbed to some depth; and in
accord with my previous experience, I spied my old friend this
summer on the railway embankment by the viaduct on the Penrith
side of Redhills farm, where its sulphur-coloured blossoms appeared
in some quantity. I would gladly ascertain if the fact I have just
stated be in accordance with the experience ‘of any plant-loving
members of the Penrith Scientific Society. Five or six Clovers
may be reckoned as indigenous with us, exclusive of two species of
Bird’s-foot Trefoil; and four Vetches, the least plentiful being
Vicia angustifolia, which is found on a hedge bank in front of
Hurrock Wood, and Ovobus tuberosus, which is to be found in most
of our meadows. The variously tinted purple flowers of this species
are exceedingly handsome. In the summer of 1878, a specimen
having a corolla entirely of creamy white was brought to me by a
friend ; it had been gathered by the road side near Sparket.

135

Rosace#, the Rose tribe, another numerous group, including
roses proper, plums, cherries, strawberries, brambles, &c.; taken
altogether, a very interesting and difficult genus to deal with, of
which a few examples may be briefly noticed. Spirea salicifolia,
a shrub hardly naturalised, but found about old garden hedgerows.
Alchemilla alpina, plentiful on the highest bluffs of our mountains.
In Swarthbeck, near Raven Crag, it forms the chief constituent of the
scanty vegetation. Comarum palustre, in boggy localities frequent ;
in Bannerdale Bottoms very fine specimens are met with. Rubus
ideus, abundant everywhere up to an altitude of 1500 feet or
upwards. &. cesius, at the foot of the lake; abundant near
Redhills. 2. saxatilis, in Airey-beck, above the hamlet of Dockray,
in Matterdale ; on Hallin Fell, Martindale. &c. 2. chamamorus,
said to grow on Ladepot, above Howtown, though I have not seen
it there. Of the sub-family of Geum, or Avens, all the three known
members are present with us. Of Roses we have no great variety
of species, though such as we do possess are sufficiently numerous
to make a grand show in our coppices and hedgerows during the
flowering season. Rosa rubiginosa occurs in a hedgerow close to
Watermillock church, where it was planted by a former rector, at
the time of the inclosure of the commons, some fifty years ago.

LytHrace&z. Lythrum salicaria alone appears. It grows
_ Sparingly in the bog known as Black Dyke, near Baldhow ; though
far from reaching the vigorous growth I have seen the same plant
assume in West Cumberland, and especially in some boggy places
on the banks of the River Ehen, not far from Frizington.

Onacrace&. The Willow Herbs are abundant, trom the larger
LEpilobium angustifolium, and E. hirsutum, down to the dwart
£. alsinifolium, which is found in many of the alpine springs.
Fine examples occur in the rills on Kirkstone Pass. Both forms
of Enchanter’s Nightshade grow by the lake, and in the neighbouring
woods. A/illefolium, Water Milfoil, abounds in the lake and many
of its feeders. Two varieties of Cadlitriche, Water Starwort, also
abound in slow running mountain rills. Some fine specimens
grow in Bannerdale Bottoms, also in theSboggy meadows at the
head of Brother’s Water.

Of the GROSSULARIACEA, stray plants occur certainly, but only
as waifs from cultivation.

CRASSULACEH. In these the district is rich. Sedum rhodiola
grows upon the rocks on Striding Edge, hard by the place where
the unfortunate Mr. Gough perished in 1806. 5S. ¢elephium is
common. 5S. album, by the lake shore at Raven Crag, and also at
the foot of the lake. They who have visited the old slate quarries
at Patterdale, may have seen a wonderful carpeting of S. acre on
the roadway there. S. ve@exum on old walls about the curtilages
of dwellings. Our village maidens call it “ Love in a chain.”

SAXIFRAGACE&. Another well-represented family. Saxifraga
oppositifolia, growing on the same rocks with Sedum rhodiola,
flowers too early in the season to be noticed by most of the lake
visitors. .S. séellaris and S. aizoides both abound in watery places.
The former I have observed within a few feet of the summit of
Helvellyn. S. Aypnoides, in many of the higher ravines. About
the workmen’s sheds at the Cawdale Moor quarries it is very
abundant ; and really forms a velvety cushion for the floors of some
of the now roofless huts. Both types of Golden Saxifrage may be
found ; and the handsome Grass of Parnassus gladdens the eyes
of every mountain rambler in the autumn season, when alone it is
seen to perfection.

UMBELLIFERH. There being upwards of sixty species included
in the catalogue of such plants indigenous to Britain, of which the

district cannot claim quite twenty, it cannot be held that our flora —

of umbellifers is a complete one. There are, however, two or
three species which ought not to pass unnoticed. Sanicula europea:
in sheltered situations ; not rare. Near Beauthorn and Croft Head,
very fine ; also near Waterfoot boat-shed. Lmpinella saxifraga:
the commonest of the genus in the later summer months; in
meadows and copses not unfrequent. Peucedanum ostruthium: as
this is somewhat of a botanical rarity, I was surprised to find a
stray plant near the mouth of the Airey rivulet three years ago.
I have since seen it in abundance by the same stream, just below
Dowthwaite Head. Cow-leeches of old used it in their practice,

aml

137

and I find that it shares with eélleborus viridis the name of
“Fellin gers.” Myrrhis odorata: this plant, again, from its
constantly appearing about homesteads and calf-paddocks, has had
some economical use among our forefathers. In Lamplugh, how-
ever, and in most parts of Ennerdale, it is not so exclusively
confined to the vicinity of dwellings, but appears by mountain
brooklets almost universally. Cnxanthe crocata, “ Deed-tung,” at
Waterfoot, and also near Winter Crag.

ARALIACE&. Only one species, the Common Ivy, is recognised
as indigenous.

CAPRIFOLIACE®. Sambucus ebulus, another plant of some
reputation among the old herbalists. A large patch of this unusual
plant grows near the farm house at Glencoin, where I am informed
it is occasionally sought after yet. Of its reputed virtues I possess
no information. Viburnum opulus: a common shrub in woods
and hedges ; handsome when in flower, and even lovelier when in
autumn wax-like scarlet-tinted berries adorn its branches in profu-
sion. Of the Common Honeysuckle I need not attempt any
description.

Rusiace&. Galium boreale occurs on both shores of the lowest
reach of Ullswater. Its flowering season is more brief than that of
its congeners; and hence the plant is perhaps liable to be over-
looked. Once seen, it cannot afterwards be mistaken for any of
the other members of the family. G. verum: not unfrequent in
dry, sandy soils. G. palustre: a weak and straggling plant, which
loves boggy- or peaty ground. Asferula odorata: a pretty little
plant, affecting dry rocky woods and coppices. Scented when dry,
and retaining its pleasant odour for years. The peasantry of
Cumberland frequently dry the pretty whorled leaves, which they
call, not inaptly, “Star-gers”.

VALERIANACEE. Valeriana dioica: of wide distribution and
frequent occurrence in upland meadows, especially where drainage
has been neglected. Its white petals, bordered externally with
pink, are seen early in the season around “totter bogs.” Valer?-
anella olitoria: not usually occurring here, though frequent in the

138

lower portions of Cumberland. Used by our forefathers as a
salad-herb, and said to be returning into favour for that purpose.
The species V. dentata, which flowers later in the season, seems to
have disappeared entirely, with the absence of cultivation.

Dipsace&. Scabiosa succisa: few plants are more generally
diffused than the species now under notice. Few meadows or
pastures are without its almost spherical heads of bluish-purple
flowers. In some parts of the county the peasants call it ‘“‘Hog-a-
back.” The remaining two species, S. arvensis and 5S. columbaria,
occur just outside the district. I have seen them both at Stainton.

Composir@. More than one hundred and fifty species are
enumerated as belonging to this division, though hardly one-third
can be claimed as natives of the district. Carduus nutans: is more
plentiful towards Penrith than within the proper limits of the
Ullswater district. About Redhills it appears by the roadside.
A remarkably well-developed specimen grew within the gateway of
a field there in 1880. It was fully seven feet high, and when in
full vigour of growth the grand-looking plant was disestablished by
the farmer, and thrown upon the highway, like a hawk nailed to
the wall of a keepen’s outbuildings. By some writers it is called
C. acanthoides. The farmer’s bitterest foe is not this species,
however, but C. arvensis. CC. lanceolatus is the common Bur
Thistle. C. heterophyllus: a very handsome plant; grows by the
Airey rivulet near Beck Bottom farm, in Matterdale. Carlina
vulgaris: on most of our drier hill-sides. Serratula tinctoria:
which the unskilled plant-collector often mistakes for a thistle,
grows abundantly on the shore at the foot of the lake. Zanacetum
vulgare: not very common, and where found seems to be a cast-
away from gardens. ilago germantca: a hoary, or cottony-looking
plant, having usually several side-shoots from the base of the
leading flower, which eventually overtop it, something after the
fashion of the Hen-and-chickens Daisy. From this peculiarity our
French neighbours call it ““herbe mechant.” It is found on the
conglomerate rocks between Waterfoot and Floshgate. Gnaph-
alium uliginosum: densely cottony, like the preceding, but more

139

branched from the base upwards, having smaller flowers. Frequently
met with in ditches, and in furrows in corn-fields where water has
stood during the previous winter. G. dvoicum: I have observed
this Cudweed only once in the Ullswater district, near a place at
Gowbarrow known as the Coombes; and there it was so cropped
by sheep and rabbits that, had I not been familiar of old with the
plant, I might have passed it over. It grows plentifully on Brockle
Crag, on the N.W. of Skiddaw. Senecio saracenicus: this giant
member of the Groundsel family appears in a paddock at Thack-
thwaite ; also near the ancient homesteads at Stoddah, in the
adjoining township of Hutton Soil. This proximity to dwellings
seems to imply that the plant now under notice was at one period
the object of cultivation. TZ'ragopogon pratensis: of wide distri-
bution, though nowhere appearing in great numbers. About
roadsides and hedge-banks on both sides of the lake. The plumes
attached to the upper part of the seeds have a singularly graceful
appearance, and readily distinguish the Meadow Goat’s-beard from
other members of the Composite tribe. Two types of Sow-thistle,
Sonchus asper and S. arvensis, are of frequent occurrence. The
large yellow flowers of the latter are occasionally too conspicuous
in corn crops in the lower parts of Cumberland.

Of the Hawk Weeds proper—a puzzling family— Hieracium
pulosella is the most abundant and widely distributed. On most
dry banks its hoary procumbent stems and leaves, and its bright
lemon-coloured flowers, the outer edges tipped with crimson, are
of common occurrence. £. anglicum: one of my most recent
finds, dating only from August, 1881. I met with it in the ravine
which descends from the Cawdale slate quarries, near the Brother's
Water hotel, and after vainly calling in the counsel of local

botanists, it was ultimately identified by the curator of Kew
Gardens. This plant is the H. cerinthoides of some botanists.
H. umbellatum : except H. pilosella, this is perhaps the earliest
flowering member of the family, a circumstance that first led me to
distinguish it from H. boreale, the common form seen by waysides
and the edges of cornfields about harvest time.

CAMPANULACE&. With the pretty little Blue Bell, every child

140

that has seen a field or a country lane is probably acquainted. In
some parts of the kingdom this is not the case. A Dorsetshire
clergyman, a gentleman of Cumberland birth, assured me not long
ago that this plant—familiar enough to us all here—has no place
in his parish of over 4000 acres in extent. Of the fifteen species
enumerated in the *‘ London Catalogue” as indigenous to Britain,
the first is Lobelia dortmanna: a plant found growing in shallow
water around the edges of Ullswater, and other lakes. It has
peculiarly-formed, and rather pretty blue flowers, on a slender
footstalk, rising above the surface of the water to the height of a
foot or thereabouts. Abundant in a mountain pond near Giller-
thwaite in Ennerdale. J/asione montana: not unfrequent on dry
banks in Lower Hartsop and Patterdale ; though far from being so
plentiful as on some of the low sandy hills or “eskers” that lie
between Aspatria and the Solway. Campanula glomerata: appears
just outside the limits of my district, about Gospel How, Penrud-
dock. Our Penrith friends may find it about Redhills, as I have
noticed a few plants near Slapestones top, with clusters of
purple-coloured flowers. C. latifolia: a large and handsome
plant, may be regarded as one of the floral glories of our district
and county generally. I recollect some years ago, when Mr.
Hammond, the present head-gardener at Brayton Hall, came first
into Cumberland, he was greatly struck with the appearance of
this plant, which he had never previously seen in a wild state.
C. persicifolia: though occasionally seen in gardens, has slight
claims to be reckoned as a native of our upland valleys.
EricacE&. In these, as might be expected, our district is rather
rich. Vacciniwm oxycoccus: is frequently to be found with its
pretty red solitary flowers on long trailing stems—locally called
“cranberry wire ”—interlaced with heaths, sphagnum, and other
bog-loving plants. V. vitis idea: less plentiful than the preceding,
loving rather elevated situations, where sufficient moisture prevails,
in peaty soil. About Striding Edge, Dove Crags, Fairfield, &c.
I have met with occasional specimens on Gowbarrow Fells, and
even on Easter Mell Fell. The flowers are a very pretty object,
rosy-white, clustered, and having a special gloss about them which

+ ath.)

~*~ 2

141

no wax-work of the deftest lady’s hand can rival. I have not
often seen its fruit in a ripened state. V. myrtillus: is more
common, and better known than either of the preceding. A rctos-
taphylos wva-ursi: some of my predecessors in botanical research
have recorded the presence of this plant in that part of Martindale
parish known as Dalehead. Rev. W. Richardson, formerly vicar
of Dacre, a gentleman largely responsible for the local catalogue
of British plants contained in “ Hutchinson’s History of Cumber-
land,” found it there—where it probably still exists, though I
cannot personally vouch for the fact. - Hrica tetralix: in many parts
of the district, on moist heathy ground, the delicate blush-tinted
flowers of this species may be noted in July. It occurs above
Sharrow-bay, in Bannerdale Bottoms, and elsewhere, being more
local than the two following species. J. cinerea: a taller and
more robust plant than the last, having three instead of four leaves
in a whorl, and lovely spikes of brilliant purple-coloured flowers.
This is the heath that fringes the rocks about Stybarrow, Glen-
ridding Screes, and other rugged precipitous ground. Probably
the finest I ever saw grew in Ennerdale. Calluna vulgaris: the
most abundant member of the family, found everywhere on
mountainous heaths; once largely in use for making besoms.
Superior flavoured honey is said to be collected from its flowers by
bees, and cottagers in the S.W. of Cumberland frequently carry
their hives a considerable distance from their place of abode in
order to station them in a favourable locality among the hills
during the ling-flowering season. Pyrola minor: on the authority
of Hutchinson said to grow near the foot of the avenue leading to
Dunmallet ; where, however, it has escaped my observation. My
search has been far from exhaustive, and I yet hope to establish
the fact of its existence there. I have seen the plant years ago in
Flimby Wood.

The next order, JASMINACE&, includes only the Common Ash
and the Privet, on which it is unnecessary to dwell.

ApocyNAcEz&. Is only represented by Vinca minor, which
appears only in gardens, or in places where its escape from culti-
vation is manifest.

142

GENTIANACER, Lrythrea centaurium: examples of this plant
are of extremely rare occurrence within the area to which my notes
are limited. When found, it has generally been in some high-lying
pasture where the subsoil is decidedly argillaceous. Gentiana
campestris: the deep purple flowers of this plant may be seen in
autumn in many of the mountain pastures. Priest Crag and
Birch Crag, in Watermillock ; Gowbarrow Fells; and above Glen-
coin farm. <AMenyanthes trifoliata: in deep boggy ground this
remarkably beautiful plant is found in the highest perfection.
Gillerthwaite pond, already mentioned, presents a sight to be
remembered, when the Bog-bean is in full flower.

PoLEMONIACES. This order includes only one native species,
Polemonium ceruleum: the well-kown “ Poverty” of the cottager’s
garden ; not properly native in any part of Cumberland.

CONVOLVULACEE. OConvolvulus sepium: this plant, the “cum-
brous bindweed” of Wordsworth’s ‘‘ Excursion,” is found trained
about the porches in front of cottages and farm-buildings, where its
appearance is often showy enough. In some parts of Cumberland
it is sadly too plentiful. I have seen hedges literally dragged to
the earth and ruined by its long trailing stems. C. arvensis and
C. soldanella are of common occurrence in West Cumberland, the
latter only among sand on the sea-beach.

SOLANACEE. Solanum dulcamara: a long trailing shrub
sparingly met with in the district. Its bunches or trusses of
flowers strikingly remind one of those of the potato.

SCROPHULARIACEH. Verbascum thapsus: commonly found
about mountain quarries; the ‘“Shepherd’s Staff” of the rustic
population. It frequently finds its way into gardens. I have seen
grand examples of it at Stainton. Scrophularia nodosa: of common
occurrence about the edges of woods, hedgerows, and the banks of
a brook or river; familiarly designated “Stinking Roger.” The
roots are in high repute with the humbler class of medical botanists,
by whom I have frequently been solicited to procure them in
the depth of winter, when the parties were unable to hunt them
out for themselves. Digitalis purpurea: in every copse and

143

hedgerow. Linaria cymbalaria: this is a pretty little creeper,
growing in many places on old walls; generally reputed an alien,
though there is evidence of its presence amongst us at least three
hundred years ago. Cooper, a writer of Queen’Elizabeth’s day
(1584), calls it ‘(an herbe that groweth in mud walls, with a leafe
in fashion like ivy, but much less, and a little purple flower.’
Mimulus luteus: this plant, more clearly an alien than the
preceding, is now thoroughly naturalised, and in parts of the
district may be seen in vigorous growth about water-courses,
where its roots are constantly under water. About Ulcatrow, and
Dockray, in Matterdale ; also near the old Snuff Mill at Stainton.
Eleven of the nineteen native species of Veronica may be found
among us. Veronica hederifolia: the earliest flowering of the
genus; appears sparingly in gardens asa weed. Hiallsteads kitchen
garden. V. montana: nearly resembling Germander 3 occurs
plentifully in Dunmallet ; in Dalemain Woods, near the corn-mill ;
in the ravine between Airey Force and Dockray; will also
probably be found in the woods about Patterdale. V. scutedlata:
in watery places not uncommon. Near Bennet Head, and about
Watermillock, in ditches and water-courses. Both species of Louse-
wort, and the Yellow Rattle, “ Henpens” of the mowers, exist in
the district, as does the Red Bartsia, in moist and semi-sterile
"pastures, and by road-sides. Melampyrum pratense : appears
about Airey Force, Dockray, Stybarrow, and similar places.
M. sylvaticum is found in a few wooded localities,

OROBANCHACEH. The only member of this order found with
us is that singular and very rare plant (in Cumberland at least),
Lathrea squamaria. In drying, the whole plant becomes quite
black. It is parasitic on the roots of elm, hazel, &c. Has a
peculiar habit of disappearing from its recorded stations, again to
be found at the same place after an indefinite period, I found it
last year in early June—rather late for this plant—near Lyulph’s
Tower ; and when I visited the place the other day, no trace of its
existence could be discerned.

Lapiat#, About twenty members of this order are produced

144

within the boundary of my district. The following are the most
remarkable. Mentha rotundifolia: this, like the Tooth-wort, is of
very rare occurrence in Cumberland, and, like all the mint family, is a
late-flowering plant. By the lake shore from Floshgate downwards:
plentiful. Mentha piperita: scarce, like the former ; but occurring
by the road side below the Cove farm, Watermillock ; also in a
brook that empties into the Eamont, near Pooley Mill. Origanwm
wulgare: another unusual plant, which, though a little beyond my
limits, I notice here as occurring near the top of Slapestones brow,
and also by the road-side leading thence to Stainton. Nepeta
cataria: the existence of this plant in a wild state in the county
has not been noticed by any previous observer, so far as my
information extends; and I hardly dare venture to disclose its
habitat. Scutellaria galericulata : this plant, which is of common
occurrence on the shores of many of our lakes—notably Bassen-
thwaite and Derwentwater—appears sparingly near the boat-shed
at Water-foot, and in greater plenty by the River Eamont, not far
from the old eelstank below Pooley Bridge.

BoRAGINACEE. Myosotis cespitosa: this type of Forget-me-not,
which is smaller in all its parts than M. palustris, appears in most
of the fell-side water-courses. Several other species are met with
in different places within the district. Borago officinalis: this
plant is a reputed alien, which has become naturalised. It occurs
by the road side near Floshgate, and about Watermillock ; probably
in other places, but always as a waif of cultivation. The Common
Comfrey appears only in gardens or in orchards. Cynoglossum
omphalodes: an excluded member of the family now under notice,
grows abundantly in the shrubbery about Hallsteads mansion.

PINGUICULACEH. Pinguicula vulgaris: is abundant in nearly
all our mountain springs. One would expect also to find some of
the curious Bladder-worts in still pools in the valleys, but I have
not been able to detect their presence there.

PRIMULACE&. Well represented here by the Common Primrose
and the Cowslip. Primula farinosa: in the upiond meadows and
pastures all round the lake ; in boggy places this very pretty flower

145

is abundant. Lysimachia nemorwm: appears in shady places,
where water abounds. JZ. vulgaris: has been noticed growing
near the boat-landing at the mouth of Goldrill-beck. Anagallis
tenella: a handsome, but diminutive plant; may be: found on
moist rocks in Glencoin ; its flowers grow in pairs.

- PLUMBAGINACE%. Not represented here; yet I have an indistinct
recollection of having once seen a variety of Armeria maritima
growing at the head of Fusedale, many years ago.

PLANTAGINACEX. Three of the family of five members are

produced in abundance. Littoreila Jacustris : a curious little plant

growing in some quantity by the edge of the lake, especially
towards the foot ; produced under water, and flowering only when

_ the water is dried up. ©

CHENOPODIACEX. Chenopodium bonus henricus: a plant of
some repute as a culinary vegetable in the olden time, and generally

found in the neighbourhood of ancient dwellings. I have, how-

ever, frequently seen it growing at a considerable elevation on
Gowbarrow. Fells.

...Potyconacez. Besides the commoner Docks—the agricul-
turist’s foes—we sometimes see Rumex alpinus occupying a corner

of some paddock contiguous to the farm buildings, its large leaves
being used for wrapping round pounded butter to keep it cool.

Oxyria reniformis: grows on Striding Edge, near the Red Tarn,

and also among rocks by the ravine that descends from Kirkstone
Pass. towards Brothers Water. Several species of Poiygonwm are

_of common occurrence ; among others P. bistorta, ‘‘ Eastermer
Giant,” the leaves of. which are used as an ingredient in herb-

puddings. ©

_ ASARACES. This family is represented by Asarwm europeum,

“which, on the authority of the Rev. W. Richardson, grew on

‘Rampskil or Rampsgill, one of the High Street range, at the head
of Martindale. This station I have never been able to examine.

-EMPETRACE®. ELmpetrum nigrum: Lingberry of our dalesmen,
10

146

is prevalent on most moory ground; especially abundant on the
Mell Fells.

EupHorBiacez&. Luphorbia helioscopia, vulgo ‘‘Wart Gers,” so
called because its acrid yellow juice is believed to be effective in
removing warts from the hands. This, as well as £. peplus, has
become almost extinct with the abandonment of tillage ; and both
are now seldom seen except as garden weeds.

Urticacez. Urtica dioica: on rubbish heaps and cultivated
ground almost everywhere. JU. wrens: about Thackthwaite and
Sparket Mill, in Watermillock; near Pooley Bridge, &c. Humulus
lupulus, the Hop. Wherever this trailing shrub occurs, it has
clearly been introduced. At the old mansion house of Water-
millock fine examples may be seen. Of the two British species
of Elm, splendid types occur in the park at Dalemain.

Of the AMENTIFERA, fine specimens of the Oak are met with at
Gowbarrow ; and many, I have no doubt, will remember the pair
of grand Chestnut trees that grace the bank of the Eamont a little
above Dalemain. ‘The Hazel, the Birch, and the Alder all are too
familiar to require comment. Myrica gale: grows in a meadow
at Hurrock Wood. Populus tremula: grows plentifully near
Soulby. Of the Willows, Salia pentandra is found pretty generally
distributed over the district, both male and female specimens being
met with, the former preponderating. SS. fragilis: some huge
members of this family may be seen between Dacre Castle and
Dalemain, mostly I believe females. It is characteristic of this
tree that the branches spring from the trunk in a peculiarly irregular
twisted fashion. S. alba: fine trees of this species near Baldhow.
Salix triandra: by the River Eamont. SS. purpwrea: by Goldrill
Beck, near its mouth; by the boat-shed near Skelly Neb, &c.
S. viminalis: by Thackthwaite Beck, in Watermillock. S. acwminata:
by no means common, and never attaining the size which it reaches
in the lower parts of the county. I do not remember ever meeting
with male catkins of this species. S. cinerea: the most abundant
species in the district. Trees often dwarfed and bushy, especially
on the shores of the lake. Often found in moist woods and hedge-

147

rows. S. awrita: frequent, though hardly so ubiquitous as the
preceding. In a meadow near Sparket Mill. SS. caprea: in dry
woods and hedges. Usually the first of the family to put forth
male catkins. 4S. nigricans: appears mostly in hedgerows, or by
the edges of arivulet. Widely distributed, but nowhere abounding
in the district. Of this species as many as ten varieties are
reckoned. S. repens: a dwarf species, prostrate in habit, seldom
more than a few inches in height ; an occupant generally of moist
heaths and commons, with small oblong or lanceolate leaves. In
many of our elevated boggy meadows plentiful. Eight varieties
are reckoned. SS. herbacea: I give this rare willow a place here
for the following reason. Many years ago, when acting as guide
to a party bound for High Street, we stumbled upon a patch of
ground covered with these little willows, somewhere in the vicinity
of Kidsty Pike, where I have vainly sought for it during the
last two or three seasons. I yet trust to find it on some of the
High Street group of hills.

CONIFER. Pinus sylvestris, needs no comment here. Juniperus
communis: On Birk Fell; St. Sunday Crag; near Greenside
Mines. Abundant. Zaxas baccata: must be familiar to all.
From the frequency with which seedling yews are met with on the
hills that embosom the Lake, it would appear that the tree is
thoroughly indigenous there, and was at one period probably more
plentiful than itis now. A fine example may be seen in Patterdale
churchyard ; another at Old Church, where the place of worship
of Watermillock people stood in the time of the Plantagenets, or
until it was dismantled by the Scots towards the close of the 14th
century.

TyPHACE. Two species of Sfarganium, Bur-reed, may be
seen growing side by side in a slow-running ditch in a meadow
between Howtown and the Lake; these are S. ramosum and
S. simplex ; and though I have not seen the smaller S. minimum
anywhere growing, it may probably exist in Bannerdale Bottoms,
or in the boggy meadows round the head of Brothers Water.

ARACEE. Arym_maculatum; conspicuous in hedgerows and

148

coppices in early spring, before the curious spathe which encloses
the fructification appears, to be in turn succeeded by a cluster. of
beautiful red berries. Note here that these berries—attractive as
they are to children—are extremely dangerous. The whole plant
is decidedly acrid and nauseous ; the juice even in small quantities
causes a disagreeable and burning sensation: when allowed to come
in contact with the tongue or palate.

Lemnace&. The Duckweed order. Lemna minor is certainly
not uncommon, and Z. ¢résulca, the ivy-leaved species, is reported
as occurring in two or three ener pools in the Patterdale
portion of the district.

NalaDAcE&. In these it might be inferred that our neighbour-
hood must be extremely rich. This is far from being the case.
Potamogeton natans: in still water by the edges of the Lake; in
pools, springs, and brooklets on the hills to a considerable elevation.
P. heterophyllus, P. perfoliatus, and P. crispus, also occur, frequently
forming a sort of vegetable fringe around the edges of the Lake,
between shallow and deep water. Zannichellia palustris: many
years ago, I observed this plant growing in the bed_ of Goldrill
Beck, close to the Lake. “It is possibly still in existence-there ;
but last year when I sought to verify the old habitat, I found the
place unapproachable by a pedestrian, owing to the Hee be
condition of the stream.

ALISMACE®. Tvrigloclin palustre: in boggy meadows, frequent.
Alisma plantago: in pools and ditches about Brothers Water, &c.
A. ranunculoides : on the authority of Hutchinson, said to grow in
Patterdale. The swamp at the head of Brothers Water, frequently
referred to, and which I have only partially explored, is a very
likely locality indeed.- The long white fibrous roots of this species
sometimes penetrate the soft peat bog to a surprising depth.

ORCHIDACEX. Orchis mascula: common in meadows. O. macu-
lata, O. latifolia, Gymnadenia conopsea, Habenaria viridis, and
7. bifolia, inhabit the upland meadows in numbers more or less
considerable. Of these A. viridis is the rarest. Léstera ovata
and Lpipactis latifolia are also found.

a ee |

—— eye

149

Irtpacex. This’ order has only one representative here, the
Iris pseudacorus. The long sword-shaped leaves, and yellow
fleur-de-lis like flowers are known I fancy to every river side
rambler.

AMARYLLIDACE%. Includes two of the earliest spring flowers,
the Daffodil and the Snowdrop. The former plant, (Varcissus-
pseudo-narcissus grows profusely by the shore of the Lake fn
Glencoin Park, just within the limits of Cumberland. I have
never seen it in such abundance as here, where it is unquestionably
indigenous. The Snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis, used at one time
to grow in patches, at rare intervals, along the shore. It is now
all but extinct.

TRILLIACE2. Has only one British type, Paris guadrifolia.
This remarkable-looking plant grows in the wood between Roehead
and Celleron farms in High Barton, but more plentifully in the
Stainton wood at Dalemain.

‘Liziacez. Of this handsome order, three or four species
appear within the limits of the district, but all of them introduced.
Ruscus aculeatus, in front of the Mansion House, Watermillock ;:
Fritillaria meleagris, on the shore of the Lake at Old Church ; and

Lilium martagon, between the mill-race and the river at Dalemain

Mill. Adium arenarium grows on House Holme island in the
Lake, where it has long been stationed. I do not know with
which species in the London Catalogue this plant is synonymous,
probably 4. scorodoprasum. The only other garlic common
amongst us is 4. ursinum: “Ramps,” of which cattle appear to
be uncommonly fond. Varthecium ossifragum: is abundant in
most turfy bogs.

Juncacez. About half of the twenty-two species recognised as
British may be regarded as indigenous here. Of these the most
hoteworthy is the diminutive Juncus triglumis, which grows in
some of the little streams that have their origin at the foot of
Helvellyn, just above the head of the Red Tarn. 7. effusus, of
the stems of which, less than fifty years ago, rushlights were com-

150

monly enough made. //. acutifiorus: is the ‘“Closs” of our dales-
men, and is often too conspicuous in meadows insufficiently
drained. ./. sguarrosus: is abundant on all moorlands.

Cyperace&. Of the Club-Rushes proper only two may require
special mention here. The one is Scirpus setaceus: a frequent
occupant of roadside ditches, often springing up where water-
courses have been newly cleaned out. Round the base of Easter
Mell Fell it is abundant. The other is S. sy/vaticus, by Dacre
beck, below Thackthwaite. Of the Cotton Grasses, Eriophorum
vaginatum and £. angustifolium are both abundant. Of the
Carices or Sedges proper, as many as twenty-five species,
exclusive of varieties, are indigenous here. I may here briefly
particularise a few of the most remarkable. Carex dioica: is
far from uncommon in deep spongy bogs. In “Jamie Gersin,”
on the Cove estate in Watermillock, it grows in fair abundance,
though less plentiful than C. pudicaris. C. muricata: near Waterfoot,
also in the woods near Airey Force, appearing sparingly ; while its
congener, C. stel/ulata, is everywhere abundant. C. curta: in
Black Dyke, Baldhow. C. acuta: is also found at the same
station as the preceding, to which, however, it is not confined,
appearing in a field below Bennet Head and elsewhere. C. pilu-
lifera: is found on the Watermillock stinted pasture, and also about
the base of Catchidecam and Striding-Edge. C. Azrta; occurs at
the lower end of the Lake, below the Waterfoot boat-shed ; and
C. ampullacea is of common occurrence in slow-running streams or
in stagnant water, notably about the foot of Brothers Water.

The GRAMIN#, or Grasses, stand next in order in the Catalogue.
but as I have already treated upon them in detail in Part VI, I
shall pass them over without comment, noticing however that
specimens of Poa alpina have since been forwarded to me which
were gathered on Skiddaw last year; and that I have likewise seen
P. nemoralis on the retaining walls of the road-cutting at Kempley,
near Eamont Bridge, and Festuca sylvatica—fine specimens—in
the rocky ravine near Greenside Mines.

151

FILICES.

Of the Filices or Ferns of the district, I will now proceed briefly
to enumerate the different species. The first plant in the Catalogue
of Ferns undoubtedly indigenous here is perhaps the most diminu-
tive native species, ymenophyllum unilaterale. During the last
two seasons I have found this little ferny;much more widely
distributed in the recesses of our deepest mountain ravines, than I
had previously believed. On shady wet rocks it forms a curiously
matted covering, growing in many instances horizontally or even in
an inverted position, and so like moss that I have gathered it by
mistake more than once. P#eris aguilina; abundantly distributed
in the district ; varying from six inches to as many feet in height,
according to circumstances. Where it attains the largest size, as
in some parts of the deer-park at Gowbarrow, it is seldom found
to perfect its fructification: the fronds being without sori. Large
quantities of brackens are cut down in the autumn and used for
bedding. Cryptogramma crispa: grows profusely on the ledges
and in the clefts of rocks of the trap and slate formations through-
out the district. About old stone walls it is also abundant. When
removed from its native haunts, I believe it is found somewhat
difficult of cultivation, not readily accommodating itself to change
of locality or climatic influences. Lomaria sficant: in crevices of
moist rocky places, not unfrequent. Asplenium ruta-muraria:
abundant in fissures of the rocks, especially about the top of
Moordivock. A. septentrionale: in the summer of 1879 I founda
solitary specimen of this rare fern growing in the crevices of the
rocks near Red Tarn; in 1880 it had disappeared. A. ¢richomanes:
abundantly distributed about crevices of shaded rocks, wails of
ancient structure, &c., generally selecting a northern aspect, or at
least a position not exposed to the sun. A. viride: is still present
with us in two or three stations, which I cannot venture to make
public, from considerations which I trust the members of our
Association will correctly appreciate. 4. adiantum-nigrum: widely
distributed, though nowhere occurring in large numbers. On rocks,
old walls, quarry banks, and by shaded hedgerows. Athyrium

152

filixfemina: in moist shady situations, ‘which appear to be
essential to its full development, this fern is fairly abundant. I
have frequently noticed specimens in which the central fronds
stood upright to the height of four feet‘or upwards, the outer ones
drooping in every direction around them. Mr. Lowe of Notting-
ham, the famous writer on ferns, enumerates over two hundred
varieties of Lady-ferm I must rest content with mentioning the
fact that the variety known as 7Aeticum, with reddish-brown rachis
and fronds, is not unfrequent. Cvterach officinarum: old botanical
lists inform us that this fern grew about Yew Crag, and on the
rocks near Airey Force ; and I myself recollect seeing it on Priest
Crag some thirty-five years ago. » I have failed to find it until quite
recently in any of these’stations. Scolopendrium vulgare: this fern
is comparatively rare in the district, and nowhere approaches the:
dimensions of plants of the same species met with in West Cum-
berland, where it is plentiful. Cystopteris fragilis: is widely
distributed over the district. In moist shady places, and in the
crevices of rocks. The var. dentata, by some authorities)considered:
a distinct species, has occasionally been found. Aspidium lonchitis
this uncommonly rare species has been reported as occurring in
several stations. The Rev. W. H. Hawker, as Sowerby informs
us, found it about thirty years ago on Swarth Fell. Specimens.
have also been found on Striding Edge, Cawdale Moor, and Place
Fell. Ihave not seen it in. a growing state. A. aculeatum.: on
the borders of woods and thickets, and sometimes in bosky ravines
on the hills, this fern is not unfrequent. Three varieties are
reckoned, but all the specimens I have seen within the district
may be classed as belonging to this type. Fine examples occur

near Sparket Mill. Wephrodium filix-mas: after Pteris. aguilina,,

the most common species inhabiting our woods and hedgerows in.
the valleys, and luxuriating in almost every variety of soil. This
is the “‘Meckin” of the dalesmen. The var. (¢.) dorreri, distinguished.
by having the rachis clothed with ruddy golden scales, is not
unfrequent. V. dilatatum: more familiarly known perhaps as.
Lastrea dilatata, a large and well-known species, plentifully,
distributed, but nowhere so abundant as the last mention ed,

eae ate Mi ts

153

Usually in shady situations. Lastrea thelypleris : a \ocal and very

rare species, an inhabitant of spongy bogs. Said in old lists to

occur in Glencoin, also at Blawick. At the former station I have

been unable to discover it; the latter I have never examined.
|. L. oreopteris: a native of upland heaths and woods, of general
occurrence in the Lake district. Polypodium vulgare: commmon
about the roots and moss-grown trunks of trees, on old walls, roofs
of out-buildings, etc. 2. phegopieris : commonly known as Beech
fern; not uncommon in moist woods and shady spots. P. dryopterts:
a frequent dweller in dry stony woods in the mountain districts:
. Osmunda regalis: of the existence of this fern within the district, I
; have only casually and quite recently heard, and until I can have
| complete assurance of the fact, I must forbear any further reference
to it. Ophioglossum vulgatum : by way of contrast to my remarks
on the Royal fern, I may state that I have recently found the
Adder’s Tongue in far greater abundance than I had any previous
idea of. It abounds in many of our mountain meadows and
pastures, especially where moisture prevails. Dotrychium lunaria:
frequently found in the same localities with the preceding, though
far less abundant. Examples occur on Gowbarrow Fells, and on
the Watermillock stinted pasture.

_ Lycopopiace. Of the six British species, four may be set
down as of common occurrence here. The two most frequently
met with are Lycopodium cavatum, “Stagshorn, or Fox’s tail ;”
and Selaginella selaginoides: the most diminutive member of the
family. Jsoetes lacustris: is mentioned by Hutchinson as an
occupant of the lower end of Ullswater, and also of Gowbarrow
Wyke. I hope to find it some day.

EquiseTacE®. Of the eight species belonging to this order,
four are indigenous here. These are Zguzsetum arvense, E. sylvati-
‘cum, abundant and often very fine; Z. falustre, rather scarce ;
q and Z£. limosum, which is abundant in Brothers Water, and on the
___ banks of the Eamont, near Pooley Bridge.

154

CHARACE.

Of the first of the two genera representing this order here, Chara
and JVitella, I have been fortunate enough to discover a very rare
species, heretofore unknown in Cumberland, in Chara polyacantha,
which I found in Newton Moss at the beginning of August, 1882.
One species, now I believe designated /Vitella opaca, is of frequent
occurrence in Ullswater. It grows in sheltered bays, where it
roots among sand or gravel. Other species ought to be found in
upland pools and tarns. They are all aquatic, submersed plants.

Caer rs *
\

155

CUMBERLAND SOILS.

By ROBT. RUSSELL, C.E., F.G.S., H.M. Grou. SuRVEY.

(Read at the Carlisle Annual Meeting. )

TITLE ONLY.

OUR NORTHERN MOSSES.
By FREDERICK HARRISON.
(Read at Carlisle.)
(ABSTRACT.)

THE author, after giving a general description of the Class Musct, the
geographical distribution of Mosses, their mode of occurrence, and the part
they exercise in the economy of Nature, proceeds to describe the particular
species that, by their perennial growth and decay, contribute to the formation
of peat-moss.

Amongst the ‘conditions essential to the growth and development of peat-
mosses are a comparatively low mean temperature, and the presence of move
or less moisture in the soil where the peat-forming plants are growing. Owing
to these reasons, peat-mosses are rare or absent in hot regions, and they become
more abundant, and yield peat of a more inflammable nature, as we advance
towards the colder regions of the globe.

The author has noticed a connection between the occurrence of peat-mosses
and that of surface deposits of boulder clay, which, being generally of a more
or less impervious nature, have held up the surface water, and so have given
rise to the formation of peat-bogs. The author goes on to say :—

I CAN point to several examples in our own district where the peat
has formed itself upon the boulder clay inthis manner. At the Little
Moss, near Houghton, which is now under cultivation, the peat
lies in a depression in the boulder clay—a situation very favour-

156

able to its growth. Of course, since this peat-moss was drained,
some years ago, its growth has ceased. ‘The same occurs wherever
draining has been carried on to any extent. As soon as the
moisture is drawn off, the growth of the peat-moss ceases, and the
bulk or depth begins to decrease rapidly.

Another local case of great interest occurs on what is known as

Bowness Flow. ‘The formation of peat moss there is of very great
depth, and contains a large body of water, as the Solway Junction
Railway Co. found out to their cost, when they made their line of
railway over it. Yet close at hand, surrounded on every side by
the treacherous moss, there is a farm-house standing high and dry
on a hill, rising like a cone out of the moss. This high ground is
the Glacial Drift of the district, and the moss around no doubt
lies on a bed of the same, but at a lower level. Buried trees are
of common occurrence in peat-mosses. They have been found
with their trunks standing etect arid their roots fixed in the subsoil,
clearly showing that they have grown .on the very spot where
found. It is mentioned in Sir Charles Lyell’s “Principles of
Geology,” that in the Isle of Man vast trees have been discovered
standing firm on their roots, although covered by peat moss to a
depth of eighteen or twenty feet. It has also been observed in
Scotland, by Walker and others, that trees found in thosses which
lie in low regions are larger than those found in mosses at a
higher level—from which it has been inferred that the trees grew
on the spot, as they would naturally attain their greatest size at
lower and warmer levels.
The leaves and fruits are commonly found. imbedded in the
peat-moss along with the parent trees; for example, the leaves
and the acorns of the oak. These changes from a forest of trees
to a peat-moss have been often brought about by trees falling, and’
Causing a stagnation of water, and thereby favouring growth’
and decay of the plants-already referred to.

Many’ of the great peat-mosses of this county date at least as’ far
back on the Neolithic Period, as is evidenced by the occurrence of
stone implements inthem; one such, now preserved in the British.
Museum,, being found:in the peat-moss at Bowness. "Vet, although!

—

157

the high antiquity of many of our peat-mosses is beyond a doubtyit
is equally certain that others now occupy large tracts of country in
these islands. where there were none.at.all when the Romans first
set foot here. As an instance may be mentioned Hatfield Moss,
in Yorkshire, which appears to have been a forest eighteen hundred
years ago.. Roman roads have been discovered buried beneath a
depth of ten or twelve feet of peat; showing that the peat has
formed to this depth since the Roman Period.

The overthrow of a forest of Scotch firs in Ross-shire, by a
storm, in the 17th century, ‘may be said to have furnished one of
the best modern examples of the rate of formation of a peat-moss.
It is said that in less than half a century from the date of the
storm, the inhabitants dug peat on the site of the forest. In- that
case the growth, no doubt, was exceptionally rapid, on account of
all the circumstances being unusually favourable.’ - The water that
has stagnated in contact with peat contains-in solution, according

to ‘Liebig, a substance that possesses the power of absorbing

oxygen from everything with which it comes in contact ; this may
be one of the causes of the barrenness of peat-mosses. On the
removal of the stagnant water by drainage the air obtains admission
into the soil, and such portions of vegetable matter as are still
capable of further decay are enabled to undergo more complete
decomposition, and thus the agricultural quality of the soil begins
at once to improve.

At the bottom of mosses there is sometimes found a cake, or
pan, of Hydrous Peroxide of Iron, or Bog Iron Ore. The bog-oak
so often found dyed black in peat-mosses owes its colour chiefly to
the action of this mineral upon the tannin. The wonderful anti-
septic properties of peat may be partly owing to the presence of
this Oxide of Iron as well as to that of the tannin.

Oak timber is often found in peat-mosses in a condition so
perfect, even after having been buried for centuries, that the grain
is as fine as ever, and the wood is capable of lasting longer even
than wood newly cut from the forest.

We have some beautiful examples of bog-oak in this neighbour-

158

hood. Some of the timber used in building the church at Wreay,
and also that employed in the constiuction of the singular-looking
pulpit there, was made out of wood dug out of Wragmire Moss.
This Moss, and therefore, the trees therein imbedded, is shewn to
have been pre-roman in date by the discovery of a massive
(Roman) framework of wood underlying the present road across
the Moss.

I cannot conclude without referring to the famous outburst of
the Solway Moss in this county described by Gilpin, and again
referred to by Mr. Holmes in Part VI. of our Zransactions, which
occurred on the night of the 16th December, 1772. That scene
of desolation has now been brought under cultivation once more ;
but if that mass of peat had been allowed to remain after the
outburst, what are now the fine grazing parks of Netherby might
have been to-day little else than a barren peat-moss.

That all mosses are capable of being brought under cultivation,
there is no doubt. But of that aspect of the subject I propose to
treat on some future occasion,

a ey

159

ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF FLOWERING PLANTS
OF WEST CUMBERLAND.

By Mr. J. GLAIsTER AND Dr, LerTcuH, OF THE SILLOTH AND HoLME
Cutrram Screntiric Society.

§ RANUNCULACEA,

Ranunculus hirsutus. Silloth.
R, arvensis. Dalston,

PAPAVERACESA.
Glaucium pheniceum. Silloth Docks.

CRUCIFER.

Raphanus raphanistrum. Silloth Docks.
R. maritimus. Silloth Docks.
Diplotaxis tenuifolia. Seaview, Silloth.
Stsmybrium sophia. Silloth Docks.
Erysimum cheiranthoides, Laythes.

£. orientale. Silloth Docks.

Barbarea precox, Blackdyke.
Nasturtium sylvestre. Blackdyke.

N. terrestre. Silloth.

Armoracia rusticana, Bassenthwaite.
Camelina sativa. Silloth Docks,
Lepidium smithii, Silloth.

slotme as Growing together at Silloth Baths,

VIOLACE.

Viola sylvatica. Common in Abbey Holme.
V. sylvatica, var. reichenbachiana. Hayrig,
V. eurtisii. Sands about Silloth,

160

DROSERACEA:,

Drosera anglica. Wedholo.e Flow.
D. intermedia. Wedholme Flow.

CARYOPHYLLACEA,

Silene nutans. Silloth Docks.

Lychnis alpina. Hobcaster Fell.

Cerastium arvense. Petween Maryport and Cockermouth.
~ LEGUMINIFER %. w

Ulex nanus. Common ir Abbey Holme.

Medicago falcata, Silloth Docks.

Melilotus alba. Silloth.” ‘

M. arvensis. Silloth Docks.

.

Hippuris vulgaris. Salta Moss.

SAXIFRAGACEA,

Saxifraga wmbrusa. - Rose Hill.
COMPOSIT 2.

Astrantia major. Brownrigg.

Carduus nutans. Silloth Docks.

C. crispus. Silloth Docks.

C. acanthoides. Silloth Docks.

Anthemis arvensis. Silloth Docks.
A. tinctoria. Hast Cote.

Artemisia absinthium. Laythes. i

Filago minima, Silloth. ‘wee
Gnaphalium uliginosum. Common in Abbey Holme.
Antennaria dioica, Skiddaw. 5
Tragopogon porrifolium. Near Burgh Station.

ERICACE.

Andromeda polifolia. _Wedholme Flow. .
Pyrola minor. Foulsyke,

GENTIANACEA.
Erythrea latifolia, Birkby.
E. littoralis. Cardurnock.
Gentiana amarella. Grune Point. ,

HALORAGACE : *

ee

a

a

161

CONVOLVULACEA,
Cuscuta trifolii. Blackdyke.

SCROPHULARIACEA,

Rhinanthus major. Tarns.
Linaria elatine. Angerton.

OROBANCHACE.

Orobanche major. Grigg.
O. elatior, Foulsyke.

LABIATZ,

Salvia pratensis. Silloth Docks.
Origanum vulgare. Woodrow.
Lycopus europeus. Salta Moss.
Calamintha clinopodium. Blaithwaite.
Galeopsis versicolor. East Cove.
Lamium amplexicaule. Silloth.

BORAGINACE A,

Meritensia maritima, Parton shore.
Lithospermum arvense. Silloth,

CHENOPODIACE.
Sweda maritima. Grune Point,

POLYGONACE.

Polygonum rai. Silloth shore.
P. fagopyrum. Silloth shore.

URTICACE.
Parietaria diffusa. Abbey Church,

NAIADACE.

Potamogeton plantagineus, Foulsyke.

ALISMACE.
Butomus umbellatus. Wampool.

COLCHICACE.
Colchicum autumnale. Calvo Meadows.
ll

162

CYPERACEZ.

Blysmus rufus. Brownrigg Marsh.
Rhyncospora alba. Bowness Moss.
Carex arenaria. Silloth shore.

C. ovalis. Greenrow.

C. stellulata. Scaleforce.

C. pendula. Corby Woods.

C. flava. Tarns Moss.

C. paludosa. Wetheral.

C. ampullacea. Red Moss.

GRAMINEAE.

Lepturus incurvatus. Whitrigg.

Alopecurus agrestis. Meadow Lodge, Silloth.

Phiewm arenarium. Silloth shore.
Milium effusum. Aikbank.

Triodia decumbens. Benwray:
Keleria cristata. Silloth shore.
Catabrosa aquatica. Brunshaw Moss.
Festuca sciuroides. Silloth Station.
F, duriuscula. Silloth shore.
Bromus commutatus. Silloth Docks.
B. diandrus. Silloth Docks.
Lolium italicum. Silloth Docks.
Elymus arenarius. Silloth shore.

|
.
:
:

{>

163

ON THE GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
OF THE FORMER EXTENSION OF COAL MEASURES
OVER EDENSIDE.

By J. G. GOODCHILD, oF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ENGLAND.

(Communicated at the Carlisle Annual Meeting, by permission of
the Director General of the Geological Survey. )

In 1870, after having been engaged for several years in elaborating
the Geological Survey of the Carboniferous rocks around the head
waters of the Eden, Lune, Yore, Swale, Rawtha, Dee, and Clough,
that portion of the Survey was so far completed that the work
began to be pushed northward in the direction of the Westmorland
boundary in the neighbourhood of Stainmoor, preparatory to
attacking the complicated piece of geology extending thence along
the foot of the Black Fell sides past Murton, Dufton, Knock,
Milburn, Kirkland and Melmerby, to Renwick.

The highly detailed character of the observations my official

_ duties had required me to make, had already enabled me to obtain
_an intimate acquaintance with the characteristics of each individual .

member of the Carboniferous series occurring within the area
referred to—a kind of knowledge that was absolutely necessary for
anyone to possess that was about to undertake the unravelling of
the complicated tract that was to be examined next.

The part of the district about to be especially referred to in

164

this communication, is that upper part of Edenside lying to the
east of a line joining Kirkby Stephen and Brough, and nearly
included within the limits of the Six-inch maps 17 and 24 of the
Ordnance- and of the Geological Survey of Westmorland.

The detailed description of this extremely complicated district
will, of course, be reserved for the official memoir in preparation ;
but as there are several structural peculiarities found there that are
imperfectly understood even yet by many professional geologists,
and as it is only by a thorough comprehension of the nature of these
structural characteristics that the subject to be presently referred
to can be correctly understood, I venture to preface the remarks
that, with the permission of the Director General of the Geological
Survey, I am allowed to lay before the Cumberland Association in
this paper, with such an exposition of the more complex of these
phenomena as may serve the twofold purpose of leading up to the
more technical description to be given in the Survey Memoir, and
of rendering the principal subject of the present communication
more intelligible to the general reader.

The district in question is traversed by a portion of the great
and complex series of derangements of strata that are referred to
collectively under the name of the Pennine Fault. This, as has
long been known, traverses the rocks over a large area in the
North-west of England as an irregular line, or narrow zone, whose
general course, seen in plan, may be described as resembling the
outline of the letter. 7. The lower limb of the Z corresponds in
a general way with what is known as the Craven Fault. This, in
the neighbourhood of Ingleton and Kirkby Lonsdale sends off two
important branches towards the North-east, represented by the
middle portion of the letter. The general character of these was
described many years ago in the Explanation of Quarter Sheet
98SE of the Geological Survey. Of these two faults, the one we
are at present most concerned with is the fault described as ranging
past Barbon Fell, Dent, Sedbergh, Cautla, Clouds, and across the
Eden at Mallerstang Foot to Nateby and Harcla. Along this part
of its course it has been called the Dent- Kirkby Stephen Fault,
and it has been shewn by Sedgwick and others to produce a net

ee

165

result of a downthrow on the south-east side, or on the right hand
side of the letter, if the upper limb be regarded as representing the
north of the map.

For the correct understanding of what is to follow, it will be
necessary to obtain a general idea of the lie of the rocks that occur
on each side of the zone of disturbances now referred to. The
phenomena are complicated, and somewhat difficult to explain to
the non-geological reader ; but some insight into the nature of the
changes that take place may be gathered by means of one or two
simple experiments, if the reader have the faculty of mentally
extending an idea formed in the first instance from an examination
of objects on a small scale to the phenomena in the field ona
scale large enough to extend over a line twenty or twenty-five
miles in length.

All, or nearly all, except the volcanic strata of our district, were
originally deposited in beds that were nearly or quite horizontal ;
so that their normal position, where they are undisturbed, is that
of great piles of sheets of sandstone, shale, limestone, and so on,
piled one over another up to an aggregate thickness, that ranges
from a few hundred feet to as many thousands, and may, in the
case of one or two groups, really be stated in méles. Now a
moment’s reflection will convince any one that, if these strata all
lay in the horizontal position natural to them when they were first
formed, we should have very little opportunity of learning anything
of the nature of the strata that lay near the bottom, unless we had
valleys deep enough to cut through the pile from the top to the very
bottom, and that would mean that we should have either valleys
six or seven miles in depth (as the total thickness of the existing
‘strata of Cumberland and Westmorland is not far short of that) or
else, putting the same statement in another form, we should have
‘mountains towering to an elevation of as many miles above the
level of the lowest part of the surface. Asa matter of fact we
know that this is not the case, and the exposure of the great thick-
nesses of rock that are now out to the day in one part or another
of the district have, clearly, resulted from the action of subsequent
causes that have affected the lie of the strata, and disturbed them

166

in such a manner as to bring up the ends of a great thickness of
beds of rock to the same general level at the surface.

Accordingly, confining our attention for the present to the strata
newer than the Silurian rocks, we find that, while the vast pile of
Carboniferous rocks that the wild upland tract extending from the
eastern boundary of Edenside into Yorkshire has been shaped out
of yet retain much of their originally-horizontal position, there are
other tracts of the same rocks, lying side by side with these hori-
zontal strata, and now forming much of the low ground of Edenside,
that are tilted in such a manner as to bring the edges of a very
considerable thickness of rocks to the surface within a distance of
only a few miles.

Some idea of the relation of these tilted strata to the beds that
are less disturbed may be gathered by laying half a quire or so of
sheets of stiffish paper of various colours, or an old copy-book, on
its side, and making a clean cut right through from about the
middle nearly to the outer edge. If it now be pressed endways in
the direction of the incision, it will be easy to force the paper on
one side of the cut to arch in an upward curve while that on the
other bends in the opposite direction ; the papers at each end of
the cut remaining all the while in their original position. It will
then be easy to see how any individual sheet is opposed, on one
side of the incision, first, by the corresponding part of the same
sheet on the other side, and then by successively higher, or lower,
sheets, as the case may be, up to the point of greatest curvature.
Beyond that point it will be noticed that the vertical distance
between the positions of the same sheet on each side of the cut
gradually lessens, until, at the farther extremity each sheet on one
side of the line is again level with its corresponding part on the
other. Imagine the pile of sheets of paper to represent a great
series of deposits accumulated from beginning to end without any
important breaks in the succession ; the surface of the copy book,
an area of a few hundred square miles; the incision, a line of
weakness where the rocks have given way over a still older line of
fracture in the rocks underlying the strata represented by the
sheets of paper; and, finally, the action of the bands in bending

167

the paper into folds further to represent the net result of a complex
series of thrusts and strains affecting the rocks when they were
much nearer the centre of the earth than at present—and there is
an illustration of the nature and origin of faults in general, and
especially of the particular faults whose effects I am about to
describe.

But it often happens that two or more faults may join at various
angles, and thus give rise to a line of fracture that is by no means
straight in its course. This further complication may be unravelled
by an extension of the last experiment. Run the cut out to the
edge of the copy-book at its lower margin, and continue the cut at
the other end a few inches off to the left, at rather less than a
right angle to the line of the original cut; the incisions will then
represent the middle and upper limbs of the Z. Press the paper
on the left hand in the direction of the cut, as before, and in such
a way that the part lying to the right hand may this time remain
quite flat, while that on the /e/f of the cut is bent into an upward
curve, arching above the general level of the paper at the point of
greatest curvature, and, at the inner angle of the incision, bent
down at the corner in such a way as to be depressed Jdeneath it.
There will then be ree points where any given sheet of paper will
be edge to edge with other portions of the same sheet, (that is to
say where there is no dislocation in a vertical direction,) and there
will be zwo points where the dislocation will be at its maximum.
If the separate sheets are coloured, or better still, are lettered
consecutively from @ to z, @ on the left of the cut will be opposed
to a on the right; then as the paper arches upward on one side
while it remains flat on the other, a point is presently reached
where z at the bottom, on the left, is opposed to a on the right.
We will call that a downthrow on the right hand. Then, as the
upward curve gives place to a curve in the opposite direction, y, x,
W, V, and so on, come in succession edge to edge with a, until
presently the point is reached where a and a are again together.
That is to say, at:that point the vertical displacement is reduced to
ni, - But the downward inclination being continued beyond that
point, the result is that. @ on the left of the incision is depressed

168

below 4, ¢, d, ¢, and so on (in succession), on the right of the line
until, at the point of maximum depression, in the angle where the
upper limb of the Z goes off from the middle limb, @ on the left, is
opposed to say w, x, or y on the other. We will call that a down-
throw on the left hand. From that point, in the direction of the
left hand extremity of the upper limb of the Z the displacement
diminishes, as before, and finally comes once more to nothing at
all, at the end of the incision.

It is worth while to take a little trouble in order to comprehend
the phenomena I have endeavoured to illustrate by this, itself
somewhat-complicated experiment, because a distinct conception
of the structural character it is intended to elucidate, really affords
the key to the structure of one of the most important features in
the geology of the North of England, and it enables one, in
addition, to gain a better insight into the true nature of faults in
general than can very well be obtained by other means. And one
result of the imperfect conception of the true nature of what
people call “The Pennine Fault,” has been that no correct general
description of it has yet been given. Yet the very existence of the
remnant of Coal Measure strata about to be referred to is owing
to one of the complex series of changes of throw, whose nature I
have just endeavoured to describe.

A reference now to the annexed stereographic diagram will help
still further to explain these complex relations. This represents
in a highly generalized diagrammatic form the same phenomena
that I have endeavoured to bring before the mind by means of the
‘experiments just described. In this figure the two planes meeting
at right angles on the left, and separating the quadrangular blocks
from the continuous portion, are supposed to coincide with the
planes of the faults represented in place by the middle and the
upper limbs respectively of the Z. The surface of the continuous
part represents, in like manner, the Carboniferous uplands on the
outer side of the Faults, while the plane represented by the inclined
upper surface of the several detached blocks shews the general
shape of the lower surface presented by the outcrops of the rocks
on the inner, or western, side of the faults.

ee

Se

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURE.

The annexed stereographic diagram is in-
tended to illustrate the general nature of the
Pennine Fault, with especial reference to the
mode of occurrence of the remnant of Coal
Measures faulted in at the foot of Stainmoor.

The two vertical planes meeting in the angle
above (5) and separating the continuous portion
from the detached sections, represent the western
aspect of the Fault as if exposed to view by the
removal of portions of the country extending
along its western side. The general level of
the great upland tract at the head of Edenside
is represented by the upper surface of the con-
tinuous part ; while the faulted (? pre-cretaceous)
plain of marine denudation extending across the
New Red forming the lower ground of that
part, and gradually rising as it cuts across the
edges of all the older strata until it reaches the
summit of the Howgill Fells, is denoted by the
inclined plane forming the upper limit of the
five blocks.

The projection at (1) shews the relation of the
base of the Mountain Limestone A to the con-
torted Silurian strata at Cautlaand Ressondaleon
the west side of the Fault, as well as to the equiv-
alent geological horizon concealed beneath the
newer rocks on the dowucast, or east, side of
the same line of dislocation.

(2) Represents the same horizons at one level,
near Harcla.

(3) East of Kaber, shows the Yoredale Rocks
B, and then the Millstone Grit C on the west
curving downwards past A on the east of the
Fault.

(4) Near Barras, illustrates the occurrence of
still higher strata in vertical contact with A.

(5) Represents in a generalized manner the
stratigraphical relations of the Coal Measures
D in the neighbourhood of Argill.

The dotted stratum marked K denotes the
New Red, which is shewn overstepping* the
denuded edges of the older rocks, from the
highest of the Carboniferous down well nigh to
the base.

The figure also shews the three plains that
constitute the broader features of the district ;
these are of Pre-Carboniferous, Post-Carbon-
iferous, and (?) Pre-Cretaceous age respectively.
The extent of the faulting and disturbance each
has undergone prior to its re-exposure by the
removal of newer strata is also indicated in a
diagrammatic form in the same figure.

* It would be well to make some distinction between
such a case as this, where K is in unconformable contact
with various older strata, and that of true Overlap,
where the higher members of a continuous series of
deposits locally occupy lower horizons through the
attenuation of the older members of the same series.
We might, also, make use of the correlatives Understep,
and Underlap, with advantage to geological nomen-
clature in cases of this nature.

170

A little study of the figure will, I think, make the following points
clear. 1. That the Carboniferous strata were deposited in the form of
a great series of alternating sheets of various kinds of sediment, whose
aggregate thickness must have originally amounted to at least two
miles. 2. That these Carboniferous rocks consist, in ascending order
of—i. The Basement Beds, not separately shewn; il. The Moun-
tain Limestone A; ili. The Yoredale Rocks B; iv. The Millstone
Grit C ; and, v. The Coal Measures D. 3. That this great pile of
marine accumulations has been originally distributed over a very
large extent of country consisting of older rocks whose surface only
accidentally bore anything more than the remotest relation to the
original surface of deposition. 4. That after these Carboniferous
rocks had been deposited, and before the commencement of the
next period we have any local evidence of, they were, in their turn,
‘very much disturbed and folded, and the continuity of the original
sheets of rock interrupted by great lines of fracture. 5. That they
were then exposed for untold geological periods to the action of
various denudants, which gradually stripped off thousands of feet
of rock from some parts, with the result of completely severing the
continuity of the once-extensive deposits. 6. That on the remnants
of these strata accidentally preserved from denudation were suc-
cessively piled up several other great series of accumulations,
which, in their turn, were also deranged and denuded like the
older strata. And, finally, that the ultimate outcome of this
complex series of changes has been the present form of the surface,
variously shaped out of all the older parts of the Neozoic, and the
newer portions of the Palzozoic series of rocks,

If I have succeeded thus far in imparting a general idea of the
nature and origin of the complicated phenomena that characterise
this part of the district, the reader will now be prepared to under-
stand the brief description of the actual lie of the rocks that
follows.

It is in the comparatively low ground in the neighbourhood of
Harcla, near Kirkby Stephen, that the Pennine Fault changes its
throw from a net result of a downthrow on the south-east to a net
result of a downthrow on the side opposite, On the east side of

a
POO ae

oie BA) “ee

171

this zone of dislocation, or on the right-hand side of the Z, the
fells consist chiefly of Yoredale Rocks with just a capping formed
by detached remains of Millstone Grit strata left on the summits
of the higher fells; and with strips and interrupted patches of
Mountain Limestone turned up endways where this rock underlying
the Yoredale Series has been exposed to view by the removal of
the overlying strata along the lower flanks of the fell sides next
the faults. These beds are generally much folded and otherwise
disturbed, or even occasionally turned upside down for short
distances; but they right themselves entirely within a short distance
of the faults, and gradually pass into strata that retain much of
their original position of horizontality. Consequently, regarding
the strata on the outer, or eastern, side of the faults as a whole,
they may be said to consist of beds so nearly horizontal that almost
any of the higher members of the series, the Main, or Great Lime-
stone for example, can usually be found at about the same general
level above the sea all the way up from near Ingleton to Brough,
or beyond.

The rocks on the inner, or western side of the faults, represented
in place by the side to the left of the Z, lie, as a whole, in a very
different manner. To the south, at the part represented by the,
block at the right hand extremity of the foregoing diagram, the
great dome-shaped aggregation of rounded eminences forming the
Howsgill Fells is described by Professor Hughes, in the Survey
Memoir on 98 N.E. as consisting of contorted and highly inclined
rocks, mostly of Silurian age, whose dips, as shewn in the figure,
bear not the slightest necessary relation to either the form of the
surface or to that portion of their surface that slopes beneath and
is covered up by the Carboniferous strata.

These rocks form ground rising somewhat higher than the base
of the Millstone Grit of Wilbert Fell in the part of the carboniferous
tract lying to the east of the Howgill Fells and separated from them
“by the line of the faults ; so that the full extent of the dislocation at
this point cannot well be less than the vertical distance between the
‘general level of. the summits of the Howgill Fells themselves and
the general level of the equivalent strata that form the floor of

172

Older Paleozoic Rocks extending beneath the Millstone Grit, the
Yoredale Rocks and the Mountain Limestone that Wilbert Fell
itself consists of ; and this must be as much as, if not more than,
two thousand feet. That is to say, at that point the Post-Carbon-
iferous part of the fault there has a downthrow to the east of not
less than two thousand feet.

Now, as we follow the surface of the Howgill Fell Silurian rocks
northward to the town of Ravenstonedale, we find the Mountain
Limestone beginning to come on the edges of the older strata ;
and, instead of lying at a comparatively low angle, as they are
known to do on the east side of the Faults, they here come on
with a high angle of dip. This dip amounts to an average dip of
about eight or nine degrees—possibly an average of ten. As a
consequence, although the local thickness of the Mountain Lime-
stone with the beds below it, altogether amounts to between two
thousand and two thousand five hundred feet at this part, by the
time we have got as far north as Kirkby Stephen the very top is
reached. Now this horizon, as I have more than once before
remarked, goes on at about the same general level on the other
side of the line of disturbance. Consequently, when the top of
the Mountain Limestone on one side of the fault is brought into
contact with the top of the Mountain Limestone on the other,
there is clearly no vertical dislocation, even though the actual
fissure and the accompanying disturbances remain to attest to the
existence of the fault itself. But the dip to the north continues as
we traverse the country on the north-west side of the faults in the
direction of Brough; so that the Yoredale Rocks, and then the
Millstone Grit, come down bed after bed into the low ground at
the foot of Stainmoor, and the throw of the Great Faults, instead

_ of being, as at first, down south-easterly, has changed sides, and is
now rapidly increasing in amount on the north-westerly side.

North of the Bela, in the neighbourhood of Kaber, the faults
become very complicated, and the downthrown rocks, which are
very greatly disturbed, begin, as a whole, to dip more and more
towards the east, and the angle of dip gradually augments from
that.of a few degrees up to one of sixty degrees or more. This

173

may be examined in Hockergill, and Strice Gill, Mousgill, Argill,
and Augills in the low ground between Brough and Barras. In
the lower part of these sections we get the uppermost beds of thé
Yoredale Rocks. Then, nearer the faults, comes on bed after bed
of the Millstone Grit, stratigraphically identical with the beds
occurring on the highest summits of the Carboniferous hills away
to the south, but here characterised by various shades of red, due
to the infiltration of ferruginous and other matters that had soaked
down from the overlying New Red strata before they were denuded
from this portion of their surface. Then we get a remnant of beds
higher still in the series—beds that have been saved from denuda-
tion perhaps at no point nearer than the Ingleton Coal Field,
and, like the lower beds, also deeply stained red. Farther, after
traversing the outer ends of many hundreds of feet of highly-inclined
beds of grit, sandstone, shale, comparatively thin beds of fireclay,
and thin bands of clay-ironstone (occasionally with their carbonate
of iron exteriorly replaced by the per-oxide of iron filtered down
from the New Red), we begin to meet with remarkably thick
beds of fireclay, here and there crowded with most beautiful speci-
mens of Carboniferous vegetation—numbers of fern-like fragments
amongst others. Finally, in following up the section a little further
we abruptly find ourselves again face to face with the well-known
alternations of limestones, sandstones, and shales of the Lower
Carboniferous Series. We have in fact crossed the Fault, and are
here standing on rocks that, a few yards farther back, it would have
required a bore-hole of well nigh on to a mile in depth to reach.

No one seems ever to have suspected the existence of veritable
Coal Measures anywhere in this neighbourhood ; indeed these very
sections had been repeatedly examined by some of our best geolo-
gists, and variously referred to the Ash Fell Beds, to the New Red,
and to stained Carboniferous.rocks of uncertain age.

But the remarkable degree of stratigraphical uniformity pre
vailing throughout the various scattered outliers of Millstone
Grit left capping the summits of the fells between this point and
Ingleton enabled me at once to identify the lower beds as Millstone
Grit, and enabled me further to identify them bed for bed even

174

with certain minor subdivisions whose stratigraphical relations to
the Coal Measures at Ingleton were pretty,fwell known. It
followed, of course, that as Coal Measures might be expected to
occur at a certain distance above a particular known horizon in the
Millstone Grit in one part, they might be expected under the same
circumstances in the same relative position also at another. This
gave the clue, and, following it up, I searched well for coal seams
where I felt sure they ought to occur, and there I found them.

Several seams of coal were discovered in this way, and then, as
the occurrence here of any Carboniferous rocks as high as the Coal
Measures was a fact of very considerable geological interest, I lost
no time in communicating the discovery to several of my colleagues.
The coal seams I found myself were of poor quality, and I thought
very little of the discovery beyond its geological interest, until the
place began to be systematically explored by the gentleman that
held the lease of.the property. But under the search so instituted
the existence of several other and more valuable seams of coal, as
well as of several remarkably thick deposits of fire-clay, was brought
to light. As I wrote a condensed account of these finds ina
Report* made at that time (1872) for the lessee, on behalf of the
owner of the property, and furthermore, as the nature of this
communication does not require that I should enter minutely into
details, which will be found stated in full in the official description
of the district, it will be sufficient to state that, in all, about twenty
distinct seams of coal were discovered, having an aggregate thick-
ness of about forty feet. Eight, or nine, of these seams are not
less than two feet in thickness, and one runs up to a maximum
thickness of well on to eight feet at one part. The total quantity
available from these eight, or nine, seams may be set down in
round numbers at about three million tons; much of the coal
being above the average quality, and the best of it being equal to
some of the best coal obtained from the Newcastle Coal-field.

In the above estimate no note has been taken of the various
seams that are known to occur—because they are worked in the

“ A printed copy of this Report is deposited for reference in the Carlisle
Museum.

175

districts adjoining—at lower horizons, and in the Millstone Grit ;
nor is any note taken of the Boradale seam, so long worked in the
underlying Yoredale Rocks on Stainmoor.

__Itis in contemplation, I understand, to make use of the enormous
quantities of fireclay, or seggar clay, as it is called out Northumber-
land way, for the manufacture of some descriptions of pottery—a
use that it is said to be well adapted for. When that is done we,
as geologists, shall have a capital opportunity of collecting some of
the very beautiful plant remains that these rocks are, in places,
almost crowded with.

The geological interest attaching to this discovery is undoubtedly
very great, for more reasons than one. In the first place, the
existence of beds so high up in the Carboniferous series within a few
miles of a place where the lowest member of the New Red lies on
beds low down in the Mountain Limestone, points in a manner
that is unmistakeable to the enormous amount of disturbance and
subsequent denudation the Carboniferous Rocks here, as elsewhere,
had undergone before the lowest member of the NEozoic Rocks
began to be deposited—a thickness of rock implying a chrono-
logical break nearly as great as that famous unconformity we can
boast of in Edenside between the Carboniferous strata and the
tocks of the Lake District. (In all probability geologists will one
day fully realise the importance of this great break, and will take
the base of the Neozoic Series at the base of our New Red,
instead of at an imaginary line running through the middle of that
series.)

Another point of importance impressed upon our minds by the
occurrence of this tiny patch of Coal Measures at the head of our
valley is the enormous amount of denudation the mountain tract
that bounds Edenside on the east and the north-east, as well as
the Lake District area itself, must have undergone. If the
equivalents of all the beds observable in the coal area were
replaced in their original position on these great uplands, we
should have Cross Fell, for example, well on to five thousand feet
above the level of the sea, instead of at its present elevation. All
that additional thickness of rock, and, so far as we know, much

176

more than that thickness, has been reduced to a transportable form
by the long-continued action of the various denudants, and swept:
away from that part to form newer strata elsewhere ; and it is not!
until we get well into Northumberland that we begin again to meet
with the edges of the beds that once extended in continuous sheets
over all the intervening tract of country, and formed part of one
great series of deposits with the coal-field of Stainmoor, of Ingletgn,
and, in all probability, of the coal-fields further south as well.

This leads me to remark that although coal is confined in one
part of England to beds lying above the Millstone Grit, there is a
general tendency throughout all the Carboniferous series for coals
to set in at lower and lower horizons as the rocks are traced
towards the north-west. Workable coals, some as much as between
three and four feet in thickness, occur near even the base of the
Millstone Grit near Stainmoor, to wit, at Tan Hill. Coals occur at
lower horizons still, elsewhere, and the coal worked at Borradale,
on Stainmoor, lies below the Four Fathom Limestone of the Yore-
dale Rocks. At somewhat higher horizons comes in the coal
occurring in the ‘Coal Sills,” which, as the Survey maps and
sections* of the district will shew, form an important part of the
coal worked in North Cumberland and the neighbourhood of
Hexham.

Coal, again occurs at yet a lower horizon just over the Border ;
for the Canobie Coal Field is worked, as Professor Geikie has
pointed out, in part of the Cement Stone Series, which occupies
an horizon low down in the Carboniferous rocks in Scotland and
in the parts of Cumberland and Northumberland extending north-
wards from Bewcastle. I have myself{ expressed an opinion that
the Calciferous Sandstones represent a local expansion of the lower
part of our Mountain Limestone ; while others, amongst whom was
the late Mr. Ward, consider that they represent a geological
horizon even lower than that.

Now, I have before mentioned that the Carboniferous rocks
had been very greatly faulted, disturbed, and denuded before the

* Sheets 62, Vertical Section.
t+ Quart. Fourn. Geol, Soc., vol. for Nov. 1874, p. 394.

177

New Red Period, and we have clear evidence that the New Red
may cover up rocks belonging to almost every horizon in the
Carboniferous Series, from the highest rocks occurring in the district
down to the older rocks near the base of the Carboniferous Series.
Consequently, in speculating upon the probabilities of coal occur-
ring under the Red Rocks of the Edenside, which the mention of
the discovery primarily referred to in this communication is sure
to induce many to do, it has to be borne in mind, not only that
the various coal fields of the Basin of the Solway, and therefore ot
the rocks extending under the New Red of Edenside, occur on
divers and widely-separated horizons in various parts of the great
pile of the Carboniferous rocks that in late Paleozoic times
probably enveloped greater part of the whole district ; but that
this great pile of Carboniferous rocks was greatly faulted, disturbed,
and denuded before it was covered up by the thick deposit of New
Red that, at the present day, forms the surface rock of so large a
portion of the district. It follows, therefore, that although the
preservation of the great thickness of the Upper Carboniferous
Rocks occurring in the Stainmoor Coal Field may convince us of
the former extension of the true Coal Measures over our district,
_ the* important question of the existence, or the nonexistence, of
coal-bearing beds beneath the New Red of any other part of the
district still involves as complicated calculations as heretofore.

12

178

1t

ADDENDA

TO THE LIST OF MINERALS OCCURRING IN CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND:

Taken from the article by Bryce M. .WricHT, in $enkinson’s larger
Guide to the Lake District.

p. 104. NATIVE SuLPpHUR. Found in large, rough, octahedral
crystals of Galena at Dufton; and occasionally along
with Gypsum at Alston Moor.

p. 115. Mexaconire. Recorded also from Haygill.

p. 116. CoruNnpuM. Occurs in the form of opaque, bluish-grey,
hexagonal crystals at Carrick.

p. 122. MaNcANniITE. Recorded also from Burdle Gill and Blen-
cathra.

CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES

OF THE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE CUMBERLAND ASSOCIATION

For the Advancement of Literature and Science.

VOL. I.—1875-76. (94 pages.)

I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (WuiteHaven) :—

InavevRAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, THE LORD BISHOP OF
CARLISLE,

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES,

GENERAL DISCUSSION ON THE WORK OF THE SOCIETIES.
NoticE oF ExcuRsIoNS MADE.

Papers READ AT THE GENERAL MEETING :—

‘‘Some Plumbago Coining-Moulds.” (Abstract. ) ‘By R. 8. Fergu-
son, M.A. (Carlisle. )

**Local Tokens.” (Abstract.) By Wm. Jackson, J.P. (White-
haven.)

‘Harbours and Docks.” By J. E. Williams (Whitehaven. )

«The Cumberland Dialect.” By John Richardson (Keswick.)

“Sketch of the Geological History of the Lake District.” By J.
Clifton Ward, F.G.S. (Keswick.)

II,—OrIcGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
SEssIon 1875-6, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COpPNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

“The Cumberland Dialect.” By John Richardson (Keswick. )
‘*Old Borrowdale.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick. )
‘*Personal Names.”’ By Peter Harrison (Keswick.)

VOL. IIl.—1876-77. (210 pages.)

I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING L CRON} =
PROGRAMME CARRIED OUT.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT (THE LorD BisHoP oF CARLISLE) ‘‘ The
Analogies and Contrasts between Human and Divine Science.”

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.

(Contents of Vol. I1.—continued. )

Papers READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

“‘Notes on the Meteorology of Cockermouth.” By H. Dodgson,
M.D., F.R.M.S. (Cockermouth, )

“‘The Rainfall of Keswick.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick.) |

“Notes on some Peculiarities of the West Cumberland Coal Field.”
By R. F. Martin, M.A. (Whitehaven. )

“‘The Hematite Deposits of Cumberland and Lancashire.” (Ab-
stract.) By J. D. Kendall, C.E., F.G.S. (Whitehaven. )

‘The Raised Beach on the Cumberland Coast between Whitehaven
and Bowness.” (Abstract.) By R. Russell, C.E., F.G.S.,
(Whitehaven,) and T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

‘*Remarkable Boulders of the Keswick District.” By J. Clifton
Ward, Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S. (Keswick.)

II.—OrIGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Srsston 1876-77, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :— :

‘‘Fletcher Christian and the Mutineers of the Bounty.” By William
Fletcher, F.G.S. (Cockermouth. )

“*Old Customs and Usages of the Lake District.” By John
Richardson (Keswick.)

‘Jonathan Otley, the Geologist and Guide.” By J. Clifton Ward,
Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S. (Keswick.)

‘Notes on a few of the Migratory Birds of the English Lake
District.” By John Birkett (Keswick.)

“Coleridge.” By the Rey. J. D. Harrington, M.A. (Lecture
given at Keswick.)

VOL. III.—1877-78. (229 pages.)
I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (CockERMovtTsH) :—
PROGRAMME CARRIED OUT.
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT. (I. FurrcHer, M.P., F.RB.S.)
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
Paprers READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

**On the Probable Condition of the Interior of the Earth.” By
Sir George Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S., Astronomer-Royal.

‘*Local Names.” By Peter Harrison (Keswick. )

**Quartz, as it occurs in the Lake District; its Structure and its
History.” By J. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. (Keswick.)

‘‘Wordsworth.” By Rev. Professor William Knight, St, Andrews.

(Contents of Vol. I11.—continued. )

Il.—Orternat PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Sesston, 1877-78, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

: ‘*Boulder Clay.” By C. Smith, M.R.LA., £.G.S. (Whitehaven.)

“Submerged Forest at St. Bees.” By R. Pickering, C.E.
(Whitehaven. )

“‘Theory and Practice in their Relation to each other.” By J. D.
Kendall, W. H. Kitchin, and J. Nixon (Whitehaven. )

** A Day at Ennerdale.” By Joseph Adair (Whitehaven. )
‘*Peter Crosthwaite.” By J. Fisher Crosthwaite (Keswick.)

“Symbolism in Art.” By J. A. Wheatley, Carlisle (Cocker-
mouth. )

“Half an Hour with a few Common Beetles.” By William
Duckworth (Carlisle. )

VOL. IV.—1878-79. (339 pages.)

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
ANNUAL REPORT AND TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

ORIGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Session 1878-79, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION CeUNCIL
FOR PUBLICATION ;—

“The Formation of Cumberland.” By R. S. Ferguson, F.S.A.
(Carlisle. )

“The History and Ballads of the Border.” By R. A. Allison,
M.A. (Longtown.)

“The History and Customs of the Manors of the Marquis and
Richmond Fees in the Barony of Kendal and of the Manor
of Hawkshead.” By W. Hopes Heelis (Ambleside.)

‘Notes on the Whitehaven Rural Sanitary District.” By James
Syme, Medical Officer of Health (Whitehaven).

‘Restoration of Ancient Buildings.” By the Rt. Hon. G. C.
Bentinck (Whitehaven. )

“Our Summer Visitors.” By T. Duckworth (Carlisle. )
“With the Dipper.” By Wm. Duckworth (Cariisle).
“‘The Entomology of the District.” By George Dawson (Carlisle. )

**The Stability of Rowing and Sailing Boats.” By the Rev. E. M.
Reynolds (Ambleside. )

“‘The Great Lake, Lagoon, or Bay of Triton.” By B. A. Irving.
M.A. (Ambleside. )

*‘The Old Maryport Furnace, and its place in the History’of Iron
Manufacture.” By John Addison, C.E. (Maryport.)

Ke
-
t
>

(Contents of Vol. 1V.—continued. )

‘‘The Drama and Dramatists.” By E. Fletcher (Whitehaven. )
“Flax and Flax-Workers.” By W. Wilson (Whitehaven. )
‘‘English Music.” By J. Macqueen (Whitehaven. )

‘<The Hon. Charles Radcliffe, and his connection with the Rebellions
of 1715 and 1745.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick. )

“Robert Southey.” By the Very Rev. A. P. Stanley, D.D., F.R.S.,
Dean of Westminster (Keswick.)

«‘List of Cumberland Birds in the Carlisle and Keswick Museums.”
By George Dawson (Carlisle,) and the Rev. J. Clifton Ward,
F.G.S.

VOL. V.—1879-80. (208 pages.)
REPORTS FROM ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
REpPorT OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY,
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.
Warp Memoria Funp.
I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (Maryrort) :—
PROGRAMME CARRIED OUT.
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
Pavers READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

‘Distribution of Boulders in West Cumberland.” By J. D.
Kendall, C.E., F.G.S.

“‘Maryport Camp.” By J. B. Bailey.

Il.—OR1ciInAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Session 1879-80, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

Inaugural Address to Carlisle Society. By Robert Ferguson, M.P.

*‘Soul-Cells and Cell-Souls.’’ (Translated from the German of
Heckel.) By the Rev. C. H. Parez (Carlisle. )

‘‘The Influence of Geological Structure on Scenery.” By J. D.
Kendall, C.E., F.G.S. (Whitehaven. )

‘*Some Account of the Life of the late Captain Huthart, F.R.S.”
By E. T. Tyson (Maryport. )

“The Local Museum, and its Relation to the Natural History of
the District.” By James Arlosh, M.A. (Carlisle.)

‘Notes on Inglewood Forest.” By John Jackson (Carlisle. )

“Water and Air: their Relations to Health or Disease.” By
W. H. Watson, F.C.S., F.M.S., &c. (Whitehaven. )

‘‘The Moths of the District.” By George Dawson (Carlisle.)

‘“‘The Character and Distribution of the Diatomacee.” By
B. Taylor (Whitehaven. )

VOL. VI.—1880-81. (212 pages.)

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
Report OF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY.
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Warp MemoriAt Funp.

I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (Worxtneron) :—
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Papers READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

«The Public Water Supplies of West Cumberland.” By Archibald
Kitchin, F.I.C., F.C.S., &e.

‘The Grasses of Mid-Cumberland.” By William Hodgson.

“Observations on the Flowering Plants of West Cumberland.”
By J. Adair.

‘“‘The Lichens of Cumbérland.” By the Rev. W. Johnson.
‘* Notes on the Occurrence of the Iceland Falcon in Edenside.”
By J. G. Goodchild, H.M. Geological Survey.

‘Notes on the Physical Geography of North-West Cum berland.’
By T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

_ I.--PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE SEsSION 1880-81,
AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :—

“‘The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St. Bees.” By William
Jackson, F.S.A. (Whitehaven. )

‘Contributions towards a List of West Cumberland Flowering
Plants and Ferns.” By Members of the Botanical Section of
the’ Whitehaven Society.

‘On the Wing; or, Bird Life.” By Charles A Parker, M.D.
(Whitehaven. )

“Notes on a Submerged Forest off Cardurnock on the Solway ;
and on the Destruction of Skinburness by the Sea about the
year 1305.” By T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. (Maryport Annual
Meeting.)

“Distribution of the Diatomacex.” By B. Taylor (Whitehaven. )

G. AND T, COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE.

foardittaarcs O40

as ate pics oe ee 2 -
NRLARM! ETT PAW PD, |

TRANSACTIONS

No: VilI.—1882-83. ar

SEpitep sv J.-G. GOODCHILD,;- > am
Of the Geological Survey of England, ia

PRICE To. Maree: “One Suing. © Masa
_ Now-Menwens; Tyo. ese AND Susi ; ;

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coWwaRD, “PRINTERS, scoreH STREET. asa
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LRANSACTIONS

OF THE

CUMBERLAND ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

Advancement of Literature and
Sczence,

Nor Vill>—1882-83.

Pepe of. J. G. GOO.) € HéTLD;
Of the Geological Survey of England.

Pricze to MemsBers, ONE SHILLING.
Non-Mempers, Two SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE,

CARLISLE :
G. & T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET,
1883.

Tyr are
Hi 5 Say oes A
Ri et My a ah,

Satake Past epee ty

ries Cee

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COON TT ES...

RULES
List oF OFFICERS
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES ...
Report oF ASSOCIATION SECRETARY
_ Norick to MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION

TREASURER’S ACCOUNT

ADDRESS BY THE PresipENT (Ropert Fercuson, M.P.)
‘* Notes on the Place-Names of Cumberland and West-
morland.”’ ...

‘‘Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates.” By J. Posre-
THWAITE, F'.G.S. ae

‘The Proposed Permanent Lake District Defence ae
By the Rev. H. D. RAwNSLEY

“The Language of Lakeland in its Testimony to the Norse-
man and the Celt.” By the Rey. T. ELLwoop

Parr I].—PAreRs COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Sessron, 1882-83, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION
CoUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :—

‘Contribution towards a List of Cumberland Mosses.” By
Rev. R. Woop (Carlisle) is =

“The Botany of the Caldew aig By WitiaAM
Hopeson (Carlisle) ee ak

«Professor Robert Harkness, F.R.S.” ey J. G GoopexnILp,
H.M.G.S, (Penrith) .. :

“‘ Water Supply in the Carlisle Basin.” By T. V. Houmgs,

Page

NOTES ON THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING AT AMBLESIDE Vii.

1x.
Xil.

Xiv.

. XXXi.
XK
TERRI.

Part I.—PROCEEDINGS avr tan ANNUAL MEETING (AmBLESIDE) :—

69

83

99

127

145

17

‘‘Further Additions to the Flowering Plants of Cumberland
(West and East).”” By the Rev. R. Wooo ...

<¢The Lepidoptera of West Cumberland.” By G. Mawson

‘“‘The German Miners at Keswick.” By J. FIsHER Cros-
THWAITE, F.S.A. aes eh Bs

Section II,—‘‘ Contributions towards a List of the Minerals occur-

ring in Cumberland and Westmorland.” Part IJ. By
J. G. GooDcHILD : cu I ys

Loca Screntiric Notes AND MEMORANDA.

Footprints in the Penrith Sandstone. G. Varry SmirH ...
The Iceland Falcon in Cumberland. W. DuckwortH

The Waxwing. W. DuckwortH

The Sea-Owl or Lump-Fish. W. DuckwortTu...

Further Additions to Lists of Cumberland sheidesa Plants,
W. DuckwortH 3

Coal Measures below the New Red Sandstone. T. V. H....
Discovery of Mammalian Remains at Silloth. T. V. H.
Bos primigenius and the Chillingham Wild Cattle. T. V. H.
Note on Shawk Beck. T. V. H. .
Remains of the Beaver in Westmorland. J. G. G.

Bos primigenius in Westmorland, J. G. G.

The Black Rat in Westmorland. J. G. G.

The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker in Cumberland. J. G. G.
Epipactis palustris in Cumberland. J. G. G.

Pyrrhotite. J. G. G.

Page

214

_—

ee

‘the Illustrations that accompany his communications. ;

- J

Aroceedings at the Annual Meeting at Ambleside, 1883.

Tur ANNUAL MEETING of the AssocraTIon was held this year at Ambleside,
on Thursday and Friday, the 24th and 25th of May.

The Proceedings were opened on Thursday, at noon, in the Lecture
Hall, by an Address from the President, Mr. Roperr Frrcuson, M.P., on
“The Place Names of Cumberland and Westmorland.” A fairly large
number of members, representing the local Societies of Cumberland and
Westmorland, being present.

After Luncheon at the Salutation Hotel, the Annual General Meeting
of the Association was held in the Lecture Hall, the President in the chair.
The Reports of the affiliated Societies having been read by the Association
Secretary, Mr. R. 8S. FerGuson was unanimously chosen President for the
ensuing year: Mr. GooDCHILD was re-appointed Editor of the 7’ransactions ;
and Mr. Rozgerr Crowver, Secretary and Treasurer, in place of Mr.
Kendall, who, through pressure of other work, felt compelled to resign.
Hearty votes of thanks having been passed to the retiring President and
Secretary, and Penrith having been selected as the place of the Annual
Meeting of 1884, the members drove to Rydal Mount, the home of Words-
worth, which, through the kindness of Mr..Robert Crewdson, was thrown
open to the party. Under the guidance of the Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, the
room was inspected where Wordsworth’s portrait by Pickersgill (kindly
lent by Miss Quillinan for the occasion,) was hung, and the old teapot that
once belonged to him, and the carved cupboard brought by him from
Cockermouth, pointed out. The lovely grounds, then in their full Spring
beauty, the Nab Well, and the terrace where the poet so often walked, were
next visited ; after which the party, walking through the grounds of Rydal
Hall, the beautifully situated seat of Mr. Le Fleming, descended to the
well known waterfall, and heard with pleasure the lines in which the poet
accurately described the fall as it was in his day, and is to-day—

With its bridge

Half grey, half clad with ivy to its ridge.
The party then drove along the shore of Rydal Water, passing Nab Cottage,
once the home of Hartley Coleridge and De Quincey ; walked over the old
carriage road to Grasmere, past the famous ‘‘ Wishing Gate” to ‘‘ Town
End,” where the poet lived before his marriage, where he first met
De Quincey, and to which he brought home his bride. After looking over

vill.

the house and garden, which is left as it was when Wordsworth lived
there, the members drove through Grasmere to Lancrigg, the residence of
the Rev. H. M. Fletcher, Rector of Grasmere, where all were most hospit-
ably entertained at tea, The beautiful grounds once belonging to the
famous Arctic traveller, Sir John Richardson, were visited ; and an album
containing autograph letters of Wordsworth, and other distinguished
characters, was inspected with much interest. On returning, all stopped
at Grasmere Church, the burial place of the poet and his family ; Ambleside
being reached about seven.

After tea in the lecture room, a large audience assembled to hear a most
eloquent and thoughtful lecture by Professor Knight, on “‘ The True, the
Beautiful, and the Good.” :

On Friday, at ten a.m., original papers were read by several gentlemen,
most of which will be found in this Part of the Transactions. At one p.m.,
the members were entertained at luncheon at the Salutation Hotel, by the
President and Committee of the Ambleside Society, to whom, on the motion
of the President, a hearty vote of thanks for their efforts for the success of
the meeting, and kind hospitality, was accorded, At two, carriages were
in readiness to take the party to Tarn Haues, Yewdale, and Tilberthwaite
Gill. After inspecting the great slate quarries at the entrance of the Gill,
the party walked up its entire length, stopping a while at a bend of the
gorge where it turns at right angles to its former course, to hear a short
address from Mr. Marr, F.G.S., on the eroding agencies that had been at
work in forming the Gill. The, grandly picturesque scenery of the upper
part of the glen well repaid the party for the fatigues of the climb, now
made comparatively easy for all, through the bridges which Mr. Marshall,
at Professor Ruskin’s request, has caused to be thrown across the stream
wherever necessary. Returning through the woods on the opposite side of
the Gill, the members were most kindly entertained at tea in a farm-house
near at hand, by the Ambleside and District Society, and afterwards drove
home, reaching Ambleside in the evening.

This concluded the programme of the Ambleside Meeting, which,
favoured as it was with fine weather, and by the hearty co-operation and
thoughtful hospitality of the Ambleside and District Society, proved in
every way a most enjoyable and successful one,

RULES

OF THE

Cumberland Association tov the Advancement
of Literature and Science.

1.—That the Association be called the ‘“* CUMBERLAND
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE AND
SCIENCE.”

_2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Whitehaven Scientific Association, Keswick Literary and Scientific
Society, Workington Scientific and Literary Society, Maryport
Literary and Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific
Society, Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists Club,
Ambleside and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and
Holme Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary
and Scientific Society and Field Naturalist Club, Penrith and
District Literary and Scientific Society ; Windermere Literary and
Scientific Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly
affiliated. Also of persons nominated by two members of the
Council ; this latter class of members shall pay the sum of 55,

annually,

xX.

3.—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members

of the Cumberland Association.

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, and Editor
shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the
Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi-
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affiliated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by
Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.
The Council shall have the power of obtaining the assistance of
persons who are not members of the Association.

8.—The Council may publish at the expense of the Association
such portions of its own or of any of the affiliated Societies’
communications as may be deemed advisable, subject to the
consent of the author.

9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among
existing societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones ; it
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with

any of the associated societies.

xi,
10.—Affiliated societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the ‘Association, Sixpence for each of their
members ; but when the number of members of the affiliated
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per

cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess

of that number.

11.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting. Any member
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held.

12.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent

members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.

13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed

by the Society assisted.

The Ninth AnnuaL MEETING will be held at PENRITH early
in 1884, and due notice of the arrangements will be issued to all
members of the Association.

Members willing to contribute original articles on subjects of
local interest should communicate with the Honorary Secretary,

ROBERT CROWDER, Esq., Stanwix, Carlisle.

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1883-84,

OO ro
President.
R. S. FERGUSON, Esq., M.A., LL.M., F.S.A.

Past Presidents.

Tur Lorp BisHoP oF CARLISLE.
Tue LATE I. FiercnHer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Tur Hon. P. 8S. WynpHam, M.P.
Ropert Fercuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents.

J. G. Drzs, C.E., (Whitehaven. )

Rey. W. ConviLie, (Keswick.)

Rev. J. J. ToHornury, M.A., (Workington.)
J. Cartmett, A.M.I.C.E., (Maryport.)
Rev. Jos. Watuacs, B.A., (Longtown.)

R. S. Fereuson, F.S.A., (Carlisle. )

Rev. H. S. Cattenper, M.A., (Ambleside. )
Rorr. Guarsrer, Esq., (Silloth.)

G. J. Jounson, Esq., (Brampton.)

M. W. Taytor, Esq., M.D., (Penrith.)
Lorp Decres, (Windermere. )

Council.

T. F. l’Anson, M.D., Ww
J. Vivian, C.E.

Canon BATTERSBY, ‘
A. A. H. Kyicut, M.D.» Keswick.

C. J. VALENTINE, :

W. Wison, Workington.
Dr. MATHIAS,

Francis WALKER, M.B.

S. F. Mc. LAcHLAn,
JoHN WILSON, Longtown.

hitehaven.

Maryport.

R. 8. Ferauson, M.A., LL.M., F.S.A., Carlisle

Henry Barnes, M.D.,

Rey. C. H. CHASE ;
C. W. Sirs, 2 Ambleside.
Rev. A. F. SHEPPARD, B,A., ;

H. L, Barker, Silloth.
Rev. H. WHITEHEAD,
Gzo. BuRTON,

M. W. Taytor, M.D., F.S.A. :
W. B. ARNISON, . Penrith.

AVA
ha fet eaten ee i Windermere.

Brampton.

Hon. Association Secretary and Treasurer.
Rosert Crowver, M.A., Stanwix, Carlisle.

Editor.

J. G. Goopcuitp, Grou. Survey or ENGLAND, Penrith.

Whitehaven
Keswick...
Workington
Maryport

Longtown
Carlisle ...
; ~ Ambleside

HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE LOCAL SOCIETIES,

JOSEPH ADAIR,

W. H. Kircuty, Scien. Assoc., Howgill Street.

T. E. Higuron, Brigham, Keswick.
W. Witson, Workington.

J. Hewerson, Scientific Society, Maryport.
P. Macintyre, Scientific Society, Maryport.

Joun Witson, Eskbank, Longtown.

JouNn Srvcxiatr, 6, Hawick Street, Carlisle,
Cuar.es W. SmirH, Fisherbeck, Ambleside.
H. L. Barker, Esk Street, Silloth.

F, J. Rice, Brampton.

Rey. J. S. Ostin, B.A. Beaconside, Penrith.

W. C. MacDoveatt, Windermere.
B, E. FisHEer, Windermere.

XIV.

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.

WHITEHAVEN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,
HOWGILL STREET.

16rH SESSION, 1882-83.

President ihe se a at ae AvaGustus ‘HELDER.
Vice-Presidents. 4
JosePH ADAIR, | J. G. Drxs, C.E.
Past-Presidents.
T. F. PAwnson, M.D., F.R.H.S. H. A. Fretcuer, F.R.A.S.
W. JACKSON, Ps F.S.A. JAMES Batrp.
Avucustus HELDER. R. Russewu, C.E., FVG.S.
W. H. Kircnin. A. Kircuty, F.C.S.
Committee.
E. Asiertr, M.D. W. Mc.Gowan.
B. Taytor. T. Gorpon.
E. Dosson. J. W. Montcomrry, F.C.S.
T. Jackson, M.D.
Curator of Museum ... sae a Be W. DAnson, M.B.
Curator of Building ... es a we R. Pickering, C.E.
Treasurer... ae ae ae ee J. S. HeELLon.
Hon. Librarian a ane ive a H. Apair.

Hon, Secretaries.
J. Vivian, C.E. | W. H. Kircnrn.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
Oct. 24.—CoNVERSAZIONE.—ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT.
Nov. 7.—W. Fraser, M.A., M.B.—Life Germs.
Nov. 21.—R. Russreit, F.G.S.—Iron Ores.
Dec. 5.—H. FrLpTmann.—Science in Warfare.
Dec. 19.—C. W. Prarson, F.R.G.S.—Central Africa.

BEVIS <

XV,

Jan. 9.—J. Newsy Hernerineron, F.R.G.S8., &c.—The Novel, and its
Place in English Literature.

Jan. 23.—Joun Crum.—Notes on Sweden.

Feb. 6.—R. Jerrerson.—Notes from the Diary of a Mud-Student.

Feb, 20.—W. A. Hoyiz, M.A., M.R.C.S.—Deep Sea Dredging, and its
Results.

Mar. 6.—Euiis Wautry, F.R.G.S., &c.—The Arctic Regions.

Mar. 20.—T. Morrarr, M.E.—Coal, and Coal Mining.

Apr. 3.—CONVERSAZIONE:

Apr. 17.—Business Meeting, Election of Officers, &c.

The Committee have pleasure in reporting that the Association
during the past year, which is the sixteenth of its existence, has
fully maintained the satisfactory position recorded in the last
report.

The number of members on the books is 336, of whom 86 are
associates. Although a considerable number of new members
joined the Association during the year, the loss by removals, etc.,
makes the total identical with that of last year.

The finances are in a satisfactory state, though from increased
expenditure on conversazione, repairs to property, etc., the balance
to the debit of the Association is almost the same as before.

The Conversazione with which the Session opened, was very

successful, and the regulations of the Committee as to admission

obviated the overcrowding complained of in former years.
The Lectures delivered during the Session were of an interesting
and instructive character, and were all well attended.
The Museum has been enriched by the addition of the following
gifts :—
Microscopical Specimens: ... bra ... Mr. B. Taylor
Zoological Specimens: Mr. D. Burnyeat, Mr. G. Dobson,
Mr. J. R. Wallace, Mr. W. Adair, and Mrs. Cowman
Weapons: Mr. J. R. Wallace, Mr. G. Nelson, & Capt. Tremble

Old Glass and Pottery : os ae ath Mrs, Smith

Coins ... ws de sith te ... Mr, E. Dobson

Charred Wheat, from Roman Camp at Papcastle: Mr. W.
Jackson.

Fossil ; mes wae ‘its os es Mr. J. Reay

XVI.

The Curator reports that there is a falling off in the number of
specimens presented, but that most of them are valuable.

The Library is in an efficient state ; eighteen new volumes have
been acquired by purchase, and twelve have been presented by a
member (Mr. R. Russell). It now contains about three hundred
volumes of standard modern works in science and literature,
exclusive of patent specifications, magazines, and periodicals.
The circulation of books has increased. ~

Science Classes have been held during the Session, under the
direction of Mr. A. Freeman. The results of the work of these
Classes will not however be known till after the examinations next
month.

In concluding this Report, the Committee desire to express
their thanks to the donors of gifts to the Museum and Library,
and to the Lecturers who have so kindly given their services
during the past Session.

KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

l4rH SESSION, 1882-83.

President ... ae we sae Rev. T. K. RicnamMonp, M.A.

Vice-President He te nee Rev. A. Howson.

Secretary ... ong ot bes Mr. J. PostLeETHWAITE,

Treasurer ... a ae ahs Mr. Epwin JAcKsoNn,
Committee.

GrorGE Brack, M.B. T. E. Hicuton.

Rev. W. CoLvite. Rey. Canon Bartrerssy, M.A.

J. FisHer CrostHwaAIrTeE, F.S.A. WiLi1Am Woop.

Hon. Curators of the Museum.

A: A, H, Kyieut, M.D. | JoHN BIRKETT.

~ tenet: =

ve Pa a

XVil.

PUBLIC LECTURES.

1882.
Nov. 6.—J. D. Kenpatu, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.—Lakes, and how they were
formed.
Noy. 20.—Joun Hoimes, Esq.—Characteristics of American Poetry, with
Readings.

Dec. 7.—FRANK CuRzoN, Esq.—Tales about Heads.
Dec. 18.—THEe DEAN oF CARLISLE.—Newspapers.
1883.
Jan, 29,—A. G. Miter, Esq.—Panl: a Type of True Manhood.
Feb, 5.—Rev. ©. H. Parez, M.A.—Gradation in Plant Life.
Feb. 12.—Rev. H. J. ButKeLtey.—The Poet, Robert Browning.
Feb. 26.—Rrv. Canon Drxon.—Pegasus ; or the Story of an Old Horse:
being a Sketch of the History and present Condition of Poetry.
Mar, 12.—R. Russetz, Esq., C.E., F.G.S.—What is Limestone ?
Apr. 2.—-Proressor Lapwortu, F.G.S.-—The Silurian Age in Britain.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1882.

Oct. 30.—THE PRESIDENT.—The Life and Works of Thomas Gainsborough.
Noy. 27.—Mr. G. Smrru.—Friends in Nature.
Dec. 11.—Dr. Kyicur.—Drinks and Drinking.

1883.
Jan, 22.—Mr. G. Harrorp Barrerspy.—Mahomet : his Life, Writings and
; Work.
Feb. 19.—Rerv. W. CotvitLe.—Joseph Addison.
Mar. 5.—Dr. Biacx.—Robert Burns.
Mar.19.—Mr. Witsoy.—Coaching in Past and Present Times.
Mar.26.—Mr. J, F. Crosrawarre.—German Miners at Keswick.

The attendance at the Public Lectures and Ordinary Meetings
was very satisfactory.

During the Session fifteen new members were proposed and
duly elected ; but twenty-one failed to make good their member-
ship, leaving 145 as the number on the books at the present time.

The Treasurer’s account shews an income of £39 16s. 11d,
and expenditure amounting to £39 14s. 2d., leaving a balance
on hand of 2s.9d. The smallness of the balance is due to the
fact that the Society, during the past two years, has voted £20 to
the funds of the Keswick Library. The income of the Museum
of Local Natural History, together with the balance on hand at

XVill.

the beginning of the year, amounted to £95 11s. 11d., and the
expenditure was £17 2s. 5d., leaving a balance on hand of
478 9s. 6d.

The summer programme consisted of three Excursions or Field
Days. The first was to Grasmere, Rydal, Loughrigg Terrace,
Red Bank, &c., on the zz2nd of June. Tea was provided at the
Prince of Wales Hotel, after which a paper on “ Wordsworth, his
Life and Works,” was read by J. Maitland, Esq. The second was
to the ancient Camps at Overwater, Caer Mot, and Castle Howe,
on the rgth July. On this occasion a paper was read by J. Fisher
Crosthwaite, Esq., F.S.A., on “The Camp at Caer Mot,” and also
a letter on the same subject, written by the late Dr. Leitch. The
third was to Scale Hill, by Borrowdale, Honister Pass, and Butter-
mere. While tea was being prepared at Scale Hill, some of the
party ascended Brackenthwaite Hows, where an excellent view of
the whole valley may be obtained, and from whence the course of
a desolating flood caused by a water-spout breaking upon Grassmoor
in the year 1760, may be traced out. An account of this occur-
rence was read by the President. Some of the party also visited
the old Lead Mine on the right bank of the Cocker, after which
the return journey was made by way of Whinlatter.

The following are the Officers and Committee for next Session :—
President, Rev. William Colville; Vice-President, Rev. T. K.
Richmond ; Treasurer, Mr. Edwin Jackson ; Secretary, Mr. Thos,
Edward Highton; Committee: Rev. Canon Battersby, Rev. A.
Howson, Dr. Black, Mr. J. F. Crosthwaite, Mr. J. Postlethwaite,
and Mr. William Wood.

xix.

WORKINGTON SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY
ASSOCIATION.

SESSION 1882-83.

President... bs A — Rev. J. J. THornizy, M.A,
Vice-President Hl Ee sa C. J. VALENTINE, Esq.
Treasurer... ae ae ag W. Patsiey, Esq.
Secretary... vas ae pe W. Wusson, Ese.

Members of Council.

Messrs. THORNLEY, VALENTINE, and WILSON.

Committee.
Mr. H. Bowes. Mr. Ropr. GARDNER.
Mr. Gro. GRAHAM. Mr. TxHos. IREDALE.
Mr. C. HinpMaARsH. Mr. JoHN TAYLOR.
Joun HicHer. Capt. Rice.
G. F. SaunpeErs. | Rev. T. Know es.

Rev. C. WALKER.

The following Meetings were held during the Session :—
1882.

Noy. 10.—Conversazione. (In Assembly Rooms.) PRESIDENT’s OPENING
Remarks. Recitals by W. S. Variance, Esq., Professor of
Elocution, Glasgow University. Vocal and Instrumental Music.

Noy. 23.—Mr. R. 8. Cantui.—The English School of Painting.

Dec. 7.—Dr. Biack.—Physical Culture.

Dec. 21.—Mr. H. Fetprmann.—Science in Warfare.

1883.

Jan. 10.—Mr. J. N. Heruerineton, F.R.G.S.—The Origin and Growth
of Popular Stories.

Jan. 18.—Rev. C. H. Gum,” M.A.— Shakespeare.

Feb. 1.—Mr. Joun Crum.—Observations on Sweden.

Feb. 15.—Rev. H. S. ButkeLey, M.A.—Robert Browning the Poet.

Mar. 1.—Rev. J. S. Cratc.—Holiday Rambles among the Craters and
Volcanoes of Auvergne.

Mar. 15.—Rev. A. Howson.—Layard’s Discoveries at Nineveh.

Mar. 29.—Mr. R. Russet, F.G.S.—Climate and Soils of Cumberland in
relation to Agriculture.

XX.

The Committee, in presenting their Report for Session 1882-8 3,
are glad to state the Meetings of the Association have been well
attended. The average attendance at the lectures numbering from
seventy to eighty—much the same as previous Session. The
membership numbers about one hundred.

The Session opened with a Conversazione, which was very well
attended, and as popular as those of past years.

Nine ordinary Lectures have been given, and one special lecture
by Professor Hetherington, F.R.G.S., on “The Origin and Growth
of Popular Stories.”

MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

7tH SESSION, 1882-83.

President nee ans pas on ee Dr. MatTrTHtias
Vice-President ... ee “sic ae .. E, T. Tyson, Esq.
Past-Presidents.

Rev. J. S. Ornate. | J. Appison, Esq., J.P. | Wuirrip Hing, Esq.
Treasurer ae ee ae We .. Mr. J. B. Battey
Delegates.

Mr. J. CARTMELL | Mr. F. WALKER
Hon. Secretaries.

Mr, J. Hewerson | Mr. P. MAcInTyRE
Committee. |

Rev. W. P. ScHAFFTER Mr. R. Haminron

Mr. J. CARTMELL Rev. H. C. Batnry
Mr. R. ADAIR Mr. A. HInE

Mr. C. EAGLESFIELD Mr. F. WALKER

Mr. W. WHARTON | Mr. W. H. EckrersLrey

The Committee, in presenting the Seventh Annual Report,
regrets to note a decrease in the membership. This year the
members number 124, against 136 last year, shewing a decrease

——

ere

XX1.

of 12. The decrease is in part accounted for by the removal of
several gentlemen from the district.

The attendance at Lectures has on the whole been exceptionally
good, more particularly in those cases where the subject was
advertised.

The warmest thanks of the Society are tendered to all those
gentlemen who took part in the programme.

The new rule adopted last Session, of issuing Family Tickets at
a charge of tos. each, has worked well.

A satisfactory balance remains in the hands of the Treasurer.

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

6TH SESSION, 1882-83.

President... a Spe Rev, JosepH Watuace, M.A.
Vice-Presidents.
R. A. Awuison, Esq., M.A. Mr. S. F. Mc. Lacaian, M.B.
Rey. P. CARRUTHERS. Wm. Easton Ropertson, Esa.
Treasurer and Secretary ... ma es ... Mr. Joun Witson.
Committee,
Mr. T. Rrae. Rev. Wm. Lyrvretn.
Mr. James PEEL. Mr. Wm. Dixon.
Mr. Wm. Lirrte. Mr. LonspAte.
Mr. A. P. WILKIE. Mr. R. G. Bary.
PUBLIC MEETINGS.
1882.
Oct, 24.—Wm. S. Vauiance, Esq.—Literary and Elocutionary Entertain-
ment.
Nov.28,—J. H. Park, Esq.—Gladiatorial and other Amusements of Ancient
Rome.

Dec. 19.—Rev. Davip THomas.—Scotland One Hundred Years Ago.
1883.
Jan. 16.—J. Newsy Heruerineton, Esa., F.R.G.S.—How to Read and
Study Shakespeare.
Feb. 13.—W. Easton Ropertson, Esq.—A Visit to the Land of the Pharaohs,
Mar, 20.—R. Russet, Esq, C.E., F.G.S.—The Antiquity of Man.

XXIi.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1882.

Oct. 31.—Mr. 8. F. Mo.Lacnitan, M.B.—The Circulation of the Blood.

Nov. 7.—Rev. Wm. Lyrrert, M.A.—Sea-side Explorations, illustrated
with numerous Microscopie Specimens.

Noy.14.—Mr. F. C. Harrison.—Rise and Progress of Agriculture in
Cumberland.

Nov. 21.—Readings by several Members.

Dec. 5.—Debate : Is the Theory of Evolution consistent with established
Facts, and not derogatory to the Dignity of Man? Opener—Mr.
JoHN WILSON.

Dec.12.—Rev. C. B. 8. Giitines.—Sir Walter Scott.

Dec. 26.—Musical Evening.

1883.

Jan. 2.—-Mr. A. P. Wiix1n.—A Night with Dickens.

Jan. 9.—J. G. Benn, Esq.—Meteorology.

Jan. 23.—Discussion on Lecture—‘‘How to Read and Study Skakespeare.”

Jan. 30.—Mr. JouHn Witson.—Elementary Electricity.

Feb. 6.—Rey. Dr. Grant.—The British Constitution.

Feb.20.—Mr. Jas. Mc.Conocuir.—Asthetics in Education.

Feb.27.—Rey. T. H. Invine.—Ancient Drinking Usages.

Mar, 6.—Mr. Wm. JAnpine.—Cosmical Motions—Air and Water.

Mar.13.—Mr. Jackson.—Flower Lore.

Mar.27.—Mr, R. G. Baty.—The Cities of the World.

Apr.17.—Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &e.

The operations of the Society last year have been of the usual
interesting and instructive character. During the Summer months
Excursions were held to Springkell, Liddell Moat, Sandysykes
- Brick and Tile Works, and to Naworth Castle, all of which were
very much enjoyed by those members who had opportunities of
joining in them.

The Winter Session was carried out according to the Programme
arranged by the Committee, with the exception of the paper on
‘« Spiritualism,” by the Rev. Jos. Wallace, who found a substitute
in Mr. Jackson of Carlisle, who read a very interesting paper on
“Flower Lore ;” and that on “Sir James Graham,” by the Rev.
P. Carruthers, who was prevented by ill health; and the lecture
on “ Monkeys,” by J. G. Goodchild, Esq., who was absent from
the district at the time of his appointment.

|
|
:
j
y

Xxill,

The attendance at the Meetings was not so large as the merits
of the lectures and papers deserved ; and the Committee regret to
have to report for the first time a falling off in the membership ;
but that is in a great measure owing to the removal of several
members from the neighbourhood. The Session was wound up
with a social Tea Meeting, which was kindly provided and carried
out by the lady members. After teaa Musical Entertainment was
given, and a very enjoyable evening spent.

At the annual business meeting, the Secretary reported that the
income from all sources, including a balance of ros. from last year,
and a profit of £2 2s. 9d. from Mr. Vallance’s entertainment,
amounted to £10 19s. 1od.; total expenses, #10 12s, 9d.; leaving
a balance in hand of 7s.1d.

The Committee wish to thank all who have so ably contributed
to the work of the Society during the past season, and hope that
the Society may still be enabled to prove a source of usefulness
and intellectual recreation in the future.

Officers for the Session 1883-84 :—President, Rev. Joseph
Wallace, M.A.; Vice-Presidents, R. A. Allison, Esq., M.A., Rev.
P. Carruthers, Mr. S. F. Mc.Lachlan, M.B., William Easton
Robertson, Esq.; Treasurer and Secretary, Mr. John Wilson ;
Committee, Mr. T. Rigg, Mr. Wm. Little, Mr. A. P. Wilkie, Rev.

“Wm. Lytteil, Mr. Wm. Dixon, Mr. A. Tweddle, Mr. Wm. Jardine.

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

6TH SESSION, 1882-83.

President... ae Fas ... Mites MacInnzs, Esa.

Past-Presidents.

Tue Ricut Rev. THE Lorp BisHor or CARLISLE.
Rozsert Fereuson, Esq., M.P.
Vice-Presidents.

S. J. Brnnine, Esq. | Rev. JAMES ARLOSH.

XXIV,

Treasurer... re gee .. R. S. Ferevson, Esa.
Hon. Secretary a. JoHN Sinciarr, 6, Hawick Street.
Committee.

Dr. MACLAREN. Dr. BARNES.

Mr. W. I. R. Crowner. Mr. R. M. Hitt.

Mr. W. B. Dopp. Mr. Gro.* Dawson.
Mr. R. J. Baruure. Mr. JoHN JACKSON.
Mr. Tom DuckworTH. Mr. Wm. Duckwortn.
Dr. CARLYLE. Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY.

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LOCAL LECTURES.

A course of Twelve Lectures on ‘‘EuROPE IN Pre-Historic TimEs,”

_ was given by J. E. Marr, M.A., F.G.S., Fellow of St. John’s College,

Cambridge, during the months of October, November, and December. The
attendance was not so good as in previous years, and the pecuniary results
were disastrous : they do not, however, fall upon this Society.

During the Session the following Lectures have been delivered :—

PUBLIC LECTURES.
1883.

Jan. 9.—THE WorsHIPFUL THE Mayor oF CARLISLE.—Carlisle : its
Corporation and its Guilds. No. 2.

Feb. 6.—Dr. Taytor, Penrith.—Gems and Precious Stones.

Feb. 22.—THr WorsHiprFuL THE Mayor oF CARLISLE.—Carlisle in the
Days of Queen Bess.

Mar. 6.—Mr. R. J. Bariiie.—The Moon.

Apr. 3.—Mr. J. Herworrs, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E.—Coal-Tar Colours.

1882. ORDINARY MEETINGS (held in the Museum.)

Nov. 9.—Rey. C. H. Parez, H.M. Inspector of Schools. —Gradation in
Plant Life.

Dec. 7.—Dr. Leprarp, F.R.C.S.—Arsenic in Domestic Fabrics.

1883.

Jan, 25.—Mr. Wm. Hopcson, Watermillock.—On the Botany of the Caldew
Valley.

Mar.22.—Rey. Rost. Woop, Rosley.—Local Mosses.

Apr.19.—Mr. Harrison, Carlisle. —The Helm Wind.

The Committee, in presenting their Sixth Annual Report, have
to congratulate the members on the success of another Session.

During the past year two most important meetings have been
held in Carlisle, namely, the Annual Meeting of the Cumberland

ee eee

XXV.

Association, and also, the visit of the Royal Archzological Institute
of Great Britain and Ireland.

During the season three Field Days have been held, commencing
May 31st to Corby Walks, in connection with the Annual Meeting
of the Cumberland Association ; the second to Talkin Tarn, in
conjunction with the Brampton Club; and the third to Head’s
Nook. The attendance of members on the two last days was not
large, but the Committee attribute this to the numerous excursions
on the occasion of the visit of the Royal Archzological Institute.

Upwards of one hundred copies of the Zyansactions have been
gratuitously distributed among the members.

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

6TH SESSION, 1882-83.

President... 33% a .. Rev, H. 8. CaLtenper, M.A,
Past President noe ote x ep R. CrEwoson, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.

Rey. E. M. Reynotps, M.A. | Rey. H. D. Rawnstey, B.A.

Committee.

Mr. T. Bewz, Junr. J. Fiemine, Esq.
Mr, J. BENTLEY. G. Gatry, Esq.

A. J. Bropi, Esq. | F. M. T. JonEs, Esq.
Rev. C. H. Cuase. Mr. J. RussELL.

Mr. W. Barron. | R. Crewnpson, Esq.

Treasurer =f an os na bee Mr. W. Lister
Secretary Sa ts Acc a .. Mr, ©. W. Surrx

Delegates.

Rev. H, D. Rawnstey, B.A. | Mr, C. W. Sarrn,
Cc

XXV1.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
1882.

Oct. 20.—Conversazione ; an Address by the President.

Nov. 3.—Rev. H. J. BunKetry, M.A.—Robert Browning.

Nov. 17.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, B.A.—John Ruskin and his Teaching.

Dec. 1.—Rev. E. M. Reynoutps, M.A.—Debate: The Interference of
Government with the Actions of Private Life tends to impair
the Vigour of the National Character.

Dec. 8.—FRANK Curzon, Esq.—Our Faces, and how we have come by them.

Dec. 22.—Rev. J. G. Woop, M.A., &c.—Unappreciated Insects.

1883.

Jan, 12,—J. Newsy Heruertneron, Esq., F.R.G.S., &c.—The Origin and
Development of Popular Stories.

Jan, 26.—The Very Rev. the DEAN oF CARLISLE.—Newspapers.

Feb. 9.—Rev. H. M. Frercuer, M.A.—Alfred Tennyson.

Feb. 23.—J. R. Bripson, Esq.—Electricity, with experiments,

Mch. 9.—A. Harris, Esq.—Industry and Art.

Mch, 29.—J. G. Gooncurip, Esq., F.G.S.—Monkeys. .

Apl. 3.—Rev. Canon Brix, D.D.—Longfellow.

Apl. 6.—Rev. H. K. Hasta, B,A.—Cremation.
Business Meetinc—Election of Officers.

The Committee with satisfaction report that during the year
much interest has been taken in the work of the Society. The
members and others, in fair numbers, have attended the twelve
Lectures and the Debate.

At the Conversazione Charles A. Parker, Esq., read a paper on
““The Runic Crosses of Gosforth.”

During the summer an address was given by F. Marr, Esq.,
upon Botanic and Geologic studies ; and, under his guidance, a
class, consisting of nine members, made three excursions on to the
neighbouring fells.

The Society now numbers 121 members, being five more than
reported last year.

The Treasurer’s account shows a good balance.

Officers and Committee for 1883-84 :—President, Rev. H. S.
Callender ; Vice-Presidents, Rev. E. M. Reynolds, F. M. T. Jones,
Esq; Past President, R. Crewdson, Esq.; Committee, Mr. W.
Barton, Mr. T. Bell, junr., Mr. J. Bentley, A. J. Brodie, Esq.,

XXVIl.

Rey. C. H. Chase, R. Crewdson, Esq., J. Fleming, Esq., G. Gatey,
Esq., Mr. W. E. Percival, Mr. J. Russell; Treasurer, Mr. W.
Lister; Secretary, Mr. C. W. Smith; Delegates, Rev. C. H.
Chase, Mr. C. W. Smith.

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

SESSION, 1882-83.

President Pee oi Ropert Guaister,£Hsq,, East Cote.
{ Vice-Presidents.
Rey. 8. Hepert, M.A. | Joun Lerrcou, M.B., C.M.
Committee.
G. T. Carr. | J. Mapacan.
W. Crass. | J. T. MIDDLETON,
W. M. Hopson. R. Prat.
J. GLAISTER. C. V. Porrsr.
J. THOMSON.
Hon. Treasurer ee a 50 J. Srronacu, Esq.
Hon. Secretary a bias ua H. L, Parker.
1882. PUBLIC LECTURES.

Oct. 20.—P. Geppss, F.R.S.E.—Insectivorous Plants.
Noy. 22.—Rev. H. J. Butketny, M.A,—Robert Browning the Poet.
Dec. 6.—R. Russett, C.E., F.G.S.—Iron Ores of Great Britain.
1883.
Jan, 11.—J. Newsy HETHERINGTON, F.R.G.S.—The Origin and Develop-
ment of Popular?Stories.
Feb. 6.—Rev. C. H. Gem, M.A.—Cardinal Wolsey.
Mar. 7.—JoHN GLAIsTER—Clouds and Rain.
Mar. 28.—Rev. W. Lyrrritt, M.A.—Caves and Cave Dwellers.
Apr. 18.—D. Birxert, F.R.I. B.A.—Architecture.

a auihen

1882. ~ ORDINARY MEETINGS.

Noy. 8.—Lovis Liuoyp.—The Life and Proverbs of G. Herbert.
Dec. 20.—Rev. S. Hupert, M.A.—Notes on a Tour in Switzerland.

XXVIll.

1883.
Jan. 24.—T. Farratt.—The Book of Nature.
Jan. 30.—G. M. Murray.—Habitability of other Worlds.
Feb. 21.—G. T. Carr.—Egypt.
Apr. 4.—H. L. Barxer.—Precious Stones.

The Committee have again to report the close of a highly
successful Session.

During the past winter seven Public Lectures have been
delivered, and-seven Ordinary Meetings have been held.

The attendance of members was very good throughout. The
Treasurer’s report shows a satisfactory financial position, and the
comparatively large number of Ordinary Meetings augurs well for
the continued success of the Society.

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
AND FIELD NATURALIST CLUB.

SESSION, 1882-83.

eS So

President ve ie ne ass G. J, JoHnson, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.

Rey, H. WHITEHEAD. | JOHN Buain, Esq.

Committee.

Mr. Wm. Hveite. | Rev. H. J. BULKELEY.
Mr. Gro. Burton. | Miss MacQueEsEn.

Mr. Txos. RIDLEY. Miss THOM.

Mr. Jos. Farrar. Miss M. BEtu.

Mr. Gero. STEEL. Mrs. H. Y. THomeson.

Treasurer <A a n. Fe Mr. J, B. Hopeson,.

3
;
:
|
Secretary ees os si ie Mr. F. J. Riae.
The following Meetings were held during the Session :— |

1882,
Oct. 13.—Mr. W. S. VaLuance.—Literary Entertainment.
Oct. 26.--G. Batpwin Brown, Esq., M.A.— Venice.
Nov. 9.—Rev. H. WuireHrap,—Church Bells in Brampton Deanery.

XXI1X,

Noy. 23.—H. Y. Tompson, Esq.—Magic Lantern Exhibition, and Lecture
on Arctic Explorations.
Dec. 7.—R. J. Batti, Esq.—Other Worlds than Ours.
Dec. 21.—Rev. JouHn Forster.— Hamlet.
1888.
Jan, 18,—R. A. Auuison, Esq.—Our Indian Empire.
Feb. 1.—Rev. H. J. BuLtkeLey.—Eminent Men who died in 1882.
Feb. 15.—Mr. W. Huairt.—England 1000 Years Ago.
Mar. 1.—Rev. Canon Drxon.—Heroic Poetry in England.
Mar.15.—Mr. Joun Witson.—Force.
Apr. 5.—Rev. H. J. ButKetzy.—Robert Browning the Poet.

Number of members on the register, 61.

PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

2np SESSION, 1882-83.

President Le ae, ~ Dr. Taytor, F.S.A. (Scot.)
Vice-Presidents.

_W. B, Arnison, Esq. | J. G. Goopcutp, Esq., H.M.G.S.
Hon. Secretary Bs “c Rev. J. SHARPE OsTLE, B.A.
Hon. Treasurer or sie J. B. SHawyer, Esq.

Committee.
Rev. E. W. CHapman, M.A. Mr. JoHN Partrinson.
Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. Mr. T. LEsTER.
Rev. J. H. Ouvston. Mr. J. THompson.
Rev. J. TANNAHILL, M.A. Mr. GEORGE WATSON.
MEETINGS.
1882. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LocaL LEcTUREs.

Oct. to Dec.—J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.—Pre-Historic Europe.
1883.
Jan. 8.—Rev. H. J. Burxerey, M.A.—Robert Browning.
Jan, 18,—J. Newsy Heruerrineron, Esq., F.R.G.S.—The King Arthur
Stories.

XXX.

Feb. 5.—C. H. Hicerns, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.E.—The Character of Sir
John Falstaff.

Feb. 12.—J. THompson, Esq.—Switzerland and the Swiss.

Feb. 26.— Do. do. do. (continued. )

Mch.19.— Do. do. do. (concluded. )

Mch.26,—J. G. GoopcHILp, Esq., H.M.G.S.—Professor Harkness, F.R.S.

Our Session does not terminate until October. Up to the
present time, Public Lectures and Ordinary Meetings have been
very well attended. The number of members is steadily in-
creasing.

On Whit-Monday, May 14th, a united Excursion was arranged
with the Carlisle Society, having for its destination Settle and
Victoria Caves, Cattrick and Stainforth Forces, Giggleswick
Museum, Giggleswick Ebbing and Flowing Wells. The party
was under the personal guidance of Mr. Tiddeman, H.M. Geo-
logical Survey.

WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC
SOCIETY.

Ist SESSION, 1882-83.

Your Committee, in presenting their First Report, have much
pleasure in stating that the Sociesy has achieved as much success
as could have been reasonably expected. The number of mem-
bers on the books is one hundred. The income from all sources
amounted to £49 19s. 4d.; the expenditure to £41 12s. 24d;
thus leaving a balance of #8 7s. 14d. in the hands of the
Treasurer.

The Session was opened by an able lecture from Professor
Roscoe, F.R.S., LL.D., on ‘John Dalton, the Kendal School-
master and Manchester Philosopher,” the lecturer being assisted
in exhibiting the interesting experiments by Mr. Heywood, of
Owen’s College, Manchester.

7,

XXX.

PUBLIC LECTURES were delivered as under :—

Rey. H. D. Rawnstey.—A Day in Cairo.

Rey. H. J. ButKELEY.—Robert Browning.

Davin Pace, Esq., M.D.—The Physiology of Digestion in relation to Diet.

R. Russet, Esq., F.G,S., H.M. Geol. Survey.—Cyprus.

J. R. Brrpson, Esq.—Eleciricity.

W. D. Crewnson, Esq.—Edmund Spencer, Poet and Haptic tomes

J. E. Marr, Esq., F.G.S.—Dress and Fashion.

J. D. Kenpatt, Esq., F.G.S.—The Geological History of the Lake District.

B. A. Irvine, Esq.—The Chotts of Algeria.

Rev. Gro. Crewpson, M.A.—Ants.

Miss Youne.—The Muse of Coila, Robert Burns.

J. Newsy Heruertneron, Esq.—The Arthurian Tales, and Tennyson’s use
of them.

The Public Lectures have been fairly well attended throughout
the Session by your members and the general public. Consider-
able interest has been taken in the subjects brought before the

‘ meetings, and so far the object of the Society has been attained.

The members of the Bowness and Windermere Institutes having
been invited to attend all lectures free of charge, have in many
instances availed themselves of the advantages offered. Mr. J. D.
Kendall, C.E., F.G.S., afforded us ready and valuable help in
assisting us to secure the aid of several well-known lecturers. Our
best thanks are due to those gentlemen who so kindly gave their

- services to promote the objects of the Society by lecturing before it.

The following officers were appointed for the coming Session :—
President, Lord Decies ; Vice Presidents, Rev. E. P. Stock and
G. Healey; Secretaries, Messrs. W. C. MacDougall and B. E.
Fisher ; Treasurer, J. Holland; Committee, J. Ballantyne, F.
Barton, J. R. Bridson, F. Clowes, H. Crossley, T. Dobson, R
Morgan, H. W. Schneider, S. A. K. Sylvester, W. Taylor, T.
Thompson, and W. V. Yates.

XXXI1.

Report of the Association Secretary,

—_—_——

THERE is very little to report since our last meeting, except the
affiliation of the Windermere Literary and Scientific Society,
which, although in the first year of its existence, already numbers
over ‘one hundred members.

The number of Association Members is about the same as last
year, although I am not able to give the exact number, as some of
the returns are not yet to hand. (J. D. K.)

(Since the above Report was written in April, the following

returns have been received from the affiliated Societies, showing -

the number of copies of Part VII. of the Zransactions taken by
each, the terms on which members receive them, and the number
of members in each Society, corrected up to October, 1883.)

Society. Copies taken. Terms. No. of Members.
Whitehaven ... 100 ne Free to Associate Members 336
Keswick bon 40 #.. To Members at 1/- &. 145.
Workington... 20 we To Members at 1/- Ane 1oo
Maryport "ee 70 Re Free to Gents.; Ladies, 1/- 124
Longtown Ge 10 a To Members at 1/- 5B: 58
Carlisle a, 2: ee To Members free ... ie 140
Ambleside nite 30 Sis To Members at 1/- rd 130
Silloth aes 14 ae +3 5 ine 70
Brampton Abd 12 Sefe > fs at 50
Penrith Hes 12 we 4 55 bs 120
Windermere... 4 Sa6 55 pe se 93

Ss

a ae ee)

*
H

XXXU1.

NOTICE TO MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION,

At the Council Meeting held at Penrith on the 27th of August,
1883, several resolutions relating to the management of the Associ-

ation were discussed and adopted.

The most important of these referred to the affiliation of the
Cumberland Association with the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. The advisability of taking advantage
of every opportunity of raising the status of the Cumberland
Association is too obvious to need to be pointed out, and the
Council at once decided to take the steps necessary to bring about

the affiliation proposed.

The choice of Delegate lay between our Association President
and a member of the Cumberland Association, who should be
also a member of the British Association, and should be nominated
by him. The President being unable to attend, nominated our
Association Secretary, Mr. Robert Crowder, who was present at
the Southport Meeting, and duly represented the Association as a
member of the General Committee, and also at the fourth Confer-
ence of Delegates of Scientific Societies held during the Meeting
of the British Association. The principal business before the
Conference was the consideration of the Preliminary Report of
the “Local Scientific Societies’” Committee, appointed by the

Council of the Association “to draw up suggestions upon methods

XXXIV.

of more systematic observation and plans of operation for Local
Societies, together with a more uniform mode of publication of the
results of their work ; and also to draw up a list of Societies which
publish their proceedings.” This Committee, after communicating

with all such Societies known to them, suggest :—

1. The grouping, as much as may be practicable, of the smaller
Societies round local sub-centres, each of which shall send a repre-
sentative to the British Association Meeting, to confer as to the
best methods of carrying on combined and systematic scientific
investigation throughout the country, and of publishing the results

in a uniform manner.

2. The Committee instance the following subjects as suitable
for such combined work, selected from amongst those assigned to
Committees of the Association during the past five years, and

arranged in the order of the Sections concerned in them :—

(a) Luminous Meteors; Meteoric Dust in various localities ;

Rainfall; Underground Temperature (rate of increase downwards).

(6) Erosion of Sea-Coasts; Height of Underground Waters ;
Erratic Blocks (position, height above sea, lithological character, &c.)

(c) Photographs of Typical Races and Crosses; Ancient
Earthworks ; Prehistoric Remains; Migration of Birds at Light-
houses and Light-ships; Periodical Natural Phenomena (flowering
of certain plants, arrival of migratory birds, appearance of certain
insects, &c.); Injurious Insects (their first appearance, injuries

caused by them, degree of success in preventing them, &c.)

(d) Anthropometric Collections ; Working of Education Code

in Elementary Schools; Rudimentary Science in Schools.

(¢) Effective Wind-Pressure on Buildings.

XXXV.

3. They suggest the adoption by the Council of certain new
tules, after having first been submitted to and approved by the
Local Societies, of which the following are the points of more

general interest :—

(a) That application may be made by any Society publishing
scientific Memoirs, to be placed on the list of “‘ Corresponding

Societies of the British Association.”

(6) That these applications be referred to a Committee
appointed by the Council to consider them, and also the annual
work of these Societies generally, making an annual report to the

Recommendations Committee on the subject.

(¢) The privileges of such Corresponding Societies to consist
in :—
(i.) The insertion, in the Annual Report of the British
Association, of a List of the titles of such of the Society’s
Scientific Memoirs of the previous year as come under the

cognizance of one or other of the Sections of the Association.

(i) The right to nominate any one of its members (being
also a member of the British Association,) as its Delegate to
represent the Society at the Annual Meeting, who shall have for

the time the rights of a member of the General Committee.

(@) These Delegates shall constitute a Committee which the Sec-
retary of the Association shall summon to hold one or more meetings
during the Annual Meeting, under a Chairman and with a Secretary
appointed by the Council. The Secretaries of Sections shall send
copies of any recommendations which the Presidents of Sections
may make on matters in which the co-operation of Corresponding

Societies is desired, to the Secretary of the Delegates’ Committee,

XXXVI.

who shall then invite the authors of these recommendations to
discuss with the Committee the best way of carrying them into
effect. It will then be the duty of the Delegates to bring these

recommendations clearly before their respective Societies.

The Report having been read and discussed, was (with some
suggested slight modifications in the wording) approved of by the
Conference, and it was then left for the final acceptance of the
Council and the General Committee. In the event of its being
adopted, the opinion was expressed that the official recognition for
the first time by the British Association of the representatives of
Local Societies would be a step likely to prove of great importance

to their interests and usefulness.

A paper on “Local Science Societies and the Minor Pre-
Historic Remains of Britain,” was read by Mr. Meldola, urging
the importance of such Societies undertaking the local supervision
of remains of this kind, and recommending them to communicate
with the Inspector of Ancient Monuments (General Pitt Rivers

on the subject.

Another paper was also read by Mr. Sawyer, on the “ Work of
Local Natural History Societies,” referring especially to the
desirability of forming Unions of Local Societies at various con-

venient centres, for discussion and more united action.

These papers having been discussed at some length, the pro-

ceedings of the Conference terminated.

The Association Secretary frequently receives requests for copies
of our Zvansactions in exchange for the publications of other

scientific bodies ; and the Council have approved of a provisional

.
|

XXXVil,

arrangement whereby books so received shall be used as an
Association Circulating Library, to be located at some centre
hereafter to be decided upon, so as to be available for the use of
any members of the several Associated Societies. As this feature
is likely to develop before long into one of considerable import-
ance, many questions relating to its management in the future have
been left for consideration at the next Annual Meeting. It is to
be hoped that additions may. be. received in other ways than, by
the system of exchanges referred to, and that, in time, the Council;
may see their way to setting apart a small. portion of the Associ-

ation funds for the purchase of books suitable for such a circulating
library.

The question of a Museum Convention for the circulation of
objects of interest, is another matter that might profitably be
considered on, the same occasion.

The Council have approved of a few pages of the Zrans-
actions being devoted to the insertion of such Notes or Original
_ Observations, upon subjects coming within the domain of Science,
as may be deemed by the contributors to be not of sufficient
importance to form the subject of articles of a more lengthy
nature. The Notes inserted in the present volume may be taken
as examples of what is intended 3 but provided the contributions

are to the point, they need not necessarily be very short.

It has also been decided that in future, Abstracts of Papers,
and Reprints of Papers at the Author’s Expense, shall, subject to

the Council’s approval, be permitted to appear in the Zyansactions.

The Council have already expressed the opinion that papers

submitted with a view to being inserted in the Transactions should

XXXViii.
be, as much as possible, original articles upon subjects relating to
the district of Cumberland and Westmorland ; and the Council, in
selecting from the MSS. sent in, have given the preference in
every case to articles of this description. But as the space avail-
able is limited, and several articles of interest have had, from time
to time, to be omitted, it may be worth while to take into consider-
ation at the Annual Meeting whether articles of an archeological
nature should appear in our Zvansactions, seeing that a separate
journal specially devoted to the Archeology of Cumberland and

Westmorland already exists.

Another point to be discussed at the next Annual Meeting
relates to the Title of the Association. Two Westmorland Societies
are already affiliated, and a third, the Penrith Society, numbers
almost as many members living in Westmorland as in Cumberland.
Moreover, many of the articles inserted in the Zransactions relate
as much to one county as to the other. The Council have there-

fore approved of the question being laid before the members in

this way, in order that the desirability of modifying the title of the -

Association in such a manner as to embrace Westmorland as well
as:Cumberland, may be discussed at the Annual Meeting, after all
the members concerned have given it due consideration.

As regards the Zvansactions, it only remains to state that the
Couneil have decided that, hereafter, authors of papers printed in
the Zvansactions shall receive Twenty separate copies of their
papers gratis. Additional copies may be had of the printers, at the
rate of one penny per copy of every eight pages, provided a

notice be given to the Editor when the proof is returned.

=~ -

XXXIX.

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J,

NOTES ON THE PLACE-NAMES OF CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS BY ROBT. FERGUSON, M.P., F.S.A.,

At the Ambleside Annual Meeting.

EryMoLocicaL Geography might be supposed to be something
of a rather technical and of a somewhat dry pursuit, but any one
who has studied Mr. Isaac Taylor’s ‘‘ Words and Places” can
hardly fail to perceive how closely the place-names of a district
are connected with its early life and ancient history. In these
two counties of Cumberland and Westmorland this is the case to
a greater extent than elsewhere, for much of their early history is
a blank on which these names tend very materially to throw some
light. It happens indeed occasionally that very important results
depend upon the proper explanation of a place-name, and I
remember a somewhat striking incident of this kind that happened
many years ago. It was a case of right of water that was being
tried in the Irish courts, and in which the celebrated Daniel
O’Connell was counsel on behalf of the right. Now, the weir in
which this right was vested was called Lax Weir, and it was con-
tended by the opposition that Lax Weir could only mean “loose
weir,” and that such a meaning was fatal to the claim. O’Connell
found it difficult to make head against this argument, and had
small hope of winning his cause. Just at the most critical
moment a scrap of paper was handed to him on which were written
the words—“ Lax is Danish for salmon.” O’Connell read it and
rose up a new man. He shewed that Lax Weir was one of the
many Scandinavian names still surviving in a district where the
1

4

Northmen had long held rule, and that it meant nothing more
than ‘‘Salmon Weir.” O’Connell won his case, but he could
never find out who the unknown friend was who had thus given
him the key to victory. ;

Now, in regard to the place-names of a district, I would make
the preliminary observation, that we ought never, if we can help
it, to treat a name as if it stood alone, but always collate the names
which seem to partake of the same form, both in that and as far
as possible, also in other districts. ‘There is, for an example, a well-
known place in London where the rank and fashion congregate,
and which is called “ Rotten Row.” This has been explained as |
from the French ‘“ Route de roi,” the king’s road. This deriva-
tion, by no means a satisfactory one in itself, becomes impossible
in face of the fact that, the name of Rotten Row occurs in various
other counties and in Cumberland among others. And so far
from being from the French, the English “rotten row” is no
doubt nearer to the mark, as referring to perhaps a row of decayed
trees. ;

In the first place, then, let us deal with the names of the two
counties themselves, Cumberland and Westmorland. Cumberland
(in the Saxon Chronicle Cumbraland) has been explained as the
land of combes or valleys, a derivation not I think very satisfactory
in itself, inasmuch as it seems to me that it is the mountains as
the more salient feature, and not the valleys, that would give the
name. But Mr. Henry Bradley, who, though its papers have
unfortunately not been published in a collected form, is one of
our most trustworthy guides in local etymology, has shewn, in an
article on “‘ The Names of the English Counties” in the Genéle-
man’s Magazine, that this derivation is etymologically impossible,
and that Cumberland means “the land of the Cymry.” And he
further maintains that the name, like that of the Cumbraes (islands
of the Cymry) in the Frith of Clyde, was one given by the Scan-
dinavian conquerors of the north-west. The name of Westmor-
land (Westmoringa-land) is, on the other hand, clearly of Anglo-
Saxon origin, signifying “the land of the dwellers on the western
moors,” and it shews, observes Mr. Bradley, “that the district was

3

a western offshoot of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria.”
Thus the names of both these two counties assist to establish
certain points of their ancient history.

In considering the local nomenclature of a district, we shall
invariably find that the objects which most tenaciously retain their
ancient names are, first, the rivers; and, secondly, the mountains.
With regard to the rivers, the reason is apparent. A river is not
localized like anything else ; it passes in its course by many places
where men have settled, none of which have perhaps any claim
more than another to give it a name, and therefore it is allowed as
a matter of common convenience to retain its ancient name.
Indeed, very much perhaps for this reason, many rivers, both in
England and elsewhere, seem never to have had a proper name of
their own at all, and to have been known simply as “the water.”
Of these we have one, the Esk, a word which in its various forms
of Esk, Exe, Ash, and Usk, signifying simply water, is found all
over the kingdom, and in kindred forms, in France, Germany, and
elsewhere. The rivers, then, in Cumberland and Westmorland,
may be said, with very few exceptions, to retain their original
Celtic names. But we have two or three which do not seem to
be Celtic, and which are more probably Scandinavian. ‘The
Danes,” observes Mr. Bradley, ‘unlike the Anglo-Saxons, some-
what frequently. invented river-names of their own.” Of these he
has quoted four in our district, the Greta, Rotha, Brathay, and the
Caldew. This was in fact originally my own suggestion, though
he has proposed in some cases a different, perhaps a better
derivation. The Greta has been derived from O.N. grdfa, Sco.
greit, to weep, in reference to the wailing sound of its waters.
But grei¢ means, I think, rather to weep silently than to wail, and
Mr. Bradley’s derivation from O.N. gvjo/, stone, Eng. grit, is
perhaps better, giving it the meaning of “rocky river.” But there
is another suggestion which it may be worth while to make, that
of “grinding river.” As there are mills on the Greta at present,
so there may have been, though of a rude kind, in ancient days.
I am not, however, sure about the corresponding O.N. word,
whether it was used otherwise than poetically. The Brathay, in

4

the sense of the rapid river, would be derived appropriately from
the O.N., but I am not sure of the Rotha as meaning “red river.”
This I should hardly take to be its distinguishing characteristic ;
it certainly is a rapid stream, and may be from the same origin as
the Rhodanus, or Rhone, though in any case the ending is
Danish. The Calder or Calda seems to be evidently Scandinavian,
the original stream being called Cald beck (cold brook), and when
it attains to the dignity of a river, being called Calda (O.N. @
river). We find such names elsewhere where the Northmen have
been, e.g., a river Kalda in Iceland, and a brook Caudebec in
Normandy. It seems probable that the Calder is the same name,
a final 7 being so slurred as not to be distinguishable in English.
Some other names which may more probably be Celtic have had
the O.N. @ river added as a termination.

The word Jek for brook may also be taken to be of Danish
origin, though etymologically there is nothing distinctively Scan-
dinavian in the word, which is the same as the Germ. dach. But
it is a word which distinctively marks out the Danish district in
England, and does not occur in the more purely Anglo-Saxon
district. Hence the name of Crummock water, derived from
the stream, the Crummock, which feeds it, and which is no doubt
a corruption of Crumbeck, crooked or winding beck, corresponding
with the name Krumbach, of various streams in Germany.

Other words of Scandinavian origin are farn (O.N. fern), a
small lake, and force (O.N. fors), a waterfall. This latter word,
which in Norway itself has been corrupted into /oss, Cleasby
describes as “a test-word of Scandinavian language and origin.’
And he quotes from a Byzantine writer the names of several water-
falls in Russian and in Sclavonic, from which it appears that in
Russian the word for water-fall was forsz, thus shewing that the
language was at that time Scandinavian. We have one name,
that of Airey Force on Ullswater, which may perhaps contain a
reduplication, aévey representing the Celtic, and force the Scan-
dinavian word signifying water-fall. It is perhaps, however, more
probable that Airey is from O.N. ey7i, point or promontory, which
I think is in accord with the local characteristics of the place.

apes

5

When we come to the names of mountains we find a nomen-
clature distinctly Scandinavian, although there are some mountains
which still retain their old Celtic names. Southey rescued the
Celtic name of Saddleback, Blencathra, which in a few more years
would no doubt have been irretrievably lost. This has been
explained as meaning “peak of tempests,” but I think that the most
simple and natural explanation is Blencathair, from cathair, chair
or seat, thus making it in point of fact, of pretty nearly the same
meaning as its other name Saddleback. Another mountain which
still retains its old Celtic name is Helvellyn. There have been
various fanciful and poetical attemps to connect the name of this
mountain with the worship of Bel or Belin ; the etymology I have
to propose is much more prosaic, and therefore, I venture to think,
more probable. Acting upon the principle I laid down at starting
of collating the names in a district, we shall find one other
mountain-name in a similar form to Helvellyn, viz., that of Rivelin
by the side of Ennerdale water. This is also a mountain-name in
Wales, and has been explained as “red mountain,” and in a
similar manner Helvellyn is probably the “yellow mountain.”
This is the explanation given in the Journal of the Philological
Society by the late Dr. Guest, who, as he was one of the most
cautious, was one of the most trustworthy of etymologists.

But with these and one or two other exceptions the mountain-
names are distinctly Scandinavian, the word fe/ (O.N. fal) not
being found in any of the Saxon dialects. We have among others
Souter Fell, which may be the same name as Sauda Fell in
Iceland, from saudr, sheep, a final r in English being, as I before
noted, unrecognizable in pronunciation. The name of Fairfield
was supposed by De Quincey to be of a similar origin, and to be
a corruption of Fair Fell, from /aar, sheep, whence the name of
the Faroes, “sheep islands.” To this I before took exception,
chiefly on the ground that there is no other instance of the change
of fell into field. But on the whole I am inclined to think that
this is hardly a sufficient objection, and that this derivation may
stand good till some one can suggest a better. Hest Fell
corresponds with a Hesten Fell (¢ie Horse Fell, the article being

6

a post-fix) in Norway, in what sense given it remains to find out.
Tong Fell also corresponds with a mountain in Iceland, the word,
as Cleasby observes, being commonly applied in local names to
anything resembling the shape of a tongue. Mell Fell, which also
corresponds with a Mel Fell in Norway, may perhaps be from
O.N. melr, a kind of bent-grass which grows on sandy soil. (Of
this word, which also means a sand-hill covered with bent grass,
and also a bare sand-bank, and which is common in local names
in Iceland, we seem to have more distinct traces along the coast
where such vegetation is most common. We have Melay near
Allonby, perhaps properly Melar (plural “ sand-hills”), and so the
same as a Melar in Iceland, and we have Esk meals, which I
stippose to be sand-banks at the mouth of the river Esk). There
is another mountain called Mellbreak, but for this I may perhaps
venture to suggest a different explanation. The O.N. drekka
signified a slope, and was applied to the hill where public meetings
were held and laws promulgated. The prefix me/ in this case
might then be from O.N. md/, conference, and the hill, which is
by the side of Crummock lake, might be the place of public
meeting for the Northmen of the surrounding district. I, how-
ever, suggest this with diffidence, for I have learned to suspect a
derivation whenever it promises to be a little more interesting than
usual. There is, however, a mountain in Norway called Lovbrekke
which may be from the Dan. lov, law, and which therefore may
rather favour the above explanation. But if our word dreak be,
as I rather suppose, the same as the O.N. drekka, it is a word
which seems in an etymological point of view to stand alone.
For the word concerned is the same as Eng. “ brink,” and I do
not know of another instance in which we follow the Old Northern
speech in similarly leaving out the nasal. Thus, for an instance,
the O.N. drattr, steep, becomes with us drant. There is a word
Jatter found in mountain names, as Latterbarrow, Latrigg, and
Whinlatter, which is somewhat puzzling. There is a mountain
called Latrabjorg which compares etymologically with our Latter-
barrow, and which Cleasby derives from /é¢r, a place where
animals lay their young, and which we may perhaps accept in
default of a better explanation.

Coming to some of tne terms connected with mountains we
have the word g7//, applied to the fissure or small ravine made by
a torrent running down the mountain side. I doubt, however,
whether the sense of water is inherent in the word, though
Cleasby thinks that it is; the root-meaning seems to me to be
only that of cleft. Hence has been derived the name of Gilsland>
where is the well-known spa. But this derivation is utterly out of
the question—in the first place Gilsland is not the land of gils—
no Cumberland or Westmorland man would call the deep ravine
in which the river Irthing runs a gé//—and, secondly, as an
etymological form it would be scarcely possible. Not any more
reasonable is the suggestion in Cleasby’s Icelandic Dictionary
that Gilsland is from Dan. Zund, a grove—surely /and is a term that
does not require to be explained away. Gilsland is, there can
hardly be a doubt, the land of a man called Gill, and probably of
that Gill who appears in county history as the son of Bueth, the
latter being himself represented in the neighbouring place-names
Boothby, “ Booth’s village,” and in Bewcastle, formerly Bueth-
castle. Gzi/, in the sense of which I am now speaking, never
occurs as a prefix, and such names as Gilcrux and Gilgarron are,
as I shall have occasion to note, from an entirely different origin.
I have to protest against the present fashion of spelling the word
ghyl, introduced, I believe, by Miss Martineau. It is intended no
doubt to shew that the g is hard, but it outrages the etymology in
a manner that would not be allowed in the case of any English
word. The word man, applied to the pile of stones placed to
mark the top of a mountain, as e.g., Skiddaw Man, and which has
been derived, by no means satisfactorily, from the Celtic maen,
stone, may also be capable of a Scandinavian derivation. ‘There
is a word mena, to project, jut out, and which is applied to the
top ridge of a house, which would seem to present the appropriate
meaning of summit, cu/men ; but as I do not as yet know whether
there is any trace of the word as so applied to a mountain in the
Scandinavian north, I must suspend coming to a more definite
conclusion. :

- Another word used throughout the district to express a hill or

smaller eminence, is Zozw, from the O.N. Aaugr. Though generally
used in reference to a smaller hill, it is in one or two cases, such
as Silver How, applied to one of considerable height. It is often
coupled with a personal name, Scandinavian or otherwise, for
which there may be two reasons. It was a custom among the
Northmen, as we learn from Icelandic records, for a man to have
a “how” near his house, so that from the top of it he could
survey his farm and see what was going on (rather an easy-going
kind of inspection, it would seem to us, for one of such an
energetic race). This, then, might be one reason why the word is
so often coupled with a personal name, though probably not the
principal one. The term “how” was applied to the mound of
earth that was raised over the grave of any man of consequence,
and in most cases in our district it seems probable that the name
is commemorative of the chieftain who was buried there. Hence
we have Lowden How, Gunner’s How (sometimes incorrectly
Gummer’s How on the maps), Scout How, and Torpenhow.
Lowden is from the Scandinavian man’s-name Lodinn, signifying
“shaggy,” and it is noteworthy that though the name Lowden is
not a common one in England generally, it is one that still
flourishes in the surrounding district, being, among others, that of
a mighty wrestler, who does not disgrace his Scandinavian ances-
tors. Torpenhow has been derived from three words, ‘or, fen,
and how, all signifying, though in different languages, a height.
But, I think, that the name is derived most naturally from the
Danish Thorfinn, whence, as supposed, came the name of the
noted Dick Turpin, out of whom the civilization of centuries had
not eradicated the predatory instincts of his ancestors. The
name, I may observe, is found in its more correct form in
Thorfinssty, from s¢i, a foot-path. There are some other cases in
which “how” is found in conjunction with a name not dis-
tinctively Scandinavian, and one, Hunting How, where if a man’s
name at all (which I rather suppose it to be) it may be either
Anglo-Saxon or Danish.

In the neighbouring county of Northumberland our word how
changes into Aaugh, whence the name Featherstonhaugh, repre-

9

senting the ow or haugh of a man—Anglo-Saxon or Dane—
called Frithestan. It may perhaps be worth while to inves-
tigate the reason why our word ow changes into haugh in
Northumberland, particularly as the same principle assists to
throw light upon some of the other place-names of our district.
The reason is a very simple one—the ancient word was aug,
ending with a g. Now, a final g is displeasing to the English ear,
and it has got rid of it in two different ways. Most commonly
it drops it, as in day for dag, may for mag, lie for Hig, but not
unfrequently it changes it into f, as for instance, in ¢rough for
trog, the g often remaining, to attest its origin, in the spelling.
Sometimes the same word is treated in both ways, as from A.S.
genug we have both enough and enow. In the present case, then,
the difference is simply this, that we get rid of the g by dropping
it, and the Northumbrians by changing it into f That, however,
you will say, would give them ozw/ and not Aaugh. But any one
who knows the Northumbrian dialect, and the way in which it
narrows the vowels, pronouncing the 4a in fad/ like the inter-
jection “hah,” will see at once how how/ is made into haugh. I
have observed that this same principle throws light on some other
of the place-names of the district. Thus there is a place called
Brough in Westmorland, and there is also a Burgh in Cumberland.
This is just the same word that is found elsewhere as “ borough,”
properly durh, and not a dissyllable, only in the one case the g is
dropped, and in the other it is pronounced as 7 Again, we have
many mountains in the district called “ barrow,” and we have one,
near Bassenthwaite, called Barf. These both represent the same
word, the O.N. /yarg, mountain, which in the one case becomes _
“ barrow,” (again not properly a dissyllable) and in the other
becomes ‘“ barf.”

When we come to names more nearly connected with human
occupation, we find in Cumberland, the ancient “land of the
Cymry,” but scanty traces of the original inhabitants. We may
include all the names formed from é/en, as Blencogo, Blencow,
Blencairn, and Blennerhasset ; those from caer, as Carlisle, Cargo,

10

and Cardurnock ; those from g/en, as Lamplugh, formerly Glan-
plough, Glencoin, Glenridding, Glenderaterra, and Glenderamakin ;
in dun, as Dundraw. Then we have two names of a religious
origin, Gilcrux and Gilgarron, properly Cilcrux and Cilgarron,
from Cymric cy/, chapel, the former being the “chapel of the
cross,” and the latter being from Gerain, the name of a Cymric
saint.

Neither do the traces of the Anglo-Saxons appear to be very
considerable in either of these two counties. There is in Cumber-
land a cluster of names along the coast in a line from Workington
to St. Bees, as Harrington, Distington, Hensingham, Frizington,
etc., all of which the medial zmg shews to be Anglo-Saxon. Mr.
Kemble has shewn that the earliest Saxon occupation of England
proceeded by little clans or families, of which zg, signifying son,
descendant, was the characteristic sign in place-names, and he has
classed our names as some that might be of the same kind. But this,
it seems to me, is extremely doubtful—it would depend upon the
ancient forms of these names, of which we are entirely ignorant.
If the ancient form of Hensingham for instance, were Hensingazham,
it would shew it to be one of these gentile or family names, other-
wise the zvg may only be a possessive indicating proprietorship.
In any case it seems to me hardly reasonable to suppose that there
could be any Anglo-Saxon settlements in Cumberland at such an
early date, for all those family settlements referred to by Kemble
seem to have been made in pre-Christian times, and it seems more
probable that all these settlements on the Cumberland coast might
be made at the same time and under the same auspices as that of
the restoration of the religious house of St. Bees after the
conquest.

Workington I should rather suppose to be properly Wokington,
the Wokings being a clan or family found elsewhere in England,
and whence the name of Woking in Surrey, though Workington is
not impossible. Harrington was anciently Haverington, and
would be perhaps more properly Everington, from the man’s name
Evor, signifying boar, common in A.S. times, and whence we have

11

still many names, as Everard, Everett, etc. And Hensingham
would, I take it, be properly Ansingham, from avs, common in
ancient names, and signifying semi-deus.

Of the characteristic A.S. weorth, a property or farm, there
is, as far as I know, only one single instance, that of Crosby-
Ravensworth, in Westmorland, and that is extremely uncertain,
the name being formerly often found as Ravenswath ; Naworth
in Cumberland I should also suppose to be properly Nawadzh,
from wath, a ford, as indicating perhaps a ford over the river
Irthing. The A.S. grove and hurst are almost entirely super-
seded in our district by the Danish shaw and with. The latter
is the same word in a Scandinavian form as the A.S. wood;
hence Skirwith near Penrith is simply the equivalent of Sher-
wood in southern England. There is another Scandinavian word
for a grove, und, but this seems to have been more especially
applied to a sacred grove, and this may probably be the sense in
Hof Lund, near Appleby, of being a temple. A distinction was
made in O.N. between of, a temple with a roof, and Aérgr, an
altar, circle ; or any roofless place of worship. This latter word,
hérgr, is found in the ending argh of some places in Yorkshire as
Grimsargh, the temple of Grim or Odin, and may be the same
word as “ark,” found in some places in the Lake district, as Pavey
Ark. The word Pavey I cannot explain, unless possibly it may
be from fawfi, a lurking fiend—if this were one of the places of
worship of the older Celtic inhabitants, the Northmen may have
had some superstitious idea respecting it.

When we come to the names referring to the abodes of men we
find the Scandinavian dy, thorp, thwaite, garth, toft, predominate
over the oz and the 4am which are more exclusively characteristic
of the Saxon occupation. Of these terms all but ¢#ovp would be
applicable to a single dwelling, the root of dy signifying ‘‘habitation,”
garth and ¢of¢t signifying “inclosure,” and ¢hwaite, at least so I
think, “clearing” in a forest. But the root of ¢horp, which is the
same as the Germ. dorf, contains something of the sense of crowding
or huddling together, and Cleasby thinks that it was originally
applied to the houses of the peasantry crowded together in a

12

hamlet. Hence it was more common in a flat country like Denmark
than in Norway or Iceland. And in our own district where as
usual in mountainous countries the population was sparse, the
word occurs but rarely, and only in the more flat part of the
country. I do not know of it in Cumberland, though in West-
morland we have Milnthorp, Hackthorpe, and Crackenthorpe.
Another word for a dwelling is 40/, whence Bowness (formerly
Bolness) on the Solway, and Bowness on Windermere, from wess a
promontory. Zo/is a contraction of dof; as found in A.S., and which
we have in the name of the village Bothel, which may be more
probably Anglo-Saxon. Such contractions as Jol for dofl were
much in favour among the Northmen, and it may probably be
from them that we derive similar contractions in our own dialect.
Some of you may perhaps remember the story, which I think
ought to be treasured as an example of Westmorland independence;
of the Prince of Wales at Grasmere. He happened, in the course
of his rambles, to disturb the sheep on one of the islands, upon
which the old woman in charge proceeded to give him “a bit of
her mind.” ‘Don’t you know it’s the Prince of Wales?” whispered
one of the attendants. ‘‘And if it de the Prince of Wales,” replied
the sturdy old dame, ‘‘he has nae business to me// wi’ t’ sheep,”
a rebuke which I have no doubt the Prince took with his usual
good humour. But what I want to note is that med/ for meddle is
a contraction of precisely the same kind as d0/ for dot, I shall
have to refer to it again in regard to the name of Keswick.

There is in Cumberland a curious name, Unthank—and there is
another just outside the border near Langholm—which puzzled me
until I found it explained by Mr. Bradley. It is one which occurs
in various counties, and denotes the abode of a squatter—from
A.S. unthances, “without leave,” i.e., of the proprietor,

An additional proof of the Scandinavian character of the district
is to be found in the many names of Northmen which are associated
with its placenames. For among the Northmen, as among the
Anglo-Saxons, the most common name by which a property could
be called was that of its owner. Now as a general rule Anglo-
Saxon and Scandinavian names march together, and thus there are

EE ee ee

13

"many names which though they may more probably be Scandinavian,

yet which we have no right, judging by the names themselves, to
pronounce to be such. Yet there are some distinctively Scandin-
avian names about which there can be no mistake, such as Ketil,
Ulf, Orm, Dolfin, Thurstan, Thorfinn. The name Ketil, which
which was from a mythological origin, is found in Kettleside,
Kettlewell, Kelton (formerly Ketilton), and I venture to think also
in Keswick for Kelswick. Among the Northmen themselves Ketil
was frequently, on the principle of contraction to which I before
alluded, made into Kel, and I think that Keswick is Ketilswick,
from the little bay (O.N. vc) which forms at present the harbour
for its boats. From Ulf and Orm, the Scandinavian forms of Wulf
and Worm (snake), we have respectively Ullswater (Ulfswater),
Ullthwaite, Ulpha, Ousby, (formerly Ulfsby), &c., and Ormside,
Ormthwaite, Ormsgill, &c. From Dolfin (prop. Dolgfin) we have

. Dovenby, tormerly Dolphinby, Dolphin Sty, &c. From Thurstan

we have Thurstan’s Water, the old name of Coniston lake, and
from Thorfin we have Torfings Sty and Torpenhow. It will be
seen that side as a local word is often coupled with a personal
name, and this may be the case with regard to Ambleside, though
the man’s name Hamil or Amal is not exclusively Scandinavian.
Then there are two or three names which though borne by

‘Northmen, are not of Scandinavian origin, but were borrowed by

them from the Irish or the Gael. One of these names is Bekan,
found in Bekan’s Gill and probably in Beacon Tarn and Beaconhill.
The last named was opened many years ago, and therein was found
the skeleton of a gigantic warrior, who from the character of his
arms, must have been a Northman. Another name of the same
kind is Melmor, found in Melmerby. According to the Denton
MSS., Ulf, Thorkel, and Melmor, the three sons of Haldane,
settled at and gave the names to—Ulfsby, now Ousby, Thorkelly
near Keswick, and Melmerby. ‘The writer is not always to be
trusted, but there does not seem any reason for doubting him in
this case, where indeed the names remain to speak for themselves.
Now the name Melmor occurs in a runic inscription in the Isle
of Man in connection with other names unquestionably Scandin-

14

ayian, and is pronounced by Professor Worsaae to be a Gaelic or
Irish name borrowed by the Northmen. ‘The fact then of such
names being found also in our district goes some little way to
support the theory which I advanced some years ago, that in
addition to the more purely Danish settlers who landed on the
coast of Yorkshire and gradually worked their way up north to
Cumberland and Westmorland, there was also an immigration
more purely Norwegian from Ireland by way of the Isle of Man,
if indeed this was not, as Mr. Bradley suggests, the earlier invasion
of the two.

Of the Normans who last appeared upon the scene—Northmen
again, though mixed with a Gallic element—we find some trace in
such names as Roberby for Robertby, Richardby, Maughanby, and
probably Aglionby, though Aglin, like Robert and Richard, though
a name coming through the Normans, is Teutonic, i.e. Frankish,
in its origin. There is also to be found, as it seems to me, to be

found in the name of Christenbury Crags. No derivation of

Christenbury that I have seen is grammatically possible ; but if we
suppose a proper name Christenburg, durg in English becoming
bury, all difficulty disappears. Christenburg is one of those curious
hybrid names given by the early Frankish converts to Christianity,
formed as supposed from the name of Christ with a German ending
appended. Along with others of such names, it seems to have
remained in French use, and to have come over to us with the
Normans.

I think then that I have succeeded to some extent in shewing
that the place-names of these two counties reveal to us some things
on which history is silent, and shew us in particular that at an
unknown, though no doubt early period, this district was in the
possession of a Scandinavian people, who have left behind them
marks which we cannot doubt. It was principally, in the first
instance, upon the evidence of its place-names that this theory was
based, but since then inscription after inscription has turned up
written in Scandinavian runes, to add their testimony to the fact
that there was a time when the language that was spoken in this
district was Scandinavian. And bye and bye, when the scientific

ea

j
k
q
:
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15

and systematic investigation which philology has-inaugurated into
the origin of English dialects shall have borne its full fruits, it will,
I doubt not, be made apparent that the language which is spoken
by our people owes a considerable part of its idiom to the Scan-
dinavian north,

a=

17

WATER SUPPLY IN THE CARLISLE BASIN.

By T. V. HOLMES, F,G.S.

I HAVE nothing to say in this paper about water supply in
connection with the rivers and brooks of this district, the quantity
and quality of their waters. In these days of the rapid increase
of population and manufacturing industry, it is well that each-
important town should have its attention called to any means of
procuring a supply of pure water which the geological structure of
the neighbourhood may afford, apart from its streams. And the
letter of a writer in the Cartisle Journal, of March 23rd, mentioning
the existence of a salt spring at Kelsick Moss, and asking its cause,
inclined me to think, while writing a brief reply, that this water
question is well fitted to be the subject of a short paper on this
occasion.

Having elsewhere described the rocks of the Carlisle Basin,*
I will here treat of their nature and arrangement only so far as the
subject now before us requires. These rocks, as regards water-
supply, primarily divide themselves into two distinct groups; the
superficial beds, consisting of glacial drift, peat, and alluvium, which
cover the surface, and the Permian, Triassic, and Liassic rocks
beneath them. The arrangement and distribution of these two
groups are perfectly distinct, the underlying rocks having definitely
restricted areas, while the glacial drift and other superficial beds

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1881 ; Proc. Geol. Assoc. Vol. VII., No. 7;

Trans. Cumb. Assoc. Part VI.
Z

18

may be found almost everywhere, and rest indifferently on any of
the underlying rocks. Thus, the Glacial Drift may afford an°
equally good supply for the shallow wells of farmhouses, whether
the underlying rock is of Carboniferous, Permian, or Liassic age.
But water in quantity sufficient to supply a city like Carlisle could
only be obtained from wells penetrating not only the Glacial
Drift, but more or less of the underlying rocks. And the possi-
bility of getting water from these lower beds in any given spot,
depends on their nature, arrangement, and distribution.

The surface of the ground in Cumberland bordering the Solway
is most persistently covered with Glacial Drift or other superficial
beds, so that the amount of visible rock of Permian, Triassic, or
Liassic age is extremely small, and almost confined to the banks
or beds of the rivers. Even along the rivers these lower beds may
be very slightly exposed, sections in them such as those in the
Eden at Wetheral, Shalk Beck above East Curthwaite, or the Lyne
above Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, are very seldom met with. The
full thickness of the Glacial Drift is not often shown in railway
cuttings. Journeys, for example, from Carlisle to Silloth, Wigton,
Wreay, Wetheral, Longtown, or Gretna, take us through cuttings
from twenty to thirty feet in depth, but in none of them is anything
seen, on the most careful inspection, but superficial sand, gravel,
and clay. And though the farms and villages of this part of Cum-
berland are almost invariably supplied with water from shallow
wells in the Glacial Drift, well-sinkers are very careful to avoid
penetrating to the lower rocks, as water attained on getting to a
clayey stratum in the Drift might be lost on sinking through it and
reaching a porous sandstone below. ‘The Glacial Drift is of very
various composition. It usually makes a light rather than a heavy
soil, being, on the whole, much more gravelly than clayey. But
at various levels seams of clayey material exist, which hold up
much of the water falling on the surface as rain, and allow of a
great number of shallow wells. Scarcely any rain can fall directly
on the underlying rocks, the only considerable space almost or
quite free from drift being a piece of country, a little more than a
square mile in area, between Aspatria and West Newton. But as

ire

19

clayey seams in the Drift are often very thin and variable, and
probably absent altogether in certain places, much of the rainfall,
no doubt, gets down to the underlying rocks sooner or later. The
greatest thickness known to be attained by the Glacial Drift is one
hundred and ninety-eight feet six inches, in a boring at Kelsick
Moss. At Bowness on Solway its thickness was forty-one feet ;
at Lynehow, below Westlinton, thirty-six feet three inches; at
Garlands Lunatic Asylum, twenty-eight feet. In these figures a
variable amount of soil, etc., is included. It will be noticed that
the thickness at Kelsick Moss is quite exceptional, the average of
the three other borings being about thirty-five feet. And the
absence of the underlying rocks in the various railway cuttings
near Carlisle points to a thickness of Glacial Drift that may exceed
an average of thirty-five feet, but can hardly fall short of it. And
while at Kelsick Moss the beds to a depth of ninety-two feet are
chiefly sandy or gravelly, the Drift thence to one hundred and
ninety-eight feet six inches (the bottom) is mainly clayey. But at
Garlands the twenty-eight feet of Drift is made up of twenty-six
feet sand and gravel above, and two feet of clay beneath. We
may now turn from the Glacial Drift and its shallow wells to the
underlying rocks of Permian, Triassic, and Liassic age, and their
water-bearing capacities.

The lowest bed of the Carlisle Basin is the St. Bees Sandstone.
It occupies (below more or less Drift) a belt of country of variable
breadth between Maryport and Allonby, north of Aspatria, south
of Wigton, around Dalston, Wetheral, and Brampton. North of
Brampton it may be seen in the Hether Burn near Hethersgill,
the Lyne about the Muckle Linn, above Kirklinton Hall, and the
Esk above Scots Dyke railway bridge. In Dumfriesshire it is
visible about Kirkpatrick, Annan, and at Tordoff Point on the
Solway. The dip of the St. Bees Sandstone is northerly between
Maryport and Dalston (on the south), more westerly about
Wetheral and Brampton, south-westerly from the Hether Burn to
the Esk, and southerly on the Scottish side of the Border. And
there can be no doubt that could we see the dip of the St. Bees
Sandstone on the western side of the Basin (now beneath the

20

Solway), we should find it easterly between Annan and Allonby.
We have thus in this area a complete basin. On its outer rim the
St. Bees Sandstone may be seen at heights of one hundred, two
hundred, or even three hundred feet above the sea; while in its
centre, that is, along a line ranging approximately from Abbey
Town, through Aikton and Stainton to Westlinton, it is many
hundreds of feet below. Consequently all the water percolating
through it tends to make its way towards the centre of the basin.

At Kelsick Moss, near Abbey Town, a boring proves the
existence of about seven hundred feet of shales with gypsum below
the one hundred and ninety-eight feet six inches of Glacial Drift
already mentioned. Below these Gypseous Shales about one
hundred feet of St. Bees Sandstone were pierced before the boring
ended. These Gypseous Shales are known to exist solely from
borings. At Bowness three hundred and sixty-seven feet of
Gypseous Shales were found overlying ‘‘red stone,” in all proba-
bility St. Bees Sandstone, in which the boring ended. And the
record of an old boring made in the year 1781 by John Brisco of
Crofton, near the village of Great Orton, and probably on its
north-west side, states that below blue rock (evidently Liassic),
“red stone or clay sometimes mixed with veins of white,” was
found, at a depth of two hundred and twenty-eight feet below the
surface. The boring ended after this material had been proved to
attain a thickness of one hundred and thirty-two feet. How much
thicker it may have been is unknown. North-east of Great Orton,
or, as I may say, in the north-eastern half of the Carlisle Basin,
these Gypseous Shales give no evidence of their existence. North
of the Lias area there is no evidence of anything but Drift between
Bowness and Rockcliffe. South of the Lias one might expect to
see Gypseous Shales at Cummersdale, in the banks of the Caldew.
But both at Rockcliffe and at Cummersdale the rock seen is the
Kirklinton Sandstone. This sandstone, in the north-eastern half
of the Carlisle Basin, directly overlies that of St. Bees.

We may now consider the probable reason of this disappearance
of the Gypseous Shales. The rock which directly overlies the
St. Bees Sandstone in the N.E.—the Kirklinton Sandstone—is

(Oa.

21

clearly unconformable to the rocks beneath. In other words, the
St. Bees Sandstone and Gypseous Shales had evidently been planed
down by denudation before the Kirklinton Sandstone was deposited
above them. This denudation appears to have been greater towards
the N.E. end of the Basin than about the centre. Thus, while at
Great Orton one hundred and thirty-two feet or more of the
Gypseous Shales were left, at Netherby not only were the Gypseous
Shales swept away, but much of the St. Bees Sandstone also. This
unconformity may therefore be a sufficient reason for the non-
appearance of the Gypseous Shales at Cummersdale. But, in
addition, a fault known to exist between Brackenbank on the
Eden and Newbiggin on the Petteril, is probably prolonged
westward of the Caldew about Dalston Hall. This fault having a
downthrow to the north, the beds on its northern side, along its
course, are geologically higher than those on the southern. There-
fore a prolongation of this fault across the Caldew Valley at Dalston
Hall, and (below the Lias) towards Great Orton, would cut off
the Gypseous Shales along its line, and bring in the Kirklinton
Sandstone on its northern side. And as the Kirklinton Sandstone
rapidly thickens as we approach Carlisle from Cummersdale,
wells of considerable depth in or near the Border City give no
information about any beds below that rock. Consequently we
do not know how far the Gypseous Shales maintain their existence
towards Beaumont and Carlisle, beneath the Kirklinton Sandstone,
before they die away.

It is evident, however, that they must die away long before the
northern end of the Basin is reached. This is shown not only by
the fact that in the Hether Burn, the Lyne, and the Esk the Kirk-
linton Sandstone rests directly on that of St. Bees, but by the
boring at Lynehow, formerly Justustown, on the river Lyne about
a mile below Westlinton. At Lynehow about one hundred and
seventy feet of Kirklinton Sandstone rested on an unknown thick-
ness of St. Bees. The two sandstones are easily distinguishable
from each other, not only in sections of any size, but, usually, even
in hand specimens. The lower beds of the Kirklinton Sandstone
are mainly bright red, and the rock generally is very false-bedded.

22

The upper beds are mainly whitish or light gray. The lower beds
may be well seen at Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, the upper at Skew-
bank, Grinsdale.

Above the Kirklinton Sandstone, and resting partly on its lower
red beds and partly on its upper white ones, is a formation known
as the Stanwix Marls,* which form the base of the cliff called
Etterby Scar. These Stanwix Marls and Shales are usually red or
greenish-grey in colour, and they occupy (below the Drift) a
compact area between the rivers Lyne and Eden, from Beaumont
to Westlinton on the one hand, and Cliff Bridge, Kirklinton, to
Stanwix on the other. They probably attain their greatest thickness
about Harker. But their thickness, though probably inconsiderable,
is unknown. Their extension, south of the Eden, appears to be
very slight.

The patch of Lias south of the Eden consists of alternations of
shale and limestone, which, near Great Orton, attain a thickness
of two hundred and ten feet. It extends from Bellevue on the
east to Aikton on the west, from Kirkbampton on the north to
Wiggonby on the south.

We have thus in the Carlisle Basin the highly permeable
formation the St. Bees Sandstone at the bottom. It rests, in its
turn, unconformably, on rocks of Carboniferous age, themselves
partly permeable and partly impermeable. But as the St. Bees
Sandstone tends to become somewhat shaly towards its base, it is
not probable that any great quantity of the water in it sinks
through to the Carboniferous rocks below. Above the St. Bees
Sandstone lie the Gypseous Shales, in the south-western half of
the Carlisle Basin, at least. The Gypseous Shales must be, as a
mass, impermeable. Thirdly, we have the Kirklinton Sandstone.
This rock probably rests on the Gypseous Shales for a short
distance in the centre of the Basin, and certainly on the St. Bees
Sandstone in the north-east. It is, of course, highly permeable.
On the Kirklinton Sandstone lie the Stanwix Marls and Shales
which belong to the impermeable division. And, resting in all

* See the article on ‘‘The Penrith Sandstone,” by Mr. Goodchild, in the
Carlisle Fournal, the Patriot, &c., August, 1880.

23

probability partly on the Gypseous Shales, partly on the Kirklinton
Sandstone and Stanwix Marls, we have the bands of limestone and
shale belonging to the Lias formation. The limestones are more
or less permeable, and the shales impermeable.

It must be evident that an artesian well would be sunk to most
advantage along a line ranging through the centre of the Basin ;
in other words, from Abbey Town through Aikton, Orton, and
Grinsdale to Westlinton. For along this line we might expect to
find the St. Bees Sandstone containing the largest quantity of
water. The salt spring at Kelsick Moss, near Abbey Town,
evidently derives its water from the St. Bees Sandstone at the
bottom of the borehole, about one hundred feet of that rock having
been pierced, But the salt and other saline ingredients are as
evidently derived from the overlying Gypseous Shales through
which the borehole passes. Salt and gypsum are both deposited,
under certain conditions, as chemical precipitates in lakes, and are
often, perhaps usually, found associated together, as in this case.
Proceeding eastward along this central line, it is doubtful at what
depth St. Bees Sandstone would be found about Great Orton. I
have already stated that the Lias was found to be two hundred
and ten feet thick in the old boring, and I may add that the
thickness of the drift at the surface was eighteen feet. But though
at Great Orton we have the Lias formation in addition to the
Gypseous Shales, it is probable that the Drift and Gypseous Shales
are both so much thinner at Orton than at Abbey Town, as to
bring the top of the St. Bees Sandstone much nearer the surface
at the first-named than at the latter place. For, instead of nearly
two hundred feet of Drift and seven hundred feet of Gypseous
Shales, at Great Orton we may have an average of perhaps thirty
feet of Drift, above two hundred and ten feet of Lias, and two
hundred feet or less of Gypseous Shales. Of course this estimate
of the thickness of the Gypseous Shales is only a conjecture, but
they must thin away very rapidly towards the centre and the east
of the Basin. Still going eastward we enter the region in which
the Kirklinton Sandstone underlies the Lias, and before reaching
the Eden at Grinsdale the northern outcrop of the Lias is passed.

24

At Grinsdale we see at Skewbank, the river-cliff on the right bank
of the Eden, the upper beds of the Kirklinton Sandstone. At the
bend of the river between Grinsdale Church and Skewbank the
word ‘‘Spa Well” may be seen on the Ordnance Map (6in. to the
mile). At Spa Well, water is seen oozing out of a borehole, and
the following is an abstract of the section, for which I am indebted
to Mr. R. Russell :—

Soil, Sand, and Gravel - - - - - 71 20
Blue, Brown, and Red Metal (Stanwix Marls) - ~ 423 eG
Kirklinton ( Sandstone White and Grey, with partings - 360 o
Sandstone ( Red Sandstone with partings (left off in) Sgn) Baa (,

424 0

A fault of no great size or consequence may be seen on the
eastern side of Skewbank. The Kirklinton Sandstone at Skewbank
and Grinsdale Church consists of an inlier a few acres in area, and
on all sides surrounded by Stanwix Marls; its shape is that of a
low dome. It will have been noticed that the Stanwix Marls are
only twenty-three feet thick in the borehole, but its position is too
near the sandstone inlier to be any guide to the thickness of the
Marls as they may be even a few yards eastward. The sandstone
in the boring is evidently all Kirklinton Sandstone, and, judging
from the thickness of red stone noted in the lower beds at many
places, that formation may attain at Skewbank a thickness of five
hundred and fifty or six hundred feet, perhaps more. We have no
means of ascertaining whether the Gypseous Shales still continue

to exist about Grinsdale beneath the Kirklinton Sandstone. Con-
tinuing our journey towards Westlinton, we find that at Lynehow
the Kirklinton Sandstone rests directly on that of St. Bees. As
nearly as could be ascertained from an examination of the boring
cores, one hundred and seventy feet of red Kirklinton Sandstone
overlie an unknown thickness of St. Bees, at Lynehow. The total
depth of the borehole was two hundred and seventy-six feet six
inches, and water rose in it to about nine feet from the surface.*

* According to Mr. R. Russell, to whom I am indebted for information
about this borehole.

25

The sketch map appended to my paper on the Carlisle Basin
(Q.J.G.S. 1881) will show that the Kirklinton Sandstone may well
be much thicker at Skewbank than at Lynehow, apart from the
fact that it probably suffered less from denudation before the
deposition of the Stanwix Marls at the former than at the latter
place. For Skewbank is much nearer the centre of the Basin.

Probably the best place for a deep artesian well in this district
would be the neighbourhood of Harker, between Carlisle and
Westlinton. It is true that at Harker the Stanwix Marls would
have to be pierced as well as the Kirklinton Sandstone. But as
the Stanwix Marls occupy the centre of the Basin, a larger supply
of water would be met with beneath them than on either side.
Any estimate of the thickness of the Stanwix Marls at Harker can
be but a conjecture; but what is seen of them seems to me to point
to the view that the hollow in which they lie is but a shallow one,
and that the Kirklinton Sandstone is at least as likely to be found
at a depth of less than a hundred feet, as at one greater. While
below the marls we have, in all probability, simply the two thick
sandstones of St. Bees and Kirklinton, the latter resting directly
on the former, and their united thicknesses amounting to fifteen .
hundred feet or more. It would be impossible to mention any
part of the British Isles of similar extent in which the geological
construction of the district more decidedly favours water supply by
means of deep artesian wells than does that of the Carlisle Basin.
And it would be almost equally difficult to exaggerate the superi-
ority in quality of water so obtained over that now drawn from
the beautiful but not unpolluted Eden.

Ww.
Ne Gretna saben Blackford ie Warwicky S-
| {Starwia Maris i

‘Section across the Carlisle Basin tronv Gretna to Warwick

27

FURTHER ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF FLOWERING
PLANTS OF CUMBERLAND (West anp East),

By THE Rev. R. WOOD, ROSLEy.

—_———.

N.B.—D stands for the late W. Dickinson, Esq., Thornycroft, Work-
ington; H for Mr. Hodgson, Watermillock ; and M for a List of Plants
drawn up in 1835 by Mr. Cooke, of Brookfield.

‘s

RANUNCULACE.

Thalictrum alpinum. Near Sprinkling Tarn ; Helvellyn.
T. majus a, flecuosum. Near Thirlmere.

T. flavum a. spherocarpum. Near Dalston.
Myosurus minimus, Near Wigton.

Ranunculus fluitans, var. bachii. River Kamont.
R. drouetii. Wath Head.

R. baudotii. Kirkbride.

R. lingua. Near Curthwaite Station ; Allonby.
Helleborus viridis. Threapland Gill.

Hi. fetidus. Craggs, near Rosley.

Delphinium ajacis. Silloth.

PAPAVERACE.
Papaver hybridum. Brackenthwaite (Westward).

FUMARIACE.

Fumaria pallidiflora, var. borei. Westward.
F., confusa. Westward.

28

CRUCIFERE.

Crambe maritima. Coulderton shore. D.
Diplotaxis muralis. Wigton Cemetery.
Cardamine sylvatica. Westward.

Arabis thaliana. Westward.

A, petrea. Screes, Wastwater.

A. hirsuta, Lamplugh ; Sparket Mill. H.
Cochlearia anglica. Saltcoats, M.
Alyssum calycinwm. Silloth.

Subularia aquatica. Bowscale Tarn.
Lepidium latifolium. Long Meg. M.

VIOLACEE.

Viola canina, var. flavicornis. Hawkrigg. M.

POLYGALACE.
Polygala depressa. Hill Top (Westward). ,

CARYOPHYLLACE.

Dianthus armeria. Near Nunnery. M.

D, deltoides. Foot of Skiddaw. M.

Saponaria officinalis. Derwentside ; Silly Banks. D.
Silene acaulis. Great End. M.

Cerastium tetrandrum. Near Allonby.

C. alpinum. Helvellyn. M.

Alsine verna. Cross Fell. M.

Spergularia neglecta. Saltcoats.

PORTULACACE.

Montia fontana, var. rivularis. Westward.

HYPERICACE,

Hypericum hirsutum. Westward.

LINACE#,

Radiola millegrana. Long Meg. M.
Linum angustifolium. Howrigg ; Silloth.
Impatiens noli-me-tangere. Scale Hill Woods. M.

CELASTRACE.

Euonymus europeus. Woods east of Derwent Lake, D.

29

RHAMNACE.

- Rhamnus catharticus. Ullock Moss. M.
R. frangula. Thornthwaite. D.

LEGUMINIFER &.

_ Ononis spinosa. Westward.

_ Prigonella ornithopodioides. Workington Warren. D.
‘Trifolium striatum. St. Bees. D.

T. hybridum. Common.

Lotus angustissimus. Hysemoor; Clifton. D.

Vicia tetrasperma. Clea Hall.

V. orobus. Melmerby. D.

V. angustifolia, vars. segetalis and bobartii. Westward.

ROSACEAE.

‘Spirea salicifolia. Aikshaw: H.

_Agrimonia odorata. Lorton. D.

Potentilla alpestris. Between Newlands and Borrowdale. M.
P. procumbens. Near Aspatria.

P. fruticosa, Wasdale Screes. M.

Rubus chamemorus. High Pike.

Pyrus aria. Brayton. D.

P. communis, var. achras, Near Curthwaite.

ONAGRACE.

Ep ilobium alsinifolium. N ear Ullswater. H.
nothera biennis. Railway cutting, Dalston.

HALORAGIACE.

ry iophyllum verticillatum. Naddle Beck. D.
Callitriche hamulata, var. pedunculata. Whivlatter ; Ennerdale.

CRASSULACE.

Sedum villosum. Alston Moor. M.
. reflexum, var. albescens. Highmoor.
Dotyledon umbilicus. Buckabank.

SAXIFRAGACE.

ifraga oppositifolia. Screes, Wastwater. M.
nivalis. Welvellyn. D.
S. hypnoides. Near Thirlmere.

30

UMBELLIFER.

Cicuta virosa. Thursby.

Pimpinella magna. Kidburngill. D.

Gnanthe fistulosa, Allonby.

G. phellandrium. Allonby. M.

Meum athamanticum. Woodhall Park. M.

Peucedanum ostruthium. Banks of Irthing. D. Near Ullswater. H.
Scandix pecten-veneris. Flimby. H.

RUBIACE.

Galium palustre, var. witheringii. Westward.
G. tricorne. Brookfield. M.

DIPSACEA.

Dipsacus sylvestris. Bolton.

COMPOSIT A.

Carduus heterophyllus, Westward.

Arctium intermedium. Westward.

Saussurea alpina, Helvellyn. M.

Artemisia maritima, var. gallica. Ravenglass. D.
Filago gallica. Allonby. M.

Senecio erucifolius. Broughton. D.

Doronicum pardalianches. Isel ; Kelton. D.
Erigeron acris. Dalston.

Leontodon hirtus. Westward.

Picris hieracioides. Egremont (? Imported). D.
Helminthia echioides. Egremont (? Imported). D.
Tragopogon pratensis, var. minor. Pow ; Bolton.
Taraxacum oficinale, var. erythrospermum. Silloth.

CAMPANULACEA,

Campanula glomerata. Near Ullswater. H.

ERICACE.

Vaccinium uliginosum. Near Armathwaite Castle.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Grassmoor. M.

Pyrola rotundifolia. Walla Crag. D.

P. secunda, Westward.

CONVOLVULACE.

Cuscuta europea. Greysouthen, D.

31

SOLANACE.

Atropa belladonna. Crofton.

SCROPHULARIACE.

Verbascum nigrum. Westward.

LABIATA.

Mentha rotundifolia. Near Lodore.
M. viridis. Rosley.

M. pulegium. Saltcoats.
Calamintha menthifolia. Calva Hall.
Ballota nigra, var. fetida. Workington Marshside. D.
Galeopsis ladanum. Silloth.

Leonurus cardiaca, Near Curthwaite.

Lamium incisum. Brackenthwaite ; Westward.

L. maculatum. Brampton. (Probably an escape.)

BORAGINACE.

Lithospermum officinale. Mosser. D.
Cynoglossum officinale. Islekirk ; Dalston.
Asperugo procumbens. Silloth; Kirkbride.

PINGUICULACE.

_ Utricularia vulgaris, Near Maryport.
U. minor. Dubmill. H.

PRIMULACES.

_ Anagallis cerulea, -Hensingham. D.

CHENOPODIACEE.

Salicornia herbacea, var. procumbens. Workington North Shore.

Chenopodium olidum. Saltcoats.
Atriplex smithii. Coulderton.
_ A. babingtonti. Coulderton.
A. arenaria, ANlonby ; Silloth.

POLYGONACE:.

_ Rumex alpinus. Hayton Castle.
— Polygonum lapathifolium. Westward.
_ P. viviparum. Helvellyn. D.

D.

32

ASARACE.

Asarum europeum. Hutton Woods. M.

EUPHORBIACE,
Euphorbia paralias. Millom. H.

AMENTIFER/#.

Salix triandra. Rosley.

S. rubra, var. forbyana. Westward.
smithiana. Hawkrigg.

acuminata. Westward.

cinerea. Westward.

cinerea, var. aquatica. Westward.

. phylicifolia. Gilsland. M.

. phylicifolia, var. weigeliana. Westward.
. ambigua. Westward.

. repens, var. argentea. Greysouthen. M.

min nn et tm tn

NATADACE.

Potamogeton rufescens. Dubmill. D.
P. lanceolatus. Bassenthwaite. M.

P. heterophyllus. Westward.

P. perfoliatus. Bassenthwaite.

P. densus. Near Aspatria.

P. pusillus. Maryport. H.

P. pusillus, var. tenuissimus. Westward.
P. pectinatus. Bassenthwaite. D.
Zannichellia palustris. River Ellen.

ORCHIDACE.
Orchis ustulata. Raughton Head ; Tallentire.
Habenaria chlorantha, Howrigg. —
Ophrys apifera. Near Skiddaw.
Listera cordata. Caldbeck Common, M.
Neottia nidus-avis. Woodhall; Flimby ; Westward; Irthing. D.
Epipactis palustris. Isel Woods. D.
Cephalanthera ensifolia, Abbey Holme. M.

JUNCACE. ~

Luzula sforsteri. Near Keswick. M.
L. multiflora, Westward.

33

L. spicata. Helvellyn; Blake Fell. D.
Juncus triglumis. Alston Moor. M.

J. maritimus. Kirkbride.

J. filiformis. Banks of Greta. M.

J, lamprocarpus, var. nigritellus, Ehenside Tarn.

J. compressus. Arlecdon. OD.

CYPERACE.

Schenus nigricans. Gilsland. M.
Blysmus compressus. Waverton Wood. M.
Scirpus multicaulis. Westward.

S. pauciflorus, Gilsland. M.

S. cespitosus. Westward.

S. fluitans. River Ellen.

Carex vulpina. Yeorton; Murton Moss. D.
muricata. Airey Force. H.

remota. Westward.
boenninghauseniana. Eskatt.
elongata. Snellings Mire. D.

curta. Caldbeck pasture.

stricta. Biglands. M.

rigida, Biglands. M.

glauca. Westward.

irrigua. Gilsland. D.

limosa. Biglands. M.

C. pilulifera. Westward.

C. pallescens. Sellafield (D); Westward.
C. panicea. Bolton.

C. strigosa. Shaw Wood.

C. binervis. Bolton; Westward.

C. distans, Caldbeck.

C. fulva. Sebergham.

C. extensa. Marron Side. D.

C. ederi. Caldbeck,

C. hirta. Bolton; Watch Hill.

C. pseudo-cyperus. Moorside Woods. D.
C. riparia. Bolton.

C. vesicaria. Portinscale. M.

RAQSeSeregragaga

GRAMINA.
Agrostis spica-venti. Silloth.
A, vulgaris, var. pumila. Skiddaw.
Avena pubescens. Near Aspatria.

D.

34

A, strigosa. Gill near St. Bees.

Melica nutans. Gowbarrow Woods.

Glyceria plicata. Islekirk.

Sclerochloa maritima. Saltcoats (M); Anthorn ; Whitrigg.
S. procumbens. Silloth ; near Brayton Station.

S. rigida. Brookfield (M) ; Silloth.

Festuca elatior, var. arundinacea. Banks of Caldew near Holm Hill.

F. pratensis, var. loliacea. Westward.
Bromus giganteus. Lamplugh. D.

B. giganteus, var. triflorus. Ullswater. H.
B. secalinus, Tallentire. M.

B. arvensis. Silloth.

Brachypodium sylvaticum. Wath Brow (D); near Ullswater (H).
Triticum acutum. Silloth.

Lolium temulentum, var. arvense. Westward.
Lepturus filiformis. Whitrigg.

Hordeum murinum. Flimby. D.

H. maritimum, Coulderton (D.); Silloth (H.)

FILICES.

Hymenophyllum tunbridgense. Ponsonby Hall. D.
Asplenium germanicum. Barfe Fell; Borrowdale ; Scawfell.
A, septentrionale. Newlands (M); Scawfell ; Keswick.

A. viride, Carrock; High Pike.

Woodsia ilvensis. Near Scawfell.

Aspidium lonchitis. Carrock Fell (M); Helvellyn.
Nephrodium filix-mas, var. borrert. Westward.

NV, uliginosum. Loweswater. D.

N. spinulosum. Woodhall. M.

Polypodium robertianum. Scale Force.

LYCOPODIACE,

Lycopodium annotinum. Near Langdale Pikes.

L, alpinum. Caldbeck Fells,

L. inundatum. Shoulthwaite Moss; Wasdale Head. D.
Selaginella selaginoides. Barrowside. D.

Tsoetes lacustris. Derwent Lake. M.

EQUISETACE.

Equisetum hyemale. Bolton,
LL. variegatum. Irthing. D.

H.

35

CHARACE.

r Chara flexilis. Murton Moss. D.
C. fetida. Westward.

C. aspera. Harras Moor. D.

C. polyacantha, Newton Moss. H.
C. opaca. Ullswater. H.

37

GRAPTOLITES OF THE SKIDDAW SLATES.

By J. POSTLETHWAITE, F.G.S,

(Read at the Ambleside Meeting. )

THE name Graptolite, or Graptolithus, is derived from two Greek
words—Grapho, I write, and Zithos, stone. It was first made use
of by Linnzus, in describing a fossil of a somewhat doubtful
character, but which bears a strong resemblance to the family of
Graptolites. A drawing of this fossil, which was called by Linnzus
Graptolithus scalaris, appeared in a work published by him in 1751.
It appears, however, to represent not one, but three distinct organ-
isms, and their identity with any known species has not been
clearly established. Linnzeus also described a well known Grapto-
lite, which he named Grapffolithus sagittarius.

I believe Sir Roderick Murchison was the first English author
who wrote on these fossils. In his Silurian System, published in
1839, is figured three species, namely, Graptolites ludensis,
G. murchisoni, and G. foliaceus, and he was among the first to
recognise the importance of Graptolites as Silurian fossils,

General Portlock, in his Geological Report on Londonderry,
Tyrone, and Fermanagh, published in 1843, noticed their affinity
to the Hydroid Zoophytes. He regarded them as being very
nearly allied to Sertularia (Figs. 1 and 1a) and Plumularia (Fig. 2)
which are to be found in large numbers on our coasts.

In 1848 Professor Sedgwick announced that Graptolites had
been found in the Skiddaw Slates; and the discovery of these
fossils in the south of Scotland by Mr. Salter, and in North Wales

38

by Professor Phillips, was also made known about the same time.
In the preceding year, 1847, Mr. John Ruthven of Kendal was
sent into the neighbourhood of Keswick by Professor Sedgwick,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether the Skiddaw Slate Rocks
were really fossiliferous or not. He had a tent pitched on
Skiddaw, near the White Stones, and he continued working there
for a week or more. I endeavoured to obtain an account of that
expedition, and its results, but failed to do so. I believe, however,
that Mr. Joseph Graham of Keswick had the honour of being the
first to discover Graptolites in the Skiddaw Slates, and in all
probability it was to test the genuineness of his discoveries that
Mr. Ruthven was engaged in 1847.

There are about two hundred and fifty species of British
Graptolites known, and of these forty have been found in the
Skiddaw Slates. They consist of leaf-like, or branching, grass-like
bodies, or the impression of those bodies, left in the stone in which
they have been enclosed. There is much variety of form amongst
them, although all bear the common family likeness in their
general structure. Those fossilized forms are the remains of
chitinous or horny cases once inhabited by composite organisms,
or they may be described as colonies of semi-independent creatures ;
which, when living, must have had a very marked resemblance, in
many points, to the Sertularian Zoophytes that inhabit our seas
at the present time. Their general form consisted of one or more
rows of horny cups or cellules, attached to a tube or common
canal, into which they probably opened by a narrow aperture at
their bases. ‘The common canal was also composed of the same
horny substance. Generally the whole structure called the
“polypary,” was based upon a slender rod of the same material,
which often projected beyond both ends of the common body, in
young members, but the distal prolongation was less frequent in
those of mature growth.

Each portion of the polypary fulfilled its own office. The rod
that formed the foundation or back-bone of the structure is called
the “axis” (Fig. 3); it consisted of a slender fibrous cylinder,
extending along the side of the common canal, opposite that on

”

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1 Sertularia abietina, natural size.
Siem ate i Fe portion of stipe magnified.
2 Plumularia pennatula, i i

» 3 Monoprionidian graptolite, back of stipe, showing axis,

A A side view of stipe, showing
ccenosare.

» 5 " = front view of stipe, showing
cellules.

pean O . a showing division of coenosarc

into sections, and cellules cut off from common body.

» 7 Graftolites priodon, showing mouths of cellules opening
towards base of stipe.

» 8 Azygograptus lapworthi.
» 9 Didymograptus nitidus,
4 10 o; gtbberulus,
» Il Letragraptus bryonidis.
» 12 Dichograptus octobrachiatus,
-» 13 New species, No. 1.
Y 14 9 5) a Nowe
15 Diplograptus bristiniformis, enlarged and restored.
16 Climacograptus antennarius, P z
17 Phyllograptus typus, x 6
18 Dendrograptus hailianus.
19 ©Thamnograptus doveri.

& ALLIED Forms.

39

which the cellules were placed. It is probable that this slender
cylinder contained a minute portion of the body of the organism,
as it appears to have possessed the power of growing independently
of the general body, and in some cases to have extended a
considerable distance beyond each end of it. This vital part of
the axis, if such existed, does not appear to have had any
connection with the general body, in the common canal, and
could not derive nourishment therefrom. The chief function of
the axis was no doubt to give stability to the polypary.

The “common canal” (Fig. 4), in which the “ccenosarc” or
general body was enclosed, consisted of a tube formed of horny
material. On one side of this tube, in single Graptolites, was
placed the axis, generally outside the tube; and on the opposite
side were the cellules containing the Zooids.

The ‘cellules” (Fig. 5) were small cups formed of the same
horny substance as the other parts of the polypary, and were
placed side by side, along the common canal. Except in one or
two forms, the cellules do not spring vertically from the common
canal, but are inclined, at various angles, towards the upper, or
distal end; and thus each cellule overlaps its neighbour to a

certain extent.

Until quite recently, the opinion held generally by palzontolo-
gists respecting the structure of all forms of Graptolites, was that
the cellules opened full into the common canal, and that the
ccenosarc was a continuous body throughout the entire length of the
common canal. A structure differing from this was first observed
by Professor Mc.Coy, who in describing a Graptolite from the
Skiddaw Slates, to which he gave the name of Graftolites latus,
speaks of “transverse diaphragms” being present near the base of
the cellules. This appeared in his British Palgozoic Fossils, 1854.
No additional light was brought to bear on this peculiar structure,
until Mr. William Kinsey Dover of Keswick directed the attention
of Mr. Hopkinson to some specimens in his collection, which
show not only that each cellule was cut off from the common
canal by a clearly-marked septum, but that the common canal was
also divided by transverse septa between each cellule (Fig. 6).

40

Mr. Hopkinson prepared a paper specially on this subject, and
read it before the British Association at York on the 7th of
of September, 1881. This paper appeared, in an abridged form,
in the Geological Magazine for October, 1881, and in the Aznals
and Magazine of Natural History for January, 1882. Mr. Hop-
kinson does not suppose that the cellules were entirely cut off
from the common canal, or that the division of the ccenosarc into
sections was complete, he speaks of the septa as strictures. Professor
Lapworth also speaks of them in the same way ; he compares the
septa to the hard joints in reeds or tall stems of grass, by which
they are divided into sections, a minute aperture only being left for
the passage of nourishment.

When Graptolites were living organisms, there can be no doubt
that each cellule contained a zooid, which was connected, however
slightly, with the general body; and that this zooid, like the
Sertularian Zoophytes of the present time, would be furnished with
tentacles or arms, for the purpose of securing its food. Also
that it would probably possess the power to protrude its head
beyond the mouth of the cellule, when necessary, and retire
altogether within it when an enemy approached,

The form of the cell-mouth, so far as it can be ascertained, was
usually round, and it opened generally in the direction of the
cellule, but in some cases obliquely, and in others it was so bent
as to open directly towards the base or proximal end of the
polypary (Fig. 7).

The most simple classification of the Graptolite family is that
adopted by Professor Nicholson, according to whom the true.
Graptolites are divided into three groups, namely, the Monoprio-
nidian group, or forms with a single row of cellules; the
Diprionidian group, with two rows of cellules ; and the Tetraprio-
nidian group, with four rows of cellules. There is also another
group, the Dendroidea, which consists of much-branched and
plant-like forms. Amongst the forms of which the true nature js
doubtful, but which occur in the same beds, and bear more or less
likeness to the Graptolite family are here placed under the heading

41

Incerta sedis. I believe Thamnograptus doveri is the only species
known in the Skiddaw Slates.

These groups are further divided into genera, and the genera
into species ; but in the limited time allotted to me I shall only be
able to describe two or three of the species in each genus.

MONOPRIONIDIAN GROUP.

Azygograptus.—I believe there is only one species of this genus
known, namely, 4. /apworthi (Fig. 8). It consists of a simple
monoprionidian polypary or stipe, which attains its full width close
to the proximal end. The stipe is usually long and slender, and
the portion occupied by the common body larger than in many of
the monoprionidian forms. The cellules are broad, numbering
about twenty in the space of an inch. <Azygograpti occur very
plentifully at Hodgson Howe Quarry, near Portinscale, and some
specimens have been found at Barf. The rock in which the
fossils are found at Hodgson Howe is of a hard gritty nature,
occurring in a series of thin beds interstratified with soft slate,
The latter does not appear to have been suitable for the preser-
vation of the Azygograpti, as I believe that none have been found
in it hitherto; but the gritty beds contain large quantities, often
matted together like tufts of grass.

The genus Didymograptus comprises forms that consist of two
monoprionidian stipes springing from an initial point, which is
frequently marked by a distinct spine, called the “radicle.” This
initial point, although it forms the base of the organism, is some-
times so small as to be scarcely discernible. The cellules usually
occupy the side of the stipe opposite the radicle, but in some cases
they are on the same side. WD. mitidus (Fig. 9) is the most
common species of this genus, indeed, they have been so numerous
in some localities, that stones are occasionally found covered with
a matted network of their fossilized remains. The two stipes
spring horizontally from the radicle, they are narrow at the base,
and widen very gradually towards the extremities, which are often
somewhat rounded, owing apparently to the imperfect development
of two or three of the last cellules. The widest parts of the stipes

42

usually measure about one-tenth, and the narrowest about one-
twentieth of an inch ; and about one-sixth of the width is occupied
by the common body. The cellules number from thirty to thirty-
four to the inch. These are the dimensions of an average adult ;
but the stipes vary in length from one-eighth of an inch, in very
young members, to nearly a foot. In large specimens the stipes
measure an eighth of an inch or more in width.

Didymograptus patulus differs from D. nitidus in the form of the
cellules, which are curved, and in the proportion of the stipe
occupied by the common body being somewhat larger.

Didymograptus extensus resembles D. nitidus and D. patulus
in general form, but the stipes are narrower, being not more than
one-fiftieth of an inch in width at the narrowest part, and one-
twentieth of an inch at the widest. The cellules are short and
broad, numbering about twenty-four to the inch.

Didymograptus gibberulus (Fig. 10) resembles the last three in
having two stipes with a single row of cellules, but differs from
them in general form. The stipes spring horizontally from the
radicle, then curve backwards, until the complete form resembles
the letter U inverted. The cellules are very narrow, numbering
about forty to the inch; and in some cases they are furnished with
long spines. The stipes are unusually broad compared with their
length.

The genus Didymograptus is found only in Lower Silurian strata
in Britain, and in strata of the same age in America, in the
former it occurs almost exclusively in the Skiddaw Slates and the
Llandeilo rocks.

The genus 7Zétragraptus comprises forms consisting of four
monoprionidian stipes, connected by a non-celluliferous rod or
“funicle.” They resemble two Didymograpti connected at their
bases, the combined radicles forming the non-celluliferous funicle
which connects the four stipes.

In the species Tetragraptus bryonides (Fig. 11), the connecting
funicle is of variable length; and from its centre, in some cases,
proceeds a minute pointed radicle. The stipes diverge at various

st

43

angles ; they are narrow in their origin, but expand abruptly and
attain their full width in a distance of three or four cellules. The
distal extremities of the stipes are also abruptly rounded.

The genus Zefragraptus occurs only in the Skiddaw Slates in
Britain, and in Canadian rocks commonly regarded as of the same
age.

The genus Dichograpius comprises forms consisting of eight or
more monoprionidian stipes united at the centre by a funicle, which
gives off two branches at each end, these are again subdivided.
Both the funicle and its subdivisions are generally, though not
always, enveloped in a thin corneous disc, or float, which often
extends a short distance along each stipe. The portion of the
stipes enclosed within the disc is always non-celluliferous. When
the disc is not present, the cellules usually commence on each
stipe, near the point of junction with its neighbour.

Dichograptus octobrachiatus (Fig. 12) consists of forms having
eight monoprionidian stipes, united in the usual way, and a central
disc is present in most cases. Within the disc, or near it, the
stipes are about one-twentieth of an inch in width, in full grown
members ; beyond this the width, including the cellules, is about
one-eighth of an inch, and the common body occupies about one-
third of the entire width. The largest members of this species
measure as much as eighteen or twenty inches across, each stipe
being half that length; and if they possessed in the central disc
the power to float or to sink at pleasure, as it is supposed, they
must have presented a very strange appearance on the surface of
the water.

I have in my collection two species that have not been described

_ or named, and which for the present I will call No. 1 and No. 2.

No. 1 consists of four monoprionidian stipes, two of which spring
horizontally from a central point, curve slightly upward, and then
go off at an angle of eighty-five degrees. At the end of the curve,
each stipe throws off a branch on the inner side (Fig. 13). The.
stipes are about an inch and a half in length, and one-twelfth of
an inch in width at the widest part, and are celluliferous on their

44

inner margins. Four specimens of this species have been found
at Carlside Edge, on Skiddaw, two by Mr. P. Harrison of Keswick,
and two by myself. None of the specimens are in a good state of
preservation, but I am the fortunate possessor of the best. Mr.
Hall, in his work on “ The Graptolites of the Quebec Group,” has
figured and described a species named Grapftolithus fruticosus, to
which the specimens found at Carlside Edge bear some resem-
blance; but in the latter, there is no trace of the large pointed
radicle which forms the base of the organism in G. /ruticosus.

Species No. 2 is, I believe, quite new to Science. It consists of
a funicle giving off three short branches at each end. The funicle
measures about one-tenth of an inch, and the longest branch, or
stipe, does not exceed one-fifth of an inch in length. The cellules
are rather indistinct (Fig. 14). There are seven perfect, and four
or five imperfect specimens of this diminutive species on one small
slab of Skiddaw Slate, which I found at Randel Crag, on the
north-western side of Skiddaw summit. All the perfect specimens
are of precisely the same form, with a slight variation in size ; and
if further research should prove that they are young individuals in
an incomplete state of development, they may still be regarded as
representatives of a new species, as I believe none have been
_ found hitherto that are branched in this peculiar way.*

I must leave the remaining monoprionidian genera unnoticed,
and pass on to describe a few members of the

DIPRIONIDIAN GROUP.

This group comprises forms that have two rows of cellules,
Their structure will be readily understood by supposing that two
monoprionidian stipes are united back to back, the axis running
along the centre of the wall that separates the two common
bodies.

-_Diplograptus pristiniformis is a typical specimen of the genus,
It consists of a flattened stipe having a row of cellules on each
side, also a well-defined axis running through the whole length.

* J have since ascertained that Mr. Christopherson of Keswick has in his
collection an adult member of this species,

45

The axis projects slightly beyond the proximal end, and often to
a considerable distance beyond the distal end of the celluliferous
portion of the stipe. The stipe is narrow at the base, but expands
gradually until it attains the full width, which is about one-tenth of
aninch. The cellules are narrow and closely arranged, numbering
about twenty-eight in the space of an inch, and they terminate
abruptly at the distal end of the stipe (Fig. 15).

The genus C/imacograptus also comprises forms that have two
rows of cellules, but it differs from Diplograptus pristiniformis in
the shape of the cellules, which are so bent towards the distal end
of the stipe, that the outer position of each becomes parallel with
the axis; the cell-mouth being sunk within the margin of the stipe,
and completely sheltered by the next cellule.

Climacograptus antennarius is a typical specimen of this genus.
It consists of a short double-celled stipe about an eighth of an inch
in width, having a strong axis, which often extends beyond the
distal end, as much as the entire length of the celluliferous portion
of the stipe; it also projects slightly beyond the proximal end.
Moreover, the base of the stipe is furnished with two strong spines,
one on each side, diverging at an angle of about sixty degrees.
The cellules are bent upward, and their mouths depressed below
the margin of the stipe (Fig. 16).

The vertical range of the genus Diplograptus extends from the
Skiddaw Slates, through the Llandeilo and Caradoc rocks ; and
Climacograpius ranges through the same strata into the Lower
Llandovery beds.

TETRAPRIONIDIAN GROUP.

This group consists of forms having four rows of cellules, or
they may be described as four monoprionidian stipes placed back
to back, having an axis running through the centre, and projecting
slightly at the base.

Phyllograptus typus is the most common of the Tetraprionidian
forms. The stipes are usually short and broad, the general shape
being an elongated oval. A strongly marked axis is always present.

46

The cellules number about thirty-four to the inch; in some cases
they are slightly curved, and they are generally furnished with
slender spines, which project from their lower lips (Fig. 17).

The fossil remains of P. zypus appear on the stone as simple
leaf-like forms, two stipes being usually pressed together on each
side, but in some rare instances they have been found showing two
stipes in a horizontal, and two in a vertical position.

P. angustifolius resembles P. ¢ypus in general structure, but the
stipes are narrower and more elongated. They also differ from
P. typus in being broadest near the base, from which they expand
rapidly until they attain their greatest width, and then taper very
gradually towards the distal end. The mouths of the cellules are
furnished with long slender spines, which curve towards the base.

The genus Phy/lograptus is exclusively confined to the Skiddaw
Slates in Britain, and to the Quebec Group in Canada.

The section DeNDROIDEA embraces forms that are branching
and plant-like in their structure, and it is doubtful whether or -not
they ought to be regarded as true Graptolites. Professor Nichol-
son, in his “British Graptolitide,” has tabulated one species as
occurring in the Skiddaw Slates, namely, Dendrograptus hallianus.
It is exceedingly plant-like in form, the branches spring from a
parent stem, and are divided and subdivided until it assumes the
appearance of a miniature tree. Both branches and branchlets
are celluliferous on one side, but unlike the true Graptolites, they
do not show any trace of an axis, while the parent stem is furnished
with a distinct root-bulb, which renders it more than probable that
they were fixed to the bottom of the sea (Fig. 18).

Section InceRT# SEDISs embraces forms consisting of straight or
slightly winding stipes, from which branches spring alternately on
each side. Both main stipe and branches show a central depressed
line representing an axis, but there is no trace of cellules. None
of the members of this section were known to occur in the Skiddaw
Slates until 1875, when Mr. Dover found one that has been figured
and named Zhamnograptus doveri. It consists of a slightly un-
dulating central stipe, giving off lateral branches on each side. It

47

is a very beautiful and perfect specimen ; the central stipe is about
two inches long, and it gives off five branches on the right, and
four on the left side, all of them clearly and distinctly marked—
the fossilized corneous substance being in an excellent state of
preservation (Fig. 19).

REPRODUCTION.

The mode of reproduction in the Graptolite family is somewhat
obscure, but in all probability it was analogous to that of the
Sertularian Zoophytes. In the latter, ovarian capsules are devel-
oped on the sides of the stipe, resembling the flower buds of a
plant. The capsules are generally somewhat larger than the
hydrothece or cellules, and the reproductive Zooids are developed
in the interior. These undergo a series of transformations, but
remain in permanent connexion with the colony. On the contrary,
the ovarian capsules of the Graptolites appear to have become
detached in the later stages of their growth, and afterwards to have
opened and set free the germs of life within. Professor Nicholson
states, in his “ British Graptolitide,” that he has in his collection
specimens of Grapéolites sedgwickii that show minute pear-shaped
sacs attached to some of the cellules. Also, that he has other
specimens showing sacs or capsules of the same shape, but much
enlarged, and in a free state. Those free capsules are found
amongst the Graptolites, and are composed of the same horny
substance. There is reason to suppose that each of the ovarian
capsules, like those of the Sertularians, may have contained quite
a host of little germs or “siculas,” from which in every species of
the Graptolite family, the adult forms have been developed. The
sicula has a pointed triangular, or dagger-like shape, without axis
or cellules ; at a later stage, a- minute axis appears, either on one
side or along the centre, and more advanced forms exhibit two or
three small cellules on one or both sides of the wider end of the
sicula, according as the form may be monoprionidian, diprionidian,
or tetraprionidian. It is impossible, however, to determine to
which species the young form belongs, except in those that have a
few of the cellules developed. Almost every species, in the early

48

stages of its development, seems to have been small and feeble,
the proximal end of the stipe being somewhat attenuated, and the
first cellules stunted in their growth ; but as the stipe increased in
length, and successive cellules were budded, it acquired a fuller
vitality, and both cellules and common canal attained their full
development.

Neither the young nor the adult Graptolites appear to have been
endowed with the power of locomotion. It is true that some of
them possessed in the central disc, an organ by which they may
have been enabled to float or sink at pleasure, but there is no
trace in any of their fossilized remains, of organs by which they
could move from place to place. If they were really furnished
with such organs, they must have been of a membraneous nature,
and, like the soft portions of their bodies, would perish and leave
no trace behind. It must also be remembered that Graptolites
were composite organisms, consisting in some cases of from two to
three thousand semi-independent zooids; and we can scarcely
imagine such numerous colonies acting in concert in reference to
the direction in which they should travel. The limited knowledge
we possess respecting the habits of these interesting creatures,
points to the conclusion that although they existed as free organ-
isms, yet in all probability they performed the work assigned to
them by a beneficent and all-wise Creator, and then died at the
place which witnessed their birth. It was otherwise with the
members of the Trilobite family living at the same time; they
evidently possessed the power of moving freely from place to
place, because solitary specimens may occasionally be met with
anywhere in the Skiddaw Slate rocks ; but Graptolites were almost
invariably congregated together, so that it may be said of them,
as of the Sertularians, that “associated life was the rule, and
solitary existence the rare exception.”

PRESERVATION.

In reference to the preservation of the remains of these organ-
isms, it would seem that the stipes have generally been crushed
or flattened out, but in some cases the process of fossilization

es aed

49

has been completed before any great amount of pressure was
applied ; and thus the forms were preserved in relief. In the
process of fossilization, the horny substance of which they were
formed has been réplaced’ either by some form of Carbon, or by
Iron Pyrites: The latter is the form in which Skiddaw Slate
fossils are almost invariably found.

There is reason to believe that only a very small percentage of
the Graptolites were fossilized ; the remainder would decay and
become-mixed with the mud at the bottom of the sea, and thus
supply the carbon that forms one of the constituents of the rocks
in which they are found. Some of the slates and shales that yield
Graptolites most plentifully, contain as much as five per cent. of
carbon, perhaps derived from the decayed remains of these little
creatures : indeed, some geologists have suggested that the dark
colour and the anthracitic appearance of the most highly-fossiliferous
beds may be due entirely to that cause.

There is yet need for active and zealous workers to assist in
solving one of the most difficult problems connected with the
geology of the Lake District, namely, to determine the true position
of the Skiddaw Slates. The late Mr. Ward, who laboured with so
much enthusiasm in mapping the rocks of this district, cautiously
refrained from a definite expression of opinion in his memoir of

the ‘Geology of the Northern part of the Lake District,” but

quotes the opinions of Mr. Salter and Professor Nicholson, whose
palzeontological researches led them to agree in placing the Skiddaw
Slates on the same horizon as. the Lower Llandeilo Rocks. But
in Mr, Ward’s “Physical History of the Lake District,” published
a few years later, he states distinctly that, from physical and
paleontological evidence combined, he considers the Skiddaw
Slates to be in part the equivalent to the Welsh Arenig Rocks; also
that the Arenig Grits, Tremadoc Slates, and Lingula Flags are all
represented in the lower part of the Skiddaw Slate Series. Some
geologists, however, dissent from Mr. Ward in regard to the last .
named stratum, while others disagree with him in reference to the
relative positions occupied by the Skiddaw Slates and the Volcanic
Series of Borrowdale, contending that the latter is an older, and
4

50

not a more recent formation. The real difficulty of the case arises
from the fact that geologists have hitherto been unable to ascertain
the character of the rocks upon which the Skiddaw Slates rest ;
and so long as that question remains unsolved, the only reliable
evidence available for determining their true position, is that
afforded by the fossilized remains of life they contain. And it
will scarcely be necessary to inform my readers, that the more
extensive and perfect the assemblage of fossils, the more conclusive
will be the evidence to be derived therefrom.

LIST OF GRAPTOLITES FROM THE SKIDDAW SLATES.

Azygograplus lapworthi. Nich. Dichograptus gracilis. Nich.
Didymograptus nitidus. Wall. D. annulatus. Nich.

D. patulus, Tall. Loganograptus logani, Hall.

D. extensus. Wall. Pleurograptus vagans. Nich.

D. gibberulus. Nich. Graptolites tenuis. Port.

D2. bifidis, Tall. Diplograptus pristiniformis, Fall.
D. affinis. Nich. D. pristis. His.

D. fasciculatus. Nich, D. hopkinsoni. Nich.

D. geminus. His. D. armatus.. Nich.

D. serratulus. Tall. D. mucronatus, Tall.

D, v-fractus. Salt. Climacograptus antennarius. Fall.
D. sextans. Tall. C. bicornis, Fall.

D. divaricatus. all. C. teretiusculus, Tall.
Tetragraptus bryonides. Tall. Trigonograptus lanceolatus. Nich,
T. headi, Fall. Phyllograptus typus. Tall.

T. crucifer. Hall. P. angustifolius. Tall,

T. quadribrachiatus. Tall. P. anna. Hall.

Dichograptus octobrachiatus. Wall. Dendrograptus hallianus, Prout.
D., reticulatus. Nich. Thamnograptus dovert. Nich.

D. multiplex. Nich.

LIST OF LOCALITIES WHERE GRAPTOLITES HAVE BEEN
FOUND IN THE SKIDDAW SLATES.

Randel Crag, N.W. of Skiddaw Summit. Bleeze Gill, Blencathra.
Gibraltar Crag, do, do. Bannerdale Fell.
Sand Beds, Bassenthwaite. Barf, Thornthwaite.

ene er

51

How Gill, above and east of. Outerside, near Braithwaite.
Carlside Edge, Skiddaw. Barrow, do. do.
Carlsledam Gill, do. Hodgson How, near Keswick.
White Stones, do. Mosedale Beck.

Longside, do. Troutbeck, Pencil Crag.
Gate Gill, Blencathra. Scale Hill, near Lorton.
New Brow Quarry, near Lorton. Braithwaite Brow.

Grisdale Pike. Hobcarton.

Slape Crags. Smithy Fell, Moser.

Little Dod, west of Grisdale Pike. Lonscale Crags.

Dod, near Brackenthwaite. Latrigg.

Howe, near Lanthwaite Green. Souterfell.

Quarry, S. W. of Loweswater. Doddick Fell.

Egg Beck, near Pooley. Quarry, near Bowscale.

Sandy Beck Wood, three miles S. W. of Cockermouth.

Graptolites have been found in considerable numbers at Randel
Crag, Barf, Carlside Edge, and Hodgson How Quarry ; but in all
the other localities they are scarce, not more than one or two
specimens having been obtained in many of the places named.

Collectors may, however, expect to find fossils wherever cleavage is
undeveloped and the rock breaks up along the lines of bedding :
but a protracted and diligent search will often prove unsuccessful.
In those places where cleavage has been partially developed, and
the rock breaks into long pencil-like fragments, no fossils will be
found, except in very rare cases; and it will be equally unprofitable
_ to search amongst the beds of coarse grit which occur in some
~ localities.

LIST OF WORKS AND PAPERS ON THE GRAPTOLITES
OF THE SKIDDAW SLATES.

1848
1 SEDGWICK, LRev. On the Organic Remains found in the Skiddaw Slate,
Prof. A. with some Remarks on the Classification of the

older Rocks of Cumberland and Westmorland.
: Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc., vol. 4, p. 216.

_ 2 Mc.Coy, Prof. F. Note on the Skiddaw Slate Fossils. Quart. Fourn.
Geol. Soc., vol. 4, p. 223.

13

14

SFDGWICK, Rev.
Prof. A., and
Mc. Coy, Prof. F.

SALTER, J. W. ...

HARKNESS, Prof.
R.

HARKNESS, Prof.
R., NICHOLSON,
Dr. H. A., and
SALTER, J. W.

MURCHINSON, Sir
R. I.

NicHotson, Dr.
HH. VAS

HOPKINSON, J.

CARRUTHERS, W.

52

1855
A Synopsis of the British Paleozoic Rocks. 4to.
London and Cambridge. pp. 3.
1861
New Fossils from the Skiddaw Slates. Geologist,

vol. 4, p. 74.
1863
On the Skiddaw Slate Series, with a Note on the

Skiddaw Slate Fossils, by J. W. SALTER. Qvart,
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 19, p. 113.

1864
On the Fossils of the Skiddaw Slates. Re. Brit.

Assoc. for 1863, Trans. Sections, p. 69.

1866
Additional Observations on the Geology of the Lake
Country. With Notes on the Fossils, by J. W.
SALTER, Quart, Fourn. Geol. Soc., vol. 22,
p- 480.
1867
Siluria, p. 538.

On British Graptolites.
March.

On the Graptolites of the Skiddaw Series. Qvart,
Sourn. Geol. Soc., vol. 24, p. 125, and vol. 28,
p. 217.

Geol. Mag., February and

1869
On the Occurrence of Plants in the Skiddaw Slates.
With a List of Fossils from the Skiddaw Slates.
Geol. Mag., vol. 6, p. 494-
Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates.
Hist,, October, p. 231.

Annals of Nat.

1870.
On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Dicrano-

graptus. Geol. Mag., vol. 7, p. 353.
On Graptolites,

53 :

1872
15 NicHoLson, Dr. A Monograph of the British Graptolitide. Black-

En AS wood and Sons, Edinburgh and London.
1873
16 Hopkinson, J. On some Graptolites of the Upper Arenig Rocks of

Ramsey Island, St. Davids. (Comparison with
Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates.) Geol. Mag.,

ioe vol, 10, p. 519.
1875
17 HopxKInson, J., Description of the Graptolites of the Arenig and
and LAPWORTH, Llandeilo Rocks of St. Davids. Quart. Yourn.
Cc Geol, Soc., vol. 31, p. 631.
1876
18 Warp, J.C. ... Fossils of the Skiddaw Slate. Geol. of the N. Part of

the Eng. Lake Dist., p. 105.

19 Lapwortu, C.... The Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora.
Ann, Nat. Hist., Ser. 5, vol. 3.

1880
20 ————____ On New British Graptolites. - Ann. Nat. Hist.,
February.
1881
_ Hopxinsoy, J...._ On some Points in the Morphology of the Rhabdo-
phora. ep. Brit. Assoc., Sections, p. 649.
1882
—_-—___. Morphology of the Rabdophora. An. Nat. Hist.,

January.

I feel it to be my duty to acknowledge with gratitude the kind
assistance I have received from Mr. W. Kinsey Dover, in the
_ prosecution of my palzontological studies, and the generous
- freedom with which he has thrown open to me both his library
and his unrivalled collection of Skiddaw Slate Fossils. I must
_ also add that valuable service has been rendered to the cause of

‘Science by the labours of Messrs. C. Christopherson and P.
Harrison, of Keswick, who for many years have been industrious
— Collectors of fossils.

a
Ge

THE LEPIDOPTERA OF WEST CUMBERLAND.

By G. MAWSON.
(Read at Cockermouth. Received by the Editor, Fune, 1883. )

DIURNI.

Leucophasia sinapis. Taken at Silverdale ; rather uncommon.
Pieris brassice. Very common.
P. rape. Very common.
P. napi. Very common.
Anthocharis cardamines. Plentiful in May.
Gonepteryx rhamni, Frequently taken at Keswick.
Oolias edusa. Taken on the coast yearly, but not generally plentiful.
1880, very plentiful inland, as well as on the coast.
Argynnis paphia. Taken in Scale Hill woods ; rather scarce,
A. aglaia. Taken in Scale Hill woods ; common.
A, adippe. Taken in Scale Hill woods.
A, euphrosyne. Taken in Scale Hill woods, plentifully.
A, selene. Taken in Scale Hill woods ; plentiful.
, Vanessa urtice. Plentiful everywhere. ©
V.antiopa. One taken near Wood Hall, Cockermouth.
_ V. io, Common,
_V. atalanta, Common.
. vz. cardui. Some years plentiful, some scarce.
4 retin cassiope. Plentiful at Sty Head Pass in June.
4 Satyrus megera. Common.
_ &. semele. Plentiful on the coast.
__ §. janira. Common in the meadows.
: _ &. tithonus. Abundant near St, Bees.
_ S. hyperanthus, Plentiful.
- Chortobius davus. Taken in Keswick woods ; plentiful.
ee pamphilus, Very common.

In

56

Thecla rubi. ‘Taken in Keswick woods ; scarce.

7’. quercus. Three or four taken near Keswick.
Polyommatus phieas. Very common,

Lycena alexis. Common.

L. alsus. Common in the Railway cutting near St. Bees.
L. argiolus. Taken near Keswick ; uncommon.

Thanaos tages. Common.

Hesperia sylvanus. Common.

NOCTURNI.

Smerinthus ocellatus. Plentiful.

S. populi. Common.

Acherontia atropos. A few yearly ; sometimes plentiful.

Deilephila galii, Formerly common where the West Cumberland Iron
Works now stand ; north side of Workington, on the coast.

D. lineata. Two specimens taken at Workington.

Cherocampa porcellus. Taken on the coast near Flimby, and in Flimby
wood.

C. elpenor. Taken in the same localities as above.

Macroglossa stellatarum. Not uncommon on the coast.

M. bombyliformis. Plentiful on the coast.

Sesia myopiformis. One taken in Flimby wood.

S. culiciformis. Flimby wood.

S. formiciformis. Taken in Flimby wood.

8. tipuliformis. Taken in Flimby wood,
S. bembeciformis. Taken in Flimby wood.
S. apiformis. Taken in Flimby wood.
Hepialus hectus. Common.

Hi, lupulinus. Common.

Ai. sylwinus. Common.

H. velleda. Common.

A. humuli. Common.

Procris statices. Plentiful.

P. globularie. Uncommon.

Zygena trifoli. Very common.

Z. lonicere. Rare.

Z. filipendule. Local.

Nola cucullatella. Rare.

N. cristulalis, Common.

Nudaria mundana. Common.

Lythosia rubricollis. Taken near Keswick ; scarce.

Euchella jacobe. Plentiful on Ragwort on the coast.

St

ba |

EHuthemonia russula, Taken near Keswick.

Chelonia plantaginis. Taken in Keswick woods.

C. caja. Common.

Arcta fuliginosa. Common.

A. lubricipeda. Plentiful.

A. menthastri. Common.

A, urtice. Scarce.

Orgyia pudibunda. Rather rare.

O. antiqua. Not uncommon.

Demas coryli. Taken in Keswick woods; rather rare.

Trichiura crategi. Keswick woods ; uncommon.

Pecilocampa populi. Taken in the woods near Cockermouth; rather scarce.
Bombyx rubi. Common on‘the moors.

B. quercus. Common on the moors, and heathery parts of woods.
Odonestis potatoria. Rather plentiful.

Saturnia carpini. Common on the moors.

GEOMETRA.

Ouropteryz sambucata. Not uncommon.
Epione vespertaria, Rather rare.
#. apiciaria. Uncommon.
E. advenaria. Rare.
Rumia crategata. Abundant.
Venilia maculata. Taken in Scale Hill woods ; common.
Angerona prunaria. Taken in Keswick woods ; abundant.
Metrocampa margaritaria. Rather plentiful.
_ Ellopia fasciaria. Rather scarce.
_ Burymene dolobraria. Uncommon.
Pericallia syringaria. Rare.
‘Selenia illunaria. Scarce.
S. lunaria. Scarce.
8. illustraria.€ Rare.
Odontopera bidentata. Rather plentiful.
4 Crocallis elinguaria. Rather scarce.
_ Ennomos tiliaria, Rare.
LE. fuscantaria, Rather scarce.
£. erosaria, Rather scarce.
‘ZB. angularia. Rave.
Himera pennaria. Plentiful.
Phigalia pilosaria. Common.
Nyssia hispidaria. Rare.
Biston hirtaria. Not uncommon.

58

Amphydasis prodromaria. Rather uncommon.

A. betularia. Not uncommon.
Cleora lichenaria. Rather scarce.
Boarmia repandata. Rather plentiful.
B. rhomboidaria. Not very plentiful.
B. abietaria. Scarce.

Tephrosia consonaria, Rare.

T. crepuscularia. Rather rare.

T. viundularia. Plentiful.

T. extersaria. Uncommon.

T. punctulata, Scarce.

Gnophos obscurata. Rare.

Geometra papilionaria. Rather plentiful.
Todis vernaria. Rather uncommon.
1. lactearia. Plentiful.

Ephyra punctaria, Scarce.

E. trilinearia. Scarce.

E. pendularia, Scarce.

Asthena luteata. Rare.

A. candidata. Common.

Venusia cambricaria. Common.
Acidalia scutulata. Not uncommon.
A. bisetata. Not uncommon.

A. trigeminata, One got at Keswick ; rare.
A, osseata, Rather plentiful.

A. holosericata. Scarce.

A. incanaria. Scarce.

A, promutata, Uncommon.

A. immutata. Scarce.

A. remutata, Rather rare.

A. fumata, Common.

A. imitaria. Rather uncommon.

A. aversata. Plentiful.

A. inornata. Rather rare.

Cabera pusaria, Rather scarce.

C. exanthemaria. Not common.
Corycia temarata. Rather scarce.
Macaria liturata. Not uncommon.
Halia vavaria. Plentiful.

Panagra petraria, Not uncommon.
Numeria pulveraria. Not uncommon.
Fidonia atomaria. Plentiful.

—— -

i>

—— wT

59

Fidonia piniaria. Plentiful.

F. pinetaria. Scarce.

Aspilates strigillaria. Uncommon.
A, citraria. Scarce.

Abraxas grossulariata. Very common.
A. ulmata. Very common.
Lomaspilis marginata. Plentiful.
Pachynuemia hippocastanaria. Scarce.
Hybernia rupicapraria. Common.
HT. lencophearia. Not uncommon.
Hi, aurantiaria, Rather scarce.
H, progemmaria. Plentiful.

HI, defoliaria, Plentiful.
Anisopteryx escularia. Not uncommon.
Cheimatobia brumata. Plentiful.
C. boreata. Not uncommon,
Oporabia dilutata. Common.

0. filigrammaria. Common.
Larentia didymata, Plentiful.

L, multristrigaria. Rather scarce.
DL. cesiata, Rather rare.

L. ruficinctata. Difficult to obtain.
L. salicata. Not plentiful.

D. olivata. Not uncommon.

L. pectinitaria. Plentiful.
Emmelesia afinitata. Scarce.

E. alchemillata. Scarce.

£. albulata. Plentiful.

E. decolorata. Rather scarce.

E. unifasciata. Rare.

£. ericetata. Plentiful.

£, blandiata. Common.
Eupithecia venosata. Scarce.

£. consignata. Rare.

£. linariata. Rare.

E. puichellata. Common.

E. centaureata. To be met with occasionally.
E. succenturiata, Not common.

E. plumbeolata. Not common.

£. haworthiata. Uncommon.

E. pygmeata. Rare.

£. helvaticata. Rare.

60

Eupithecia castigata. Plentiful.
E. pusillata. Rare.

E. lariciata. Plentiful.

. nanata., Plentiful.

. subnotata. Rather rare.

. vulgata. Rather rare.

. expallidata. Rare.

. absynthiata. Not uncommon.
minutata. Rare.

assimilata. Rare.

&

. tenuiata. Rare.

, subciliata. Not common.

' abbreviata. Plentiful.
exiguata. Plentiful.

. sobrinata. Rare.

. togata. Rare.

E. pumilata. Uncommon.

E. rectangulata, Plentiful.
E. debiliata. Rare.

Collix sparsata. Uncommon.
Lobophora sexalata. Rare.
L. hexapterata. Rare.

L. viretata. Rare.

L. lobulata. Common.

L. polycommata. Rare.
Thera juniperata. Uncommon,
T. simulata. Rare.

T. variata. Not uncommon.
T. frmata. Rare.

Ypsipetes ruberata. Rare.

Y. impluviata. Not uncommon.
Y. elutata. Abundant.
Melantha rubiginata. Scarce.
M. ocellata. Not uncommon.
M. albicillata. Uncommon.

Bees bbe

Melanippe hastata. Rather rare.

WM. tristata. Rather rare.
M. procellata, Rather rare.
M. unangulata. Rare.

M. rivata. Uncommon.

M. subtristata. Common,
M. montanata, Common.

61

Melanippe galiata. Rare,

M. fluctuata. Common.
Anticlea rubidata. Rather rare.
A. derivata. Uncommon.

A. berberata. Rare.

A, badiata. Rather uncommon.
Coremia munitata. Rare.

C. propugnata, Not unfrequent:
C. ferrugata. Rather plentiful.
C. quadrifasciata. Uncommon.
Camptogramma bilineata. Very common.
Phibalapteryx tersata. Rare.
P. lignata. Rare.

Scotosia dubitata. Rare.

S. vetulata, Rare.

§. certata. Rare.

S. undulata. Rare.

Cidaria psittacata. Common,
miata, Common.

. picata, Rare.

corylata, Frequent.

russata. Frequent.

. immanata. Frequent.
suffumata. Frequent.
silaceata. Rather rare.
prunata. Not rare.

. testata. Uncommon.

C. populata. Frequent.

C. fulvata, Rather rare.

C. pyraliata. Scarce.

C. dotata. Scarce. a
Enbolra cervinaria, Uncommon,
#. mensurearia. Plentiful.

SSeS ARS eS

NOCTUA.

Thyatira batis. Plentiful.
Cymatophora duplaris, Scarce.
C, fluctuosa. Rare.

C. diluta, Uncommon.

C. or. Scarce.

G. flavicornis. Rare.

C. ridens. Rare,

62

Bryophila perla. Common.
Acronycta tridens. Rare.
A, psi. Common.
A, leporina. Scarce.
A. aceris. Rare.
A. megacephala. Not uncommon.
A, ligustri. Not often met with.
A. rumicis. Rather commoner than A, ligustri.
A. menyanthidis. Taken occasionally.
Leucania conigera. Plentiful.
L. lithargyria. Not uncommon.
L. littoralis. Uncommon.
L. pudorina. Scarce.
L. comma, Pilentiful.
DL. impura. Common.
L. pallens. Common.
L. phragmitidis. Rather rare.
Nonagria despecta, Rather rare.
N. fulva. Rather rare.
Gortyna flavago. Rare.
Hydrecia nictitans. Not common.
Hi. petasitis, Rather rare.
HT. micacea. Rather rare.
Azxylia putris. Scarce.
Xylophasia rurea. Common.
X. lithoxylea. Frequent.
X. sublustris. Rarer than X. lithoxylea.
X. polyodon. Everywhere very common.
X. hepatica. Rare.
X. scolopacina. Rare.
Depterygia pinastri. Rare.
Heliophobus popularis. Not uncommon.
Chareas graminis, Not uncommon.
Cerigo cytherea. Rare.
Luperina testacea. Rather rare.
L, cespitis. Rare.
Mamestra anceps. Not plentiful,
M. albicolon. Scarce.
M. furva, Scarce.
M. brassice. Very common.
Apamea basilinea, Rather scarce.
A. connexa. Rare.

aint ke ee

63

Apamea gemina. More plentiful than A. connexa.
A, fibrosa, ~ Rare.
A. oculea. Rare.
Miana strigilis. Not common.
M. fasciuncula. Rather scarce.
M. literosa, Rather rare.

* M. furuncula. Plentiful.
M. expolita. Rather rare.
M, arcuosa. Rare.
Grammesia trilinea. Not uncommon,
Acosmetia caliginosa. Rare.
Carandrina cubicularis. Common.
Rusina tenebrosa. Scarce.
Agrotis valligera. Plentiful.
A, suffusa. Rare.

saucia. Rare,

. segetum. Abundant.

. exclamationis. Scarce.

. corticea. Scarce.

ripe. Rare.

cursoria. Rare.

negricans. Rather common.

tritici. Scarce.

aquilina. Scarce.

obelisca. Rare.

agathina, Rare.

. porphyrea. Rare.

precox, Rare.

A. ravida. Rare.

A. pyrophila. Rare.

Triphena janthina. Frequent.

T. fimbria. Common.

T. interjecta. Scarce.

1. orbona. Common.

T. pronuba, Common,

Noctua glareosa. Scarce.

NN. depuncta. Scarce.

N. augur. Scarce.

NV. plecta. Common.

N. c-nigrum. Rare.

NN. ditrapezium. Rare.

NV. triangulum. Rare.

BRD RR ERD REDE

64

Noctua rhomboidea, Rather more plentiful than NV. triangulum.
N. brunnea. Not uncommon.
N. festiva. Rather rare.

N. conflua. Rather rare.

N. dahlit. Rather scarce.

N. rubi. Scarce.

N. umbrosa. Frequent.

N. baja. Not uncommon.

N. neglecta. Frequent.

N. xanthographa. Frequent.
Trachea piniperda. Rather rare.
Teeniocampa gothica. Common.
7. leucographa. Common.

7. rubricosa. Common.

7. instabilis. Plentiful.

T. opima. Rare.

T. populeti. Plentiful.

7. stabilis, Plentiful.

T. gracilis. Not common.

T. miniosa, Plentiful.

T. munda, Plentiful.

T. cruda. Plentiful.

Orthosia inspecta. Plentiful.
O. ypsilon. Scarce.

O. lota. Not uncommon.

O. macilenta. Frequent.
Anchocellis rufina. Scarce.

A. pistacina, Frequent.

A. lunosa. Rather rare.

A. littura. Rather rare.
Cerastis vaccinit. Plentiful.

C. spadicea, Uncommon.
Scopelosoma satellitia. Plentiful.
Hoporina croceago. Rare.
Xanthia citrago. Rare.

X. cerago, Plentiful.

X. silago. Rather rare.

X. aurago. Rather rare.

X. ferruginea. Not frequent.
Cirredia xerampelina. Uncommon.
Cosmia trapezina. Plentiful.
C. afinis. Rare.

xy

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65

Dianthecia carpophaga. Scarce.
D. capsophila, Scarce.

D. capsincola. Scarce.

D. cucubali. Scarce.

D. conspersa. Rare.

Hecatera dysodea. Scarce.

HT, serena. Scarce.

Polia chi. Very common.

P. flavicincta. Scarce.

Epunda nigra. Rather scarce.
£. viminalis. Uncommon.

E. lichenea. Rather scarce.
Misella oxyacanthe. Common.
Agriopis aprilina, Plentiful.
Phlogophora meticulosa. Plentiful.
Huplexia lucipara. Plentiful.
Aplecta herbida. Rather rare.
A, occulta. Rare.

A, nebulosa, Rather plentiful.
A, tincta. Scarce.

A. advena. Scarce.

Hadena adusta. Plentiful.

Hi protea. Rather plentiful.
H. glauca. Rather scarce.

H, dentina. Rather plentiful.
Hi, chenopodii. Rather scarce.
Hi, suasa. Plentiful.

HH, oleracea. Plentiful.

Ai, pisi. Plentiful.

HA. thalassina. Not uncommon.
Hi, contigua. Scarce.

HH, rectilinea. Rare.
Xylocampa lithuriza, Rather rare.
Calocampa vetusta. Scarce.

C. exoleta. Rather plentiful,
Xylina rhizlitha. Scarce.

X. petrificata. Common,
Cucullia chamomille. Rare.
C. wmbratica. Rather plentiful.
Erastria tuscula. Scarce.
Brephos parthenias. Scarce.
B, notha. Scarce.

66

Abrostola urtice. Rather scarce.
A. triplasia. Scarce.

Plusia chrysitis. Rather scarce.
P. bractea. Rare.

P. festuce. Rather rare.

P. iota. Plentiful.

P. v. awreum. Pilentiful.

P. gamma. Common.

P. interrogationis. Rare.
Gonoptera libatrix. Rather rare.
Amphipyra pyramidea. Rare.
A. tragopogonis, Plentiful.
Mania typica. Not uncommon.
M. maura. Plentiful.
Toxocampa pastinum. Rare.
Stilbia anomala, Rare.

Euclidi mi. Plentiful.

E. glyphica. Rare.

BE. palumbaria, Pilentiful.

E. bipunctaria. Not uncommon.
E. lineolata. Scarce.

Carsia imbutata. Rare.

Anaitis plagiata. Rather rare.
Chesias spartiata. Uncommon.
C. obliquaria, Rare.

Tanagra cherophyllata. Common.

DREPANUL.

Platypteryx lacertula. Rather rare.
P. falcula. Rare.

P. unguicula. Bare.

Cilix spinula. Rare.

PSEUDO-BOMBYCES.

Dicranura furcula, Rare.
D. bifida. Rare.

D. vinula. Common.
Pygera bucephala, Common.
Clostera reclusa. Uncommon.
Phlodontis palpina. Rare.
Nolodonta. Not unfrequent.

Deuhdath #2.

~ 67

NV. dictea. Rather scarce.

NV. dictwiédes. Rather scarce.

N. dromedarius. Scarce.

NV. ziczac. Scarce.

N. trepida, Scarce.

NV. dodonea. Rare.

Diloba ceruleocephala, Common.

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69

THE PROPOSED PERMANENT LAKE DISTRICT
DEFENCE SOCIETY.

(Read before the Wordsworth Society in the College Hall, Westminster,
May, 1883 ; and at the Annual Meeting of the Cumberland
Association at Ambleside. )

My only excuse for reading this paper was that anything that
pertained to the English Lake District had an interest for members
of a Wordsworth Society. My excuse for reading it to-day
must be, that, as a Literary and Scientific Society, we dwellers
in Lakeland are peculiarly responsible for the preservation of
hill and dale for the Literary and Scientific society of all
England. The battle that was lately fought and won against
_ the steam-dragon of Honister—the Braithwaite and Buttermere
Railway—is a thing of the past, but to Wordsworth is owed
all thanks for the winning of it, and here, within a mile of the
poet’s haunts, his beloved Rydal—we may fitly thank him, in the
strength of whose spirit the victory was gained. There will, it is
believed, in the near future, be more invasions and desecrations
of Lakeland to be withstood. The meeting to-day is fair augury
that the same spirit will strengthen our hands to the necessary
resistance.

We have found the double truth of that Sonnet Wordsworth
wrote when he heard of the projected railway line to Windermere,
We know now that

There is no nook of English ground secure
From rash assault,

30

and we also know that the “beautiful romance of Nature”—which
any Lakeland hill or dale (and Borrowdale in particular) may be
said to be—

Given to the passing traveller’s rapturous glance,

can so well “plead for its peace,” that in less than three weeks
from the day when it was heard that the projectors of a mineral
and passenger line from Braithwaite to Buttermere had complied
with standing orders, and that their Bill was awaiting a first reading
in the House, the Standard, Spectator, Daily News, Times, Saturday
Review, Pall Mall Gazette, Punch, The World, The Manchester
Guardian, The Leeds Mercury, The Yorkshire Post, and many
other jmportant provincial papers, were in arms, and, righteously
and effectively indignant, did

With torrents pure and strong,
And constant voice protest against the wrong.

The line from the Sonnet,

Given to the passing traveller's rapturous glance,

was quoted, because, from letters received upon the subject from
many well-known names in English life and literature, one was
so struck by the way in which such a valley as Borrowdale had left
an indelible impression of its beauty upon the minds of those who
but once had visited it. One was prepared for this by reading a
chance passage in Sir Archibald Alison’s Life, when, after describing
his walk up Borrowdale and over Honister Pass to Buttermere,
he speaks of that single walk remaining with him, a vision of
beauty, clear and bright after a period of forty years of toil and
travel. Forgive me if I quote a passage or two from the letters
received to show what I mean.

The Dean of Westminster wrote: ‘“‘I have only once seen
Borrowdale, but that once was quite sufficient to make me willing
to do anything in my power to help you to preserve it.”

‘I know I shall not have to apologise to him if, side by side, I
quote a letter received from a poor working woman in Birmingham,
who, sending a shilling towards ‘““The Borrowdale and Derwentwater

Bt, Sooke

71

Defence Fund,” said with pathos: ‘Will you kindly receive this
mite from a Birmingham working woman, in grateful remembrance
of a holiday in the district, whose never-to-be-forgotten beauties
have been a joy to her through many hours of toil in dirt and
smoke ?”

In this last successful attempt to prevent the spoliation of
Borrowdale in the eyes of the 40,000 visitors who annually pass
up it, and the vulgarising and disquieting of the valley to please
the pockets and whims of nine non-resident quarry speculators, it
is true that for us the railways fought in their courses. Most
fortunate was it for us that Sir Thomas Chambers and other City
magnates wished to take their wives and families in third-class
carriages from Chingford to High Beech, and to try their hand at
improving the Epping Forest scenery by constructing railway
embankments which should have all the appearance of being
“natural undulations of the ground.” Most opportune for us, too,
was it, that the directors of the Underground Railway,

Those [un]comfortable moles, whom, what they do,

Teaches the limit of the just and true,
had obtained blow-holes for their sulphurous breath which would
permanently disfigure the Thames Embankment hard-by. But,
apart from the indignation roused against the too-powerful railway
-monopolies, and the mischief they were likely to do in the interest
of the shareholder, there was evidence that Wordsworth’s spirit of
protest against railway invasion of one of the few retiring-grounds
left to the old age of busy men—one of the few gathering-grounds

for thought and commune with
«

The Motion, and the Spirit that impels

All thinking things, all objects of all thought,

And rolls through all things—
one of the few recreation-grounds open to, and within easy distance
for, the toilers of our northern towns,—there was evidence, I
repeat, that that Wordsworthian spirit of protest was keenly alive,
_ and was making itself heard and felt in our midst, so that at last,
as the Sfectator of April 14th put it, “Even the promoters of the
line, who persisted till they reached the Lords, felt the indignation

72

of every educated man in England.” Not the least interesting
feature in the campaign was the strong sense of the need of
resistance to our English Lake destruction that was felt across the
Border. My friend Professor Knight, the Secretary of the Words-
worth Society, was a sheet-anchor of hope and encouragement to
all of us who were organising resistance. -He urged that resistance
on many potent grounds, but specially urged that the question of
whether this or that Lakeland valley was or was not to be destroyed
rested neither with the inhabitants nor inheritors of the dales—
“for the dales in their beauty were the heritage of every English-
man.” And he also stated strongly that it was his conviction that
since it was only the educated mind that would fully enter into
The joy

Of elevated thoughts, the sense sublime

Of something far more deeply interfused,

Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,

And the round ocean, and the living air,
And the blue sky,

it was not fair to say, This matter of whether a railway shall be
made amongst the Lakes, is simply a question of whether the
large masses of our manufacturing towns, need or care to be
convenienced by the easy passage that a locomotive will give them
to this or that particular place. For though he would welcome
them gladly to Nature’s sanctuary, he felt that the outing, and not
the scenery, was what the masses came for ; and, given the outing,
the masses would be happy at whatever station they were set loose
from the cheap-excursion railway carriages. There is much truth
in this. As regards the first point, certain it is that the inhabitants
of the dales, who have their world of beauty “too much with them
late and soon,” are not the safest guardians of their lovely homes.
One of the said dalesmen said to me, as we talked the matter
over on the bridge at Grange: “Eh, but I’se not sure but what it
ull add sommat new howiver to t’ scenery. It ull be a gay bit of
life will a rail, mind ye, and folk ull set watches by t’ trains ; it ull
happen be a girt improavement to Borridale will t’ railway.”
While, strange to say, the Lake District Association, which

73

has as one motive of its existence the advertising of the
natural charms of Lakeland and its hotels; and, under most
distinguished patronage, begs subscriptions to enable it to carry
on the work, as indicated in its Rule 2, of rendering Lakeland
attractive and popular as a place of resort and residence,—with
one or two exceptions, among which was its President, the
Earl of Bective, this Society from first to last was obstinately in
favour of the proposed Braithwaite and Buttermere line, and
played into the hands of the promoters in a most curious manner.
Heaven save us from such custodians of the Lakes! But to
return to the interest felt and help that came from across the
Border :—

Principal Shairp wrote from St. Andrews :—

“England has not so many holiday-grounds open to all her
people that she can afford to let one of the most beautiful be
wantonly destroyed and desecrated. . . In those solitary places,
thousands, every year, of all sorts and conditions of our country-
men, gather bodily refreshment and mental elevation. This surely
is a national privilege not lightly to be sacrificed.”

From Edinburgh we heard Professor Blackie’s fierce and em-
phatic sentences :—

“‘T cannot imagine any more sacred duty of good citizens, at
the present moment, than to save the natural beauties of the
country from the defacing operations of men who have no sense
for anything in the world but mercantile speculation and the lust
of gain. If God made the world beautiful, it was that its beauty
might be enjoyed, and men have no right for local convenience
and temporary utilities to make it systematically ugly.”

From Professor Campbell Fraser came the wise words :—

“Tt is because I believe that the struggle to bar the entrance of
the Stygian locomotive into Borrowdale is on behalf of interests in
which the whole nation is concerned, that I cordially co-operate.

“The increasing pressure of life in this crowded and busy
island is one of many reasons why the north-west corner of
England should be saved as one of the few classic retreats still

74

open for rest and recreative communion with Nature to those who
have to do the work and thought of the world. The national
education, and our continued social stability, so bound up with
the higher education, make such retreats more than ever necessary
for us. At least the vales of Cumberland and Westmoreland, charged
with the spirit of Wordsworth, must be left undisturbed by sound of
the railway, as Nature's own English University in the age of great
cities.”

From Glasgow came help and enthusiastic encouragement.
With such a friend as the Poet of the Border, Professor Veitch, to
back us, we need never fear for help in time of English Lakeland
invasion or desecration. All that work and word will do will be
done by him. We owe him great thanks. Principal Caird was
warmly with us, as also was Mr. Smart, the Secretary of the Ruskin
Society in Glasgow.

Professor Edward Caird wrote: ‘Parliament might as well
sanction the taking of the canvases from their frames in the
National Gallery to be used for towels, as give powers to the
Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway,” a sentence which for pith
reminds one of a sentence in Mr. Frederick Harrison’s letter,
“that he would rather see a railway through Hyde Park than
through Borrowdale.” Professor Nichol was, in his letters, as
indignant as a great command of language and a powerful way of
putting things enables a man to be. Of the. hundreds of letters
received from men and women who knew Borrowdale well, there
seemed to be in each some individualising difference in the reasons
given for their individual protests.

One gentleman, who offered us £ 1000 if Government would buy
up Honister and preserve it unquarried to futurity, wrote: “The
English people have the good fortune to inherit a small group of
mountains, geologically among the most ancient, artistically among
the most beautiful, on the face of the earth. Hitherto the Railway
Companies, while they have been granted greater facilities for
bringing people who have to spend the greater part of their lives
in less favoured spots, 70 within easy reach of our fairest playground,
have been prevented from marring its beauty, and, what is of more

~ $F Btow.

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Wewebsiters CIF aegnen A

75

importance, from disturbing its serenity. In these days of high-
pressure and competition the value of places where the beauty of
Nature may be enjoyed, apart from the disturbing influences of
railway and factory, is such as cannot be estimated in gold. If
mining companies are to be allowed to fill up our lakes, and
railway companies to destroy the grand sweep of our hillsides,
where are our poets and artists to draw their inspiration in the
future, and where are the masses to cultivate those higher feelings
which make it alone possible to understand the artists and poets ?”

I ask you to remember that last sentence, for Sir F. Leighton,
the President of the Royal Academy, in his letter spoke truly
when he said: ‘A passionate love for the beauties of Nature is
one of the finest and most wholesome features of English character.
The growing tendency to blot out or to foul the springs from
which that love is fed, is, in my view, a grave and forecasting evil.”
He added, “By all means add my name to the names of those
who protest with warmth and dismay against the prospect of
running a railway through Borrowdale.”

The author of John Jnglesant brought into prominent view
another feature of the evil of scarring the sides of our Lake hills
with quarries and rails, and enlisted the sound commercial spirit

-on our side. He showed that the opening of fresh quarries, at a

time when slate was a glut in the market, was part and parcel of
the short-sighted policy by which the projectors of such railways,
and the necessary bubble companies to pay for them, were making
mischief in the English world of trade. He did not, you may be
sure, forget the other reasons in the higher worlds for protest
against this special injury to the land of thought, and the resting-
place of weary hand and brain workers of to-day.

Of course, in this ational defence, as it eventuated, of a
national pleasure-ground, hard things were said of the defenders.
They were accused of an unrighteous wish to keep cheap-trippers
at a distance ; of

Grudging that crowded streets sent out
In Sabbath glee the sons of care and doubt. .

But such calumny was as old as the attack on Wordsworth when

76

he protested for the sake of Lakeland quiet. When Wordsworth
wrote his Sonnet against railways, it would seem, from a letter
Hartley Coleridge penned to a Kendal paper, dated Ambleside,
November 20th, 1844, that he was accused of wishing to keep
the multitudes from visiting the Lakes.

“T do protest,” says Hartley Coleridge, “against the calumny—
calumny, I hope, of ignorance, not of malice—which ascribes to
Wordsworth the unworthy wish to make the Lakes a cabinet
curiosity, like a unique copy of a book to be shown as a special
favour to such of his admirers as come in their own carriage.

“Mr. Wordsworth does not object to the railroad because it
will bring a poorer class to see the Lakes than has hitherto been
able to indulge in that luxury, but for the sake of the inevitable
violation of domestic privacy, for the stones and trees and the
humble homes it must destroy. .. . I believe Mr. Wordsworth
objects, not for himself, but for Nature and mankind.”

This last reason for protest against railway lines in Lakeland is
as forcible to-day as it was in 1844. It is true that the Lake District
is fairly girdled with the iron rail, and easy access is possible from
all sides. It is equally true that each year brings larger crowds of
tourists, who avail themselves of it, into the country. Yet the.
Cumbrian and Westmorland peasant, for all the attempts to spoil
him, for all the tourist prices and presents, is as yet a character
unspoiled. It does credit to his moral sinew that it is so; he is
sorely tempted and tampered with. But these dalesmen are made
of such rare peasant stuff that it is worth preserving. Slow of
song, brief of speech, but sure of word as they are, where else in
any much-betouristed part of England will travellers find such
freedom of foot to come and go over intakes, and through farms,
as is allowed him by the men of Westmorland and Cumberland ?
If ever you do find yourself brought up sharp by word of mouth
or by notice-board, it will be almost certainly by some one who
has bought up the small statesmen, and laid farm to farm, and
who brings his city manners with him.

Where else in England will you find whole valleys in which,

{2

from end to end, to put key into house-door at night-time, or
during absence from home, is an unheard-of thing ?

It was but the other day that Mr. Maurice wrote that he had
had a lasting impression of the honesty of our Lakeland folk made
upon him, when, years ago, he first stepped from the train at
Windermere, he asked where he should deposit his luggage while
he proceeded up Orrest Head to bide the starting of the coach,
and was told “he could just leave it anywhere, in- or out-side the
station. For,” said the station-master, “‘it ’ill be safe; we are none
of your Liverpool nor London folk up here.”

But Wordsworth, as Coleridge tells us in his “apologetic letter,”
had the homes of these dalesmen in his mind when he protested
against the railway’s invasion of them. And no one who has
heard how, three years ago, the little village of Rosthwaite in
Borrowdale was made pandemonium by the navvies engaged to

' construct a little slate tramway high up on the Honister Pass, can

fail to see that a grave consideration is owed to the dwellers and
inheritors of the dales when any scheme is projected that will
bring so alien and unwelcome an element into their midst as a
swarm of navvies.

“Tt ull be a bad day for Borridale if they come hereabout,”
said a Rosthwaite farmer to me when I was collecting evidence
against the Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway, “It ull be bad
for t’ young lasses, an’ bad for t’ holiday folk, an’ bad for t’ chicks,
an’ we shell hev to clap on locks o’ round” !

Now for the conclusion of the whole matter: If the Honister
Pass steam-dragon has been baffled, other objectionable threats of
invasion of Northern England’s recreation- and thinking-grounds
are being made. Other projects are already astir. Our only
chance of keeping Lakeland inviolate is to be on the watch with a
powerful national, one might dare to say international, committee
—for the Americans are as indignant as we are at the attempt on
Borrowdale—and the Scotch Lakes and hills are in equal jeopardy
—with a backing of Members of Parliament to help us at West-
minster, and a considerable sum of money behind us for expenses
if need be. This can, it is thought, best be done by forming a

78

PERMANENT Lake District DEFENCE Society, which, in league
with the Commons Preservation Society, and other associations
with kindred aims, such as the Kyrle and Ruskin Societies are,
shall have a Guarantee Fund of not less than £5000 ready for
use.

The Executive of the Borrowdale and Derwentwater Defence
Committee have issued circulars, of which I append a copy, and
the Guarantee Fund already is in process of formation.

Some time hence, who knows, a wise Government may enable
the Lake District to have a special Act to protect it from railroad
outrage for the people, as has been done in the Yellow-Stone Park,
and partially in the Yosemite Valley of America (though there the
State not only provided an Act, but first bought it up for the
people’s use).

Meanwhile it is suggested, that since the members of the Words-
worth Society, to whom this paper was read in London, show their
zeal in the cause by joining us; it would be a gracious act to the
memory of the great poet if, as a body, you elected to co-operate
with the Lake District Defence Society, even as the Wordsworth
Society has elected to co-operate with us.

Lord Houghton (then Mr. Milnes), in answer to ‘Wordsworth’s
Sonnet (in days, I suppose, when it looked as if steam was never
to be turned of in a siding, or to blow off at a terminus, but was
to dash its hot way through all things), said in sonnet fashion—

The hour may come,—nay, must, in these our days,
When the harsh steam-car, with the cataract’s shout
Shall mingle its swift roll, and motley rout

Of multitudes these mountain echoes raise,

And thou, the Patriarch of these pleasant ways,
Canst hardly grudge that crowded streets send out

In Sabbath glee the sons of care and doubt
To read these scenes by light of thine own lays.

We answer, that neither the Patriarch, nor we his humble and-

very grateful disciples, grudge the fair free use of Lakeland to all
sons of toil and doubt who will come, Wordsworth in hand, “to
see, and honour, and believe.” The more the better for England’s
future of thought and high feeling.

‘
£
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+ oy ag

79

Lord Houghton continues :—

Disordered laughter, and encounter rude,

The poet’s finer sense perchance may pain,

Yet many a glade and nook of solitude

For quiet walk and thought will still remain

Where he the poor intruders may elude,

Nor lose one golden dream from all their homely gain.

It is a grotesque picture—Wordsworth dodging, to get away from
the tourist swarms in Ambleside, up the Stock Ghyll ravine, then
losing half of his “golden dream” by finding he has to elude more
“poor intruders” at the top of the Force ; or, turning home by
some old familiar way, to find he must double back to get to Rydal
without “ encounter rude,” and its accompaniment of “ disordered
laughter,” all the poet’s “golden dream” now lost, and himself in a
bad temper into the bargain. We maintain, as is maintained by
Dr. Cradock—than whom no one living more thoroughly knows
the poet’s haunts—that once let “the harsh steam-car, with the
cataract’s shout” mingle its “swift roll” in any single valley, a
precedent will be established “for even worse outrages,” and no

_ vale will be safe. We shall have, as Professor Ruskin prophesied

the other day, “a railway for Cook’s excursion trains up Scaw
Fell, another up Helvellyn, and a third up Skiddaw, with a circular

_line to connect all three branches.”

No glade, no nook of solitude
For quiet walk and thought will then remain,

and England will be immeasurably the poorer. Professor E.
Dowden of Dublin, in a letter of protest against the steam-dragon
of Honister, wrote :—‘‘As one century generally discovers the
sins of its predecessors, and is hard on them, I have some hopes
that the twentieth century, so close at hand, may grow indignant
with the nineteenth for its destruction of so much that forms part
of the true wealth of life, and resolve to act more wisely.” Let
us, as a Literary and Scientific Society in Cumberland and
Westmorland, determine, so far as pertains to Westmorland and
Cumberland, to help the nineteenth century to a timely repent-
ance. England is beginning to become a nation that believes

80

in education. There is hope that as the next generation will be
much more busy to keep the pleasure-grounds of Lakeland
undestroyed, so it will be more capable of appreciating their
peace and beauty undisturbed.

H. D. RAWNSLEY.

CROSTHWAITE VICARAGE, KESWICK, Afri, 1883.

P.S.—Since reading the above at the London and Ambleside
Meetings, a letter has reached me from America, which is worth
quoting. Mr. C. J. Hubbard, of Portsmouth, New Hampshire,
writes:—“If voices from this side of the Atlantic could prevent the
Vandalism of the proposed railway along the shores of Derwentwater
—as dear to the hearts of many Americans as it is to English tourists
—I am sure the Company would be forced to abandon the project.
I have a vivid recollection of the beauties of your Lake Country,
and I sincerely hope that nothing will be done to mar the lovely
scenery. The railroad magnates here (as with you) have no mercy
upon our landscape, and everything is sacrificed to increased da7-
dends.” That last sentence is bad hearing, but even in America
there is a determined stand now being made to keep the locomotive
from some of the finest scenery. Many attempts have been made
to obtain sanction for lines through the Adirondac Valley without
success ; and only the other day some Americans, speaking of the
projected railway up Ennerdale, and the L. N.-W. R. branch from
Yanwath, up the beautiful Eamont Vale to Pooley Bridge, at the
foot of Ullswater, said that in America the projectors of such lines
would have no chance of obtaining sanction for them from the
Legislature. Professor C. E. Norton, of Cambridge, Mass., has
written warmly, and will do all in his power to set on foot a
a Committee in America to co-operate with us. The educated
Americans feel more keenly than we do, by a sadder experience,
how scenery can be spoiled. Their tracts of scenery, too, are so
vast as to make combination against the spoilers almost impossible.
They are the more determined to keep English Lakeland from the

‘
Pad <0.

ach Son

81

hand of the destroyer. The Rev. Charles M. Addison, St. John’s
Rectory, Arlington, Mass., also writes warmly, and thinks we shall
through Professor Palmer of Harvard, a member of our Committee,
be enabled to enlist much international help in that University.
Whilst this was passing through the press, another attempt
upon the seclusion of our English lakes and valleys has been
frustrated, in the failure of the promoters of the Ennerdale Railway
Bill to make out a case before a Select Committee of the House.
Members of the Lake District Defence Society were able to give
useful support and evidence against the scheme before the Parlia-
mentary Committee. H. D.,.R.

DERWENTWATER AND BORROWDALE DEFENCE FUND.

We, the undersigned Members of the Executive Committee,
beg herewith to tender you our most sincere thanks for your
co-operation and assistance in the successful opposition to the
Braithwaite and Buttermere Railway Scheme.

Although the Bill has been withdrawn, we have good reason
for believing that other projects of an aggressive nature are in
contemplation. It is therefore proposed to form a Permanent
Society for the Defence of the Lake District, of which Society
we earnestly hope you will become a Member.

We have determined to raise a Guarantee Fund of at least
£5000,

The existence of this fund will in itself check the promotion
of objectionable railway schemes in the future.

We suggest that the amount of each guarantee should be not
less than £1, and your liability will only extend to objects of
which you may approve.

A copy of our balance-sheet will be forwarded to you in due

course.
W. H. HILLS, The Knoll, Ambleside.
HERBERT MOSER, Vicarage Terrace, Kendal.
GORDON SOMERVELL, Hazelthwaite, Windermere,
Hon. Treasurer,
H. D. RAWNSLEY, Crosthwaite Vicarage, Keswick,

ALBERT FLEMING, Neaum Crag, Skelwith, Ambleside,
and Broxbourne, Herts,
Hon, Secretaries.

6

:
7 ‘
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.
.
. 4 * 7
*

83

THE LANGUAGE OF LAKELAND IN ITS TESTIMONY
TO THE NORSEMAN AND THE CELT.

By Rev. T. ELLWOOD, B.A., TorRvER REcTORY, CONISTON,
AMBLESIDE,

(Read at the Ambleside Annual Meeting. )

In the outset of my paper, I may venture to express two principles
which have in some measure guided me in its composition.
1st—That the proper names of the district have a right to be
claimed to have a place as the exponents of its language—as being
the remnants of the language of its earlier inhabitants; and,
2ndly,—That the Folk-Speech of these our mountain valleys differs
from English, usually so called, in that it has preserved the most
archaic forms of words, and in that we retain in the dialect of our
dalesmen original forms of speech which the polish of refined
society has elsewhere improved off the face of the earth.

The records of the Norsemen as we find them in our English
Histories are little more than one continued series of piratical
descents upon our coasts; of plunderings, burnings, and devast-
ation. Commencing in the early part of the gth Century, or even
earlier, their attacks are continued to the time of the Conquest ;
and their sea-kings, when they did for a time settle down upon
the coast or go further inland, still seem to have maintained their
old spirit of piracy and plunder—roaming about without any:
settled habitation—taking where and what they could. A verse

84

from your own Rydal poet, Wordsworth, may serve to show their
character :— :
For why? because the good old rule
Sufficeth them, the simple plan,
That they should take who have the power,
And they should keep who can.
And yet, when we examine the records given by language, their
words and ways must have had a great effect in the North and in
Lakeland at least, upon the formation of home language, and upon
that with which home language is most intimately connected—the
manners and customs of social life.

I have thought it well in dealing with this subject, to commence
with the proper names of the streams and mountains, and such
other natural features of Lakeland as may seem to bear any testi-
mony to the language of the Norsemen—for whenever a race of
men have inhabited a country, though they may for centuries have
passed away and been forgotten, yet the chances are very great
that they have left some trace of their language in what may at
length have become the proper names of the country. And just
as our hills and valleys are made up of various strata, and contain
beneath them fossils, which, when rightly read, indicate their
inhabitants in the long bygone ages—just so do the names of the
same hills and valleys contain a stratification of the language of
the various races who one after another had their homes amongst
them ; and when they as distinctive races, were gradually merged
in or supplanted by other races, left their most lasting records,
not in the tumuli or cairns which they reared over their ashes, but
in the names which they assigned to the everlasting hills.

The language of the Norsemen has often occurred to me in the
names of the hills and streams when I have been crossing Redbank
from Grasmere, or wandering about at Langdale Head. In the
Norse s¢aker, a tall, columnar rock, we have there The Stake, and
The Pike of Stickle. In Kringle Crags, which seem to form the
segments of a circle, we have the Norse &ringla, a circle. Gills
and becks are both Norse; and I need not tell you in what
abundance those names cluster about the head of Langdale,

85

together with the dales of Tilberthwaite, Yewdale, and other
valleys which diverge from it ; only, I may remark that, as the term
Gill has exactly the same meaning in Norway as in Lakeland—-
and I know of no more perfect example of what is meant by the
term than we find in the case of Tilberthwaite Gill, where the
waters collected upon the uplands of Weatherlam, are poured first
of all down a precipice, and then force themselves through a steep
narrow and rocky gorge, in places affording the most scanty foot-
hold for the traveller to thread his way beside the foaming stream.

A, in the Norse, means water, and we seem to retain it in
Brathay, Rothay, Greta, Liza, and Eamont.

You have Fairfield, near Ambleside, and we have the same
name to describe a level portion of the Coniston Old Man, which
is spoken of as the Fairfield. It is elsewhere used to designate
a tableland upon the mountains in the Lake Country, so that it
seems to be almost as much of a common as a proper name,
far is the Norse for sheep, as in the Faroe, Le., literally the sheep
islands ; and Fairfield appears to have been originally the Sheep-
fell, just as the upland pastures among the Yorkshire hills are
called the far pastures, or sheep pastures.

There is a number of Norse words in the Lake Country which
seem to partake partly of the character of proper names, and partly
_ of that of common names.

There is the word Gards, for example, which in the Norse is
used as signifying a field or enclosure, and has also that meaning
in the Bible of Ulphilas.* And in entering the vale of Yewdale
from Coniston, a well-wooded eminence across the stream to the
right, forms one of the loveliest features in that lovely landscape,
and that enclosure is called the Gards. The Gards is also applied
in the same way to several places in Cumberland, including a farm
of the name near Ireby ; and that large field which is encircled by
the village in the Abbey Town. And in all those instances they
are spoken of as the Gards, indicating that the name had been

* John x. 1., Gards lambe is put for sheep fold. He that entereth not by

the door into the sheep fold, but climbeth up some other way, the same is a
thief and a robber. :

86

well known and understood in its general application, just as at
present we speak of the meadows, the commons, or the fells.

Another form of this word, with the same meaning of enclosure,
is found in Garth, as Hall Garth, Garth Nook, Apple Garth, Dale
Garth. The word Garth, however, has a closer and more general
connexion with our dialect, and I well remember that in the
language of our elders the word Garden was almost unknown—it
was Garth. And in some parts of Cumberland the Stackyard is
the Stackgarth, and the Churchyard is the Kurkgarth in the present
day.

The word Z/zaite, a clearing in a forest, also meaning field or
enclosure, is a Norse name, which, partly as a suffix and partly as
a common noun, is found in very general use in Lakeland. There
are a number of fields called the Thwaites on the margin of
Coniston lake, at the upper end of it, between the Water Head
and Coniston Hall. Here we haveit asa common noun. There
is a residence called The Thwaite, not far from them. A family
called Thwaite has for generations been resident in Coniston.
Taking the name, however, as a suffix, we have it everywhere in
the Lake Country—Tilberthwaite, Applethwaite, Legberthwaite,
Rosethwaite, Stonethwaite, Leathwaite, Finsthwaite. In the dis-
trict it might, in proper names, -upon a very moderate calculation
be pointed out forty or fifty times.

Again, there is the word Hause, which we have very often
applied to the mountain passes of Lakeland; and, according to
Cleasby, thé word Hause (German ads, the neck,) is in the very
same sense applied to the mountain passes which connect the
valleys of Iceland. Hence also in Lakeland we have Seatoller
Hause, Tarn Hause, Gaits Hause, Hause Water, and The Hause
—all descriptive of or closely connected with some mountain
pass.

Tarn, too, is Danish, and seems to come from the same root as
our word zear—to describe the tears or tricklings from the rocks.

Holme is Norse, and we have it also used both as a suffix and
as acommon noun. There are several 4o/ms upon Windermere,
and many scattered about in various parts of this district ; while

a ee ee

a

87

that great tract of level and fertile land which, commencing near
the confluence of the Wampool and the Waver, extends for many
miles along the coast of the Solway, called the Holme or the
Abbey Holme—marks, I think, the point where many of the
Norsemen must have landed and settled upon the shores of the
Solway ; for I know of no other district which in an equal area
includes so many names that are purely and distinctively Norse.
Ness, Beck,* and Force (Fos) are all Norse, and are of such frequent
occurrence that it is needless to point out the names and places in
which they are found.

Speaking of the Solway, I am reminded of a term which the
Norse‘settlers must have first introduced. Haa/f is the old Norse
word for the sea; and the fishermen of the Solway speak of their
sea nets as"the Aaaf-nets, and describe sea fishing as haajing; and
in their old charters the word is spelled A4aa/—exactly as it is
spelled in the Norse. Haverigg, Millom, the most south-western
point of Cumberland—washed on one side by the Duddon, on
the other by the sea—is evidently Haa/-ridge, or sea-ridge.

There are really three divisions of language which may be said
to represent the Old Norse, or Scandinavian, viz.—Icelandic,
Danish, and Norwegian. I have, however, the authority of one of
our most eminent scholars—a Cumbrian by extraction—and very

intimately acquainted with the Norse, both by residence in

Denmark and by the fact that he had a share in bringing out a
standard work in Icelandic, “Cleasby’s Icelandie Dictionary”’—
I have his authority for saying that with the exception of nautical
terms and other words of that class, these three divisions are in a
great measure identical, and any one of them may be used for root
words in contrasting our own dialect with the Norse.

So far I have confined myself to proper names or to words
which may be regarded as on the borderland between proper
names and common names; but now I should like to draw your
attention to the Language of Lakeland properly so called. To

-* The proper name Beckermet is evidently from the Norse Bekfya, gen. plu.

-of Bekkr=beck, and m6f=meeting, i.e., the meeting of the waters. The

village of Beckermet stands at the confluence of two streams.

88

speak of the similarity of the two generally, the gentleman to whom
I have already referred wrote to me when he was staying at Elsinore
in Denmark, saying that the dialect used there was so like to the
dialect used in the Lake country, that a countryman from here
and a countryman from that neighbourhood would, if speaking
their respective dialects, be almost able mutually to understand
one another. I put this in some measure to the test, for I pro-
cured a Danish Bible, and I found—thanks in a great measure to
my acquaintance with the Cumbrian dialect—that there were
whole verses and even whole chapters that I could read without
much help from the dictionary.

I have mentioned Cleasby’s Icelandic Dictionary, which,
according to what I can gather from those who know the subject
well, is most exhaustive, not in Icelandic alone, but also in its
quotations from the classic literature of Scandinavia, and its
comparison of Icelandic with the cognate languages. It is the pro-
duction of a Westmorland gentleman from Stainmore, who spent a
great part of his life and fortune in elucidating the subject he had
taken in hand, and who I think may reasonably be presumed to
have owed some of the great ardour which animated him, as well
as his great success in the work, to the fact that the dialect he
had at first known was in some measure cognate with the language
he thus took up.

The Norse words we have most unmistakeably in our dialect
are what may be called home words. For example, in the old
fashioned houses which many of you may remember to have seen,
there was a beam which extended across the house and across the
old fashioned open chimney ; it served for suspending the long
crook from, and was also used for hanging bacon or meat from in
the open space above the fire; this was always known as the
rannal boak. Now rann in the Icelandic means house, da/k is a
beam, hence in the rannal boak we have the house beam. The
word ransack is from the same root, and means in Icelandic to
search a house, reminding us of the house-searching or plundering
propensities of the Norsemen.

Few who know anything about the hearth fires formerly used in

89

the Lake country are unacquainted with the drandrith. It was an
iron tripod held together by rims of iron, and employed in sup-
porting the gzrd/e-plate used above the hearth fire in baking oat-bread,
and was at one time in very general use. The name dbrandrith is
entirely and without change a Scandinavian name (see Cleasby,
brand reid), and, although the name and the thing named are
gradually passing away before modern improvements, yet there is
hardly a valley in Lakeland in which they may not yet be found,
and are not yet occasionally used.

In Lakeland our most general name for fuel is /re-e/din ; the
Old Norse for fuel is e/ding, which again comes from the Norse
éldr, fire. Zowe is a flame, and corresponds with the Danish /ve ;
both point to a connexion with the Meso-Gothic /iwham, to
enlighten. In the Danish Bible we have e/dr—fire, and /uwe—a
flame, compounded together in one word in Exodus iii., where the
flame of fire is called c/ds/we. For tongs we have ¢angs in one part
of the Lake district, and zemgs in another; there is evidently a
relationship in the Norse, for Zangs is the Swedish, ¢ang, Danish;
tang meaning tied together.

The Danish word 70/#, signifying an enclosure, or what is en-
closed by farm buildings, including the farm-house, is found as a
proper name in some parts of England, as Lowestoft. In Cumber-
land, however, and portions of Lakeland, it is still retained as a
common noun. I was born and brought up in what was then an
isolated district in Cumberland, and until I was eleven or twelve
years of age, I hardly knew any other name for farm buildings than
zoft. Almost the first question that a Cumberland farmer asks
_ about a farm is, what sort of a foft there is upon it; and he
_ generally speaks about getting his /o/f done up, when he is about
" to have his buildings put in repair. The Rev. I. Taylor, in his
_ well known Text-Book of Names and Places, says that this Danish
_ word /off is found elsewhere in the proper names of England, but
that in Lakeland it is almost, if not altogether, unknown ; and
hence he concludes that the race that inhabited those regions of
Lakeland were the Norwegians, and not the Danes; and he
assumes this apparently because in looking over the map he does

90

not find off compounded in proper names. I would suggest that
it is just because it is in such common use that we do not find it
in proper names.

There is an implement used by farmers in Cumberland and the
Lake Country called a fotring iron, for severing the awns from the
barley. The bottom part is in the form of a square, and is made
of parallel plates of sheet iron. It is used between the feet, hence
the process is called /otring, and they who use it are said to fotr
—evidently a most direct derivation from the Icelandic Norse
fotr—a foot ; plural, foetr.

It may be objected that the sound of this word, and of some
other words I have quoted, was likely to be more changed by the
wear.and tear of oral transmission from the times of the Norsemen.
As a proof, however, that old Northern words have in some cases
retained their sound and significance in English, I may instance
the following examples from the Moeso-Gothic Bible of Ulphilas,
translated in the 4th Century :-—

Tk im thata daur—tfor I am that door.
Nauh leitla hweila—for now a little while.
Hardu ist thata waurd—tfor hard is that word.

A stag (from Old Norse stiga, to mount) is in the Lake District
a colt which is being first mounted or broken in.

Lathe, is a barn, from Old Norse A/atha, Danish /ade, a barn.

The dairy furnishes us with ur, from Norse rua, a churn ;
and sie, from Norse sal, a sieve.

Reckling, the feeblest member of a litter of pigs or a brood of
chickens, is evidently from Norse recklingr, an outcast.

Cowp, to exchange, is well known in this district, and Anderson
and other Cumberland poets speak of horse-cowpers. Kaupa in

Old Norse is to barter, or exchange. Copen are merchants in
Danish, and we have Copenhagen, or the merchants’ haven,

All who know anything about the stone fengs of the Lake
country know what the cam or top ridge is. In O.N. kambr is a
ridge or fence on the moots formed by digging two ditches and
throwing up a ridge or fence between them.* We have also Catcam,

*A dyke so formed is yet called a Cam (Km) in North-West Yorkshire. [Zd.]

—— 3

ee ee os

Lhd * gabe esceuncgey

91

on Helvellyn, a cam so steep that it would, I presume, serve to
turn a cat.

Reek, well known in the dialect as meaning smoke, is Norse.
We have Reikjavick, or smoke town, the capital of Iceland,
reminding us of ‘‘Auld Reekie,” or Edinburgh, of Burns.

Stigi, or stee,in Norse is a steep ascent, hence we have in
Cumberland s¢ee, a ladder, and also the steep ascent of the Sty
Head Pass.

Adde, in our dialect, means to earn, as in the familiar example
of addling brass, and evidently comes from Norse oda/, property.

Bain, near, is from Icelandic deinn, straight ; ? dainest way, in
Cumberland, exactly represents dents vegr in Icelandic.

Cap in Cumberland means to beat, connected apparently with
N. Zapp, a contest; and Anderson, when describing {the natural
beauties of Cumberland, uses this word very effectively when he
says :—

Yer buik-larn’d wise gentry, that’s seen monie countries,
May preach and palavar and brag as they will

O’ mountains, lakes, valleys, woods, watters, and meadows,
Bit canny aul’ Cummerlan’ cags them aw still.

Zee, a scythe, is the same word with the same meaning in
Danish.

_ Seyme, the straw rope which is used by farmers in making secure
the coverings of their stacks, is the Icelandic secmr, a string or
rope.

Reinns, amongst the Cumberland farmers, are strips of land

which have been left unploughed, and used sometimes to sever
fields, and comes evidently from Icelandic reim, a strip of land.
In Icelandic ragna rein is the heavenly strip, or rainbow.

Hummer, in Lakeland, is the same word as Avammr in Iceland,

and both are applied to a grassy slope or vale.

Many more instances might be given; but this paper has been
undertaken rather to commence than to exhaust the subject, and

to try to show that the dialect, as well ds the proper names of the
district, bear abundant testimony to the history and to the ancestors
_ of our race.

92

It is not difficult to show that the Celtic must have had an
influence in forming the proper names of this district. Cumberland
seems to be Cymriland, Cymri being the name that the Welsh
apply to themselves ; and the section of the Celts who inhabited
the kingdom of Strathclyde, which included Cumberland and
Westmorland, undoubtedly belonged to the Welsh or Cmyric
stock.

We have Welsh cwm, the deep crater in a hill, or the opening
between two hills, in the name Black Comb, a portion of which
also bears the Welsh name em, a head or hill. em, a hill, is also
applied to an immense mass of rock in Seathwaite. In Tor-pen-
how-hill we have four syllables, each of which in its own derivation
means hill. We have fen in Penrith, red hill, and Penruddock.
Welsh Zyn is I think included in Helvellyn. Cader, a seat in
Blencathra, as Cader Idris in Wales, is Arthur’s Seat. It seems
that Saddleback, the more modern name of the mountain, has
retained the same idea of a seat.

Den is Celtic in Mickleden, at the head of Great Langdale ; and
Langdale itself is at times called Langden by the old inhabitants.

Skiddaw, the most striking objects of which from some points of
view are its two peaks, contains the Celtic dau, Latin duo, two.
There is a mound or cairn of stones upon Skiddaw called Skiddaw

Man. We have the same in the man or cairn what give its name _

to the Old Man of Coniston—a/t maen, steep or high cairn.
Strath, in Langstrath in Borrowdale, is Celtic; so is Dhu, in
Dhucrags, near Coniston. Dhw, is black, and certainly, so far as
I know, there is not a blacker mass of rock in the whole compass
of Lakeland.

Moe is Celtic for round conical hills or cairns; we have it in
Mealsgate, Eskmeals, and Millom, or Meol holm, which is bounded
by one continuous fringe of sandhills on the side next the sea
shore. .

Dunmail is said to have been a mighty warrior who lost his life
in a great battle on Dunmail Raise—the pass that bears his name
at the head of Grasmere. I have no wish to disturb his repose.
Requiescat in pace. ‘‘ Nothing he'll reck if they let him sleep on.”

&

93

But yet it has often occurred to me when I have crossed that pass,
in my wanderings to and from Cumberland, how likely it was that
in this same Dunmail Raise, that Duz was a hill fort, which is its
meaning in Celtic, and that maz were the meols or mounds or
cairns which are scattered about at the head of the pass. aise is
Norse for stone heap or mound, and is very commonly found in
the Lake district.

Thus far I have, I think, adduced evidence to show that a
Celtic element exists in the proper names of Lakeland. I cannot,
however, follow it up as I tried to do in the Norse by showing
that we still have many unmistakeable Celtic words as a part of
our spoken dialect—for certainly what few Celtic words we have
are not peculiar to the dialect of the Lake country, and are there-
fore no evidence that a Celtic dialect and occupation continued
here after it had disappeared from the districts around.

And yet a singular testimony to the Celt has in this neighbour-
hood been opened out, and partially investigated during the past
fifteen or sixteen years. I allude to what have been termed the
Celtic or Cymric Numerals. It really is in somewhat varied forms
but the same in all its essential and distinctive features the Celtic
or Cymric score, which is ascertained to have been formerly well
known and extensively used in all parts of Lakeland for sheep-
scoring and other purposes. Mr. Ellis,* who was then President
of the Philological Society, took up the matter; and it is chiefly
Owing to his careful and exhautive treatment of it, that such
important results have been obtained. I very readily admit,
therefore, that he was the pioneer in the subject, but the investi-

gation of the Numerals, so far as Lakeland is concerned, has

been in a great measure left in my hands. I need not read you

lists of those numerals, as you will find in the extract I have given

from the Transactions of the Philological Society of England, four

: lists which I obtained from the Lake District.

* Mr, Ellis sums up his remarks about them as follows :—**The Score is a

_ real system of counting, which was possibly widely known two or three hundred

years ago, but which was rare even fifty years ago, though it is not yet quite
forgotten,”

94

Though found in isolated instances in many parts of England,
the most complete and extensive known sets of them have been
obtained from Lakeland. There is an absolute certainty that one
set given herein (No. 5), and obtained by Mr. Browne of Tallentire
Hall from Borrowdale, was in use very long before A. D. 1818, for Mr.
Browne says :—‘“‘It is just sixty years (i.e. now sixty-six years)
since this list of numerals was obtained from the shepherds of
Borrowdale as being then used by them. Considering the retired
character of the vale at that time, and the slowness of the people
to take up anything new, and their small intercourse with others
from whom they could learn them, I think it is an absolute
certainty that they must have been in use very long before
A.D. 1818.”

Another Cumberland and Westmorland set (No. 6) could be
traced back for one hundred and thirty years, while the set
(No. 3) I obtained at Coniston had been known and used there
from time immemorial, and is firmly believed by those who are
best acquainted with the dialect of the inhabitants, to have been
part of the language of the first inhabitants of the place. They
are doubtless the Welsh or Cymric numerals. My own impression
is that they are too well known, and have been too deeply rooted
in the language of the Lake country, to be the result of mere
isolated importations. Have they then come down from the
Welsh or Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde, which at one time
occupied these regions, and the language of which must have
gradually receded before the more vigourous growth of the Anglo
Saxon, just as the Welsh language is at present in Wales itself
gradually receding before it; but which nevertheless in those parts
of Cumbria maintained its ground as a language to the time of
Bede—to the time of the Norman Conquest ; according to Skene,
in his recent work on Celtic Scotland, to the time of Stephen, and
even according to some of our best local authorities, until after the
time of the Reformation, and which, as the Celtic of Cornwall,
has died out almost within living memory—also doubtless came to a
gradual and almost imperceptible end. Do we then in those

Celtic numerals possess a solitary relic of our Celtic forerunners?

aS ee ae

el a

95

and could we, if we were able properly to trace them backward,
find them merged in a Celtic dialect which again traced backward,
would still widen out until it was conterminous with the length
and breadth of the land, and had come down from a time when
the Norse, the Anglo Saxon, and the Latin, with the various races
they represented, were in Britain equally unrepresented and
unknown?

Bearing in mind how that in remote places like Torver and
Borrowdale they have been handed down from generation to
generation, I am almost assured that they can be no mere import-
ation ; and I do not well see what else they can be, except a relic
of some dialect that has left no note or record of when it passed
away.

I am confirmed in this view by a work which appeared last year,
written by Mr. Lucas, F.G.S., who was employed in the Geological
Survey of Yorkshire, and to whom, in connexion with this subject,
I was introduced by a gentleman who was at one time his fellow-
labourer, the Rev. J. Clifton Ward, formerly vicar of Rydal.

Mr. Lucas has embodied a portion of the results of his labours
in an exhaustive work upon Nidderdale, where he found numerals
almost exactly like those we have in Lakeland, and used by the
farmers there very much in the same way as they were used here.
In that work he has reprinted for the purposes of comparison,
almost the whole of two papers which I read upon the subject

before the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian Society ;
x and he says that he has no doubt whatever that these Nidderdale
numerals are the remnant of a Celtic dialect, for those that spoke
such a dialect in that county are hardly yet cold in their graves.

____ Ifsuch a dialect existed there, it forms, I think, a strong argu-
ment that such a dialect existed here also, for there is a very
_ temarkable coincidence between the proper names and the dialect
__ Of that portion of the Pennine chain of mountains, and the proper
_ names and dialect which we find here in Lakeland amongst the
_ Cumbrian group.

The resemblance of the names of numbers is amongst the
most cogent proofs of the affinity of language, and the first Table

96

I have here given will show the great similarity between the
Sanscrit and the Celtic group of numerals; and the second will
show the remarkable agreement between the Celtic and the
numerals of Lakeland.

These numerals undoubtedly belong to the Welsh or Cymric
division of the Celtic, as distinguished from the Gaelic, the Cornish,
and the Breton; and it will be observed that the semdec, i.e.
pimp dec, or 5 + to of the Old Welsh, is very like the bum/it of
our own valleys. The Welsh differs from the other Celtic systems
by using w#-ar-dec, etc., for 11, etc., and ua-ar-pemdec, etc., for
16, etc. This connecting particle av, according to Pugh’s Welsh
Grammar, means 77 excess of; so un-ar-dec (11) really means one
in excess of ten, and u#-ar-femdec, means one in excess of 5 + 10:
this will afford us a key for the very easy interpretation of the
numerals of Lakeland, in which @ is the equivalent of the Welsh
ar, in excess of ; and therefore yav-a-dick means one in excess of
ten ; and as dumiit very nearly corresponds with pemdec, yan-a-bumfit
is equivalent to one in excess of 5 + 10, and so on with the rest.

I have endeavoured in those tables and in those remarks to
place before you a summary of what I have been able to gather
on this subject ; I must refer you to the Transactions of the Philo-
logical Society* for more numerous versions and for more detailed
information.

And in conclusion,*I am glad to have this opportunity to place
on record my own deliberate opinion, strengthened by many
and frequent enquiries upon the subject, that these numerals are
no mere accidental importation, but a genuine relic of the language
of the Celtic kingdom of Strathclyde.

* Transactions of the Philological Society for 1877-8-9, pp. 316 to 372.

97

TABLE OF NUMERALS.

Sanscrit. Trish. Lyrse. Welsh. Breton. Cornish,’
1 Eka An Aon Un Unan Un-onen
2 Dui Di, Da, Do Da Dau Dau Deau
a ir Tri bie Tri Tri Tre
4 C’atur Ceathar Ceathair Pedwar Pevar Peswere
5 Pancan Cuig Cuig Pump Pemp Pemp or Pymp
6 S’as Se Se Chwech Chuech Huik
7 Saptan Seacht Seachd = Saith Seiz Seith
8 Astan Ocht Ochd Wyth Eiz Eath
9 Navan Naoi Naoi Naw Nao Nau
10 Dasan Deich Deich Deg Dek Deg or Dek

This Table is extracted from Pictet del’ Affinite des Langues Celtiques avec
Sanscrit, Paris, 1837.
I, OLD WELSH.

I obtained these, the oldest forms of the Welsh Numerals, from the Latin
Grammatica Celtica of Zeuss.

I Un 6 Chwech II Un-ar-dec 16 Un-ar-pymthec

2 Dau 7 Saith 12 Deu-ar-dec 17 Deu-ar-pymthec

3 Tri 8 Wyth « 13 Tri-ar-dec 18 Tri-ar-pymthec

4 Pedwar 9 Naw 14 Pedwar-ar-dec 19 Pedwar-ar-pymthec
5 Pimp 10 Dec 15 Pemthec 20 Ucent

II. CORNISH.

Professor Rhys extracted the following list of Cornish Numerals for me from
Norris's Cornish Drama, vol. ii., p. 240.

I Un 6 Huik 11 Ednack 16 Huetag

2 Deau 7 Seith 12 Dewtheck 17 Sectag

3 Tre 8 Eath 13 Tardhack 18 Eatag

4 Peswere 9 Nau 14 Peswarthack 19 Nawnzack

5 Pymp 10 Deg 15 Pymtheck 20 Iganz or Ugens

III. CONISTON, HIGH FURNESS.

I first obtained the following set as the recollection of my wife, who had been
taught them when a little girl by her mother. They have been, however, very
generally known and understood in Coniston and Torver, and have been known
there from time immemorial.

~I

98

1 Yan 6 Haata 11 Yan-a-dick 16 Yan-a-mimph

2 Taen 7 Slaata 12 Taen-a-dick 17 Taen-a-mimph

3 Tedderte 8 Lowra 13 Tedder-a-dick 18 Tedder-a-mimph
4 Medderte 9 Dowra 14 Medder-a-dick 19 Medder-a-mimph
5 Pimp 10 Dick 15 Mimph 20 Gigget

IV. ESKDALE, AT THE FOOT OF SCAWFELL.

Communicated to me by Dr. Kendall of Coniston, who obtained it from a
servant who had learned it in Eskdale, whence he came.

1 Yaena 6 Hofa 11 Yaen-a-dec 16 Yaen-a-bumfit
2 Taena 7 Lofa 12 Taen-a-dec 17 Taen-a-bumfit
3 Teddera 8 Seckera 13 Tedder-a-dec 18 Tedder-a-bumfit
4 Meddera 9 Leckera 14 Medder-a-dec 19 Medder-a-bumfit
5 Pimp 10 Dec 15 Bumfit 20 Giggot

V. BORROWDALE, KESWICK.

Obtained by me from W. Browne, Esq., of Tallentire Hall. Mr. Browne
says of them :—‘‘It is just sixty years (now sixty-six years) since I obtained
these numerals from my cousins, the Ponsonbys, at the time that Captain
Ponsonby was residing at Barrow Hall, close to the entrance of Borrowdale.
There is absolute certainty that they must have been in use there long before
A.D. 1818.”

1 Yan 6 Sethera 11 Yan-a-dick. 16 Yan-a-bumfit

2 Tyan 7 Lethera 12 Tyan-a-dick 17 Tyan-a-bumfit
3 Tethera 8 Hovera 13 Tether-a-dick 18 Tether-a-bumfit
4 Methera 9 Dovera 14 Mether-a-dick 19 Mether-a-bumfit
5 Pimp 10 Dick 15 Bumfit 20 Giggot

VI. CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND DALES.

Obtained by me from W. Browne, Esq., of Tallentire Hall, who says :—
“© These numerals were obtained as the result of a number of letters of inquiry
in the Cumberland and Westmorland dales. They are froma female traditioner,
who got them as a girl thirty years since, from a woman fifty years old, who
got them from an old woman eighty years of age, when the woman of fifty was
about fifteen. The aged lady had known of them time out of mind. That
makes 30 + 35 + say 65 = 130 years.”

1 Ein 6 Hatus 11 Ein-a-dic 16 Ein-a-boon
2 Tein 7 Latus 12 Tein-a-dic 17 Tein-a-boon
3 Tethera 8 Sour 13 Tether-a-dic 18 Tether-a-boon
4 Wethera 9 Down 14 Wether-a-dic 19 Wether-a-boon

5 Pimp 10 Dics or Dix 15 Bumfit 20 Jiget

99

CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS A LIST OF
CUMBERLAND MOSSES.

By Tue Rev. R. WOOD, Vicar oF Rostey.
(Read at Carlisle.)

THE number of species included in the second edition of the
London Catalogue of British Mosses is 568, of which two are very
_ doubtful. 287 of these are recorded as having been found in’
Province 12, which includes Lake Lancashire, Cumberland,
Westmoreland, and the Isle of Man.

The following list of Cumberland Mosses contains 183 species,
; and some varieties, nearly all of which have been found between
_ High Pike and Oulton Moss, and by far the larger portion of them
in the parishes of Westward and Caldbeck. There is every
probability therefore that a very much larger number may be
found in Cumberland, especially in the mountainous districts.
Specimens of the Mosses in this list may be seen-in the collection
‘in the Carlisle Museum; and I have no doubt that well-authenticated
_ additions to this list will be thankfully received by the authorities
of the Museum. The time of fruiting and the habitats have been
taken principally from Wilson’s “ Bryologia Britannica.”

ACROCARPI.

1. SPHAGNACES,

‘ 1 Sphagnum acutifolium. Ehrh, Slender Bog Moss. In bogs and marshes:

; Caldbeck Common, &c. Fr. June and July.

d. var. rubellum. Wils. Red Dwarf Bog Moss. In peat mosses :
High Park; Lamplugh (J. Bowman). Fr. June and July

100

4 S. squarrosum. Pers. Spreading-leaved Bog Moss. In hogs: Oulton
Moss. Fr. June and July.

7 S. intermedium. Hoffm. In bogs and marshes: Oulton Moss.

8 S. cuspidatum. Ehrh. Wavy-leaved Bog Moss. In bogs and marshes:
Caldbeck Common, &e. Fr. June and July.

10 b. S. rigidum var. compactum.

11 8. subsecundum. Nees. Black-Stemmed Bog Moss. In wet bogs:
Moorhouse Bog ; Rosley, &e. Fr. July. ;

13 8. tenellum. Ehrh. In bogs: Oulton Moss.

15 S. papilloswm. Lind. Bogs: Oulton Moss.

b. var. confertwm. Oulton Moss.

16 S. cymbifolium. Ehrh. Blunt-Leaved Bog Moss. Bogs, &c.: Moorhouse
Bog ; Caldbeck Common, &e. Fr. June and July.

16 b. var. congestum. Schpr. Bogs, &c.: Moorhouse, &c.

2. ANDREMACEA,

17 Andreea petrophila. Ehrh. Subalpine rocks: Caldbeck Fells, &e.
Fr. May and June.
b. var. acuminata. Schpr. Lodore (C. Wild).
c. var. gracilis, Schpr. Borrowdale (Hunt).
20 A. rothiii/ W.&M. Black Faleate Andrea. Subalpinerocks. Lam-
plugh (J. B.); Buttermere, &c. Fr. May and June.
22 A. falcata. Schpr. Subalpine and alpine rocks: Airey ravine. Fr.
May and June.

3. WEISSIACEA.

29 Gymnostomum tenue. Schrad. Slender Beardless Moss, Sandstone
rocks, walls, &c.: Shawk Quarries. Fr. July and August.

36 Anectangium compactum. Schl. Compact Beardless Moss. In crevices
of wet alpine rocks: Caldbeck Fells, Fr. Autumn.

37 Weissia viridula. Brid. Green Tufted Weissia. Banks, &c.: West-
ward, &c. Fr. Spring.

40 W. cirrhata. Hedw. Bent Leaved Weissia. Posts, rails, rocks, &e. :
Caldbeck, &c. Fr. Spring.

41 Rhabdoweissia fugax. Hedw. Dwarf Streak Moss. Crevices of rocks
and moist banks: Caldbeck Fells. Fr. June and July.

43 Cynodontiwm bruntoni. B. & 8. Brunton’s Fork Moss. Rocks in
subalpine districts. Fr. Spring.

47 Dichodontium pellucidum, L. Pellucid Fork Moss. On wet rocks and
stones: Westward. Fr. October and November.

yar. serratum. On stones; Westward. Fr. October and November.

—

101

51 Dicranella squarrosa. Shrad. Drooping-Leaved Fork Moss. In wet
places among mountains: Foot of High Pike. Fr. August and
September.

53 D. varia. Hedw. Variable Fork Moss. On moist banks : Westward;
Caldbeck Fells. Fr. November and December.

57 D. heteromalla. Hedw. Silky-Leaved Fork Moss. On moist banks :
Westward. Fr. November and December.

58 Dicranum fulvellum. Sm. Brownish Fork Moss. In fissures of alpine
rocks : Scawfell Pike (J. M. Barnes). Fr. July.

70 D. scoparium. L. Broom Fork Moss. Shady banks and rocks:
Westward, &c. Fr. July and August.

71 D. majus. Turn. Tall Fork Moss. Shady banks and rocks in woods :
Gosforth. Fr. July and August.

72 D. palustre. Bry. Brit. Marsh Fork Moss. In marshy places and on
shady moist banks: Caldbeck. Fr. September.

78 Campylopus atrovirens. De Not. Bristly Swan-Neck Moss. On wet
rocks and in marshy places on mountains: Keswick (J. Heald).

80 C. introflecus. Brid.

-$2 CO. flexwosus. Bird. Rusty Swan-Neck Moss. On moist shady rocks in

subalpine districts: Westward. Fr. November.
85 C. schwarzii. Schpr. Borrowdale (Hunt).
86 C. fragilis, B. & 8. On shady rocks: Airey ravine. Fr. November

E and March.

4, LEUCOBRYACE.

90 Leucobryum glaucum. Hampe. White-Leaved Fork Moss. Moist
4 heaths : Thistlebottom. Fr, March,

6. SELIGERIACE.

(102 Campylostelium saxicola. W.& M. On sandstone rocks: Westward.
Fr. May.

_ 103 Brachyodus trichodes. W. & M. Bristle-Leaved B. On sandstone
j rocks: Westward. Fr. February.

105 Blindia acuta. Hedw. Acute-Leaved B. On moist sub-alpine rocks:
Caldbeck Fells.

Ld

7. Porrraces.

‘110 Phascum cuspidatum. Schreb. Pointed Earth Moss. Moist banks :
Westward. Fr. March.
114 Pottia cavifolia. Ehrh. Oval-Leaved P. Mud: Westward. Fr. March.
115 P. minutula, Schwg. Dwarf P. Fallow fields: Westward. Fr. Winter
and Spring.

102

116 P. truncata. L. Common P. Newly exposed soil: Westward.
Fr. February and March.

123 P. heimii. Hedw. Lance-Leaved P. Moist banks near the sea: East
Cote. Fr. April and May.

128 Didymodon rubellus. B. & 8. Reddish D. Onshady walls, rocks, &c. :
Westward. Fr. October.

131 D. cylindricus. Bruch, Slender-Fruited D. On moist shady rocks:
Airey Force. Fr. October.

136 Ditrichum homomallum. Hedw. Curved-Leaved D. On sandy banks: |
Airey Beck (W. Hodgson). Fr. Autumn.

137 D. flexicaule. Schwg. Wavy-Stemmed D. On calcareous rocks :
High Pike. Fr. June.

150 Barbula aloides. Koch. Aloe-Leaved Screw Moss. On clay banks :
Westward. Fr. November and December.

157 B. muralis. L. Wall Screw Moss. On walls, &c.: Westward.
Fr. April and May.

158 B. unguiculata. Dill. Bird’s-Claw Screw Moss. Banks and hedges :
Westward. Fr. December.

159 B. fallax. Hedw. Fallacious Screw Moss. Banks: Westward.
Fr. November and December.

162 B. rigidula. Dicks. Rigid-Leaved Screw Moss. Moist rocks: Cald-
beck Fells. Fr. Autumn and Winter.

163 B. spadicea. Mitt. Westward.

168 B. convoluta. Hedw. Convolute Screw Moss. Ou walls: Westward.
Fr. April and May.

171 B. tortuosa. L. Curly-Leaved Screw Moss. On limestone rocks,
Fr. July.

176 B. subulata. L. Awl-Leaved Screw Moss. Hedge banks: Westward.
Fr. May and June.

177 B. levipila. Brid. Smaller Hairy Screw Moss. Trunks of trees:
Westward. Fr. May and June.

180 B. intermedia. Brid. Westward.

184 Ceratodon purpureus. L. Purple Fork Moss. On banks: Westward.
Fr. April and May.

185 Distichium capillaceum. LL. Fine-Leaved D. Mountains: Caldbeck
Fells. Fr. Summer.

8. CALYMPERACEZ.

188 Encalypta vulgaris. Hedw. Common Extinguisher Moss. Walls and
banks : Caldbeck. Fr. March and April.

190 Z#. ciliate. Hedw. Fringed Extinguisher Moss. On rocks in moun-
tainous districts: Caldbeck Fells; Watermillock (W. H.) Fr. June
and July.

ee ees See a! ee er

ee a ae SS eS eee

a ee ee

ll

103

9. GRIMMIACE®,

193 Grimmia apocarpa. L. SessileG. On rocks and walls: Westward.
Fr. November and February.

198 G. pulvinata. Dill. Grey-Cushioned G. On walls, roofs, rocks :
Westward. Fr. March and April.

207 G. hartmunni. Schpr. Hartmann’s G. Lamplugh (J. Bowman).

209 G. doniana. Sm. Don’s G. On rocks and walls in mountains :
Roughton Gill. Fr. March, April, and October,

222 Rhacomitrium aciculare. L. Dark Mountain Fringe Moss. Wet
rocks ; Caldbeck Fells. Fr. November and April.

225 R. heterostichum. Hedw. Bristly Mountain Fringe Moss. Rocks and
walls : Caldbeck Fells ; Watermillock ; Lamplugh. Fr. March,

226 R. fasciculare. Schrad. Green Mountain Fringe Moss.
Caldbeck Fells. Fr. March.

227 R. lanuginosum. Hedw. Woolly Fringe Moss. Barren heaths, &e. :
Caldbeck Fells. Fr. March,

On rocks :

228 R. canescens. Hedw. Hoary Fringe Moss. Sandy heaths : Caldbeck
Fells. Fr. March.

230 Ptychomitrium polyphyllum. Dicks, Many-Leaved Fringe Mogs.
Rocks : Caldbeck Fells. Fr. March and April.

232 Amphoridium mougeotii. B. & S, Mougeot’s Yoke Moss.
rocks : Caldbeck Fells. Fr. Summer.

239 Ulota bruchii. Hornsch. Tawny-Fruited Bristle Moss.
Westward. Fr. July and August.

242 U. intermedia. Schpr. On trees, Westward.

247 Orthotrichum saxatile. Brid. Limestone rocks: Caldbeck Common.
Fr. Spring.

Moist

On trees :

248 O. cupulatum. Hoffm. Single-Fringed Sessile Bristle Moss, Lime-
stone rocks: Westward. Fr. April and May.

251 O. rupestre. Schleich, Rock Bristle Moss. On rocks, Fr, July and
August.

253 O. affine. Schrad. Common Wood Bristle Moss.
ward. Fr. June and July.

261 O, diaphanum. Schrad. White-Tipped Bristle Moss,
Westward. Fr. April.

262 O. pulchellum. Sm. Elegant Bristle Moss.

i Fr. May.
263 O. lyellii, H. & T. Lyell’s Bristle Moss. Old trees: Caldbeck. Fr. July,

264 O. leiocarpum. B. & 8, Smooth-Fruited Bristle Moss,
Westward. Fr. April and May.

On trees: West-
Trees, walls, &c. :

On trees: Westward.

On trees :

104

10. SPLACHNACE.

267 CEdipodium grifithianum. Dicks. Griffiths’ Alpine Collar Moss.
Crevices of rocks : High Pike, Helvellyn; Scawfell. Fr. July and
August.

1]. FUNARIACES.

282 Physcomitrium pyriforme. 1. Common Bladder Moss. Moist banks.
Fr. April.

283 Entosthodon ericetorum. Bals. Moist banks: Westward. Fr. March
and April.

285 Fundria fascicularis. Dicks. Bundled Cord Moss. Muddy banks :
Westward. Fr. May.

287 F. hygrometrica. IL. Common Cord Moss. Where wood has been
burnt: Westward. Fr. May and November.

12. BARTRAMIACE.

294 Bartramia ithyphylia. Brid. Straight-Leaved Apple Moss. Subalpine
rocks. Fr. June.

295 B. pomiformis, L. Common Apple Moss. Dry banks: Westward.
Fr. May.

302 Philonotis fontana. L. Fountain Apple Moss. Near springs: West-
ward ; Caldbeck Fells. Fr. June.

305 Breutelia arcuata. Dicks. Curved-Stalked Apple Moss. Wet rocks :
Caldbeck Common ; Lodore. Fr. September and October.

13. BRYACER.

308 Leptobryum pyriforme. L. Golden Thread Moss. Sandstone rocks :
Westward. Fr. May and June.

312 Webera nutans. Schreb. Pendulous Thread Moss. Heaths. Fr. May
and June.

313 W. cruda. Schreb. Glaucous Thread Moss. Banks: Caldbeck Fells.
Fr. July.

315 W. ludwigii. Spreng. Ludwig’s Thread Moss. Mountains: Scawfell
(H. Boswell). Fr. September.

316 W. carnea. L. Pink-Fruited Thread Moss. Moist banks: West-
ward, Fr. April.

317 W. albicans. Wahl. Wet banks: Foot of High Pike ; Westward.
Fr. May.

318 Zieria julacea. Schpr. Zierian Thread Moss. Crevices of mountains:
Caldbeck Fells ; Watermillock, Fr. October and November.

105

320 Bryum pendulum. Hornsch. Drooping Thread Moss. Walls and
rocks: Westward ; Caldbeck Fells. Fr. May.

330 B.bimum. Schreb. Lowland Bog Thread Moss. Marshy places.
Fr. June and July.

336 B. atro-purpureum. W.& M. Dark Purple Thread Moss. Banks,
walls: Westward. Fr. May.

338 B. cespiticium. L. Lesser Matted Thread Moss. On walls, &c. :
Westward. Fr. May and June.

339 B. argenteum. L. Silvery Thread Moss. On walls, ground, &c. :
Westward. Fr. October and November.

341 B. capillare. L. Greater Matted Thread Moss. On walls, rocks:
Westward. Fr. May.

345 B. paliens. Swartz. Pale-Leaved Thread Moss. Moist places near
springs: Caldbeck Fells. Fr. June.

349 B. pseudo-triquetrum. Hedw. Alpine Bog Thread Moss. Wet rocks
and banks: Caldbeck Fells. Fr. July and October.

353 B. rosewm. Schreb. Rosaceous Thyme Thread Moss, Shady banks :

Westward ; Corby.

14. MNtIAce#.

357 Mnium cuspidatum. Hedw. Pointed Thyme Thread Moss. Shady
rocks: Westward. Fr. March and April.

+399 MW. undulatum, Hedw. Long-Leaved Thyme Thread Moss. Shady

; banks: Westward. Fr. April and May.

360 WM. rostratum. Schrad. Long-Beaked Thyme Thread Moss. Shady

; rocks, Fr. April.

361 M. hornum. L. Swan-Neck Thyme Thread Moss. Shady banks:

% Westward. Fr. May.

362 M. serratum. Schrad. Serrated Thyme Thread Moss. Moist banks:
Caldbeck. Fr. May and June.

368 M. punctatum. Hedw. Dotted Thyme Thread Moss. Wet shady places:

a Westward. Fr. February and March.

371 Aulacomnium palustre. L. Marsh Thread Moss. Bogs and marshes:

Caldbeck. Fr. May and June.

15, TETRAPHIDACEZ.
3875 Tctraphis pellucida. L. Pellucid Four-Tooth Moss. Decayed trees :
Westward.

16. PoLyrRICHACEs.

_ 377 Oligotrichum hercynicum. Ehrh. Hercynian Hair Moss. Barren
places : Scawfell (J. M. B.) Fr. June and July.

106

378 Atrichum undulatum. L. Wavy-Leaved Hair Moss. Grassy shady
places: Westward. Fr. October and November.

382 Pogonatum nanum. Neck. Dwarf Hair Moss. Sandy banks: Black
Dyke (Miss Glaister). Fr. October and November.

383 P. aloides. Hedw. Aloe-Leaved Hair Moss. Moist banks: West-
ward. Fr. October and November.

384 P. urnigerum. L. Urn-Fruited Hair Moss. Sides of streams: Cald-
beck. Fr. October and November.

385 P. alpinum. L. Alpine Hair Moss. Subalpine districts : Caldbeck ;
Seawfell. Fr. June.

388 Polytrichum formosum. Hedw. Buft-Fruited Hair Moss. Woods, &c.:
Westward ; Keswick. Fr. June. |

389 P. piliferum. Schreb. Bristle-Pointed Hair Moss. Dry heaths:
Caldbeck, Fr. May and June.

390 P. juniperinum. Willd. Juniper-Leaved Hair Moss. Heaths: Cald-
beck. Fr. May and June.

391 P. strictum. Banks. Boggy heaths : Scawfell (H. B.) Fr. May and
June.

392 P. commune. L. Common Hair Moss. Turfy moors: Westward.
Fr, June and July.

393 Diphyscium foliosum. L. Leafy Buxbaumia. Mountainous districts :
Roughten Gill. Fr. August.

AMPHOCARPI.

18. FIssIDENTACE.

396 Fissidens bryoides.. Hedw. Common Flat Fork Moss. Shady banks:
Westward. Fr. January and February.

397 F. ewilis, Hedw. Slender Flat Fork Moss. Shady banks. Fr. January
and February.

408 I. adiantoides. Hedw. Marsh Flat Fork Moss. Wet pastures: West-
ward; Caldbeck. Fr. October and December.

409 J’, taxifolius. L. Yew-Leaved Flat Fork Moss. Moist shady banks:
Westward. Fr. December.

CLADOCARPI.

21, RIPARIACEA.

412 Cinclidotus fontinaloides. Hedw. Smaller Water Screw Moss. Stones
in streams: Westward. fr. March and April.

413 Fontinalis antipyretica. L. Greater Water Moss. Stones in streams:
Westward. Fr. June and July.

107

22. CRYPHAACEA.

415 Hedwigia ciliata. Dicks. Hoary-Branched Beardless Moss. Rocks :
Caldbeck Fells. Fr. March.

PLEUROCARPI.
24. NECKERACES.

424 Neckera crispa. L. Crisped Neckera. Rocks: Caldbeck. Fr. Nov-
ember and April.

425 N. complanata. L. Flat-Leaved Neckera. Trees and ground: West-
ward. Fr. November and December.

426 Homalia trichomanoides. Schreb. Blunt Fern-Like Feather Moss.
Trees and rocks. Fr. October and November.

25. HooKERIACE®.

429 Pterygophyllum lucens. Sm. Shining Hookeria. Moist banks: West-
ward. Fr. November and December.

27. LESKEACE.

437 Anomodon viticulosus. L. Tall Anomodon. Shady rocks and trees :
Corby. Fr. November.

442 Heterocladium heteropterum. Bruch. Wry-Leaved Feather Moss.
Moist rocks; Scawfell Pike (J. M. B.) Fr. November.

443 Thuidium tamariscinum. Hedw. Tamarisk Feather Moss. Woods
and banks: Westward. Fr. November.

28. Hypnacez.

449 Pterogonium gracile. Dill. Slender Wing Moss. Shadyrocks. Fr, Nov-

ember, ;

451 Thamniun alopecurum. L. Fox-Tail Frond Moss. Moist woods:
Westward. Fr. November.

452 Climacium dendroides. LL. Marsh Tree Moss. Moist pastures: West-
ward ; Caldbeck. Fr. October.

_ 454 Isothecium myurum. Poll. Blunt-Leaved Frond Moss. ‘Trees and

a rocks: Westward. Fr. October.

_ 457 Homalothecium sericeum. L. Silky Leskea. Walls and trees: West-

ward. Fr. November and March.

467 Brachythecium velutinum. L. Velvet Feather Moss. Walls and

: banks : Westward. Fr. November and December.

471 B. rutabulum. L. Common Rough-Stalked Feather Moss. Banks,
walls, &.: Westward. Fr. November.

108

474 B. populeum. Hedw. Matted Feather Moss. Stones and trees:
Westward. Fr. November and February.

475 B. plumosum. Swartz. Rusty Feather Moss. Shady rocks and
stones. Fr. October and March.

476 Lurhynchium myosuroides. L. Acute-Leaved Frond Moss. ‘Trees
and rocks: Westward. Fr. November.

480 £. striatum. Schreb. Common Striated Feather Moss. Woods and
banks: Westward. Fr. December.

482 E. piliferum. Schreb. Hair-Pointed Feather Moss. Shady banks
and woods: Westward. Fr. November.

485 HE. swartzii. Turn. Swartz’s Feather Moss. Moist banks and rocks:
Westward. Fr. November.

486 E. prelongum. Dill. Prolonged Feather Moss. Moist shady banks :
Westward. Fr. November.

490 Rhynchostegium tenellum. Dicks. Tender Awl-Leaved Feather Moss.
Limestone rocks: Westward. Fr. October.

493 R. confertum. Dicks. Clustered Feather Moss. Walls, rocks, trees :
Westward. Fr. October.

496 R. ruscifolium. Neck. Long-Beaked Water Feather Moss. Stones
in streams: Westward. Fr. November.

[Wilson says that according to Dillenius the variety prolizum is found

in Applethwaite Beck, near Skiddaw. ]

501 Plagiotheciwm denticulatum. L. Sharp Flat-Leaved Feather Moss.
Hedge banks, &c. : Westward. Fr. Summer.

504 P. undulatum. L. Waved Feather Moss: Woods and dry heathy
places: Westward; Airey ravine. Fr. April and May.

509 Amblystegium serpens. L. Creeping Feather Moss. Walls, moist
banks, &c.: Westward. Fr. April and May.

514 Hypnum aduncum. var. kneiffii, Claw Leaved Feather Moss.
Marshes: Caldbeck Common; Lamplugh (J.B.) Fr. April and May.

515 HA. exannulatum. Giimb. Marshes: Caldbeck Common, Fr. April and
May.

516 H. vernicosum. Lindb. Marshes: Caldbeck Common,

517 H. cossoni. Schpr. Wet places: Caldbeck ; Airey ravine.

518 H. sendtneri. Schpr. Bogs: Kellon Bog (J.B.)

521 /7. fluitans. L. Floating Feather Moss. Pools in bogs: Caldbeck
Common. Fr. April and May.

522 H. uncinatum. Hedw. Sickle-Leaved Feather Moss. Walls, rocks,
and boggy ground : Caldbeck Common. Fr. June.

523 H. filicinum. I. Lesser Golden-Fern Feather Moss. Marshes :
Caldbeck Common; Westward. Fr. April.

109

524 H. commutatum. Hedw. Curled Fern Feather Moss. Wet places :
Thistlebottom. Fr. April.

926 H. falcatum. Brid. Marshes: Caldbeck Common. Fr.

535 H. cupressiforme. LL, Cypress-Leaved Feather Moss. Walls, trees,
&e.: Westward. Fr. November and December,

537 H. patientie. Lindb, Damp ground : Westward,

938 H. molluscum. Hedw. Plomy-Crested Feather Moss, Moist banks
and rocks: Westward. Fr. N ovember,

540 H. palustre. L. Marsh Feather Moss, Stones and rocks in rivulets,
Fr. May.

530 A. chrysophylium. Brid. Golden-Leaved Feather Moss. Marshes :
Caldbeck Common. Fr, May.

552 H. stellatum. Schreb. Yellow Starry Feather Moss. Marshes:
Caldbeck Common, Fr, June.
b. var. protensum. Caldbeck Fells.

554 H. giganteum. Schpr. Giant Feather Moss. Marshes: Caldbeck
Common.

956 H. cuspidatum. IL. Pointed Bog Feather Moss. Marshes: Westward.
Fr. May and June.

957 Hi. schreberi. Ehrh. Schreber’s Feather Moss, Shady banks : West-
ward. Fr, October and N ovember,

558 H. purum. L. Neat Meadow Feather Moss, Shady banks : West-
ward. Fr. October and N ovember.

561 H. scorpioides. L, Scorpion Feather Moss, Bogs: Westward, Fr,
May.

562 H. splendens. Dill, Glittering Feather Moss, Grassy banks : West-
ward. Fr. April.

565 H. brevirostrum. Ehrh. Short-Beaked Feather Moss, Woods and
shady banks: Westward. Fr. October and November.

— 566 HH. squarrosum. L., Drooping-Leaved Feather Moss. Moist shady

banks: Westward. Fr. N ovember.

967 H. loreum. L.. Rambling Mountain Feather Moss, Woods and
banks : Westward. Fr. N ovember,

— 568 A. triquetrum. L., Triangular-Leaved Feather Moss, Woods: West-

ward. Fr, November.

111

THE GERMAN MINERS AT KESWICK.
By J. FISHER CROSTHWATITTE, F.S.A.

(Read before the Cumberland and Westmorland Archeological Society ; and also
at Keswick, March 26th, 1883. Reprinted by permission of the Council
of the Cumberland Association. )

Tue first mention which I can find of the colony of German
miners who settled in this parish in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
is contained in an abstract of State Papers (Domestic Series) of
the reigns of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, from 1547—1580,
preserved in the State Paper department of Her Majesty’s Public
Record Office, by Mr. Robert Lemon, F.S.A.

The date is July 16th, 1561. It is a letter from Dr. Nich.
Wotton and Peter Osborne to the Secretary of State, Sir William
Cecill. They say they have conferred with Steynbergh and the
~ Master of the Savoy upon articles for the incorporation of a
| company for working the mines in England. They enclose an
_ indenture between the Queen, and John Steynbergh and Thomas
Thurland (Master of the Savoy), for erecting a corporation for
- working mines in England.

_. Three years later (September roth, 1564,) there is a memorial
3 of Thomas Thurland, Master of the Savoy, and Sebastian Spydell
~ and their company, desiring their grants for working mines and
_ minerals in England and Wales may be transferred and assigned
‘ to Daniel Hechstetter. On the roth of December, the same year,
_ there is an extract of an indenture made by the Queen on the one

112

part, and Thomas Thurland and Daniel Hechstetter on the other,
for the discovery and working of minerals.*

On the 2oth of March, 1565, Thomas Thurland is at Keswick,
and he writes to Secretary Cecill that he has received letters with
report and assay of the copper ore. He says the report made by
those who assayed it, is incorrect.

The following month (April) there is a grant of discharge to
Thomas Thurland, Master of the Savoy, Daniel Hechstetter and
others, from all fifteenths, and other impositions, during the first
beginning of their operations.

The following month (May 26th), Thurland and Hechstetter
wrote to the Secretary of State, Cecill, that they have found ore
containing silver in certain places in Cumberland. They request
to have warrant from the Queen to bring three hundred or four
hundred foreign workmen to work it.

In July the Queen grants to Thurland and Hechstetter, to fell
and appropriate, within Her Majesty’s woods, timber sufficient to
construct the buildings necessary for smelting all ores of gold,
silver, copper, quicksilver, etc., within certain counties.

This indicates that the Radcliffe’s were unfavourable to the
miners, because the woods on their property were close at hand,
and at that time would be suitable timber for the purpose.

* Thomas Thurland and Daniel Hechstetter, two Germans experienced in
the art of mining, were invited to England by the Queen and Council, and
being naturalized, obtained a licence under the Queen’s letters patent for them-
selves and for their heirs for ever to search for mines of gold, silver, and
quicksilver in the royalties of several counties in England and Wales. The
profits they were to appropriate to their own use, excepting the tenth of all
gold, silver, and quicksilver ore, which was reserved to the Crown, as was the
pre-emption of refined gold and silver at a lower rate than the current price of
these metals.

These several patentees, in order to create an adequate capital for prosecuting
their extensive undertakings, divided a certain portion of their rights into shares,
which they sold to opulent and enterprising individuals. These were afterwards
(about the year 1568), conjointly with these new proprietors, incorporated under
the designation of ‘* The Governors, Assistants, and Commonality of the Mines
Royal.” William, Earl of Pembroke, was appointed the first Governor, and
the first Court of Assistants comprised several of the nobility, some leading

citizens, and most of the foreigners to whom the grants had been originally
made.— Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xviii. p. 409.

tis

113

Then we find (July 27) that a commission was given for Thomas
Thurland and Daniel Hechstetter to apprehend disorderly persons
employed by them in the mines.

Mr. Daniel Hechstetter, touching his suit and petition for
privilege of water-works for draining mines, etc., offers to form a
company, and to give certain shares to the Earls of Pembroke and
Leicester, Sir William Cecill, Mr. Tamworth, and Alderman
Duckett.

Thomas Thurland writes (August 29) to Sir Edward Rogers,
Comptroller of the Household; Sir Fr: Knolleys, Vice-Chamber-
lain; and Sir William Cecill, to say that he has proposed a
composition with his creditors and the executors of one Warde.

April 23, 1566. Daniel Hechstetter and Hans Louver write to
Alderman Duckett from Augsburg, respecting the progress of the
works for smelting copper and silver. They say it is joyful news to
hear that Mr. Secretary has shown himself so favourable ; they had
hoped that the Earl of Leicester would have been the same. They
complain of Mr. Humphrey, and are sorry that the Marquis of
Baden has quitted England in debt, and finish the letter with
German news.

May 25. Thomas Thurland writes from Keswick that he
understands that there are certain ores of gold and silver to be
found in the mines there, a secret which the strangers keep to
themselves. He wishes for a skilful man out of Flanders, He
tells Sir William Cecill that if he will not answer his letters, he
will write no more, though he be the Queen’s Chief Secretary for
England.

June 8. This brings remembrances to Mr. Thurland, Master
of the Savoy, touching the mining operations at Keswick.

June 25. Meantime, Hechstetter and Louver are at Augsburg,
and write to Cecill. They report the progress of the works at
Keswick, and speak of the necessity of discharging some of the
workmen there. They say that the ores tested in Germany have
produced good copper. They are coming to England, and enclose
an account of charges of mining operations at Keswick.

8

114

August 1. Thurland writes to Cecill that a copper mine has
been discovered at Newlands, the best in England.

September 20. Thurland’s next letter is dated Rose Castle,
and is to Sir William Cecill. He says the smelting house and
other mineral operations are in progress, but are more chargeable
than he imagined. He adds, “there is plenty of copper ore in the
country.”

There is a bond of Sir Thomas Gresham, in the sum of five
hundred crowns, to John Fuggar, as security for payment to John
Steinberg,* for sending twenty German miners into England.
This document is endorsed by Cecill, “‘ Parson Thurland.”

October 7. Thomas Thurland, Provost of the Mines, writes
from Keswick to Cecill. He reports great progress of the mining
works. Says that the smelting houses and’ furnaces are erected,
and that gold has been found in Crawford Muir.

October 10. It would appear that considerable opposition was
shown to the foreign miners by the English workmen. In a letter
from Daniel Hechstetter to Louver, he says he shall discharge
some of the workmen. That the Germans are ill-treated by the
English workmen ; and he reports the murder of Leonard Stoultz
by one Fisher and his accomplices, who were protected by Lady
Ratcliffe.

October 13. Lionel Duckett writes to Cecill that he is about
to despatch a messenger to Keswick. He says the inhabitants of
Keswick ought to be friendly to the foreigners there.

October 16... Now the Queen exercises her authority by writing
to Lord Scrope and the Justices of the Peace in Cumberland and
Westmorland, to repress the assaults, murders, and outrages on the
Almain miners lately come there for the purpose of working and
searching minerals,

February 13, 1567. Daniel Hechstetter writes to Cecill that
Thomas Thurland is going to London, who will acquaint him with
all things necessary for furthering their mineral operations.

March 14. The Earl of Northumberland writes to the Earls

* Tn the Crosthwaite Registers, there is the burial of Mr. Mark Mark Stone
barger, December 4th, 1597.

115

of Pembroke and Leicester and Sir William Cecill, that he has

ascertained beyond doubt, that the minerals dug up at New-

lands belong to him only, and that the workers thereof are
trespassers on his land.

He also wrote letters to the Queen, the Lord Treasurer, the
Lord Chief Baron, and other Barons of the Exchequer, praying
that the injunction respecting the ore dug up on his lands at
Newlands may be dissolved.

March 16. Meanwhile, Thomas Thurland writes to the Earl of
Leicester and Sir William Cecill, and complains of the obstacles he
has encountered by the Earl of Northumberland.

March 20. Daniel Hechstetter, writing to the Queen from
‘Keswick, complains that the Earl has obstructed the mining oper-
ations at Newlands.

The controversy between the Earl of Northumberland continued,
the former rejecting every attempt to come to an arrangement.

May ro. George Nedham writes from Keswick to the Queen,

and reports his proceedings on conveying her letters to the Earl
_ of Northumberland, requiring the delivery of certain ores stayed
_ by him at the mines in Cumberland.
May 25. George Nedham writes to the Secretary of State, and
recommends an exchange of certain lands between the Queen and
_the Earl of Northumberland. Nothing seems to have come of
F this, for we find (August 29) the Earl by his officers objecting to
} * the working of a mine called “The Copper Plate,” (Ellers,
| Borrowdale,) as not within the compass of Newlands. It is inci-
_ dentally mentioned the quantity of copper which the six furnaces
wil smelt daily.
|. September 29. Thomas Thurland writes to the Queen, that
a ey have at length attained to making fine and perfect copper, of
which he sends her a specimen. He says the mines promise well,
apd nothing but workmen.

On the same date, Daniel Hechstetter and Hans Louver write
ip the Queen, that they can now make copper, and have sent some
‘to London. They say they will make trial if the copper ore
“contain silyer and gold ; and they conclude by recommending that

116

some conclusion be come to between the Queen and the Earl of
-Northumberland.

June 25, 1568. Keswick. Daniel Hechstetter writes to Cecill
that he is surprised at the mineral richness of the kingdom. He
complains that the works are opposed by Lady Radcliffe, and says
that a preacher in their own language is much wanted amongst his
workmen.

September 2. Negotiations with Mr. Curwen for a piece of
ground at Workington, on which to erect a wharf, which was
finally concluded a month later by Mr. Nedham.

October 19. The Earl of Northumberland makes a final request
to Sir William Cecill, whether he is to have a reasonable compo-
sition for the mines or not ; otherwise he must assert his right and
title to them. The judgment of the court was :—“ But in regard
of the Queen’s prerogative, there being in those mines more gold
and silver than copper and lead, they were judged to be due to —
the Queen upon the defendant’s demurer in law.”

Thomas Percy was the seventh Earl of Northumberland, and
besides his grievance respecting this mine, which was a real one,
he also had another of a different character, which seems to have
given him great dissatisfaction. On the 16th of May, 1568, Mary
Queen of Scéts landed at Workington. Sir Richard Lowther, who
was Sheriff of the County and Deputy Warden of the Western
Marches, hastened to meet her, and found her at Cockermouth, —
from whence on the following day he conducted her to Carlisle. 4
The Earl of Northumberland hearing of this, hastened to Carlisle,
and on the ground that Queen Mary had landed within his liberty
of Cockermouth, insisted that he ought to have her in charge, and
wanted to take her to Alnwick. To this Sir Richard demurred,
on which the Earl got into a passion, called Sir Richard “a varlet,”
and used many “evil words” and “great threatnings.”

cn a ee a ae

The Earl got severely reprimanded for his interference, and this —
added another cause for discontent, which eventually found vent —
in his joining Neville and other rebels in the “ Rising of the
- North.” He plunged into that wild rebellion, and forfeited hi

117

estates and his life as the penalty. A mania for rebellion seems
to have infected this noble family.

February 26, 1569. We find Simon Musgrave writing to Cecill
concerning a plot of ground belonging to Mr. Curwen, near
Workington, which is required for mineral works, and enclosing a
plan of the ground required, and the river and town adjacent.

May 15, 1570. Lionell Duckett writes to Cecill. “Requests
that the Queen would be pleased to appoint certain officers for the
superintendence of the copper works. Recommends Mr. Richard
Dudley and Mr. Dalston.”

March 24, 1571. ‘‘The Company of the Mines Royal to the
Earl of Leicester and Lord Burghley. Requests that the bargain
for copper be completed, and also the warrant for discharge of the
duties on wines.”

March 1, 1572. Johan Louver to Lord Burghley. Great delay
caused by the contentious conduct of some of the Company. Is
ready to submit his accounts to be examined when Burghley
thinks fit.

The last entry of these State Papers given by Mr. Lemon is as
follows :—“ (The Council?) to the Company of the Royal Mines
in Cumberland. That Daniel Hechstetter, Work Master of the
Royal Mines, has made trial of a process invented by Henry
Pope, for washing of lead and copper ores, and recommends its
adoption.”

Mr. Daniel Hechstetter appeared upon the scene at the close of

- the year 1 564. ‘The parish register mentions, May 14th, 1572, the
_ baptism of ason: “Daniel Hechstetter, son of Daniel Hechstetter,
Duchman, and Radigunda his wife.” He had two other children
“born at Keswick, Elizabeth and Leonard. He died in x 581,
_ having resided seventeen years in the parish ; and his widow, who
_ Survived him twenty-nine years, died in 1610. She was buried in
the church. This family flourished and married into the most
_tespectable families in the neighbourhood, and continued to hold
their position so long as the mining operations were carried on.
We find them in infliential positions in all parochial matters. In
‘the inquisition taken at Keswick relating to the High School of

118

Crosthwaite in 1616, it is mentioned that the Company of the
Mines Royal gave twenty pounds, and Radigunda Hechstetter
forty shillings, for the increase of the school stock, and delivered
the same to Master Daniel Hechstetter, and Emanuel Hechstetter,
now deceased (whose executor Joseph Hechstetter is), to be paid
to the eighteen sworn men.

On the 8th of September, 1623, one Daniel Hechstetter got a
lease for five lives, of the “ Heads,” a croft of ground, being by
estimation twelve acres, for himself and for the lives of Samuel
Hechstetter, Jonathan Hechstetter, and Radigunda Hechstetter,
all of Keswick, and the longest liver of them, for twenty shillings
ayear. There is a house in Keswick, next to Captain Jackson’s,
near the bridge, which has thick walls, and is wainscotted with
beautifully carved oak, and has initials D. H., a shield, and other
initials I. H., which I take to be Daniel and Jane Hechstetter,
His wife’s maiden name was Jane Bankes, of Keswick, and this
property passed down to the present owner from one William
Bankes, an opulent manufacturer.

One of the family became master of the Grammar School at
Carlisle. He was M.A. of Queen’s College, Oxford, and rector of
Bolton, Cumberland, from 1665 to 1686.* Probably he was the
son of Joseph Hechstetter, of Smelting House, Keswick, who
married first Joyce Bankes, daughter of John Bankes of Keswick,
and only sister of Sir John Bankes, Chief Justice of the Common
Pleas in the reign of Charles I., and the founder of Bankes’s —
Charity in this town.

The works were carried on by the side of the river Greta, as ©
well as at Newlands, there being smelting houses at both places. —
The works by the Greta river extended from Calvert’s bridge to ©
the Hammer Hole, above the Forge. This is a mill race, a part
of which is cut through the solid rock, and forms a tunnel. It has —
been cut with wedges and pick hammers, in the same manner as
the levels were driven in the mines at Newlands. This mill race
carried the machinery used in smelting, hammering copper plates, —
and sawing wood, etc. .

* Antiq. vol. vii, p. 231.

119

An indenture dated 15th October, 1607, between Sir Francis
Radcliffe of Dilston, and the Governors, Assistants, and Society
of the City of London, and for the Mines Royal, grants a
lease of twenty-one years to the above-mentioned parties for
463 6s. 8d., “Three acres of ground lying and about the Towne
of Keswick, between the water of the Greta on the one side, and
one certain close of ground commonly called Briggholme-close on
the other side, within the manor of Castlerigg, with all and singular
the edifices, buildings, and other works, which were erected,
builded, or made upon the premises, or thereunto belonging.
Also, a certain parcel of ground called Whyte Moss, being parcel
of the common cow pasture belonging to his tenants of Keswick
and Castlerigg workhouse for hammering of copper with a water
race damb of the same belonging or therewith used to have and
to hold the above tenements in whatsover the same belonging or
therewithal used and occupied with all manner of egress, etc.,
through that place or pasture for their necessary working and
doing. Yielding and paying £12 yearly for the ground and
houses, and for Whyte Moss 44: and also one water course now
already made in and through the grounds of the said Sir F. Radcliffe
next adjoining the said three acres, the force and head of the said
water-course beginning and set at Clark Hill Zoct, and so wrought
downwards towards Keswick Mill.”

I have extracted the foregoing from the original lease in the
possession of R. Dykes Marshall, Esq., Lord of the Manor of
Castlerigg and Derwentwater, which he kindly lent me for perusal
some time ago, with many similar documents throwing light upon
local matters of interest in past times.

In 1654, Joseph Hechstetter was foreman of the eighteen School
Governors, and he represented the division of Great Crosthwaite.
The school accounts are in his writing, which is an excellent

hand.

About this time William Calvert is recorded as foreman of the
eighteen sworn men, and Gyles Raisley of Windebrow follows in
the same capacity. These names are constantly occurring in

120

local documents, showing that they were of the German colony,
and were amongst the more influential portion.

The name of Raisley first appears in our register as follows :—
“ Baptism, 1567, May 11th of Benedictus Ritseler, son of George
Ritseler, Duchman, and Margaret his wife. The name is succes-
sively spelled Rytsler, Raysing, Raysell, Raisley of Windebrow—
which is now called Greta Bank, and did belong to the late William
Calvert, Esq., J.P., who probably came to it by the union of the
Raisley and Calvert families, there being two of the latter named
Raisley Calvert, coming down to our own times.

The earliest marriage recorded is that of Hanre Moser, Dutch-
man, and Elizabeth Clark of Newlands, November 23rd, 1567.
There was also a Molker Moser of Smelting House, and Percival
Molker Moser of the same place. ‘Then we have ihe names
Symond Puphbarger of Stare, Fitzin Colizon of Smelting House,
Gesper Cloeker, sometimes spelled Clowker, Closher, and lastly
Clocker.

Christopher Clocker and Janet Stanger of Skelgill were married
in 1590.

So early as August 24th, 1567, Andrew Ringreasle, Duchman,
married Elizabeth Fisher of Seatoller.

In 1572 we have the Jaftism of “Gasper Cayrus, son of Mitchall
Kayrus, Duchman, and Agnes his wife.”

In 1568 Christopher Beck, Duchman, married Elizabeth Bewley,
Englishwoman.

In 1572, February 15th, Sir Peter Beck married Janet Fawsett,
servant at Isle (Ile). The prefix “Sir,” was probably given to him
as clergyman or domestic chaplain, for in 1597 “Master” Peter
Beck was appointed vicar, having by this time succeeded to his
master’s degree. He was vicar of Crosthwaite for fifteen years.

Under Daniel Hechstetter, copper smelting became very
successful at Keswick, and his method of pumping water out of
mines was far in advance of anything known in England before his
time. Since then, however, the Germans have not kept pace with

England in machinery for pumping mines. It was computed some

.
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— Sr.

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years ago, that one single engine in England raised more water
than all the water power in use in Germany.

In a lecture given by Sir Hussey Vivian, Bart., M.P. for
Glamorganshire, on “Copper Smelting,” at the Royal Institution,
Swansea, December, 1880, he shows that skilled workmen went
from Keswick to South Wales in 1584, to teach the art of roasting
and smelting the ore, In the course of his lecture he says :—“ In
the reign of Elizabeth, there was a rich copper mine at Keswick,
Cumberland, of which the Queen deprived the Earl of Northum-
land on the ground that it was a Royal Mine. It was reported
that 4000 men were employed at that mine, but this is probably
a great exaggeration. According to Camden, much good copper
continued for a time to be made at Keswick and Newlands, but
Webster in 1671 wrote that now the work is quite left, and decayed,
yet Iam informed that some do now melt forth as much good
copper as serveth them to make halfpennies and farthings. I beg
especially to direct attention to the smelting works at Keswick in
Cumberland, because I think there is no doubt from the records
brought to light by the laborious and intelligent researches of our
fellow-townsman, Lt.-Col. G. G. Francis, that the first smelting
works in South Wales was built and worked by men from Keswick.
Iremember well that Col. Francis announced to me before he
published his letters, in 1867, that he had discovered that our
Welsh copper-smelting process came from Germany. I at once
told him, and [I still retain the opinion, that such could not be the
case, inasmuch as nothing analogous to it existed in any part of
Germany down to our times. I think we were both part right.
The evidence Col. Francis has discovered, puts it beyond doubt
that Germans were largely employed in the Keswick smelting, but
there is no tittle of evidence that I can discover, that they brought
the reverberatory process with them from Germany.

“In point of date, the story begins with a patent granted by
Queen Elizabeth in 1564, to Thomas Thurland, Master of the
Savoy, and Daniel Hogstetter, a German, giving them power and
authority to dig, search, try, sort, and melt all manner of mine
stores of gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver, in Yorkshire, Lan-

122

caster, Cumberland, Westmorland, Cornwall, Devon, Gloucester,
Worcester, and the principalities of Wales, as well within Her
Majesty’s own grounds as others, on payment of aroyalty. In the
same year a patent was granted to Mr. Humphrey, and Christopher
Shutes, a German, with similar powers within England and the
English pale in Ireland, except the places before granted. Under
the first patents no doubt the working and smelting at Keswick
was carried on. Seventeen years later we find a letter from Mr.
George Needham to Sir Francis Walsingham, setting forth in
considerable detail the operations which were carried on under the
directions of one Jochim Gaunse, Ganse, or Gans, for his name is
spelled three different ways. This letter is of a most interesting
character, and contains, I believe, distinct indications of the first
introduction of the system of copper smelting which has been ever
since that date so largely practised in this district, and which is
now more or less adopted in almost every copper producing district
in the world.”

“T gather from this that the Keswick works were managed by
Mr. Daniel Hogstetter and Mr. Steinberger up to 1581, when
Jochim Gans went there, and that this practice had been to roast
and smelt the oar and regulus.

_ “Qn the 21st July, 1584, Thomas Smith writes to Ulrick Frosse

saying that Mr. Weslin is going to Cornwall through Wales, and
that he will take measures for transporting the copper ores to the
new smelting house at Neath in Wales, ‘which house I understand
is ready, and we have taken order that against he shall be ready
to make copper, we shall have from Keswick one of our copper
makers and withall an under melter, and the Dutch carpenter for a
time to serve and ready him in these causes.’

Now this fixes the exact date of the commencement of copper
smelting in South Wales, viz., the autumn of 1584; and it shows
that the skilled workmen came from Keswick.”

I have quoted Sir H. Hussey Vivian’s remarks at length because
he is a great authority, and stands at the head of the copper
smelting industry of the world.

123

The lecture has not been published, but it was printed in the
Cambrian newspaper. I am indebted to our friend Mr. E. J.
Grayson for drawing my attention to the matter, and sending me
the extract which I have given.

It has often been a subject of speculation what became of the
German miners when the works were destroyed by Cromwell’s
army. Nicholson and Burn say that “most of the miners were
slain in the civil wars: and the works have never since been
managed to any account.” (Vol. ii. p. 69.) Some lingered in the
neighbourhood. Zinogle, Senogle, or Sinogle constantly appear
in our church books as carpenters down till 1705, when Sebastin
Zinogle gets for work done at the church, 2s.; and in 1706, Giles
Sinogle for work is paid gs.; and later still the name comes back
to us from Coniston changed to Snoggles, although the better-
informed of the family protested against the innovation in spelling
it. This circumstance seemed to point to Conistort mines as a
place to which some might have gone from Keswick; but on
referring to West’s Antiquities of Furness, 1 find that he says :—
“ During the rage of the civil wars, the copper mines in Conistone
fells were shut up.” Still, the name of Yearle, now spelled Earle,
remains amongst us. The Becks got to Dalston and the neigh-
bourhood of Carlisle ; and there is a Norfolk family, who say they
_ are descendants of German ancestors. Senogle is a most respect-
able name amongst the mechanics of Kendal—following the same
occupation as their ancestors; and Moser amongst professional
gentlemen. Caryus amongst the higher classes in North Lancashire,
and also the Calverts and Raisleys both in East Cumberland and
elsewhere.

There are are thirty-six baptisms of the children of the
Hechstetters recorded in the parish register. The Hechstetters
married into the most respectable families. Daniel married Alice
Anderson of Keswick. Mr. Percival Radcliffe, of Keswick,
matried Elizabeth Hechstetter in 1653. In the following year,
November 2nd, 1654, he was appointed vicar of Crosthwaite, in
succession to the Rey. William Meoles, who died May, 1653.
His name is recorded in the register as having been appointed by

124

“Oliver, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England,
Scotland, and Ireland, for the preaching of the word of God.”

But the Germans furnished two vicars previous to this, viz.,
Robert Beck, who became vicar in 1592, and in 1597 he was
succeeded by ‘‘Mayster” Peter Beck, who resigned in 1602, and
the living was given by Dr. Robinson, Bishop of Carlisle, to his
brother Dr. Giles Robinson, who made himself obnoxious by
committing thirteen of the eighteen school trustees to prison
‘because they refused to accept his nominee (one Garth) as school-
master.

Mrs. Thomasine Hechstetter married George Tullye of Keswick.
His son was Dr. Thomas Tullie, Doctor of Laws, Dean and
Chancellor of Carlisle, Rector of Aldingham, and J.P. for Cumber-
jand.

The time, however, would fail me to tell of the Herringes, the
Stonebargers; the Franses, the Mures, the Colegeaths, the Woulfes,
the Pellers, the Paulles, the Ringreasles, the Raisleys, the Flouter-
ers, the Staygills, the Beyrnparkers, the Prowkers, the Lipmawers,
the Sanningers, the Torvers, the Yorkes, the Norspalmers, the
Tifflers, the Tiblers, the Yossers, the Hedglers, the Upperers,
the Tempps, the Shrohomes, the Rynders, the Lacepalmers,
the Zinogles, and a host of others, all to be found in the
Crosthwaite register, and each distinguished as Germans by the
word “Duchman” being added to the entry.

It is interesting to put together these scanty fragments of local
history, and to trace the influence which this little colony of
German miners and their works had upon the manners and the
material prosperity of the people of this parish. No doubt the
new industry gave employment to a great many of the poorer
inhabitants in the mines, and at the smelting houses. We have
seen that the strangers did not receive a cordial welcome from the
Cumberland folk, as is shown by the complaints of Daniel Hech-
stetter. He complained that the Earl of Northumberland obstructed
the mining operations in Newlands, and that the workers were
opposed by Lady Radcliffe. We have seen that Queen Elizabeth
commanded the Earl to offer no further obstruction, telling him

125

that any lawful claim he might have should be reserved to him.
The Queen also commanded Lord Scrope (then Lord of the
Marches), and the Justices of the Peace in Cumberland and
Westmorland, to repress the assaults and outrages on the miners
who had come there to search for minerals. Moreover, the
Queen gave a commission to Thomas Thurland and Daniel
Hechstetter to apprehend disorderly persons employed by them in
the mines.

We get a glimpse of the spirit which animated Daniel Hech-
stetter, when writing to the Secretary of State on June 2 5th, 1568,
when he says, ‘‘a preacher in their own language is much wanted
among his workmen.” If the law would not reduce the people to
order, he recommended the preaching of the Gospel.

We also see the part which the Hechstetters took in the affairs
of the ancient Free School. They aided that institution, which
had been founded by the people of this parish “time out of mind,”
before the year 1571, when “the Sealer and Receiver of the
Queen’s Majesty’s portion of the mines, and one of the chiefest of
the Company and Fellowship of the Partners and Offices of
Minerals then resident at Keswick,” were always to be present at
the annual election on Ascension Day of the eighteen sworn men
of the parish.

There can be no doubt that the material prosperity of the parish

of Crosthwaite was increased by these works, We may trace
another great benefit to this neighbourhood arising from the
increased opulence of the trades people, and of the yeomen on
their small holdings. John Bankes was a wealthy tradesman, the
second son, I believe, of William Bankes of Castlerigg. He built
the house now used as the mail-coach office, and the premises
extended to the King’s Head passage. He sent his only son,
John Bankes, to Oxford, where he studied for the legal profession.
On leaving college he entered at once upon his professional
career, and by his great industry and ability he rose rapidly to
distinction. He became Solicitor-General, Attorney-General, and
finally Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, and was knighted.
He had an only sister, who was married to Joseph Hechstetter,

126

who succeeded his father, Daniel Hechstetter, in the management
of mines. We find that Joseph Hechstetter and Francis Hech-
stetter of Keswick, together with John Bankes, son of William
Bankes of Castlerigg, with others to the number of sixty, tenants
of the manor of Castlerigg and Derwentwater, joining together to
enfranchise their lands and tenements from arbitrary fines to fine
certain, for the sum of £1441, paid to Sir Edward Ratcliffe and
his brothers Francis and Cuthbert Radcliffe.

This was in the year 1623, just when John Bankesgwas in
practice, and as he is a witness to the deed, we may fairly conclude
that the Hechstetters and the Bankes took a principal part in
bringing about this arrangement. We need not stop to speak of
the incalculable advantage which this enfranchisement brought to
the neighbourhood by abolishing arbitrary fines, and creating them
customary freeholds. The old tenure was at once‘’a source of
impoverishment to the tenant, and a bar to all improvement to
the lands and buildings.

Is it assuming too much to say that indirectly we are indebted
to the rise of Sir John Bankes from the yeoman class, through the
prosperity of his father, occasioned by the introduction of this
new industry ?

Sir John Bankes did not forget his native place, but by his will
left property to create another industry, but which, in consequence
of the unsettled state of the country consequent on the civil war
then raging, was never put in force. The Charity, however,
remains a memorial of his liberality, and affection for his native
place.

THE BOTANY OF THE CALDEW VALLEY.
By WILLIAM HODGSON.
(Read at Carlisle.)

As a native of the valley, I felt it would be well to commit to
paper a few of the most noteworthy fragments of botanical inform-
ation collected during a period extending over more than half a
century. Of the many valleys ramifying from the Lake District as
a centre, the one now under notice is equalled by few in picturesque
loveliness. Viewed from the rugged summit of Carrock, whence
the whole course of the river may be traced through its devious
winding along the Valley, from the slopes of Warnel on the west,
of Hewer Hill or of Lower Broadfield on the east, or from the
crest of Thornthwaite Hill, we are struck with the agreeable alter-
nations of timber and pasture grounds, until we approach the
grand parklike scenery that surrounds both Rose Castle and Holm
Hill.

The sylvan growth here has undergone considerable modifications
within my recollection. Hundreds of magnificent forest trees have
disappeared from the stations they once adorned. That the
Valley has ever been richly wooded is, I think, obvious from the
number of place-names in the district—such as ‘““The Oaks” (two),
“The Ashes,” “The Ellers,” “The Birks,” ‘The Willows” (some-
times “The Wythes”), “The Hollins,” &c. Descending even to
shrubs, we find “Hawthorn Cottages,” “Hazel Springs,” “Gill
Whins.”

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128

Now a word as to the extent of the drainage area of the Caldew
Valley. Roughly stated, it would include the whole or major part
of Caldbeck, Sebergham, Castle-Sowerby, Ivegill, Raughton Head
and Gaitsgill, and Dalston, besides portions of both Greystoke and
Carlisle.

Before passing on to speak of the wild flowers, I desire to offer
a few remarks on the timber trees of the Valley. Looking at the
woods of Heggle, of Warnel, of Sebergham, of Rose Castle, of
Holm Hill, &c., the most common timber tree is undoubtedly the
Oak. Most of you, I dare say, are acquainted with those three
venerable trees in the park below Rose Castle, which were
unquestionably in existence long before the wardenship of Ingle-
wood was an extinct office. Until near the close of the last
century there grew at Thistlewood several gigantic oaks, the finest
of which, on their falling victims to the woodman’s axe, was
transported to Egremont with no little difficulty, there to be utilised
as the main axle or shaft in the machinery of a paper mill. The
“Fletcher Guards” oak, which stood about two miles lower down
the same stream, and which, I believe, was purchased by my
grandfather, was also a mighty member of the same family. On
the Rose Castle and Holm Hill properties several splendid oaks
fell victims to the fury of the terrible gale of January 7th, 1839,
still remembered as the “great wind.” The Sacra Banks oak (on
the latter estate,) was a tree of great size and extent of shade.
The other chief timber trees are the Ash, Broadleaved Elm,
Sycamore, Alder, Birch, Scotch Fir (fine examples near Rose
Castle), the White Willow, and the Crack Willow. Of less frequent
occurrence are the Beech, the Narrow-leaved Elm, the Aspen and
other Poplars, the Horse Chesnut, andthe Larch. Of the manner
in which forest trees may sometimes be propagated, the following
illustration may serve as an interesting example. The letter, dated
1709, was written to a friend by the Rev. Thomas Robinson,
vicar of Ousby, under Crossfell, is as follows :—

About twenty years ago, coming from Rose Castle early in the morning, I

observed a great number of crows very busy at their work upon a declining
ground of a mossy surface. I went out of my way on purpose to view ‘their

*

129

labouring, and found they were planting a grove of oaks, They first made
little holes in the earth with their bills, going about and about, till the hole was
deep enough, and then they dropped in the acorn, and covered it with earth and
moss, This young plantation is now fast growing up to a thick grove of oaks,
soon to be fit for use, and of height sufficient for them to build their nests in.
I told it to the owner of the ground, who took care to secure their growth and
rising.

I will now proceed to summarise as concisely and accurately as
I can, in the order adopted in the London Catalogue, the plants
which I have personally noted as existing in the Caldew Valley,
commenting here and there upon such as may rarely be met with
in other districts of the county, or which may be regarded as
casuals, waifs from cultivation, etc.

First, then, of the Ranunculus, or Crowfoot family. Zhalictrum
flavum, Common Meadow Rue, a plant of unusual occurrence in
this county, grows in the railway cutting a little to the west of
Dalston station, The Wood Anemone is tolerably abundant quite
up to the mountains. The commoner species of Crowfoot
(Buttercups) are also plentiful. Z7ollius europeus, The Mountain
Globe-Flower, a very handsome species, in moist meadows,
towards the head of the Valley. Aconitum napellus, Monk’s
Hood, grows by the river just above its confluence with Roe-beck,
on the east bank,—probably a garden outcast from higher up the
stream. ‘Three species of Poppy are commonly found in corn-
fields, on rubbish heaps, &c. Of the Fumitory family, the pretty
little creeper, Corydalis claviculata, White-flowered Fumitory, with
its weak straggling stems, may be found among the rocks and
huge fragments thereof, which everywhere thickly bestrew the foot
of Carrock. Ramping Fumitory grows about Gatesgill.

Of the very numerous tribe of Crucifers, the Valley produces

_ only the commoner types of Charlock, Wild Mustard, and Wild
_ Rape, indiscriminately classed by the farmer as “fieldkail.” Avabis

———

eS

whe

-

_ hirsuta, Hairy Rock-Cress, grows in joints of limestone about

Park Head, Sebergham. Cochlearia officinalis, Common Scurvy-
Grass, occurs in rills on Skiddaw Forest and Carrock ; where also
C. alpina, the Dwarf alpine species, may be found. TZvesdalia

- nudicaulis, Naked-Stemmed Teesdalia, on the top of a dry wall
2 9

130

near Swineside, above Mosedale, and probably also among the
screes on the neighbouring fell. Draba verna, Spring Whitlow-
Grass, many thousands on Dalston Green. Of the wild Migno-
nettes, Reseda luteola, Dyer’s Rocket, on loose soils, rubbish heaps,
&c., about Sebergham, frequent. Helianthemum vulgare, Common
Rock-Rose, about Park Head. Of the VioLacE&, or Violet Tribe,
the only rare example is Viola odorata, v, alba, the Sweet-Scented
Violet, which grows on the banks of the Roe-beck, from High
Bridge down almost to its junction with the main river. Of the
Sundews, Drosera rotundifolia, the common, or Round-Leaved
species abounds in every mountain bog ; D. intermedia, the Long-
Leaved Species, a comparatively rare plant, also grows by a wayside
ditch near Stone Ends farm, Mosedale.

Passing now to the CARYOPHYLLACE®, or Pink family, and
omitting the commoner Catchflies, Chickweeds, &c., we come to
Stellaria nemorum, Wood Stitchwort, which grows in an old orchard
at Flatbank farm, Gatesgill. Avenaria serpyllifolia, Thyme-Leaved
Sandwort, is not unfrequently met with on turftopped dry walls,
towards the head of the Valley. Sfergula arvensis, Corn Spurrey,
is of far too frequent occurrence in cultivated grounds in the same
quarter ; especially where drainage has been neglected, or when
the season has been wetter than usual. Of the Purslane order,
Montia fontana, Water-Blinks, holds a place in almost every
‘‘well-eye” or “totterbog”” among the hills.

Several members of the St. John’s Wort family are indigenous
to the Valley; but none of them is of unusual occurrence elsewhere.
Of the Mallow family, A/thea officinalis, Marsh Mallow, grows
frequently about old dwellings, and is a plant of some repute with
cottage herb doctors. MJalva moschata, Musk Mallow, rather a
handsome species, is fairly plentiful, rooting deeply into sandy or
light gravelly soils. Fine examples occur about the ballast pits
near Dalston station. Zénawm catharticum, Purging Fiax, is abundant
in many parts of the district.

The wild Geranium order. This tribe has many representatives
amongst us, the most conspicuous being the fine dark blue
Geranium pratense, Meadow Cranesbill, in the lower portions of

ec Nw Dr Din aw = aia! oe

a

Whee Pre, + aaa

131

the Valley; and Geraniwm sylvaticwm, Wood Cranesbill, with
lilac- or light-crimson corolla, in upland meadows and hedgerows.
Erodium cicutarium, Hemlock Stork’s-Bill, appears sparingly about
Dalston Green.

Several unimportant families that stand next in the Catalogue
are totally absent, or, at least, sparingly represented. The Common
Holly grows freely in the higher part of the Valley; and in the
vicinity of Heggle is a frequent ornament in hedgerow and copse.

The LEGUMINIFERA, or pod-producing plants, sometimes styled
the papilionaceous order, from their butterfly-shaped blossoms,
number about eighty species in all, exclusive of varieties. These
include the Whins, Brooms, Trefoils, and Vetches. The Common
or spring-flowering Whin is abundant everywhere ; and the dwarf
Ulex gallit is plentiful in the neighbourhood of Durdar, and the
lowest skirts of what was once Broadfield Common. Equally well
known is the Common Broom, while, here and there, especially in
the Haltcliffe district, the dwarf Genista tinctoria, Dyer’s Green-
Weed, finds a place. In addition to the ordinary species of
Trefoil common in Cumberland, 7'7ifolium arvense, the Hare’s-Foot
Trefoil, usually a seaside plant, flourishes in abundance on Dalston
Green. Of the Vetch tribe you may find Vicia hirsuta, the
Hairy-Podded Tare, among the loose gravel a little west of Dalston
station. The most noteworthy of the family is, however, Vicia
sylvatica, the Wood Vetch, really a most elegant plant. I first
met with it in a young larch plantation near the abandoned
Sebergham colliery, at the outskirts of Denton Side woods. By
means of its powerful tendrils it had managed to climb and overtop
the larches, and from the summits, some eight or nine feet from
the ground, there depended large clusters of drooping flowers,
white, tinged with light crimson or blue, which had a most charming
effect.

' Another most extensiye order now claims attention, viz., the
Rosace&, which, besides the roses proper, includes the Tormentils,
Strawberries, Brambles (a most perplexing family), Crabtree or
Wild Apple, Pears, Hawthorn, &c. Singling out the most remark-
able for passing notice, Prunus insititia, the Bullace or Wild Plum,

132

is fairly plentiful about Flat Bank, near High Head Castle, and
farther up the same valley. The splendid Black Cherry* trees that
grow in the park near Warnel Hall are the finest I have ever met
with, attaining a growth equal to most timber trees, and in some
seasons producing a large quantity of excellent fruit. Sperea
filipendula, Dropwort, has been noticed in the fields immediately
below Daiston, by the footpath to Cummersdale—perhaps a doubtful
native. Poterium sanguisorba, Salad Burnet, in joints of the lime-
stone about Parkhead. A/chemilla alpina, Alpine Ladies’ Mantle,
among rocks and screes on Carrock Fell. Comarum palustre,
Purple Marsh-Cinquefoil, boggy pools on Mosedale Moss. The
Wild Raspberry is common. The Red-Fruited Bramble occurs
sparingly in Denton Side, as does also the Dewberry. The Cloud-
berry is reported to grow in Skiddaw Forest, but this I cannot
vouch for personally. Probably half-a-dozen roses are indigenous,
but none of a rare character have fallen under my notice. Of the
Wild Pear tree, a solitary specimen stands near Gatesgill, by the
lane leading to Brackenhowe. The Crabtree or Wild Apple is
familiar to every schoolboy.

Lythrum salicaria, Purple Loose Strife, occurs in boggy places
towards the fells. Its tall spikes of light purple flowers are
remarkably elegant. The Willow Herbs are well represented.
The two giant types, the Narrow-Leaved and the Great Hairy
Willow Herb, may both be seen in the grounds at Holm Hill, while
“well-eyes” on Carrock and other fells produce the tiny Chickweed-
Leaved species. In elegance of outline or delicacy of colouring
it loses nothing in comparison with its taller and more showy
brethren. Both the British forms of Enchanters’ Nightshade may
may be gathered in the fell district ; where, also, several species of
Stonecrop occur, notably, the Biting Stonecrop and the Orpine.
Of the same family, Cotyledon umbilicus, Navelwort, was discovered
a few years ago by Canon Carr, in a lane near Buckabank. This
species is rare in Cumberland. Saxifrages, for the most part, are

* A letter just received from J, G. Baker, Esq., F.R.S., of the Royal
Herbarium, Kew, contains the following expression : ‘‘ Your Lakeland Cherries
want more working.at.”

t

133

confined to the mountains, where many species flourish in great
beauty and abundance; and among the wet uplands also grows
the’ handsome Grass of Parnassus. This is a late flowering
species.

Many members of the umbelliferous family, as the Spotted
Hemlock,'Water Hemlock, “deed tung,” and Fools’ Parsley, have
an uncanny reputation as poisons more or less deadly. I remember
when a schoolboy, being elected to fill the post of huntsman in a
game of “hare and hounds.” Of course I must have a hunting
horn. A robust stem of Heraceum sphondylium, Hogweed, grew
quite handy, and was quickly utilised for the- purpose, which it
served admirably. The consequences were decidedly unpleasant.
For ten days or more my lips were in a painfully chapped and
excoriated state. On explaining the cause to an aged neighbour,
his remark was—‘ Served you right; you will use the Smooth
Kesh next time you want a hunting horn!” I believe the man
was right. The Smooth Kesh, or Wild Angelica, has certainly
less irritating juice than the plant I had used.

Of the CapRiIFOLIACE&, or Honeysuckle tribe, the very pretty, if
lowly, little Adoxa moschatellina, Tuberous Moschatel, may be
found in the early months of the season on old hedgebanks ; and
in autumn the showy red and waxlike fruit of the Guelder Rose is
a conspicuous ornament of many a coppice and hedgerow. Several
species of Galium may be found in different parts of the Valley.
The majority of them are in perfection about midsummer. Scadiosa
columbaria, Mountain Scabious, usually a tenant of calcareous up-
lands, is found as low down the Valley as the park at Holm Hill,

— essibly brought down by the river from the higher limestone

district. Its congener, the Devil’s-Bit, is almost ubiquitous. A
local name for this species is “Hog-a-back.” ‘The largest of the
family, the Field Scabious, grows vigourously in some very poor
soil at the back of Warnell Fell, between Park Head and Parson’s
Park. Its lilac-coloured flowers are sometimes nearly as large as
some of the asters of our gardens, to which they bear a close
resemblance.

We now arrive at the extensive order of composite plants, which

134

includes Thistles, Camomiles, Groundsel, Daisies, Cudweeds,
Hawkweeds, &c. Carduus crispus, Nodding Thistle ; a variety of
this species, known by some botanists as C. acanthoides, or Welted
Thistle, is occasionally found in the hedges of cultivated fields
from Sebergham downwards. The Carline Thistle on dry banks
at the base of the mountains. The Corn Blue-Bottle, Centaurea
cyanus, sometimes occurs in cornfields, where it has been imported
probably among the seed corn. The same remark is applicable
to the Corn Marigold, Chrysanthemum segetum. The Common
Wormwood, Artemisia absinthium, formerly covered portions of
Dalston Green, where I fear it is now all but extinct, from the
demands made upon it by cottage “medicine men.” At this last
mentioned station the least of the local Cudweeds appears in
abundance. Of the Groundsel tribe, the largest and ieast known
in Cumberland is Sevecio saracenicus, Broad-Leaved Ragwort, a
patch of which grows close to the river by the roadside leading
from Sebergham to Bell Bridge. Another extremely rare plant,
the exact locality of which I cannot venture to divulge, as even
now I fear its extermination is imminent, is Zrigeron acris, Blue
Fleabane. I have heard of its existence near Cummersdale,
though I found it growing farther up the stream. Cuzchorium
intybus, Chicory, now and then makes its appearance in fields
recently laid down to pasture; possibly its seeds were mixed with
samples of rye-grass or clover. Zvagopogon pratensis, Meadow
Goats-Beard, though more frequently met with than the three last
mentioned species, is yet unusual.

Of the thirty-six British Hawkweeds, only about six may be
fairly set down as indigenous. The Pennines produce far more
examples than the Cumberland group of hills. Of the Blue-bells,
or CAMPANULACE&, we find four species. The least known to city
botanists is probably. Campanula glomerata, Clustered Bell-Flower,
which has terminal heads of large dark purple flowers; a native
commonly of calcareous soils. Parkhead, scarce.

Of Heaths and mountain Berry-bearing Shrubs, the following
may be found on Carrock, Skiddaw, Bowscale, or Caldbeck fells,
viz., the Cranberry, Cowberry, or Red Whortleberry (ripe fruit not

135

by any means plentiful), Bilberry (fine examples near Bowscale
Tarn), and Crow-berry, the Ling-berry of shepherds (Zmfetrum
nigrum), though this last belongs to a different order. The Bog-
Whortleberry is also reputed to grow here ; but, if so, I have not
yet seen it. The Fine-Leafed and the Cross-Leafed Heaths, as
well as the Common Ling, once so much used for besom-making,
are all abundant. A white flowering variety of the Ling is not
unfrequent on Broadfield. Of the Gentian family, Gentiana
campestris, Field Gentian, an autumn flowering species, with blue,
or purple-tinted flowers, grows on Parkhead. I have also seen it
on Middlesceugh pasture. MJenyanthes trifoliata, the Bog-Bean, of
great repute among rural herbalists as a stomachic, bears one of
the handsomest flowers I have ever seen, native or foreign. Found
in deep boggy ground. Hyoscyamus niger, Black Henbane, said
to be an exceedingly virulent poison, grows on rubbish heaps
occasionally on the village greens of both Caldbeck and Dalston.
Of the Figwort tribe, Verbascum thapsus, Mullein, Shepherd's Staff,
occurs at intervals in gravelly ground by the Caldew from Sebergham
downwards. JLinaria cymbalaria, Ivy-Leafed Toad-Flax, must
long have been established in the Valley, where it is abundant on
old walls about ancient dwellings ; Z. repens, Creeping Toad-Flax,

_ might have better claims to external origin. A small patch of this

species grows by the roadside between Buckabank and the river.
Of the Speedwells, the Ivy-Leafed species, which flowers early,
abounds about Buckabank. Buxbaum’s Speedwell, a far finer, as
well as more rare species, grew some years back on a heap of
builder’s rubbish close to the houses at Dalston. Of the Broom
Rape family, that curious and elegant parasitic plant, Lathrea
sguamaria, or Toothwort, has of late seasons been noticed upon
the roots of elm and other trees on both sides of the Raugh, near
Gatesgill. :

Of the Labiate order, which comprises all the Mint, Marjoram,
and Dead-Nettle tribe, about sixty species in all, not including
varieties, brief notice must suffice. Four species of Mint may be

set down as of common occurrence. Specimens of Wefeta cataria,

Catmint, have been recently gathered in the lane leading from Bell-

136

Bridge to Sebergham Hall, by Mr. W. Duckworth. Wild Thyme
and Basil appear on dry uplands; while Ground Ivy, Wood Betony,
and Bugle, belong rather to woodlands and sheltered hedge-banks ;
a remark that is applicable also to Wood-Sage. Several species of
Myosotis, Forget-me-not, are not unusual ; some in running water,
while others prefer dry banks. Comfrey, never perhaps truly wild,
finds a place about the boundaries of old gardens and orchards.
The common Hound’s Tongue used to grow not far from
Hawksdale Bridge. The common Butterwort and Primula
farinosa, the Mealy Cowslip—both lovers of moisture—are found
by mountain springs. The latter is the Bonnie Bird Een, of the
dalesman. Lysimachia nummularia, Money Wort, the Creeping
Jenny of London flower girls, is found at the foot of the Scar,
Gatesgill ; Z. nemorum, Wood Loose-Strife, in Flatbank orchard ;
and Z. ciliata, an excluded species, by the roadside near Monkhouse
Hill, Sebergham. Three species of Plantain frequently occur.
The Goosefoot family include several well-known garden weeds, as
well as Chenopodium bonus-henricus, Good King Harry, or Mercury
Goosefoot, formerly in use as a culinary vegetable, though now
superseded by Spinach, which belongs to the same natural order.
Of the Rumex or Dock family, in addition to the Round-Leafed and
Curled Docks, the plague of farmers, the Bloody-Veined Dock is
not unfrequent about Gatesgill. Polygonum bistorta, Snake-weed,
Eastermer Giants, grows in a wild state in meadows about Haltcliffe
Bridge. Many species of the Spurge family are shore plants, arid,
therefore, wanting in the valley; where only two seem truly
indigenous, the Sun Spurge, and the Petty Spurge. They are all
remarkable for the yellow acrid juice contained in the leaves and
stems, supposed to be efficacious in removing warts from the hands.
In ground under tillage, and abounding most among green crops,
the Stinging Nettles, both annual and perennial, are familiar every-
where.

Amentiferous, or Catkin-Bearing plants, are tolerably numerous.
The Oak, Alder, Beech, Hazel, Poplars, and Willows, all belong
to this order. Of the first I have already spoken. ‘The Willows
share with the Brambles, Hawkweeds, &c., an unenviable noto-

Te

137

riety. The different species approximate sometimes so closely
that their correct indentification is a very difficult task. Many
species adorn the banks of the stream, from the gigantic Crack
Willow, Salix fragilis, which, near Gatesgill, attains a height of sixty
or seventy feet, to the dwarf Sadéx herbacea, three or four inches in
height, which grows almost at the summit of Skiddaw. Other preva-
lent species are the sweet Bay-Leafed Willow, the White Willow,
with its variety S. wfellima; the Long-Leafed Triandrous and Purple
Willows ; the Common Osier, the Long-Leafed Sallow, the Grey,
and Wrinkled-Leafed or Round-Eared Sallow, the Round-Leafed
or Great Sallow, the dark Broad-Leafed Willow, and the Creeping
Willow, all tolerably distinct species. Of the Conifers, the Common
Juniper grows on Carrock, where also occasional specimens of Yew
are to be met with. Pond-weeds are plentiful enough, but limited
toavery few species. otamogeton crispus, Curled-Leafed Pond-
Weed, abounds in the river. TZviglochin palustre, Marsh-Arrow
Grass, in upland meadows, where moisture is super-abundant. Of
native Orchids, the most noteworthy are the pretty little Ovchis
ustulata, Dwarf Dark-Winged Orchis, which displays its elegant
maroon-coloured blossoms, in a meadow known as Fletcher-guards,
by Roe-beck, a little below Raughtonhead ; and Hadbenaria viridis,
¥Frog Orchis, among the rocks about Parkhead. pipactis latifolia,
Broad-Leafed Helleborine, occasionally shows itself in the vicinity
of the river; where, too, the Wild Daffodil and the Snowdrop
flourish in early spring. Zzlium martagon, Turk’s Cap, a garden
escape probably, occurs in the Morell Wood, opposite Holm Hill.
The same wood also produces the A/um vineale, or Crow Garlic.
The Lancashire Bog Asphodel is, often conspicuous in wet

meadows adjacent to the hills,

In the upper part of the Valley, next to the mountains, a good
many members of the JuNcAcE# can be found. The following
species of Zuzuda appear, viz: L. pilosa, Broad-Leaved Hairy
Wood-Rush, in shady woods; Z. sylvatica, Great Wood-Rush, in
gills; Z. campestris, Field Wood-Rush, is nearly ubiquitous ;
L. multiflora, v. congesta, Many-Flowered Wood-Rush, is also of
common occurrence on elevated and moist heaths. The Rushes

138

proper, or Junci, are more numerous. The clayey summit levels
of Broadfield, Hewerhill, and Warnel, are over-run with beds of
J. gtaucus, Hard-Rush ; while /- effusus, Soft-Rush, the delight of
juvenile “‘sievy-cap” makers; /. acutiflorus, Sharp-Flowered Jointed-
Rush, Closs of our dalesmen; and /. sguarrosus, Moss Rush,
Goose Corn, are all of them plentiful, the last mentioned being
found only on the wettest and most exposed moorlands. At least
six other species are natives of the Valley; of these, 7. dufonius,
Toad-Rush, is possibly the best known, being found by moist
ditch banks all along the Valley.

The family CypERACE#, which includes Club Rushes, Sedges,
and Cotton-Grasses, is a somewhat extensive one. One of its
ablest exponents at the beginning of the present century, was the
late Dr. Goodenough, bishop of Carlisle, whom I can just remember
seeing at Rose Castle. The following list includes most of the
species that I have been enabled to identify. Most of them
belong to the fell district. Scirpus palustris, Creeping Spike-Rush,
in boggy ditches ; S. mu/ticaulis, Many-Stalked Spike-Rush, turfy
ground and wet commons, slenderer than the preceding plant ;
S. cespitosus, Scaly-Stalked Club-Rush, turty heaths almost to the
very top of Carrock ; S. fuztans, Floating Club Rush, in pools on
Mosedale Moss, rather unusual ; S. se¢acews, Bristle-Stalked Club-
Rush, found sometimes plentifully by the edges of gravelly-bottomed
mountain rills; S. sylvaticus, Wood Club-Rush, in upland meadows,
and by the edges of slow-running streams: the flowering stems are
frequently half a yard high, and as thick as a lady’s ring-finger. Of
the Cotton-Grasses, Eriophorum vaginatum, Hare’s Tail Cotton-
Grass, and £. polystachion or angustifolium, Common Cotton-Grass,
are not unfrequent on moors. Of the Carices, or Sedges proper,
about twenty species may be claimed as natives of the Caldew
Valley. C. dioica, Creeping Separate-Headed Sedge, having the
male flowers on one stem and the female florets on another, is
found sparingly in deep spongy bogs. C. pulicaris, Flea Sedge,
abounds in bogs, and derives its name from its peculiarly shaped
dark brown smooth and shining fruit. C. ¢eretiuscula, Lesser
Panicled Sedge, a somewhat rare plant, occurs in boggy meadows:

mT 5

139

I found fine examples of this sedge last summer in Newton Moss,
near Penrith. C. paniculata, the Greater Panicled Sedge, a plant
of very robust growth: the stems, often more than two feet high,
spring from hassocks of large size; only found in perfection in deep
spongy bogs. C. muricaia, and C. stellulata, the Greater and the
Lesser Prickly Sedge, are both to be found; the former sparingly,
while the latter is common in almost every pasture. C. remota,
Remote Sedge, with rather pretty drooping spikelets, frequent in
ditches and under hedgerows in shady ground. C. curta, White
Sedge, occasionally shows itself in watery pastures. C. ovalis,
Oval-Spiked Sedge, one of the more common Carices. C. acuta,
Slender-Spiked Sedge, a much more conspicuous plant than the
foregoing, with several drooping stems about two feet high; by
sikes and pools, not very uncommon. C. vulgaris, Tufted Bog
Sedge, very common; in some instances exclusively occupying large
patches of ground. C. glauca, Glaucous Heath-Sedge, the Pry or
Blue Gers of haymakers in the dales, who greatly dislike it; it is
difficult to cut except with a keen-edged scythe, and not very manage-
able when, in its dried state, it passes into the hands of the “‘lader”;
common in all high-lying meadow and pasture ground. C. pilulifera,
Round Headed or Pill Sedge, may be found sparingly on upland
moors. C.precox, Vernal Sedge, seems to be much less dependent
on moisture than its congeners, sometimes appearing on the dry
slopes of a mountain, or on a hedge bank in the valley. C. panicea,
Pink-Leaved Sedge, in boggy meadows not unusual. C. sylvatica,
Pendulous Wood Sedge, common in woods, and frequently occur-
ring lower down the valley than the species already enumerated.
C. binervis, Green-Ribbed Sedge, varies much in size according to
locality; on some dry heaths in the Lake District it is very

_ abundant. C. fulva, Tawny Sedge, I have frequently seen in our

best meadows, associated with a class of herbage quite superior to
the surroundings of the Carex family as a rule. C. flava, Yellow
Mountain Sedge : in every fell runner or small stream this plant is
of common occurrence up to an elevation of two thousand feet
and more above the sea level; the variety b. lepidocarpa is not
unfrequent. C. hirta, Hairy Sedge: this sedge is not limited, like

140

many of the preceding species, to the upland part of the Valley,
but occurs by the edges of the Robeck and Caldew on both the
Rose Castle and Holm Hill estates. C. ampullacea, Slender-
Beaked Bottle-Sedge: a very common species in many parts of
Cumberland in marshy pools and by river sides. ‘The above list
includes all the species that I have noticed within the limits of the
Valley ; but I regard it as far from exhaustive, having a conviction
that others of the family would be found on careful search.

The GRAMINA, or Grasses, occypy the next position in the
Catalogue, but as I have specially treated upon them in a paper
already published in the Society’s Zransactions, Vol. V., it would
be superfluous to travel over the same ground. I would, however,
mention that since the volume in question was issued, I have had
specimens of Poa alpina, Alpine Meadow Grass, gathered on
Skiddaw, kindly forwarded to me by Mr. W. Duckworth of Stanwix ;
and I have myself found Poa nemoralis, Wood Meadow Grass ;
Festuca sylvatica, Wood Fescue; and Bromus commutatus, Meadow
Brome Grass, in different parts of Cumberland. I hardly look
upon the last mentioned as indigenous here.

A few remarks on the local Ferns must conclude the present
paper. The indiscriminating and reckless rooting up and carrying
off our rarer species, has rendered the true lover of plants chary
of divulging the stations where he has noted their growth. The last
letter I ever received from my late venerable friend and corre-
spondent, Mr. W. Dickinson of Thorncroft, lamented this plant
slaughter, and he strongly urged me to be very reticent on such ~
matters. I now look upon this recommendation as the dying
injunction of a gentleman who, in many and varied phases of the
study of Natural History, was an honour to his native Cumberland; .
and whose decease has left a blank among us that will not readily
be filled up.

Adhering to the plan adopted in the previous notes, I remark
that Hymenophyllum unilaterale, Wilson’s Film Fern, our smallest
local species, may be found in many of the gills on both Skiddaw
and Carrock. Pieris aquilina, Common Brakes, universally known

141

as Brekins, abounds in dry ground in every part of the Valley.
Cryptogramma crispa, or, as it is frequently designated, AJ/osorus
erispus, Parsley Fern: this handsome species, which is the object
of much curiosity to those who, living in valleys and flat neighbour-
hoods, have never seen it in a wild state, flourishes in luxuriant
abundance on the Skiddaw group of fells. The same may be said
of Lomaria spicant, Hard Fern, with the addition that it frequently
occurs on the edges of Broadfield, and in sandstone gills about
Gatesgill and Sebergham ; one of the most widely-distributed of
all our British ferns. Asplenium ruta-muraria, Wall Rue: on
walls and rocks ; in fruit all the year round, and not limited to any
particular part of the Valley. A. septentrionale, Forked Spleenwort:
a very local species, so nearly exterminated that its discovery may
be regarded as a capital find ; rocks about waterfalls are its chosen
haunts, though sometimes seen in front of dry rocky scars at a
considerable elevation. A. trichomanes, Common Spleenwort :
the finest examples are found in crevices of rocks that overhang
or inclose forces on the hills. A. viride, Green Spleenwort: a
much rarer species than the preceding, and anxiously sought after by
visitors, is rapidly diminishing in supply; (chiefly occurs in the moist
crevices of calcareous rocks [Ep.]) A. adiantum-nigrum, Black
Spleenwort : widely distributed among the rocks of Caldbeck fells
and Carrock, and sometimes to be found as a hedge-bank plant
farther down the course of the river. Athyrium filix-faemina, Lady
Fern : common in sheltered situations where moisture is abundant.
The variety rheticum is also of frequent occurrence. The two
forms may sometimes be observed growing side by side. Céterach
_ officinarum, Common Scale-Fern: this, like the Green Spleenwort,
has suffered extensively from the greed of collectors, and is now
looked upon as a rarity ; fortunately it is not easily extirpated; I
have known stations denuded of every root, but where in a few
“seasons it was found flourishing afresh. Scolopendrium vulgare,
- Hart’s-Tongue: on moist shady walls, in deep gills, and similar
_ places ; often very fine on the inside walls of well tops, with the
fronds, or the tips of them, inclining towards the water. Cystopteris
fragilis, Brittle Bladder-Fern: on moist rocks and about the bases

142

of old walls, this elegant little fern is fairly plentiful. The variety
b. dentata is occasionally met with. Aspidiwm lonchitis, the Holly
Fern: of this plant I can only speak from report; its existence on
Carrock has frequently been alleged, but I have never met with it
there; as my informants were trustworthy persons, I regard its
presence there as very probable. 4A. aculeatum and A. lobatwm
Prickly Shield Fern, I am tempted to think only slightly divergent
types of one species ; I have found both forms of this fern from
Gatesgill upwards; on the lower slopes of Carrock one of them
grows luxuriantly. Nephrodium filix mas, Male Fern, Meckans
or Meckins of the dalesmen; a large and robust fern, plentiful
everywhere. The variety c. borreri is perhaps the only type readily-
distinguishable from the normal one. J. spinulosum, which some
botanists look upon as merely a casual variety of the foregoing
species, is found in moist woods towards the head of the Valley,
as also about the bases of the mountains. J. dilatatum, Broad
Prickly-Toothed Fern: another large fern of very varying character,
like some last mentioned species, is found abundantly in shady woods;
some specially fine plants occur in the woods near High Head Castle.
JV. oreopteris, Mountain Buckler Fern: not uncommon. Polypodium
vulgare, Common Polypody: this fern, well known as an occupant
of old walls, stumps and roots of trees, rocks and shady places,
abounds everywhere, clothing the edges of rocky prominences on
Carrock with a fringe of green foliage, which has a striking effect,
especially in the depth of winter. LP. phegopteris, Beech Fern:
appears in shady and slightly-moist places in many parts of the
Valley ; it abounds in Denton Side woods. P. dryopteris, Oak
Fern: is a common inhabitant of rocky woods, especially in beds
of screes, where its slender wiry roots creep about in every direction;
the finest specimens occur in the vicinity of forces, though generally
speaking this species shows less affinity for moisture than the
Beech Fern. Ophioglossum vulgatum, Common Adder’s-Tongue :
in upland meadows, where a cold clayey subsoil prevails, this
curious little plant is more frequent than is generally imagined ;
it springs late in the season, and dies down early; from the middle —
of May to the beginning of June is the best season for observing

143

it; in pastures it is quickly cropped by cattle, and in meadows
speedily overtopped by the other herbage, when it becomes difficult
to make it out, as its fronds differ little in shape from the leaves of
the Devil’s-Bit Scabious, their almost constant neighbour. Boéry-
chium lunaria, Moonwort: towards the summit of Warnel, about
Park Head, sparingly.
Of Club-Mosses, or Lycopods, a goodly array may be found on
the slopes of the mountains. Some, indeed, flourish in the black
_ peat which covers the summits of Carrock and other fells. The
following species occur: Lycopodium clavatum, Club Moss, Stag’s-
Horn of the shepherds; Z. alpinum, Alpine Club-Moss ; ZL. selago,
Fir Club-Moss; Z. inwndatwm, Marsh Club-Moss ; and Selaginella
selaginoides, Prickly Club-Moss.

The EquisEerace#, or Mare’s-tail tribe, has the following repre-
sentatives, viz: Hquisetum arvense, Field Horsetail: in wet fields,
banks of rivers, and similar places; Filly-tail, Tyad-pipes, &c., of
the dalesfolk; a troublesome weed, and extremely difficult to
extirpate, its roots penetrating toa great depth. Zqwisetwm maxi-
mum, or £. telmateia, Great Horsetail, is said to grow in Denton
Side or Parson Park; but I cannot vouch for the fact. Z. sylvaticum,
Wood Horsetail: not uncommon in the upper part of the district,
in meadows where moisture is abundant. J. palustre, Marsh
Horsetail: is sparingly found in sikes and in boggy ground.
£. limosum, Smooth Naked Horsetail: is rather an aquatic than
palustral plant, usually growing in stagnant water. H. hyemale,
Dutch Rushes, or Shave Grass, the last of the family, is one that
I have never seen within the Valley, but which is very likely to be
found about such places as Mosedale Moss.

The CHARACE&. Chara syncarpa, or, as it is now called,
Nitella opaca, Smooth Chara, is commonly met with in ditches
_ and boggy stagnant pools, where it is probable that other species
May be discovered. The Chara family have not long ‘been
enrolled in the columns of the London Catalogue, and the
different species are now being arranged under a new system of
classification.

144

I have thus briefly, and I fear inefficiently, endeavoured to bring
before the members of the Carlisle Scientific Society and Field
Naturalists’ Club, a compendium of the botanical productions of
“Cauda’s sweet vale,” in the hope that it may lead to further
investigations in the same direction. The labour has been to me
a Yost congenial task, and has sufficed to call up pleasant
memories of many a ramble by woodland copse and mountain
glen in days long by past.

aS

F.R

ESS

ROBERT HARKN

(From a bloé& lent by the Proprietors of the “‘ Illustrated London News,” through

., Editor of

F.R.S
)

e ‘ Geological Magazine.

the kind offices of Henry Woodward, Esq

th

145

PROFESSOR ROBERT HARKNESS, F.R.S., F.G.S.

By J. G. GOODCHILD, of the Geol. Survey of England.
(Read at Penrith.)

INTRODUCTION.

THE principal events in the life of a man of science offer, as a rule,
so little that is of interest to the world outside the circle of his own
friends and acquaintance, that the advisability of placing them perma.
nently on record may, in manycases, well be called in question. Even
where he happens to have largely influenced public opinion by
means of well-known and widely-read books, the general public
are apt to feel very little interest in any account of the principal
events in the career of the author himself, unless, of course, these
events are known to possess in themselves some degree of interest
approaching to the dramatic. In most cases this indifference will
be found to arise from the fact that the subjects principally treated
of do not happen, as a whole, to relate sufficiently to any one
particular locality to cause the permanent association of the author’s
name with that of the principal scene of his labours. Where, how-
ever, aman has exerted a considerable degree of influence upon
Scientific opinion by an important series of scientific contributions
_felating to any definite area, the history of his labours becomes
equivalent to a history of the science he has helped to advance,
and under that aspect may justly claim to possess, for the people
of that area, at least, an interest of something more than the
ordinary kind.

That this was the case with the man of science of whose history
10

146

I am about to give an outline is already well known. Professor
Harkness’s original memoirs relating to the Geology of the Basin
of the Solway rank among some of the most important contributions
to geological literature of their time. It is not going too far to
say that there was hardly a single branch of geological knowledge
relating to that district that he did not directly or indirectly con-
tribute to, and contribute in such a way, that the results of his
labours have formed a most important part of the foundation
whereon all subsequent memoirs relating to the geology of that
part have themselves been based.

He possessed also, a most intimate acquaintance with the
topography of a very large area of the same district, and indeed,
might fairly have laid claim to have known more about the
geological structure, the fossils, the minerals, and the natural
features of Cumberland and Westmorland than any one man ever
possessed before his time; or, it may be safe to prophecy, than
any one man, even in these days of facile locomotion, will ever
possess again.

Besides what he did in the way of bringing so many parts of
our district permanently under the notice of the scientific world,
Professor Harkness’s connection with Cumberland, which dates
back from the year 1849, enabled him to give practical expression in
many other ways to the warm interest he felt in everything relating to
the advancement of scientific knowledge of any kind. We have
good evidence of this in the series of lectures on various subjects
that he gave in connection with Mr. Gordon and Mr. Tannahill,
in the earlier days of what is now the Penrith Scientific Society.
There is no need for me to do more than refer to his readiness in
communicating any of the information in his possession to his
fellow-workers, whether they were already men of good standing in
the scientific world, or whether they were only just beginning to
turn their attention to science at all. In this respect his claims
upon the regard of men who have since made for themselves names
well-known throughout the scientific world have been again and
again gratefully acknowledged.

Deeds speak louder than words it is said, and therefore, instead

147

of presuming to lay before you any statement of my own individual
opinions regarding his personal character and the position his
works occupy in the ranks of geological literature, I propose to
make a departure from the rule usually observed in biographical
essays, and to treat the subject in two sections, giving now, in the
_ first, a brief outline of the principal external events of his career,
gathered from sources whose authenticity is not likely to be called
in question. In the second part, wherein I feel sure that at least
an equal degree of interest is likely to be felt, I propose hereafter
_ to trace the history of each of his several contributions to geological
literature, pointing out its position in relation to the labours of his
fellow-workers, so that the history of opinion upon each subject
_ treated of may be placed in as clear a light as possible. Where
_ the papers relate to districts beyond the Basin of the Solway, and
_ have no bearing, direct or indirect, upon our local geology, a brief
allusion will be all that need be given. In the remaining cases I
_ propose to give an epitome of all the facts and observations he has
_ placed on record relating to the Geology of the Basin of the Solway,
_ taking the papers in the order of the rocks they refer to instead of
_ chronologically, and giving especial prominence to such as he
might himself have reproduced in the form of a.Geology of Cum-
- berland and Westmorland.

PAR Tis de

Professor Harkness was born at Ormskirk, Lancashire, on the 28th
July, 1816. After acquiring some elementary education at home, also
_at a school in the neighbourhood, he was placed with Dr. Duncan,
“minister of Greyfriars, Dumfries, and was educated along with
E Dr. Duncan’s sons. After some years study he entered the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, and attended the lectures of Professor
Jamieson, the well-known exponent of the Wernerian School of
( eology, as well as those of the equally well-known geologist
Professor J. D. Forbes.

After leaving Edinburgh, Mr. Harkness returned to Ormskirk,
wi with the intention of entering into a well-known firm, Peak Brothers
and Co., India Merchants, London. Circumstances prevented

148

his doing so. In the meantime he was by no means idle. The
interest aroused in his mind by the teaching he had received at
Edinburgh was constantly being increased by the practical study
of the geological features of the country around him. Geology
was then in its infancy, and consequently very little had been
written about that district ; but what had been written he seems to
have taken every opportunity of reading, as was his almost-constant
practice in regard to any other district he was studying in after life.
But he did not remain content with mastering the stock of inform-
ation at that time available; on the contrary, he appears, with
characteristic originality, to have set to work at once to bring his
knowledge to bear upon some of the many then-unsolved problems
that arrested his attention in the district around him.

It is not easy nowadays to realise the full extent of the difficulties
that, forty years ago, the pioneers of Geology had to contend with.
At the present day we have the most remote parts of the kingdom
rendered easily accessible by modern improvements in locomotion.
Good maps, admirable text-books, and first-class teaching, are
within the reach of nearly everyone: so that the modern student
may easily gain possession of more ready-made knowledge in a few
years than the fathers of our science would have found it possible
to acquire by constant study through a long life-time.

In the year 1843 appeared Harkness’s first communication to a
scientific society. This was read before the then-youthful Geo-
logical Society of Manchester, and was printed that same year in the
“Annals of Philosophy.” This treated of the Climate of the Coal
Period, a subject that probably suggested itself in connection with
the nature of the rocks in the neighbourhood of his birthplace. In
this, his first essay, Harkness advanced views that, as the Editor of
the Geological Magazine has remarked, were advocated anew by Dr.
Sterry Hunt* after an interval of close upon a quarter of a century.
Another paper read before the same Society shortly afterwards, and —
published in Vol. viii. of their Transactions, dealt with the Glacial —
Theories advanced by Professor Agassiz. Both of these, although —
more or less theoretical in character, have important bearings upon §

*The Chemistry of the Primzeval Earth. Geo/, Mag. iv. (1867) pp. 365-6.

149

the Geology of Cumberland and Westmorland, and will therefore
be referred to again in the second part of this paper. The same
remark applies to the paper he wrote in conjunction with another
well-known geologist, Mr. E. W. Binney of Manchester, on the
Fossil Trees of St. Helens, which was published in the Philosophical
Magazine for 1845. The year 1845 saw also the publication of the
first of his numerous contributions to the Journal of the Geological
Society. This treated of the occurrence of fossils in the Boulder
Clay, and was followed, the next year, by another discussing the
causes that have led to the variations in level of the ocean relatively
to the surface of the land.

In 1848, the family went to reside in Dumfries, where, amongst
rocks so entirely different in nearly every respect from the rocks
within easy distance of Ormskirk, he found abundant scope for
investigation of a different kind. The crushed and contorted
Silurian rocks of that part had hitherto seemed to offer to geologists
a most unattractive field of research; for, with the exception of
Sedgwick, who had begun a series of traverses and had collected
some fossils just before Harkness went there, hardly any geologist
had made more than an attempt at unravelling the intricate structure
of that very difficult tract. Harkness, it appears, set to work at
these at once, and by the time the British Association met at
Edinburgh, in 1850, he had succeeded in obtaining a general idea
of the structural characteristics of that part, and had, concurrently
with Sedgwick’s fossil collector, the afterwards well-known John
Ruthven of Kendal, succeeded also in collecting from the anthracitic
schists of the Moffat rocks many new forms of Graptolites and other
fossils, whose very existence in these rocks had only just before
been made known by Sedgwick. Sedgwick’s account of his own
finds, which was given when his specimens were exhibited at the
meeting of the British Association referred to, stimulated Harkness
to further exertions, and soon after the termination of the meeting
he sent his specimens to the celebrated palzontologist, Mr. J. W.
Salter, to be named. Thenceforward his interest in these singular
organisms continued unabated through the remainder of his life.
The almost unrivalled collection of Graptolites made by him, and

150

since presented to the Carlisle Museum by his sister, Mrs. Pearson
of Penrith, will ever remain as a memorial of his long-continued
and patient researches in this direction. Harkness’s first memoir
on these fossils appeared shortly afterwards.

But along with the rocks just referred to, occur, on the northern
side of the Basin of the Solway, other rocks more familiar to him
at that time than the Silurians could have been. Harkness was
evidently struck with the general resemblance between this tract of
New Red Rocks, and the one he had just before been studying
in Lancashire. The study of the phenomena observable in the
one threw more or less light upon the geological relations of the
other. Accordingly, seeing the New Red of the neighbourhood of
his birthplace by the help of the additional light he had just gained
in Dumfries, Harkness again turned his attention to the subject,
and, at the meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh, just
now referred to, after reading a paper on the “ Position of the
Footsteps in the Bunter Sandstone of Dumfriesshire,” we find him
following the subject up with a Notice of the Occurrence of a
Tridactylous Footmark from the Bunter Sandstone of Western
Point, Cheshire, which formed the first of his. contributions to the
* Annals and Magazine of Natural History.” I have referred to
these two papers at some little length for two reasons. The first
is that, as the paper on the New Red of Dumfries was read at the
same meeting of the British Association where Sedgwick was
exhibiting the Graptolites from the Moffat rocks M‘Coy had just
named for him, the great master of Palaeozoic Geology, ever ready
as he was to come forward with generous aid to any fellow-worker,
could not fail to have had his interest aroused in the author of a
paper relating to that tract of New Red Rocks whose eastern
extension in Cumberland and Westmorland he had himself lately
been writing about. And we have evidence that the friendly
relations thus commenced remained unaltered to the day of Sedg-
wick’s death.

In 1849, Harkness paid his first visit to Cumberland. From
that date his name was destined to be permanently associated with
the Geology of the North of England.

ee

151

The first of his papers on the Silurian rocks of the Basin of the
Solway saw the light early in 1851, in the pages of the “ Journal
of the Geological Society,” and this was quickly followed up by
three or four others on allied: subjects, which will be found enumer-
ated in their chronological order in the second part of this paper.
Also appeared several other articles on the New Red Rocks of the
same district in quick succession, each one adding to the author’s
scientific reputation, and bringing him more and more into com-
munication with the foremost men of science of that day.

Amongst the numerous letters from well-known geologists now
in Mrs. Pearson’s possession is the following note from the
Professor of Geology—or Reader in Geology, as he was called—
at Oxford, Hugh Strickland, who had just filled the post vacated
by the well-known Dr. Buckland.

Tewkesbury, April 3, 1851.

Dear Sir,

I am much obliged for your attention in sending me your papers on
Dumfriesshire.

You seem to be working out that district in good earnest, and you will
doubtless extend still further our knowledge of the organic remains of the
Silurian Rocks, as well as of the Red Sandstone.

I am, dear Sir, yours truly,
H, E. STRICKLAND.

/

R. Harkness, Esq.

The next letter is from the celebrated continental geologist,
Joachim Barrande, whose writings on the Older Palaeozoic Rocks
and fossils of Bohemia rank amongst the foremost contributions to
our knowledge of the geology of the older parts of the series.

9 Juin, 1851.

Mon cher Monsieur,

J’ai recu par V’entr’amite de M. Salter une suite de Graptolites
d’Ecosse que vous avez eu la bonté de m’envoyer.

Je vous en remercie ; elle m’est trés agréable et me sera aussi tres utile pour
établir des comparisons avec mes espéces Boheme. Je crois que vous rendez un
véritable service 4 la science en cherchant les fossiles d’une contrée si peu connu
et si interessante pour les géologues.

Je ne doute pas que vous ne découvriez encore, soit de nouvelles espéce de
graptolites, soit d’autres fossiles, si vous continuez vos recherches, surtout si

152

yous étes assez heureuse rencontrer soit des lames, soit des sphéroides calcaires
au milieu des schists. Les calcaires, en Bohéme, dans la méme position, sont
trés riches, et j’éspere qu’ils existent dans votre pays, comme dans celui que
jexplore.

Je me propose de vous envoyer une suite de graptolites de Bohéme lorsque je
serai chez moi, c’est 4 dire, dans 2 ou 3 mois, parceque je vais a Paris passer
quelque temps.

Si je pouvais donner quelque renseignments que vous fait agréable, je vous
prie de disposer de moi.

Je serai aussi charmé de savoir si vous découvrez de nouveau fossiles,

Agréez, Monsieur, &c.,
J. BARRANDE,

The suite of Graptolites of Bohemia here referred to was sent,
and these, along with some of Harkness’s earliest finds, after
travelling many hundreds of miles in passing from one geologist
of eminence to another, are now preserved in the fine collection
presented to the Carlisle Museum by his sister, Mrs. Pearson of
Penrith.

I have intentionally passed over several of his papers that
appeared prior to the close of 1852, chiefly because the details can
be more conveniently treated of hereafter. But that their value
was well recognized by his contemporaries is perfectly evident from
the fact that, when, in the early part of 1853 the chair of Geology
at Queen’s College, Cork, became vacant, and Harkness was
applying for that professorship, we find his application supported
by some of the most eminent of the geologists of that day.

That other geologists were interesting themselves on his behalf
is well shewn by more letters that are lying before me as I write
this. Amongst them may be read the following from Sir Roderick
Murchison, whose active advocacy of Harkness’s claims forms
perhaps one of the highest testimonials to his ability as an investi-
gator of the geology of the Paleozoic rocks that could well be

brought forward.
20 April, 1853.
My dear Sir,
You have probably heard before this reaches you that you are named
to the Chair at Cork.
If not, I beg to tell you that I had this day a letter from the Lord Lieutenant

a ——

a a

153

telling me that in consequence of what I told him before he left London
confirmed as it was by other qualities, that he had named you.
Do not make me appear to be instrumental, for I still have enemies elsewhere,
but I am bound to adhere to so good a Silurian as yourself.
Ever yours sincerely,
R. I. MURCHISON,

So in 1853 we find Harkness duly installed as Professor of
Geology at Cork, a post that he filled with honour to himself and
advantage to the geological world for just a quarter of a century.
The same year he was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society,
a title that, in those days, was not conferred without discrimination
upon almost any candidate prepared to pay the requisite fees.

Harkness’s removal to a district as different in the details of its
geological structure from that of the Basin of the Solway as this
was from the scenes of his first field work, gave him additional
opportunities of extending his knowledge of the older rocks; and
he had not been long at Cork before we find him bringing his
previously-acquired knowledge to bear upon the new problems
that there lay around him waiting for solution. The first published
results of his investigation in this new field appeared under the
title of the Geology of the Dingle Promontory, which he soon
followed up by another on the Cleavage of the Devonians of the
South of Ireland. These, together with a paper on Coal, and
another on Mineral Charcoal—both containing contributions of
some value—appeared in the “Edinburgh New Philosophical
Journal,” shortly after his appointment to the Chair at Cork. The
scientific value of these papers was at once recognized, and in the
year 1854 Harkness’s name was enrolled along with the long list
of scientific worthies that then formed the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.

Early in the year 1854 a circumstance occurred that gives us a
good insight into Harkness’s inner nature, and the motives that
influenced him in many of his dealings with the outer world in
after life. Sir Henry De la Beche, the famous geologist that really
laid the foundation of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom, wrote to Harkness, offering him an appointment under the

154

East India Company, as Professor of Geology at the Engineering
College of Roorkee, in Northern India. To a man of Harkness’s
tastes this offer must have been a most tempting one, for not only
were the proferred terms satisfactory in every respect, and the
climate there well suited to the constitution of Europeans, but
Harkness would have had a splendid opportunity of extending his
knowledge of his favourite science in directions hardly attainable
by geologists whose field work is confined exclusively to the rocks
of the British Isles. Moreover, little or nothing had hitherto been
written about that part, so that altogether, the new field presented
to any man that, like Harkness, was gifted with the power of
rapidly taking in structural details in the field, and, in the house,
equally gifted with the facile pen of a practised writer, an offer that
must have appeared so advantageous, that the considerations that
would induce him to decline it must have been weighty indeed.
What those considerations were may i be gathered from the

following reply :—
Cork, 30th Jany., 1854.
My dear Sir Henry,

I feel very deeply indebted to you for your great kindness in affording
me an opportunity of accepting or refusing the situation of Professor of Geology
at Roorkee, and I am sorry that, after aa the matter into due consideration,
I am obliged to do the latter.

Although I should gladly avail myself in improving my present position,
T am induced to decline the situation you ‘have so kindly offered me for the
following reasons :—

1st. I conceive that, had my health been such as to have enabled me to stay
in India a sufficient time, on my return I should have found myself an old man
deprived of all the pleasures which my stay in India would have led me to look
forward to, for I should know home and British friends only as I had left, and
find both greatly changed when I returned, and consequently my anticipations
would be so far disappointed that home under such circumstances would afford
me little pleasure—a matter which I have too often observed in long residents
im India on their return.

2nd, A life spent in India would deprive me of those opportunities which I
enjoy in this country of coming in contact with. those whose pursuits are of a
kindred nature to my own, and also of the facilities I enjoy of acquiring inform-
ation on my favourite subject; and although the district of Northern India
furnishes an almost unbroken field for geological investigation, I think that,

F
;

155

without the means of coming into contact with individuals having similar
objects in view I should lose a great advantage which I possess by a residence
in Europe.

3rd. And probably the most potent reason which induces me to decline is
that, having no nearer relations than a sister, with whom I have hitherto spent
my life, I believe that, without her compahy I could not in any way relish
India : and to endeavour to induce her to accompany me would, I conceive, be
to do hera great injustice, and therefore this matter has weighed with me
considerably in my decision.

Taking these different circumstances into consideration, I feel constrained to
decline your advantageous offer, which I would otherwise gladly have accepted.

Should anything else occur in which you may think my services of value, I
shall be most happy to render myself available if it lies in my power to do so;
and returning you many thanks for your kindness in thinking of me in this
matter,

I remain, my dear Sir Henry,
Yours truly,
ROBT, HARKNESS.

So Harkness remained amongst us, and it was well for us that
he did, for his stay here enabled him to still further follow up his

discoveries amongst the older rocks of the Basin of the Solway ;

which seem to have presented a more attractive field of research
than even their equivalent strata in the South of Ireland.

Sir William Jardine was about this time interesting himself in
the study of the fossil footprints of the nondescript animals that
left their tracks upon the half-consolidated silt that, in New Red
times, formed the sand banks in the great inland sea then extending
over these parts. Harkness, also, was continuing his early work in
the same direction, and we find him in correspondence with Sir
William regarding the nature of some of the very singular impres-
sions and enclosures found in the New Red of Dumfries, and in
that of Edenside as well. Regarding some of these, which
Harkness evidently thought might represent the dermal scutes or
some other portions of the armour of one of the earlier forms of
crocodiles, we find Sir William writing from Jardine Hall, under
date 7th November, 1854, and expressing the doubt existing in his
own mind regarding the precise nature of many of these problem-
atical markings, and offering at the same time the suggestion that

156

some of them may have been due to particular conditions of dried
or of drying mud. The markings of the kind referred to may be
met with in tolerable abundance in some parts of the New Red of
Edenside, especially in the St. Bees Sandstone ; and they are well
worth attentive study, whatever view one may be disposed to take
regarding their origin.

Sir William had, some time before, brought out his “ Ichnology
of Annandale,” wherein he had figured some of the more remark-
able of the impressions that were obviously vestiges of the
air-breathing animals of that remote period. But in regard to the
origin of many of the others both he and Harkness had long felt
unable to offer any satisfactory explanation, and it was with the
object of obtaining further information regarding them, quite as
much perhaps as the hope of discovering additional specimens of
the markings themselves, that led him about this time to turn his
full attention to that part of the remaining fragments of the deposits
of New Red age that obviously once connected the Dumfries
outliers with the New Red of the adjoining parts of the North of
England.

Harkness did not by any means allow his knowledge of other
branches of geology to remain unused, and we find him still
working hard, now at one subject, now at another, all having
more or less direct bearing upon the Geology of the Basin of the
Solway. One result of his work in this direction was that his
claims to one of the highest distinctions conferred by any scientific
society upon men that have contributed to the advancement of
science, were beginning to be fully recognized amongst the leading
men of the metropolis. The following characteristic letter from
Sir Roderick Murchison sufficiently proves this point :—

M.P.G., 26 April, 1856.
My dear Sir,

I am happy to tell you that I have just heard that you are one of the
Jour geologists whose certificates I signed who have been se/ected out of the
candidates for Election as F.R.S.
I congratulate you, and tell you honestly that you are very fortunate; for I
really did not think that you would succeed the first year, particularly as you
were appointed with other good geologists who had longer claims.

ee ee

ee ee Se eee

157

I hear that the large admission of the Knights of the Hammer is due to the
fact that there were Doctors they wished to keep out.
Ever sincerely yours,
Rk. I. MURCHISON.

The same year that saw Harkness’s election to the Fellowship of
the Royal Society saw also the publication of at least six more
contributions of his to the literature of Geology, each one containing
the results of his own original research ; results that were generally
recognized as distinct additions to the stock of real knowledge.
Most of these relate to Geology outside the part of England we are
here more immediately concerned with ; but the facts and opinions
they contain have, nevertheless, important bearings upon our local
geology, and, as such will be more fully referred to in their proper
place. But Harkness was just then turning his attention in real
earnest to the solution of some of the most difficult problems that
man ever attempted to work out in the geology of the Lake District
proper. Otley, Sedgwick, and others had already grappled with
them, and had succeeded, after many traverses across what were
then the most-inaccessible parts of the Lake District, in arriving at
something like a general idea of the structure of the whole. But
Otley had just died, and Sedgwick himself was growing too old to
be able to carry on much further the work he had himself already
done so much to advance. There was still a very great deal to
be done, many more facts had to be collected and carefully com-
pared by the light of all the knowledge that had been rendered
available by the labours of others, before the geology of that part
of Cumberland and Westmorland could be reduced to anything
like systematic order. The work was of the most arduous nature}
involving the making of a long series of observations over ground
mst difficult to traverse. Fossils are rare; sometimes not to be
found even after days of diligent search; the stratigraphical relations
of the rocks are obscured by cleavage, by metamorphism, or by an
endless series of dislocations. Thousands of feet of climbing had
to be done, hammer and note book in hand, with perhaps day
after day very little return for the exertion expended, before it was
possible to advance the work much beyond the stage attained by

158

the collective labours of the older workers. Not many men could
be found with enthusiasm sufficient to enable them to carry out
this object, and of the few that possessed that requisite only a
small number possessed also the requisite experience in working
out the structures of similar areas elsewhere. All the help that
could be gained from the experience of former labourers in the
same field was required to be brought to such a task as this; and
Harkness, always ready as he was to compare notes with other
workers, was little disposed to neglect any opportunity of making
himself master of all the available information bearing upon his
subject. It is equally characteristic of Sedgwick that, when he
found a worker able and ready to carry on the work beyond the
point his own researches had helped to bring it to, should unhesi-
tatingly come forward and place the results of his own experience
at the disposal of his fellow-worker.

The following letter from Sedgwick to Harkness will serve to
illustrate this point :—

August 29, 1856.

My dear Sir,

Your letter has been long in waiting me, so I fear the information I
can send you may come too late to be of any use.

(1.) advise you to go to Kendal and to call on John Ruthven, the well-
known collector of our northern palzeozoic fossils. He knows the country well,
and he is the only person, so far as I know, who has found fossils in the Skiddaw
Slates.

(2.) You may procure Hudson’s Guide to the Lakes, and in some letters
published in an appendix to it you may see a general account of the several
formations, though I am not sure that there is any notice of the Skiddaw Slate
fossils and their localities.

(3.) It old Jonathan Otley, author of an excellent little book, be still living,
(I saw him last year when he was turned ninety,) he can give you good advice
as to localities; and so can Charles Wright, one of the Keswick guides Who
went with me on some of my excursions in 1824. Since that year I have hardly
looked at the Skiddaw Slates. You should look at the new Black Lead works
somewhere behind Saddleback, I do not remember the name of the locality
[Bannerdale Mine. J.G.G.] though I saw it in 1823 along with Jonathan Otley.
These works are I suspect, not in a vein, but in a variety of anthracitic slate, so
they will give you a form of comparison you are looking for.

I found black slates in the Skiddaw Slates group from which the dark carbon-

ee oe ae

ait er

159

aceous colour was discharged by heat, Hence I concluded that such beds very
probably would contain fossils. So I set Ruthven to work, and he found
graptolites and fucoids not far from the spots I pointed out to him, but he found
no shells nor crustaceans. Since then I have had some doubt about the age of
the Skiddaw group. It is of enormous thickness, and may well contain one or
two groups of very distinct epochs both physically and palzeontologically.

(4.) When you are seeking Skiddaw Slate, I recommend you to take up your
quarters at the inn at the foot of Crummock Water. I should have been there
now but for an attack of English cholera * * I hope [soon] to get to Dent,
and thence to the locality of the Lakes, where Professor Rogers has engaged to
meet me,

* * Hammer well the gritty rocks which appear in the several deep ravines
which run up the mountains on the left side of the road from Scale Inn to
Buttermere. They promise well for fossils. I never examined them for fossils
in 1823 and 1824, because I foolishly thought they were all below the region of
animal life. At that time 1 had not quite learned to shake off the Wernerian
nonsense I had been taught.

There is a hill somewhere in Cumberland called Whiteless, I think near
Crummock, I never heard of its fossils, neither do I know anything of the
“*flaggy beds of Balmae” you mention in your letter. Pray write to me on this
subject at ‘‘ Dent, near Kendal,” the best address I can give you.

Visit Black Combe in the S.W. corner of Cumberland. This is of Skiddaw
Slate brought up by enormous dislocations, and its ravines are of good promise.
To the south it is overlaid by the Green Slates and Porphyries, well marked,
but of ,degraded thickness. And over the Green Slates you have, in the
S. Western extremity of Cumberland the Coniston Limestone, &c., and some

appearances in the cleavage planes which I think defy the mere pressure theory.
_ That there has been enormous compression along the cleavage planes no one
can doubt when the fossils are flattened and distorted. But they are not always
flattened and distorted—you have to account for unflattened concretions marking
(tho’ rarely) the average direction and dip of the cleavage planes. You have to
account for the frequent change of cleavage, and 7, when the * * *tchange
of conditions of pressure indicated in the sections, and you have to account for
a second cleavage plane among beds that are by no means crystalline.

I was, most unfortunately, away when Sorby read his paper at Cheltenham.

(6.) Visit Coniston, and look at the enormous dislocations, etc. Mr. James
Marshall would help you to localities. You have there, as also at Broughton-
in-Furness, which you pass through on your way from Black Coomb to Coniston,)
the Coniston Limestone and the Coniston Flags, or the Coniston Grits which
form the boundary between a Lower and an Upper system—by whatever name
you choose to call them.

+ This paxt of the letter was quite illegible.

160

If these hints be of any use I shall rejoice. I shall very soon be called off to
Scarborough to consult the doctor, so I write in much hurry.

You tell me about your Scotch axis, the South side of which you suppose may
match with the North side of Cumberland. Where and what is your axis?
Inver found it; and I had promised to go with Professor Rogers to seek it.
Murchison, I think, told me that Professor Nichol had found it ; but I forget
where. In 1848 I made some traverses through the S. chain of Scotland, and
collected from the ‘‘Moffat Group.” I once thought it might represent a part of
the great Skiddaw Group ; but I now doubt it very much, and I would rather
provisionally place it at the base of the Lower Bala Group,* where there is in
Wales a great deposit of dark slates, here and there with many graptolites.
Over the Moffat Group comes on a great arenaceous and slaty group which I
think undoubted Upper Bala, with one well known calcareous band, and
overlaid unconformably by the Old Red Sandstone.

Below the Moffat Group I placed a hard, old-looking, arenaceous and slaty
group (such, for example, as that which runs out in Barrow Head), but I
wanted good sectional evidence, so my sections were only Ayforhetical, and the
most stupid and mischievous of all proceedings is to name the groups and give
them a definite place before we know the sections. I am still a little sceptical
about your Wenlock Beds at Balmae. My fossils from them do not settle the
point at all. If, however, the old published list be correct, they must be
Wenlock twisted up in the contortions of the older rocks. I fully expected in
1848 to have found overlying true Silurian rocks towards Barrow Head. I ran
down there for one day, and, of course, saw no Silurian rocks, For any
information on this point I shall be thankful when you write to me,

On the N. side of the Cambrian cluster we have :—

I. Skiddaw Slates of vast thickness and complexity of structure.

z. Green Slates and Porphyry * * * in thickness, and (?) coming to
an edge.

3. Old Red Conglomerate in patches, and not continuous.

4. Carboniferous Limestone.

5. New Red Sandstone.

So that we often have the Carboniferous Limestone lying immediately in the
Skiddaw Slates, and on the N. W. side of Cumberland this is always the case.
How this can match with the formations on the N. side of the Solway Firth is
more than I can see at present.

I must conclude, for my friends are tired of waiting for me. Accept my best
wishes for your honour and success in your pursuits ;—my power of work is
very nearly over. But for this suppressed gout I should long since have told
the public all I wish to tell ; but I must conclude.

Very truly yours,
A. SEDGWICK,

* I wish to direct special attention to this remark ; the italics are Sedgwick’s.—J,.G.G.

Hwy.

161

- Harkness’s reply to this I have not seen, but its general nature
may be gathered from the letter Sedgwick wrote a week or so
later :—

Dent, Kendal, September 12, 1856.
My dear Professor,

I am very greatly obliged to you for your long and kind letter. The
information you have given me respecting the mineral axis [in the S. of Scot-
land. J.G.G.] I cannot now turn to profit, for I have given up all hope of
* * I have not the least objection to your
hypothesis respecting the Upper and Lower Skiddaw Slates if the sections will
sanction it. It is not at all necessary even to suppose that the granite breaks
out through the lowest group of Skiddaw Slates, though the remnant of my
Wernerianism might have misled me on such a point when I examined the
Skiddaw Slates, zow more than thirty years since: and I have, unfortunately,

meeting Professor Rogers. *

never examined it since. ’

You say the fossé/s of the so-called zfper and lower Skiddaw Slates are the
same. But what are the fossils? If they are mere fucoids, I should not regard
the similarity as of much consequence. If the same shells, or the same grapto-
lites occur both in the so-called upper as well as in the lower division of the
Slates, then the fossil evidence would be of value. That makes me anxious (as
indeed I have been for years back) about the gritty beds in the great giens and
ravines of Grassmoor. In this Salter finds many fossils in the Stiper Stones
and other hard gritty bands which overlie the Lower Longmynd Series. The
Rocks of Barrow Head very much resemble the Welsh group wader the Lingula
Flags.

Are you sure that the Balmae fossils are Wenlock? I doudt it still ; for my
own small collection proves nothing for or against the supposition, and the
_ section, so far as I understood it to be, would put these fossils into an old

Cambrian group.

I should delight to meet you on the frontier chains of Scotland, but, alas !
old-age is spoiling me. I used to take great liberties, and cared little about
charging any drift, as I had good sight and was a tough walker. But zow Iam
a gouty old man, and can endure no wet. My sight is bad, and one eye is of no
use to me, and my walking days are nearly over. So I should be a downright
drag upon an active young man like you. * * It is quite possible that Mc. Coy’s
List might be called Lockerby, and be so published in the ‘‘Athenzeum.”’ But
I am about certain that in the abstract of my paper published in the Reports of
the British Association, the graptolites were called the fossils of the Moffat
Group.

Pray look at the abstract if you possess the Report of the Edinburgh Meeting
of the British Association. Iam called out, and must conclude.

I am truly and gratefully yours,

ADAM SEDGWICK.
P.S.—I am here without books of reference.
ll

162

These letters shew plainly the turn Harkness’s attention was
taking at the time. Great numbers of the beautiful specimens of
graptolites now preserved in the Carlisle Museum he had found in
some dark anthracitic slates and schists in the older Palzeozoic
rocks of the South of Scotland. -Looking across the Solway to
our own fells, he must often have asked himself the question
whether long-continued and diligent search amongst the rocks
that compose those fells might not be rewarded by like results.
That his sagacity was not at fault is abundantly evident by the
collection that he thereafter began to gather together.

The first published results of his researches in the new field I
have yet been able to find any notice of is that read before the
British Association in 1857, on the Geology of the Caldbeck Fells
and the Lowest Sedimentary Rocks of Cumberland. This part of
our district thenceforward possessed for him a high degree of
interest, and it is probable that, with the exception of the late Mr.
J. Clifton Ward, no man ever possessed so complete a knowledge
of the structural details of this intensely-interesting part of the
Lake District as did Harkness himself. To say nothing of the
geological work he did in connection with it, there is the remarkably-
fine series of minerals he collected fromm that part to bear witness
to his indefatigable industry and research over the wild moorlands
of that elevated tract.

We still continue to find records of his going to and fro from
various parts of Ireland, turning his attention now to one, then to
another branch of geological enquiry, and, as difficulties arose, of
his going off to other parts of the kingdom in search of facts that
would serve to elucidate these points. He visited Cumberland

and Westmorland with increasing frequency about this time, and _

then, as he encountered any of the numerous difficulties they pre-
sented, we find him, in like manner, going far afield with the same
object in view. ;

It was about this time that he seems first to have recognized the
full extent of that famous unconformity we can boast of in Edenside
between the Lower members of the Palzeozoic Series and the
Upper, or Carboniferous. Realising that the removal by denuda-

163

tion of a pile of rock, equal in thickness to nearly five mies, in the
interval between the close of one formation and the commencement
of the next members of the geological series we have any local
record of—realising that there is nearly five miles of rock missing
between the Silurian rocks of the Lake District and the Carbon-
iferous rocks that now skirt their fllanks—Harkness’s keen spirit of
scientific enquiry led him to explore other parts of the kingdom,
where some representatives of the enormous lapse of time implied
by this-grand unconformity were wholly, or in part, to be found.
So we find him setting out for the region that Hugh Miller has
rendered classical by the publication of his book on the Old Red
Sandstone. But before setting out, besides mastering the literature
of the subject, which had then already extended to a considerable
length, he is communicating his intention to his fellow geologists,
and otherwise preparing himself for making the best possible use
of the limited time he was able to devote to the work. The
following letter from Sir Charles Lyell well illustrates the nature
of the relations subsisting between these two well-known men of
science.

53, Harley Street, July 5, 1861.

Dear Harkness,

I am glad you can go to Forfarshire. I enclose a copy of my section*
with the alterations proposed to be made in the woodcut in accordance with
your former suggestions. These changes can be made in type by putting in
writing and a few lines to make the clay slate dip N. W.

As to the great anticlinal of the Sidlaw I am well aware of minor inequalities
and the intrusion of trap, and perhaps there may be several faults in the line I
have chosen, but you will find the dips correct in the main, as I have given
them. Indeed, Mr. Powrie says they are so. My object was to simplify to the
student.

But if the beds (a) are conformable, I must modify the section. Perhaps you
will be able to suggest how, without disturbing my page, to get over the
difficulty. But I willnot alter it unless you say that the case of conformability is
quite clear. I shall be surprised if there is not an overlapping series. All may
be Old Red, but (2) may have been formed after the beds 3 and 2 were slightly
raised and denuded.

If I understand Mr. Powrie, he thinks that the conglomerate and sandstone

* The section illustrating the physical relations of the Upper Old Red to the Lower,
inserted in the ‘‘Student’s Manual.”

164

(a) agree with the Red Head Beds which I thought as old, if not rather older,
than the Auchmithie conglomerate.

You will observe that for my object in introducing the diagram section the
unconformable beds (2) were not wanted at all, so it will be unlucky if I was
mistaken.

Look for pebbles and boulders of rolled conglomerate in the Whiteness beds.
I cannot find my notes, but I think I saw them and was much struck with them
thirty-five or more years ago.

What you say of the Corncockle Muir footprints being, as we supposed,
Permian, is most satisfactory.

Let me hear as soon as you have been at Whiteness. I am very glad you
were so far north as to be able to go there.

Believe me, very truly yours,
CHAS. LYELL.

P.S.—On my old map I see I had marked some strata at Denhead with the
same colour as the Whiteness beds ; but I forget all about this. You will see
as you go along the coast. I enclose a copy of part of my map. The dips,
however, are put in now merely to shew why I thought the Whiteness beds
newer than the Auchmithie and Red Head beds.

The second letter, equally characteristic of the writer, is gis
Murchison in relation to the same subject.

28 Jermyn Street, July 8, 1861.

My dear Harkness,

I am right glad you are going to examine the Scarabein (rough
mountain) composed of the white quartz-rock forming the east of Sutherland
and south of Caithness.

Three times have I examined these rocks.

Ist, in 1827, with Sedgwick, with a view to their relation to the Old Red
Conglomerate base, which, on their flanks is a white conglomerate (see Zrans.
Geol, Soc., 2nd ser., vol. xi., p. 351.

2nd, With Nicol in 1854.

37rd, By myself in 1858, when I staid with the Speaker [Denison] at Langwell
on the Berridale Ness, and

Lastly, When I took Ramsay with me in 1859, we traversed direct from the
west coast, and traced the succession of gneissose strata all along the north
coast which are so broken and turned up by intense pressure of granite in its
eastern extremity, that nothing is more probable (and 1 have for some time
thought so) that a trough might be established.

As, however, the weather was very rough and wet as we came along the
island road from coast at Melvid and Big House to the inn of Achintoul, and
thence by Kildonan to Helmsdale (a charming geological road), that independ-

165

ently of examining the two great Old Red outliers of the Ben Gream, we merely
looked at the rocks in our way, which were chiefly granite, with that gneiss
which we consider as newer gneiss.

But we ought to have halted for some days at the very comfortable isolated
inn of Achintoul, whence we should have pushed forward and entered to the
sources of the Berriedale series and the western flanks of the ‘‘Scarabein.”

I have gone along their immediate western flanks and found highly inclined
gneiss and granite, and the same extend southward and west of there towards
Kildonan.

All, however, seemed so broken and chaotic that I could not venture to
identify the quartz rock of the Scarabein with that of the West coast.

For what so likely as to have another band of altered sandstone higher in the
series ?

Tf, on the other hand, it be possible through your labours, to determine the
existence of a trough—then I believe that the quartz rocks near Portsoy on the
East coast of Aberdeen, with the limestones and serpentines, will fit into the
same category. I rejoice at the prospect of your clearing up this most im-
portant point. But I must entreat you not to do it zz a mere skirmish.
Abandon everything else for this fundamental question, and if you do go to
Achintoul, pray walk not by the high road, but mountaineer along the great
granitoid band to the N.N.E. of the Achintoul inn, which separates Caithness
from Sutherland.

No one has done this.

Nor has any geologist examined the inland tract between Strathnane and
Strath Helladale.

To do that you must live a night or two with the shepherds, but it would,
I am sure, well repay you; and you may there find great undulations and even
reversions of the strata.

If you decide on such a campaign I will again send you the Duke’s map of
Sutherland, and any notes of mine bearing on the Scarabein. The latter
mountains are best examined in detail from the inn at Berriedale on their
eastern slope.

I thought I detected the most obvious proofs of the gradual metamorphism of
sandstones, flagstones, and schists, little altered in the east, into the very pure
quartz rock of these mountains at their summits.

The Rev. Mr. Joass, of Edderton, Ross (W. of Tain), has discovered a fine
preserve of the Caithness fish in his parish. They are all promised to me.

If you go there you will see how closely the yellow sandstone of Port
Mahannah and. Tarbet Ness overlie these fish deposits.

Yours sincerely,
R. I, MURCHISON,

166

P.S.—I am also rejoiced that you are bringing out a grand British equivalent
of the Rotheliegende of my Permian. You are my best supporter. I am to
preside over the geologists at Manchester, and should be proud to have your
communication there, though I hope you will not personally abandon good
field work in fine weather.

Why do you talk to me of Nicol and his map? Why, he never heard of
the Scarabein till I took him there. I have dwelt upon it in various memoirs,
and united them in my map of the Highlands; classing them, however, with
the Upper Gneiss.

Near the end of each letter is a comment upon some work that
Harkness was doing in another direction. The full importance of
the remarks referred to will be noticed further on.

On his return from these expeditions Harkness was not long in
putting his impressions on paper ; not that they were likely to fade
soon from his memory, but because he had, or seems to me to
have had, an unaccountable habit of recording his observations
only in the form they are now accessible to us. His note books
do, it is true, contain a few highly-condensed and pithy remarks,
and they contain also the sketches, and other data absolutely
necessary for the object he had in view; but beyond that they
present us with little else than a scanty series of memoranda: for
the rest he seems ever to have trusted to his unquestionably very
powerful memory.

Amongst the further correspondence relating to this part of his
work, placed at my disposal by Mrs. Pearson, the following
additional letter from Sir Charles Lyell may be cited :—

53 Harley Street, 16th October, 1861.

I have read your letter on the Old Red of Perthshire with much interest,
and have only put it and the section aside for the present because I have to
supply the printer with M.S. on the Tertiary Strata, but shall return to the
Cephalaspis and Pteraspis beds as soon asI can. You will, I hope, be giving
us a paper soon on the subject.

I got Professor Heer two days ago to go over all your specimens, and was
afraid when I saw the quantity of things I had to do, that he would not be
able to do justice tothem. But he looked at each, and said no one could
pronounce on them generically or specifically, but that they were Conifers—the
wood and leaves, and in one case at least remains of a cone of some genus of
Coniferze. This, he says, tells nothing geologically. It seems, however, to

167

me that it is good so far if the beds be primary or Paleozoic, for the absence of
any such cones in the coal strata has made botanists suspect that the Conifers
of that age were like the Yew Tree, and, like a great majority of the Coniferze
of the southern hemisphere, berry-bearing, not cone-bearing.
To find a cone therefore, is something I never did in coal or older beds. The
same quarries might in time yield good things.
Believe me, very truly yours,
CHAS. LYELL.

The results of these expeditions in search of the missing members
of the Paleozoic rocks were communicated in the form of three,
or more, papers, which appeared in 1862. Some of the views
therein expressed were mainly in accordance with Murchison’s, and
were at variance with views that the researches of some other
investigators were just then bringing into prominence. ‘That
Harkness should evince a preference for the older views is not
surprising when we reflect upon the extent of the influence the
writings of Murchison had exerted upon the current of geological
thought at that time. But that some of these views were beginning
to be called in question—and they are views on matters intimately
connected with the geological structure of our own district—is
sufficiently manifested by the following extract from a letter by
Professor Jukes, at that time at the head of the Geological Survey
of Ireland. Jukes too, is lost to the geological world now. Had
he been willing to sacrifice his zeal for the advancement of science
in the interests of his own peace of mind, he might have lived to
induced geologists to thoroughly re-examine the evidence regarding
many other questions supposed to have been long since authori-
tatively settled. The whole history of the “ Devonian question”
is well worth attentive study, apart from its bearings upon local
geology. Jukes is dead, but we have his opinions left. The
contest he waged in defence of what he believed to be the truth is
being carried on yet. How it will ultimately terminate remains
to be seen.

Ruthin, Denbighshire, December 21, 1862.
My dear Harkness,
* * You don’t quite understand what I meant about Old Red—I
mean that all Old Red, whether at Ledbury or elsewhere, that contains any

168

species of Cephalaspis, or Pteraspis, belongs of right to the Silurian system,
and will have to be detached from the true Old Red. What you say and what
Geikie says of the break between the Upper and Lower Old Red (so called) of
Scotland, is an argument in favour of this idea, that Lower Old Red is a
Silurian sub-group. I think it very likely that two or three formations (systems,
or series, some perhaps not known anywhere yet) are represented in our country
by that jumble of red sandstones, conglomerates, etc., etc., which have been
hitherto confounded as Old Red. I believe the Lower Old Red to be upper-
most Silurian, and the uppermost Old Red to be lowermost Carboniferous.
Whether anything that might be called Devonian will come anywhere between
them is an unsolved problem. But neither the Lower Old Red nor the upper-
most Old Red are entitled to be called Devonian, unless by Devonian you
mean a sub-group of the Carboniferous.

I still doubt your fault, and your supposition of trap coming wf z# makes me
doubt it more. I have heard of such cases, but I never saw one, and doubt
the intrusion of igneous rock being ever connected with disturbance.

That, however, is mere doubt ; but I am sure it only misleads to class under
one name two groups which are unconformable to each other.

I tell you this in order that you may keep your eyes open and not commit
yourself too far in favour of old notions that will shortly be consigned to Limbo,

Mrs. Jukes unites in kind regards to yourself and your sister.

Yours very truly,
J. BEETE JUKES.

Then follows a paper that I had occasion just now incidentally
to allude to. For some time past Harkness had been going again
and again over the ground described by Sedgwick in his well-known
paper on the New Red of these parts. With the rapid advance
that was then being made in the geology of the older rocks—an
advance that was due very largely to Murchison’s orderly conspectus
of the facts collected by every worker at the subject, Harkness
himself amongst others—it was hardly possible for Harkness not
to be fully aware that a very great deal yet remained to be worked
out before the sequence of the Edenside Red Rocks could be
reduced to anything like a definite system or order. And this was
the task he next addressed himself to. To us now-a-days, the real
difficulty of this undertaking can hardly be fully estimated, unless
it be by anyone that would undertake to begin the work with the
same amount of information to start with that he had. It must be
borne in mind, if we would be just in our appreciation of the true

169

merits of such a piece of work as this, that there was, up to that
time, very few records of the position of the parts of the district
where the best natural exposures were laid bare. It was therefore
necessary to make a series of traverses in every likely direction and
to carefully record all the facts disclosed by those sections. This
alone entailed a great deal of bodily labour, not to be got through
in the course of a few days or a few weeks, as would suffice for the
examination of such sections when their localities are already placed
on record. Then there was the by-no-means easy task of collating
the various sections and noting their points of agreement and of
difference. Then arose questions regarding the relations of these
rocks to rocks of similar age in other parts of England, or of
Europe, all involving a considerable amount of research, com-
parison of sections, collecting and examining fossils, and work of
that kind. The results of these observations were recorded on a
large map (nothing like so good a map topographically as are
within the reach of all of us now). This map, still in the possession
of Mrs. Pearson, is one that I have ever regarded with a peculiar
interest, because it is undoubtedly the earliest essay at making a large
scale geological map of our district that had yet been attempted.
Moreover, my own official duties have led me to map, in even a
more highly-detailed manner, a large part of the area represented
by that map ; and although here and there I have been led to put
a slightly-different construction upon some of the facts he has
recorded, I can bear the fullest testimony to its accuracy as a
whole. The results of his observations were summed up in a
paper published in Vol. xviii. of the Quart. Journ. of the Geological
Society. Thenceforward there was little else of the Geology of the
Red Rocks of Edenside left to work out than the minor details of
structure, and some few points of a more or less theoretical
character.

The next year appeared a paper on the Skiddaw Slate series,
which was accompanied by some notes on the fossils by Mr.
Salter. Like the paper last referred to, this formed an important
contribution to the literature of a group of rocks whose exact
geological position has always presented great difficulties to the

170

student of British Paleozoic Geology. Harkness, by diligent
search, had succeeded in detecting a few fossils in these rocks,
which, for a long time had been regarded as entirely destitute of
traces of life of any kind. The very fossils referred to and figured
in the paper are now preserved along with the rest of his collection
in the Carlisle Museum.

Another paper on a kindred subject followed shortly after; and
then came a paper that has always seemed to me one of the most
important of his contributions to the Geological history of Edenside:
that on the isolated strip of older palzeozoic rocks associated with
the great Pennine Faults between Warcop and Gamblesby. As
the mapping of the whole of that group of rocks was entrusted
officially to my care, I may fairly claim to be in a better position
to judge of the merits of the paper referred to than any person at
present living ; and it gives me very great pleasure to testify to the
great advance it marks beyond any of the contributions of previous
writers. Here and there the Geological Survey has been led to
differ from the author in matters of minor detail; but in the main,
the points of agreement are so numerous as to form matter for
surprise to every one that realises the full extent of the difficulties
that Harkness dealt with and overcame single-handed so many
years ago. In the second part of this paper I have endeavoured
to give an abstract of the general conclusions he arrived at, which
will enable the student to judge for himself how great an advance
upon our previous knowledge of these rocks this paper of Hark-
ness’s really marks.

In 1864 Harkness made an attempt at working out the position
of some rocks in the North East of Scotland that had yielded
footprints, and other vestiges of animal life, similar in their nature
to what had previously engaged his attention in Dumfries. The
very problematical nature of these remains. from our New Red,
which, as I have before taken occasion to remark, are the sole
vestiges of the air-breathing animals of that period, stimulated him
to undertake further researches in the same direction; and as it
was about this time that he had made the discovery of some foot-
prints, probably reptilian in character, in the Penrith Sandstone of

Al

Brownrigg near Penrith, he was anxious to see whether any further
light could be thrown upon their true nature by observations made
upon similar rocks in other parts. In the case of the subject of
the paper now referred to there was—perhaps I might almost
venture to say that in some minds there is still—some doubt as to
the precise position of these beds in the North of Scotland,
whether they were the equivalents in time of the true Old Red, or
whether they did not represent the equivalents of some of these
Red Rocks that form the surface rock of so large a portion of
Edenside. The conclusions he arrived at were embodied in a
communication to the Geological Society in November, 1864.
Some time after Harkness had written the papers on the New
Red rocks of the Basin of the Solway that have already been
referred to, Sir Roderick Murchison decided to pay that part of
the kingdom a visit, with a view to making a personal examination
of the various sections already described. Accordingly in the
of 1865, Harkness went with him to each of the principal localities
described, and explained his views to Sir Roderick on the spot.
We have evidence that one result of this joint expedition was that
Harkness was induced to make some important modifications in
the scheme of classification that his previous independent investi-
gations had led him to accept. The question at issue was, where
the line dividing the Secondary Rocks from the Paleozoic should
be drawn. Many observers had been hard at work with this same
object in view for years past; but, as I shall have occasion to
remark presently, some of these geologists had collected fossils
from Carboniferous rocks stained red—like the sandstones that
emerge from beneath our New Red all over Edenside—and,
because these rocks were similar in colour to the New Red itself,
they were regarded as of the same age. Then, when it was
observed that the fossils got from these supposed New Red rocks
were wonderfully like the fossils from the Carboniferous series
while it was known that the fossils from the higher parts of the
New Red—the equivalents in time of some of the rocks around
Carlisle—had closer affinities with the so-called Secondary Rocks,
it became evident that, if the character of included fossils was to

172

be taken as any test of the age of the rocks wherein they occur,
the upper part of this New Red series would have to be joined on
to the Secondary Rocks, which we now know to be their correct
position; while the lower part would have to be, somehow or
other, joined on to the Paleozoic series. Consequently the line
marking off the one great division from the other would have to be
taken somewhere or other through the middle of the New Red.
This is the position generally assigned to it even yet, though there
are not wanting signs that this view does not give general satis-
faction to such geologists as insist upon weighing all the evidence
with a view to forming their own independent conclusions. Sir
Roderick’s views were put forward in the introductory portion of
the memoir that appeared under their joint authorship in the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society in 1865, which memoir
was the last that Harkness wrote on the stratigraphical relations
of the New Red, there, or elsewhere.
Harkness was hard at work at the same time upon the older
Paleozoic rocks, and was joined in many of his expeditions by
the well-known paleontologist, Dr. H. A. Nicholson of Penrith,
now Professor of Natural History at Aberdeen. Amongst the many
new facts their joint researches brought to light were some that we
find Harkness still discussing with the veteran geologist, Professor
Sedgwick—one of whose last letters, lying before me as I write
this, is almost illegible through the trembling of the writer’s hand.
It will be seen by this that, although Harkness was not actually
writing anything about the New Red with a view to publication,
he was still manifesting as much interest in the subject as ever.
The same letter also shews plainly enough in what other directions
Harkness and his fellow-worker, Dr. Nicholson, had been working

of late.
Cambridge, February 16, 1865.
My dear Professor Harkness,
I must be very short if I am to obey my doctor’s orders, and I know

and feel that it is my duty to do so.

I never received your former letter respecting the Westmorland fossils under
the base of the Coniston Limestone. Iwas * * during the summer—my
health was bad. In August and September I was at * * Early in October

173

I was for a short time in Gloucester * * and sawI think, Salter, * *
told me the news.

I cannot be surprised at the news * * It wasnotto * * that the great
group, but was the Skiddaw Slate, and the Coniston Limestone must somewhere
contain fossils. * * * almost the last time I was among the Lake moun-
tains I found, about one or two hundred feet under the Coniston group at the
S.W. end of Cumberland, some traces of fossils, evidently common Coniston
forms, but very imperfect ; perhaps I overrated the thickness of the beds under
the limestone band. At that spot the Coniston Limestone is much altered, and
the beds both aéove it and delow it are of the green colour of the great lower
group, which‘ think led Sharpe to doubt if it was Coniston Limestone ; that
if it was Coniston Limestone * * easy to say that this was the case generally
that it was anything more than a slight expansion of the calcareous slates of the
Coniston group. Iam told that your fossils! are far deeper seated in the Green
Slate series. * *. persontoldme * * about twenty years since. If I
mistake, not Charles Wright of Keswick was my informant that Murton Pike
was Skiddaw Slate. Are you are aware that Buckland and Greenhough gave a
description of the porphyritic pikes? (see an old vol. of the Geol. Trans., 4to.)?
But they knew nothing of the fossils or of the U/d Slate group.

Your section is most interesting. The fault you have drawn is on a magnifi-
cent scale, especially interesting * * * Fossils. I shall be thankful for any
good specimens you can send for our museum. I never had a private collection,
I shunned the temptation of making one.

Again, the discovery of the fish beds of the Magnesian Limestone is an
excellent hit. Ihave maps here, but must not fatigue myself by consulting
them ; so I cannot refer to any locality. In 1834 I traced the boundary of the
hard sandstone® from Temple Sowerby to Brough along with a friend. We
saw, at a distance, the group of your grand section, but they were not our
object. In this area of the New Red Sandstone (down the vale of the Eden to
the Solway) we there have, from your description (1) the Marl Fish Slate and
other shales of the Magnesian Limestone group ; (2) the’flaggy red beds of the
Bunter Sandstein* ; (3) Gypseous Marls®; (4) Lias. Nos. 3 and 4 I have
never seen, but there they are. And how are we to draw the line to cut off
the beds that are palzeozoic ?

I proved many a long year since that the fossils of the Magnesian Limestone
group were essentially palzeozoic. But physically the group seemed part of the
New Red. So the matter stood. I suggested no change of correlation. Soa
F year afterwards Phillips proposed (at the Geological Society) that we should

1 This refers to the Style End Grassing Beds.

2 Description of an insulated Group of Slate and Greenstone in Cumberland and Westmor-
land, at the East Side of Appleby, between Melmerby and Murton.

3 Penrith Sandstone. 4St. Bees Sandstone. 5 Stanwix Marls(J.G.G.)

174

cut the group off from the Trias—as it was palzozoic. I assented at once, for
it was plain that we could not move on without making fossils the grand tests
of our group. Murchison objected! (he was the only one that stood out) and he
continued his objections, arguing that /eféi/es were secondary groups. I wish
Phillips had given us a name for the group— he had a right to do so, and as his
uncle (‘‘Father” Smith,) had called the lowest bed Pontefract Castle Rock, I
suggested the name Pontefract Group. But I have tired myself, and you also
I fear—so I must conclude with best thanks and congratulations. My working
days are done. Iam within a few weeks (about five) of completing my eightieth
year, and since I came back (near the beginning of last week) after careful
examination I am proved to have an organic heart disease which will be my
companion through the coming remnant of my life. I have thoroughly disobeyed
my doctor’s orders, and much tired myself. So, adieu.
I am, faithfully yours,
A. SEDGWICK.

From certain evidence we have, it would appear that the
relations between the Professors at the Queen’s Colleges in Ireland
and the governing bodies were not altogether satisfactory in every
respect. This may have been due to several causes that neither
the teaching- nor the administrative body were themselves answer-
able for. ‘Things were not altogether as pleasant for Harkness as
he could have wished, which is hardly to be wondered at when it
becomes known that—whether it was from motives of economy, or
from motives of other kinds, does not seem clear—the Professor of
Geology was asked to teach not only his own subjects—Geology
and Mineralogy—but Physical Geography, Botany, and Zoology
as well. Harkness was perfectly competent to discharge these
multifarious duties as well as could be expected of any one man;
but he must have been fully aware that to teach every one of these
subjects in the way he would prefer to see them taught, would
involve mental strain such as only a man in the full possession of
health and vigour could safely undertake for any length of time.

Naturally enough Harkness wished to find himself in a position
where he would be required to teach only what he could teach
best, and where he should be allowed to teach that according to a
method of his own choosing. It is not, therefore, surprising that
when there appeared to be some prospect of a Chair of Geology

175

being founded at Edinburgh, separate from the Chair of Natural
History, Harkness should be looking forward to the time when he
might offer himself as a candidate for that post. I have been
given to understand that he did so with more confidence in the
result in consequence of the tenour of certain remarks made by
Sir Roderick Murchison, whence Harkness seems to have gathered
the impression that in the event of the Chair been founded and of
Harkness’s coming forward as a candidate, he might rely upon Sir
Roderick’s support. It appears that there was a mistake some-
where, as the following letter from Sir Charles Lyell will shew :—

53 Harley Street, January 30, 1866.

Dear Harkness,

I should have written to you before, had I not waited to hear what
the Chancellor of the Exchequer would say when Sir R. I. Murchison met
him [in regard to the question] whether we were to have an Edinburgh
Professorship or not * *

Iam disappointed to learn that [Gladstone] says the Royal Commission
settled all that some six years ago, and if he were to break this in the case
of Edinburgh, all the other Universities would be coming upon them for
endowments.

But perhaps I shall still go up with a deputation to Lord Russell. Sir R.
will not, I think, give it up; but I cannot say that I feel very sanguine,
whereas I had really reckoned upon the Chair as a certainty, and had
imagined that the Commission had recommended—as you seem also to have
_ supposed—its institution. But I fear it was not so.

My late father-in-law, Mr. Horner, was always recommending Geikie to
aspire to this Chair, and I feel myself in some measure committed to advocate
his cause, having been accustomed to look forward to his being a candidate
long before I entertained any idea of your becoming one. But I shall, of
course, be always ready to give my testimony in favour of your qualifications,
and am truly sorry to hear that so retrograde a step is contemplated as the
uniting of Botany and Geology. Truly, Sir R. Peel’s untimely death was a
great loss. I do not wonder you wish to escape from a country where they
wish to make all education denominational * *

Believe me, dear Harkness,
Ever truly yours,
CHAS. LYELL.

However, Harkness did not allow a temporary disappointment
to abate his ardour in the least, and during the next few months

176

we find that he had been as hard at work at his favourite subject
as ever. One of his memoirs treats of the Geology of the Isle of
Man, which he was wont to regard as a kind of geographical link
between the Geology of Ireland and that of Cumberland and
Westmorland. There is another on the Dingle Promontory in
Ireland, one on the Graptolites of the Llandovery Rocks of
Haverfordwest. But it was about this time—that is to say, from
1864 onward—that he had associated with his name in the
preparation of several of his memoirs, that of his friend Mr. H. A.
Nicholson of Penrith, now the well-known author of some of our
best text-books on Zoological and Palzontological subjects, and
Professor of Natural History at the University of Aberdeen.
Nicholson had worked over a large area of Cumberland and
Westmorland along with Harkness some time before, and by the
year 1870 they had published four several memoirs under their
joint authorship, each paper having important bearings upon the
the geology of the older rocks of this part.

It was in the autumn of 1867 that I had the first opportunity of
making the personal acquaintance of the subject of the present
sketch. This was at Penrith, where Professor Ramsay, Mr.
Hughes (whose extensive acquaintance with the Geology of West-
morland enabled him to largely make use of our local illustrations
when he afterwards succeeded Professor Sedgwick at Cambridge),
and others, had met to discuss certain questions connected with
the Geology of this part, where we had, only a few months before,
just commenced the Geological Survey. Harkness, as a writer,
was well-known to me long before, and I naturally felt a consider-
able degree of interest in making his closer aquaintance. ‘Two or
three hours may seem absurdly inadequate to enable one to form
any judgment regarding the disposition of a man that one has
never set eyes upon before. But it happened that early in the
course of our meeting, some questions arose regarding certain
points in the geology of this neighbourhood wherein the conclusions
that some of the party had arrived at differed considerably from
what Harkness had previously expressed in some of his papers.

ee. +

177

Considering that we had just begun to go over the ground that
Harkness had been hammering at for many years past, it would
have been nothing to wonder at if Harkness had betrayed more or
less symptoms of annoyance. For if you want to see what a man
is made of, try him in like manner, and watch the result. Ten to
one, if you are controverting a statement he has allowed to get
into print, the inner side of that man’s nature will be brought to
view at once, and the chances are that he will fall in your estima-
tion. It is only occasionally that one meets with a man whose
qualities of heart are as genuine as those of his mind,-and who can
bear being put to a test of this kind without sinking in the esteem
of anyone. That was one of Harkness’s most marked peculiarities:
it came out very strongly on the occasion I refer to. I may add
that on the many occasions after that time when I have myself
expressed opinions different from what he had been led to adopt
ftom a previous and independent study of the same facts, I ever
found him ready to discuss the subject considerately and with
perfect good temper where other men would have found much
difficulty in listening at all. It was this genial and tolerant dispo-
sition—whereof his features themselves were a sufficient index—
that combined with his scientific attainments to make him so
popular in every assembly of scientific men wherever he might

- chance to be.

At the time I first met Harkness he was engaged, amongst
other enquiries, in collecting evidence regarding the distribution
of Boulders of Shap Granite ; a subject that has formed a standing
puzzle to geologists for now well on to fifty years, and, so many
think, is as far off being explained, at any rate, to their satisfaction,
as ever. The results of this enquiry he embodied in a paper that
was printed in 1870: I shall refer to this again.

But another enquiry, and one of very considerable practical
importance, was just beginning to occupy the attention of a large
section of the scientific world about this time. I refer to the
Government Coal-Commission. Everybody whose memory extends
back fifteen or twenty years must remember the general tone of

alarm running through nearly every public communication that
3 i eo

178

had any reference to the future welfare of England in connection
with the possible early exhaustion of that one of the chief sources
of our national wealth. They will remember, too, how the opinion
of most of the leading scientific men of the day was sought, and
placed on record, regarding the probable extent of coal-fields
available as sources of supply in the future. One of the areas
where it had often been considered probable that the existence of
Coal Measures might hereafter be detected, was that of the tract of
older rocks concealed beneath the New Red of Cumberland and
Westmorland. Harkness, being recognized as possessing a more
extensive and intimate acquaintance with the general geology of
these parts than anyone else could then fairly lay claim to, was
requested to give his opinion upon that important question. This
he did in 1867, and his evidence duly apppeared in the Report of
the Royal Coal Commission, published a year or so afterwards. _

Among the men of science Harkness’s researches amongst the
older Paleozoic rocks had made him acquainted with, was Mr.
Thomas Davidson, F.R.S., the eminent authority on fossil Brachio-
poda. Davidson, after a long career of scientific labours, whose
value it is impossible to over-estimate, is still amongst us yet ; and
it may be of interest to give here an extract from one of several
letters that passed between him and Harkness. A great number
of the Brachiopoda from Cumberland and Westmorland now in
the geological collection at the Carlisle Museum were determined
by Dr. Davidson; but there is in the letter subjoined some
references of importance in regard to subjects that are now (1883)
just beginning to attract renewed attention ; subjects that at the
time the letter was written were only just being brought promi-
nently before men’s minds.

My dear Sir,

* * Jt has been exceedingly kind of you to have afforded me so
much valuable and needed information * * On Friday last I went to
St. Leonards-on-Sea to spend the day with my old and valued friends Sir
Roderick and Lady Murchison, also with Dr. Bowerbank. I was three
hours with Sir Roderick, and had a very long chat on Silurian and Survey
matters. Sir Roderick was so pleased to see me, and we sat most of the

time together (except at luncheon) in his bedroom, as Lady Murchison felt

_ —-

179

so unwell, Sir R. presented me with the prize Survey Silurian Medal, and
had written in the inside of the box containing it: ‘‘To my valued friend
Thomas Davidson, in memoriam of his admirable illustrations and History
of Silurian Life, Sept. 25, 1868. (Signed) Rod. I. Murchison.” It isa
beautiful medal, and the likeness of Sir Roderick on one side is admirable.

* * We have been intimately acquainted for more than thirty years,
and all along he has shewn me the greatest kindness and desire to see me
rise in the esteem of geologists and men of science.

He also spoke in the most flattering terms of your valuable researches.

* * I told him how kindly you had assisted me, which seemed to please
him. He told me also that he had expressed a desire that every possible
assistance should be afforded me by the Survey, as he considered my larger
work as one of very great importance to the Survey.

In a letter I have just received he again says * * ‘‘ Harkness has done
much good in elaborating the order and contents of these older rocks.”

I had a long conversation with Sir Roderick with reference to Hicks’
proposal to remove the Lower Lingula Flags (Menevian) from his primordial
Silurian, and to add them on to Sedgwick’s Lower Cambrian, or Harlech
Beds. But Sir R. considers (like Barrande and De Verneuil) this his Lower
Lingula Flags constitute the base of his lowest Silurian or Primordial
Silurian, and that if the Harlech Group, or Upper Longmynd, is found to
contain the same forms as his Lower Lingula Flags, this would shew that
this Primordial Silurian should be carried a little lower down. I confess to
you that I have never thought that there existed two Natural History
Systems, viz., a Cambrian one and a Silurian. In my ideas the whole
of the strata from the Harlech group up to the uppermost Ludlow
would form one great system, by whatever name you may choose to
call it—Cambrian or Silurian. However, if Hicks can shew good
cause why there should be two Natural History Systems in that series
of Older Paleozoic rocks, I shall be glad to recognize the matter; but such
can be done only after Mr. Hicks shall have figured and described the
Harlech and Menevian fossils. When in Paris I am going to have a long
chat with M. De Verneuil upon this and several other important matters,
some of which Sir Roderick wishes me to carefully investigate. I find that
‘generally speaking foreign geologists are not more convinced than I am
myself of the validity of the Cambrian and Silurian Natural History
Systems. We all know that a certain number of genera in every large
system of rocks are restricted to certain portions of this system.

Hicks’s researches and discoveries are of the greatest value and import-
ance, and no small praise is due to him for the very able and persevering
manner in which he has worked. I shall therefore look forward with the
greatest impatience to the publication of his valuable paper upon those very

180

ancient animals, I have urged him in the strongest manner to publish this
winter his new species.

T have to thank you likewise for your kindness in sending me the fragment
of Obolus found by Dr. Otto Torrell in the old Swedish rocks. Unfortun-
ately it is but a fragment of a valve, and not complete enough for specific
identification. It has, however, interested me much, and should you have
occasion to write to Dr. Torell again, would you kindly let him know that
I should much desire to examine a good specimen of each species of the
Brachiopoda found in those old Swedish Primordial rocks. I have recently
worked out for Dr. Volborth of St. Petersburg all the species and genera of
Obolus, &c., found in the oldest Russian Primordial rocks, and it would be
most interesting to see if those Swedish forms agree with those found in
Russia and Great Britain, * * * With very many thanks for all your
kindness,

I remain, yours truly,
THOS. DAVIDSON.

The next letter is from Sir Charles Lyell, and is of interest if
only as shewing that though Harkness mainly confined his energy
to the working out of questions of a purely geological nature, the
bearing of collateral subjects on his favourite science were not by
any means overlooked.

73 Harley Street, 25th November, 1868.
My dear Harkness,

I have been intending every day to thank you for your letter, when
another arrives alluding to the Spiranthes. In the first place I am pleased
to find that you are reading my book ; for although the sale is getting on
remarkably well, considering the dangerous experiment made of increasing
the size and cost, yet as it is only a new edition I cannot reasonably expect
those who have read the former version to find out how much novelty there
may bein this. Accordingly I find, as a general rule, that the older geolo-
gists are not aware that I have published anything new in these later times,
and I often wonder who are my readers.

Seeing that Bentham in his ‘‘Handbook of the British Flora,” 1858,.

mentioned Spiranthes gemmipara as a solitary instance of a species limited
to the British Isles, I relied upon his accuracy, for he says that Dr.
Lindley has shewn that the Irish plant had been erroneously referred to the
North American Spiranthes cernua, a plant which it closely resembles.

The question now is, whether your reference to Professor Reichenbach
corrects Lindley and Bentham. I shall consult the latter and Hooker.
And in the meantime I am much obliged to you for calling my attention to
this subject, and shall be glad of any other criticisms,

aime i ash

ae

181

Now that I have alluded ‘to the sale of one of my books, I may mention

. to you in confidence, while it is a publishers’ secret, that Murray has sold

all the copies he has on hand of the 6th Edition of the ‘*Klements ;”’ so that
in a year it will be out of print; and I mean to leave it out of print for
another year, hoping, if I live, to give an improved version two years
hence.

My difficulty is that I should like to enlarge it as well as to re-cast parts
of it; but Ihave received warnings from certain teachers of geology who
would like to use my Elements as a text-book that the book is already too
bulky, or at least too costly for the purses of their students, and that, how-
ever much improved, it will sell less if I do not take care to keep down the
cost. As they are possibly right, and the first thing is to consider in books
of this kind, far more than in treatises such as the ‘* Principles,” how to
make them useful to great numbers of students, I should be very glad of
any hints.

The public are, no doubt, of the opinion of the old woman at Boston,
Massachusetts, whose eyes and purse were growing weaker, and who was
purchasing a Bible, and said she wanted one with the largest print and the
lowest price. But perhaps something might be done by omissions, and I
should be glad of any hints.

Tlook upon your discovery of marine fossil shells in the Drift S. of Dublin at
the height of 1200 feet above the sea as most important : I believe I have
not yet told you so. A good conchologist would do well to hunt up every
fragment, and get us a good list of species; and every additional foot of
altitude to which they can be traced is no small gain now that these theories
about the rising and falling of the sea, instead of oscillations of the land,

are mooted.

Believe me, dear Harkness,
Ever truly yours,
CHAS. LYELL.

In the year 1869, the British Association for the Advancement
of Science met at Exeter, and Harkness, who had been a constant
attendant at these annual meetings for many years past, was elected
President of the Geological section, and chose for the subject of
his Presidential Address that of the relation of the Devonian rocks,
Properly so-called, to the strata next to them in age. In this
address he may be said to have summarised the results of all his
observations upon the great group of strata whose absence in
Cumberland and Westmorland has given rise to the well-known

182

and oft-described unconformity between the Older and the Newer
Palzeozoic rocks.

Harkness was evidently still much exercised in his mind regarding
the great problem of how boulders of Brockram and of other rocks
from the low ground of Edenside could have been lifted a thousand
feet or more above the position of their parent rocks, and trans-
ported across the great upland tract of Stainmoor out to the shores
of the North Sea. Harkness, as I have before mentioned, had
worked out the subject of the distribution of boulders of Shap
Granite (which is usually found along with the boulders just
mentioned) as being a rock more easily traced in the drift, and
therefore one whose distribution might be expected to furnish an
answer to the much-vexed question then under consideration.
Professor Phillips had grappled with the same difficulty some time
before, and here is a letter from him to Harkness concerning it :—

Oxford, 15th September, 1869.

My dear Harkness,

I am entirely of your mind as to the late date of the ‘‘ Erratic”
group: i.e. late in the Drift period. I think this is certain for all the North
of England. And also as to the earlier date of the valleys: I admit most
of them as earlier than any pleistocene (and in this I include my preglacial)
deposits. In one of my very earliest papers on the Lake District (1827), I
show those valleys to have been of Paleozoic date which contain the local
Old Red Conglomerate of Kirkby Lonsdale, Kendal, &c. Goldsborough
has been in my mind not seldom, for I found some years since that I had
given its height wrong, or had mistaken the summit. The hill which I
ascended had, I am pretty sure, granite on the summit ; many blocks have
been removed since my examination—now one-third of a century, or in some
cases nearly half a century since.

I do not well remember any blocks in the Greta drainage till you descend
towards Barnard Castle. Then you have them about Lartington rather
frequently, but that is not exactly in Greta drainage. The stream of blocks
widens in this part and goes to Darlington, Thirsk, Scarborough, &c.

I have seen blocks at Langwathby and beyond (not. the Magic Stones),
and on the line from Carnforth, Lancaster, &c. But in Cheshire the blocks
are from Ravenglass mostly. * *

ed Ever yours truly,

J. PHILLIPS,

“~~

ee

183

The other problem alluded to as engaging Harkness’s attention
about this time, was intimately connected with the subject of the
controversy that had then long been, and indeed, still is, raging
between the partisans of Murchison, and such students of Geology
as are of opinion that Sedgwick was entitled to much more credit for
the results of his long labours on the older Paleeozoic rocks than the
equally able but more energetic and methodical author of the Silurian
System had seemed to many willing to admit. It would be out of
place here to give even an outline of the evidence adduced in
support of the views of either party ; but it may suffice to explain
the nature of the investigations Harkness was now taking a part
in to state that what Murchison originally meant by Silurian was,
all the rocks from the base of the Hereford “Old Red” down to
the lowest horizon where the occurrence of fossils had at that time
been clearly proved. This line was then generally regarded as
coincident with the great stratigraphical break known to exist
between what is now called the Upper Silurian and the Lower.
All the stratified rocks below this stratigraphical break were called
by Sedgwick Cambrian, and they were at first supposed to be
entirely devoid of traces of life. Bye and bye fossils began to be
found at lower and lower horizons; and as these facts were made
known, the base of the Silurian System was taken lower and lower,

_ $0 as to coincide with the lowest known life-zone. At the time

I am about to refer to, the Lingula Flags were usually regarded as
the base of the Lower Silurian by Murchison. But Dr. Hicks had
been hard at work at the older rocks, and had succeeded in
disclosing evidence of a richly fossiliferous zone lower even than
the Lingula Flags. A good idea of the nature of these fossils may
be gathered from an inspection of the Menevian fossils, as these
are called, that Harkness collected with Hicks, and that are now
in the Museum at Carlisle. It was the discovery of this older life-
zone that necessitated a still further modification of the base line
of the Silurian System, and a consequent modification of the views
that Sir Roderick had himself already published. There is inde-
pendent evidence, beside what appears here, that Harkness was
entering into the discussion of this subject with considerable ardour,

184

and with a determination to judge of the facts for himself, without

regard to any pre-existing views expressed thereon either by himself
or by others.

What Harkness was doing at this time may best be judged of
from the next letter :—

16 Belgrave Square, October 14, 1870.
My dear Harkness,

I shall be very pleased if you bring out any paper in conjunction
with Dr. Hicks which illustrates the lowest depths to which SmmurRIAN LIFE
has been detected.

I should, however, be very sorry that you took the place of Salter / who
in the last few years of his life was always at work in the endeavour to
undermine my views. From tke days of Von Buch to those of Barrande all
continental geologists have given up the idea of a Cambrian scale of organized
beings as different from Silurian life.

If Trilobites, whether Conocoryphe or Oleni, be associated with Lingula,
it is there that the beds containing them entitle us to mark the base of
Silurian life. Bigsby’s *‘ Thesaurus Siluricus,” and Davidson’s ‘‘ Silurian
Brachiopoda,” have long since settled the point.

The ‘‘Menevian” strata, etc., and the strata below it, which contain
these things * * however locally distinguished by different names, are
but the lowest-known subformations of one great series.

As to the part of your letter that refers to the Edinburgh Chair. I have
made my offer provided the Geological Chair be clearly separated from that
of the Natural History Chair.

You are right in your conjecture that I had Geikie in my mind’s eye if
the first nomination be assigned to me. .

But, if ill health should prevent his accepting the offer, it would give me
great pleasure tg consider you as next; for I think you would make an
excellent teacher of the science in the Scottish Metropolis.

Yours truly,

R. I. MURCHISON.

The results of the joint investigation of Harkness and Hicks
were summed up in a commnnication by the authors, and read
before the Geological Society soon after the date of the letter just
cited.

From the date of this paper onward Harkness seems to have
been indulging in constant hope that the heavy burden imposed

185

upon hina by his’ additional duties at Cork might in some way or
other be reduced to one that he felt able to sustain.

All chance of the Professorship he had looked forward to
obtaining having been finally removed, there seemed no prospect
before him but that of retiring from the Professorship he then held,
and settling down quietly for the remainder of his life at Penrith,
where, at the house of his sister, Mrs. Pearson, he had long been
accustomed to make his home during the College vacations.

Notwithstanding that, close upon the age of sixty, he was
beginning to feel himself unequal to the duties he had undertaken
to perform, his restless energy and untiring enthusiasm would not
allow him to take the rest he so much required, even when he
had the opportunity of doing so. He still continued to attend the
meetings of the British Association, and from time to time read
a paper before that body, or before the Geological Society, and
now and then wrote a review.

It was about this time that Mr. Gordon, of the Penrith Grammar
School, was organising the valuable courses of lectures that may
justly be regarded as the first step towards the formation of the
Penrith Scientific Society. Mr..Gordon, as is very well known,
devoted a great deal of time and attention to this-very useful work,
and succeeded, at least for.some time, in providing, free of charge,

intellectual entertainment of the-highest order obtainable. Hark-

ness, who was.ever ready to give his active support to any under-
taking having for its object the diffusion of scientific knowledge,
cheerfully gave up part of that time his failing health required him
to devote to rest, and lectured here session after session until the
winter lectures were temporarily abandoned. His lectures at
Penrith chiefly related to Physical Geography, probably because
he considered that subject better adapted to the tastes of the
general audience of that time than one on any branch of Geology,
as generally understood. I remember, however, that he gave
one on that favourite topic of his, the Glacial Period. There
was another lecture, too, on the ‘Early ‘History of )Mankind,”
wherein he gave a highly-condensed summary of his own extensive
knowledge. of what, had at that ;time been written,.on that subject.

186

The lectute was printed in full in the Cumberland and Westmorland
Advertiser at the time, and it would be to the advantage of many
if they were to take the trouble to make themselves masters of the
principal facts and arguments it contains. Harkness continued to
manifest the same kind of interest in everything connected with
the intellectual advancement of our local Society when Mr. Gordon
gave up the Grammar School courses, and the winter lectures were
continued by one of the other founders of the Penrith Society,
Mr. Tannahill.

I have dealt almost exclusively hitherto upon the chronological
order of Harkness’s Geological work, as being that wherewith his
name will always be most associated by posterity: but no man
that had followed the course of Geological enquiry as he had for
so many years, could escape being led by degrees to take an
interest in that part of Geology that bridges over the interval
between the later Tertiary period and the dawn of the historic era.
Consequently we find that in everything relating to Pre-Historic
Archeology, he had by degrees begun to feel the deepest interest ;
and, side by side with the investigations he was making here and
elsewhere in connection with his own especial line of work, he was
steadily amassing information relating to the early history of man-
kind in this part of the kingdom. The results of some of these
investigations appeared in print; but that he was possessed of a
vast fund of information relating to the archzology-of this neigh-
bourhood that he never committed to print, no one that had spent

“many days with him out of doors here could for a moment doubt.
It must be a matter of regret with many that he did not more
often come before the public with further contributions to the
archeology of our neighbourhood than he has allowed to see the
light. In his investigations upon the early history of the Penrith
neighbourhood, he used to be much associated with a Penrith man
whose name, Harkness often said, was not as much known to fame
as it deserved to be. I refer to Mr. Valance Stalker, of whose
scientific attainments Harkness was wont to speak in the highest
terms. j
.. Harkness’s last contribution to Geological literature was written

187

conjointly with Professor H. A. Nicholson, and appeared in the
Journal of the Geological Society in 1877. But he wrote one
other paper on a New Form of Quartz, which was read before the
Mineralogical Society early in the year following.

At this time he had finally decided upon giving up his appoint-
ment at Cork, and retiring to Penrith to spend his last days with his
sister, in the midst of his many friends, and surrounded on all sides
by geological features wherewith his name must for ever be associ-
ated. With this object in view, he had gone for the last time to Cork,
to make the necessary arrangements, and to take a final leave of
his students and his colleagues. But he was fated to see Penrith
no more. The arduous nature of the duties he had of late years
been called upon to perform after thirty years or more largely spent
in mountain-climbing of a most exhausting nature, had proved too
great a strain for his constitution, At Dublin, on the evening of
the 4th of October, 1878, at the very commencement of the rest he
had looked forward to for so long, Robert Harkness suddenly fell
dead of heart disease.

I need not enter into the particulars of the sequel. We all
know that his remains were brought over to England, and subse-
quently laid to rest in the beautiful cemetery at Penrith. We all
know how his colleagues at Cork took steps to convey to future
generations the sentiments they felt towards him, by erecting the
memorial window that now decorates the Hall of Queen’s College,
Cork. Nor need I do more than refer to the transfer of his fine
private collection of fossils, so rich in illustrations of the past life
of Cumberland and Westmorland, to the Central Museum of the
district whose geological structure he did so much to elucidate.

Of his relations with the world outside his own family circle, it
would be impertinent for me to express any opinion, when a writer*
that both knew him better personally, and was better acquainted
with his work than I can claim to be, writes of him as follows :—

“It is now some five-and-thirty years since the name of this able
geologist first appeared as a writer on his favourite science. During

* Professor A. Geikie, F.R.S., Director General of the Geological Survey,
Nature,” Oct, 1878, 10, p. 628.

188

this long period he had explored, on foot, the geology of large dis-
tricts in the north of England, in Scotland, and in various parts of
Ireland. The reports of the British Association and the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society bear witness to his industry and
to the painstaking minuteness of his method of investigation. To
him we owe our earliest exact information regarding the correlatives
of the reptiliferous sandstones of Dumfriesshire and Cumberland.
It was his patient labours continued year after year over ground
most difficult to unravel, that led the way to the working out of the
structure of the Silurian uplands of the south of Scotland. To his
research, too, is due the identification of the metamorphic rocks of
the north-west of Ireland with those of the west of Scotland. To
the elucidation of every one of the Paleozoic system of deposits
he has contributed something of value.

“But important.as was his scientific work, it had not a wider and
more hearty recognition among his brother geologists than his own
admirable qualities of head and heart. Who that has been privi-
leged with his friendship will not cherish the memory of his
earnestness over even the driest of details, his quiet enthusiasm, his
generous admiration for the work of others, his unfailing cheerful-
ness? Who will forget that beaming ruddy face, never absent
from the platform of Section:C at:the British Association meetings,
always ready to rise among the speakers there and.to reappear at
the festive gatherings in the evening? ‘There have been men who
have graven their names more deeply on the registers of ,scientific
thought and progress, but there have been few whose sunny nature
has more endeared them in the recollection of their friends than
Robert Harkness.”

—_—

189

po adel 8 i

This Section is devoted to the publication of such Abstracts, and
Reprints, of papers on subjects of local interest, and of such original
communitations, not necessarily of a local character, (the latter to be
inserted at the author's expense,) as have been approved of by the
Council.

CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A LIST OF
THE MINERALS OCCURRING IN CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND. (Parr II.)*

By J. G. GOODCHILD, H.M. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Amoncst the minerals occurring in Cumberland and Westmorland

_ is a small group referred to collectively as the Ochres, which,

although they do not belong as a whole to any one group yet
énumerated, may conveniently be mentioned here before passsing
on to the next group. The minerals are all of rare occurrence ;
and as I have met with none of them myself, I give them as they
appear in the “List of Minerals of the Lake District,” given in
Jenkinson’s “Guide to the Lakes,” 6th ed. (1879,) pp. Ixxvi.—xciii.;
which was written by the well-known mineralogist and authority
on Cumberland Minerals, Mr. Bryce M. Wright, of Regent Street.

Wap, Earthy Manganese. Millbeck Gill; Skiddaw; and at
Blencathra.

Motyspic OcHurReE. Of an orange-yellow colour. Occurs mas-
sive, and disseminated, on Molybdenite in the Caldbeck Fells.

* Inserted at the Author’s expense.

190

WoOLFRAMINE, Tungsten Oxide. Ofa yellow colour. Associated
with Wolfram and Scheelite at Carrock Fells.

Minium, Native Red-Lead. Said to have been found near
Alston.

The section of minerals next to be enumerated is the Car-
BONATES ; which are arranged in two groups, according as the
mineral species composing them crystallize in the Rhombic or the
Hexagonal System.

ARAGONITE, the rhombic form of Calcic Carbonate, stands first
on the list. This mineral species is widely diffused throughout
the mineral-veins of the two counties, but is, nevertheless, not very
common at any one locality. It assumes a considerable variety of
forms, ranging from stalactitic masses without any definite external
evidence of crystalline structure, through spheroidal, close-set,
aggregations of acicular prisms, to the beautiful crystals found in
West Cumberland and in the Alston district. Undoubtedly one
of the most beautiful forms assumed by Aragonite is that known
under its old name of os ferri, or Coraloidal Aragonite, which
used to be obtained in some abundance when the Dufton Mines
were working some years ago. Its mode of occurrence was described
in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. xxi. p. 413,
by Mr. Wm. Wallace of Alston, the author of a most valuable treatise
on the Deposition of Lead Ore. In this instance the mineral occurs
in the form of branching, shrub-like forms, bearing a close resem-
blance in external form to some species of corals, especially to
Millepora, and in colour generally of a beautiful creamy white.
These are found mostly in what the miners call “lochs,” “‘lofs,” or
“Jof-holes,” or the cavities and small chambers eroded by chemical
action in the limestone contiguous to the mineral veins. These
lofs are often full of clay; but the face of the solid rock itself is
coated with groups of crystals of various kinds—Galena, Blende,
Barytes, Cerussite, and other minerals, as well as with the particular
species of mineral at present under notice. Some of these branching
sprays of Aragonite are as much as a foot, or even eighteen inches,
across. Other specimens of the same general form, and occurring
in the same way, were found some years ago in the well-known

191

lead mine of Silvera Band, Milburn Fell, and occasionally also.
from the mines at Helton, in the same metalliferous area. Another
form of Aragonite occurring in thin veins in shale at Dufton, is one
of the minerals that have been called Satin Spar. Analyses of
specimens of this variety have shewn it to contain as high a per-
centage as 4'25 per cent, of Diallogite, or Manganese Carbonate,
a mineral that has not yet been proved to exist in a separate
condition here. The Satin Spar consists of a succession of en-
crusting layers composed of close-set, fibrous, silky-looking crystals,
varying, in different layers, from shades of silvery grey to pure
glistening, snow-white. Some specimens shew a faint rosy tint.
Specimens cut and polished in the direction of the length of the
crystals, exhibit the beautiful satiny lustre whence it derives its name.
Aragonite from the same district assumes a variety of other forms ;
but none that call for any special remark. Forms different again
occur in the Alston district, and in the limestone at Harcla Mines,
near Kirkby Stephen.

In the hematite district of West Cumberland, the mines yield
very perfect specimens of Aragonite in the form of diverging groups
of spire-shaped crystals, some as much as two or three inches in
length. Those from Cleator occur in the form of spikes, each
individual spike having a contour that rounds with a gentle curva-
- ture nearly to a point. The transverse section of each separate
spike varies in form, probably because the spike itself represents
an aggregation of several prisms. The flutings and striations
running across the faces of each spike, would seem to indicate,
also, that the curved contour is due to what is called an oscillatory
combination of planes appertaining to the prism, with others
referable to one or other of its observed pyramidal faces. My
colleague, Mr. Pringle, has called my attention to a beautiful
example of this kind in the case of Quartz, exhibited in the
Collection at the Museum of Practical Geology; and has suggested
that the above explanation may apply to many cases of crystals
with curved contours like the Cleator Aragonites referred to,
Crystals of Aragonite similar to these in all essential respects but
that of size, occur in the Rowtin Gill- and Brandy Gill Mines ;

192

aiso near Keswick, and occasionally at Alston as well. Some
beautiful glassy crystals of Aragonite, occurring on Dolomite, have
been obtained from Nent Force, at the last-named locality.

In regard to the genesis of Aragonite, where it occurs in intimate
association with the Hexagonal form of the same chemical com-
pound, no very satisfactory explanation has yet been given.
Differences in the temperature, or in the nature, of the depositing
solution, may have determined whether the Calcic Carbonate in
particular cases should crystallize in the one system or in the other ;
but these explanations will hardly apply in the cases where botly
crystalline forms are found associated in such a manner as to
suggest that they have crystallized simultaneously, and under
precisely the same conditions. The subject seems as yet to be
but imperfectly understood, as is that of the related subject of the
distribution of particular crystalline forms in regard to locality.
Further reference will be made to this under Calcite.

WITHERITE, Barium Carbonate, occurs in a few localities ;
chiefly in the lead-mining areas of the Lower Carboniferous rocks.
In most cases it occurs in connection with faults, where they
traverse, or are connected with, beds of limestone; and it is
usually found in masses in the rider, or fault-breccia, of mineral
veins. In the majority of instances it appears to be associated
with Barytes and the other minerals above mentioned as occurring
along with Aragonite. This mineral crystallises in the Rhombic
System ; but quite commonly the fundamental form is modified in
such a manner as to closely approach some of the forms belonging
to the Hexagonal System. Thus, some of the crystals of Witherite
occurring at Alston, as well as at Dufton and the parts adjoining,
occur in the form of pseudo-hexagonal pyramids, very much like
one of the commonest crystalline forms of quartz. Associated with
crystals of this kind are others consisting of groups of rod-like
aggregations, each individual crystal of the aggregation consisting
of a combination of the two terminal planes and the double six-
faced rhombic pyramid, so that each rod is made up of several
crystals joined end to end like a string of beads. Some of the
Witherite occurring at Dufton is in the form of ball-shaped masses,

193

often with the surface studded with the pyramidal ends of the
separate crystals; while in other cases the surface is nearly as smooth
as that of a cannon ball. Almost as commonly Witherite occurs as
encrusting masses like stalagmite, with a fibrous radiate structure.
In each and every one of these cases the surface of the mineral is
coated over with a chalky crust. Beautiful pearly crystals are
found at Bleagill, Alston.

Witherite has a high commercial value, being employed in the
manufacture of plate-glass, and of beet-sugar, besides being used
also in the manufacture of certain pigments. Our fell-side
folk employ it as a rat-bane; and it is said to be so noxious
that even the small quantity carried down in suspension in the
water of streams draining areas where this mineral is worked, is
sufficient to cause death in the smaller animals, and to give rise to
serious disturbances of health in the case of the larger, even at a
distance of three or four miles from the point where the poisonous
detritus first enters the stream.

STRONTIANITE, Strontium Carbonate, is said to have been ob-
tained from the Alston district, but I have been unable to discover
on what evidence its existence as a separate mineral has been
claimed for Cumberland.

CERUSSITE, Plumbic Carbonate, the ‘‘ White Ore” of miners, is
of general occurrence in connection with Galena. It seems, as arule,
to occur chiefly in those parts of mineral veins that are most exposed
to the influence of surface-waters, just as might be expected in the
case of a mineral that is almost certainly a decomposition-product
of other ores of lead. In the Caldbeck Fells, and, to a smaller
extent, also in other mines, large masses of what were evidently at
one time solid crystals of Galena, may be found with the inner
parts of the crystal eaten almost entirely away, and the corroded
surface of the interior irregularly lined with Cerussite. Some of
these groups of crystals, especially at Brandy Gill, are in the form
of stellate macles, like six-rayed stars. Others, especially the
Cerussites from Braithwaite Mine, Force Crag Mine, Newlands,
Goldscope, Thornthwaite, and other places in the Keswick

district, occur in the form of tuft-like groups of slender prisms,
13

194

with a lustre closely approaching that of the diamond in brilliancy.
The same remark applies also to Driggith Mine, and various
other mines in the Caldbeck Fells ; to Greenside Mines at the head
of Ullswater; and to various mines in the Alston district, as well
as in other localities not so generally well-known. Beautiful
groups from Braithwaite Mines adorn both the National Collec-
tions, as well as most private collections of any extent.

It is not a little remarkable that Cerussite should be so commonly
associated with Galena, while Anglesite, the Plumbic Sulphate,
should be very local in its distribution. On theoretical grounds,
Anglesite ought to be found wherever Galena is undergoing con-
version into the Carbonate ; as the Sulphide is supposed, as the
initial step in its alteration, to combine with a further proportion
of Oxygen, and thus to pass first into the Sulphate before going
over to the condition of Carbonate. The fact that Anglesite and
Cerussite occur side by side as decomposition-products of one and
the same crystal of Galena, as happens in the Caldbeck Fells for
example, while in other districts the Cerussite occurs alone, and
that, too, without shewing any signs of having passed through the
preliminary stage of Anglesite, would seem to indicate that the
formation of Cerussite from Galena is due frequently to conversion
direct from the Sulphide. Were the case otherwise, Anglesite,
seeing that it is nearly as stable a compound as the other lead
salt, ought to be of at least equally common occurrence as a
decomposition-product, which is certainly not the case in the lead
mines of the North-West of England.

Cerussite is very valuable as an ore of lead; but in Cumberland
and Westmorland it rarely occurs in sufficient quantity to render
it of much importance in a commercial aspect.

It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that the “old man” (as metal
miners in the North call the former workers of mines, as well as
the results of those workers’ labours,) seems often to have been
unaware of the value of this mineral as an ore of lead, and to have
rejected it along with the refuse as worthless “deads.” In the
case of mines where this has happened, modern improvements in
the dressing of ores have rendered it worth while to sort over and

i et ee

195

dress the contents of the “‘dead heaps ;” in some cases with con-
siderable profit to the miner.

The second group of Anhydrous Carbonates comprises such as
crystallize in the Hexagonal System.

Next to Quartz, CaLciTE, Calcic Carbonate, is by far the most
widely-diffused mineral occurring in the two counties. This is
especially the case in the part of the district occupied by the
Carboniferous Limestone Series. The mineral occurs in an almost
endless variety of crystalline combinations; and it is hardly too
much to say that within the limits of the district under consider-
ation, as great a variety of crystalline forms of this mineral are to
be found as may be gathered from the mines of all the rest of the
world put together. It may be worth while again to direct attention
to the fact, already alluded in the case of Aragonite, and long
well-known to practical men, that particular crystalline forms, or
crystalline combinations, prevail at particular localities, while the
same mineral obtained from adjoining localities, perhaps from
veins of the same kind traversing rocks of precisely the same
nature, and, to all appearance, produced under just the same
circumstances, may be characterized by forms entirely different.
This is true, of course, of many other minerals than Calcite, and is
sufficiently well known to miners and persons accustomed to handle
large numbers of minerals from a variety of localities as to enable
them to decide, in many cases without the slightest hesitation,
what particular district, or even what particular mine, a given
mineral may have come rom. To describe these differences, in
the case of the mineral under notice, would involve crystallographic
details a little out of place in a paper like the present ; but it is a
subject that has been by no means worked out, and might well
form the subject of a series of investigations by some of our local
mineralogists, or others that have the requisite variety of specimens
before their eyes. As instances of some of the varieties of form, I
would refer to the combinations of obtuse- and acute-rhombohedra,
and of these with hexagonal prisms, which are common in the
Alston district; the large prisms with a combination of the terminal

196

plane and one or more sets of rhombic faces, from Greenside ; the
thin, disc-like, tabular crystals occurring at both the last-named
localities ; the aggregations of small prisms with rhombic ends
built up into groups having the external form of large scalenohedra,
which are found in such perfection at Helton; and many others
whose mere enumeration would alone be sufficient to occupy four
or five of the present pages.

Calcite occurs of various shades of colour, from perfectly clear
glassy crystals through various shades of cream colour, grey, or
pale brown, to salmon colour, or rose. Encrustations of radiating
crystals of the last-named tint occur in connection with the Car-
boniferous Limestone near Kendal.

Other forms of Calcite, or what is commonly regarded as such,
are the stalactites and stalagmites found in caverns in limestone
districts, as well as the travertine from calcareous springs. Mr.
Bryce M. Wright, in his List, refers to good examples of this last
at Park Head, near Hesket-New-Market. Others of the same
kind are of general occurrence wherever springs are thrown out at
the junction of any widely-jointed limestone rock and an imper-
vious bed beneath it.

Calcite very commonly appears as a pseudomorph retaining the
external form of some other mineral, which has been gradually
removed in solution, while Calcite has as gradually occupied the
vacant space. Very frequently crystals of one kind have been
invested with a coating of minerals of a kind quite different ; then
the first-formed mineral has been removed in solution, and the
vacant space it occupied either filled with other substances or else
left vacant. As a rule it is the more stable compound that stands
longest, and the least stable that is first to go. But Professor H.
A. Nicholson called my attention some years ago to a remarkable
exception to this rule, occurring at Dufton. In this, crystals of
Barytes, one of the most insoluble substances known, had been
invested by Calcite, and afterwards entirely removed in solution,
leaving the cavity it formerly occupied entirely empty. What the
solvent was that brought about the removal of the Barytes without
affecting the easily-acted-upon Calcite, is not by any means clear,

‘

197

CALAMINE, Zinc Carbonate, occurs in the same way in relation
to Blende, or Zinc Sulphide, as Cerussite does to Galena; and,
like it, also originates from the decomposition of the sulphide.
Calamine, however, is not of yery common occurrence, even where
Blende is found in abundance. This may be due to the fact that.
the decomposition of Blende gives rise to the Sulphate, whose
instability favours its removal in solution almost as fast as it is
formed, while the conditions for the formation of the Carbonate
are not usually quite as favourable. Calamine usually occurs in
connection with the rider, or fault-breccia, of mineral veins, generally
in such parts of the vein as are within the influence of carbonated
waters percolating downwards from the surface.

The principal localities in the two counties are in the neighbour-
hood of Alston, especially at Farnberry Mine. Other localities are
the mines situated on the steep south-western edge of the same great
upland tract, more especially at Dufton ; and the mines in and around
what are known as the Caldbeck Fells. The Alston specimens
occur chiefly in the form of encrusting groups of spheroids, with a
concentric banding resulting from deposition in successive layers,
and with a radiate structure due to the presence of the separate
prisms. Considerable variety in both external form. and colour
may be observed, some appearing like dull, chalky-looking encrust-
_ ations, investing portions of fault-breccia, while others assume. the
character of groups of a more-evidently crystalline character. The
prevailing colour is a peculiar dull greenish-yellow, something
between gamboge and a pale tint of olive; and the same specimen
not unfrequently exhibits a variety of tints in different layers,
which, when the mineral is cut and polished for inlaying or other
ornamental purposes, give rise to a very pleasing effect. Similar
fibrous radiating groups of the same general tint occur at Dufton,
and the mines in the districts adjoining.

_ The Caldbeck Fell specimens mostly come from Rowtin Gill,
and occur there also as dull chalky-looking encrustations on the
materials composing the fault-breccia. In. tint these vary from
smoke grey, or dull lead-colour, through sapphire-blue, or lavender,
to nearly a cobalt-blue, It is remarkable that, though Blende is —

198

one of the commonest minerals at this locality, Calamine should be
comparatively rare, while the Zinc Silicate should be much more
common.

One of the prettiest minerals occurring in Cumberland and
Westmorland is the pearly-looking, usually cream-coloured, mineral,
with curved rhombic faces of crystallization, so commonly found
as a sparry incrustation on the hzematites from Cleator, the
Blende from Alston and from Keswick, and the crystals of Galena
from Greenside Mines. This is one form or the other of Doto-
MITE, which is essentially a double carbonate of Lime and
Magnesia. The best known specimens of this form from the
Alston district, come from Nent Head and Garrigill. But the
mineral in a less-showy form is of common occurrence as the
crystalline lining of the geodes, or drusy cavities, that characterise
the limestones of the Carboniferous series wherever their original
condition has been changed by the infiltrations of magnesian
solutions from the New Red. This is especially the case around
Shap, and all along the line of outcrop of the impure, arenaceous,
or earthy, limestones of that part of the Mountain Limestone so
well exposed there. ‘The original carbonate of lime of the lime-
stone has been partly changed into magnesian limestone, as a
consequence of the infiltration referred to; and the rock, in
undergoing the change in its composition, has changed also in its
dimensions, shrinking to a smaller bulk, so that a process the
reverse of what takes place in a cooling lava, has favoured the
development of a cellular or cavernous, or, as it is termed,
drusy, character throughout the more highly-altered portions of
the rock. In these drusy cavities the Dolomite has crystallized
out, sometimes in very pretty crystals, as may be seen by
the beautiful specimens presented to the Carlisle Museum by
Mr. Robert Crowder. Some Iron-peroxide, and, apparently also,
some Magnesian Carbonate, have been combined in varying pro-
portions with the other constituents of the Dolomite, and have
imparted to it sometimes the one, sometimes the other, of their
respective characteristic shades of colour. Some of these druses
are sufficiently capacious to hold half a pint of water, but more

199

commonly they are about the size of a walnut. When exposed to
the weather, nearly all these dolomites change through cream-colour
to saffron-yellow, or to dull ochreous tints, as a consequence of the
change of part of their iron into Limonite. Analyses of Dolomite
from our district shew a proportion of Iron carbonate ranging up
to ten per cent.

At the Caldbeck Fell mining area ferriferous Dolomite is common,
along with the vein-stuff, perhaps as a result of the mingling of
magnesian solutions with others containing Lime carbonate re-
sulting from the decomposition of the volcanic- and other crystalline
rocks traversed by the veins, before the last of the New Red was
denuded from the plain now represented by the Fell tops there.
Dolomites with much the same general aspect, but weathering
with a beautiful rich golden-brown iridescent surface, are found at
Helton Mines, near Brough; and specimens having the same
lustre and play of colours, from the West Cumberland area, were
presented a year or so since to the British Museum, by Miss S. H.
Bayles.

Very pretty groups of madder-brown crystals were got from a
vein traversing the volcanic green-slates at the head of Ullswater.

The alteration of limestone into masses of a dolomitic character
has affected considerable thicknesses of rock in many instances.

In most of these the conversion, or replacement, has taken place
across the bedding of the rock ; thereby rendering it evident that
the dolomitic character is due to causes affecting the rock after its
deposition, and not, as some have supposed in the instances under
notice, to original differences of composition. The alteration in
some cases has proceeded so far as to convert bands, or dyke-like
masses of the rock into a crumbling mass of crystals, which have a
gritty feel to the touch, so as to bear no inconsiderable resemblance
to loose-grained sandstones. Instances are not wanting wherein
people whose education ought to have taught them better have
actually regarded these dolomitized limestones as veritable sand-
stones. The relative hardness of quartz grains to dolomite affords
a ready means of distinguishing between the two: where other
means are not available, the face of a geological hammer rubbed

200

over the surface of the rock will help to distinguish them at once.
I have long been accustomed, in field geology, to discriminate
between them by merely scraping the sole of an iron-shod boot
over the rock. The iron will slip easily enough over the rock
when it is dolomite, but it is rasped in a manner that is unmistake-
able when the rock under foot is sandstone.

SIDERITE, CHALYBITE, Spathose Iron, or White Iron Ore, the
Iron-Carbonate, is another generally-diffused mineral, though it
occurs in noticeable quantities only in a few localities. These are
chiefly in conneetion with the faults traversing the great upland
tract whose fell-tops form a great plain inclined from the line of
the Cross Fell escarpment in the direction of the Tyne Valley.
Here the ore occurs chiefly in the form of rider, or vein-stuff in
the fault-breccia; but Professor Warington Smyth states that the
limestone adjoining the veins has itself been converted into
Siderite, which constitutes ‘‘flots,” similar in their general character
to the lateral ramifications already referred to as one of the modes
of occurrence of Galena. The formation of Siderite has, however,
in this instance, clearly been due to the partial replacement
of the limestone zz sz/#?, in a manner analagous to that referred to
under Dolomite. Indeed, it seems far from unlikely that Dolomite
may have formed a preliminary stage in the alteration; and that
the formation of both minerals may be due to the influence of
solutions infiltring downwards through fault-fissures before the New
Red had been denuded from the old surface whose remains now
form the fell-tops there.. In: the part of the district now referred
to, Siderite occurs in quantities sufficient to constitute deposits of
some commercial importance. In other parts of the district it
rarely occurs in quantities that will pay for working.

Siderite, in an impure form, mixed with earthy matter, occurs in
the form of nodular concretions, locally known as “cat heads,” in
some of the shales of the Carboniferous series. These are occa-
sionally found in quantities sufficient to pay for working. In the
Argill Coal Field, described in Part VII. of the Zransactions,
mention was made of some nodules of clay-ironstone that have
been converted superficially into hematite, by the partial replace-

»

———E a

201

ment of the Iron Carbonate by the Peroxide. This was, almost
certainly, effected by means of the infiltration of the same ferriferous
solutions that stained the associated sandstones their present deep
red tint. The Froghall Ironstone of Staffordshire affords another
example of the same nature. In this a band of clay carbonate of
iron has been partially, and, in some parts, entirely, altered into
hematite. . The alteration in this latter case is to be attributed to
the same causes that have developed the hzematitic character in
the Argill Coal Field, namely, the percolation of water charged
with iron in solution, derived from the New Red Rocks before
they were denuded from that part.

Professor Warington Smyth is of opinion that the formation of
Siderite, at least in the Alston district, is going on at the present
day, as Mr. Attwood found a rod of malleable-iron partly coated
with this mineral, which must therefore be, in this case, of later-
formation than the date of introduction of the iron rod into the
mine (see Q. J. Science, V. p. 36). Professor Smyth adds the
remark that the Siderite “invests, as a crystalline encrustation, the
previously-formged crystals of Fluor spar and of Galena; and the ©
striking manner in which it is found to coat only those surfaces
which face in a particular direction is well worthy of attention in
the study of these obscure phenomena.”

ALSTONITE, or BROMLITE, the Double Carbonate of Lime and
Barytes, is one of the minerals that are, so far as our present
knowledge extends, confined to one locality. Alstonite is found
at Fallowfield, as well as at Bromley Hill, and some of the other
mines near to Alston. It has not yet been found in any other
part of the world. In appearance some specimens of this mineral
bear a certain superficial resemblance to Aragonite, as it crystallizes
in forms belonging to the same system, and has much the same
lustre and ‘colour. More commonly, however, it is found in the
form of groups of small, snow-white, acute pyramids, generally
about a quarter of an inch. from base to apex... Frequently these
pyramids are doubled, base to base. These occur lining cavities
in the rider, generally in the parts of the vein that traverse beds of

202

limestone. Slight variations in tint occur, and some specimens
are of a greyish colour, while others are almost of a rose red tint.
Analyses of Alstonite from Bromley Hill gave—

Barium Carbonate ie Efe oe 62°16
Calcium Carbonate ane =! bic 30°29
Strontium Carbonate... a ee 6°64

Like Aragonite and Calcite, Pyrites and Marcasite, and some
other minerals not so well known, the chemical compound now
under consideration presents us with a good example of dimorphism
—the compound crystallizing, in the case of Alstonite, in forms
belonging to the Hexagonal System, while in the other form of the
same chemical compound, BARYTOCALCITE, the crystals belong to
the System known as the Monoclinic. Like Alstonite, Baryto-
calcite is rarely, or never, found in any locality far from Alston, so
that it has as good a claim to be regarded as a mineral peculiar
to Cumberland as Alstonite has. It occurs in association with
Galena, Barytes, Fluor, etc., in veins traversing the Yoredale
Rocks—generally in connection with the beds of limestone of that
series—and is found both massive, and crystallized, either lining
cavities in the rider or in the rock adjoining the veins, or else
investing fragments of fault-breccia. The crystallized forms occur
as divergent groups of slender, prismatic crystals, shooting out in
various directions from their basal points of attachment. The
individual crystals sometimes attain a length of nearly two inches ;
but a more common size is about one-fourth of that. The terminal
faces are oblique to the axis, so that the general form of each
individual crystal reminds one somewhat of the graver used in
engraving on wood. The mineral is usually translucent, and has
a lustre between that of glass and of resin. It varies in tint from
nearly colourless to various shades of yellowish and grey,

Another division of the same group is formed by the HypRATED
CARBONATES.

One of these a rare mineral, well-represented in the British
Museum by Cumberland specimens, is HypDROzINCITE, or Zinc
Bloom. This occurs in the veins of the Alston district chiefly in

203

the form of mammilary encrustations of a chalky- or pipe-clay-like
aspect, but exhibiting traces of both radiate structure and lamellar,
concentric banding, due to deposition in successive coats. This is
one of the minerals that a careful search might bring to light in
the Caldbeck Fells, especially in the neighbourhood of Rowtin
Gill.

Another mineral, even rarer still, is represented in the British
Museum by specimens from both the Alston district and Rowtin
Gill, in the Caldbeck Fells. This is AURICHALCITE, or Green
Calamine, the Hydrous Carbonate of Zinc and Copper, represented
by the formula 2CuC + 3ZnH. Mr. Bryce Wright states (of. cit.)
that this mineral is “found associated with Malachite at Rowtin
Gill in an extremely hard ochreous rock.” The British Museum
specimens, which occur on saccharoidal quartz in association with
Linarite, are in the form of mammilary aggregations of minute
acicular crystals of a pale greenish-blue or turquoise tint, ranging
to nearly emerald green. The Alston specimens are small, and
they occur as velvety encrustations of a turquoise green colour.

MALACHITE, Hydrous Copper Carbonate, has been mentioned
several times as occurring in various localities in the district under
consideration. Indeed, it may safely be stated that, wherever
copper ore in any form occurs, Malachite occurs as a decomposition-
product along with it. Its bright verdigris-green, or emerald-green,
tint, is sure to attract attention, so that it is observed perhaps with
more frequency than almost any of the other ores. It varies in
torm from mere stains, to thick encrusting masses, under a great
variety of circumstances ; but in every, or nearly every case, in
connection, direct or indirect, with faults. Like Galena, a mineral
it is often associated with, this ore occurs indiscriminately in either
the Carboniferous rocks, or in the older series beneath them. It
is not yet known—in this district, at all events—to occur in any
of the New Red, as it does at Alderly Edge in Cheshire, and

- elsewhere. In the Carboniferous rocks it occurs, preferably, in

connection with limestone, at Clouds, Orton Scars, Harcla, Winton,
Helton, and other places. In the Alston district it is not at all
rare ; but in no case has it been found in very large quantities. It

204

is worth of remark that stains of Malachite may now and then be
traced to the decomposition of Pyrites, which frequently includes
a notable percentage of Copper Sulphide in its composition.
Another point worth calling attention to is the marked association
of the Green Carbonate with the veins of silicified limestone,
already referred to under Quartz.

In the Lake district the mineral is of common occurrence,
though not in quantities sufficient to render it of much commercial
importance.

The beautiful mammilated Malachite, familiar to most persons
as being employed for ornamental purposes, comes from foreign
localities ; as, though the mineral does occasionally occur in such
forms in our district, the masses are rarely of either sufficient
purity, or size, to be available for that purpose. On the other
hand, while Malachite in the form of crystals is by no means
common elsewhere, many excellent examples have been obtained
from the renowned locality of the Caldbeck Fells. ‘The crystals
referred to are found chiefly at Rowtin Gill, Haygill-, and Mexico
Mines; and Mr. Bryce Wright gives, as other localities, Carrock
End, and Dale Head, and also Stavely, near Windermere. The
Rowtin Gill specimens occur in the form of groups of very slender
acicular prisms, with a silky adamantine lustre and an emerald-
green colour, which shoot inwards towards the centre of some of
the cavities in the vein-stuff. In every case Malachite seems to be
clearly due to the decomposition of other minerals containing
Copper. é:

Malachite is sometimes used as a pigment, under the name of
Mountain Green ; but it is not very permanent.

The other hydrated Copper Carbonate, AZURITE, or CHESSYLITE,
occurs under much the same conditions as the last-named species,
and at many of the same localities. It is, however, of much less
common occurrence, Occasionally this mineral is found well
crystallized, and its rich deep-blue tint renders it one of the most
beautiful of the minerals occurring in our district,

(Zo be concluded in No, LX.)

wy

te MAT Hh Par

e

dah ma

ee bal

THE GREENLAND FALCON.
(Falco serfalco candicans. )

SHoT AT CrosBY RAVENSWORTH, 1864. (See No. VI. p. 161.)

Figured by permission of the Trustees of the late Sir Richard Musgrave, Bart.

205

LOCAL SCIENTIFIC NOTES & MEMORANDA,

FOOTPRINTS IN THE PENRITH SANDSTONE.

In a sandstone quarry about three miles in a south-easterly
direction from Penrith, and on the north-west side of the Penrith-
Alston Road, I have lately met with footprints of what would.
appear to be those of several distinct species of four-footed
vertebrates. They were found on the natural faces of bedding of
the rock, which is strongly false-bedded in various directions
towards the west. The character of the footprints varies consider-
ably in different specimens, in regard to both the size of the
impressions and their general form and disposition. These will
be described in detail in a future communication. In the mean
time I am securing every slab shewing vestiges of the almost-
unknown fauna of this part of the New Red Series, and am
carefully recording every fact likely in any way to throw light
upon this obscure part of the Geological Record. Casts of each
slab have been taken, and will be exhibited in one of the local
museums; but I shall be happy to shew the ces to any one
eed in the subject.

Gro, VARTY SMITH, The Luham, Penrith,

206

THE ICELAND FALCON IN CUMBERLAND.

A FEMALE of the above bird was shot near Crossfell on October
13th, 1860. It came into the possession of Mr. Blackett Green-
well of Alston, who preserved it; and it afterward passed, I
believe, into the Collection of Mr. Hancock of Newcastle. Mr.
Greenwell still retains the bones and some of the wing feathers of
the bird. Its weight was two-and-three-quarter pounds. Its
length was twenty-three and a half inches; from tip to tip of the
wings, fifty inches. From the carpel joint to tip of wing, fifteen
and a half inches. The wings were pointed, first and fourth
primaries of equal length, with the second feather longest. The
legs and toes were lead-coloured, and were feathered to within
half an inch of the foot, and were very strong. Beak, cere, orbits,
lead-colour ; eyes, dark ; a narrow pale pinkish-red margin round
base of bill. The wings were shorter than the tail by three inches.
The upper surface of the body and the wing-coverts were dull
ash-brown, with white spots. The under-surface was white, with
longitudinal streaks of ash-brown. A very faint dark patch on the
side of the cheek.
W. DucKwortTH.

THE WwW Ax W ING:
(Bombycivora garrula. )

Durinc the winter of 1882-3, six specimens of this bird were
obtained in the neighbourhood of Carlisle. One out of a small
flock at Teufit Green, Harker (Teufit is a local name for the
Peewit), on December 18th; one at Brunstock on December
26th—-probably another of the same flock; Wragmire, January
8th, one; Grange Bank, Wigton, January 13th, one; Kirklinton,
January 27th, one; Cotehill, February 26th, one. The waxen-like
tips on the wing feathers numbering from four to seven,

W. DuckKworTH,

207

THE SEA-COWL OR LUMP-F ISH.
( Cyclopteris lumpus. )

A VERY fine specimen of this fish, in a perfectly fresh condition,
was found dead on the bank of the river Eden, at Rockcliffe, after
ebb of morning tide, on March 1 5th, 1883. Being a form entirely
strange to the fishermen there, it was sent to Carlisle for identifi-
cation.

W. Duckxwortn,

FURTHER ADDITIONS TO LISTS OF CUMBERLAND
FLOWERING PLANTS,

Thalictrum flavum. Stainton Banks,

Aconitum napellus, Blackwell Woods.

Polygala vulgaris, var. depressa. Kingmoor,
Nasturtium palustre. Scotby.

Althea officinalis. Rockcliffe.

Hypericum montanum. Caldew, near Rose Bridge,
HI, hirsutum. Caldbeck.

Ononis spinosa. Rockcliffe,

Medicago sativa. Etterby Scar.

Trifolium ochroleucum. Dalston.

Rubus chamemorus, Bogs, head of Croglin Water.
Pyrus communis. Near Gelt.

Ribes nigrum. Eden side, near Cotehouse.

Sedum villosum. Croglin Fell.

Cotyledon umbilicus. Near Dalston.

Saxifraga hypnoides. Croglin Fell,

Carum verticillatum. Kingmoor.

Valerienella auricula. Upperby.

Senecio erucifolius. Near Longtown.

Inula dysenterica. Etterby Scar.

Anthemis cortula. Stainton.

A. nobilis. Durran Hill.

Campanula glomerata. Stainton Banks,

Solanum nigrum. Occurs occasionally in gardens at Stanwix,
Scrophularia aquatica. Etterby Scar,

208

Limosella aquatica... .Thurstonfield.
Vervain officinalis. Casual, about Knowefield.
Lamium maculatum. Grinsdale.
L. incisum. Blackwell.
Nepeta cataria. Sebergham.
Cynoglossum officinale. Dalston.
Atriplex babingtonii. —Bowness-on-Solway.
Polygonum lapathifolium. Kingmoor.
Parietaria officinalis. Wetheral Caves.
Orchis ustulata. Stainton Banks.
Galanthus nivalus. Thickets by the Caldew.
Lilium martagon. Roebeck and the Caldew.
Allium vineale. Stainton Banks.
Acorus calamus. Stonebrigglees.

W. Duckworts.

COAL MEASURES BELOW THE NEW RED
SANDSTONE.

AN article in the ‘Carlisle Journal” of September 7th, on ‘“ The
Trade: of West Cumberland,” treats, among other matters, of the
prospects of finding coal north of the line of fault which at present
bounds the coal-workings on the north from Maryport to, and
east of, Brayton. The writer remarks :—“Since the Earl of
Lonsdale bored near St. Bees and about five miles from White-
haven, on the southern portion of the Cumberland Coal-fields, and
found coal at a great depth underlying the New Red Sandstone, it
has frequently been stated by engineers that the great fault would
cause coal to be found to the north as well as to the south.
Under these circumstances, it is highly probable that the Cumber-
land Coal-field extends much nearer Carlisle than is generally
supposed.”

The remarks quoted seem to imply a notion that the faulted
‘line in question is not altogether one whose general effect is as
obvious as that of one of the numerous faults which affect only the
Coal-Measures. This faulted boundary, however, is a simple line
of dislocation without any mysterious influences ; and-it forms the

P.
,
4

209

boundary of the Red Sandstone about Aspatria and Brayton, in
consequence of the enormous denudation that has taken place
since the fault came into existence. A simple diagram will illus-
trate this better than many words could do.

BeAAGE O| AS-Al DiS) TON Ecchi 7 ents = =
Lae => Sanne ioieuap ace

We have only to suppose the rocks of the district to be planed
down to the level of the line A B, or thereabouts, and the present
state of things naturally follows. On the southern or upthrow-side
of the fault, both the Red Sandstone and a considerable mass of
the Coal-Measures have been removed. On the northern the
destruction has been of the Red Sandstone and beds above it.
There can be no doubt of the existence of Coal Measures north of
the fault, at any given spot, provided that they also exist there

- south of it. But as the Red Sandstone lies unconformably on the

Carboniferous beds of various ages, the coal-bearing value of the
latter, when reached, may vary immensely in a very short lateral
distance. The writer in the “ Carlisle Journal” also remarks that
Mr. Brockbank of Moor Park, after surveying the neighbourhood
of Aikton Pasture some years ago, came to the conclusion that
“it would be unwise to expend any capital in the hopes of meeting
with the Coal-Measures in this locality.” The reason, however, of
this was that Mr. Brockbank discovered that certain dark shales,
etc., about Aikton, which had been supposed to be Carboniferous,
were really Liassic. Consequently, both the Red Sandstone and
the Lias lie above the Carboniferous rocks in that locality. The
true problem is not as to the existence of Carboniferous beds north

of the fault ; but whether they are—at a given spot—sufficiently
14

210

rich in coal, and at a moderate depth. Any information on the

geology of Cumberland bordering the Solway will be welcome to

the geologist, as few districts anywhere are so devoid of sections.
T.Me O

DISCOVERY OF MAMMALIAN REMAINS AT
SILLOTH.

In a paragraph in the “Carlisle Journal” of April 27th, 1883,
signed J.L., an account was given of discoveries made during the
excavations for Silloth New Docks. The uppermost eleven feet
showed nothing but sand and gravel. But about sixteen feet
below the surface, and twenty feet below the level of low water
at ordinary spring tides, there was a band containing shells of
existing species of Mussel, Cockle, Oyster, and Whelk. ‘The first
mammalian relic was found in gravel, about seventeen feet from
the surface, and consisted of an antler of the Red-Deer, twenty-six.
inches in length, and having five tines. At about the same level
was an enormous humerus, which weighed five pounds twelve
ounces, and measured eighteen inches in length. About ten feet
lower still, and “about three feet above the clay,” a large well-
preserved vertebra was found, weighing about four pounds.
Professor Turner of Edinburgh, has pronounced the humerus to
be that of Bos primigenius, and the vertebra to be one from the
tail of a Fin-whale.

Mr. E. T. Newtown, Asst. Nat. to the Geol. Survey, who has
(since the paragraph quoted from was written,) also seen these
bones, agrees with Professor Turner as to their determination.

T. Ve bie

211

BOS PRIMIGENIUS AND THE CHILLINGHAM
WILD CATTLE.

As regards Bos primigenius—a writer in the “Saturday Review” of
July 28th, (article on Belford and Chillingham)—appears to think
that this species did not exist in Britain before the Saxon Invasion,
though the mightiest of all the beasts of chase that roamed in the
forests of Germany. Therefore, as the Chillingham Wild Cattle
are admitted to show the nearest approach among existing breeds
to the characteristics of Bos primigenius, he asks whether we are
to believe that the Chillingham Cattle have preserved their freedom
from prehistoric times, or are they relapsed descendaats of domes-
ticated cattle brought over “‘in the keels of Hengest or of Ida;”
and inclines to the last-named view as the “less romantic” of the
two. But the Silloth humerus alone is sufficient to show the
existence of Bos fprimigenius in Britain long before the Fifth
Century. And if by “romantic” is meant wild and fanciful, the
notion that Hengest and Ida sailed on piratical or colonizing
expeditions with domesticated examples of Bos primigenius on
board, seems eminently deserving of that epithet; while the
alternative view offers no difficulties whatever.
PVE Mae

NOTE ON SHAWK BECK.

-ON referring lately to Hutchinson’s “ History of Cumberland,” in

order to ascertain the various spellings of the name of the above
stream, I found a detailed account of the rocks quarried along its
course above East Curthwaite. It was the more interesting to me,
because, on the previous day, I had been inspecting Farey’s well-
known section across the Wealden District of S.E. England (1806),
and had been much struck by the mixture of light with utter
darkness displayed in his notions of geological structure ; and the
writer in Hutchinson must have written fifteen to twenty years

before Farey. While Farey showed a correct knowledge of the
order of superposition of the Wealden rocks, his drawing exhibited
the most striking contrast to the slightly-curved and gently-flowing
lines which would have been displayed in any approximation to
the actual arrangement. On the contrary, the strata appeared to
be broken up by dislocatians at intervals of a fe hundred yards,
andjbeds far below the uppermost strata were shown rising almost
to the surface in the intervals between the disjointed blocks of
upper rock. Some alluvium, also, was shown in its true place as
regards the surface, but appeared to be ended laterally by faults
on each side, and to extend downwards many hundreds of feet.
No section is drawn by the author in Hutchinson ; but his remarks
show a similar mixture of superficial truth with utter want of insight
‘into geological structure. His account of the nature and dip of
the various rocks is perfectly true, but any attempt at section-
drawing would have been no advance on Farey’s. After stating
that while the freestone N. of the limestone dips northward, the
limestone and the stone southward of it dip to the S.E., he naively
remarks :—‘‘ What a strange diversity in nature must be here,
where these various strata nearly approach each other!” And
later, referring to the patch of (Permian) flaggy red sandstone*
brought in again by a fault a little southward of the limestone, he
says :—“ They appear to be a stray strata (szc) of stone, but lie
similar to the other freestone quarries.” Of the limestone he states
that while ‘‘in all probability it continues across the country from
sea to sea, in a direction nearly E.N.E.; it is less than one hundred
yards in width where it shows itself at Choke Beck.” No attempt

at any explanation of the relations of these various beds to each ~

other is given. Of course a much more modern geologist might
easily make a mistake in explaining a section in which (as in this
case) both a fault and an unconformity are present. But the
remarks quoted from Hutchinson, like the section drawn by Farey,
show that to men with their notions of geological structure no
explanation was possible. A junior student of geology stated a
year or two ago, in an examination, that unconformities existed
* See Trans. Cumb. Assoc., Part VIL. pp. 82-84.

213

where “the rules of geology” had not been observed. But the
older writers quoted seem hardly to have recognised the existence
of any “rules” regulating the arrangement and distribution of

rocks.
‘Ley Viel,

REMAINS OF THE BEAVER IN WESTMORLAND.

A FEw years back the people at the Cross Keys Inn, Cautla,
between Ressondale and Sedbergh, had, on the mantle-piece of
their sitting-room, the skull of an adult Beaver. This was obtained
from some alluvium in the bottom of the Ressondale Valley, near
Clouds, and is worth recording as one of the few instances, if not
the sole instance, of the former occurrence of this animal in West-

morland.
ieaG

BOS PRIMIGENIUS IN WESTMORLAND.

In the hall at Howgill Castle is preserved a fine specimen of the
skull of a gigantic Bos, almost certainly belonging to this species.
‘It was dug out of a moss near Brough, and is said to have been
one of two skulls of the same kind, which were found together
with their horn-cores interlocked in such a way as to suggest that
they were mired while engaged in fighting. A large horn-core
belonging to the same gigantic species of Ox was found in the
moss next to Sunbiggen Tarn about seventeen years ago.
Lee

THE BLACK RAT IN WESTMORLAND.

IT may not be generally known that the Black Rat yet lingers in
small numbers about the fell-side farms in Westmorland. It is no

214

uncommon thing for specimens of this species to be captured in
the barns and out-houses, at Milburn, for example: but the species
is every year becoming rarer, and will doubtless soon be as entirely
supplanted by its foreign congener there as it has been elsewhere:

{e-G

THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER (PICUS
MINOR,) IN CUMBERLAND.

In 1880 a pair of these generally-rare birds bred, as I was informed
by Mr. Raine, in a large tree situated in the Park at Edenhall.
ee

EPIPACTIS PALUSTRIS IN CUMBERLAND.

In 1880 I found Zfipactis palustris, the rare Marsh Epipactis,
growing in small numbers in a bog near Penrith. Last yeara
member of the Penrith Scientific Society, to whom the locality was
mentioned, succeeded in discovering other specimens of the species

at the same locality.
ie Geac

PYRRHOTITE.

PYRRHOTITE, or Magnetic Pyrites (Fe; Ss ) occurs in a quartz-
vein traversing the Carboniferous rocks at Smittergill Head, in
the Alston District. It is found in the form of blade-like masses,
somewhat irregular in their mode of occurrence, which fill up the
interspaces in the quartz-rider of the fault-breccia in such a manner
as to suggest that they represent broken fragments of masses that
were once more regular in form, rather than minerals crystallized
as they are now found. The mineral has a granular fracture, a

215

dull metallic lustre, and a colour something between that of
ordinary Pyrites and of Copper, or, more like Kupfernickel.
This colour is observed, as a rule, only in the freshly-fractured
surface, as the speedy tarnish of this mineral soon leaves its
exterior of a various duller tints, ranging to umber-brown, with
traces here and there of some faint iridescence.

The lamellz exhibit curved faces in some instances; but whether
the curvature is due to original crystallization, or to subsequent
disturbances affecting the mass, does not seem quite clear.

(ae ae

G, AND T. COWARD, PRINTERS, CARLISLE.

: bale Ys f
UP «Tou ri
; A es PES ;
, Piet ry ;

FOR THE |

Socal

“ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND SCIENCE, |

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Eprren ny J. ou ‘GOODCHILD, BGS &. RAS

“MEMBER OF THE BRITISH. ORNITHOLOcIStS’ UNION ;
ae og A : H. M. GEOL. SURVEY. >

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»

5 PRICE TO. MEMBERS, ONE ‘SHILLING. :
_ NON: -MEMBERS,, TRO. SHILLINGS AND "SIXPENCE,

IRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Cumberland & Westmorland Association

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF LITERATURE
AND SCIENCE,

No. 1X.—1883-84.

Eoirep sy, J. G: GOQDCHILD,. F-.G.S., - F.ZS.,

MEMBER OF THE BRITISH ORNITHOLOGISTS’ UNION 5
H. M. GEOL. SURVEY.

PRICE TO MEMBERS, ONE SHILLING.
NON-MEMBERS, TWO SHILLINGS AND SIXPENCE.

CARLISLE:
fac, T. COWARD, PRINTERS, SCOTCH STREET.
: 1885.

| Bs ; hANy'S ek hick " oe SAR" oe “
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CDaDNT ENTS.

Page
NorTEes ON THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING AT PENRITH Vii.
RULES he ac tee oe ay oa in ix.
List oF OFFICERS _... ce dhe i as See Xil.
REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES mS od Jeo, XIN
Report or Association SECRETARY... : Bee ... XXXMii,
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT ee ae ue id Se REV:

List oF PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED FROM OTHER SOCIETIES IN EXCHANGE
FOR THE ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS” of ae nae .. XXXVL

Part J.—PROCEEDINGS at tHzt ANNUAL MEETING (Penrirn) :—

ADDRESS BY THE PreEsIpENT (R. 8. FErceuson, F.S.A.)
‘«The Formation of the English Palate.” eis te: 1

‘Contributions towards a List of Plants found in the
Penrith Neighbourhood.” By J.C. Smiru _.... Sere 20

“Contributions towards a List of the Minerals occurring in
Cumberland and Westmorland.” (Concluding Part, with
Index.) By J. G. Goopcuitp, F.G.8., F.Z.S8., H. M.

Geol. Survey es Sat on ie ee yy:

Parr II,—PaPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES, AND SELECTED
BY THE ASSOCIATION CoUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :—

‘*The Penrith Sandstone.” By J, G. Goopcuitp, F.G.S.,
F.Z.S., H.M.G.S. (Penrith) ... =e as fs 31

“Thirlmere and its Associations.” By W. Witson (Keswick) 53

Page
‘‘Who was the Founder of Roman Maryport.” By J. B.
Batiey (Maryport) ... or sat aaa ack 67
** Wild Flowers around Carlisle.” (Part I.) By W. Ducxk-
WoRTH (Carlisle)... Ste ws acs ae 83

‘‘Shrikes.”’ By the Rev. H. A. MAacpHerson, M.A. (Carlisle) 97

‘‘Notes on the Best Locality for Coal beneath the Permian
Rocks of North-West Cumberland.” By T. V. Hoimss,
F.G.S., M.A.1. a eke ms at = p09

‘* Notes on some Carboniferous Gasteropoda from Penton and
elsewhere.” Miss DoNaLp ... a a peat kee

“The Poets and Poetry of Cumberland, including the
Cumbrian Border.” By the Rev. T. Extwoop, B.A.
(Ambleside) ae oy Ai a pearly

‘Notes on the Geological Formation and Fossils of the New
Silloth Dock.” By J. Lerrcu, M.B., C.M. (Silloth) ... 169

‘Local Entomology.” (Part 4.) By Gro. Dawson (Carlisle) 201

Loca Screntiric Notes AND MEMORANDA :—

Wildfowl near Carlisle. Rev. H. A. Macpnerson, M.A.... 211

The Longtailed Duck. Rev. H. A. Macpnerson. M.A. ... 211
Additions to the Published Lists of Cumberland Plants.

W. Duckworth and P. SHEPHERD... . ees eels
The Carlisle Water Supply. T. V. H. ... ae meee eis}
Section North of Silloth. T.V.H. ... - 2 218
Silloth New Dock. T. V. H. ... os i a > 214
Changes of Channel in the Solway. T. V. HH. ... soa aD
Ancient Lake Dwellings in Galloway. T. V. H.... ssa, wee

The Probable Existence of Lake paeeetnneedt in Cumberland.
1D Weel, 2. : 217

Some Additional Notes on the Land and Freshwater Shells
of Cumberland and Westmorland. Miss DonALp meee |

Proceedings at the Annual Meeting at Penrith, 1884.

Tue NINTH ANNUAL MEETING of the AssOcIATION was held at Penrith on
the 5th and 6th of June. 1884. After hearing the President’s Address, which
was delivered in the Mission Rooms, a company representing all the Societies
affiliated to the Association, met at the Crown Hotel, where about sixty
members sat down to lunch.

At 2 p.m. the party, joined by a further contingent, entered the waggonettes
and drove through Lowther Park to the Castle. The drive through the
beautifully-wooded scenery alongside the Lowther was much enjoyed, as the
weather was all that could be wished, and the trees were in their full spring
beauty. Arrived at the Castle, the visitors were conducted through the
building, and shewn through the picture-galleries, which contain a large
number of paintings by Hogarth, as well as examples of Titian, and several
other masters. In the galleries of antiquities the visitors inspected some
interesting examples of Roman and other remains found at different times at
Plumpton, Old Carlisle, and other places in the district.

After examining the magnificent collections of plate, the visitors passed |
through the Library and other apartments, and then entered the gardens,
which were just beginning to assume their full summer beauty. From the
gardens the next place visited was the well-known Terrace-walk. This point,
on a fine day, commands a view of several miles of the valley of the Lowther,
with the well-wooded scenery extending along the river, from Askham upwards

in the one direction, and in the other past Whale and Helton, through the lower

escarpment of the Mountain Limestone, out past Knipe Scar, to near Brampton,
with the volcanic rocks of the Hawes Water- and Mardale-area, rising into
mountain in the distance. The Terrace itself, like many others in the same
Park, consists of a natural platform of rock, resulting from the unequal power

of resistance to mechanical erosion .offered by one of the limestones of the

Carboniferous Series as compared with the thin beds of sandstone and shale

that come between them.

From the Terrace the party came back by way of the Conservatories, whence
one section returned direct to Penrith, while the remainder drove to Brougham

viii.

Castle. Here the chief objects of interest in connection with the Roman Camp
and with the Castle itself were described by Dr. Taylor of Penrith. The
President also made some remarks upon the Countess of Pembroke and other
persons connected with the Castle.

After Tea at the Mission Room, the members again gathered to hear the
evening Lecture by Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., on ‘‘Our Early Ances-
tors in Britain.”

The second day’s proceedings were commenced at 9-30 a.m. with a Council
Meeting; whereat several matters connected with the management’ of the’
Association were discussed.

At the General Meeting, which followed, the Reports were read and adopted,
and the President, the Secretary, and the Editor were re-elected. Then, on
the motion of the Editor, the title of the Association was altered to that of the
‘*Cumberland and Westmorland Association for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.’’ On the motion of Mr. Vivian, representing the Whitehaven
Society, the Rule VIII. of former years was replaced by the Rule as it stands
at present.

The reading of original papers was begun with Mr. Rawnsley’s ‘‘ Remi-
niscences of Wordsworth gathered from the Peasantry,” which the audience
listened to with unmistakeable interest. At the conclusion of the paper the
President gave an account of his own recollections of Wordsworth. This was
followed by Mr. J. D. Kendall’s ‘‘ History of Mining in Cumberland and
Westmorland,” read in abstract by the Editor. The President followed with
a paper by Mr. T. V. Holmes, which gave rise to some discussion. At the
close of the last paper, the time being far advanced, the Editor gave a brief
outline of the contents of a paper by Mr. J. C. Smith, on ‘‘ The Rarer Plants’

”

around Penrith,” which was followed by a general account of the contents of
each of the remaining papers down on the list to be read. Then the meeting
dispersed for Luncheon.

In the Afternoon the members drove out from Penrith to Pooley Bridge,
whence they travelled by the steamer to Patterdale, Mr. Goodchild giving a series
of short explanations of the principal features of geological interest at intervals
throughout the journey. At Patterdale such of the party as were not compelled
to catch an early train remained a short time to enjoy the unrivalled combination
of lake and mountain scenery around ; while’others returned by the next boat—
and thus concluded a meeting that was in every respect one of the pleasantest
yet held.

1 ie A I Nite:

OF THE

Cumberland and Westmorland Association for
the Advancement of Literature and Science,

1.—That the Association be called the “CUMBERLAND AND
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF LITERA-
TURE AND SCIENCE.”

2.—The Association shall consist of the following Societies :—
Whitehaven Scientific Association, Keswick Literary and Scientific
Society, Workington Scientific and Literary Society, Maryport
Literary and Scientific Society, Longtown Literary and Scientific
Society, Carlisle Scientific Society and Field Naturalists Club,
Ambleside and District Literary and Scientific Society, Silloth and
Holme Cultram Literary and Scientific Society, Brampton Literary
and Scientific Society and Field Naturalist Club, Penrith and
_ District Literary and Scientific Society, Windermere Literary and
Scientific Society ; and of such other Societies as shall be duly
affiliated. Also of persons nominated by two members of the
Council; this latter class of members shall pay the sum of 55.
annually.

3-—All members of affiliated Societies, unless otherwise ruled
by the regulations of their respective Societies, shall be members
of the Cumberland and Westmorland Association.

B

X.

4.—The Association shall be governed by a Council, consisting
of a President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, who shall also be
Treasurer, an Editor, and of ordinary members, two to be elected
by each affiliated Society. The President, Secretary, and Editor
shall be elected annually at the Annual Meeting, and shall be

capable of re-election.

5.—The Vice-Presidents shall consist of the Presidents of the
various affiliated Societies; and the delegates of the various

Societies shall be elected annually by their respective Societies.

6.—An Annual Meeting of the Association shall be held at such
time and place as may be decided upon at the previous Annual
Meeting, or (failing such appointment) as may be arranged by the

Council.

7.—At each Annual Meeting, after the delivery of the Presi+
dent’s Address, and the reading of the Reports from the affiliated
Societies, the objects of the Association may be furthered by

Lectures, Papers, Addresses, Discussions, Conversaziones, &c.

8.—The Committee of each affiliated Society shall be entitled
to recommend one original and local paper communicated to such
Society (subject to the consent of the author) for publication in the
Transactions of the Association ; but Societies contributing capi-
tation grant on a number of members exceeding one hundred and
fifty shall have the privilege of sending two papers. The Council
shall publish at the expense of the Association the papers recom-
mended, either in full, or such an abstract of each or any of them
as the author may prepare or sanction; also those portions of the

Association Transactions that may be deemed advisable.

9.—The Council shall endeavour to promote co-operation among

xi.

existing Societies, and may assist in the formation of new ones ; it
may also aid in the establishment of classes in connection with
any of the associated societies.

10o,—Affliated Societies shall contribute annually towards the
general funds of the A’ssociation, Sixpence for each of their
members; but when the number of members of the affiliated
Societies exceeds one hundred and fifty, a reduction of fifty per
cent. shall be made upon the payment for each member in excess
of that number.

11.—The rules can be altered only by a majority of two-thirds
of the members present at an Annual Meeting: Any member
desiring to alter the Rules must send a copy of the proposed
alterations to the Secretary, at least two weeks before the meeting
is held. ‘

12.—Past Presidents of the Association shall be permanent
members of the Council, and be described as Past-Presidents.

13.—The travelling expenses of all who assist in carrying out
the programme of the various affiliated Societies shall be defrayed

by the Society assisted.

The Tenth AnnuaL MEeTING will be held: early in 1885, and
due notice of the place of Meeting and of the arrangements will

be issued to all members of the Association.

Members willing to contribute original Articles on subjects of
local interest, or short Notices of anything that may be considered
worth recording of local and scientific value, should communicate
with the Honorary Secretary, RopeERT CRowpDER, Esq., Stanwix,

Carlisle.

OFFICERS FOR THE SESSION 1884-85,

———— o-oo —_—_———

President.
R. S. FERGUSON, Esq., M.A,, LL.M., F.S.A.

Past Presidents.

Tue Lorp BisHoP oF CARLISLE.
Tue Late I. FuercHer, Esq., M.P., F.R.S.
Tue Hon. P. S. WynpHam, M.P.
Rosert Frereuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A.

Vice-Presidents.
J. G. Dens, C.E., (Whitehaven.)
Rev. W. Cotvituz, (Keswick.)
Rev. J. J. THorniry, M.A., (Workington. )
JoHN Hewetson, Esq., (Maryport. )
Rev. J. R. Gipson, (Longtown.)
R. 8. Ferevson, F.S.A., Esq., (Carlisle.)
Rev. E. M. Reynotps, M.A., (Ambleside. )
Jonn Lerrcu, Esq., M.B., C.M., (Silloth.)
G. J. Jounson, Esq., (Brampton. )
W. B. Arnison, Hsq., (Penrith.)
Lorp Dercres, (Windermere.)

Council.

J. Vivian, C.E. ‘ :
A. Krronty, F.C.S., Whitehaven.

Dr. Kyieut, :

Dr. Back, Keswick. €
Workington.

Dr. Marratas,

Jos. CARTMELL, Maryport.

Dr. Mc. LacHLAN,

JoHN WI1son, Longtown.

R. S. Ferauson, M.A., LL.M., F.S.A. .
Henry Barnes, M.D. Carlisle.
Rev. C. H. Caasz, :
© Ww. Suns, Ambleside.
J. T. MIDDLETON, :
H. L. Barker, Silloth.
Brampton.
M. W. Tavtor, M.D., FSA, ) porrith
W. B. ARNISON, i enrith.
Cot. W. C. MacDoveatt, Wind.
T. THOMPson, indermere.

Hon. Association Secretary and Treasurer.
RogertT Crowver, M.A., Stanwix, Carlisle. .

Editor.
J. G. Goopcnitp, Grou. SuRvEY or EnGuanp, Penrith.

:
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HONORARY SECRETARIES OF THE LOCAL SOCIETIES,

Whitehaven

Keswick
Workington
Maryport
Longtown
Carlisle
Ambleside
Silloth:
Brampton

Penrith

Windermere ...

W. H. Kireuin.
E. Doxgson.

T. E. Hicuton, Brigham, Keswick.

W. Witson, Brow Top, Workington.

D. Irvine, The Gas Works, Maryport.
Joun Wixson, Eskbank, Longtown.

JOHN Srnciair, 6 Hawick Street, Carlisle.
C. W. Sirs, Fisherbeck, Ambleside.

H. L. Barker, Esk Street, Silloth.

H. Mc.Lean Witson, M.B.

Frank Barton, 8 Biskey Howe Terrace, Bowness.
Cot. W. C. MacDoveatt,

XIV.

REPORTS FROM THE ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.

WHITEHAVEN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION,

HOWGILL STREET.

1l7tH SESSION, 1883-84.

President a ee Fe +o id J. G. Dregs, C.E.
Vice-Presidents.
J. Vivian, C.E. | J. W. Monrcommry, F.C.S.
Past-Presidents.
T. F. Anson, M.D., F.R.HLS. H. A. Fuercuer, F.R.A.S.
W. Jackson, J.P., F.S.A. JAMES Barrp.
Avueustus HELDER. R. Russet, C.E., F.G.S.
W. H. Kircuin. A. Kircutn, F.C.S.
Comz vitiee.
E. Asiett, M.D. W. Mc. Gowan.
B. Taytor. T. GoRDON.
E. Doxgson. T. Jackson, M.D.
Jouyw Nrxon, B.A.
Curator of Museum ... Sh se a W. T’Anson, M.B.
Curator of Building ... alg Aid es R. Prokertne, C.E.
Treasurer... a — De ae J. 8. HELLon.
Hon. Librarian ae ee, ec ae H. Aparr.

Hon. Secretaries.
W. H. Kircur. | JOSEPH ADAIR.

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—
Nov. 2.—Opreninc Meerrne. Address by the PRESIDENT.
Nov. 20.—F. E. Eppis. English Literature during the 18th Century.
Dec. 4.—G. Buack, M.B. The Poet Burns.
Dec. 18.—G. Hussarp. Architecture as an Expression of Faith.
Jan. 8.—G. H. Parke, F.L.S., F.G.S. Darwin and Evolution.

XV.

Jan. 22.—J. Newsy Hernerineton, F.R.G.S. The Part played by the
Imagination in the Development of Language.

Feb. 5.—Rev. A. Howson. Layard’s Discoveries at Nineveh. Illustrated
by twenty Diagrams.

Feb. 19.—A. Crarta Curistiz, F.L.S. British Ferns and their Haunts.

Mch. 4.—C. Bucwanan. Ancient and Modern Ship Building.

Mch. 18.—G. Scounar, M.E. A Visit to the Channel Tunnel.

April 1.—D. Burns, C.E., F.G.S. A Trip Across Russia.

Aprill5.—H. U. Mc.Kie, C.E. (City Surveyor, Carlisle.) Public and
Private Drainage.

April 29.—Bustxess MEETING, Election of Officers, &c.

In presenting their Seventeenth Annual Report to the members
of the Whitehaven Scientific Association, the Committee have to
state that the affairs of the Association are in a satisfactory
condition.

MEMBERSHIP.

Since the last report there has been a decrease in the number
of members, owing to resignations, removals, and deaths. Twelve
new members were elected during the session, and there are now
seventy-seven associate- and two hundred and twenty-five ordinary
members on the books, making a total of three hundred and two.

FINANCES.

The finances of the Association are in a sound state. The
expenditure for the year, including the purchase of a handsome
bookcase for the library, which, through the kindness of a member,
the Committee were able to obtain on very favourable terms, has
been more than covered by the income, and the debit balance has
been reduced to £18 ros. 2d.

OPENING MEETING.

Owing to the difficulty in obtaining premises suitable for a
conversazione, as in former years, the Committee altered the
character of the opening meeting of the session. The presidential
address was given as usual, followed by a musical programme.
In consequence, probably, of this alteration, the attendance of

XVI

members and their friends was not so large as on some former

occasions, though the meeting was very successful.

LECTURES.

Eleven lectures were given during the session, and with one or
two exceptions were all well attended. A special lecture to the
colliers of Whitehaven and neighbourhood was also delivered
under the auspices of the Association, and was much appreciated
by a crowded audience. The Committee desire to express their
thanks to the gentlemen who so generously gave their services

during the session.
MUSEUM.

The Curator reports that the Museum has been enriched
during the year by the following gifts:—Collection of foreign
shells, Mr. J. R. Wallace; collection of foreign fish, Mr.
J. R. Wallace; minerals and Roman coin, Mr. J. G. Dees;
Eledone cirrhosus, Mr. Waterfall; Garfish, Mr. Levason; skin of
snake, a lady ; Lump sucker, Mrs. Cowman; Otter, Mr. A. Moor-
daff ; tin and tin ores, Mr. J. C. Vercoe; Albatross, Mr. B. Taylor;
cocoons, Mr. B. Taylor; casts from plumbago moulds, Dr. I’Anson;
Buzzard, Mr. F. Coulthard ;. old tinder box, Mr. B. Harrison ;
cast from Roman altar, Mr. W. Jackson; snakes, Captain Nelson;
Widgeon, Dr. W. I’Anson; Merganser, Dr. W. PAnson ; Shrew,
Dr. W. VAnson; Angel shark, Dr. W. PAnson; model steam
engine, Mr. John Peile, C.C., Cambridge. To the donors of these
presents the Committee wish to express their greatest obligations.

LIBRARY.

Since the last report eleven volumes of books have been acquired
by purchase, and twenty-seven have been presented. ‘The thanks
of the Committee are due to Messrs. E. M. Percy, G. H. Parke,
John Peile, J. G. Dees, Vivian, and R. Russell for these handsome
gifts. In order to render the library more useful to associate
members, the Committee have arranged that in future books may

XVI,

obtained on application to the housekeeper, at any hour of the
day, as well as on Tuesday nights from the librarian. They trust
that this plan will be approved, and the circulation of books
increased. It is proposed to issue a supplementary catalogue
shortly.

SCIENCE CLASSES.

Science classes have been carried on during the session under
the direction of Mr. A. Freeman, and nineteen students are under
instruction. The results of the session’s work will not be known
until after the examinations in May. Last year twenty-seven
students presented themselves for examination. Of these one
passed first class; seventeen second class.; and nine failed.

In concluding this report the Committee venture to express a
hope that the advantages offered by the Association may meet with
increasing appreciation on the part of the members. The Com-
mittee are anxious that the museum, library, lectures, and classes
should become more useful as a means of intellectual improvement,
and that the objects for which the Association was founded, namely
the diffusion of scientific knowledge, should be kept steadily in
view, as upon that its continued success mainly depends.

KESWICK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

15rH SESSION, 1883-84,

President ... sae nad aes Rev. W. Couvitue.
Vice-President ze bie te Rey. Canon Ricumonp, M.A.
Secretary... ae eg ef T. E. Hicuron.
Treasurer... eae eae toe Epwin JACKSON.

Committee.
Rey. A. Howson. J. PostteruwaitE, F.G.S.
GrorGE Buack, M.B. Wm. Woop.

J. Fisher Crostuwaire, F.S.A.

Hon. Curators of the Museum.
A. A. H. Kyrent, M.D. | Joun BIRKETT.

xviii.

LECTURES.
1883.

Oct. 29.—Rerv. T. R. Hopcson.—Some Social Aspects of India.

Nov. 19.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—Some of the Teachings of John
Ruskin.

Dec. 3.—Rev. H. Lonspatz, M.A.—Sir Walter Scott.

Dec. 17.—Rev. H. Wuirrneap, M.A.—Prince Charles Stuart in 1745.

1884.

Jan. 21.—J. Newsy Heruertneton, F.R.G.S.—Novelists of the 18th
Century.

Jan. 28.—Rerv. Canon RicumMonp, M.A.—The Painters connected with
the Lake Poets.

Feb. 11.—FrANK Curzon, Esq.—Rags and Bones; or, Humanity and its
Clothing.

Feb. 25.—Rery. A. Narrn.—Dr. Norman Me. Leod.

Mar. 10.—Rev. J. N. Hoarz, M.A.—Religion of Ancient Egyptians.

Mar. 31.—J. G. Goopcuitp, Esq., F,G.S.—The Land Folk of Cumberland
and Westmorland.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.

1883.
Oct. 22.—PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS.
Nov. 5.—Rev. J. Brunskitt, F.M.S.—Kindness to Horses; How and

Why.

Nov. 26.—Mr. Joon Warson.—Birds of Cumberland and Westmorland.
Dec. 10.—Mr. J. PosrLeruwaire, F.G.S.—Sir Charles Lyell.

1884.
Feb. 4.—Mr. G. E. Lowrn1an.—The Atmosphere.
Feb. 18.—Mr. J. RicHarpson.—The Dialects of the Lake Country.
Mar. 3.—Mr. W. Woop.—Harriet Martineau.
Mar. 17.—Mr. P. Harrison.—Notes on a Summer Holiday.
Mar. 24.—Dr. Buack.—Savanarola.

Your Committee have much pleasure in reporting the continued
interest taken in the proceedings of the Society. The attendance
at both Papers and Lectures has been quite up to the average of
previous years; and the discussions after the papers have been
more general.

The Treasurer of the Society reports that the income for the
year ending March, 1884, was £32 17s. 3d., and ihe expenditure
437 8s. 2d., leaving a balance against the Society of £4 10s. 11d.;
the deficit being accounted for by the increased expenses of the
public Lectures.

xix.

The total receipts of the Museum, inclusive of balance in hand
(March, 1883,) of £78 gs. 6d., were #118 14s. 6d.; and the
expenditure £34 3s. 7d.; leaving a balance in hand of
£84 tos. 11d.

The Hon. Curators report that some few additions have been
made to the collections in the Museum, but that there is much
yet to be done. They suggest that some systematic effort might
be made by those members who have leisure and opportunity for
such work.

During last season the Museum was visited by six hundred and
ninety-seven tourists, and one hundred and thirty-nine visits were
made by members.

Professor Morris delivered an interesting lecture on Geology
with reference to the Coal Measures of West Cumberland, illus-
trating his lecture by specimens collated in the Museum.

Two Excursions were arranged. The first, which took place in
June, was to Thirlmere. The members of the Wordsworth Society,
Cockermouth, joined our party at Keswick. After visiting the
remains at Castle Crag, Launchy Gill, and other places of interest,
tea was partaken of at Thirlspot. Mr. W. Wilson read an exhaus-
tive paper on “ Thirlmere and its Legends.”

The second Excursion was to the Shap Granite Quarries. By
kind permission of D. Fenning. Esq., the works and quarries were
inspected, and Mr. J. Postlethwaite, F.G.S., read an excellent
paper on ‘Shap Granite.”

The Session of 1883-4 was opened by a Conversazione and Tea
followed by the President’s Address. The expenses of tea, etc.,
were just met by the receipts.

Eight Papers and ten Lectures were arranged for, and all
engagements were met, with one exception, and on that occasion
the Rev. J. N. Hoare, M.A., kindly offered his services.

The number of Members at the close of last Session was one

_ hundred and forty-five, and twenty-seven have been elected during

XX,

the current session ; but thirty-two have either left the town or
failed to keep up their membership, so that now there are one
hundred and forty members.

The following are the Officers for 1884-5 :—President, Rev. W.
Colville. Vice-President, Rev. J. N. Hoare. Secretary, T. E.
Highton. Treasurer, Edwin Jackson. Committee, Rev. H. D.
Rawnsley, m.A.; George Black, m.z.; J. Postlethwaite, F.G.s.;
J. Fisher: Crosthwaite, F.s.a.; G. H. Dixon. Hon. Curators of
Museum, A. A. H. Knight, m.p.; John Birkett.

MARYPORT LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

ASSEMBLY HALL, HIGH STREET,

8rH SESSION, 1883-84.

President ee vhs “ai ae J. CARTMELL, A.M.I.C.E.
Vice-President ... ad 7 Bes J. Hewirson

Past-Presidents.

Rev. J. 8. Craia. | WILFRID HInE. | W. B. Marutas
Committee.
Rev. W. P. ScHAFFTER J. WILLIAMSON
C. EAGLESFIELD A. HIN
R. Hamitton F. WALKER
J. B. Battey W. WHARTON

W. H. Eckers.Ley.

Ll

Treasurer... P. MAcINTYRE

Delegates.
W. B. Marutas | F. WALKER
Hon. Secretaries.

J. Hewrrson | P. Macintyre

rode

The following MEETINGS were held during the Session :—

1883.

Oct. 23.—R. A. Atxison, J.P.—Evolution—its Strength and Weakness.

Nov. 6.—Lours Luoyp.—The Life and Proverbs of Geo. Herbert.

Nov. 20.—Rev. W. Harvey.—The Missionary Spirit of the Jesuits.

Dec. 4.—JoHn Crum.—Sweden.

Dec. 18.—H. W. Mc.Km, A.M.I.C.E.—Public and Private Sewers and
Drains.

1884.

Jan. 15.—J. N. Heruerineton, F.R.G.S.—How to Study Shakspere.

Jan. 29.—R. Russeiu, C.E., F.G.S.—Cyprus.

Feb. 12.—J. Herwortu, A.M.I.C.E.—Coal-Tar Colours,

Feb. 26.—Gxo. J. Snetus, F.C.S., &c.—The Bessemer Process.

Mar. 11.—J. B. Baitey.—Agricola—Was he the founder of Roman
Maryport?

Mar. 25.—C. EaciesrieLp.—English Gothic Architecture.

Apr. 3,—J. G. Goopcuitp, F.G.S.—The Land Folk of Cumberland and
Westmorland.

THE Committee regret, in presenting their Eighth Annual Report,

that although six new members joined the Society during the

Session, yet there was a decrease of twenty-four compared with

the previous year. The membership now stands at one hundred,

viz., sixty-nine gentlemen and thirty-one ladies. The decrease in

numbers is due to withdrawals and other undefined causes.

There were twelve Lectures given during the Session, of which
three were delivered by gentlemen residing in the town; and the
warmest thanks of the Society are accorded to all those who took
part in the programme.

Although the Lectures were more fully advertised than ever
before, and the meetings were held in a room infinitely more
comfortable and central than that in which the meetings were held
previously, the attendance has not been very satisfactory. It so
happened that many of the nights on which lectures were given
turned out to be very wet and boisterous, and thus the poor
attendance on such nights might be accounted for.

The Treasurer’s statement shows that, with the sale of gas-fittings
in the George Street School Room, there is a credit balance of

43 55. od.

XXil.

LONGTOWN LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

7TH SESSION, 1883-84.

President ... es Bes nas Rey. JoseEPH WALLACE, M.A.

Vice-Presidents.

R. A. Autison, Esq., M.A. Mr. S: F. Mc. Lacuian, M.B.
Rey. P. CARRUTHERS. Wm. Easton Rogertson, Esq.

Treasurer and Secretary =u oa es Mr. Joun Wiison.
Committee.
Mr. I. Ria. Rev. Wm. Lytrei..
Mr. Wm. Littte: Mr. Wm. Drxon.
Mr. A. P. WILKIE. Mr. A. TWEDDLE.

Mr. Wm. JARDINE.

MEETINGS.
1883.

Sep. 25.—Mrs. Anna Kinesrorp, M.D., and Ep. Marrianp, Esq., B.A.
—The Food of Man. R. A. Allison, Esq, Chairman.

Oct. 30.—Wm. S. Variance, Esq.—Literary and Elocutionary Enter-
tainment.

Nov. 6.—Mr. Jonn Writson.—Mental Powers as exhibited in Dreaming.

Noy. 13.—Rev. A. Sinciatr Nicot.—The Ballads of the Borders.

Noy. 20.—Discussion: Does Man find his Proper Food in a Vegetable Diet.
Negative: Dr. Mc.Lacuian, M.B.

Nov. 27. —Mr. F. Harrison.—Crossfell and the Helm Wind.

Dec. 4.—Mr. Jas. Mc.Conocute.—An Exposition of the Drama.

Dec. 11.—Rev. J. MacIxpowre.—Druidism, or the Religion of the Ancient
Britons.

Dec. 18.—Discussion: Would it be beneficial in Britain to have Railways
the Property of the State. Affirmative: Mr. Nrxon,.

Dec. 27.—Musical Entertainment and Tea, by the MEMBERs.

1884.
Jan. 8.—Rev. Wm. Lyrrert, M.A.—Hindooism.
Jan. 15.—Rev. Dr. Granr.—Origin and History of some Things in
Common Use.

Jan. 22.—Mr. A. P. WiiK1e.—Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell.

Jan. 29.—Rev. C. B. 8. Gittines.—George Moore.

Feb, 5.—Discussion : Has Novel Reading an Injurious Tendency ?

Feb. 12.—Mr. Jonn Gitt, M.B., C.M.—Digestion.

Feb. 19.—W™m. Easton Rosertson, Esq.,—Lecture: An Hour in West-
minster Abbey.

XXIll.

Feb. 26.—A Night with Longfellow. —Readings by several Members.

Mar. 4.—Mr. Wm. Jarpine.—The History of the Netherby Estate.

Mar. 11.—Dr. Hunt.—John Brown.

Mar. 18.—Rev. P. Carruruers.—Life of Sir Jas. Graham.

Mar. 25.—Discussion: Ought Women to be encouraged to enter the
Learned Professions.

April 1.—Tea Meeting and Business of the Society, Election of Officers, &c.

April 4:—J. G. Gooncuip, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S.—Monkeys.

DurRInc the past year there has been a further decrease in mem-
bership, the number now being forty-three, a decrease of fifteen
from last year. The receipts for the year, including a balance of
7/1 brought from last year, amounted to £6 os. 11d.; expenditure,
46 tos. 9d.; leaving a deficit of 9/10.

During the summer of 1883, Excursions were held under the
auspices of the Society to Penton, and to Melrose, both of which
were thoroughly enjoyed by those members who took part in
them.

The Winter Programme was of a very instructive and interesting
character, the only matter of regret being the small attendance at
the Public Lectures. The interest in the Ordinary Meetings was
well sustained, and the attendance of members was fairly good.

On the evening of December 27th, in addition to the Musical
Entertainment provided in the programme, a tea was given by the
lady members, that evening being the occasion of the President—
the Rev. Joseph Wallace—taking leave of the Society, on his
preferment to the living of Hayton.

Another Tea Meeting was held at the close of the Session,
after which a Musical Entertainment was given, and the following
Officers elected : President—Rev. J. R. Gibson. Vice-Presidents
—R. A. Allison, Esq., m.a.; Rev. P. Carruthers; Mr. S. F.
Mc.Lachlan, M.b.; Wm. Easton Robertson, Esq. Treasurer and
Secretary—Mr. John Wilson. Committee—Mr. Isaac Rigg, Mr.
A. P. Wilkie, Mr. Wm. Little, Rev. Wm. Lytteil, Mr. A. Tweddle,
Mr. Wm. Jardine, Dr. Hunt, and Mr. Wm. Kilgour. Delegates—
Dr. Mc.Lachlan and Mr. John Wilson.

XXIV.

CARLISLE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY AND FIELD
NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

7tH SESSION, 1883-84.

President ... +3 Bs. Be R. S. Fereuson, Esq, F.S.A.

Past-Presidents.

THE Ricur Rey. THE Lorp BIsHoP oF CARLISLE.
Roperr Fereuson, Esq., M.P., F.S.A
Mites MacInnss, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.

S. J. Brynine, Esa. | Rev. C. H. Parxz, M.A.
Treasurer ... aee we oe Wituiam Nanson, Esq., B.A.
Hon. Secretary ihe v7 .. JOHN Sinciatr, 6, Hawick Street.

Committee.

Dr. MAcLAREN. Mr. Isaac CARTMELL.
Dr. CARLYLE. Mr. Gro. Dawson.
Dr. BARNES. Mr. J. A. WHEATLEY.
Mr. Tom DuckwortTH. Mr. JoHN JACKSON.
Mr. Wma. Duckworrtu. i Mr. W. B. Dopp.

Mr. R. J. BArt.uire. | Mr. R. M. Hit.

During the Session the following Lectures have been delivered :-—
PUBLIC LECTURES.

1883.
Nov. 6.—R. 8. Fercuson, Esq., F.S.A.—The Formation of the English
Palate.
Dec. 7.—Rev. C. H. Parnz, M.A.—The Service of Science.
1884.

Jan. §.—Mr. J. Newsy Hernertneron, F.R.G.S.—Folk Lore and
Popular Stories.

Feb. 5.—Mr. R. J. Bariuie, F.R.A.S.—Meteors and Comets.
Mar. 4.—Mr. Wiii1am Nanson, B.A.— Pottery and Porcelain.
Apr. 1.—Mr. J. G. Goopceni1p, F.G.S8.—The Glacial History of Edenside.

1883. ORDINARY MEETINGS.

Nov. 22.—Dr. CartyLe.—Ferns.
Dec. 20.—Mr. Wm. DuckwortH.—Wild Flowers round Carlisle.

1884,
Jan. 24.—Mr. Witut1am Hopeson, Watermillock.—The Hill Naturalist.

Feb. 21.—Dr. Leprarp, F.R.C.S.—Cremation.

Mar. 20.—Rev. H. A. MacpnHerson.—British Shrikes; and a Paper
Migration.

Apr. 24.—Mr. Gro. Dawson.—Local Entomology, Part 5. ANNUAL
MEETING FOR THE ELECTION oF OFFICERS.

XXYV,

THE Committee, in presenting their Seventh Annual Report, have
pleasure in congratulating the members at the close of another
Session.

During the season four Field-days have been held. The first
took place on. Whit-Monday, May 14th, 1883, to Settle and the
Victoria Cave, on which occasion the members were joined by a
large party from Penrith ; the second to Gilsland, June 18th, 1883;
the third to Orton, near Carlisle ; and the fourth to Long Meg,
accompanied by the members of the Penrith Society.

The attendance at the public Lectures was not so large as on
former occasions ; but the attendance at the reading of Papers at
the Museum was very fair. About one hundred and twenty copies
of the Zvansactions have been gratuitously distributed among the
members.

AMBLESIDE AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY.

77H SESSION, 1883-84,

President ... als 1B ae be ait Rev. H. S, CAaLLENDER
Past-President... a oa oe te R. Crewpson, Esa.
Vice-Presidents.

Rev. E. M. RrEyno.ps. | F, M. T. Jonzs, Esq.
Secretary ... A ee os fe oy Mr. C. W. Smira.
Treasurer ... aos aa sp as an Mr. W. Lister.

Delegates.
Rev. C. H. CHass. | Mr. C. W. Suir.
Committee.

Mr. W. Barton. R. Crewnpson, Esa.

Mr. T. Bett, Junr. J. Fremine, Esa.

Mr. J. BENTLEY. G. Garey, Esa.

A. J. Broprsz, Esq. Mr. W. E. PERcIVAL.

Rey. C. H. CHassz, Mr. J. RussEuu.

XXVi.

PUBLIC LECTURES.
1883.
Oct. 19.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstty, B.A. John Ruskin and his Teaching.

Nov. 16.—W. H. Goxpine, Esq., Lecturer to the late Royal Polytechnic
Institution. The Stars and their Story. (Illustrated with
Diagrams by the Oxy-Hydrogen Light.)

Noy. 30.—ArcHIBALD Hamitron, Esq., M.D. Popular Lecture on the
Germ Theory of Disease.

1884.
Jan. 4,—Joun E. Marr, Esq., F.G.S. Biology and Anthropology.

Jan. 11.—J. Newsy Heruerineton, Esq., F.R.C.S. English Prose
Fiction of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, or The
Novels and Romances of the Olden Times.

Feb. 8.—FranK Curzon, Esq. Rags and Bones, or Humanity and its
Clothing. (Illustrated on the black board.)

Mch. 7.—B. A. Irvine, Esq., M.A. The Valley of the Jordan.

ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1883.
Nov. 2.—GrorcE Gatry, Esq. Debate: That a Vegetarian Diet is not

the proper Food for Man.
Dec. 14.—W. D. Crewpson, Esq. Notes on Scandinavian History and
Literature.

1884.
Jan. 25.—W. Horzs Hze ts, Esq.- Furness Fells.

Feb. 22.Rev. Grorcr Auton. The Three Pleasures—Hope, Memory,
and Imagination.

Mch, 21.—Rev. T. Exvtwoov, B.A. The Poets and Poetry of Cumberland
and the Lake District.

Mch, 28.—J. G. Goopcui1p, Esq., F.G.S. The Landfolk of Westmorland
and Cumberland.

April 4.—Annvat Mrerine for the Etzcrion or OFFICERS.

The following are the Officers for 1884-85 :—President—Rev.
E. M. Reynolds. Vice-Presidents—F. M. T. Jones, Esq.; George
Gatey, Esq. Secretary—Mr. C. W. Smith. Treasurer—Mr. W.
Lister. Delegates—Rev. C. H. Chase and Mr. C. W. Smith.
Committee—Mr. T. Bell, Mr. J. Bentley, A. J. Brodie, Esq., Rev.
H. S. Callender, J. Fleming, Esq., Mr. J. Hird, Mr. W. E. Percival,
Hugh Redmayne, Esq., Mr. J. Russell, Mr. W. Stalker, senr.

XXVIL.

SILLOTH AND HOLME CULTRAM LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY,

—_——___

oTH SESSION, 1883-84.

—$<—__

President ane aa Ae 2b RoBERT Guaistrer, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.
Rev. S. Hezert, M.A. | Joun Lertcu, M.B., C.M.
Committee.
G. T. Carr. J. Mapaaan,
W. Crap. | J. T. Mippreton.
J. GLAISTER. R. Prat,
W. M. Hupson. C. V. Portrr,
J. THomson.
Hon. Treasurer ¥¢f Me Bot J. Srrowacu, Esq.
Hon. Secretary a a on H. L. Barxesr.
1883. PUBLIC LECTURES,

Sept. 26.—Mrs. Anna Krnasrorp, M.D.—The Food of Man.
Oct. 17.—Rev. W. Lyrrer, M.A.—The Border Clans.
ova ts—Rs J. Baling, F.R.A.S.—The Moon.

Nov. 23.—P. Gepprs, F.R.S.E.—A Natural History Ramble,
Dec. 4.—Rev. James CHRISTIE, B.A.—Norway.

_ 1884.
Jan. 9.—J. Newsy HETHERINGTON, F.R.G.S.—Wit and Humour in

Literature.
Feb. 13.—J. Herwortn, M.LC. E.—Coal Tar Colours,
Feb. 20.—Rev. H. J. BULKELEY, M.A.—Eminent Persons who died in
1883.
Mar. 5.—Rev. H. D. Rawnstey, M.A.—Some Lessons from John Ruskin.
Apr. 2.—J. G. Goopcurip, F.G.S.—The Glacial History of Edenside,

1883. ORDINARY MEETINGS.

Oct. 29.—Joun Guaister.—The Tobacco Plant.
Dec. 19.—H. L. Barker.—Metals: their Uses and Compounds,

1884.
Jan. 30.—James THomson.—Pre-Historic Man.

Mar. 19.—Rev. S, Hepert, M.A.—Notes from Tennyson’s Idylls.
Apr. 16.—Joun Lerrcu, M.B., C.M.—The Geological History of the
Silloth New Dock as revealed during its Excavation.

XXVIIL.

In reporting the close of the Fifth Session, the Committee, for
various reasons, cannot class it as an altogether successful one.
The weather at almost every meeting, and particularly the first five
or six, was exceptionally bad. In consequence, the attendance
this past winter has not been so good as in former sessions ; and
the number of members is now reduced to sixty-two, being eight
short of last year.

There were ten public Lectures given, and five ordinary meetings
were held.

The financial position ot the Society is not what might be
desired, but there is still a considerable sum in hand.

The following are the Officers for 1884-85 :—President—John
Leitch, M.B., C.M. Vice-Presidents—Rev. S. Hebert, m.a.; John
Glaister, Esq. Committee—Messrs. G, T. Carr, W. Crabb, Rev.
— Brown, m.A.; Messrs. J. Graham, W. M. Hudson, J. T. Middle-
ton, R. Peat, C. V. Potter, J. Thomson. Hon, Treasurer—John
Stronach, Esq. Hon. Secretary—H. L. Barker.

BRAMPTON LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY
AND FIELD NATURALIST CLUB.

SESSION 1884-85.

President ve es a a? G. J. Jounson, Esq.
Vice-Presidents.
Rev. H. WHITEHEAD. | JoHN Brat, Esq.

Committee.

Rev. H. J. BuLKELry. Mr. GEorGE STEEL.
Mr. Gro. Burton. Mrs. H. Y. THompson.

Mr. Wm. Houcitt. Miss Mc. QUEEN.

Mr. THos. RIDLEY. Miss THomM.

Mr. Jos. FARRAR. Miss M. Bett.
Treasurer... sick Hs As .. Mr. I. B. Hopeson.

Secretary ae ane ae oe Fe Mr. C. J. Riga.

XXIX.

MEETINGS.
1883.
Oct. 11.—Dr. Oakiey, Dean or Cariiste.—Newspapers.

20.—Professor J. Batpwin Brown.—How they Built the Old.
Cathedrals.
31.—Mr, W. 8S, VaLiance.—Elocutionary Entertainment.

Nov. 8,—Rev. H. D, Rawnstey.—Some Thoughts on Ruskin.
22.—Rev. Canon Drxon.—A Comparison between Pope’s Essay on
Criticism, and Byron’s English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.

Dec. 18.—R. A. Atxison, Esq.—The Making of the English Language.

1884.
Feb, 5.—Rev. H. J. ButkeLrey,—Eminent Persons who died in 1883. -

», 19.—Conversazione.
Mch, 4.—C. L. Tuompson, Esq.—St. Kilda.

» 18.—W. L. B. Coursoy, Esq.—Our Duty to Animals.
April 1.—Rev. Jas. CuRistiz.—Italian Notes.

», 15.—Rev. H. Wurreneap.—George Fox the Quaker.

May 13.—Social Supper.
27.—Rev. H. WuirexEap.—A Walk Round Brampton.

>

Number of Members, 65.

PENRITH AND DISTRICT LITERARY AND
SCIENTIFIC. SOCIETY.

3RD SESSION, 1883-4.

President Major W. B. Arnison

Vice-Presidents.

Rev. E. W. Cuapman, M.A. | J, G. GoopcuiLp, F.G.S., F.Z.8.
Past-President ... = EY M. W. Taytor, M.D., F.S.A.
Secretary H. M. Witson, B,M.

Treasurer J. B. SHAWYER

Delegates.
M. W. Taytor. | W. B. Agnison.

XXX.

Committee.
Rev. W. M. ScHNIBBEN. Rev. J. Tannawiuy, M.A.
Rev. J. H. Ovsron. T. LesrEr.
JOHN PATTINSON. J. THOMPSON.
M. W. Taytor. Gro. WATSON. °*
F. Kine.

Honorary Curators of the Museum.

M. W. Taytor. | CxHarLtes Smiru. | W. Hopcson, Watermillock.

Librarian... =a 283 aah 3 J. STUART.

The following MEETINGS were held :-—
1883.
Noy. §.—Conversazione. President’s Address. Exhibition of Objects of

Interest from Penrith Free Public Library Museum, and
Exhibits lent for the occasion by several members.

Dec. 6.—J. G. GoopcHiLp.—Glacial History of Edenside.

Dec. 20.—Rev. H. WurreneaD, M.A. Penrith Church Bells.

Jan. 10.—J. Newsy Heraerrcton, F.R.G.S. Folk-Lore and Popular
Stories.

Jan. 16.—Wutimorr Drxon, LL.B. Our Empire of the Sea.

Feb. 7.—Gxro. Watson. Orientation of Parish Churches ; with a Note on
Skewed Chancels in Churches near Penrith, by J. G. GooDCHILD.

Feb. 21.—Rev. H. J. Butketzy, M.A. Eminent Persons who diedjin 1883.

Mar. 29.—J. G. Goopcumip, F.G.S. Landfolk of Cumberland and West-
morland.

April 9.—Professor ALLEYNE NicHorson, F.R.S. Animal Likenesses.

A Field Excursion took place on Whit-Monday, in conjunction
-with the Carlisle Society, having for its destination Edenhall and
Church—where an address was read on the Bells and the Com-
munion Plate of Langwathby and Edenhall Churches, and, by R. S.
Ferguson, a paper on Edenhall Church and the History of the
Musgrave Family—the Fairy Well, &c. The scenery was geo-
logically described by J. G. Goodchild.

The public Lectures and ordinary meetings have been very well
attended.

The number of members on the books is one hundred and
twenty.

The financial position of the Society is in a satisfactory condition.

XXX,

WINDERMERE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

2np SESSION, 1883-84.

President ... <% a ... THE Rigut Hon. Lora Dectes.

Vice-Presidents.

E. P. Srock. | Gxo. HEALEY.
Secretaries.

W. C. MacDovuaatt. | B. E. FisHer.
Treasurer. ... on — oem as ... JOHN HoLLanp.
Delegates,

W. C. MacDoveatt. | T. THomeson.

Committee.

J. BALLANTYNE. R. Morean.
F. Barron. H. W. ScHNEIDER.
J. R. Brrpson. S. A. K. SyLvEsTErR.
F. CLowes. W. TAYLOR.
H. Crossiery. T. Tompson.
T. Doxgson. W. V. YATEs.

LECTURES AND MEETINGS.

Oct. 8.—Mr. Frank Curzon. —Our Faces, and how we came by them.

Oct. 22.—Members’ Meeting.

Noy. 5.—Mr. Frank Barron.—Beethoven, and his Influence upon Music.
Members’ Meeting.

Nov. 20.—Mr. W. H. Gotpine, Lecturer to the late Polytechnic

, Institute. —Atlantic to Pacific, with some Notes of the Travels

of the Marquess of Lorne and H.R.H." Princess Louise.
Dioramic Views. i

Noy. 26.—A. Hamiuron, M.D.—On a Germ Theory of Disease, illustrated
by diagrams, microscopic specimens, &c.

Dec. 3.—Members’ Meeting.

Dec. 10.—Rev. James Prusiert, M.A.—A Fortnight in Flanders.

Dec. 17.—Proresson FRANK Ciowes, D.Sc. (The University College,
Nottingham.)—On Improvements in the use of Coal Gas for
Lighting and Heating.

XXXII.

1884.
Jan. 14.—J. Newsy HerHERIneton, F.R.G.S., The Cumberland Associated

Societies’ Lecturer.—On Wit and Humour in English Literature.
Jan. 21.—Rev. A. Rawson.—Words about Birds.
Jan, 28.—J.}W. Bautantyne, B.M. (Edin.)—On School Hygiene and the
Overstrain in Education.
Feb. 11.—Rev. C. W. Barpstey.—An Hour’s Chat about Names.
Feb. 25.—Rev. H. J. ButKeney.—On Eminent Persons who died in 1883.
Mar, 3.—Reyv. H. M. Frercuer.—Tennyson.
Mar. —Right Rev. Lorp BisHop or CARLISLE.
Mar. 24.—Mr. MartinpAate.—Lichens. Members’ Meeting.
April 7.—Bustness MEETING.

Tue Lectures this Session have been fourteen in number. The
average receipts at the lectures from non-members have been 15/1
for eight lectures. The most successful lecture financially was
Dr. Hamilton’s, producing #1 18s. 3d.

The Society numbers seventy-two ordinary members, and twelve
holders of family tickets, which have been estimated at two each,
thus making the members amount to ninety-six.

The financial statement of the Treasurer shows that there has
been received the sum of £48 6s. 7}d.; expended the sum of
435 58. 6d.; leaving a balance in hand of £13 1s. 14d.

The thanks of the Society are due to those gentlemen who have
so kindly given lectures during the past Session.

Your Committee deeply deplore the loss of one of their mem-
bers—Mr. Ballantyne, who always took the liveliest interest in the
affairs of the Society.

The Committee are glad to report generally the welfare and
progress of the Society, and trust it may still meet with the support
of the residents in the neighbourhood.

”

XXXliL,

Acport of the Association Secretary,

THE past year has not been of a very eventful character as regards
the Association, and no new Society has been affiliated with it.
The Workington Society, though still a member of the Union,
has during the past year been in an unsatisfactory condition,
and it is earnestly to be hoped that this once flourishing Society
may, by local effort, be once more resuscitated. Through this,
and other reasons, the Association now numbers about 1217

members, against 1380 in April last.

‘During the past year the Association has been affiliated with the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, and there is
reason to expect that the formal recognition for the first time by
this great Association of the claims of Local Societies, may prove

to be of considerable advantage to them, both by raising their

| status and increasing their means of usefulness. (The subject will

a be found fully explained in the notice on p. xxxiil. of No. viii.)

It is still a matter of regret that the affiliated Societies, as well
.

____as the people of Cumberland and Westmorland generally, do not

_ take a larger number of copies of the Zvansactions. The advantages

of a publication of this kind should not require to be urged before

XXXIV.

members of the Association. Favourable notices of the last
volume have appeared in very many of the leading scientific and
local journals, and it may fairly be asserted that the Association
Transactions will, on the whole, bear comparison very favourably
with those of most of the County Societies of England and Scot-
land.

Copies of the Transactions of various Associations and local
Societies are now being received in exchange for our own, and, in
course of time, a Reference Library will be formed, which, it is

hoped, may prove of considerable value to the members of the

Association.
No. of Members on Copies taken

Society which Grant is paid of No. VIII. Terms
Whitehaven ... 326 ae 100 Free to Associate’ Members
Keswick ea LAO oe 40 To Members at 1/-
Workington... —- ade —
Maryport a Bie i's} aot 70 Free to Gentlemen ; Ladies, 1/-
Longtown Ke 42 he 10 To Members at 1/-
Carlisle RE ooeans (27, at} 120 To Members Free
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Total 750 copies

XXXV.

CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION FOR THE
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BALANCE SHEET for Year ending April 30th, 1884.

PAYMENTS.

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Examined and found correct,
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XXXV1L.

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF SOCIETIES
RECEIVED BY THE ASSOCIATION IN EXCHANGE
FOR THE “TRANSACTIONS.”

1 United States Geological Survey Annual Reports for 1880-81,
and for 1881-82.

2 Report of British Association for 1883.

3 Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, 7 Parts (for 1882).

4 Essex Field Club, 1883. .

5 Bristol Naturalists’ Society, 1882-83, and for 1883-84.
6 Burnley Literary and Scientific Club, Vol. 1, 1874-83.
7 Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, 1882, and for 1883.

8 The Transactions of the Midland Union of Natural History
Societies for 1881-82-83-84.

THE FORMATION OF THE ENGLISH PALATE.

By Re (Ser BPG WesiOin) ye or Ay.

(Presidential Address, delivered at the Penrith Annual Meeting.)

THE learned and ingenious author of “The Romans of Britain,”
Mr. Coote, F.S.A., in a paper on The Cuisine Bourgeoise of Ancient
Rome,* (which he communicated to the Society of Antiquaries)
observed that ‘‘no one has yet written the history of the Roman
palate, such as it became when the successes of that people had
given occasion for its artificial cultivation.” Mr. Coote’s observa-
tion may be widely extended: we have many recipe books, and
many cookery books, but we have no general history of the palate, ©
and no history of cookery considered as one of the fine arts. Two
books I may mention as exceptions, M. Brillat-Savarin’s Physiologie
du Gout,t and M. Soyer’s Pantropheon, or the History of Food and
its Preparation from the Earliest Age of the World. Mr. Coote
well says, in allusion to the want of a history of the Roman palate,
* Archaologia, vol. 41, pp. 283-324.
+ Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, judge of the Court of Cassation, member of the

Legion of Honour, and of most of the scientific and literary societies of France,

was born in 1755 at Belley. The Physcologie du Gott was published some time

in 1825, and ran rapidly through five or six editions, besides reprints in Belgium.
An English edition has just (1884) been published. The late Mr. Hayward,
_ Q.C., says of it, ‘‘Its great charm consists in the singular mixture of wit,
humour, learning, and knowledge of the world—dous mots, anecdotes, ingenious
theories, and instructive dissertations—which it presents. Zhe Art of Dining,
Murray, London, 1883, p. 49, where is a charming account of the Physiologie
du Gott,

1

2

“This is not merely an omission in archeology, it is a blank left
in the annals of taste.” I would say more—the want of a general
history of cookery, considered as one of the fine arts, is an omitted
chapter in the history of civilization ; for cookery—good cookery
—is one of the most important weapons by which civilization
defeats the law of Natural Selection—under which, among the
brutes, the sickly and the weakly die off, and the strong alone
survive.

Far be it from me to rush into the gap—I do not know enough;
long years of study would be necessary, nor am I vain enough to
think my own palate sufficiently discriminating. I can only give
you to-night what I have culled from others—from Athenzeus,
from Apicius, from Pegge’s Forme of Cury, from Mr. Coote’s able
article, from Alexander Dumas (Dictionnaire de Cuisine), from
Francatelli, and Soyer, and from accounts of ancient feasts and
records of ancient housekeeping buried in the transactions of
various archeological societies.

I shall endeavour to give some idea of the art of cookery that
at present prevails among us.

To begin with the earliest inhabitants of this country—the
paleeolithic man, both river-drift, and cave—-we need not linger
over him: there can be no historical continuity between the
traditions of his kitchen, and those of ours. We do know some-
thing of how the cave-man cooked—the Esquimaux remains to
tell us: his food, if cooked at all (and by the way, raw meat is in
high latitudes conducive to health), is broiled or boiled. His
vessels being of stone or wood, cannot be put on the fire; but
heated stones are dropped in, until the water becomes hot enough,
and the meat is cooked. The result is a mess of soot, dirt, and
ashes, which, according to our notions, is intolerable ; but (as Sir
John Lubbock says, and I am quoting him,) if the stench of an
Esquimaux house does not take a man’s appetite away, nothing
else would be likely to do so.

But with the people the Romans found in this country we have
a continuity, and it is worth while to enquire into what they had
to cook, and how they cooked it.

From fragments which have come down to us, of the travels, in
the 4th century before Christ, of Pytheas the celebrated mathema-
tician, we learn that wheat was abundant in the southern districts
of Britain, and that the inhabitants made a drink of wheat and
honey, still known in some districts as ‘‘ metheglin,” and he is the
first authority for the description of the British beer, against which
the Greek physicians warned their patients “as a drink producing .
pain in the head, and injury to the nerves.”*

Cesar tells us somewhat more: in his account of Britain he
distinguishes between the people dwelling on the coast, and those
who inhabited the interior, the former being emigrants from
Belgium ; of these he says that they cultivated the fields, and had
a large number of cattle. ‘“ Leporem et gallinam et anserem
gustare, fas non putant: hec tamen alunt, animi voluptatisque
caussa.”+ Of the inhabitants of the interior he says, “ Interiores
plerique frumenta non serunt, sed lacte et carne vivunt.”{ Pre-
historic archeology has proved the truth of the statements
made by Cesar. In the kitchen-middens of this period we
find the bones of the goat, the horned sheep, the small
short horned ox, the horse, the swine, and the dog, though the
last was probably only eaten under stress of famine. Milk was
probably a great staple of diet, and Canon Greenwell in this
connection points out that at Grime’s Graves, in Norfolk, where he
excavated largely, a very large proportion of the numerous bones
found were of the ox, and nearly all were of animals of but a few
days old. This he says, seems to imply that the milk was required
by the owner of the cattle, who could not spare it to keep the
calves alive. Strabo expressly tells us the Britons had no cheese :
the question is, had they any butter? It is nowhere mentioned
that they had; if they had, it was probably churned in a skin, as the
Arabs do to this day: hence it would be, like the Irish bog butter,
full of hairs. The terraces, on which the people we are speaking
of, cultivated grain, have also been found, but we have stronger
proof that they did cultivate grain in the numerous pestles, and

* Elton’s Origins of English History, chap. 1.
+ Comm. lib. v.c. 12. + Zbid. c. 14.

4

mortars, and grain rubbers that are in our museums. These
articles also show that their owners made some sort of dish out of
the grain, whether mere crowdy, or porridge, or even bread I
cannot say; but whatever it was, it was certainly full of sand and
grits, as shown by the condition of their teeth, which, though often
sound and strong, particularly among the older race, the longheads,
are worn down to the very gum.

As for cooking utensils, their pottery was unglazed and porous:
milk kept in it would soon be tainted, and as use is second nature,
the earlier inhabitants of this country probably liked their milk
*‘ gamey,” as do the inhabitants of the western isles of Scotland,
where the “craggan” is still in use. Such vessels were ill adapted
for cooking purposes ; but in the later bronze period there were in
Britain and in Ireland caldrons of thin plates of hammered bronze
rivetted together, some of conical, others of spheroidal shape.
Whether there then were in the British Isles bronze-smiths capable
of making these vessels, or whether the vessels were imported,
I cannot now stop to discuss: my object in mentioning them was
merely to show that these vessels were in the hands of the Britons,
and that they thus had the means of boiling their food over
a fire.

But, though the inhabitants of Britain had, when Cesar arrived
here, pots of bronze in which to boil, and viands with which to fill
those pots, they could have had no cookery worth the name.
They lacked two things essential in cookery: first of all they had
no sugar: beet-root sugar and maple-sugar were not then invented,
and cane-sugar was just known bytravellers’ tales to the Romans, who
usedhoney, or sugar made from honey. But the ancient Britons had
not even this, for the late Professor Rolleston has shown that they had
no domesticated bees, though they did make mead [metheglin] from
the honey of wild bees. ‘‘ Nowif we onlyconsider,” says the Professor,
‘chow largely separated sugars enter into the dietaries of the poorest
amongst us, we shall be puzzled to understand how, in the days of
Caractacus, people cooked at all without sugar.”* I believe that in
England every adult consumes weekly seven and a half ounces

* British Barrows. Greenwell and Kolleston, p. 725.

Sy ae

of sugar. The other essential to cookery that the earlier inhabitants
of Britain lacked was oil. We unfortunately are obliged to use
butter in our cookery instead of oil: the ancient Britons certainly
had no oil, and they either had no butter at ail, or else it was full
of hairs, and probably rancid. I am inclined to think that they,
like more civilized countries, had no butter: according to Bishop
Patrick, the Greeks had no butter in the fourth century before
Christ ; neither Homer, Euripides, Hesiod, or Aristotle, ever
mention butter, though they mention cheese.

It is to the Romans we must accredit the introduction of the
art of cookery into these islands.

_I hope to show you from whence the Romans got the art of
cookery, and when: what their cookery was like, and the influence
it has had upon the present state of the art in this country.

Like many other things, the art of cookery came from the East:
the Romans got it from the Greeks, and the Greeks got it from
_ the Lydians, whose cooks were highly celebrated.

Some archzologists have speculated on the cookery of the ante-
diluvians : as these persons were or ought to have been vegetarians,
they probably cooked but little: the patriarchs seem to have been
acquainted with roasting, boiling, and baking, and they knew how
to make savoury meat with sauce, probably with oil, for though
butter is mentioned in the Old Testament, cream is more likely .
meant. Kids and lambs were their main meats: the common
fowl was unknown to the patriarchs: indeed it is never mentioned
by the writers of the Old Testament, nor by Homer or Hesiod.
It was a later introduction, and found its way from India to Rome
vid the Red Sea, or far more probably by Babylon.

It is impossible to make a continuous history of the art of
cookery from the times of the patriarchs downwards: we have to
skip, and we pick up our thread again with the Lydians. Lydia

was a district of Asia Minor, and was a very early seat of Asiatic
civilization: from the Lydians the Greeks derived many civilized
arts, such as the weaving and dying of fine fabrics: various pro-
cesses of metallurgy: the use of gold and silver money, various

6

metrical and musical improvements (particularly the musical scale),
and the art of cookery.

We are now beginning to get upon the safe ground of a book on
the subject, the Aevrvorogurrai (Deipnosophiste), or Zhe Banquet
of the Learned, by Athenzus the grammarian. This book is a
collection of ava, or anecdotes, on all sorts of things, particularly
Gastronomy, and is put forth by Athenzeus as a full account of
the conversation at a banquet at Rome, at which he, Galen the
physician, and Ulpian the jurist were among the guests. Only a
fragment of the book has come down to us: it is our authority for
the high fame to which the Lydian cooks had attained. Athenzeus
also preserves for us the names of several writers on cookery,
whose works, alas! are lost: he enumerates some seventeen, and
these seventeen are not retired hotel-keepers, club-cooks, or old
ladies, but doctors—doctors of high degree, such as Erasistratus
of Ceos, the most famous anatomist and vivisectionist of his day,
a physician second only to Hippocrates. Heraclides, who wrote .
on Materia Medica, and also wrote a commentary on Hippocrates ;
Criton of Rome, and Diocles of Eubza, both distinguished medical
writers. Don’t let any one be surprised: in both classical and:
medizeval times, the arts of cookery and of healing were always
considered closely allied. The word curare signifies equally to
dress victuals and to cure a distemper. ‘There is a well known
Latin adage—

Culina medicine famulatrix,
and another

Explicit coguina que est optima medicina.

ee

The connection continued to the end of the 17th century. In
1684 one Hartman a chemist published in one volume, “A choice
collection of Select Remedies for all istempers incident to Men,
Women, and Children, together with excellent Directions for
Cookery, and also for preserving and conserving.” The association
of ideas still obtains at sea, and sailors always call their cook the
doctor. - ] wh

Not even fragments of the culinary works of these writers have
come down to us, though some of their medical works have, and

7

thus we are in darkness as to the Lydian and Greek art of
Cookery, except so far as we learn it from Apicius, a book which I
shall presently say a good deal about. But that among the Greeks
the Art was highly thought of, we know from a quotation from a
play of Euphron, preserved in Athenzeus—

Oude 6 pd-yerpos tod rountod Siadéper,

O vots ydp eorw Exarépw rovrwv TEXYY,

The Romans at first were far from holding cooks in such honour:
a military and an agricultural people, their original cookery was a
very simple affair ; it was very vegetarian. Pliny describes an old
fashioned Roman dinner as—Zactuce singule, cochlee terne, ova
bina, alica cum mulso et nive, olive Batice, cucurbite, bulbi, alia
mille non minus lauta. This peculiarity of being very vegetarian
adheres to this day to the cookery of all the Latin races, and is
(says Mr. Coote) in itself an evidence of much refinement.

The great national dish of the primitive Roman was puls: it
was a sort of gruel, pap, or pottage made of a/ica (wheat grits) or
of stmila (semolina), flavoured with herbs, or brains. Sometimes it
was merely milk and biscuit boiled together : a similar dish was
ptisana, made from barley grits, and was a barley water flavoured
with herbs, vinegar, oil, and wine. The Roman had also a great
weakness for sausages and smoked meats [Lucanice, botelli, farci-
mina). Upon this simple Style of cooking, the Greek art was
engrafted, and the rich, invigorating Asiatic-Greek sauces warmed
up the simple Roman fare into life and energy.

We learn the date of this change from Livy, lib. xxxix. c. 6.
Writing of the effects of the victories in the year 189 B.C. of Cnceus
Manlius Vulso in Asia, he Says: Luxurie enim peregrine origo ab
exercitu Asiatico invecta in urbem est. After enumerating several
instances, he Says, “epule quogue ipse et cura et sumptu majore
apparari cocpie: tum coquus, vitissimum antiquis mancipium, et esti-
matione et usu, in pretio esse; et, quod ministerium fuerat, ars haberi
coepia.” Lucullus, also, after his victories over Mithridates and
Tigranes, did a great deal to introduce sumptuous living into Rome.
He had amassed vast treasures in Asia, and was thus able to gratify

8

his taste for luxury and magnificence. The Romans threw all
their strong nature into the new art: they became dinner givers
and diners out; ransacked their most distant provinces for new
luxuries ; they discovered and imported the pheasant, the wood-
cock, and the guinea-fowl. Fame was to be attained by the
successful culture of some new viand for the table: and Columella
in his De Re Rustica, tells us that Sergius Orata, i.e. Sergius the
gold brasse (a small fish), and Licinius Murena, ie. Licinius the
sea eel, derived their names from the successful cultivation of those
fish for the table.

Of course there was a re-action. As Mr. Coote says, “ideas of
such novelty taken second-hand from the lively and luxurious
Greek, aroused what still remained of the stern and puritanical
character of the Romans.” Sumptuary laws were enacted: no one
was allowed to have more than three guests to dinner : dormice,
and shellfish, and strange birds brought from foreign countries
(the pheasant, woodcock, and guinea-fowl,) were prohibited.” “No
success,” says Mr. Coote, “could wait on such grim essays at
retrogression. ‘They accordingly proved failures, and the efforts
of sumptuary laws and censors could not drive the Roman genile-
man back into the plain cookery of his ancestors.”

Now there has come down to us a Book, which reveals to us
the taste of the Roman palate—and the dishes of this Asiatico-
Greeko-Romano-art which pleased it. It is a book whose name
sounds familiar to most people, but which few, even among
scholars, have ever seen. It rarely occurs even in the best
libraries. No translation exists: the production of one would
puzzle the best scholars of the day, who are not as a rule familiar
with the terms of art of the Roman or English kitchen.

But Smollet had read Apicius, and understood it too, and he
had read the commentators, Humelbergius and Lister, and the
famous ‘Dinner in the Manner of the “Ancients,” in Peregrine
Pickle, is the work of a scholar in culinary matters.

The title of the work is—Aficé? Coelit de Opsoniis et Condimentis
sive Arte Coquinaria Libri Decem. “The ten books of Apicius
Coelius upon Viands and Sauces, or The Art of Cookery.”

~~ a

— >

an. ee ee

9

Now Apicius did not write the book: he was no more a cook
than I am: he was a famous Jon vivant and gourmet, who flourished
under the Emperor Tiberius, and whose name has passed into a
proverb in all matters connected with the pleasures of the table.
The dull idiot who wrote the account of him in the Classical
Dictionary calls him a glutton, and a more stupid libel was never
penned, and that upon one whom all writers, from Juvenal and
Martial downwards, have agreed to take as the representative of
the Haute cuisine of ancient Rome; upon one who, as Pliny tells
us, was the first to introduce to public notice cyme et coliculi, in
other words Brussels sprouts, a dish which charmed the Emperor
Tiberius, though it shocked the rigid principle of the virtuous
Drusus.

The name of the compiler is unknown. Mr. Coote pleasantly
conjectures him to have been the Soyer or Francatelli of the
period, who prefixed the name of Apicius to his book by way of a
good advertisement. Many of the dishes owe their nomenclature
to historical personages, and by these names Mr. Coote is able to
show that the book contains recipes ranging from the time of the
Republic to the Emperor Heliogabalus; but the book is the
composition of one writer, as shown by its cross references. Mr.
Coote remarks “In its literal style it resembles Mrs. Glasse, in her
pleasant pleonasms and sagacious comments.” For convenience
I shall the book by the name on its title page, Apicius, and the
school of cookery it teaches the Apician.

There have been several editions of this Roman cookery book,
but I need not trouble you about them. The best is that of 1705,
edited by Dr. Martin Lister, ‘“‘e Medicis Domesticis serenissimz
Regine Anne.” Of this only one hundred and twenty copies
were printed, at the expense, as recorded on the back of the
title page, of eighteen gentlemen, among whom were the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of Norwich, and of Bath and
Wells; the Earls of Sunderland and Roxburgh; Sir Robert
Harley, Sir Christopher Wren, Isaac Newton, Flamstead the
Astronomer-Royal, Hans Sloane, etc. Since this publication
the book has fallen almost entirely into oblivion, and the learned

10

editor has been forgotten; but in his day he was a well known
London celebrity.

I must proceed to make some pickings from it.

The Roman batterie de cuisine much resembles ours, ours indeed
being descended it from it. Although we may have new inventions,
I doubt if we have anything better: indeed Dr. Bruce told me that
the Duke of Northumberland’s French chef had had reproduced for
his own use some of the Roman cooking implements in the Duke’s
museum at Alnwick. Large collections of them are in the museums
at Herculaneum and Pompeii. Their usual material is bronze
tinned, but silver was frequently used. The Romans had the
spit (vern), the gridiron (craticu/a), and the frying-pan (sartago).
They had saucepans of every size, cacabus, cacabulus, zema, angu-
laris, pultarium. The Roman saucepan differed in shape somewhat
from ours: ours broaden to their base; the Roman narrowed like
a tea-cup ; and had a long flat side handle terminating in a circular
expansion at the end, in which was a hole, so that the pan could
be hung up by its handle. It has been objected that the Roman
shape would upset very easily on a fire: so it would, on an open
coal fire, but the Roman mainly cooked with charcoal, and to a
great extent on stoves. Their saucepans seem to have been made
in sets of five, each being, in capacity, a regular multiple of five
cyathi, the cyathus being a Roman measure equal to ‘o8 of our
pint. A set preserved at Castle Howard hold each ten, fifteen,
twenty-five, fifty, and sixty cya¢iz, and the smallest would hold
four-fifths of a pint of our measure. There was the stewpan of
bronze, patina, patella, and of earthenware, cumana,; the braizing
pan (thermospodion ), the oven (furnus), the Dutch oven (cibanus ),
the bain marie pan (duplex vas). A net (reticulus), or a basket
(sportella), was sometimes used in boiling: they had steaming
apparatus, strainers, skimmers, drying cloths, moulds, etc., mortars,
pestles, hand mills, etc. The mortars (morfaria) are the best
known of the Roman kitchen utensils to us: fragments of them
turn up everywhere. They were usually made of yellow, drab,
or fawn-coloured clay, sometimes of Samian ware, and the surface

of the interior is often studded with small siliceous stones, broken

:
'
:

——e

g

11

quartz, and scoria of iron, to help attrition. When we come to
understand the character of Roman cookery, we shall see why the
remains of morfaria are so common.

We now come to a most important matter; the consideration of
the Roman sauces as given in the pages of Apicius. On sauces
Mr. Coote remarks, “‘As sauces are the demonstrations of cookery
as a fine art, so they are the measure and gauge of its excellence.”
In fact the excellence of any particular school of cookery is to be
measured by the excellence of its sauces.

The general sauces of English cookery are formed of meat
gravy with the flavouring of onion, spices, and jimes herbes, the
whole being inspirited by the addition of wine. To this conjunction
is added ketchup, rarely anchovy; and where it is required the
sauces are thickened by flour or arrowroot. The Roman sauces
are the same in principle, and, with some exceptions, nearly the
same in fact. The Roman cooks used honey for perfecting these
sauces, where we now use sugar—cane, beet, or maple. Cane
sugar was only just known to them by travellers’ tales; beet and
maple were not invented. But you must not imagine the Roman
cooks used honey in the state we eat it at breakfast: it would be
clarified, and manufactured, and the product (the c/ere honey of
medieval cooks,) clarified by the whites of eggs and other means,
would not be unlike our sugar. In fact honey, as we use it, would
bear about the same relation to it as used by the Roman cooks
that the raw sugar-cane juice does to manufactured white sugar.
Again, the Roman cooks used oil, where we use butter, “barbarian
butter” Mr. Coote calls it, and there can be no doubt that in

cookery oil is infinitely superior to butter. But it is essential that

the oil should be fresh and good, and it is very difficult indeed in
this country to get.

Instead of meat essence, which our cooks use largely, the
Romans used wine, and various decoctions of wine, as we English
did in medizeval times, viz. merum, defrutum, carenum, mulsum,
passum, all of which, except the first, were wines boiled down in
different degrees, sometimes with honey.

The Romans used “erbes potagéres very largely. I give you a

list of their English names; you will recognise them all as old
English pot-herbs, used in English cookery.
were brought here by the Romans.

lovage

sage

cummin ...
coriander ...
marjoram...

rue

dill, anise...

basil

mint

thyme

wild thyme
fennel... tH
parsley

pennyroyal

cat mint ...
savory

saffron
asparagus...

onion

leek

button onion
garlic tne
cyperus (galingage)

The seeds of many plants were in constant use :—

celery (or smallage)
rocket

carraway ...
mustard ...
cummin

aniseed

12

In fact most of them q

ligusticum
salvia
cuminum
coliandrum
origanum
ruta
anetum
ocymum
mentha
thymum

feeniculus

petrosilium, petroselinum
pulegium

nepeta

satureia

asparagus
cepa
porrus
cepulla
alias
cyperus

apium
eruca
careum
sinape
cuminum

Berries :—
rue eee eee ruta
Iatrel .-.2:: aa laurus
myrtle... ee myrtha
juniper... Bas juniperus
lentise (marlich) ... lentiscus

Fruits :-—
pine nuts ... at nuclei
walnuts... a nuces juglandes
filberts’’* ::. an pontica
hazel nuts i
dates si ot caryota, dactylus
damsons ... 0. damascena
plums
raisins... Pe uvee passe
almonds ... ee amygdala
quinces ... oi mala Cydonia

were all used in the making of sauces.

Of spices they had plenty : pepper, long and short, ginger, malo-
bathrum, cassium, folium, costus, spikenard—all from the East. Then
they had another spice a host in itself, sz/phzum, laser, or laserpitium,
used in root, leaf, and in juice. This was once the staple product
of Cyrene, and sold almost for its weight in silver. It is now lost;
we don’t know what it was: the coins of Cyrene show it to have
been an umbelliferous plant: assafeetida has been suggested, and
Smollett adopts this notion, and introduces at the “‘ Dinner in the
Manner of the Ancients,” a jelly of vinegar, pickle, and honey
boiled together, and garnished with candied assafetida. But
Humelbergius and Dr. Lister strongly oppose this view. Assafeetida
is even now used in cookery by modern arabs.

Cinnamon the Romans did not use, except on the funeral pyre.
But with that exception, and the exception of lemon juice, almost
all things that offered zest, that insured flavour, that assisted
appetite, and promoted digestion, were imported by the Roman
into sauce and stew.

There was a something else, with which Roman cooks tempered

os

14

all their sauces and all their dishes, namely garum or liguamen.
It was a sauce made from the intestines and heads of large fish—
the tunny, the sturgeon, the mackerel : these were mixed in a vat
with salt, and were exposed to the sun for a long time: wine was
added, and pot herbs. The art is now completely lost: and we
do not know what was this garum or liguamen which was so dear
to the Roman palate. Where it was used, salt was never used,
and therefore garum must have had a salt flavour ; yet it was bad,
if it was too salt, and honey then was added to it; salt fish were
washed in it, to take away their saltness. On the whole one is
inclinéd to think that garum was a thin sauce with a delicate salt
flavour, a nuance, says Mr. Coote, “a soupgon which recalled to the
jaded Roman the healthy ozonic air of the fresh and tone-giving

seas of Baie and Tarentum.” Smollet substitutes herring pickle
for it.

To go back to sauces in general: the gravy of the object for
which the sauce was intended, was also mixed with the sauce.
Starch, bread, and wafer biscuits were used for thickening sauces,
also eggs, cooked or raw.

So much, for the Roman sauces. I next come to the various
dishes to which the Roman cooks served these sauces. We shall
find that they had almost every dish that we have, and a great
many that we now reject. We make great use of beef and
mutton, which they did not: beef is little used in hot countries.

The Romans, however, used veal; mutton they cared little for
except wild; but lamb was a staple dish, and so was pork—for
which they had a complete passion: their pork, fed on figs or
chesnuts, was probably as much superior to our pork, as our beef
and mutton would be to theirs.

To take their dishes in a regular order, I will begin with fish.
This they cooked in every way that we do: they boiled, stewed,
baked, and broiled: they stuffed with various ingredients, and
they made rissoles of it. It is an historical fact, recorded in the
life of the Emperor Heliogabalus, that that magnificent sensualist
was the first inventor of lobster rissoles, which by the way the
Roman cooks made in a shape and baked; our cooks fry them.

—

=

15
Here is a recipe for lobster rissoles from Apicius :—‘‘/sicia de
loligine. Sublatis crinibus in pulmentum tundes, sicut assolet pulpa:
et in mortario et in liguamine adiligenter fricatur; et exinde tsicia
plassantur.” Take oft the spawn first, boil the lobster, then chop
it into a fine pulp; pound in a mortar with eggs, pepper, and
garum, and then set in a shape, and bake.

The Roman cooks made zszcza of several sorts: of lobster, and also
of the sepia or cuttle-fish, and of various meats ; their zs¢céa answer
to our rissoles, croquettes, quenelles, kromeskys, and forcemeats.
The usual Roman materials for quenelles were pheasant, peacock,
rabbit, chicken, or sucking-pig, pounded in a mortar, and then
simmered in sauces, to which pepper, gavwm and wine with other
flavouring ingredients were generally added.

To return to fish: fish stews were much in vogue. Here is a
recipe. JL%sces gualeslibet rades et curatos mittes, cepas sitcas
Ascalonias, vel alterius generis concides in patinam, et pisces super
compones: adjicies liquamen, oleum; cum coctum fuerit, salsum
coctum in medio pones, addendum acetum. Scrape any sort of fish ;
cut up dry chalots, or any other kind of onion, and put them into
a stew pan; lay the fish upon them, add thereto garum and oil
and cook. When they are done, put some cooked sa/sum (some
salt relish, like caviare,) in the midst of them: add vinegar, and
serve.

Here is a recipe for sauce for fried fish :—/éscem, quemlibet
cures, salias, friges : prepare any sort of fish, sprinkle salt, and fry.
Then for the sauce: Zeres piper, cuminum, coriandri semen, laceris

_raditem, origanum, rutam fricabis; suffundes acetum; adjicies

caryotam, mel, defrutum, oleum ; liquamine lemperabis, refundes in
cacabum ; facias ut ferveat: cum ferbuerit piscem frictum perfundes,
piper asperges et inferes. Pound pepper, cummin, coriander seed,
laser root, marjoram, and rue ; pour in vinegar, add a date, honey,
defrutum (i.e. preparation of wine,) oil; temper with garwm;
pour it into a saucepan, make hot ; when hot, pour over the fried
fish, pepper it, and serve.

Coming to their meats—beef and mutton they neglected, for
reasons I have mentioned already. But copadia, stews of lamb,

g
'
:

16

were very popular. Stew in garum and pepper, with French
beans, and add a sauce of garum, pepper, laser root, and ground
cummin seed ; add sippets of bread, and oil. There were several
other recipes for lamb stew. Kid was treated in the same way as
lamb. ‘The wild sheep, or mouflon of Sardinia, was a favourite
dish. For venison they had many sauces, and honey forms an
ingredient of the venison and wild sheep sauces, an ingredient for
which we now-a-days substitute current jelly. Hare was another
popular dish: they stuffed it with pine nuts, almonds, walnuts,
peppercorns, its own liver and lights chopped up, and eggs. They
baked it, boiled it, roasted it, stewed it, and jugged in many ways
and with many sauces. The shoulder-blade was the tit-bit.

But far above all other dishes did the Roman value pork. And
no wonder ; his pigs were fattened upon figs, and died of apoplexy
brought on by the sudden administration of a doze of honey and
wine. Mr. Coote observes that this “is the nearest approach
ever made in sober fact to dying of a rose in aromatic pain.” It
reminds of the story of the Duke of Clarence and the butt of
Malmsey.

Pliny tells us that pork was the most lucrative dish they had at
the cook shops, and that they could give it nearly fifty flavours ;
by the time of the Emperor Heliogabalus additional ones had
been invented, and Apicius gives over eighty recipes for cooking
pork. They roasted it, broiled it, fried it, baked it, boiled it, and
stewed it; they cut it up into all sorts of dishes; they cooked
sucking pig in sixteen different ways; they did the kidneys in
methods that would charm the Cambridge undergraduate ; they
made haggis of pork, and here we trace the national dish of Scot-
land, as we do its national music, to the Romans: but the Romans
made the haggis of pork, the Scots make it of mutton. The
recipe is too long to quote.

With regard to birds and fowls, the Romans were omnivorous : -
they ate omnimoda volatilia, everything that flies; so did our
medizval ancestors. The swan and peacock, which we now see
alone at city and college feasts, are survivals. But Lord William
Howard, as his household books show, ate cormorants, and cranes,

17

and herons. The Romans roasted, boiled, and stewed their fowls,
but stewing was the method most in vogue: perhaps because they
could so best disguise the strong flavour of a cormorant or a stork.
They generally gave their birds a preparatory boil before they
plucked and cleansed them; or sometimes they steamed them
first.

I have already spoken of one main branch of the Roman dishes,
the isicia, our rissoles, quenelles. croquettes, kromeskys, etc. I
will now call your attention to the patina, the minutal, and the
salacacabia. I have already given an instance of a patina or stew
of fish. Patine or stews of vegetables were made of pounded
vegetables, such as asparagus, mixed with eggs, and sometimes
with milk, but always with eggs. Honey, pepper, garum, oil, and
other ingredients were added. The patine of fruit answer to our
compote of fruit, but we do not now-a-days flavour quinces with
leeks, or pears with anchovy sauces. The patine were elaborate
stews, which survived in medizval cookery, and are now gone out.

The minutal was a mess of chopped or minced fish or meat,
without either milk or eggs, but bread or biscuit was always an
ingredient. The salucacabia was a similar dish, in which bread
and cheese was an essential: it was always set by the application
of cold. These two dishes, like the patina, died out in medizval
times: they were too much of a mixture, not to say mess, for
modern stomachs. The Patina Apiciana was a mixture of pounded
pork, fish, chicken, becaficoes, fieldfares, and quaecunque optima
fuerunt, pounded and chopped with pepper, lovage, garum,
wine, pas um, pine nuts—a regular Salmigondis. A fair idea
of a salacacabia may be got from ‘Peregrine Pickle,” where
one is described as consisting of parsley, pennyroyal, cheese,
pine tops, honey, vinegar, brine, eggs, cucumbers, onions, and
hen livers, all macerated and pounded up in a mortar, and after-
wards set by the application of snow.

Of pastry the Romans made little use, except for pies. They
made meat pies, and ham pies, and chicken pies—pies of all sorts
of fowl, even of storks and herons. Their paste was made ex farina
oleo subacta, that is of flour and oil.

2

18

The Romans had almost all the vegetables we have, except the
potato and tomatoe, and they both boiled and stewed them.
Raw salads were in vogue; but, like the modern Italian, they
also affected them boiled.

Of sweets the Romans had numerous dishes; and among the
recipes given by Apicius may be found ones for custard, and for
omelettes, and cheese cakes.

Snails they fried and sauced in various ways; eggs they fried
and boiled, and served with sauces.

From what I have already said, I think you will have perceived
that the differences between the Roman and the English styles of
cookery are differences only of detail, not of principle. Mr. Coote
sums up :—They cooked their fish, flesh, fowl, and vegetables in
manners more or less identical with ours ; their sweets present less
similarity, but there are resemblances even in them. Their pot
herbs are all in use at the present day, except /aser, which has not
been rejected by us, but is lost, or unrecognised at the present
time. But a perusal of Apicius shows that Roman cookery was
intended for stomachs weakened by luxury; the rationale of the
Roman sauces was to promote digestion by raising the tone of the
stomach: thus strong and warming condiments were unsparingly
used, such as carraway, anise, cummin, celery seeds; also pine
nuts, juniper, laurel, and lentise berries. Mustard, strange to say,
they used very timidly: only in boils and stews, never with roasts
and broils. Pepper they used to everything—fish, flesh, and fruit.
It was first introduced into Rome in the time of Pliny, and its
brusque and fiery taste startled the senses of the bon vivants of the
city. Pliny was of that number: Uswm ejus adeo placuisse mirum
est: in aliis quippe suavitas cepit, in aliis species invitavit. Huic
nec pomt nec bacce commendatio est aliqua. Solu placere amari-
tudine, et hanc in Indos peti. Quis ille qui primus cibis experwri
voluit. In fact pepper was a new sensation, when first introduced
into Europe, and the Romans fell in love with it. It did not
supersede, however, the rue and lovage they previously used to
produce similar effects. They used all three.

But we cannot really solve the question of what Roman cookery

= a

19

was like zesthetically, until we can find out exactly what was the
garum with which they seasoned everything. Dumas calls it “cet
horrible melange,” and certainly a composition of fish offal, salt,
wine, and pot herbs, exposed to putrify in the sun, does not sound
nice to our ideas ; nor can we understand how garum came to be
mingled in all sauces, simple or compound, and to be applied
alike to the seasonings of fish, flesh, fowl, and vegetable.

I have already pointed out that the Roman cookery was destined
for stomachs weakened by luxury. It further violated one great
gastronomical law. The savours of their rich sauces preponderated
over the savour of the viands. The Roman cooks were proud of
this. Apicius, after giving a recipe for cooking and saucing a fish,
proudly says, Nemo agnoscet quid manducet. As Mr. Coote says:
“This is itself a great divergence from the principles of true taste.
We know that an object should be relieved by its sauce, not
dominated and overpowered. And in the case of the Romans
this faulty canon led to a further and greater error. The same
sauces were poured over roast, boiled, broiled, and baked, without
choice or discrimination.”

I am sorry to say that the Americans are falling into this error ;
even in the best American hotels, whatever dish you are served
with, the sauce is the same. People in Carlisle sometimes fall
into the first error, and I have known a fresh run Eden salmon
served up with lobster sauce, to its utter overpowering, instead of
parsley, or, better still, fennel.

The Apician cookery sinned further against the canons of good
taste, and that was in the excessive pounding and mincing to which
it subjected its viands. Seneca in one of his epistles says:
“ Bapecto jam ut manducata ponantur.”

To sum up the differences between the Roman cookery and that
of the present day: they used wine in sauces, where we use meat gravy.
This a startling discrepancy, but it was done in English cookery in
medizval times. They used oil, where we use butter; they used
honey—clarified honey, where we use sugar. We go in for joints
—beef and mutton, more than they did; we use salt almost
universally, though not so universally as they used garum; we use

20

mustard more than they did; we use lemon juice, which they
rejected ; we still use the Roman pot herbs, but we content our-
selves with two or three in a sauce, instead of ten or a dozen,
Our palate, chaster than that of jaded and luxurious Rome, has
rejected the more complicated stews and ragouts of ancient Rome,
the patina, the minutal, the salacucabia; but we have invented
nothing new. The cold waters of our Northern seas give finer
fish than the Romans ever knew; we have drawn the turtle from
the West Indies, and mulligatawney and curry from the East, but
we have invented no new conceptions since the rissoles of Helio-
gabalus. The Roman cook, who knew his Apicius, would be
capable of cooking for a city company of the present day, or of
fulfilling an engagement as chef to the Reform club. In cookery
alone, of all tnings human, human nature seems to rest and be
thankful.

Before leaving this branch of my subject, I will try to give you
some idea of a Roman dinner, by setting before you a menu* for
sixteen persons, of a dinner given about the middle of the period
of the Republic, and therefore before luxury had attained the
height it reached in the times of the Empire.

For a preliminary whet, or ante coenam, there were all sorts of
shell fish, such as sea urchins, raw oysters unlimited, fieldfares,
and asparagus (echinos, ostreas crudas, quantum vellent, peloridas,
sphondilos, turdum, asparagos). Shell fish were considered a great
luxury by the Romans, and the Mediterranean furnishes a large
variety. The grape-fed fieldfare was also a great luxury, and a
corona of roast fieldfares was placed round another dish, in this
case probably round the asparagus, as a garnish.

Next comes the first course proper: gallinam altilem, patinam
ostreorum, peloridum, balanos nigros, balanos a/bos: that is—fat
fowls, stewed oysters, stewed muscles, and bu/ani, both black and
white. Balani may be acorns, chesnuts, or dates, or sea-fish—
I don’t know which.

For the second course: sphondilos, glycomaridas, wrticas,
fideculas, lumbos caprugineos, uprugnos, altilia ea farina involuta,

* The Cena Meteili, Macrobius, ii. 9.

blll

fideculas, murices et purpuras: that is—more shell-fish, including
the purple murex, becaficos (the fig-picker), cutlets of wild goat
and of wild boar; chicken pies, snipes.

For the last course: swmina, sinciput aprugnum, patinam
piscium, patinam suminis, anates, quercedulas elixas, lepores, altilia
assa, amylum, panes Picentes: that is—sows’-hearts, wild boar’s
head, stewed fish, stewed sows’-hearts, ducks, some some small
birds boiled (I don’t know what quercedule are: some bird that
feeds on acorns), hares, roast fowls, bread sauce, sponge cakes.

A dessert would follow. This is the menu of a very simple
dinner indeed : it was at a later period we come to the dormice fed
on chesnuts, served with sweet sauce on golden plates, and the
elaborate patinas and salacacabias of the Apician cookery.

Such was the Roman cookery. It had a very long term of
existence: it did not expire with the Empire, but survived even
through the middle ages. ‘The Romans brought it to this country;
we have every right to believe that it continued after they left.
The Anglo-Saxon in his cookery used the mortar extensively, and
he used the word briw, for an elaborate stew. But however that
may be, the Anglo-Norman cookery is a legitimate descendant of
the Apician. The Normans liked high-seasoned dishes: William
of Malmesbury tells us incidentally that a great prince ate garlick
with a goose, from which we are led to suppose that the Normans
had the Roman taste for highly seasoned dishes. Necham tells
us that fish should be cooked in a sauce composed of wine and
water, and should be served with a sauce of sage, parsley, cost,
thyme, ditany, and garlick. That is a thoroughly Apician recipe.

For the Anglo-Norman cookery of the 14th century we have a
cookery book to goto. “The Forme of Cury, a Roll of Ancient
English Cookery, compiled about A.D. 1390, by the Master Cooks
of King Richard II.” This is a vellum roll, containing one
hundred and ninety-six formule, or recipes. A memorandum
upon it in Latin states that it was presented to Queen Elizabeth,
as “dA ntiqguum hoc monumentum,” by E. Stafford. Heres domus
subverse Buckinghamie. He was grandson of the Duke of
Buckingham, who was beheaded in 1521. This roll was published

22

in 1780, by the well known antiquary, Dr. Samuel Pegge, a scholar
to whom no branch of archzology was unfamiliar. The Archeologia
contains pape*s by him on every possible subject—coins, glass
windows, cockfighting, bull-running, horse shoeing, charter horns,
prehistoric implements, etc. Whatever subject was broached at
the meetings of the Society of Antiquaries, Dr. Samuel Pegge was
ready with appropriate and learned observations.

The preamble of the roll states that this “forme of cury was
compiled of the chef Maister Cokes of Kyng Richard the Secunde,
Kyng of England after the Conquest, ye which was accounted ye
best and ryallest viander of all christian kings, and it was
compiled by assent and asysement of Maisters of Phisik and of
Philosophie that dwellid in his court. First it techith a man for to
make comune pottages and comune meetis for household as they
should be made craftly and holsomly. Afterward it techitt for to
make curious pottages and meetis and sotillees for alle mane of
of States bothe hye and lowe. And the techyng of the forme of
making of pottages and of meetis bothe of flesh and of fissh, both
sette here by noumbre and by order. Sso this little table here
servyng wole teche a man withoute taryyng to fynde what meet
that hym lust for to have.”

With the ‘Forme of Cury” is also published another contem-
poraneous manuscript. The technical terms of the Apician
cookery are puzzling enough to understand ; but the terms used
in the “Forme of Cury,” though it is written in English, are worse:
even the learned and ingenious Dr. Pegge confesses that they
have occasioned him great perplexity. He says, “The names of
the dishes and sauces . . are not only many in number, but
are often so horrid and barbarous, to our ears at least, as to be
inveloped in several instances in almost impenetrable obscurity.
Brewet, and mortrew, payne fondewe, farced grewel, sound almost
meaningless to us; even the simplest ingredients, such as eggs,
are disguised under the term “eyren” and “ayren;” the em being
the old English plural, and the ey or ay, the same word that we x
have in the eits, so well known to oarsmen on the Thames, where
the swans lay their eggs or “ eyren.”

23

The dishes in the ‘Forme of Cury” and the contemporaneous
manuscript are chiefly soups, potages, ragouts, hashes, and the
like hotch-potches: entire joints of meat being never served, and
animals, whether fish or fowl, seldom brought to table whole, Lut
hacked and hewed, and cut in pieces or gobbets. The mortar also
was in great request, some dishes being actually denominated from
it, as mortrews or morterelys. From this you will see that the
cookery of the ‘“‘ Forme of Cury” is Roman in character. Close
investigation shows that the ‘“‘brewet” is the “patina,” the
“mortrew” the “minutal,” the “payne fondewe” the “salacacabia,”
and the “farced grewels” the ‘“‘puls” of the Romans. I will give
one very simple recipe, that for a ‘“‘mortrew” of a simple character:
“boiled hens, crummed bread, yolk of eggs, and saffron, all
pounded together in a mortar :”
_ We find also in the “Forme of Cury” other distinct Roman

an Apician “minutal.”

traits : olive oil and lard (or white grease) are generally used in the
sauces, butter rarely. Sugar is just beginning to supersede “clee
honey,” that is honey refined with the white of eggs. Wines, both
red and white, are used as the bases of sauces, instead of meat
gravy. There is too the use of large numbers of pot herbs in one
dish: ten are used to season the gravy for a sheep’s head, and
fourteen to make a salad dressing.

I have already given you a Roman menu; I will now give you
an Old English one, and then I will proceed to comment on some
of the dishes. Like the ceva of Rome, so the Old English dinner
was divided into three courses. This is a r4th century menu.*

First Course.

Browet farsed, and charlet, for pottage.
Baked mallard. Small birds. Almond milk served with them.
Capon roasted with the syrup.
Roasted Veal. Pig roasted ‘‘endored”’ and served with the yolk on
his neck over gilt. Herons.
A ‘‘leche.” A tart of flesh.

To take the pottages or stews first. The “Browet farsed” was
made thus. I will give you one recipe in full.

* From Wright’s Homes of other Days, p. 362.

Take almonds and pound them, and mix with beef broth, so as to make it
thick, and put it in a pot with cloves, maces and figs, currants, and minced
ginger, and let all this seethe ; take bread, and steep it in sweet wine, and add
it to the almonds with sugar; then conies, or young rabbits or squirrels, and
first parboil them and partridges parboiled; fry them whole for a lord, but
otherwise chop into gobbets, and when they are almost fried, cast them in a pot,
and let them all boil together, and colour with sandal-wood and saffron ; then
add vinegar and powdered cinnamon strained with wine, and give it a boil ;
then take it from the fire, and see that the pottage is thin, and throw in a good
quantity of ginger.

Omit the cinnamon, and add garum, and that is a regular Apician
receipt for a complicated Aatina.

The other pottage in this course was less complex, and was a
mixture of pounded pork, milk, eggs, sage, and saffron, all boiled
together. The syrup, or sauce for the capon, was made of pounded
almonds and wine, coloured with saffron, figs, currants, ground
ginger, cloves, galingale, and cinnamon; all boiled together and
then sugared, and poured over the capon. “

The Pig roasted “‘endored,” was glazed with yolk of egg, and
gilt.

The “leche” was made by pounding together raw pork and
egzs; sugar, salt, raisins, currants, minced dates, powdered pepper,
and cloves were added, and the whole seethed in a bladder. A
sauce of raisins and wine, cinnamon and ginger, sandal-wood and
saffron, was added.

Second Course,

Brewet of Almayne and Viande vial for pottage.
Mallard. Roasted Rabbit. Pheasant. Venison.
Jelly. Aleche. Hedgehogs.

Pome de orynge.

The Brewet of Almayne was another of the Apician pating or
stews. I need not give the recipe. “ Viande royale” consisted of
Greek or Rhine wine, honey, rice, ginger, pepper, cinnamon,
cloves, saffron, sugar, mulberries, and sandal-wood, all boiled
together and salted.

The “Pome de orynge” were balls of pounded pork liver,
seasoned and flavoured with several ingredients; then boiled and

25

afterwards roasted, and coloured with saffron, sandal-wood, or
indigo.
Third Course.
Boar in egurdouce and Mawmene for pottage.
Cranes. Kid. Curlew. Partridge ; all roasted.
A leche. A Crustade.
A peacock endored, and roasted and served with the skin on.

Cockagris. Flampoyntes. Daryoles.

zs Pears in syrup.

The two pottages were like the former ones, only more so; more
complicated—I had nearly said nastier.

The “ Crustade” was a raised pie of chicken and pigeons with
elaborate seasoning and adorning. The ‘“Cockagris” was an old
cock stuffed with the mixture of which the Pome de orynge was
made, sewed to a pig, and the two seethed and roasted together ;
adorned with egg and saffron, and then covered with gold and
silver foil. ‘‘Flampoyntes” were pork pies made with cheese,
and were mild: editions of the Roman salacacabia. ‘Daryoles”
are custards baked in crust.

The main features of this menu, a late 14th century one, are
distinctly Roman, Apician; the elaborate over-sauced, over-
flavoured pottages or stews, are the Apician patine.

You have probably been wondering where is the Roast Beef of
Old England in this menu? These magnificent and bulky joints
had no place in the medizval cookery of England. The iron-clad
Norman barons, who wrung the Great Charter from King John,
and who fought in the wars of the Roses, did not eat huge joints
of meat, any more than did the patricians and senators of the
Roman Empire. The Norman barons in England lived and fought
on stews, minces, and side dishes, the bulk of which were eaten
with a spoon.* The pree-Reformation bishops and ecclesiastical
dignitaries were also great patrons of this Apician cookery ; and
the kitchen establishments of the larger religious houses were on
a very large scale, as indeed were their feasts. That when George

* A friend- suggests that this, and the excessive use of birds at table, was due

to the Norman barons not knowing that a joint improves by keeping, and so
finding it tough, when used fresh.

26

Neville was made, in 1466, Archbishop of York, was on an
enormous scale, one thousand sheep and two thousand pigs being
but a small item in the accounts.

The medizval cooks were great in “solteltes” or devices in
pastry, gorgeously decorated with gold and silver foil, but these
belong rather to the service of the table, than of the palate, so
I merely mention them ex passant.

To this luxurious school of living, political changes dealt heavy
blows. The barons exhausted themselves and their resources in
the wars of the Roses; the Reformation knocked on the head the
monasteries and their great kitchen establishments: thus it came
about that the habit of profuse and luxurious living gradually
declined during the 16th and the first half of the 17th century,
until it was extinguished in the great convulsions which preceded
the interregnum. After the Restoration, we find that the table
among all classes was furnished more soberly and with plainer and
more substantial dishes, and a new and plainer and bulkier school
of cookery came to the front. It is hard to say where it came
from. Many assert it was an upheaval from below: from the
Anglo-Saxon element in the nation, which had retained its original
weakness for lumps of meat, though it had grafted thereon the
briw, a distinctly Apician dish. The poorer classes, however, in
medizval times, seem to have lived mainly on bread, cheese,
butter, and vegetables, as proved (among other ways.) by the fact
of the names thereof being English, while mutton, veal, pork, and
bacon are Norman. The plainer living seems to have been a
middle-class upheaval in the 16th and 17th centuries. It had
commenced before the days of Queen Elizabeth, but it was
Charles II. who knighted the Sirloin of Beef. The change was
great: a few great lords adhered to the Apician style of cookery,
or Old English: French it now began to be called. A traveller
from the continent, in 1698, says of England :—

‘‘There are some great lords who have French and English cooks,
and where you are served much in the French fashion; .but among

persons of the middle condition, they have ten or twelve sorts of common
meat, which infallibly come round again in their turns at different times,

iN
A,
&

% a

27

and of two dishes of which their dinner is composed, as for instance a
pudding and a piece of roast beef. Sometimes they will have a piece boiled,
and then it has always lain in salt some days, and is flanked all round with five
or six mounds of cabbage, carrots, turnips, or some other herbs or roots,
seasoned with salt and pepper, with melted butter poured over them. At other
times they will have a leg of mutton, roasted or boiled, and accompanied by
the same delicacies ; poultry, sucking pigs, tripe, and beef tongue, rabbits,
pigeons—all well soaked with butter without bacon. Two of these dishes
—always served one after the other—make the ordinary dinner of a good
gentleman or of a good burgher.’’*

The traveller describes their broth as consisting of the water
in which the meat had been boiled, mixed with oatmeal and
with some leaves of thyme, or sage, or such small herbs. Flour,
milk, eggs, butter, fat, sugar, marrow, raisins, etc., he describes
as the ingredients of an English pudding, and cheese as their only

dessert.t
* From Wright’s Homes of other Days, p. 470.

+ A distinguished amateur in gastrouomy has directed my attention to a
remarkable 18th century dinner described in the fourth chapter of Lord
Beacousfield’s delightful romance, ‘‘ Venetia,” avd is anxious to know
whether the dishes enumerated are really ‘‘ historical” in a culinary sense,
or whether the accomplished novelist allowed his fancy to run riot in
picturing a Sunday diuner at an English country house about 1768.

‘Before him (the Rev. Dr. Masham) still scrawled in death the counte-
nance of a huge roast pike, flanked on one side by a leg of mutton a /a daube,
and on the other by the tempting delicacies of bombarded veal. To these
succeeded that masterpiece of the culinary art, a grand battalia pie, in
which the bodies of chickens, pigeons, and rabbits, were embalmed in spices,
cock’s combs, and savoury balls, and well bedewed with one of those rich
sauces of claret, anchovy, and sweet herbs, in which our great grandfathers
delighted, and which was technically termed a Lear. But the grand essay
of skill was the cover of this pastry, whereon the curious cook had contrived
to represent all the once-living forms that were now entombed in that
gorgeous sepulchre.”’

There is no case of fancy 1 running riot here. Chapter and verse could be
given from old cookery books for all the dainty dishes described in
**Venetia.”- But of the ‘historical’ accuracy of the “ grand battalia pie,”
a curious proof occurs in that delightful book, ‘‘The Life of William Hutton,
and the History of the Hutton Family.” In his biography of his maternal
grandmother W. H. relates :—

**She was a careful yet liberal housekeeper, and well skilled in cookery,
pastry, and confectionery. I have heard of a pie she raised in the form of
a goose trussed for the spit; the real goose was boned; a duck was boned

28

Roman institutions have a marvellous vitality and energy in
them, and the Roman cookery has reasserted itself in England ;
partly, no doubt, bysurvival (even Hartmann’s “Excellent Directions
for Cookery,” published in 1682, are tinged with Apicianisms,) and
partly by re-importation from France, where it has ever lived, it
being indeed the cookery of all the Latin races. Kirwan in his
“ Host and Guest,” says that Lord Chesterfield made most
strenuous efforts to introduce French cookery into England. He
engaged as his chef La Chapelle, a descendant of the cook of
Louis XIV. La Chapelle in 1733 published in England a
book on cookery in three volumes. Time forbids me to go
into the details of that revival; but I have already proved
the connection between our present cookery and the Apician.
Carlisle was in a small way a centre of the Apician revival. A
few Frenchmen of Lally’s regiment were left here after the 1745 ;
and in 1758 several hundred French prisoners were sent here on
parole, and some of these vivacious gentry set up as dancing and
fencing masters, hair dressers, and cooks. A distinctly more
expensive style of living was then introduced into Carlisle, and the
cookery there became famous in a small way.

I venture now to think that I have detailed “The History of
the English Palate,” and traced it up to tne Roman palate of the
Apician school, and through that to the Greek and Lydian.

Dr. Pegge, in concluding his prefatory essay to the Forme
of Cury, apologises for having been occupied with such trifles,
and pleads the example of such scholars as Humelbergius,
Tomius, Barthius, Dr. Lister, Almeloveen, and others. I don’t set
and laid within it; a fowl was boned and laid within the duck ; a boned
partridge within the fowl ; and a boned pigeon within the partrilge. The
whole having been properly seasoned, the interstices were filled with
rich gravy ; and I have had pieces of writing paper, cut in various figures
throughout, that were the patterns by which she made her Florendines.”

There is nothing new under the sun; and analogues of the ‘great
battalia pie” were plentiful in Roman cookery. See the Banquet scene in
Professor Becker’s ‘‘ Gallus,’’ and some very curious passages in Soyer’s
‘*Pantropheon.”— From G. A. 8. in Jllustrated News of March 15, 1884.

The ‘‘great battalia pie” is the great raised game pie, known as the
Yorkshire pie.—R. 8. F.

a

,
i
:

—“g

29

up any excuse ; I don’t consider my subject matter a trifle; I take ‘

a serious view of it. I agree with Lord Lytton in what he says
about the Dinner Hour :—

O hour of all hours, the most bless’d upon earth,
Blesséd hour of our dinners !

The land of his birth :
The face of his first love: the bills that he owes ;
The twaddle of friends, and the venom of foes ;
The sermon he heard when to church he last went ;
The money he borrow’d, the money he spent ;—
All of these things a man, I believe, may forget, .
And not be the worse for forgetting ; but yet,
Never, never, oh never ! earth’s luckiest sinner
Hath unpunish’d forgotten the hour of his dinner !
Indigestion. that conscience of every bad stomach,
Shall relentlessly gnaw and pursue him with some ache
Or some pain ; and trouble, remorseless, his best ease,
As the Furies once troubled the sleep of Orestes.

We may live without poetry, music, and art;
We may live without conscience, and live without heart ;
We may live without friends ; we may live without books =
But civilized man cannot live without cooks.
He may live without books—what is knowledge but grieving ?
He may live without hope—what is hope but deceiving ?
He may live without love--what is passion but pining ?
But where is the man that can live without dining ?
Lucile, Part I., Canto II., xxiii. xxiv.

Nore. —Any one who reads the above paper, and Mr. Coote’s paper in the
Archeologia, will see how much I am indebted to that gentleman. I have to
thank him for giving me, in the kindest manner, leave to make use of his paper,
and I wish to make public how much I am indebted to that eminent scholar.
I have to thank Dr. Oakley (late Dean of Carlisle,) for lending me Athenceus
from the Dean and Chapter Library; Aficizs I got from the University Library,
Cambridge; and Pegge’s Form of Cury from the Library, Society of Antiquaries
of London.

Vy phe aie Se (tea, Mr aes
vp soo pry fas,

byte eras mak

31

THE PENRITH SANDSTONE.
(Given at Nunnery Walks, 1881.)

By J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G.S., F.Z.S., H.M. GEoLocicaL SuRVEY.

AT Melmerby, on the last occasion when I had the honour of
addressing this Society, it was our good fortune to have before us
for examination as great a variety of geological matter as could
well be found in any area of the same extent in the British Isles.
Here, on the contrary, our geological surroundings are as simple
as at Melmerby they were complex. Nevertheless, I hope to be
able to show that we have here presented for our study much that
‘is of more than ordinary interest to the geologist, and that is of
especial interest to the student of Cumbrian geology. On the
present occasion I propose to confine my attention to the study of
one rock, instead of running cursorily over the whole range of
rocks of Edenside, and to point out what kind of evidence this
rock yields, and how that evidence is put together to enable us to
reconstruct, in imagination, the physical geography of Edenside
at the time the rock before us was in process of formation.
Amongst the numerous questions that arise in the course of such
an inquiry are :—What was the general nature of the surface;
what mountains were in existence here ; what rivers had we then,
and which way did they flow; where did this rock come from, and
how was it formed; what kind of climate prevailed in those old
days ; what were the animals like, and what the plants; in short,

32

what light can we throw upon the physical geography of this region
in those remote times?

It is perhaps hardly necessary to mention that the rock we now
stand on belongs to what is called the New Red Sandstone Series
—that series of strata characterised by a prevailing red hue, and
that overlies the commercially-important Carboniferous rocks, just
as the Old Red Sandstone umderlies these.

The precise position of the rock more particularly under notice
on the present occasion, will be made clearer if I here enumerate the
various members of the New Red Series in the order we have them
developed in the Eden Valley. The highest member of the New Red
here is formed by the great group of red shales that the city of Carlisle
stands upon. These are fairly well exposed in the bank of the Eden
just below Stanwix; and on that account I last year (1880) gave them
the name of the Stanwix Marls, a name that has since been pretty
generally adopted by geologists. These Stanwix Marls are suc-
ceeded by a considerable thickness of red sandstones, which are
locally of a bright brick-red in their upper portion ; though they
are more typically represented, as Professor Harkness and others
have pointed out, by the duller red sandstone that forms so much
of the beautiful scenery of Corby Walks. This is the St. Bees
Sandstone, a rock that plays an important part in the geology of
the Basin of the Solway. The St. Bees Sandstone passes down-
ward into a group of red shales, usually associated with more or
less gypsum, which is worked at Coat Hill, Eden Lacy, Kirkby
Thore, and elsewhere in these parts. Then comes a group of
strata characterised by being not red. The Magnesian Limestone
belongs to the upper portion of this set; the lower, or Plant Bed
Series, agrees in both litholoyical character and geological position
with the Marl Slate of the north eastern part of England. Below
these, and forming the basal group of the series, comes another
group of sandstones, again red in colour, like those above. This
is the Penrith Sandstone, the rock we now stand upon, which was
so named from the town where it may best be seen. We owe this
name to Professor Harkness, who was the first to place the New
Red Rocks of Edenside in anything like their true order.

:
q
!

33

At first sight, hardly any rock could seem to present so un
promising a field for investigation as the Penrith Sandstone does.
The rock itself is almost entirely devoid of traces of fossils ; and it
is so remarkably uniform in general character that from top to
bottom there is hardly a single bed in it that can be separately
traced more than a few yards. Then, again, the planes of stratifi-
cation generally found in most sedimentary rocks are replaced
here by what are called planes of false-bedding, which afford us no
trustworthy information as to the amount of inclination the rock
has undergone, and therefore present us with no data for determining
the true thickness of the rock. Altogether, it is a most unsatis-
factory rock for the geological surveyor to have to deal with.

In attempting, therefore, to work out the physical geography of
this part of England at the time the Penrith Sandstone was being
accumulated, we often have to go far afield for evidence, and to
pursue lines of inquiry different from what are generally taken in
the study of the other rocks. First of all we have to make out its
relations to the older strata. I have before taken occasion to
point out that this rock lies indifferently upon the edges of widely-
separated members of the older strata, and that it may be found
reposing upon the upturned edges of the newest Carboniferous rocks
of Edenside, as well as upon the contorted Silurian strata of the
Lake District. This means that a vast interval of time had elapsed
between the completion of the Carboniferous Series and the advent
of the Penrith Sandstone. The older rocks had been consolidated,
let down many thousands of feet nearer the centre of the earth,
and consequently squeezed into folds to adapt themselves to the
smaller space, afterward they were again upheaved, broken up into
great wedges by faults, and then were worn away by denudation,
until the upturned edges of the rocks were shorn off to one general
level, so that in the end a vertical thickness of nearly twenty
thousand feet of strata had been removed. The time required to
accomplish this result must have been vast beyond conception.
More than this, sufficient time had elapsed for the almost complete
replacement of the teeming life of the Carboniferous Period by a

group of animals of a character decidedly different in many respects.
3

34

To the ordinary mind these facts may seem of but little import-
ance ; but to them that believe that the past changes of the earth
and of its inhabitants have taken place as gradually as they are
taking place under our own observation, these great revolutions
betoken a lapse of unrepresented time second only to that between
the Silurian and the Carboniferous periods, which I have before
taken occasion to point out as the greatest chronological break we
have in the entire geological series. To compare geology with
history in treating of each of these great unconformities, it is as
though all records of the doings of man in England from the close
of the Bronze Period down to the Middles Ages had been com-
pletely effaced, and we were left to gain our knowledge of the past
succession of events from imperfect and fragmentary records of
various other nations afar off. In the geological record between
the close of the Carboniferous Period and the commencement of
the next formation represented here, a whole chapter, and an
important chapter too, is missing, and there seems but little hope
that we shall ever recover more than detached fragments of the lost
pages. Now, I want to call attention to the fact that in other parts
of England the imperfection of the geological record relating to this
period is greater than it happens to be with us—there are more pages
missing elsewhere than there are here. Our copy, imperfect though
it is, includes one or two pages relating to the commencement of the
new order of things that we look for elsewhere in vain. In most
other parts of England the New Red Series is ushered in by the
Magnesian Limestone—all below that being almost entirely wanting.
But in Edenside we have strata extending downward many hundred
feet below that horizon, and we are thus enabled to trace back
the sequence of events to an earlier stage than is possible in other
parts of England. There is therefore no need to dwell upon the
importance of giving the closest possible attention to everything
connected with the history of the rock at present under notice.
I will now proceed to discuss some of the evidence ; taking first
the evidence afforded by the physical relations of the Penrith
Sandstone to the rocks whereon it lies.

It has often been asserted that the Penrith Sandstone lies in an

35

old valley,—that is to say, in a long trough extending between the
Cross Fell Escarpment, or Black Fell Side, as old people call it,
and the Lake District, which the same people call by the name of
the West Fells. According to this view, the area at present occu-
pied by the Red Rocks nearly or quite coincides with the original
area of deposition. I believe that this view will not bear a close
examination. If we take a series of measurements downward from
the first persistent stratum in the Red Rocks to the local base,
from one end of the area covered by the Penrith Sandstone to the
other, we get, as it were, a series of soundings, which enable us to
reconstruct exactly the form of the old surface along that line.
From the north-western end of the Penrith Sandstone area in
Galloway, to its south-eastern termination near Stainmore, is between
fifty and sixty miles. Now, the greatest thickness of strata accumu-
lated below the first uniform bed along that line,—in other words,
the lowest depression below the general level of the surface along
that line—nowhere much exceeds a thousand feet. This gives us
a rise of about one in four hundred between the lowest point we
know anything about, and the highest-known portion of the old
surface,—a gradient so low, that it is practically inappreciable.
This, of course, is along the line of the supposed old valley.
Transverse to this direction, z.e. across this supposititious valley,
it is important to bear in mind that there is very little but negative
evidence to go upon. Outliers of Penrith Sandstone on the Lake
District side of its principal area are almost entirely unknown; so
that between the valley of the Petteril and the Lake District,
except about Highet Castle and Raughton Head, there is hardly
any information attainable bearing upon the form, and the extent,
of the surface that was once covered by the Penrith Sandstone.
Along the edge of the Cross Fell Escarpment we sometimes get
the Penrith Sandstone turned up on edge against the Pennine
Faults, so that we thus have an opportunity of examining a bed of
rock that is usually at a depth of many hundred feet from the
surface thereabouts. It is important to observe, that in no instance
of this kind does the rock present any appearance of being nearer
to a shore line there than it is elsewhere ; nor does it in any other

36

respect differ in the slightest degree from the type we observe here
at Nunnery Walks. We should expect to find traces of shore
deposits if the line of the present fells had coincided with the old
shore ; but even where we generally do get beds of coarse material
in the Penrith Sandstone, as we do elsewhere, near the base, the
sections along the Escarpment show, if anything, material even
finer than usual. Then again, there is evidence of the clearest
kind to prove that a very consderable upheaval of that upland
tract has taken place long after the New Red was accumulated,
and in this case there seems no reason why there should have been
any bank there at all until long subsequent to the formation of the
Red Rocks, when a repetition of the rupturing of the strata over the
lines of weakness formed by the Pennine Faults dislocated these
strata, and brought them into vertical contact with other strata of
quite a different nature. I cannot now enter into detail, which I
must reserve for a future occasion; but I can assure you that I
consider there is good evidence for believing that what is now the
plane of the fell tops along the Escarpment was once part of the
nearly-level surface that the Penrith Sandstone was deposited upon.
In other words, I consider that the Penrith Sandstone once covered
great part of what is now the extensive upland tract intervening
between the undulating lowlands of Edenside and the outcrop of
the Magnesian Limestone in the North Eastern parts of England.
What was originally a level surface, has been dislocated by the
great faults, so that one part of it has been thrown up relatively to
the other, four or five thousand feet, and that then the wasting
influence of denudation has removed all the Red Rocks and again
exposed the Carboniferous Rocks to the day, just as has happened
elsewhere in Edenside. I must ask you to dismiss from your
minds the very existence of the hills and valleys before us, and to
imagine in their place a great plain extending hence far away in
the direction of the North Sea. The hills now occurring in that
direction were not hills until long after the period we are now
considering, and the valleys date back, comparatively speaking,
but from yesterday.

In the neighbourhood of Appleby there is some kind of evidence

that there was a gradual rise of about eight hundred feet in an
easterly direction ; but the paucity or the entire absence of any
fragments of Precarboniferous origin amongst the coarse detrital
rocks in the area referred to, would seem to lend no support to
the view that the core of those older rocks was then exposed at
the surface in that part of the district. Those rocks were exposed
on the north side of the Solway, and also in West Cumberland
and North Lancashire at this period; but I don’t think the Car-
boniferous rocks had been entirely removed here.

There is another reason for believing that the Lake mountains
do not represent a great fossil island re-exposed by denudation.
In no case that has come under my notice does the dip, or present
inclination, of the New Red fall short of the amount of inclination
of the surface that rises from beneath it in the direction of the
Lake District. The angle of the dip denotes the degree of tilting
the rocks have undergone since they were laid down. Depress
the inclined surface that rises from beneath the New Red sufficiently
to level the newer rock, and you would lower the highest mountains
of the Lake District far below the sea level. In other words, to
tilt the New Red to the angle it now lies at, the whole of the
central core of Precarboniferous rocks had to be lifted up four or
five thousand feet after the New Red was formed. That is to say,

the upheaval that caused the tilting is of later date than the New
Red, and the Penrith Sandstone is older than any mountain or
valley we can point to from here.

Some people try to make out that a chain of hills corresponding
to our Pennine Chain existed long before our Penrith Sandstone
period, and they point, in confirmation of this view, to the great
difference in character between the New Red on the one side of
England and that on the other. Now this difference is not nearly
as great as has been made out. It seems not to be generally
known that we have the Magnesian Limestone here also, and that
this Magnesian Limestone is thickening in the direction of
Durham at such a rate in Edenside itself, that, if it were prolonged
a few miles further in that direction would cause it to rival in
thickness any Magnesian Limestone occurring in Durham. And

38

people do not seem to be aware that the very top beds of our
Penrith Sandstone also occur in Durham below the Magnesian
Limestone, just as they occur here. What we really get is a great
wedge of Magnesian Limestone with its thin edge pointing towards
the west coast of England, which wedge has been afterwards broken
through the middle, partly over the line of the Great Faults, by the
subsequent upheaval of the Pennine Chain.

I have entered into some detail upon these controverted points,
because they have an important bearing upon the past history of
Edenside, and because they are specially important in relation to
the history I am attempting to elucidate.

So far, then, I think we may venture to form some kind of idea
as to what the old surface was like. Most, if not all, the present
surface features then had no existence. Hills and valleys there
may have been—indeed must have been—but at the period we are
now considering we have no indubitable evidence of their existence
where our chief mountain masses now are.

We have next to inquire what rivers existed hereabouts at this
period. Here, again, I am compelled to dissent from the com-
monly-received opinions. It seems to be generally assumed that,
if we find any one of these newer deposits occupying the bottom
of what is now a valley, that the rock is there because it was
originally deposited in an old valley, which is being re-exposed by
the gradual removal of the old deposit. There must, of course,
be a great many instances of rock deposited along long lines of
depression, which may often represent old river-valleys ; but in the
majority of the cases that have come under my notice the facts
would be correctly expressed by saying that it is the valley that
lies in the Red Rocks, and not that it is the Red Rocks that lie in the
valley. The valley is there now because there is a soft upper group
of rocks bent into a downfold along with a lower group of rocks of
a more durable character. All the rocks, upper soft, and lower
hard alike, have been bent into a series of folds, which have after-
wards been planed off to a nearly uniform surface. Along the
parts where the softer rock has been folded in, the surface wastes
somewhat faster than it does elsewhere, and, as a consequence,

39

tends to form lower ground along that line than along the part
where the rocks do not weather so fast. One consequence of this
is, that any river that happens to be passing that way is guided
more and more into the line of this fold, simply because the surface
is lower there, and water always tends towards the lowest level.
Now, it nearly always happens that a greater thickness of the newer
rock is left along the middle than along the sides; as a conse-
quence, it takes longer to clear it out from the bottom of the valley
than it does from its sides, which are completely bared of all traces
of the newer rock when a considerable thickness may yet occupy
the bottom of the valley. So it comes about that we find the last
traces of these deposits now occupying the bottoms of the valleys,
and that people are led to believe that these traces are there now
because the valley is older than the rock it contains. Wedoseem
to get some kind of evidence of two or three streams coming into
the line of the Eden Valley from the direction of the Lake District ;
but in no case do we seem to have any trace of a line of depression
in the old surface where these streams came in, and I think it
quite likely that the lines of rock fragments that form the sole
evidence for the existence of these supposed rivers may have been
brought into their present position in quite a different way.

If we do not know of the existence of any mountains, and cannot
feel sure about the existence of any rivers here, at the period we
are considering, we may at least feel tolerably certain about the
existence of one feature here which, in a somewhat different form,
is one of the prominent characteristics of this district at the present
day. We may, I think, agree with Professor Ramsay in regarding
the tract around us as the site of part of an old lake.

You have probably remarked, if you have compared these rocks

around us with them that form, for instance, the line of hills

extending along the north side of Cumberland, through Westmor-

land, into Yorkshire, or with them that constitute the mountains

of the Lake District, that whereas they are characterised by no tint
in particular, but range through all shades of brown, grey, blue,
and black, these rocks around us are characterised throughout by
a tolerably uniform tint of red. It varies a little in its shades, but

40

the prevailing hue is nearly always red of some kind or other. We
have several such groups of red strata in the geological series—the
Old Red Sandstone, or a part of it, at all events, is a good example.
All these red rocks have certain peculiarities in common. ‘They
contain hardly any fossils, and the few they do contain are of
peculiar types. The rocks are red, not because they are made up
of grains that are red throughout, but because each separate com-
ponent grain is coated over with a film of peroxide of iron. Then,
again, they are all more or less associated with certain chemical
deposits either imperfectly-developed or wanting altogether in the
rocks that are not-red. Lastly, the fossils that occur in the not-red
strata, interstratified with the red deposits, are of a character quite
unlike that of the fossils we get from beds that all agree in regarding
as of marine origin.

Many years ago Mr. Godwin Austin suggested that these red
strata may owe their exceptional character to their having been
accumulated in great inland lakes like the Caspian, the Dead Sea,
the Salt Lake, and others. Leaving the peculiar character of the
fossils out of sight, we do not know of any marine deposits in
process of formation at the present day wherein the component
grains are being coated with a film of peroxide of iron. On the
other hand, we do know of many lakes wherein a considerable
deposit of ferruginous matter, in one form or another, accumulates
in the course of even a year. In some of the Swedish lakes, for
instance, this annual accumulation takes place in quantities sufficient
to make it worth while to dredge the bottom of the lake period-
ically, merely for the sake of the iron ore. The iron is probably
brought into the lake in the form of the soluble carbonate of iron,
which is altered into the peroxide after deposition. Or it may arise
through organic agencies. At any rate, it is known to be in process
of deposition in inland lakes ; while it is not known to be forming
beneath the waters of the sea,

But if we experience a difficulty in accounting for the deposition
of iron ore under ordinary marine conditions, the difficulty is greater
when we have to account for the deposits of gypsum. Under no
conditions we yet have any knowledge of could deposits of gypsum

4]

take place in the open sea. In this case, again, a knowledge of
what takes places in inland lakes enables us to gain some insight
into the origin of these deposits also. When rain falls we all know
that some part of it flows over the surface to the nearest stream,
and thence away out to sea; another part of it is evaporated ; and
the remainder sinks into the rocks, and soaks downward, until it is
stopped by an impervious or waterproof bed, which keeps the water
at that level until it finds its way out at the surface in the form of
a spring. In passing through the rocks the carbonic acid in the
rain-water enables it to dissolve various small quantities of the
mineral matter it is passing through, and to hold these in solution,
The Eden before us is at this moment carrying out to sea consider-
able quantities of such mineral matter, which it has collected from
the rocks in the upper part of its course. It is this mineral.
matter that makes. the water what we call “hard.” When the
water of the spring finds its way through the rivers out to sea, this
mineral matter is lost sight of, at any rate fora time. But where
the water is discharged into a lake with no outflow, all the drainage
of the hydrographical basin around has to be got rid of by evapor-
ation. When impure water is evaporated the water only is carried
off, leaving the mineral matter behind. The consequence is that
the constant evaporation of the spring-water carried into these
inland lakes leaves year by year a gradually-increasing percentage
of mineral matter behind. After a time the percentage of salts
rises above the point of saturation—the water of the lake can hold
no more in solution—and then the various salts begin to be
precipitated in a solid form. The nature of these salts varies
according to the composition of the rocks traversed by the feeders
of the lake. In one instance it is carbonate of lime, in another
sulphate of lime, in a third carbonate of magnesia, in a fourth
carbonate of iron, that forms the principal mineral held in solution.
But even where several different salts are being brought down
concurrently, they are not all deposited at the same place, or at
the same time, because the point of saturation varies for each
mineral, and the deposition of one salt out of a complex solution

49

may commence long before that of the other salts brought down in
solution at the same time.

In the Penrith Sandstone we seem to have had large quantities
of carbonate of iron and carbonate of magnesia deposited first. If
there were any other minerals they have gone and left no traces
behind. By the time the top beds of the Penrith Sandstone were
being spread out, a little Common Salt had begun to be thrown
down; but just at this period there seems to have been a temporary
change of physical conditions, for we get a change of sediment
and rocks of another kind. After this temporary change we had
carbonate of iron as before, this time accompanied by sulphate of
lime and occasionally by a little more Common Salt. Then when
we get to the higher strata whose remains are yet left around
Carlisle, we get more abundant traces of salt, with sulphate of lime
and carbonate of iron as before, until in the end the land sank
down and admitted the sea. With the changed conditions came
in sediment that formed rocks of a character quite different from
them we are more immediately concerned with.

I have intentionally been a little discursive here, because I
_ wanted to point out that all our Red Rocks have certain features
in common, and that these features do not agree with the character-
istic features of deposits of marine origin, while they do agree
almost exactly with the features of deposits that have accumulated
in great inland lakes. We owe this generalisation to Professor
Ramsay, who has devoted much time and thought to the working
out of problems of this nature. Besides the evidence afforded by
the nature of the chemical deposits associated with the Red Rocks,
we get other evidence that is perhaps equally conclusive. Professor
Harkness, who did so much to work out the true relations of our
Red Rocks, has found casts, in sand and in mud, of the peculiar
hopper-shaped crystals of bay salt, in several places in Edenside.
These crystals take too long to form to have been developed on a
foreshore in the interval between the ebb of one tide and the flow
of the next; or even in the longer interval between spring and
neap tides, so that their marine origin under ordinary conditions

is nearly out of the question. Then, we get sun-cracks—the
desiccation fissures produced by the partial drying of the surface
of sand flats while the water was low in the old lakes. Besides
this we get gas-bubbles here and there in some of the top beds of
the Penrith Sandstone—just such bubbles as are formed in the
mud of shallow ponds by the evolution of marsh gas. Lastly, the
Penrith Sandstone has yielded many impressions of the feet of the
strange animals that wandered over the half-consolidated silt of the
old sand flats. These footprints are especially interesting, because
they afford us the sole traces of groups of animals long since
extinct—animals whose very forms are quite unknown to us, and
whose nature can be inferred only from the resemblance between
their footprints and those of their—perhaps totally different—
representatives of the present day.

There is yet another point connected with the Physical Geo-
graphy of this region that I cannot pass over without a brief notice.
When we trace the Penrith Sandstone across the north-western parts
of Dumfries, in the direction of Ayrshire, we find—so Professor
Geikie tells us—that bands of volcanic matter, marking the occur-
rence of intermittent showers of volcanic ashes, begin to be inter-
stratified along with Penrith Sandstone of the ordinary character,
and when we get fairly into Ayrshire, these beds of volcanic tuff
and breccia are further accompanied by beds of rock representing
old sheets of lava. We know from this, that a volcano, probably a
_ group of volcanoes, was in full action in those old times at a point
almost visible from Nunnery Walks. On the Continent volcanic
action seems to have been equally rife at the same period.

When it is considered that the Penrith Sandstone is almost the
sole representative in the British Isles of the rocks missing between
the Carboniferous Series and the Magnesian Limestone, the im-
portance of a careful study of all that is likely to throw any light
upon the history of these parts in those remote times, will be evident
to most of us. I shall therefore now proceed to lay before you
what evidence we have been able to collect regarding the climate
of that period. In ordinary questions of this kind the geologist at
- once betakes himself to the study of the various organisms en-

44

tombed in the rock, and endeavours to arrive at some general
conclusions regarding the condition of things in the past, by a
comparison of these remains with others of animals now existing,
and of whose life history we have the means of learning something
definite. In the present case this kind of evidence fails us entirely,
and we are compelled to fall back upon the evidence afforded by
the physical character of the rock for the elucidation of this point.
Fortunately the Penrith Sandstone presents many features that are
full of significance to the geologist, and we may, I think, venture
to base our reasoning upon these almost as safely as upon any
evidence derived from a study of the fossils, although it may be
necessary to follow up this evidence in a round-about kind of way.
I have pointed out that the rock we are now on is the result of
successive accumulations of sand in the bed of an old lake. The
deposition of such a mass of sediment (which, in the Eden Valley
alone, is probably not far short of fifty cubic miles even in the
present fragmentary remnant of the rock,) implies that an equal
quantity of material has been slowly reduced to a transportable
form from a pre-existing mass of rock somewhere else, and after-
wards transferred to this its present resting place. It is important
to discover where that mass of rock lay. The Penrith Sandstone
hereabouts largely consists of grains of quartz, mingled with a
smaller quantity of bits of kaolinized felspar. Mica, the mineral
that usually accompanies these two in almost every sedimentary
rock where they are present, is absent almost entirely in this rock.
Now there is this peculiarity about much of the quartz, as Pro-
fessor Harkness was the first to point out, that whereas in ordinary
sandstones it usually occurs in the form of little rounded grains
without any general uniformity of outline, in the Penrith Sandstone
it occurs in the form of double six-faced pyramids, occasionally
slightly worn, it is true, but still recognisable by the thousand. It
is these that impart the rough grain and the sparkling aspect to so
much of the stone used for building about Penrith. Similar —
double pyramids occur commonly enough in many rocks of
plutonic origin, and crystals of the same form may be developed
in a rock in other ways. But some of these doubly-terminated

See SC

45

pyramids of quartz are water-worn, and therefore must have existed
as crystals before they came into their present positions. There
is this peculiarity about quartz, that whereas other minerals of a
definite crystalline form may be fractured, or even pounded into
fine dust, and yet every separate fragment will bear some definite
relation to the crystalline form of the original, quartz, in whatever
crystalline form it may be found, can never be fractured, even
with most skilful manipulation, into any form at all approaching
that of the original. We may infer from this, either that these
crystals represent the waste of a rock that largely consisted of

crystalline quartz of this form ; or else that, if the view is correct

that the crystalline form is due to the deposition of silica in a
crystalline form around a pre-existing nucleus formed by a grain of
sand, that part, at least, of this deposition of silica took place
before the rock-material settled into its present resting-place. Even
then we have to account for the silica. Is it possible that both
the silica, and part of the iron too, may have been derived from
Diatoms? Their siliceous cases may easily have been dissolved
by the alkaline water, carried down into the lake in solution, and
subsequently precipitated as one of the results of the complex
chemical reactions there taking place. If this were the case, it
would help to explain much connected with the Penrith Sandstone
that is otherwise obscure.

We have next to inquire in what direction this sand has travelled.
Everyone must have remarked the curious and somewhat puzzling
appearance generally presented by what looks like the stratification
of the Penrith Sandstone. Certain layers are clearly seen to be
inclined at a considerable angle in one direction or another, and
then just above or below these comes another set lying with
an angle altogether different. It is quite common for these upper

layers to rest directly upon the ends of the lower, just as if the

upper layer were unconformable to the beds beneath. Hardly any
of these, in this particular case, represent the true stratification,
but are what is called false-bedding planes, which are produced by
the action of strong currents of water rolling the sand forward at
the bottom of the lake, now in one direction and then in another

46

as the current varies. There is one invariable rule about these
false-bedding planes, and that is that they always slope in the
direction the material has travelled. If the sand came from the
east towards the west, then the inclined layers face towards the
west more or less. This can be better understood by imagining a
quantity of sand and gravel to be brought out of a railway cutting
and thrown down endlong in successive layers as it is when it is
employed to form an embankment. ‘The slope of the successive
layers of material so thrown down invariably faces in the same
direction as the material has been transported. Looking up the
slope at the end of the embankment, we should be looking in the
direction of the cutting the sand and gravel had been got from.
In like manner, if we obtain a series of observations upon the
prevailing directions of the talse-bedding planes in a rock, we
know for certain in what direction the parent source of that rock
lay. Observations have proved that, with tew exceptions, the
false-bedding planes in the Penrith Sandstone slope away from the
east, and therefore we know that the source of the material must
be looked for in that direction. Now when we trace the Penrith
Sandstone away from this point where we now are, in the direction
of Dumfries on the one hand, and of Kirkby Stephen on the other, we
find certain parts of the rock becoming more and more charged with
fragments of other rocks. These fragments, as a rule, we can easily
trace to their parent sources, which, in the case of the Westmorland
deposits, usually lie to the south or to the south-east of their present
positions. The history of the climate of the period is, many
geologists think, plainly written upon these deposits, and may be
easily deciphered by any one who will set about it in the right
way. Ina deposit accumulated in the ordinary way, under water,
the materials are commonly more or less sorted out according to
their respective sizes. Unless the currents happen to be subject
to considerable variations in force, they leave little with little and
big with big. A current strong enough to roll a big stone along
the bed of the stream carries a smaller one much farther, and
leaves the still bigger stones unmoved. More than that, one
result of the frequent knocking of such stones against each other

47

is to break off and wear down all the prominent angles, so that the
stones gradually assume more and more of a rounded form, just as
we see them in the bed of the Eden below us. Beds of stones
rounded in that way form what we call gravel when the stones lie
uncompacted, and conglomerate when they are all bound together
into a compact mass. If the fragments are not rounded, then the
compacted rock formed of such material is distinguished as a
breccia. The coarse beds occurring in the Penrith Sandstone are
largely—often exclusively—made up of such angular fragments,
which form the rock locally denominated Brockram. The stones
in these breccias are mixed together without any regard to either
their shape or their size. In a bed consisting of fragments having
a general size of, say, a walnut, stones as big as one’s head or
bigger are not at all uncommon ; and these stones are all frequently
quite angular. Now these beds of Brockram are well stratified
and are interbedded with sheets of fine-grained sandstone; so when
we find stones of all sizes up to two feet in diameter scattered
indiscriminately throughout both the breccias and the fine sand-
stone, we may venture to feel tolerably certain that they have not
got into their present position in the ordinary way. Floating trees
often transport big stones many miles entangled in their roots, but
there seems to have been no floating trees at that time, in this part
at least ; and besides, these stones are far too numerous to be
accounted for in so exceptional a way. ‘There is a considerable
resemblance between these beds of breccia and many parts of our
well-known glacial drift, and if it had not been that the stones in
the breccias are all arranged with their longer axes parallel to the

_ bedding planes—if they did not all lie on their flat sides—and if

the rock as a whole had not been most clearly stratified throughout,
they would have been at once set down as old glacial deposits.
Indeed, they have been more than once referred to a glacial origin
by those who have not been fully aware of the facts I have
mentioned. That ice /as had to do with their anomalous character
I have no doubt, but this ice must have been in the form of coast
ice, like the Ice-foot of the Arcticregions. As the land sank down
and various portions of the sloping shores were successively brought

48

to the level of the old lake, shore-ice seems to have laid hold of
such angular fragments of rock as were already loosened by long-
continued exposure to the action of the weather, and then, as the
frost gave way a little, the icy fringe became detached from the
shore and floated away into deeper water, dropping its burden of
stones here and there over the bottom of the old lake amidst the
finer material accumulated in the ordinary way. Stones dropping
through water in this way arrange themselves in layers, and fall
more or less on their sides, or, to speak more precisely, with their
larger axes parallel to the planes of deposition. Even in our own
comparatively-mild winters the ice that forms near the margin of
our lakes occasionally freezes into the shingle, and then, when the
frost breaks up, drifts away with its tiny load to drop it elsewhere,
as the ice melts. Under more severe climatal conditions this
action of floating ice becomes an important factor in the formation
of the rocks of the present day. In the large lakes of North
America, for instance, the break-up of the winter ice must bring
about a mingling of no inconsiderable quantity of .coarse shore-
material along with the finer sedimentary matter drifted in by the
ordinary currents flowing into the lake. Breccias similar to this
Brockram occur elsewhere in the Lower New Red, and some of
these contain stones that are grooved and striated like what we get
from deposits of undoubted glacial origin. So I think we need
have no hesitation in accepting the view put forward by Professor
Ramsay, that these Lower New Red breccias betoken climatal
conditions far more severe than any that we are accustomed to in
these parts at the present day. Of course, if it can be shown that
beds in the Penrith Sandstone have been formed in a more
rigorous climate than that we now experience here, the Penrith
Sandstone, which was formed at the same time, must also represent
a period, or a succession of periods, of severe cold.

So far, then, I have endeavoured to show that the rock around
us contains within itself a record of much of its past history. The
various pieces of evidence that the conclusions are based upon are
not always of equal value, but they that will take the trouble to
inquire fully into the matter will, 1 think, in the end arrive at

a

49

conclusions not essentially different trom what I have endeavoured
to set forth now.

There yet remains the question as to what the life of the period
was like, and a very important question it is too. In these days,
when the mind of every thoughtful person is more or less stirred
by questions concerning the relations of life of the Present to that
of the Past, we peer with intense interest into the past life history
of every formation in the least degree likely to furnish material for
the more complete knowledge of the past succession of life. The
life of the older Carboniferous Period is represented by a consider-
able variety of forms of both animal and vegetable life, which may
be met with in abundance within a radius of even a few miles from
our present position. But in the long lapse of time that intervened
between the close of this older formation and the commencement
of the great series of marine deposits, represented by the Lias, the
whole of the varied and abundant marine fauna of the Carboniferous
epoch seems to have been almost entirely replaced by another and
totally different set of forms. No one now-a-days believes that
this great revolution took place all at once. Somewhere or other, not
far off, were the modified descendants of the older forms. Whence
came the forms that took their places? Did the Carboniferous
animals migrate farther and farther away as changed physical
conditions rendered their existence impossible? Or did their
descendants recede only to such a distance as suited their modes
of life, to return again and again, in a more and more modified
form each time the old Physical Geography was adapted to their
existence? So far as the Penrith Sandstone itself is concerned we
are unable to answer these queries. To make any comparison at
all we must be sure that the animals whose forms we are comparing
lived under the same conditions. It would not do, for instance,
to expect to find much resemblance between the animals whose
remains may happen to be dredged up from the bottom of Ullswater
and those that we may obtain from the sea bottom off Whitehaven.
We must compare marine life with marine. Close above the
Penrith Sandstone, however, comes a deposit that looks as if it

had really been partly marine. What fossils we do get in it
5

50

represent in a general way the fossils we obtain from the Carbon-
iferous rocks ; but although there is a general resemblance, very
few of the fossils are actually identical in form. Most of them are
more or less dwarfed, and the few that look most like the remains
from the older formation have more or less of a changed aspect.
In this case we seem to have got some kind of evidence that the
life groups of the Carboniferous fauna survived at no great distance
from their old ground, and that when marine conditions temporarily
set in again, a few of their descendants, more or less changed in
form, returned for a time, until a relapse of uncongenial environ-
ments again caused their banishment. Whether such of their
relations as did not return betook themselves elsewhere, and lived
on till later times we have no means of knowing. But we do
know that at no great distance off, at this same time, a great colony
of other animals had been gradually encroaching upon the ground
occupied by the older forms of life, and that when marine con-
ditions again set in over this area, the advancing colony obtained
possession of the ground, and the representatives of the older
phases of life appear here no more. The few traces of life that
have hitherto been detected in the Penrith Sandstone are almost
exclusively those of terrestrial animals, and these traces, as I have
before mentioned, are almost exclusively mere footprints of the
animals that wandered over the half-consolidated silt on the shores
of the old lake. Such vestiges as these do not afford any very.
satisfactory data for the reconstruction of the forms of animals
otherwise quite unknown to us; but they that have given much
attention to the subject—Professor Owen amongst others—tell
us that these footprints were probably those of gigantic frog-like,
tortoise-like, lizard-like, and it may even be also of bird-like
vertebrates.
In regard to the general nature of the life of the period, not
only had man not yet appeared upon the earth, but so far as we
know, no representatives of the class that man belongs to had yet
appeared, or perhaps I ought rather to say, have yet been found.
The oldest known mammal was obtained from beds of the same
age as the Stanwix Marls. We have likewise no certain evidence

CO — — —— =< = rl te OO

51

that any true birds had as yet appeared. Even fish, in the forms
most familiar us, had yet to appear ; and the same may be said of
several other groups of animals that are better known to the
palzontologist than to the general observer. ‘The traces of plants
we meet with, bear, like the animal remains, some kind of relation-
ship to them that lived in the Carboniferous period ; yet in hardly
any case does the resemblance amount to absolute identity. What
difference there is seems to suggest that the descendants of the
Carboniferous Flora had lived on at no great distance, gradually
changing in form as time went on, and now and then extending
their area in this direction until changed physical conditions ushered
in the newer flora that had long been gradually encroaching upon
the ground of the old. Unfortunately, the Penrith Sandstone is
singularly destitute of organic remains—Red Rocks nearly always
are. It is conceivable that no life could well thrive in water that
may be compared to that of a chalybeate spring ; but this hardly
accounts for the very remarkable absence of any trace of drifted
vegetation.* Can it be that the shore line of the old lake and of its
tributaries as well were utterly destitute of vegetable growth? Did
the old lake form a sort of Dead Sea? It looks verymuch like it.
We know that life was ready to occupy the ground, because as
soon as a slight change of physical conditions brought in the rocks
that lie on the top of the Penrith Sandstone, that is to say, the
Helton Plant Beds, vegetable life seems to have existed in sufficient
abundance to form thin seams of lignite and of coal.

* The deposit of Lignite near the Giant’s Caves on the Eamont is a remark
able exception.

53

THIRLMERE AND ITS ASSOCIATIONS.
By W. WILSON.
(Read before the Keswick Society. )

THE immediate neighbourhood of Thirlmere is not very rich in
tradition ; yet there are a few places around it which possess some
degree of interest. In addition to this, the scheme of making an
embankment across the foot of the lake, and impounding its waters
to form a huge reservoir for the purpose of supplying the popuious
city of Manchester with good water, has of late years attracted
considerable attention. I shall venture to put before you a descrip-
tion of the lake as we have seen it to-day, also a few particulars I
have noted in regard to the water scheme. I shall also relate
some of the traditions and legends of the neighbourhood as I have
heard them from the dalesfolk on various occasions, and during a
time when I was one amongst the rest of them.

The lake, though best known as Thirlmere, is also called Leathes
Water and sometimes Wythburn Water. Its ancient name was
Brackmere or Bracken Water. The length of the lake is three
miles, and its greatest breadth a little over a quarter of a mile. It
is five hundred and thirty-three feet above the level of the sea ; its
greatest depth is eighteen fathoms, or one hundred and eight feet.
The lake in shape resembles a sand-glass, being very narrow near
the middle, and is there crossed by a bridge. Alongside the
bridge is a ford by which conveyances of all kinds have to pass on
their way to and from Armboth. The bridge, which is used by
foot passengers only, is curiously constructed. In place of arches,

54

there are three passages for the flow of the water between the upper
and lower portions of the lake, and these passages are crossed by
wooden bridges with their extremities resting on stone abutments.
The three divisions are connected by a wall of rubble masonry,
covered on the top by flat stones. This wall being raised to an
elevation above the lower water line, enables foot passengers to
cross the lake when it contains a considerable depth of water. The
length of the wall from end to end is nearly one hundred and
twenty yards. On occasions when high floods are prevalent, the
lake is frequently impassable for hours together, even for foot
passengers. There are but few bridges remaining built on the
same principle. Mr. Smiles, in his ‘Lives of Engineers,” mentions
one of somewhat similar construction in Wales. This style of
bridge building is said to belong to the Celts, and, if that be so, it
goes far to prove that the structure is of considerable antiquity.

Dale Head, which is nearly opposite to Armboth House, on the
other side of the lake, belonged to the Leathes family from the
nineteenth year of Queen Elizabeth’s reign till a few years ago,
when it was purchased, along with several other estates round Thirl-
mere, by the Corporation of Manchester, who found it necessary to
secure the land adjoining the lake before commencing their gigantic
water scheme of taking the water of Thirlmere Lake to supply the
wants of the inhabitants of Cottonopolis. This project, if carried
out as proposed—that is by making a tunnel underneath the Raise,
thence forward by an aqueduct or other means to the great city of
manufactures—will be one of the greatest engineering enterprises
of the day, and will for one thing have the curious effect of causing
the waters of Thirlmere to run out in the opposite way: instead of
taking the direction of almost due north, the outflow will then be
to the south.

A few particulars in regard to the Thirlmere scheme may not be
uninteresting now that we have just viewed the situation, and these
I shall give on the authority of the Manchester papers. The
Guardian says:—“ The cost of carrying ‘out the scheme, land
included and all rights satisfied, is estimated at £1,700,000, that
is for the first instalment of 10,000,000 gallons per day. Each

ene rem

Ot
or

10,000,000 in addition would cost about £400,000. The building
of the embankment is not regarded by engineers as being a work
of much difficulty, owing to the character of the surroundings,
which afford every possible facility for the impounding of water.
It will be two hundred and thirty-six yards long, sixty feet above
the present water level, and the lake will be within ten feet of its
summit. It is intended that compensation water shall be dis-
charged into St. John’s Beck by means of a tunnel driven through
the solid rock ; theré will be no pipe through the embankment ;
thus what in many cases is a source of danger will be avoided.
The present superficial area of Thirlmere is three hundred and
fifteen acres. When the lake is raised fifty feet, as proposed, this
will be increased to nearly eight hundred acres, and the level above
the sea will then be five hundred and eighty-four feet.”

The Manchester Courier says:—‘‘The embankment will be
constructed so as to be in character with the scenery around.
There will be no engineering structures upon it or around it to
mar the beauty of the scene, and the public will gain the advantage
of ready access to the western side of the lake by the new road
intended to be formed. The embankment need not be a straight
stiff line, as such works generally are; but the contour may be as
irregular as the lovers of the picturesque may desire. In a few
years, when covered with trees and vegetation, as it will be—the
same as Great Howe and the hills around—its artificial character
would make it none the less a charming feature in the landscape ;
while the capacity of the lake will be more than doubled, thereby
adding vastly by its increased extent to the beauty and grandeur
of the scenery, while it is, at the same time, providing hundreds of
thousands of people with one of the necessaries of life.”

There is great difference of opinion in regard to what will be the
effect produced by the proposed scheme, and the promoters met
with determined opposition from numbers of influential gentlemen
belonging to ali parts of the kingdom, who formed what was called
the Thirlmere Defence Association. Before the Select Committee
of the House of Commons they opposed the Bill in 1878. This
had the effect of several modifications being introduced in regard

56

to the promoters supplying water to towns along the route of the
water course, and other matters. The Bill, as we all know, was
eventually carried, and although, so far, little or nothing has been
done by way of commencement, the Corporation of Manchester
have at any rate secured the position.

Above the bridge, and skirting the lake on the east side, is Dale
Head Park, and along the upper side of the park is the Ambleside
and Keswick turnpike road. The part of this road which leads
over the park is rather steep, and has for genérations had the repu-
tation of being haunted. Mr. Richardson, in his ‘‘Cummerlan’
Talk,” gives the story of a dalesman who alleged that he had on
different occasions seen the Dale Head Park Boggle. On one
occasion it was said to assume the very common-place form of a
lime and mound heap; but at another time it appeared in the form
of an immense fire, which extended higher than the plantation
above, and sparks fell in showers on all sides. Yet, strange to say,
this seems to have been a fire that burnt without consuming, for
according to the old man’s account, “Theer was nowder a black
pleace nur a bit o’ gurse swing’t, nur nea udder mark o’ t’ fire at
I cud see, for aw,” he goes on to say, “it wasn’t a quarter of an
hoor sen I saw t’ greit fire blazan away furiously.”

There is a tradition that a foul murder was once committed near
the place, and this circumstance probably gave rise to the boggle
stories. The story of the murder is as follows :—A labouring man
who lived at Dale Head had been working at a place near Wyth-
burn for a few days. One evening he left with the intention of
going home—a place he never reached alive—having at the time a
few weeks’ wages in his pocket. He was not missed until a few
days after this, when his dead body was found in the lake stark
naked, with a deep wound in his forehead ; and from these circum-
stances it was supposed that the man had been murdered for the
sake of hismoney. Various things afterwards transpired to fix the
guilt on a man who is described as “an ill hang-gallows of a
tailyer,” who at that time lived at Fornside; but no steps were
taken to bring him to justice, the neighbours contenting themselves
with giving him hints about the occurrence, which he did not like,

————————————-

‘=
57

whenever they met him at the public-house. At last he became
so frightened that he durst not sleep in his own house for fear of
being taken, but passed his nights out on the fell above, at place
which has been called Sim’s Cave, from the man’s christian name.
Finally the place became so hot for him that he left the neighbour-
hood, and was never heard of afterwards.

About a quarter of a mile from the head of Thirlmere is a large
rock, which stands out prominently on the margin of the lake,
which is known by the name of “Clark’s Lowp.” The water is
deepest between this point and the opposite side, and in stormy
weather the lake here looks very black and frowning. The tradition
in connection with this is, that a man named Clark had a wife
who was a virago, and who made him miserable in life; that he
ascended to the top of the rock, which slightly overhangs the lake,
jumped into the water below, and put an end to his sorrows by
drowning himself. His wife was not broken-hearted in conse-
quence, as the story goes that when she was told of the sad
occurrence, she coolly remarked that he had often threatened to
make away with himself, but she never thought the fool had the
courage to do such a thing.

A few hundred yards from Clark’s Lowp, to the right, may be
seen a dark coloured rock, known as Black Crag among the dales-
folk. On its smooth face, fronting to the road, are inscribed the
initials of a few names which stand illustrious in the ranks of
English literature. There is “W.W.,” for William Wordsworth ;
*“M.H.,” Mary Hutchinson; “‘D.W.,” Dora Wordsworth; ‘‘S.T.C.,”
Samuel Taylor Coleridge; “I.W.,” John Wordsworth; “S.H.,”
Sarah Hutchinson. The initials “I.W.,” above, have been under-
stood to stand for John Wilson, also known as Christopher North,
but there is evidence to prove they stand for John Wordsworth,
one of the Wordsworth family. These characters are said to have
been carved on the rock at a time when a pic-nic was held on the
banks of Lake Thirlmere,in which these great men and their
friends joined. They are still quite legible, and they serve to
commemorate an incident in the lives of some of our greatest
poets.

58

Immediately above the meeting place of the poets, the mighty
Helvellyn rears its huge form, towering to the sky, while directly
in front its foot is laved by the rippling wavelets of the lake. Its
aspect from this point is exceedingly rugged and broken, and it
appears to be almost entirely covered with rocks and screes. The
heavy downpours of rain, which are of frequent occurrence here,
have the effect of producing, during their continuance, numberless
streams of water, which form channels and ravines, by which the
breast of the mountain is at this part all seamed and scarred, and
records in the words of the poet—

‘* The history of forgotten storms
On the blank folds inscribed of drear Helvellyn.”

In “Camden’s Britannica,” published nearly three hundred
years ago, this mountain is named, not Helvellyn, but Lauvellin,
its neighbour, Catchedecam, is called by the author Castinand.
He makes use of the following, which was, even then, probably an
old rhyme—

Skiddaw, Lauvellin, and Castinand,
Are the highest hills in all England.

. Up to the time the height of the English mountains was taken
by Colonel Mudge, by means of a barometer, the above-mentioned
mountains were believed to be the highest in England. It was
then found that Scawfell Pike was higher than any of them. The
height of Helvellyn above the sea level is 3,118 feet, and it is
almost centrally placed among the mountains of the district, and,
to my mind, the best and most extensive views are obtained from
its summit. In the spring of 1805 a young gentleman lost his life,
probably by a fall from some of the ‘huge nameless rocks” which
abound there, when he was attempting to cross the mountain from
Patterdale to Wythburn. This incident, together with the account
of the remarkable fidelity of his dog, are circumstances too well
known to need repetition here. ‘They form the subject of very
beautiful poems by Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott, the pathos
of which tends to give a melancholy interest to the spot where the
accident occurred.

__—

59

Further on, at the top of a hill, on the right-hand side of the
road, is a tablet fixed in the wall, on which is inscribed an epitaph
toa horse. The animal thus commemorated was one of a pair of
carriage horses belonging to the late Mr. Ball, who at that time
lived at Rydal, and one day when that gentleman was out for a
drive, the horse dropped down dead from the side of his fellow,
and was afterwards buried in the adjoining wood. On the side of
the wall facing the road the owner subsequently erected the stone
to the memory of his favourite horse, and on it inscribed the
following lines :—

Fallen from his fellow’s side,
The steed beneath is lying ;
In harness here he died ;
His only fault was dying.

A few years ago some one wrote on the margin of the stone the
following lines :-—

If dying was hig only fault,
Twas his own fault he died.

About two miles from the head of Thirlmere lake may be seen

That pile of stones é
Heaped on brave King Dunmail’s bones.

Antiquaries are by no means agreed as to the origin of this cairn,
It is said to be a record that, A.D. 945, Edmund I., the Saxon
monarch, joined forces with Malcolm, king of Scotland, with a
view of subjugating Dunmail, “last king of rocky Cumberland.”
This step was thought necessary for the peace of the kingdom.
The last record which legend or tradition affords us of the Cumbrian
Britons is oftheir defeat between Keswick and Grasmere, in the
heart of their native mountains, which defeat was followed by their
final dispersion or emigration into Wales. Edmund slew his enemy
on the spot still commemorated by the rude pile of stones supposed
to be his cairn; and in conformity with the barbarous customs
of the age, put out the eyes of his two sons. His crown of gold is
popularly believed to have been sunk in Grisedale Tarn, which lies
in a depression in the mountain range above. It is said that after

60

the territories of Dunmail were laid waste, they were bestowed by
Edmund on his ally Malcolm.

The circular heap of stones which forms the pile called Dunmail
Raise, and gives its name to the mountain pass between the dales
of Grasmere and Wythburn, is seen adjoining the high road, and is
crossed by the wall which here marks the boundary between the
counties of Cumberland and Westmorland. The cairn measures
twenty-four yards in diameter, and it rises gradually to an elevation
of six feet. ‘It is flat on the top, and the centre is indicated by a .
well-defined space, of rather larger stones. Mr. Gilpin conjectures
it was probably intended to mark a division not between the two
counties of Cumberland and Westmorland, but rather between the
two kingdoms of England and Scotland in elder times, when the
Scottish border extended its present bounds. “The generally
received tradition is,” he adds, ‘that this cairn was raised to com-
memorate the defeat of Dunmail, the last king of Cumbria on the
occasion above related. But,” says Gilpin, “for whatever purpose
this rude pile was fabricated, it hath yet suffered little change in
its dimensions, and is one of those monuments of antiquity which
may be characterised by the Scriptural phrase of remaining to this
very day.” The assertions of modern philologists seem to be at
variance with history. They tell us that the meaning of the
syllables Dun-mail-raise is “heap, heap, heap,” in three different
languages or dialects ; that it is common for a modern affix to be
added to an ancient name bearing the same signification. It
appears from the above that the name or names by which the
cairn was originally known to a race of men who held the country
for a time, was retained by their successors whose language differed
from that of the former race. They in turn had their own word
for the heap, and added it to the name by which it had been
distinguished. In length of time we have Dunmail-raise, and in
our own day when the cairn is spoken of as Dun Mail Raise Heap
we make use of four words which have each the same meaning in
as many different languages. Judging from the foregoing reasons,
it seems doubtful whether the people of Cumberland ever had a
King Dunmail.

61

About a quarter of a mile from Dunmail Raise, travelling in the
direction of Thirlmere, is a narrow road, which branches off to the
right from the turnpike. This was the old pack-horse track leading
to the hamlet in Wythburn, called the City, and skirting the western
side of the lake to Armboth, thence past a farm called Smea-
thwaite, and by the upper part of Shoulthwaite Moss, where it
again joins the main road. The road in its present state is barely
passable for conveyances, but it is said to be the intention of the
Manchester Corporation to alter its primitive condition, and make
it a good carriage road. Very little of the lower part of Thirlmere
is seen from the turnpike road between Ambleside and Keswick ;
but the scenery here is grand, and will compare favourably with
that of any part of the district. Should the idea of making a good
road here be carried out, we shall then have one more beautiful
drive in the neighbourhood, which cannot fail to be appreciated
by all who possess a taste for lake- and mountain-scenery,

Armboth, which was formerly called Low Wythburn, in the
Manor of Wythburn, the lord of which was Sir Harry Vane, till it
was disposed of with all rights to the Corporation of Manchester.
One of estates in this Manor, anciently known as the Grange,
belonged to the Jackson family for centuries. Mr. Crosthwaite
Says the names of the Jacksons, of Armboth, appear in the Cros-
thwaite parish registry from time to time since its commencement
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The old farmhouse
now standing tenantless is the place where so many generations of
Jacksons lived and died. Armboth House, with other estates
belonging the same owner, who is of the Jackson family, have
within the last few months also become the property of “The
Corporation.” ‘Till quite recently it was the firm belief of many
that ‘the mansion was actually haunted; and wonderful are the
Stories to which the superstition of the dalesfolk has given rise.
Tales are told of Supernatural visitors, midnight illuminations, of a
nocturnal marriage, and a murdered bride ; occurrences which,
had they really happened, would have been truly startling. The
two skulls from Calgarth Hall, near Windermere, are said to attend
banquets at Armboth Hall, and to join in the midnight orgies. The

62

legend of the skulls is as follows :—These skulls formerly occupied
a niche in Calgarth Hall, from which all attempts to dispossess them
were found futile. They are said to have been buried, burned,
reduced to powder, dispersed by the wind, sunk in the well, and
thrown into the lake several times, all to no purpose. They
invariably appeared again in their favourite niche, till at last they
were walled up in it, and there they remain.

At various places on the range of Armboth Fell, and especially
on the top of Cockrigg Bank adjoining, are to be seen rude
structures, built of stone, in the form of a parallelogram. The
side walls are generally nine or ten yards in length, those across
the end three-and-a-half or four yards. There is an aperture in
the side wall of each which seems to have been the entrance. The
height of the walls varies from two or three feet, some of the
enclosed spaces having two or three divisions inside. They have
been visited by several people, some of whom have given the
opinion that they were simply places to store peat ; others suppose
that they were constructed for sheepfolds. Knowing all about
cutting and storing peat on the fell, I am certain, from the situ-
ations in which we find them, that they cannot have been of any
use to those who procured peats from the fell; and anyone who
has had experience among sheep, must know them to be utterly
useless as sheepfolds. It is an idea of those who have lately
visited these ancient remains, that they have probably at one time
been used as human habitations, and as far as I am able to
judge there has been, up to the present time, no argument brought
forward to disprove this view of the matter.

A rock, called Castle Crag, is situate near Shoulthwaite Gill,
and not far distant from Raven Crag. There is every reason to
believe that this situation has at one time been used as a fortress.
The front of the rock, which is almost perpendicular, is of con-
siderable height, and faces the valley below. Such is the formation
of the top of the rock and the ground adjoining that a considerable
space has at one time been enclosed by two earthworks, one some
distance in front of the other. This place is sufficiently large to
have held a considerable body of men, who at the time it was in

5 fel

63

use would be well protected from enemies on all sides. To what
period of history this ancient fort belongs, or to what race of men
it afforded protection, I leave for those to decide who are more
deeply versed than myself in antiquarian lore. But it does seem
to me that the existence of this fort strengthens the idea which
has been formed in reference to the remains to which I have just
previously referred. In those early days, when the laws concerning
property were summed up in that

Simple plan,
That they should take who have the power,
And they should keep who can,

every man would have to bear his part in the constant brunt of
battle. The arts of peace were not congenial studies for our early
predecessors, especially the Celts, who are stated to have been
feeble in disposition, warlike, vain, boastful, and clamorous. On
these grounds, then, it is possible the fort would be the rallying
place of the people of the dale when attacked in greater numbers
than themselves, and their hope of safety when retreating from a
hot pursuit, after some of their forays among the cattle and stores
of their more wealthy neighbours.

Deer Garth Gill is a mountain stream which forms the division
line between Wythburn and Armboth, which are both in the same
township. This stream, which flows out of Lanchy Tarn on the
fell above, in its passage down the hill side passes at different
places through deep gorges in the rocks, and at some points where
it flows sheer over a precipice it forms beautiful cascades. There
is a roughish footpath leading up to Armboth Fell, alongside the
gill, and the scenery immediately around is exceedingly wild and
picturesque. On a slight eminence, to the left of this path, near
Bull Crag, is a stone of large dimensions, which somewhat resem-
bles the Bowder Stone, in Borrowdale, and which stands on so
small a base that it seems almost possible to push it over. It is
known to the dalesfolk by the name of ‘Cop Stone,” and is
sometimes visited as a natural curiosity, but I have never heard of
any legend or tradition about it.

64

In the olden times spinning and weaving were some of the
principal occupations of the dalesfolk; and there is a tradition
that when the plague raged in the year 1665 and a few years
afterwards, as no market was held in towns for fear of infection,
the people of the dales carried their webs and yarn to a large
stone which is very conspicuous on one of the lower elevations of
Armboth Fell, and there periodically met and did business with
the traders. This stone, which still goes by the name of “Web
Stone,” is a little over a mile distant from the “Cop Stone” before
mentioned, and is perched on a hill just above Lanchy Tarn.

Close to the road between Wythburn and Armboth, and a few
hundred yards south of Deer Garth Gill, is a part of the fell called
Deer Garth Bottom, and here may be seen a large grey stone
having a sloping flat top. Around this stone, called the “Steading
Stone,” tradition says manorial courts were formerly held, and
other parish business transacted. Whether they were framed here
or elsewhere I have no means of ascertaining ; but there is still in
existence a copy of the bye-laws of that ancient parish parliament,
which is entitled the “Pains and Penalties of Wythburn.” This
gives a list of small penalties to be paid by anyone who turns out
more sheep on the fell than he is justly entitled to from the number
of stints he possesses on farms. ‘There are penalties for allowing
horses and cattle to stray on the road and for defiling the beck by
throwing dead carcases into it, etc. A copy of this document is
at present in the possession of Mr. Graves, ex-mayor of Man-
chester.

During the summer of 1877 the late Mr. Alfred Pettitt executed
six magnificent pictures of Thirlmere and its surroundings. One
of the pictures, taken when the artist has been seated under the
shadow of Raven Crag, embraces the whole length of the lake.
Another gives a view of the old Celtic bridge. ‘The other pictures
represent the lake from various aspects, and the artist was careful
to introduce in the foregrounds of his pictures objects which are
expected to be forever submerged when the lake is enlarged. If
these pictures are carefully preserved they will possess special
interest to future generations who may be connected with Thirlmere

65

after its boundaries are extended ; and a good idea of the scenery,
as we have viewed it to-day, may be gained by a careful study of
Mr. Pettitt’s excellent delineations.*

* A series of good photographs, taken with the special object of recording
the present aspect of Thirlmere and its surroundings, has already been secured,
for the same reason. (ED.)

6

rook

5 ta |

a oe

67

WHO WAS THE FOUNDER OF ROMAN MARYPORT?
By Jo Bb.” BAILEY.

(Read before the Maryport Society. )

I am sure no apology will be necessary in introducing the question,
““Who was the Founder of Roman Maryport?” That it has been
a notable place, no one can dare to doubt. The period during
which it existed, if it did not also flourish, makes it clear that it
had played a not unimportant part, at least in the history of Cum-
berland. Founded in all probability within forty years after the
invasion of Britain by Aulus Plautius, we can almost with certainty
say that it was in existence in A.D. 430, ze, when the Romans
finally left Britain. Nor are we necessarily to infer that the town
ceased to exist with their withdrawal. Still, there is matter enough
at hand in the history of its Roman occupation to afford, not only
a deeply interesting and instructive, but also a highly fascinating

study ; and naturally so, for a certain amount of pride always:

attaches to those places with which we are best acquainted. Nor
can the subject be exhausted in the brief space of an hour’s lecture.
To do justice to the subject would require at least four such
lectures, or, including the rise and progress of our modern Maryport,
of at least five, each lecture forming a distinct chapter in the history
of Maryport. Briefly these chapters are :—

Chapter 1. The Camp, its Situation and Connections; the

Town, its Explorations, Position, &c.; the ALTARs, and their :

a

Lessons.

for)
io 2)

Chapter 2 might well be devoted to a discussion as to the
FOUNDER OF THE CAMP.

Chapter 3 would be taken up with the Name of the station.

Chapter 4 might treat of MrpiEvAL Maryport, as represented
by a History of Netherhall.

Chapter 5 would comprise the RisE AND PROGRESS OF OUR
MopERN Maryport.

Chapter 1, I have already dealt with fully, whilst Chapters 4
and 5 have been touched on in a brief sort of way. With regard
to Chapter 3, a highly interesting, though, at the same time a most
intricate subject, requires treatment. Many of our leading anti-
quarians give the name as Axelodunum; but opinion upon the
subject is by no means unanimous.

- Chapter 2 forms the subject for to-night’s consideration ; and I
think that I may anticipate the conclusions to which I have
arrived, viz., that Agricola was founder of the Camp—a Camp, the
position of which is so admirably chosen, apd its treasures the
envy of all lovers of antiquity. To us Agricola appears as a man
amongst men-—one who dared to be virtuous when to be so was
looked upon as almost a crime; a wise ruler, a kind friend, a
devoted husband, a loving father, a giant among the famous in
war ;—well may we wish to claim such a man as the founder of
our Camp. Of course it is not my present intention to treat
exhaustively of his life and character; but I shall confine myself
to bringing out such points as will be useful in the consideration of
the question before us, basing my argument in the main upon the
statements of Tacitus the historian, and the son-in-law of Agricola.
~ Cnzeus Julius Agricola was a native of the Roman colony of
Forojulium, (near the present Toulon,) in the S.E. of Gaul, being
born A.D. 40. His father, Julius Greecinus, was celebrated for
his proficiency in eloquence and philosophy, and by these qualifi-
cations drew upon himself the enmity of the Emperor. Seneca
says of him, “If we need the example of a great and exalted mind,
let us imitate Julius Grecinus, that excellent man whom Caius

69

Ceesar (Caligula) put to death, for no other reason than because He
had more virtue than a tyrant could endure.” He wrote treatises
on husbandry, and his delight in agriculture is supposed to have
‘led him to give the name of Agricola to his son. His mother
was Julia Procilla. Under her tender and loving care he passed
his childhood and youth in the acquirement of every liberal
accomplishment. His mind was almost entirely moulded by her.
But for his mother’s judgment, Agricola is reported to have said
that he would have pursued the study of philosophy more ardently
than suited a Roman and a senator. Thus, what England owes to
Agricola, that it owes to his mother in the beginning.

He began his military career in Britain, being appointed on the
staff of Suetonius Paulinus, the governor from A.D.59—62. Tothe
majority of young men, such an appointment was looked upon
merely in the light of a time for dissipation, professional ignorance,
and sensuality. Not so to Agricola. He came for a set purpose,
and the distracted state of Britain at that time afforded splendid
opportunities for the development of his character. He at once
set himself the task of thoroughly knowing and being known by
the army—a nofeasy task when so much jealousy reigned in high
quarters. j No service was solicited by him through mere osten-
tation; he shrank from no duty through timidity; and he acted
always with zeal and diligence, endeavouring to emulate the most
distinguished, and to derive instruction from the experienced. One
great aim of his life was to become thoroughly acquainted with the
country, hence aj troublesome campaign imparted skill and en-
couragement to Agricola, and a passion for military distinction
took possession of his mind.

The important events commencing with the attack on the Isle
of Mona (now Anglesea), and culminating with the defeat of
Boadicea, could not fail to prepare him for his future glorious
career. On the conclusion of the campaign he returned to Rome,
and shortly afterwards married Domitia Decidiana—a lady ot high
rank. Tacitus the historian, who married their daughter, tells us
that their married life was one of perfect harmony, and of mutual
preference for each other; and this, for the times, was saying a great

70

_deal. Under Salvius Titianus the proconsul, Agricola served in
Asia. Here’ he might have: made a splendid competency by
listening to the dishonest overtures of his chief; but, true to his
principles, he refused to be led into wrong doing. After honourably
passing through one or two other offices, he sustained a great loss
in the death of his mother, she having been murdered, and her

lands plundered, by Otho. On the way to fulfil the duties of filial
affection, he heard of the accession of Vespasian, and immediately
joined his party, and was by him appointed to the command of
the 2oth legion then in Britain. This legion, although it had been
slow in coming to its allegiance, Agricola soon succeeded in sub-

_duing by a most singular exercise of moderation. The government
of Vettius Bolanus (A.D. 69) was of too mild a nature to afford
Agricola any opportunity of showing his rare talents.

Under Petilius Cerealis—an old friend—his merits were fully
put to the test. There was no jealousy between them, and Cerealis
readily shared. not only the hardships and the dangers with him,
but also the glory. When sent out in command of a portion of
the army, Agricola never boasted of his success, attributing it rather
to his superior. Thus, by his intrepidity in performing services,
and his extreme modesty in speaking of them, he escaped jealousy
and attained renown. Most of their campaigns seem to have been
amongst the Brigantes. How thoroughly they performed their
work Tacitus distinctly tells us, for he says that Cerealis, “in order
to spread a general terror, fell. with sudden fury on the Brigantes,
so that the greatest part of that extensive country was either subdued
or else involved in all the calamities of war.”*

On his return to Rome from the command of the legion, Ves-
pasian elevated him to patrician rank, and then appointed him to
the government of Aquitania.. This was a most honourable
appointment, and preparatory to the office of consul, for which he
was intended ; and well was he fitted for the office, for in all things
his natural judgment was to be relied on, and a systematic arrange-
ment of his work was the leading feature of his rule. He was
dignified, unremitting, austere, when the tribunals claimed his

* C. C. Taciti Agricola, cap. xvii.

_— —_——

71

attendance, but, business concluded, he laid aside his gravity, his
airs of state, and severity of exaction. Nor at any time did his
affability interfere with his authority, nor his austerity repel
affection. After three years he was recalled, and the rumour was
circulated that, as consul, Britain would be given to him as a
province, a position for which his great and varied talents emi-
nently fitted him. Nor was the rumour an idle one. Agricola
was appointed to the military command in Britain, A.D. 78; great
expectations being entertained of his success in this capacity.
How he fulfilled these expectations is a matter of history. In
short, he had many very able predecessors, but the lustre of his
name outshines them all.

Landing at midsummer of the year 78, he found everything
unfitted for a renewal of hostilities. The troops had given them-
selves up to a careless repose, an opportunity thus offering itself
to the Ordovices, of which they were not slow to avail themselves,
cutting off an entire battalion of cavalry just. before the arrival of
Agricola. The officers naturally expected that Agricola’s first
measure would be the strengthening of the various posts prepara-
tory to retiring into winter quarters. But Agricola well knew the
value of decision in this crisis, and that any want of it might be
dangerous in the face of a triumphant and expectant enemy.
Making a hasty but thorough preparation, he marched against the
Ordovices who lived in North Wales. They evidently were not
prepared for such a vigorous policy, as they refused to meet him in
the plain.

His was no timid caution, so with every confidence in his men,
he followed the enemy into their native fastnesses, exterminating
almost the whole tribe.

Following up his success, he quickly reduced the Isle of Mona
(Anglesea), and, on the solicitation of the inhabitants, gave them
peace. Then he gave his army rest for the winter—a time he
himself occupied in making preparations for the next summer’s
campaign.

Having been taught by experience that he could gain but little
advantage if oppression followed his. victories, and knowing

further, “that the Britons cheerfully submitted to conscription,
taxes, and other imposts, provided that injustice be withheld,”* he
resolved to eradicate all provocation to rebellion. The necessary
reforms were initiated in his own household, and were then
extended to the army, and equally to the defeated Britons. The
latter had been at the mercy of various governors, who had made
laws with regard to the payment of tribute and other matters which
were most irritating to the defeated Britons. All this Agricola
altered, especially providing against the extortion of the tax-gatherer,
which was more odious and intolerable than the tax itself. By these
means he thus early acquired a favourable character for peace—a
most important consideration in view of his second campaign, and
one likely to greatly aid in bringing it to a successful issue; for a
report of his terrible vengeance in battle, his clemency to those
who submitted to his rule, and, above all, his evident wish to treat
them fairly and considerately, would doubtless precede him. Nor
were active preparations for an advance in the following spring
delayed. Such preparations were doubtless made at Deva (Chester).
What the nature of these was, the brevity of Tacitus does not
supply ; but we may be quite sure that the experience gained
during his previous campaigns under Cerealis amongst the Brig-
antes, would be largely turned to account. As soon as possible,
an advance was made “in quest of the enemy;” but in what
direction such advance was made, affords much room for specu-
lation. Probably he went by way of Mancunium (Manchester),
and so through the almost trackless wilds to Lancaster. Here
troubles and anxieties would meet him, for he was now on the
confines of a mountainous district, with two distinct routes in his
front, viz., one by the sea-coast of Cumberland, the other an inland
route. Much may be said both for and against each of these
routes ; but we may rest assured that Agricola would not commit
himself to either till he had fully considered both. Nor would his
decision be long delayed, otherwise it might have been taken as a
sign of weakness by his enemies. His quickness of perception, as
exhibited in his first campaign, would enable him to act with

* C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xix.

nae

73

decision, and we may be certain that he would strike out with
energy. Regarding this campaign, Tacitus remarks,* “‘loca castris
ipse capere, aestuaria ac silvas ipse praetentare,” from which we
are to understand that, like a prudent general, he himself selected
the ground for his encampments, and, ere the army advanced, he
searched or examined the estuaries and woods. In this we see
reason to believe that his advance was by the West coast, and not
by the East, as some think, there being no likely estuaries on the
East coast. The object of such searching was, of course, to see
whether the woods contained a hidden foe, or whether the estuaries
were passable for his army; such estuaries being doubtless those
comprising the present Morecambe Bay, with possibly those of the
Dee, Mersey, and Ribble. But the fact of his having sounded the
estuaries, does not necessarily prove that the army crossed them.
Surely if his reconnaissance across the estuaries were unfavourable,
no such crossing would take place. He could not but notice that
the rapidly rising tide, together with the treacherous sands, would
prove a great obstacle in the way of his advance, as also of a safe
retreat in case of defeat. How dangerous such a road would be
may be understood when we refer to the terrible disaster that
overtook King John nearly 1140 years later, when crossing the
Wash, the counterpart of Morecambe. Besides, such dangers
would be greatly increased in the face of a triumphant enemy. It
is true that whilst addressing his army before the battle of the
Grampians, A.D. 84, Agricola speaks of their having crossed
estuaries—“ Nam ut superasse tantum itineris, silvas evasisse,
transisse aestuaria.”T

But it seems probable that such statement can only apply to his
campaigns in Caledonia, for he went on to say that, “in the event
of defeat, these, together with the fens and mountains, would prove
most serious dangers.” Surely there would be safety behind his
line of camps stretched from Clota (Clyde) to Bodotria (Forth), or
those from Tyne to Solway, for that they were strongly placed and
well provisioned, we may be quite sure, for Tacitus boasts that

none of Agricola’s camps had ever been taken by the enemy.

* C. Cornelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xx. + Lbid., cap. xxxiii.

74

Besides, in the second campaign, we are told that he examined the
estuaries, but in the sixth, that he crossed, the Latin terms being
different in each case. Thus, in describing the events of the
second campaign, the Latin verb is prefentare, i.e., to search or
examine previously, or beforehand ; whilst the action in the sixth
campaign is denoted by the word /ransisse, 1.€., to cross, to pass
over. Surely such use of these two terms is not an accidental one.
Hence we seem driven to the conclusion that if Ae crossed the
estuaries in the second campaign, the army certainly did not. If
this be so, it is fatal to the coast route. Still, such a road might
have been made secure had no other road been feasible ; but in no
case could it have been considered safe without precautions having
been taken to keep open his communications. Such would seem
to have necessitated a camp it least on the side of the estuary
opposite to Lancaster.

So far as we know, there is no evidence of such a camp; nor
can we suppose that Agricola would advance with the intention of
making a hasty camp in case of retreat. He could not be sure
that there would be time for this. Nothing would be left to
chance, for, under Petilius Cerealis, he had learnt not to despise
his enemies.

And yet again, it may be said that even with all these incon-
veniences, he would choose this route, as he would then be in no
difficulty with regard to provisions. ‘This, of course, necessitates
his being accompanied by a fleet, or, at any rate, being in a position
to easily communicate with one. But are we certain that a fleet
did accompany him? Mr. W. Thomson Watkin, a great authority
in all that pertains to antiquarian lore, says that there was no fleet
on this coast till at any rate three years later, ie, A.D. 82.* If
we can prove this point, then we shall have to abandon the coast
route.

In the account of the sixth campaign, we meet with the following
statement :—“ Portus classe exploravit. Quae ab Agricola primum

assumpta in partem virium ;”

ie., he explored the harbours, (viz.,
those on the East coast of Caledonia,) with his fleet, which was

* Manchester Guardian, April 10, 1882.

LLCS —Srti‘—tét~*ét;~;~™

75

then first employed by him as a portion of his forces. But this is
not the first time he mentions ships; he names them in the first
campaign, but merely to offer an excuse for their omission. Again,
during the fifth campaign we find, ‘nave prima transgressus,” a
statement that certainly admits of several interpretations. How-
ever, following, amongst others, the views of Mr. W. T. Watkin, it
would seem that we are to understand that Agricola crossed the
estuary of ‘the Clota (Clyde) “in the first Roman ship that had
been seen in these waters.” Probably he so advanced, the army
following by land. Nor is it at all likely that any great number of
vessels appeared in the Clyde during the fifth campaign, for we
meet with the following statement during the recital of the oper-
ations of the sixth campaign :—“ Britannos quoque, ut ex captivis
audiebatur, visa classis obstupefaciebat ;” ie., that the Britons
were astounded at the sight of the fleet. Doubtless they saw that
now their chances of safety were greatly lessened, when they could
be attacked on land or sea alike. It is quite clear that the terror
of Agricola’s power preceded him; but we are not told till this
campaign that any part of such fear was occasioned by the use of
ships. Clearly then no large fleet could have been gathered
together in the Clyde during the fifth campaign, or the terror
occasioned by its presence during the sixth campaign would have
been shown during the fifth campaign, the distance between the
Clota (Clyde) and Bodotria (Forth) being so very short.

It being thus clear that ships are regularly named in the
account of the first, fifth, sixth, and seventh campaigns—and
particularly fully in the sixth—it would appear strange that there
is no mention of them in the second, supposing them to have been
used. Such omission seems to prove that they were not used in
the second campaign, and the more as he excuses their omission
in the first campaign.

Nor does there seem any likelihood that Agricola would calculate
upon the necessity for ships. Granted that when he went “in
quest of the enemy,” he was going amongst the Sestuntii, he would
doubtless make use of the information gained regarding this tribe
during his campaigns amongst the Brigantes under Cerealis. Such

76

information would connect them, not with the sea, but with the
mountain fastnesses beyond Stainmore. Nor would it be likely
that a fleet would accompany him for any purpose, till he had
gained a better acquaintance with the country. ‘

Hence it would seem as though Agricola did not go by the
coast. That there was a coast road, at any rate in later times, we
cannot deny ; but we must not, therefore, necessarily assume that
Agricola made it, any more than the presence of a road through
the Tebay valley proves that he made that.

Granted that there is so strong a case against the probability of
a coast road, we shall have to try to ascertain whether so strong a
case can be made out in favour of an inland route. Of course,
the arguments used against the coast road, themselves tell strongly,
if indirectly, in favour of an inland route. Still, we want other
and more direct proof.

We have seen that during his sixth campaign, “fearing, in a
country not yet explored, the dangers of a surprise, Agricola
ordered his ships to sail across the gulf, and gain some knowledge
of these new regions.” When we consider that the circumstances
attending the second and the sixth campaigns were almost identical,
it seems strange that such information should only be given during
the recital of the operations of the sixth campaign, supposing him
to have had ships during the second campaign. It would almost
seem to point clearly to the fact that he did not in his second
campaign go by a country “not yet explored,” but that he went by
a country already explored, or, at any rate, so tolerably well known
as to need no great amount of preliminary reconnoitring.

If this be correct, which is this country? It is quite certain
that during the time of Cartismandua, the part of the Brigantine
territory to the east of the Pennines, at least, would be well known
to the Romans ; additional means of becoming further acquainted
with the same district being gained by Cerealis and his friend and
co-leader Agricola, for we are told that “‘he subdued and overcame
a considerable portion of the Brigantes.”

It seems only natural that, as his intention was to add to the
empire, he would do this in the most systematic manner, and this by

~~
4d

adding to it from the limits of what had been already overcome.
Over a certain part, the Romans had either real or nominal
authority, and it appears likely that where such authority termin-
ated, there they would be most likely to commence adding to the
empire. That the Sestuntii had been conquered is improbable,
and the following statement may be in part applicable to them :—
“Quibus rebus multae civitates, quae in illum diem ex aequo
egerant, datis obsidibus iram posuere, et praesidiis castellisque
circumdatae.”* The connecting link between the Brigantine
territory with that of the Sestuntii, was the famous strategic pass of
Stainmore. This pass would doubtless be well known to Agricola,
who, we know, took every opportunity of thoroughly studying the
topographical details of a country. Its possession, as we shall see,
would be of immense benefit to him, hence we may safely assume
that his first aim was in that direction.

Such a course must necessarily lead him by the valley of the
Lune, and so through the Tebay gorge. It is true that an advance
might have been made by way of Kendal and Ambleside, but it
does not appear that this would have been such a favourable route
as that by the Lune valley, as being a country “not yet explored.”
Still, he would doubtless make one of his “sudden incursions” in
that direction, and so prepare for future developments.

The Lune valley undoubtedly had its disadvantages, but these
were probably more than counteracted by its advantages. His
right flank would be practically safe, and he would be ina position
to readily receive supplies. It must be remembered that the
Brigantes under Cartismandua had been in alliance with the
Romans, whilst at a later period, A.D. 70 and 71, they had felt

the full power of the Roman arms under Cerealis and Agricola:
Hence the latter was well known to them, and the rumour that
would reach them of his clemency to the people of the Isle of
Mona (Anglesea), and his terrible punishment of the Ordovices,
could not but confirm the opinions that they had already formed.
They well knew that he was not to be trifled with ; and at the same
time they knew that they might expect fair and honourable treat-

* C. Cormelii Taciti Agricola, cap. xx.

78

ment at his hands, Nor would they in any case be likely to risk
the chances of a rising against him. In the third campaign we are
told that so great was the terror of his name, that the Britons
dared not hazard an engagement with the Romans. If this were
so amongst those who had barely seen him, how much greater
would be the terror amongst those in whose midst he had been for
so long a time? Thus a kind of friendship would exist so long as ~
Agricola’s power was felt, and this would doubtless provide him so
tar with needful supplies—a fact he could scarcely count on had
he gone by the coast road, unless indeed we can show that he was
accompanied by ships.

It may be thus seen that he would not therefore necessarily
place himself between two enemies. Besides, it is clear that
although the Britons were slow in coming to the idea that their
strength consisted in their unity, still the value of union was not
altogether unknown amongst them, and especially amongst the
Brigantes. Thus he could not be certain that the eastern Brigantes
would remain neutral whilst he fought their western brethren, the
Sestuntii. Had he gone by the coast road, he knew not but that
an alliance might be made against him. However, by going
through the Lune valley, such a contingency was entirely prevented,
and his position strengthened thereby. Besides, the Ordovices
had refused to meet him in the plain ; if the Sestuntii had likewise
refused to meet him, it is difficult to see how he could have con-
quered them by making a parade round their district ;—sooner or
later he would have to go amongst them. He would therefore,
doubtless, go to the root of the matter, and attack them in their
own fastnesses, and at the earliest opportunity. ‘This could best
be done by the inland route, for he would then have the advantage
of position in his ‘sudden incursions,” which could thus be made
to the right and left of his line of advance down into the enemy’s
country.

And again: after a time he would have the advantage of a
known road. True, this was only a British trackway; still, following
even this, his advance would necessarily be more rapid than if he
crossed the “trackless wild.”

79

And yet again, such a route was essentially Roman—straight
ahead. It might be said that the nature of the Tebay valley was
such as would deter Agricola from choosing this route; but, after
all, it would be a comparatively easy passage, if such precautions
were taken as might be necessary to prevent a flank movement.
The character of the hill sides is such as would be of equal advan-
tage to Agricola in repelling an attack, as it was to the Britons in
making one. Even granted that such a road was a difficult one,
and that an advance would have to be made with extreme caution,
we must remember that this was one of Agricola’s characteristics ;
nor was it a caution arising from timidity, for to his caution was
added a clear insight into every difficulty, and an intrepidity in
action which would carry him through with success. Nor would
he refuse this road and choose the coast road merely on account
of its difficulty. When the terrible Khyber Pass, defended by
arms of precision, could be so easily forced, surely such a paltry
one as the Tebay gorge sinks into insignificance.

Nor would the pass be favourable to the Britons. They could
not attack in force, whilst their long pointless swords, and their
chariots, would be of little use in so confined a space.

That the Romans did use the pass in later, and probably more
troublous times, is shown by the military road passing through it ;
and that its possession was looked upon as necessary, is shown by
their having placed a strong camp at Borrow Bridge, almost within
the jaws of the pass—a fact that goes far to prove that there was
no difficulty other than ordinary in keeping the communication
open.

_ Granted then that his advance was made by the Lune valley—
when at Tebay, being within measurable distance of a known part
of the country, his scouts would be able to penetrate to Brough
and to Kirkbythore, at both of which places he would be on the
British trackway before mentioned, whilst at Penrith he would be
able to strike right into the heart of the country.

From Kirkbythore, the exact track of his advance to the isthmus
between Tyne and Solway is doubtful, He might have gone by
what is now the Maiden Way, which passed Kirkbythore, running

80

north past Whitley Castle, and so on past Bewcastle. It is
more likely, however, to suppose that he went by the British
trackway, afterwards a part of the second iter of Antonine, to
the neighbourhood of Carlisle, where preparations would have to
be made for his advance during the next summer—A.D. 80.

Two very important matters here required his urgent attention,
viz :—First, the securing of his conquests, which he did by drawing
a line of forts from the Tyne to the Solway, as already mentioned.
Such forts would not only protect his rear, but also serve as rallying
points in case of defeat. The second great consideration was the
supply of provisions. He would, of course, find greater difficulty
in securing an ample supply of provisions the further he removed
from his base, and this even supposing everything to be tranquil in
his rear. In case of defeat, the most disastrous results were to be
anticipated ; for, as Agricola tells us in his address to his soldiers
before the battle of the Grampians, ‘‘our present greatest advantages
would become our most serious dangers on a retreat ; because we
have not the same acquaintance with the localities, or the same
supply of provisions. * * For my own part, I have been long
convinced that a retreat is unsafe, both for troops and com-
mander.”*

Hence a thorough preparation was necessary. Each day would
take him to a greater distance from friends, who might be his
enemies in case of defeat. Hence he could not trust to their
friendship when his presence was removed, and for this reason he
must have absolute certainty as to his supplies ere he moved
from his winter quarters. Nothing could be left to chance.

But here an opportunity presents itself of supplying these from
an independent base, and, like a skilful and prudent general, he
would doubtless avail himself of it. No one knew better than
himself how to seize upon the most fitting positions. In the
neighbourhood of the sea, with a new campaign opening out, what
more natural than the seeking out of the most likely place for a
port. Such port must be so situated as to afford ready means of
transit, not only “to the front,” but also to the various camps

* C. C. Taciti Agricola, cap. xxxiii.

——eai—

ce!

81

stretched between the Tyne and the Solway, which appear to have
been supplied with provisions for twelve months. It might appear
that this supply of provisions was an immense one—much greater,
in fact, than any convoys could bring up, especially considering
the character of the country through which they would have to
travel. Thus the necessity for a port is strengthened. Could the
magnificent position of Maryport escape his notice? No place
could better supply his wants, either as an outlook or as a base for
future operations. Nor was it a place that could easily be taken
by surprise, either by land or by sea.

The claims of Bowness must, of course, be considered, The
position of this place, so close to the Scotch borders, would render
it easily assailable by the Britons after Agricola’s advance, whilst
its use as a port was also on this account greatly lessened. Again,
a line from Maryport to Carlisle would be more easily defended,
with a bog in front of it, than one from Bowness to Carlisle, with
a bog behind it, would have been. It might appear as though the
latter line were drawn to supersede the former when the country
“across the border” had become somewhat more settled.

If, then, it be granted that the original line of defence ran from
Maryport to Tynemouth, the importance of the former will be
greatly advanced. It would, in fact, be the key to the eastward
communications. In time of war, its importance cannot be over-
rated ; for against a resolute enemy the Tebay pass must always
be a difficult and dangerous one, for convoys at least. Could
Agricola overlook this fact? Maryport being held, the necessity
for such convoys was almost done away with, the various camps
being supplied direct from this port. The number of camps in
the immediate neighbourhood, and the net-work of roads, not to

_ tell of the immense quantity of remains that have been discovered

at one time or another, also bear unmistakeable testimony to the

value of such a position.

- That Maryport, whatever may have been its name, was a port—

and a very important one—at a very early date, we have indirect

evidence. Within forty years from the date of Agricola’s advance,

we gather that a cohort of Spaniards was in garrison here. This
7

82

cohort was apparently commanded by Marcus Meenius Agrippa,
who, we are told on the authority of Dr. J. Collingwood Bruce,
was none other than the admiral of the Roman fleet, and a friend
of Hadrian, the reigning emperor.

In passing we may, with a very great degree of probability,
fancy that Hadrian, the prince of pedestrians, had visited his friend
when in camp here. That a strong friendship existed between the
two, we may be certain. Of four altars that have been found
dedicated by Agrippa, two are dedicated to Jupiter, and the other
two to Jupiter and the divine influences of the emperor.

That Agrippa should have been in command, shows how very
greatly the Romans esteemed the possession of this station. Had
it been a place of small importance, we can scarcely conceive that
so important a personage would have been in command. Hence,
at a very early date—about A.D. 120—we may perhaps look upon
Maryport as one of the chief stations of the Roman fleet on the
west coast.

Granted then that I have not spoken too favourably of the
camp, etc., and granting too, that in the selection of his posts
Agricola made at all times a wise selection, I think we may safely
assume that Agricola was the founder of Roman Maryport, about
the year A.D. 79.

[oe 2)
a)

WILD FLOWERS AROUND CARLISLE. Parr I.
BeW. 1D. CK WiO'R TH.

(Read at Carlisle. )

COMMENCING with the Buttercup or Crowfoot Order, RANUNCU-
LACE, (and here I may observe that I am following in this paper
the classification of orders as set down in Hayward’s “ Botanist’s
Pocket Book,”) we find the Wood Anemone, or Flower of the Wind,
Anemone nemorosa, common in our damp woods and many of
our meadows, noticeably near Carleton. A much rarer species,
and one which has not been included in any of the lists published
in the Transactions, is the Meadow Rue, Thalictrum flavum,
which grows near to the Fish-house on Stainton Banks. Of the
Buttercups or Crowfoots proper, we have no less than ten species,
the particular ones being the Celery-Leaved Crowfoot, Ranunculus
scéleratus, a water- or ditch-loving plant, with very inconspicuous
flowers, found near the Caledonian Railway Sheds, and on the road

_ side opposite Kingmoor House; the Lesser Spearwort, 2. Zammula,

on Kingmoor; the Pale Hairy Crowfoot, &. Airsutus, on the
Rockcliff road ; Goldilocks, 2. auricomus, Wetheral and Cummers-
dale ; Monk’s Hood, Aconitum napellus, a common garden plant,
and a very poisonous one, in Blackhall wood. The Marsh
Marigold, Caltha palustris, Shakespeare’s ‘“‘Cuckoo Buds of Yellow

_ hue,” common in damp meadows and sides of water-courses. The

very handsome Globe Flower, Zvollius europaeus, by the side of
the Eden between Wetheral and Warwick, and also at Cummers-
dale.

84

The Barberry, Berberis vulgaris, the only British plant in its
order, and noted for the tonic properties of its bark, grows about
Kingmoor House and Cumwhinton Lonning.

The White Water Lily, ymphea alba, at Moss Pool; the
Yellow one, JV. Zutea, in Brunstock Beck. The former is often
referred to by botanists when evolution is talked about, as showing
the gradual transformation of stamens into petals.

Two of the Poppies are common with us, the Long Smooth-
headed, Papaver dubium, and the Common Red, P. rheas. Cheli-
donium, or Celandine, C. majus, a plant full of a thick yellow
juice, said to be effective in the curing of warts, may be found in
a hedge near St. Ann’s, and other places; generally near houses.

Of the Fumitory order, leaving out the common ones, which are
to be found in every cornfield, we have in one of the Stainton
lanes the White Climbing Corydalis, C. caviculata; while the
Yellow one, C. dutea, seems to have naturalised itself about some
garden walls in Stanwix.

Among the order CRUCIFER#, the Shepherd’s Purse is every-
where met with in its infinite variety of forms, from a dwarfed
specimen an inch or two in height on a dry wall, to one as many
feet in rich soil. In this plant is found occasionally the rare
occurrence of petals reverting to stamens, and that you must look
for on very poor plants. Scurvy Grass, Cochleria officinalis, is to
be found about Rockcliffe, common by the sides of creeks on the
marsh; the Large-Flowered Bitter Cress, Cardamine amara, on the
Scar and Stainton Banks; the Cuckoo Flower or Ladies’ Smock,
‘all silver white,” in all our damp meadows; the Water Cress,
Nasturtium officinalis, is common, and the Marsh Yellow Cress,
NV. palustre, in a pond near the Midland Railway Station at
Scotby. |

The Wallflower, Cheivanthus cheiri, on the cliffs at Rockcliff is
very fine; and the walls of our own Castle used to be a station for
it. In an old book, written about 1819 or 1820, containing an
account of an American’s rambles in this part of Britain, the writer
says, speaking of Carlisle Castle, “The matted ivy is seen creeping
over its walls in wildest luxuriance, as if to conceal the ravages

85

which time and tempest are continually augmenting ; and along its
ramparts the rank grass grows profusely, interspersed with number-
less wallflowers, which are now in perfection, and exhale the
choicest fragrance.”

The Dyer’s Weed, Reseda luteola, and Wild Mignonette, 2. uzea,
may be found near the Caledonian Railway Sheds. The Scented
Violet, Viola odorata, the Violet of Shakspeare, I have found
growing by the roadside near Blackhall, while the white variety is
abundant about Cummersdale.

Of the Sundews we have the Round-Leaved or Common one,
Drosera rotundifolia, on Kingmoor, where it has increased very
much during the last three or four years. When I first knew it,
there was only some half-dozen plants, all told. On Todhills
Moss you will find the other two species—the Great- and the
Long-Leaved. You have heard of the peculiar properties of the
Sundew time after time, and I am not going to repeat them now.
But some recent experiments conducted by Francis Darwin, son
of Charles Darwin, may be new to you. They were made with
the view of finding out if the nitrogenous food benefitted the plant
in any way. He filled six plates with growing and healthy plants
of the Drosera. ‘The plates were placed in a favourable situation,
and screened so that no insect could get at them; a line was
drawn down the centre of the plates, and on one side of the line
they were fed with minute fibres of beef; the plants on the other
side got nothing. In every other respect—light, air, etc., the
conditions were similar. I will now give you, somewhat roughly,
the results of the experiment when the time of growing was over.
The fed plants beat the unfed ones in the number of flower stems
29 per cent., in leaves 36 per cent., in number and weight of seeds
22 percent. and 57 per cent., in number and weight of seed
capsules 94 per cent. and 30 per cent. A similar experiment was
carried out by three German professors, only instead of using beef,
the Green Fly was used, and similar results were obtained. I have
seen it stated somewhere—but unfortunately I cannot come across
the article again—that the Round-Leaved Sundew was the only one
which was insectivorous ; but this is certainly not the case. For

86

while on Todhills Moss on the 26th of August last (1883), every
plant of the Great Sundew we found retained insects in different
stages of digestion and captivity. In many cases the leaves—
unlike those of the Common Sundew, which gradually encloses
from all sides—were folded boldly over in two halves.

The Common Milkwort, Polygala vulgaris, grows plentifully on
Kingmoor, where the variety P. v. depressa may also be found;
but finer plants than the Kingmoor ones may be found on Stainton
Banks. The colour of the flowers varies from white through pink
and lilac to blue. An old time name of this pretty little plant was
Rogation or Procession Flower. Among the garlands of wild
flowers made by the ‘‘goodlie companies” who went out into the
fields during Rogation week to give praise to God, our modest
little flower was conspicuous.

In the order of the Pinks or Carnations, CARYOPHYLLACEX, we
have nothing very extraordinary except perhaps the Wood Stichwort,
Stellaria nemorum, common in Wetheral Woods, Mire Banks, &c.
This is a very rare plant in Lancashire and Cheshire, according to
the Secretary of one of the Liverpool clubs, who gives in a paper
his many disappointments in search of it. Soapwort, Sasonaria
officinalis, is said to have grown on the Scar some years ago, and I
am still in hopes of finding it; for the Scar, as a bit of botanical
hunting-ground in a small space, is very rich. Among other
common plants in the above order are the Red and the White
Campions, the Ragged Robin, etc. The Corncockle may be
found every year in some of the cornfields between Kingmoor and
Cargo.

Flax is either grown with us for economic purposes, or else occurs
as a casual about roadsides, railway banks, etc. Ina small field of
Flax near Cringledykes, this summer—and a field of Flax in flower
is a sight worth seeing—occurred that rare casual, as Mr. Hodgson
calls it, the Wild Radish, Raphanus raphanistrum, belonging to
the CrRucIFERZ. The Mountain Flax, LZ. catharticum, (why
Mountain? seeing it grows as commonly in our lowlands as any
other situation, and may be found in most of our meadows, railway
banks, etc.;) is noted for its medicinal properties, and is in great

———————s

Vg Sa

x

87

request in many of our country districts yet. Indeed, I know of
one country blacksmith living at a ripe healthy old age now, who
averred to me that the only medicine he ever took when ailing,
was tea made from this plant, and “a pint or two of yell efter.”

Of the Mallows, the Common Mallow, AZalva sylvestris, is the
one most generally seen, and is often called the Marsh Mallow,
and is used with the same effect. In fact the Marsh Mallow,
Althea officinalis, is not so common as is supposed. The very
handsome Musk Mallow, 42 moschata, may be found on the
gravel beds at Cummersdale, and down by the side of the Eden.
A white variety grows in Wreay churchyard.

Of the St. John’s Worts, Hypericum, the Common St. John’s
Wort is found in profusion on many of our railway banks, the
Scar, etc. This is the one with the seemingly perforated leaves,
the perforations really being oil glands, and which possibly have
something to do with its healing qualities. It is much sought
after by herbalists, who make an excellent ointment from it. Gerarde
says, “St. John’s Wort doth make an oyle the colour of blood,
which is a most pretious remedy for deep wounds and those that
thorow the body, or any wound made with a venomed weapon.”
HT, quadrangulum, Square-Stalked St. John’s Wort, grows on the
Scar, as also does the Bearded Hypericum, . montanum. The
very pretty trailing St. John’s Wort, H. humifusum, may be found
in the hedge bank from between the top of the Scar and Kingmoor
Wood.

Of the Geranium order we have the Dusky Cranes-bill, G. pheum,
near the House of Recovery, and at Rockcliffe, possibly a garden
escape ; but as I have never seen it under cultivation, the matter
is open to some doubt. The Shining Cranes-bill, G. Zucidum, in
a hedge behind the Print Works at Cummersdale; the Long-
Stalked Cranes-bill, G. columbinum, at Cummersdale; the Wood
Cranes-bill, at Wetheral; while nowhere so fine as on Stainton
Banks grows the beautiful blue Meadow Cranes-bill, G. pratense ;
a white variety of the Herb Robert, G. robertianum, may be met
with about Woodbank and Brisco. The Storks-bill,* Z. cicutarium,

* Since found on Grinsdale Gravel Bed.

88

I have not found nearer Carlisle than Dalston. The Wood Sorrel,
Oxalis acetosella, is common in most of our woods, and a few of
its leaves with their slightly-acidulated taste, are highly refreshing
on a hot day.

Of the Lrecuminosa, the Broom is common. Both species of
the Whins or Furze may be found on Kingmoor ; one coming into
blossom as the other fades. So if the winter is moderately open,
we have the Furze in bloom all the year round. I suppose it is
this fact that has given rise to the old couplet—

When the Whin is out of blossom,
Then love is out of fashion.

Dyer’s Green-weed may be met with in some of the lanes about
Cargo; the Petty- or Needle-Whin on Kingmoor; Rest Harrow,
on Stainton Banks. The Spiny species, near Rockcliffe; the
Common Kidney Vetch or Lamb’s Toes, and the Lady’s Fingers,
on many of the railway banks ; the Purple Medick or Lucerne, on
the Scar—an escape, I should think, from cultivation. The pods
of this plant are curiously twisted like a ram’s horn, On the Scar
we have also the Melilot, in some seasons so abundant that in early
autumn, with a gentle western wind, you may perceive its honied
smell wafted up to you as you walk along the Scar from Edentown
to St. Ann’s. Several other species of this order, which includes
the Trefoils or Clovers, the Vetches, etc., may be found growing
close to our City.

Among the Rosace&, the sweet-scented flowers of the Meadow
Sweet, or Queen of the Meadows, are met with everywhere along
our water sides and in our meadows. The Wood Avens is common
on hedge-banks, and the dusky modest flowers of the Water Avens
in Spa Well Wood. Two or three of the Potentillas are common,
the Tormentil perhaps being the most so. This plant is noted for
the astringent properties of its roots ; it was sold largely in London
during the great plague, as one of the cures. The Marsh Comarum
grows very luxuriantly on Todhills Moss. Of the Blackberry,
Bramble, or ‘‘Brummelkite,” we have several species, which have
not been fully studied. I may say the same of the Wild Roses.
One species, the Sweetbriar, is found on the outskirts of Kingmoor.

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Agrimony is met with in the Stainton Lanes. ‘Both the Burnets,
the Greater Burnet and the Lesser, on Stainton Banks. The
Ladies’ Mantle, a favorite ingredient in “ yarb puddings,” in all
our meadows. It obtained its name of Ladies’ Mantle from a use
which I think at present it is not put to. The Parsley Piert is
common in the cornfields round Kingmoor. This is a plant I had
looked for for many years, without being able to find it ; at last it
turned up as a weed in my own garden. Thinking there must be
more of it near at hand, I had another search, and found it under
the circumstances I have mentioned. Apropos of this plant, my
brother and I came across a celebrated “‘yarb” doctor gathering
one of the smaller geraniums. On our asking him what he was
gathering, he replied “ parsley peert,” or “breakstone ;” and it was
in vain that we tried to persuade him that it was not Parsley Piert,
but Dove’s-foot Cranesbill he was getting. He knew better, he
had prescribed it many a time with great success. Well, we had
to give in then, and to thank a merciful Providence that we had so
few poisonous plants in our British List, or some serious mistakes
would be made sometimes. The Great Hairy Willowherb grows
very fine on the Scar; the Small-Flowered species is common by
our roadsides. I once met with the Evening Primrose near King-
moor, and I have also seen it growing on the Scar below St. Ann’s;
but in both cases I must put it down as.a garden escape. The
Enchanter’s Nightshade, on Davidson’s Banks. The very hand-
some flowers of the Purple Loosestrife, by the side of Kingmoor,
the Black Dub, Holme Head, etc. This is one of the heterostyled
plants which Darwin (see his “Forms of Flowers,”) experimented
upon to prove the value of cross-fertilisation. Among his concluding
remarks are the following: ‘‘We may be sure that plants have
been rendered heterostyled to ensure cross fertilisation, for we
now know that a cross between the distinct individuals of the
same species is highly important for the vigour and fertility of the
offspring.” _ Of the many flowers of the Purple Loosestrife I have
examined, I find the different styles are pretty near equal.

Of the two Knawells, the annual one is found near Cummerts-
dale. .

*

90

Of species belonging to the order CRASSULACE&, our list is not
very long. The largest genus, represented by the Sedums, consists
of plants that belong mostly to alpine districts. The Houseleek
is common on many cottage roofs in the district. Near Green
Lane, the rare and curious plant called in old herbals, Navel or
Kidney Wort, is found; better known now, perhaps, by the name
of Wall Penny-Wort.

The next order, SAXIFRAGACE®, being chiefly alpine plants, I
must pass over, except in the genus Chirysosplenium, and we have
the Opposite-Leaved Golden Saxifrage, and the Alternate-Leaved
almost equally common by the sides of our streams and rivers ; the
nearest place I can think of being the Scar beiow St. Ann’s.

The pretty little Moschatel, “without glory,” as the scientific
name gives it, is called by children the Town Clock, may be found
in the Stainton Lanes, and is a curious little plant, the flower stem
having at its apex four flowers set in a square with one at the top.

Of the order UMBELLIFER#, the White Rot or Marsh Penny-
Wort grows on Kingmoor ; and if you want to find the flower, you
must look very carefully indeed. This plant shares with some
other marsh plants the name of Sheep Rot, from the supposed
action it has on the bones of animals which feed upon it. Hemlock,
which is easily known by its purple-spotted stem, grows about
Stainton, Cummersdale, etc. Before the alterations were made in
the shrubbery in Court Square, several fine plants might have been
seen there ; and I have no doubt it will turn up again some day.
The Procumbent Marsh Wort in Pow Beck, near the Spa Well ;
Goat, Gout, or Bishop Weed, Herb Gerarde, everywhere, well
known to all our gardeners as a most noxious weed. This plant
was brought to England by the famous old herbalist whose name
it bears, presumably, I suppose, for its medicinal virtues. But like
sparrows in America, or rabbits in Australia, it has outlived those
properties for which it was first introduced, and it remains now but
as a troublesome pest. The English- or Whorled-Carraway, found
growing on Kingmoor, is a plant which I believe I have the honor
of first making known as indigenous to Cumberland. I communi-
cated with Mr. Hodgson on the subjcct, as he has the most

i ae —

91

complete list of the Cumberland flora. But it was not marked on
his list, which combines with his own the finds of his late colleagues,
Mr. W. Dickinson of Workington, and the Rev. R. Wood of West-
ward. Indeed I suppose the plant is not common anywhere, as in
the London Catalogue it is given in only nineteen out of the one
hundred and twelve counties in which Great Britain is botanically
divided. The Burnet Saxifrage occurs about Rickerby and other
places, and is not uncommon; Water Drop-Wort, at Spa Well;
Fool’s Parsley, a supposed poisonous species, and easily known by
its three long pendulous flower bracts, is often to be found in
ill-weeded gardens and waste grounds. Fine specimens of Angelica
can be had in Kingmoor Wood, and the plant is common in all
our damp woods and copses, The name was given to this herb from
its having so many virtues ; and it was, in consequence, in great
request in bygone times: every part of it being used in medicine.
The Wild Carrot grows in great luxuriance on the Scar; its pretty
white umbels, often with a single central red floret, make it very con-
spicuous. As the flowers die, the outer rays of the umbel grow
upward and inward, shaping the head of seeds like a miniature
bird’s nest—by which name it is often called. The yellow, tough,
and woody root has the same smell as that of the garden carrot ;
but so far as edible qualities are concerned, there the resemblance
ends. Still the two carrots teach us a useful lesson in regard to
what may be done with a suitable subject by cultivation.

The order LORANTHACE# includes the Mistletoe, a plant much
in request at the present (Christmas) season. It is not common
about Carlisle; but I have seen a few growing at different times.
One grew on a Cumberland hawthorn, if I remember rightly, in
the Gas Works garden; but the tree had to make way for the
alterations in Nelson Bridge. The Elder, and the Guelder Rose,
are both pretty common ; the latter is our Garden Snowball. In
many cases, I fancy, the Elder must have been planted, possibly
for the berries, which make a delicious winter cordial; or else for
the wood, which is largely used by butchers to make skewers of.
The Honeysuckle, or Woodbine, is common all round Carlisle.
It is one of the earliest shrubs to show its leaf; but it has a curious

92

habit very early on in the year of unfolding a portion of its leaves,
and then as it were finding itself before its time, it stops, and
remains so for weeks with no perceptible change. ll at once it
wakens from its lethargy, and stops growing no more till it is in
full leaf. It is a long passage to the honey in the corolla of this
plant, and short-tongued bees have a readier method of getting at
the honey there by biting a piece out at the bottom of the corolla
tube. This you can often see for yourselves by carefully examining
a few flowers of the Honeysuckle.

In the order RuBIACE4, four of the Bedstraws may be found on
the Scar: the Yellow, the Crosswort, the Great Hedge-Bedstraw,
and the Goosegrass or Cleavers; the Smooth Heath-Bedstraw on
Kingmoor : this latter plant, in miles and miles of tramping on the
Crossfell range this last summer (1883), met my eye everywhere.
Field Madder occurs about Cummersdale and Dalston. The
Woodruff is found in most of our damp woods; it is noted for the
delicate odour it givs forth when dried, resembling new-mown hay;
but no plant keeps the odour so long, and a bunch of Woodruff
hung in a room will scent it all the winter through.

In the order VALERIANACE#, we have the small Marsh Valerian
near Cummersdale ; the great Wild Valerian is common by the
ditch sides round Kingmoor ; the Lamb’s Lettuce, by the hedge
side at St. Ann’s: this last-named plant was formerly in great
request as a spring salad, and I see by the Seedsmen’s Catalogues,
it is coming to the front again, and is being largely cultivated.
The Smooth Corn-Salad, at Cummersdale, near the Railway Station;
and this year, the rare Sharp-Fruited Corn-Salad, near Upperby.
For this find, and many more good things, I am indebted to one
of our members—Mr. Shepherd. The Teasel, I think, grows
in this district only as a garden-plant, or as an escape. Devil’s-Bit
Scabious, on Kingmoor and at Cummersdale. The Small Scabious
grows on Stainton Banks, side by side with the Great Scabious, or
Field Knautia—two very conspicuous flowers. ‘The mention of
these last two flowers reminds me of a little incident which occurred
this last summer, and which shows that a little knowledge of wild
flowers. might be useful to the best among us. They were gathered

93

among others, and given to a small boy to take to a Sunday-school
treat, where, among other things, was a prize for the best bouquet
of wild flowers. I have no doubt the little fellow was immensely
proud of them, for you will find few such places for a bouquet of
wild flowers as Stainton Banks. But imagine his feelings when the
vicar, who, I believe, was presiding judge on the occasion, debarred
them as being garden flowers.

Amongst the ComposiT# we have the Yellow Goats-beard, which
may be seen in perfection on the Scar, and is a very handsome
flower when seen fully open “’neath the morning sun;” Jack
go-to-bed-at-noon is an oid name for this plant, from its habit of
closing its petals at mid-day. Jack must certainly be lazier now
than he used to be, because I never remember seeing him awake
after 11 a.m., and he often closes before that time. To this order
also belong the numerous families of Hawkbits, Cats Ears, Lettuces,
Sowthistles (one species too often seen in our cornfields), Hawk-
beards, and Hawkweeds, the latter a most puzzling family to make
out. Then come the Dandelions and the Nipplewort, the latter
common about our hedges, and remarkable in the spring for a very
beautiful microscopic fungus, in the form of acluster cup. Burdock
is common with us, some splendid specimens may be seen about
Stainton. The seed capsules of this plant are covered with hooked
scales, and cling readily to anything they get hold of, by such
means getting widely distributed. Country lads know this of the
“burs,” as they are called, and often make use of them to embellish
their friends’ clothing. Shakspeare also knew it; in Troilus and
Cressida he makes Pandarus say of his kindred, ‘‘ Though they be
long ere they are wooed, they are constant being won: they are
burs I can tell you; they'll stick where they are thrown.”

Nowhere as on Kingmoor and in the wood will you find such
fine specimens of the Saw-wort. It is an autumn flowering plant,
and it looks like a small purple thistle. Of the Thistles themselves,
many of them are common—too common—everywhere ; and I
think we have nothing close at hand worth particular notice. The
Black Knapweed is common, and is often known by the name of
“Horseknops ;” it is greatly used in the feeding of certain cage

94

birds. The Greater Knapweed, a handsome bright purple-rayed
flower, may be found on the Caledonian Railway banks, near
where the North British Railway crosses. The beautiful Corn
Blue-Bottle, often grown as a garden plant, I have found a few
times in the neigbourhood, in turnip fields about Kingmoor, and
on Grinsdale gravel bed. The Nodding Bur Marigold, in a pond
at Scotby, near the Midland Station ; the Trifid Bur Marigold in
a similar situation at Moorhouse. The Hemp Agrimony on the
Scar, and in the Spa Well Wood; the plants on the Scar are the
largest I ever saw. Tansy may be found in great plenty along
Stainton Banks, in the hedge at St. Ann’s, etc.; it was known to
me as a boy by the name of Batchelors’ Buttons. By the bye, did
any of you ever try a Tansy pudding? a suet pudding mixed with
finely chopped Tansy leaves. I had heard it very highly spoken
of, and knew of a farm house in our sister county where it was
always made when they had company to dinner. Well, always
being willing to try fresh recipes, I had one made once ; but, never
again! The Common Wormwood and the Mugwort may both be
found near the Caledonian Railway Sheds, and the latter plant also
on Stainton Banks, and I suppose it gets its name from being
formerly used to flavour drinks. The Cudweed is common on
damp ground, especially where water has been standing. The
Butterbur and the Coltsfoot, both noted for the flower coming
before the leaf; the former by our river sides, the latter on railway
banks and waste ground. There seems to me to be a special
arrangement in these two plants, that the flowers should come before
the leaves, to better propagate their species. Because if coming
after, there would be very little chance of their being seen, or of
getting their share of the sun’s rays; hence they would be passed
over by the insects which cross-fertilise them, and in not getting
their share of sunshine, they would not ripen their seeds as fully
as they ought to do. The Golden Rod, a flower which might
almost be mistaken for Ragwort, grows on Skewbanks and near
Rickerby. Of the Groundsels or Ragworts, we have the Stinking
Groundsel at Cummersdale, the Marsh Ragwort on Kingmoor,
and the, giant of the family, Senecio saracenicus, on Stainton Banks,

95

often growing to a height of seven or eight feet. This last is not
considered a truly indigenous plant, and it is only within these last
two or three years that I have noticed it in its present situation.
The Yellow Fleabane, another rare plant not mentioned in the
lists published in our Zvansactions, occurs on the Scar. The
Corn Marigold, about Cargo and Grinsdale. Chamomile used to
grow between Harraby and Durran Hill. The Sneezewort on
Kingmoor.

Of the CAMPANULACEA, the Round-leaved Bell Flower, locally
called Blue Bells, is’common everywhere. I always look out for
the flowering of this plant, as it is a sure sign of midsummer; and
one patch which I pass every day, comes regularly into flower as
the last week of June comes around. I once picked a white
variety of the Rampion Bell Flower by the roadside near Harker ;
_ but I fancy it must have been an escape. Down Botcherby
Lonning, fine examples of the Giant Bell Flower are to be found;
it also grows on the Scar, but the plants found there are very poor.
The Clustered Bell Flower on Stainton Banks grows magnificently,
and attracts the attention at once by its clusters of dark purple-blue
corollas. Sheepsbit looks more like one of the Composite than
a Bell Flower, its small flowers being clustered together on a
hemispherical head. It is found on Kingmoor.

We have two of the Heaths on Kingmoor, the Cross-leaved
Heath and the Fine-leaved ; a white variety of the Cross-leaved
Heath occasionally occurs. The Fine-leaved Heath is to be found
on that part of the moor near the Glasgow road. __ Ling or Heather,
on waste ground round us, the rose-coloured flowers often relapsing
to white. That very pretty flower, the Marsh Andromeda, is to be
found at Todhills, and grows on most of our peat-bogs. This is
quite a northern flower, and one which we ought to be proud of.
The Bilberry is found in Kingmoor Wood; the Cranberry at
Todhills ; while that somewhat rare plant, the Lesser Winter-green,
may be found in plantations at Kingmoor, Durdar, and Little
Orton.

—? *
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97

SHERLEK ES:
By THE Rev. H. A. MACPHERSON, M.A,
(Read at Carlisle. )

FIVE species of the Genus Zanius visit England, viz :—

THE RED-BACKED SHRIKE ;
THE WOODCHAT SHRIKE;
Tue LESSER GREY SHRIKE;
THE GREAT GREY SHRIKE;
THE Paias’s GREY SHRIKE.

_ The Red-backed Shrike is a regular summer visitor, usually
arriving in the Southern Counties during the first week in May.
The male is a beautiful slate-grey above, with chestnut-brown back,
dark wings, a black and white tail, the under-surface of the body

| being pale red. He has also a very distinct black eye-stripe. The
Red-backed Shrike breeds in all the counties of England and
Wales, but becomes rarer towards the north, so that though well
established in the Lake District, it seldom breeds as far north as
Carlisle, and has only occurred in Scotland in a very few instances.
Personally, I have nowhere found it so abundant as in the rural
districts around London; in Epping Forest, for instance, I have
often observed the male of this species perched, like a sentinel, on
the topmost spray of a tall hedgerow, waiting to dart down upon
the passing insect. It has only, however, fallen to my lot once
to see an insect caught and impaled; my impression is that the
Shrike does not impale by any means all his prey. The objects

8

98

of the impaling practised so extensively by our Shrikes are twofold.
The most obvious one is, that, by impaling the mouse or bird which
the Shrike has caught, it may be able to tear the prey to pieces at
leisure. The feet of the Shrikes are not powerful enough to
accomplish this, and their food is therefore adroitly spitted upon a
sharp thorn. But the Shrike has another object in mind. His
dashing spirit cannot brook the idea of allowing any prey to pass
unmolested ; and therefore he dashes upon his quarry whether
hungry or not; and if his internal feelings prompt him to make a
meal of it forthwith, he proceeds to dispose of it then and there.
My friend, Mr. O. V. Aplin, a well-known ornithologist, remarks
in a letter of July 20, 1883:—“ We obtained before breakfast this
morning two Bumble-bees, from some thorns. I watched the male
Shrike the other evening at work on the thorns, but unfortunately
he ate the morsel at once.” But if, on the other hand, the Shrike
is “crowded,” he leaves his booty on the thorn until he has ‘‘room”
for more. I have said that I have only once seen a wild Shrike
impale his prey. It happened in this wise. We were watching a
pair of these birds on a Hertfordshire heath one lovely summer
evening, when a Bumble-bee passed by ; instantly the male Shrike
swooped upon his quarry, and, catching it in his bill, flew with it
to a low thorn-bush, on which he spitted it. I then ran in, and
found the bee transfixed as neatly as if an entomologist had pinned
it to his setting board.

The Red-backed Shrike builds a bulky nest, usually in a tall
hedgerow. The young readily betray the “location” of their
cradle by their clamour for fresh supplies of food. The nest Is
often harried, and I have more than once seen the young of this
Shrike offered for sale in Leadenhall Market.

My special reason for offering you these cursory remarks on this
and other species of Shrikes, this evening, is to place before you
some observations which I have made upon them under artificial
conditions. I have more than once reared young Red-backed
Shrikes from the nest, and found them interesting pets. They
readily become attached to the person who feeds them, and will
follow you from room to room, or even about a garden, perching

99

upon your shoulder or your hand. With regard to the present
species, it is only right to say that the gentleman who has paid
most attention to it im confinement is my friend Mr. John Young,
M.B.O.U., who has kept examples for several successive autumns.
His object in doing so, was, to ascertain at what time this. species
naturally performed the moult. He has, unfortunately, failed
hitherto to preserve his examples alive through the moult; but the
fact that he has repeatedly lost Red-backed Shrikes by death in
January and February, when in full moult, is full of significance,
Two male examples also moulted in the possession of the Zoological
Society during the spring, I believe, of 1879: but exact data hereon
is not forthcoming. Nevertheless, its want is in part supplied by
the evidence of Mr. Swaysland, the well-known dealer of Brighton,
who informs me under date of October 8, 1883, that he believes
that the Red-backed Shrike “moults about January or February.
The one I had (Mr. Swaysland here alludes to one particular bird,
for many examples have passed through his hands,) moulted in
January, and I showed him at the Crystal Palace Show this year
in full plumage the last week in February.”

I now propose to lay before you the gist of my notes on five
Red-backed Shrikes which I kept alive during the summer and
autumn of 1883. I received four of them, being a single brood,
during the first week in July. They had been taken from a nest
in the neighbourhood of Bristol, and appeared to be between four
and five weeks old. Their appetites were enormous, and were
only surpassed in intensity by their squalls for food. Not that
they would help themselves. True, they had begun to pick up,
but they preferred to have the supply conveyed into their mouths.
The females especially were incessant in their demands for food.
As a consequence of their voracity, these young Shrikes slept a
good deal during the day. I should except one of the males,
which I christened “No. 1,” for distinction’s sake ; the other male,
a very quarrelsome bird, following as “No. 2 ;” while the females
were “No. 3,” and “No. 4.” No. 4, however, strayed through an
open window, before I had had them long, and I saw no more of
her. No. 1, as I have said, did mot gorge himself; as a natural

100

consequence, he throve best of all, and escaped the sleek obesity
of the rest of the party.

During the time that I kept these Shrikes, they fed chiefly on
egg, bread and milk, and raw meat. But from the first they
showed a keen relish for insects. Thus I noted on August 16th,
“The three young Shrikes all exhibit great excitement when a
House-fly passes, and take House-flies and Bluebottles readily from
my fingers. They appreciate dried ‘ants’ eggs’ (really ants’ cocoons),
but like far better a Mealworm or a Daddy-long-legs ; and snap
eagerly at an intruding Wasp.”

But they seemed to take a delight in holding their live food as
gingerly as possible. Thus, on October 25th I offered No. 2 a
fine Bluebottle, just as I sat down myself to breakfast. He was
not hungry, having just swallowed two plump Mealworms ; so he
sidled up, took the Bluebottle delicately, and then held it dangling
in the air bya single wing. Naturally the wing tore, and gave way,
and the fly returned to the window pane, to No. 2’s disgust. But
his brother bird, my favourite No. 1, had watched the proceedings
from an upper perch with the air of a connoiseur. I re-captured
the fly, and offered it to No. 1; he took it most carefully by the
thorax, and holding it tightly, first crushed and then bolted it.

A little later, I offered No. 2 another fly, and he proved that he
had learnt discretion; for though he seized it by the legs, he
raised his right foot, and grasped it for a moment between his
talons, then seized it by the abdomen with his beak, and forthwith
swallowed it.

On October 28th, I noted that No. 1 ate bread and milk in
rather a peculiar way, viz., by holding it between his toes, using
his foot therefore as a hand, whilst he pulled the bread to pieces
with his beak, resting during his meal on his left leg and on the
support of the upper part of the tarsus of the right leg ; that is to
say, that his right foot being engaged and unable therefore to grasp
the perch, he leant upon the edge of the tarsus.

These young Red-backed Shrikes never refused food; but if
gorged already, would hang the fresh supply upon a cross wire, or
lay it down on the edge of a perch. Perhaps the point about

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these Shrikes that surprised me most was the early age at which
they began to sing. The females never attempted to sing, but the
males sang while clamouring to be fed by hand. Both males sang
pretty constantly, but their vocal powers diverged from one another.
No. 1 sang in a low sweet tone, while No. 2 sang decidedly louder,
but with less sweetness. Latterly, they acquired much of the song
of a young Rock Thrush, which I kept in the same room.

My friend, Mr. H. D. Astley, F.Z.S., also kept a Red-backed
Shrike last autumn, of which he remarks in a letter of September
17th, that “he sings in an undertone.”

On October 25th, my diary runs, “Mr. W. Duckworth has just
called. No. 1 was singing, so we paused in the hall, that Mr.
Duckworth might hear the song, unseen. Mr. Duckworth
remarked that he had no idea that the species could produce such
sweet notes.” When we entered the room, No. 1 continued
singing, but No. 2 stopped his song to raise a cackle of indignation
at the stranger’s approach.

Besides the song proper, I noticed :—
1. A squeaking cry for food.
2. A lower note of complacence, on receiving a nice morsel.

3. Aloud chuckle of anger or surprise, which I called the
‘“‘war cry,” always accompanied by a very rapid swaying of the
tail—a motion from side to side and at the same time perpen-
dicular. One evening a friend brought a small terrier into my
rooms ; No. 1 dozed peacefully, but Nos. 2 and 3 raised the war
cry, and sustained it at the top of their voices for more than
twenty successive minutes.

And here it may be remarked that the female, when about to be
fed, not only squalled for the morsel, but expanded her wings
laterally to their full extent.

On one occasion I had an excellent opportunity of noting the
courtship of the Red-backed’ Shrike. During the forenoon of
October 25th, the sunlight happened to stream into my rooms,
and fell on the Shrikes’ cage. The Rock Thrush began to sing,
and so did Shrike No. 2. Twice did the Shrike sing most of the

102

Rock Thrush’s strain; as he sang on, his amatory instincts
grew, and he began to bow as he sang, raising himself to
his full height, and then bowing grotesquely, first on one
side and then on the other. As he sang on, he moved back-
wards and forwards, bowing all the time, until at last he fairly
bowed his astonished brother bird off the perch. Presently there
came a pause, and then the singing and bowing set in again ; once
more he bowed his fellow off the perch, and so pleased was he,
that he fired off the rest of his spirits in a continuation of clattering
war cries, swaying his tail excitedly; the performance ended, he
flew wildly backwards and forwards from one end of the aviary cage
to the other, as though seized with a paroxysm of migratory fever.

I must not dwell much longer upon the Red-backed Shrike ;
but before I bring my remarks on this species to a close, let me
give you an instance of the self-possession of one of my subjects.
On December 6th, I offered the two male Shrikes each a Meal-
worm. Now they were each devouring a lump of meat, holding
it between their feet, as they could not spit it, and tearing it into
shreds with their bill. What were they to do, when a luscious
Mealworm dangled before their eyes? In their despair they
war-hooped for a minute or so; then No. 2 dropped his lump of
meat with a thud of regret, and seized the fat grub. Notso No. 1.
Scorning his brother’s weakness, he sidled up to me on one leg,
holding his lump of meat in the other, and took the Mealworm
with his beak. It happened, however, to be a very lively grub,
and resented being devoured by a Shrike on one leg, by such
vigorous wriglings, that No. 1 was at last fain to drop his meat.
He then bolted the Mealworm in a great hurry, and swooped
down upon the morsel of meat as if it was of priceless value.

And here I should observe that Shrikes, like Hawks and many
other birds, disgorge the indigestible portions of their food in
pellets. Whenever, therefore, these young Shrikes threw up a
pellet, even at night, they generally flew down to find another bit
of meat’ or other food, to supply the newly-created vacuum.

Before taking leave of these Red-backed Shrikes, it remains for
me to point out that a sort of intermediate moult commenced

103

about August 15th, and was continued in September, when, being
in plump condition, they moulted the feathers of the breast and
head, as well as some of the back. Mr. Astley noted a similar
occurrence in his young bird. But neither my hand-reared female,
nor one which my correspondent Mr. Frank procured for me from
Germany, had moulted any feathers, when they died, in November.
My two males, Nos. 1 and 2, died, to my great regret, early in
December, 1883, victims of consumption, which I tried in vain to
stay.

One point which I ascertained from these examples is, that they
change the colour of their legs gradually. In July the tarsus and
toes of my young birds was of a delicate French grey ; when they
died in December, the light grey had become iron grey; and had
they lived through the winter, I have no doubt they would have
become as black as they usually are in adult examples.

Did time permit, I might say much more of this species, but
we must now pass on to consider the Woodchat and the Grey
Shrikes. :

The Woodchat is an extremely rare summer visitor to England.
I have only once seen it in England, #.¢, near Hertford, in May,
1873, when I saw a beautiful example perched on the projecting
bough of anoble oak. I have never yet met with anyone else who
has seen the bird in England himself; and it is therefore with great
pleasure that I shall cite a record of its occurrence in Cumberland.
The late Mr. W. Dickinson, F.LS., states at p. 21 of his Remi-
niscences of West Cumberland, that, “On April 11th, 1872, I saw
a Woodchat Shrike near Stainburn Tannery. It sat on the wall
several minutes, while I stood within twenty yards of it.”

It was in August, 1881, that I obtained from a Geneva tailor a
male and a female Woodchat, which he had reared by hand. Their
nestling dress was paler than that of the nestling Red-backed
Shrikes ; but an example which my friend Mr. Young obtained the
same autumn from Paris, was a very dark individual.

The male of my Woodchats was easily distinguished from his
sister by his superior size, and carriage; by his nearly white throat;

104

and by his underparts being less marked with grey than the
female.

When offered food, the female was very bold, opening her
wings, fluttering them, and squeaking for food like a spoilt kitten.
The male Woodchat was quieter and less bold. He generally
selected the largest morsels of meat, and devoured them leisurely,
holding them between the toes of his left foot. The greedier
female chose smaller morsels of food, in order to bolt them as
rapidly as possible. They drank very little. Indeed, I never saw
the male drink between August roth, when I obtained them, and
August 17th. As it happened, we left Geneva on August 11th for
St. Beatenberg, on the mountain side, above Interlaken. The
Woodchats appeared to feel acutely the fall in temperature. On
August 18th, a Bluebottle approaching the birds, the female
Woodchat made many futile efforts to seize it. The male was
cannier. He watched the fly enter the cage, allowed it to settle
on the meat, and when he saw that it was off its guard, down he
dropped on it and secured it asit rose. But his sister bird dashed
at him, snatched it out of his beak, and carried it off to the top
perch, where she transferred it to a foot and devoured it com-
placently. On August 16th, she caught an Earwig, which promptly
vanished down her throat. On August 25th, I picked up a huge
green Grasshopper, and as he had lost several legs, I took him to the
Woodchats. They had a sharp tussle for it, in which the female
carried off the remaining leg, and crushing it in her beak, devoured
it in spite of its barbs. The male killed the insect by pinching the
abdomen, after which he swallowed it piecemeal, the abdomen
first, then the head, and last of all the thorax. On August 21st,
the female in my presence carried five or six small pieces of meat
from the food trough to the first perch, and then hung them in a
row over the wire frame-work of the cage. I had repeatedly seen
them thus suspended, but had not seen them being hung before.
I therefore dislodged them, but the female Woodchat dashed down
after them, and replaced them as she had arranged them pre-
viously,

I may remark that these Woodchats, like my Red-backed

———

105

Shrikes, were fond of bathing; but whereas the males of the
Red-backed Shrike used to abuse the female (No. 2 nearly killed
both No. 1 and No. 3 in a paroxysm of temper), the two Wood-
chats, in a far smaller cage, lived in unity and concord. Moreover,
they had a distinct idea of the difference between meum and tuum.
Of course, they both tugged at the same Grasshopper or the same
Frog (for I gave them small Edible Frogs and Tadpoles), but they
never lost their tempers ; and if either had hung up a dainty on
the wires of the cage, the other, however hungry, would not think
of touching his fellow’s spoil.

Before I pass on to the Grey Shrikes, I may say that, though I
lost the female Woodchat in the following September, when she
had not lost a feather,—yet I nursed the male bird through a long
moult, which commenced in mid August, and was all but finished
when he died of a surfeit of Blackbeetles, through the cook’s over-
indulgence, in the following December. I had placed him for
warmth in the kitchen, and he used to watch the Blackbeetles
flopping into a beetle-trap; whenever he saw a beetle tumble in,
he gave a war-hoop, to let the servant know, and in order to
humour him, they attended to his wants. He never sang as a
nestling, but some days before his death I had the pleasure of
hearing him singing a low but sweet song.

Of our three British species of Grey Shrikes, the Lesser Grey
alone is of extreme rarity with us. It has only, so far as memory
serves me, been captured three times: once on the coast of Nor-
folk, and twice in Cornwall. Up to the present time I have failed
to obtain living examples.

The best known of the Grey Shrikes that visit England is the
Great Grey Shrike. It is scarcely to be distinguished from Pallas’s
Grey Shrike, which has also occurred occasionally in England, but
more often on the east coast of Scotland. These two species
probably interbreed somewhere in Northern Europe, and a bird
which I believe to be a hybrid* was shot near Carlisle in January

* But Mr. Goodchild, F.Z.S., considers this bird to be a pure-bred Pallas’s
Shrike. [It is almost identical in coloration with the Asiatic-, or Pallas’s
Grey Shrike from Archangel, now in the Bird Gallery at the Natural History
Museum. J.G.G.]

106

last, the pure example of the Great Grey Shrike, also exhibited,
having been shot at Kirklinton last December.

On January 12th, 1884, I spent some hours in hunting for the
above-mentioned bird, now the property of Mr. Ritson.t When
about to give up the search from stress of time, I spied something
very grey on the inside of a hedgerow in the Willow Holme. I
walked quietly towards it, under cover at first; when I was about
fifty yards from it, or less, it darted across the field, flying very low,
disappeared through a hedgerow, and I saw it no more. Some
four days later it was cleverly shot after a long stalk, for it was
very wild, by Mr. Railton, from whom it passed into the collection
of Mr. Ritson, for whom he was in the habit of shooting specimens.
Mr. Ritson most obligingly retained it in the flesh until I could
examine it, and gave me the body, which proved on dissection, to
be that of a female. The stomach was quite empty. The bird
weighed two ounces and half a drachm.

On the 6th of February last, I saw another Grey Shrike, a
beautiful blue-grey bird, in the wood which clothes the scar at
Grinsdale. Mr. Railton two days later found a Fieldfare impaled
and partly eaten in the same wood; he brought it to me, and I
noted with surprise that the skull was quite intact ; for the tame
example of which I am about to speak, invariably devoured the
skull first of all. However, Mr. Railton was never able to shoot
this Shrike, though he once followed it for a considerable
distance.

In conclusion, let me say a few words about a caged example,
which was caught in Kincardineshire in November, entered my
possession in December, and died in January from a swelling
developed while I was taking country duty for an absent vicar.
From December 14th to 21st, this bird, a nearly mature male of
the Great Grey Shrike, lived partly on liver, partly on an allowance
of one sparrow per diem, From December 21st to 27th, I gave
him two birds a day. On December 28th, I found him
devouring a mouse, which he must have caught for himself in

+ Since presented to the Carlisle Museum; and figured in Pl. I. of the
present Number.

107

the aviary; when I disturbed him, he was holding it half-
devoured in one foot. On December 28th, I gave him a dead
Blue Tit. He almost at once spitted it through the neck on an
upright thorn; he then pulled the head off, and swallowed it,
feathers and all; he returned to flay the breast, after which he
took the bird off the thorn and respitted it, the thorn now passing
through the lumbar region, and the tail being now uppermost ; he
then tore the flesh off, swallowing many feathers, which he after-
wards threw up as pellets ; finally he took the trunk of the Tit off
the thorn and carried it to a corner of a perch, where he left it, but
mounted guard over it: I then tossed him a dead Wren, which he
ate in the same way. I usually left him a supply of live sparrows,
which he killed and hung whenever his larder was bare. I had
some misgivings at first as to whether he would not kill the sparrows
one after another, and hang them in one long row. But he was
quite well disposed to them, and only killed them when he wanted
a fresh meal. He seemed to prefer house-mice to sparrows ; but
whatever his food, he always hung it, whether given him alive or
dead, before holding his post-mortem upon it.

APPENDED NOTES.

(x.) From notes kindly given to me by Mr. W. Greenup,
extending over many years, it appears that, although in 1865 the
Red-backed Shrike reached Keswick as early as April 27th, it is
not until between May gth and 12th that this species usually
arrives in the Lake district.

(2.) When studying the Great Grey Shrike in the Rhine
Marshes, July, 1884, I formed the conclusion, that the cries of the
fledged nestlings, when clamouring to the old birds, are decidedly
harsher but less shrill than those of the Red-backed Shrike.

(3.) The falconers of Valconswaard informed me that the
Great Grey Shrikes, used by them in netting “ passage” falcons,
are taken at the end of September or early in October with limed
twigs ; and become so tame, that they cannot be used for taking
falcons for more than a single season.—H.A.M.

109

NOTES ON THE BEST LOCALITY
FOR COAL BENEATH THE PERMIAN ROCKS OF
NORTH-WEST CUMBERLAND.

BY ot. Ve HOLMES. HiG.s.,) MA. 1:

Coat is worked on many different geological horizons among the
Carboniferous rocks of Cumberland and the Border, and not
merely in those beds which are specially known as Coal Measures,
and which constitute the Coal-field of Whitehaven, Workington,
and Maryport. The lowest coal-bearing strata of any importance
are those of the Canobie Coal-field, just across the Border, which
are now ascertained by the Geological Survey to be the equivalent
in geological position of the lowest beds of the Carboniferous
Limestone elsewhere. Much later in date than the Canobie coal-
seams are those that have been worked in East Cumberland and
West Northumberland, from Brampton to Hexham, at Blenkinsop,
Roachburn, Fourstones, and other places. These coals are of the
so-called Yoredale age ; the Little Limestone coal, named from its
position just below a certain bed of limestone recognised over a
large area, being the best known seam. Lastly, we have the
coals of the Whitehaven Coal-field, which may or may not be on
the same geological horizon as the Coal Measures of the Newcastle
Coal-field, but which are certainly the latest in date, and the most
important economically, in Cumberland. And it is manifest that
the coal-seams to be looked for beneath the Permian rocks of
north-west Cumberland must be those of Maryport, Aspatria, and
Bolton-Low-Houses.

110

When writing a short note last year, on “Coal Measures below
the New Red Sandstone,” for No. 8 of Zvansactions, it occurred
to me that the subject was one that might be treated at somewhat
greater length on this occasion. Under any circumstances, how-
ever, this matter is not one that can be discussed in much detail,
inasmuch as the available facts bearing upon it are few in number,
and such as allow us to draw but vague conclusions from them.
One great hindrance to full and definite knowledge consists of the
thick covering of Glacial Drift which spreads alike over Coal
Measures and Permian rocks, and allows but of the most scanty
and imperfect observation of either at the surface, even in river
valleys, or along the sea shore. One result of this drift covering
in north-west Cumberland that may be noted here is, that some
beds of gypseous shales, known from borings to reach a thickness of
of about seven hundred feet at Kelsick Moss, near Abbey Town,
and half that thickness at Bowness-on-Solway, nowhere appear at
the surface at all. Their existence, in short, would be utterly
unknown and unsuspected but for the borings that have revealed
it. In addition, the Kelsick Moss boring disclosed the fact that
instead of the thirty or forty feet of drift that might have been
expected, there were no less than two hundred feet. The Permian
(St. Bees) Sandstone is seen south of Kelsick Moss, about Aspatria
and Brayton, to be dipping towards the Solway. On the north,
about Annan, it is also dipping towards the Solway, or in the
reverse direction. Nothing but Glacial Drift is seen above the
St. Bees Sandstone either north or south of Kelsick Moss. Conse-
quently all that surface observations could warrant us in predicting
at Kelsick Moss would be the presence of St. Bees Sandstone
below about forty or perhaps fifty feet of Glacial Drift. Yet the
top of the St. Bees Sandstone was reached not at a depth of forty,
but of nearly nine hundred and forty feet.

Then, again, now that the existence of these Gypseous Shales
is made known to us by borings, we are still prevented by the —
presence of superficial beds at the surface from being able to
ascertain their lateral extent. We do indeed see that the St, Bees
Sandstone is uncovered by Gypseous Shales in a belt of. country

Til

varying from one to two miles in breadth lying directly north
of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary-line, between Maryport
and the Caldew.* But north of Maryport, a walk along the
southern shore of the Solway shows nothing but drift or alluvium
from Allonby to Rockliffe. And north of a straight line drawn
from Allonby to Dalston, and west of the rivers Caldew and Eden,
the only inland sections—excluding those showing superficial beds
alone—are in the Lias country of Aikton and Orton. North of
the Allonby and Dalston line it is probable that the Gypseous
Shales soon begin to come on above the St. Bees Sandstone, or
they would be unlikely to attain a thickness of more than seven
hundred feet at Kelsick Moss. Whether they reach anything like
their maximum thickness at Kelsick Moss must remain uncertain.
On looking at a map, it appears that while the Kelsick Moss boring
is about nine-and-three-quarter miles south of the nearest northward
exposure of St. Bees Sandstone—on the Annan Water below
Annan—it is only three miles north of the nearest section in that
rock to the south—in the cutting west of Leegate Railway Station.
And considering also that the Gypseous Shales attain a thickness
of three hundred and sixty-seven feet at Bowness, though St. Bees
Sandstone appears at Tordoff Point and below Annan on the
Scottish shore, I should be inclined to suppose them at their
maximum in the neighbourhood of Newton Arlosh rather than
that of Kelsick Moss. But of course it is not improbable
that no great difference. may exist between the thickness
of the Gypseous Shales at Kelsick, Newton Arlosh, Whitrigg,
Silloth, Pelutho, and other places that might be named. The
basin-shaped structure of the district is, I may remind you, shown
in the way in which water, evidently derived from the St. Bees
Sandstone, and flavoured by its passage through the Gypseous
Shales, rises to the surface in the Kelsick borehole.

Itis probable that any deep borehole on the coast between Bow-
ness and Allonby would pass through a considerable thickness of
Gypseous Shales before reaching the St. Bees Sandstone, the

* A map showing this boundary line illustrates my paper on the Distinctive
Colours of the Carboniferous and Permian rocks.— 77ansactions, Part vii. p. 79.

112

outcrop of the latter rock, beneath the sea, being some distance
outside the present shore. But the depth at which the Permian
rocks lie beneath the level of the sea;prevents them from exercising
any influence whatever on the shape of the coast line, and conse-
quently from affording any indications as to their respective
boundaries. If we compare the prominence of the coast-line
close to Maryport with its recession in Allonby Bay, we see the
difference between the effect of marine denudation on cliffs the
base of which, at least, is red sandstone, and cliffs wholly composed
of glacial drift. But in and north of Allonby Bay the coast
features are wholly drift features, and nowhere allow us to compare
the effects of the sea on St. Bees Sandstone and on Gypseous
Shales.

So much for the effects of the drift covering as a hindrance to
knowledge of the rocks below. But a more deep-seated hindrance
lies in the decided unconformity of the Permian rocks to the
underlying Carboniferous beds. This unconformity implies that
before the deposition of the Permians, the Carboniferous rocks
had been elevated and had become land. That this elevation
had been unequal in different places, and that in consequence
of this inequality the rocks had suffered in very different
degrees locally, both from the action of the sea during elevation,
and of rain and rivers since the tract became dry land. Ata
subsequent period the Carboniferous area became subject to a
movement of depression, and the Permian rocks were deposited
upon it. Thus the relations of these two formations to each other
are necessarily very different from those which would have existed
had they been deposited in a slowly- and continuously subsiding
area, no movement of upheaval having intervened. For instead
of the base of the Permian series being always on a particular
geological horizon, it may rest at one place on the highest of the
Carboniferous beds, at another on the lowest. In other words—under
the St. Bees Sandstone at Bowness, for example, may be rocks of
Carboniferous Limestone age; under Kelsick Moss Coal Measures,
or beds of Yoredale age—or just the reverse may occur. And
besides this uncertainty arising from the unconformity between

113

the Carboniferous and Permian formations, we must never forget
that we know nothing whatever of the dislocations affecting the
disposition of the Carboniferous beds north of the faulted boundary
line. For the superficial beds prevent us from seeing anything
of most of those which affect the Permian, Trias and Lias; while
faults of the utmost magnitude may affect the Carboniferous
series below, yet not extend into the Permian and other formations
above. While, if we may judge of the faults likely to exist in the
Carboniferous rocks north of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary
from those south of it, we may consider them likely to be both
numerous and important. And no help can be derived from
observation of the Carboniferous rocks on the Scottish side of the
Border, inasmuch as they are divided from those of the area under
consideration either by a broad belt of Permian-covered ground, or
by the waters of the Solway.

In addition to the unconformity between the Carboniferous and
the Permian formations, we must not omit to consider that in the
Coal-Measures themselves—the unconformity between the White-
haven Sandstone and the beds on which it rests. This of course
implies that the base of the Whitehaven Sandstone may be on very
different horizons at different places, and that coals existing below
it at one spot may have been denuded away during its deposition
at another. The peculiar rock, mainly purple-grey in colour,
known as the Whitehaven Sandstone, is well shown in the cliffs
between the harbour at Whitehaven and St. Bees Head; and the
unconformity between it and the underlying measures is visible to
any careful observer, and has been long recognised by geologists.
I do not think the magnitude and practical importance of this
unconformity in any way comparable to that between the Carbon-
iferous and the Permian formations, and consequently would deal
with it very briefly but for one circumstance. Mr. J. D. Kendall,
in the valuable paper read by him last year on “The Structure of
the Cumberland Coal Field,”* includes in the term ‘“‘ Whitehaven
Sandstone” not only the rock visible at Whitehaven, Rose Gill,
and other places, which has long been considered to belong to it,

* Pro. N. Eng. Inst. Min, Eng., Vol. xxxii. p. 319 (1883).
9

114

but all measures whatever that are, in the main, of a purple-grey
colour. Now the mere tint itself, without specific evidence of
unconformity in each case, can give no presumption of any weight
as regards affinity or age. Its insignificance, indeed, is illustrated
by Mr. Kendall’s remark that “in the Whitehaven Sandstone these
rocks (viz., sandstones and shales) are generally of a purple-grey
colour, though in some places they include light sandstones and
also light- and dark-coloured shales such as prevail in the Lower
Coal-measures.” For why, it may be asked, should the purple-grey
colour, in such cases, be more entitled to weight, as showing
Whitehaven Sandstone age, than the “light sandstones and also
light and dark coloured shales, such as prevail in the Lower
Coal-measures,” as showing the reverse? Whatever the respective
predominance of the tints, their coexistence points to the absence
of any conditions, during deposition or since, excluding either
hues. It is quite possible that many patches of unquestionable
Whitehaven Sandstone may exist not only in the Coal-field but far
to the east of it, lying on beds of Millstone-Grit or of Yoredale age.
But considering the extraordinary diffusion of Carboniferous rocks,
mainly purple-grey in colour, in Cumberland, it would be in the
highest degree rash to consider rocks so tinted as belonging to the
Whitehaven Sandstone, without evidence of unconformity in each
case. On the Esk, about Canobie, on the Liddel, in the railway
cuttings between Riddings Junction and Penton, on the Line
above Brackenhill Tower, in the district between the Petterill and
the Caldew, and in Shawk Beck—to mention only a few localities
—purple-grey rocks abound, or predominate. Now it is utterly
incredible that in the localities named, there should be no evidence
of a general unconformity dividing the purple-grey rocks from
those of other tints, did it exist. In Shawk Beck, south of the
Carboniferous-Permian junction, there must be more than a
thousand feet of Carboniferous rocks, mainly purple-grey. Between
the Sebergham and Rosley road and Nine Gills farm-house, there
is an almost continuous series of sections in sandstones and shales,
mainly of that colour, the dip being high, and. regular as regards
direction, all the way., The presumption against the hypothesis

Gem as rc gs ee ee ee

115

that these beds are lying unconformably on other Carboniferous
strata below, is something enormous. And it should not be
forgotten that in any given case—such as this of Shawk Beck—
the onus probandi is entirely on the side of the assertor of the
unconformity.

I may be told, perhaps, that evidence on this head is given by
Mr. Kendall in his sheet of vertical sections (Pl. xxxiii.) as regards
the purple-grey beds of the Coal-field, at least. But it seems to me
that an impartial observer of the vertical sections could hardly fail
to detect therein at least one point almost decisive in itself against
its author’s view. Let us accept Mr. Kendall’s correlation of the
coal-seams, and compare the sections of Bullgill ‘and Aspatria.
We have as a base in each case the Yard Band. Ascending from
that horizon we notice (taking Mr. Kendall’s own correlation) that
a greater thickness of measures intervenes between the Yard and
Cannel Bands at Aspatria than at Bullgill, Above the Cannel the
Metal Band and the Thirty-inch Band are correlated in the two
pits, the greater thickness of the measures at Aspatria being still
maintained. Still ascending, the thin coal called the Rattler Band
at Bullgill does not appear at Aspatria, though a bed, apparently
of black or dark shale, lying a short distance below it, seems to be
represented at the latter place, just where it might be expected.
Then the Ten Quarters Coal at Bullgill, seems to be naturally
represented by a coal styled “Ten Quarters Coal of Bankend Pit,”
at Aspatria. But Mr. Kendall has not drawn a line connecting
the Ten Quarters Coal at the two places, though the position of
that seam at Aspatria is precisely where we should expect to see it,
considering the thickening of the measures there, and noticing that
a line connecting the coal at the two localities would have a
direction almost perfectly parallel with those connecting the lower
coals. Above the Ten Quarters Coal, a series of coal and shaly
beds at Bullgill appears (to me) to be represented by a somewhat
thicker series at Aspatria, and a thickish sandstone at Bullgill by
another somewhat thicker at Aspatria. Then a not-very-well
marked series is seen at both places, and the surface is reached at
‘Aspatria. But at Bullgill a series of beds not (it appears to me)

116

represented at all at Aspatria, being higher than any there, is seen.
Its uppermost member is a thick sandstone, which may very likely
represent the Whitehaven Sandstone.

I have remarked that Mr. Kendall has shown his recognition of
the thickening of the measures at Aspatria and of the correspond-
ence of the lower coals at the two places by connecting lines, but
that he has not joined the Ten Quarters Coal of Bullgill with that
of Aspatria, though the latter is just where it should be, judging
from the correlation of the lower coals. The explanation seems to
be that, according to some singular preconception on Mr. Kendall’s
part, the Ten Quarters Coal of Aspatria ought to be in the White-
haven Sandstone. He has accordingly placed the base of that
rock at Aspatria, just above the Thirty-inch Coal; while at Bull-
gill it is very much higher, being many fathoms above the Ten
Quarters. Now while we carry upward Mr. Kendall’s correlation
of the lower coals, and keep our lines to the top of the Aspatria
pit, nearly parallel with his, we meet with no difficulty ; the reverse
is the case if we adopt his view as to the base of the Whitehaven
Sandstone. For the sections in his supposed Whitehaven Sand-
stone are utterly unlike each other. And it is curious to note that
taking Mr. Kendall’s line for the base of the Whitehaven Sandstone
at Ellenborough, Bullgill, and Aspatria; we find that the two
places most distant from each other show the nearest correspond-
ence, as regards that rock, the intermediate place, Bullgill, differing
more from the two others than they do from each other. In fact,
a glance at the sheet of sections generally will produce the
impression (I think) that the upper beds at Bullgill differ decidedly
from those of Ellenborough, ‘Aspatria, and Bolton, and resemble
those ot Cleator Moor and Whitehaven. And that if the upper
beds at Cleator Moor, Whitehaven, and Bullgill belong to the
Whitehaven Sandstone series, those of Ellenborough, Aspatria,
and Bolton do not.

In any case, as the upper beds at the three last-named places
all contain coals of more or less importance, it is highly improbable
that the Whitehaven Sandstone has had any wide-spread influence

in. removing the upper coal-seams on the other side of the :

;

117

Carboniferous-Permian fault, at least within a certain distance of
that boundary.

And I may add with regard to Mr. Kendall’s paper, that its
merits as a most valuable collection of important facts relating to
the coalfield are so great, that, supposing my criticisms on his
Whitehaven Sandstone theory to be proved true to the fullest
extent, the damage thereby done to the paper would be com-
paratively trifling. But of course its very importance obliges me
to discuss it here so far as it has any bearing on my subject.

From looking at the more important lines of fault abutting
against those which form the Carboniferous-Permian boundary
little or nothing can be learned, inasmuch as it is impossible to
guess which fault has a continued existence under the St. Bees
Sandstone. Similarly it is impossible to say which of the two
boundary lines of fault which meet a little north of Bolton Low
Houses, is prolonged under the Permians, or whether both are, or
neither. One thing may be mentioned, however, as regards this
locality. The coals worked in Bolton Colliery may be looked for
_ beneath the St. Bees Sandstone on the northern side of the
boundary fault ; and, indeed, any coals worked anywhere in the
coal-field up to that fault may be expected below the St. Bees
Sandstone on its other side, at a considerably increased depth.

In conclusion, I will mention a few things that should be borne
in mind by any searcher for coal beneath the Permians. First,
that borings east of Wigton are not likely to be of much use, as
the measures which will probably be met with, though not entirely
destitute of coals, are not to be compared in that respect with those
further west. Secondly, that south and south-west of Wigton
prudent persons will keep within a mile or thereabouts of the
faulted boundary. The advantages of this course, as compared
with boring further to the north, are unquestionable. For though
we may fairly assume, as I have already remarked, that coals
worked up to the faulted boundary on the southern, or upthrow
side, will be met again on the downthrow, or northern side, at a
considerably increased depth, we cannot reckon that this will be
true a considerable distance from the fault. And a similar remark

118

may be made as regards the Coal Measures generally. For in
consequence of the unconformity of the overlying Permians to the
Carboniferous beds, the St. Bees Sandstone may rest on Upper
Coal Measures at a given place—Aspatria, for instance—and three
miles northward on beds altogether below the Coal Measures
(Fig. 1). Again, as we go north of the boundary we may expect

Borehore. ak Aspotria
Helscek Moss t

to meet not only with a greater thickness of St. Bees Sandstone,
but with the Gypseous Shales, and probably with a thicker covering
of drift. And though the Gypseous Shales may come on gradually
above the St. Bees Sandstone, it is by no means improbable that
their southern boundary is a line of fault, with a downthrow to the
north, ranging nearly parallel with that which bounds the Permian
formation, and with that which, still further south, brings in the
Coal-Measures between High Hall and Gilcrux (Fig. 2). For

Borehole Fig. Aspatria
aé (eds wick 7noss be z He

though we have no evidence of the existence of any fault bringing
in the Gypseous Shales (as we have in the case of the lower
formations), yet considering the known tendency in the leading
lines of fault in a district to take certain prevalent directions, one
is by no means unlikely to exist. And the consequences of boring
on the wrong side of a fault are somewhat discouraging and calcu-

119

lated to check exploration, and consequently to prevent the growth
of geological knowledge. It is therefore better in every way that
exploratory borings should first be made in ground where there is
evidently nothing but Glacial Drift above the St. Bees Sandstone.
They may then be tried in the more doubtful ground to the north
without risk of undue discouragement, and with the possibility
that, owing to faults, or folds in the Carboniferous rocks, a more
favourable state of things may be revealed than could fairly be
expected. And, whether pecuniarily successful or not, speculative
borers in this region cannot fail to add materially to our knowledge
of the geology of the most obscure and sectionless district in all
Cumberland.

121

CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS A LIST OF PLANTS
FOUND IN THE PENRITH NEIGHBOURHOOD.

By J. C. SMITH, THE LUHAM.
(Read at the Penrith Annual Meeting.)

RANUNCULACEA.

Thalictrum minus. Sandy banks of the Eden at the Nunnery.
T. flavum. Bank of the Eden near The Luham. Rare.
Ranunculus aquatilis. Ponds near Edenhall. Common.

R. fluitans. The river Eden, Edenhall.

R. circinatus. Pond near The Luham.

R. hederaceus. Muddy pools near Langwathby.

R. lingua. In peat ditches, Newton Moss.

R. sceleratus. Peat bog near Little Salkeld. Rare.

R. auricomus. Lady’s Walk, Edenhall.

Trollius europeus. In damp shady places; Edenhall. Frequent.
Aquilegia vulgaris. Near Airey Beck, Ullswater.

BERBERACE.
Berberis vulgaris. In hedge near Langwathby.

PAPAVERACE.
Chelidonium majus. Shady wood, Stagstones.

FUMARIACE.

Corydalis claviculata. On sandstone rocks, Udford.

122

CRUCIFERA.

Nasturtium officinale. Streams and ditches, Edenhall. Common.
Oochlearia officinalis. Bank of the Eden.

VIOLACEA.

Viola palustris. Growing amongst moss, damp places, near The Luham.
V. odorata. In hedge banks, Edenhall.

V. canina. Hedge banks, Edenhall. Common.

V. lutea. On Crossfell.

DROSERACE.

Drosera rotundifolia. Udford bog; more abundant on the Fells.

CARYOPHYLLACE.

Cerastium arvense. Cultivated field near Edenhall.

Stellaria nemorum. Damp shady places by The Luham and Nunnery.
Scarce.

Sagina procumbens. With double flowers, The Luham.

LEGUMINIFERA.

Ulex galiti. On heath land, Inglewood Bank.

Genista anglica. Waste heath land, Great Salkeld.

G. tinctoria. On Eskers, The Luham. Common.
Ornithopus perpusillus. On heath near Ousby.

Ononis arvensis spinosa, By the river Eden, Great Salkeld.

ROSACEA.

Agrimonia eupatoria. Near Langwathby Bridge.

Geum intermedium. Stream side between Edenhall and Penrith.
Pyrus aria. The Lady’s Walk, Edenhall.

Rosa tomentosa. Near Great Salkeld.

R. rubiginosa. Near The Luham.

LYTHRACE.
Lythrum salicaria. River side, Udford and Edenhall. Scarce.

ONAGRACE.

Epilobium parviflorum. Damp places. Edeuhall.

’ E. tetragonum. Not uncommon in damp places, Edenhall.
E. palustre. Common in bogs, Udford.

Circea lutetiana. Moist shady places, Nunnery.

C. alpina. Edge of Ullswater at Pooley.

HOLORAGIACE.

Myriophyllum verticillatum. Pond near Edenhall; river Eden.
Callitriche verna pedunculata, Small pond near Edenhall.

CRASSULACE.

Sedum rhodiola. Howtown, Ullswater. Scarce.
S. album. Sandstone walls, Little Salkeld.
S. villosum. Wet boggy places on Melmerby Fell. Rare.

SAXIFRAGACEA,

Saxifraga aizoides. Mardale Gill.

S. hypnoides. Mountain streams, Mardale.

8. stellaris. Wet situations near Melmerby. Scarce.

S. granulata. Roadside near Edenhall.

Chrysosplenium alternifolium. Shady bog near Edenhall.
Parnassia palustris. Wet bog near Edenhall.

UMBELLIFER.

Apium graveolens. Muddy ponds near Edeuhall.
Silaus pratensis. Newton Moss,
Peucedanum ostruthium. By Airey Beck, Ullswater.

RUBIACEZ.

Galiwm boreale. Ullswater Lake shore.
Asperula odorata. Lady’s Walk, Edenhall; Askham Wood.

COMPOSITE.

Carduus heterophyllus. In hedgerow, Howtown.
Centaurea scabiosa. On peat ; Newton Moss. Scarce.
Serratula tinctoria. Wet places; Langwathby ; Newton Moss. .

124

Chrysanthemum segetum. Cornfields ; near Edenhall.

Artemisia vulgaris. On clay land ; Little Salkeld.

Gnaphalium uliginosum. Wet places, Common.

G. sylvaticum. On dry sandy ground ; Edenhall Wood.

Lactuca muralis. On walls and shady places ; Howtown.
Eupatorium cannabinum. The Giant’s Cave, Penrith. Common.
Tragopogon pratensis, By roadsides near Penrith.

CAMPANULACE#.

Campanula latifolia. Damp shady places ; Edenhall.

C. glomerata. In meadows ; Edenhall.

Jasione montana. On sandstone rocks, Udford. Plentiful.
Lobelia dortmanna. Ullswater ; and Brothers Water. Common.

ERICACE.

Vaccinium oxycoccos. Udford bog ; Edenhall.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Whinfell Wood.
Pyrola minor. On peat; Newton Moss. Rare,

GENTIANACE.

Erythrea centaurium. On clay banks ; Little Salkeld.
Gentiana amarella. High mountainous situations ; Crossfell.
Menyanthes trifoliata. In muddy ponds, Edenhall.

POLEMONIACE.
Polemonium ceruleum. Roadside, near Great Salkeld.

CONVOLVULACE4.
Convolvulus sepium. On alluvial soil ; Edenhall and Langwathby.

SOLANACEZ.
Solanum dulcamara. Wet boggy places; Udford and Edenhall. Common.

SCROPHULARIACE,

Linaria repens. Single specimen on Edenhall walks.
L. cymbalaria, On dry walls near dwellings, Kirkoswald.
L. vulgaris. .Hedgerows ; Edenhall. Not common.

125

Mimulus luteus, On the banks of the Eden and Eamont.
Veronica hederifolia. Edenhall village lane. Uncommon.
V. anagallis. Peat ditches; Newton Moss. Rare.

V. scutellata. Moist situations; Edenhall Pond. Common.

LABIATA.
Mentha rotundifolia. By rivulet near Patterdale Hotel, Ullswater.
M. piperita. Damp situation, near Great Salkeld.
Calamintha acinos. The Luham.
Scutellaria galericulata. Boggy places on the bank of the Eden.
Lamium amplexicaule. On cultivated land; The Luham, Rare,

PINGUICULACE.

Urticularia minor. Small pond behind the Patterdale Hotel.
U. vulgaris, Newton Moss.
Pinguicula vulgaris. In peat moss, Udford, Edenhall.

PRIMULACES,

Primula veris elatior (Oxlip). Single specimens only, Edenhall Woods.
P. farinosa. Growing on wet pastures ; Edenhall ; Newton Moss.
Anagallis arvensis. Found generally in cornfields ; Edenhall.

A. tenella. Damp pastures; Patterdale.

Lysimachia vulgaris. Udford ; near Edenhall.

POLYGONACE.

Rumex scutatus. A casual growing between Tirril and Pooley.
Polygonum bistorta. In a pasture field near Edenhall.
P, amphibium. By the edge of Edenhall Pond.

PLANTAGINACE.
Littorella lacustris. Edenhall Pond. Plentiful.

EMPETRACE.
Empetrum nigrum. High situations, on peat ; Barton Fell.

*

TYPHACE.

Typha latifolia. In a bog near Little Salkeld ; Newton Moss.
Sparganium ramosum. Ina poud near Edenhall.
S. simplex, Growing with S. ramosum, but less frequent.

126

ARACEA.
Arum maculatum. Shady places. Common about Edenhall.

NAIADACEA.
Potamogeton natans. In ponds. Common,
P. prelongus. The Eden, near Kdeshall.
P. crispus. Briggle Beck, Langwathby.
P. densus. Briggle Beck, Langathby.

ALISMACEA,
Triglochin palustris. Near Melmerby and Newton Moss.
Alisma plantago. ‘In a beck near The Luham. Scarce.
A. ranunculoides. Edenhall Pond. Rare.

HY DROCHARIDACEA.
Elodia canadensis. Becoming very plentiful in the Eden.

ORCHIDACE.
Orchis maculata alba. Near Edenhall Pond.
Gymnadenia conopsea. In meadows ; Edenhall.
Habenaria bifolia. Shady meadows near Langwathby.
Epipactis latifolia. Shady woods near Edenhall.
E. palustris. In a bog near Penrith.

LILIACEA.
Narthecium ossifragum. Udford bog. Scarce in the low lands.

LYCOPODIACEA.
Lycopodium clavatum. By mountain rivulet, Mardale.
L. selago. By mountain rivulet, Mardale.
Selaginella selaginoides. By mountain rivulet, Mardale.

EQUISETACE.
Equisetum sylvaticum. In a wood near The Luham, Edenhall.
E. limosum. Pond near Edenhall.
E. palustre. Damp shady place near The Luham.

CHARACE,
Chara syncarpa. Muddy ponds near Edenhall.
C. polyacantha. Newton Moss.

) gem

J. Donald Pecit.

Fig. 1.

”

9?

”

6a.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Loxonema urei, Flem. Capelrig, East Kilbride. Enlarged

twelve times.

Aclisina striatula, De Kon. Penton. Enlarged ten times.

Lb.

Enlarged to show the ornamentation.

Aclisina elongata, Flem. Widdle Fell, Mosedale. Drawn

Lb.
Lb.
Lb.

from a wax impression, and enlarged
fourteen times.

Penton. Enlarged eight times.
High Blantyre. Enlarged fourteen times.

Capelrig, East Kilbride. Enlarged four-
teen times.

Aclisina costatula, sp. nov. Penton. Enlarged ten times.

Lb,

Penton. Portion of another shell, shewing
the mouth. Enlarged ten times.

Orthonema quiquecarinata, De Kon. Penton. Enlarged

Lb,

Lb.

Lb,

four times.
Penton. Portion of a whorl enlarged to
shew the lines of growth.

Penton. Mouth of another specimen
enlarged four times.

Widdle Fell, Mosedale. Drawn from a
wax impression, and enlarged seven times.

127

NOTES ON SOME CARBONIFEROUS GASTEROPODA
FROM PENTON AND ELSEWHERE.

By Miss DONALD, STANwrx, CARLISLE.

THE fossils about to be described were mostly obtained from a bed
of calcareous shale, belonging to the Calciferous Sandstone Series,
at Penton, on the Border about fifteen miles north-east of Carlisle.

Associated with the Gasteropoda are representatives of the
Actinozoa, Crinoidea, Annelida, Ostracoda, Trilgbita, Polyzoa,
Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchiata, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda.
Remains of fish also occur, and I have obtained a specimen of their
palatal teeth, as well as part of the lower jaw of Megalichthys. The
fossils are crowded together on the bedding faces of the shales,
but few or none of them appear to be much worn, and they are
often so little disturbed that specimens of Encrinites and similar
fossils are occasionally found almost entire. It would therefore
appear that the strata where these fossils occur represent the result
of quiet deposition in the waters of the sea, at least at some distance
from land, if not actually in comparatively-deep water.

Some of the other fossils described were obtained from an
ochraceous bed whose present condition results from the partial
decomposition of a bed of impure ferruginous limestone. This
occurs near Mosedale, on the north slopes of Widdle Fell, just
beyond the county boundary of Westmorland, and about a mile to
the south-east of Hawes Junction, on the Midland Railway. Mr.
Goodchild informs me that this bed represents the equivalent of
what is: known as the Three Yard Limestone in the Yoredale

128

Rocks in Cumberland and Westmorland. In this deposit great
numbers of fossils are crowded together, as at Penton, and they
include quite as great a variety of forms. Owing, however, to the
fact that the calcareous portion of the rock has been carried away
in solution through weathering, the fossils in this instance are
represented chiefly by impressions of the exterior, together with
casts of the original vacancies. By carefully clearing away the
extraneous matter, and then pressing modelling-wax into the
cavities left by the shells, impressions are obtained: which reproduce
all the original relief of the shell, even to minute details only
discernible under a lens of high magnifying power.

Fossil remains of Gasteropoda rarely present any traces of
muscular impressions, or of such structures as in other Mollusca
are available as guides to the zoological position of the animals
that formed them. The opercula, where such originally existed,
are but seldom found, and the lingual dentition is in nearly every
case quite unknown. Hence we are compelled to rely, for the
determination of generic or of specific characters, upon the data—
most of them unsatisfactory at the best—that are furnished by the
external characters alone.

Amongst these external characters, the form of the mouth, and
especially the form of the outer lip, is one of the features of greatest
value, as indicating, to some extent, structural differences in the
animal that formed the shell. But a perfect mouth to a shell is
rare in the fossil state, and we are therefore obliged to make a
close examination of the structural feature that represents, in itself,
a succession of positions occupied by the edge of the outer lip.
They are represented by the lines of growth. And even these are
not always of such a nature as to furnish evidence of much value,
as individual specimens of such shells as usually display well-marked
lines of growth, occasionally have them obliterated. It therefore
becomes necessary, before stating any conclusion with regard to the
specific or other relations of fossil Gasteropoda, to make a careful
examination of a large number of specimens.

In the case of the species about to be described, I have made a
careful study of nearly the whole of the literature on the subject,

129

and have personally examined specimens in the British Museum,
the Museum of Practical Geology, the Museum of the Geological
Society, the Woodwardian Museum, the Museum of the Geological
Survey of Scotland, as well as other public collections located at
York, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. Mr. John Young, of the Hunterian
Museum, Glasgow, has been most kind, both in allowing me to
study his private collection, and in giving me specimens to com-
pare with my own.

Most of the shells whose description follows, have been at one
time or another described under the generic name of Murchisonia.
In many instances it is clear that this identification has been
founded upon error.

In 1841, Viscount D’Archiac and M. E. de Verneuil (Budletin de
la Soc. Geol. de France, t. xii. p. 154,) gave the name of MMurchi-
sonia to a group of elongated shells of which the outer lip is
notched, and the mouth is effuse below. Subsequently, Salter, in
1859, (Geol. Survey of Canada, Dec. 1, p. 18,) distinguishes from the
true AZurchisonie a group of beaded shells having the outer lip
notched, but with the mouth rounded and not effuse below. To these
he gives the name Hormotoma; and ZH. gracilis, a Silurian form, may
be taken as the type. There is another group of shells bearing
considerable external resemblance to Murchisonia, to which Messrs.
Meek and Worthen in 1861 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. p. 146,)
have given the name Orthonema. ‘These shells are elongated, and
they are generally ornamented with keels; but the outer lip is
straight and is not notched; hence the lines of growth come
straight down the whorls without any trace of the deep sinus
characteristic of the true Murchisonig. Some small elongated
beaded shells, ornamented with keels, or with rows of tubercles,
were sometimes included in the genus Murchisonia, and at other
times were referred to Loxonema, Turritella, Aclis, Turbonilla, etc.
These shells M. de Koninck (Aznales du Museé Royal D Histoire
Naturelle de Belgique, T. vi. 3me Partie, p. 86, 1881,) now groups
under the generic name of Aclisina. In this genus the mouth
is oval, and the outer lip is entire, instead of being notched as it
is in Murchisonia.

10

130

To the genus Loxonema, Phillips (Pal. Foss. p. 98, 1841), belong
elongated shells devoid of spiral keels, having the edge of the
outer lip sigmoidal in form, with its general direction inclined
several degrees to the right of the apex of the shell. The whorls
are usually ornamented with raised threads or with ribs, which
approximate in general direction with the lines of growth, and are
therefore sigmoidal in form, like the edge of the outer lip. No
trace of anything approaching a notch or sinus ever exists in this
genus. Many of the species bear a close resemblance to certain
members of the genus Me/ania.

Genus LoxoneMa (Phillips).

Shell elongated, spiral ; whorls more or less convex, their upper
edges adpressed against the next above. Mouth longer than wide,
attenuated above, effuse below, with a sigmoidal edge to the outer
lip. The whorls are ornamented with longitudinal threads or ribs,
generally arched like the jines of growth; and they are always
devoid of spiral keels.

LoxoNnEMA UREI (Flem.) Pl. II. fig. 1.

Turitella urei, Fleming, 1828, British Animals, p. 305.

Shell very small and slender, composed of about eleven whorls,
which are flattened on their upper surface, and are convex below.
They are each ornamented with fifteen or sixteen slightly sigmoidal
ribs, which are inclined at a small angle to the axis of the shell.
These ribs are strong in proportion to the size of the shell. No
umbilicus.

In the Catalogue of the Western Scottish Fossils, p. 56, this shell
has been entered in the genus M@urchisonia, the longitudinal ribs
and the absence of a slit in the outer lip having been overlooked.*
It was briefly described by Fleming (Brit. Animals, 1828, p. 305,)
as Turitella urei, and was figured by the Rev. David Ure in his
History of Rutherglen and East Kilbride, 1793, Pi. xiv. fig. 7. Also

entered as Z: wret in Morris's Catalogue of British Fossils, 2nd

* T am informed that the mistake in the genus was made in transcribing the
lists,

i

131

Edn., p. 285. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Young for
specimens of this species.

Length of a shell having six whorls, and of which the apex is
broken, 34 mm., width of body whorl, 14 mm.

Locality—Capelrig, East Kilbride.

Horizon—Shales of the Lower Limestone Series.t

Genus Acuisina (De Koninck).

Shell small, elongated, of numerous convex whorls, which are
ornamented with spiral keels. Mouth, oval; outer lip thin,
entire, and not produced; columella, slightly thickened. No
umbilicus. The shells of this genus are generally slender, and
do not attain a great size.

In 1866, Dr. Geinitz (Carbonformation und Dyas in Nebraska,
p. 5, Tab.i, f. 19,) desribes a shell as Zurbonilla swallowiana,
which probably belongs to this genus. And in the same year
Messrs. Meek and Worthen (Pad. //inois, vol. ii, p. 382, pl. xxvii.
f. 8 and 8a,) describe and figure Zurritella? stevensana, which
may also be referred to this genus. In both these shells, however,
the lines of growth appear to be more strongly sigmoidal than in
any of the species of Ac/isina I have yet seen. Other shells which
may possibly be referable to Aclisina, are—Loxonema polygyra,
M‘Coy; L. sulcatula, M‘Coy (Syn. of the Chars. of the Carb. Lst.
Foss. of Ireland, 1844) ; L. acutula, Dawson (Geol. Acadia, p. 309,
f. 122, 1868); Murchisonia minima, Swallow (Trans. St. Louis
Acad., p. 203, 1856-60,) &c., and some few others whose characters
I have not yet been able to examine carefully.

ACLISINA STRIATULA. (De Kon.) PI. IL, figs. 2, 2a.

Aclisina striatula, L. G. De Koninck, 1881. Annales du Musée
Royal D Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, T. vi., 3me Partie, p. 86,
Pl. ix., fig. 57, 58. ‘T. viii, 4me Partie, Pl. xxxiii., fig. 41, 42.

+ The Calciferous Sandstone Series of Scotland represents the Lower Lime-
stone Shale and the lower part of the Mountain Limestone of England. The
higher members of the Lower Carboniferous Rocks, which are known to
Scottish geologists as the Lower Limestone Series, Lower Coals and Ironstones,
and the Upper Limestone Series, are now known to represent the upper part of
the Mountain Limestone and the Yoredale Rocks of the English geologists,

132

Shell elongated, of ten to twelve convex whorls, separated by
deep sutures. The whorls are ornamented with from ten to fourteen
grooves, separated by the same number of threads. These grooves
vary in width and depth, and the threads also vary in strength,
giving the shell a peculiar appearance, which causes it to be easily
distinguished from any others of the genus. The disposition and
number of wide- and narrow grooves vary on different individuals.
The strongest thread and the widest groove occur about the centre
of the whorls on this specimen. The mouth is imbedded in the
matrix in the individual examined.

I have found only one specimen of this species, which occurs at
Penton. There are several specimens of it from the Carboniferous
Limestone of Settle, in the museums at Cambridge, South Ken-
sington, Leeds, and York; and all these are much larger than the
specimens from Penton. Mr. Young has specimens in his collection
from the shales of the Lower Limestone Series of Craigenglen, and
from the shales of the Upper Limestone Series of Swindridge
Muir, which are larger than mine, though not so large as those
from Settle. Mr. R. Etheridge, junr., (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
Vol. xxxiv., p. 19, Pl. ii., fig. 29,) describes a small shell from the
Calciferous Sandstone Series of Woodhall, near Edinburgh, which
he refers doubtfully to 4. striatula De Kon. He states that the
ridges and grooves are less than twelve, and that the former are
separated by spaces nearer equal than is the case on 4. striatula.

Length, 5 mm.; width of body whorl, about 13 mm.

Locality—Penton.

Horizon—Calciferous Sandstone Series.

ACLISINA ELONGATA. (Flem.) Pl. IL, figs. 3, 4, 4@, 44.

Turitella elongata, Fleming, 1828, Brit. Animals, p. 305.

Shell small, elongated, slender, of thirteen to at least sixteen
whorls, which are slightly flattened above and convex below. The
whorls are each ornamented with from seven to nine keels, which,
on some individuals, are separated by nearly-equal spaces; the
widest space, however, is generally just above the middle of the
whorl, Sometimes the two spaces next above are equally-wide ;

poe

133

while the spaces between the five or six keels on the lower part of
the whorl are much narrower. The two uppermost keels are the
slightest, and they are occasionally absent. This variation in the
disposition of the keels is observed on different individuals occur-
ring in the same stratum. The lines of growth are not very
distinct, but they are visible under a magnifier. The mouth is
nearly round.

This shell was figured by the Rev. David Ure (story of
Rutherglen and East Kilbride, Pl. xiv., fig. 11, 1793.) It was
afterwards briefly described by Fleming as Zurritella elongata, (Brit.
Animals, p. 305, 1828.) It is entered as Z: elongata, Flem., by
Morris in his Catalogue of Brit. Foss., 2nd Edn., p. 284.

Length of specimen figured, 64 mm.; width of body whorl,
about 2mm. The shell figured is slightly flattened by pressure.
Another specimen is 83 mm. in length, it has thirteen whorls, and
the apex is broken. It would probably have three more whorls if
perfect. It also is slightly flattened by pressure. Shells of nine
to eleven whorls are most abundant; those of greater size being
comparatively rare.

Locality and Horizon.—I have found about a dozen specimens
of this species in the Calciferous Sandstone Series at Penton ; and
small specimens abound in the shales of the Lower Limestone
Series at Capelrig, East Kilbride. It also occurs in the same beds
at High Blantyre and Craigenglen, and also in the shales of the
Upper Limestone Series at Glencart, Dalry. Small casts occur on
Widdle Fell, which seem to be identical with this species.

ACLISINA COSTATULA, sp. nov., Pl. II., figs. 5, 5a.
Shell small, elongated, slender, of thirteen to fifteen whorls, of
which the upper part is slightly flattened, and the lower convex.
There are four strong keels on the lower part of each whorl, and

_ frequently another slightly-finer one below, which is hidden beneath
_ the suture on the upper whorls. On the upper flattened part of

each whorl another keel is generally placed below the suture, and
between this keel and the uppermost of the others is the widest
space. This keel is occasionally absent. Lines of growth not

134

very distinct, but sufficiently well-marked to be made out with the
aid of a magnifier, when a strong light is cast obliquely on the
surface of the specimen under examination. The mouth is nearly
round, and the columella is slightly thickened.

This shell bears some resemblance to A. edongata, but the keels
are decidedly stronger, as well as less numerous. From Loxonema
polygyra, M‘Coy, it differs in its more numerous whorls, and in
the keels being placed at unequal distances on.the surface of the
whorls. The description given by Professor M‘Coy, however, is
too brief for satisfactory identification, and I have not seen the
type specimen. Both this species and A. e/ongata, Flem., resemble
Turritella? stevensana, Meek and Worthen, but each differs from
it in having a smaller spiral angle.

aia 54 mm.; width of body whorl, rather more than
14 mm.

Locality. ley cient of this shell are fairly abundant at Penton,
the most frequent size having nine or ten whorls. Mr. Young has
also found this species at Cunninghambaidland, Dalry, in the
shales of the Lower Limestone Series ; and at Glencart, Dalry, in
the shales of the Upper Limestone Series.

Horizon.—Lower Carboniferous Series.

Genus OrTHONEMA. (Meek and Worthen.)

Shell elongated, of numerous whorls, ornamented with spiral
keels crossed by nearly straight lines of growth. Mouth angular
above and slightly effuse below; peristome incomplete; lip ae
and nearly straight. No umbilicus.

This genus bears considerable resemblance to AZurchisonia; but —
the absence of a slit in the outer lip distinguishes it. From —
Aclisina it differs in having less rounded whorls, and the lines
of growth straight instead of curved. Messrs. Meek and Worthen —
give, as the typical species of the genus, O. sa/fert, which was’
described.as Eunema? salteri in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.
p. 464, 1860, and was figured in the Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. ti, —
Pl. xxxi., fig. 14, 1866. The type species is from the Upper Coal :
Measures.

135

ORTHONEMA QUINQUECARINATA, (De Kon. sp.)
Pl. II., figs. 6, 6a, 64, 7.

Murchisonia quinquecarinata, L. G. De Koninck, 1881. Annales
du Musée Royal D' Histoire Naturelle de Belgique, T. viii, 4me
Partie, p. 23, Pl. xxxiv,, fig. 14,15, 16.

Shell elongated, turreted, composed of from thirteen to fifteen
gradually-increasing angular whorls. Each whorl is ornamented
with five keels, of which the middle one is placed rather below the
centre, and it is the most prominent. On full grown shells the
widest space is generally between the uppermost keel and that
next below; specimens of about ten whorls frequently have the
spaces between the keels nearly equal; and small shells have the
widest space between the central keel and that next above. Occa-
sionally the uppermost keel is faint, or absent altogether. In
addition to the five keels, M. L. G. De Koninck describes two
more below on the body whorl; but there is not more than one
extra keel on any of my specimens. There is also, on some speci-
mens, a fine line between the central keel and that next above on
allthe whorls. The lines of growth are distinct on many specimens;
they are nearly straight, and they pass over the keels without any
indication of a sinus. Some of the lines are so strong as to cause
the keels to be somewhat crenulated on some specimens. Mouth
imperfectly preserved ; it appears to be rather longer than wide,
and the peristome is incomplete. No umbilicus.

I sent a specimen of this shell from Penton, and also of one
from Mosedale, to M. L. G. De Koninck, who kindly identified
them with his J/urchisonia quinguecarinata. In the Annales du
Musée Royal D Histoire Naturalle de Belgique, T. viii., 4me Partie,
p. 14, he states that some of the shells described as Murchisonia
may possibly prove to belong to the genus Orthonema; but owing
to. the imperfect preservation of some of them, he was unable to
decide this question. The preservation of the lines of growth on
the specimens from Penton proves that this surmise is correct, for
the outer lip, as indicated by the lines of growth, must have been
entire, and these shells, therefore, can no longer be retained in the
genus J/urchisonia.

136

Length of specimen figured, 16 mm.; breadth of body whorl,
3mm. Other shells from Penton would be larger if perfect.
The specimens from Mosedale are much smaller; the largest I
have found, if perfect, would only be about 6 mm. in length.

Locality and Horizon.—This shell is tolerably abundant in the
Calciferous Sandstone Series at Penton. T have collected more
than sixty specimens there, in different stages of growth. Mr.
Young has specimens in his collection from the shales of the Lower
Limestone Series of Craigenglen. They are about the same size
as those from Penton, and the lines of growth are preserved on
many of them. He has also small shells from the shales of the
Upper Limestone Series of Robroyston. I have also portions of
several shells from the Yoredale Shales near Askrigg, Wensley
Dale, which are of nearly the same dimensions as those from
Penton. Small casts occur in the Yoredale Rocks at Mosedale,
on the north slopes of Widdle Fell.

/

137

THE POETS AND POETRY OF CUMBERLAND,
INCLUDING THE CUMBRIAN BORDER.

By THE Rev. T. ELLWOOD, B.A.
(Read at Ambleside, )

To understand the style and spirit of Cumbrian Border Poetry, it
will be necessary to take a brief retrospect of Cumbrian history ;
and we find therefrom that the position of Cumberland has been
isolated and unsettled from the very first dawn of authentic
history.

In the time of the Heptarchy, it was not a Saxon but a Celtic
kingdom, and included Westmorland and a portion of Lancashire,
and is said at one time to have extended as far asthe Dee. At
one time the respective Celtic kingdoms of Cornwall, of Wales,
and of Cumberland, may have extended in an unbroken line
along the western portion of England. And though gradually
receding, yet for a long time Morecambe Bay formed the southern
limit of the kingdom of Cumberland, which would still therefore
include Westmorland and Furness ; and if you look at the map, it
would almost seem as if Nature had intended them to be one.
They are one in a great measure in the physical aspect of the
country, diversified as it is by mountains, lakes, and valleys ;
one in the cautious, sturdy, independent, and hospitable character
of their inhabitants ; and one in a great measure—at any rate, till
you get upon the Border line—in the well-known dialect which
characterises and identifies the race.

This kingdom of Cumbria, then, which had been a Scottish

138
possession until the time of Malcolm Kenmore, was, in 1091,
made over to England; and this from the 11th to the end of the
17th century formed upon its northern frontier a scene of unceasing
warfare and bloodshed.

Along the Border there is a tract of land between the Esk and
the Sark for a long time claimed by both kingdoms, and upon this

‘territory, for centuries, club-law prevailed.

Two leading families—Scott upon the Scottish, and Dacre upon
the Cumbrian frontiers, were the chiefs of their respective counties
in time of actual warfare. The right of might prevailed almost
universally upon the Border ; and, from the peer to the peasant,
every man was equally ready to take part in a fray.

A verse from one of the Cumbrian Border Ballads will show the
character of the warfare, and introduces the Border hero, Belted
Will :—

The warder has look’d from the old grey tower,
And unto his Lord he said,

‘“The mosstroopers come with a terrible power,
And a champion at their head.”

’ “Now by my sword,” said that gallant lord,
‘* We'll meet them in the field ;
Let each man show his might in the fight,
And the traitors be they who yield.”

Scattered all over the Border, and so far inland as to include
Westmorland, were buildings consisting of a square tower of three
floors—the lowest one used for the reception of cattle, the higher,
consisting of a single apartment each, for the reception of the
family. Doubtless some of you will, like myself, have seen them,
and know therefore that they were pierced with narrow loopholes,
for the purposes of defence.

It is difficult to number those lesser castles or peels. ‘The house
of every man even of moderate estate was literally his castle ; and
very many have been long since levelled and forgotten, or are only
incidentally mentioned in the scanty local records, or are disclosed
by the names they bear. It has been much the custom to include

139

the old towers in the modern houses ; so that nothing of them is
visible, and their presence is only revealed by the exceptional
thickness of their walls, as shown on a plan. Many of the old
residences of this kind have been pointed out in either county, for
it has been truly said—scratch a Cumberland or Westmorland
squire’s house, and you find a peel.

In the immediate neighbourhood of the Border line, the trade
of many of these people was cattle lifting; and this in some
measure formed the basis of their system of operations,—that when
a Cumbrian had his house plundered of a cow, he went over the
Border and helped himself to another cow, or, possibly, if he
thought the one he was taking was not quite equal in value to the
one he had lost, he might appropriate two or even three of the
Scotchman’s cattle, without being particularly anxious about
determining whether the Scotchman from whose herd he had
made the selection was the same Scotchman that had walked off
with his before.

A verse from the Rydal Poet will show that club-law, and
inability to distinguish between meum and ¢uum was by no means
confined to the unquiet spirits upon the Scottish and English
Border. For—

A famous man is Robin Hood,
The English ballad-singer’s joy !
And Scotland has a thief as good,

An outlaw of as daring mood ;
She boasts her brave Rob Roy !

If I wished to name a Border hero fitted to form a parallel to
_ these two famed freebooters from the interior of England and
Scotland, I should name Johnnie Armstrong of Gilnockie Tower,
near Langholm. He certainly was “a thief as good,” and the
Border “‘ballad-singers’ joy,” for he figures most largely in all the
Border songs and ballads of the period, and his expeditions were.
at one time so extended, that at the head of a desperate band of
eight-score followers, he has been known to spread terror as far
south as the limits of Westmorland—northwards to Edinburgh,
and eastwards to Newcastle.

140

His death, like his life, has formed the source of many ballads
and songs in the Border Poetry, and has been related in many
different ways. King James of Scotland is said to have decoyed
him to his court with fair promises; and when he went into his
presence with his armed retinue, in all the pomp and splendour of
Border magnificence, the king cried out, “ What wants this knave
with an equipment fit only for a king? Away with him! away
with him!” Johnnie and his followers were accordingly con-
demned to instant execution ;—and tradition says that the trees
upon which they were hung, between Langholm and Hawick,
shortly afterwards withered away. Another ballad, however, gives
a different version of the story; it makes Johnnie and his men
fight it out with the king, till the king was so hard pressed that all
Edinburgh had to turn out and help him; then Johnnie got the
worst of it. He and his followers were all killed, except one—one
generally escapes on such occasions.

So there they fought courageously,
Till most of them lay dead and slain ;

But little Musgrave, that was his foot page,
With his bonny horse Grizzel got away untain.

He made for home as fast as possible; and when he had told
the sad news, Armstrong’s son, who was evidently a chip off the
old block, resolved upon a future revenge :—

Oh then up spake his little son,

Who sat upon his nurse’s knee—
“*Tf ever I live to be a man,

My father’s death avenged shall be !”

I have to remark in passing, that he is spoken of throughout
this ballad, and other ballads, as Johnnie Armstrong of Westmor-
land ; and the question was asked in one of the local papers not
long ago—who he was? and why he should be associated with
Westmorland. The reply is obvious enough. Langholm and the
Cumberland Borders consist in a great measure of moss and moor-
land ; it lies towards the west of the island, and was hence in
general terms called west-moor-land.. Such I believe to have

141

been the origin of the term as then applied to that district on the
Border, and such I believe—notwithstanding very learned opinions
given to the contrary—to have been the original significance of
the term as applied to the county in which we are.

We have grouped together by the hand of a master, some of the
most prominent characters who formed the subject of Cumbrian
Border song, in the Zay of the Last Minstrel of Sir Walter Scott—
Buccleuch, Lord Howard or “ Belted Will,” and Lord Dacre, are
all brought before us in their character of Border chieftains. The
gathering of the Cumbrian and Scottish Border clans by the signal
of the long line of bale-fires* which, when occasion required, could
speedily send their light from the German Ocean to the Solway, is
there very forcibly illustrated ; while another name noted in Cum-
brian legend and song is introduced in the person of the world-
renowned wizard, Michael Scott. The terrible consequences that
resulted from the opening of his tomb at Melrose, may serve to
show what the Border ballad singers thought about his supposed
power of enchantment ;—though I may remark that another well
known Abbey—that of Holm Cultram, upon the Cumberland side
of the Border—lays claim to him as one of its prelates, and as
having furnished his last resting place when he died.

This poem gives a vivid sketch of the scenes of warfare which
for many an age gave the tone and character to Cumberland songs,
ballads, and legends ; and Sir Walter Scott has incorporated into
the narrative old Cumberland ballads and songs which he obtained
upon the Border ready made to his hand. I may instance his
description of the gathering upon the Borders, his account of
Lord Dacre and Belted Will, and the song which he introduces—
‘The Sun shines fair on Carlisle wall.”

Wat Tinlinn, who is introduced therein, may well serve as the

* The startling suddenness with which the light of those Border bale-fires
rose at times upon the horizon is thus described in the Lay of the Last Minstrel.
Canto III., 25.

Is yon the star o’er Penchryst Pen,
That rises slowly to her ken, —

And spreading broad its wavering light,
Shakes its loose tresses on the night ?
Is yon red glare the western star?

O, ’tis the beacon-blaze of war !

142

type of the mosstroopers of Cumberland poetry ; and it matters
little whether he is placed upon the Scottish or upon the Cumbrian
side of the Border, for, when occasion served, he could plunder
with equal facility from either or from both ; for—

A stark moss-trooping Scot was he,

As e’er couched Border lance by knee ;

Through Solway sands, through Tarras moss,

Blindfold he knew the paths to cross ;

By wily turns, by desperate bounds,

Had baffled Percy’s best blood-hounds ;

In Esk or Liddel, fords were none,

But he would ride them one by one.

Alike to him was time or tide,

December’s snow, or July’s pride ;

Alike to him was tide or time,

Moonless midnight, or matin prime ;

Steady of heart, and stout of hand,

As ever drove prey from Cumberland ;

Five times outlawed had he been

By England’s king, and Scotland’s queen,

My next quotation, though in the style and times of Border
Poetry, will bring us a good deal nearer home. Miss Harriet
Martineau, by an inquiry in one of the early numbers of /Votes and
Queries, obtained a ballad about which she had given the following
notes.

“About the middle of the seventeenth century, occasionally
resided on the large island in Windermere a member of the
ancient but now extinct family of Philipson of Crooke Hall. He
was a dashing cavalier, and, from his fearless exploits, had acquired
among the Parliamentarians the significant though not very
respectable cognomen of ‘Robin the Devil.’ On one of these
characteristic adventures, he rode, heavily armed, into the large
old church of Kendal, with the intention of there shooting an
individual from whom he had received a deeply-resented injury.
His object, however, was unaccomplished, for his enemy was not
present ; and in the confusion into which the congregation were
thrown by such a warlike apparition, the dauntless intruder made
his exit, though subjected to a struggle at the church door. His

143

casque, which was captured in the skirmish which there took
place, is yet to be seen in the church; and the fame of this
redoubtable attempt, which was long held in remembrance through
the country side, excited the poetic genius of a rhymer of the day
to embody it in a ballad entitled ‘Dick and the Devil,’ which is
now rare and difficult to be met with.” The enemy of Philipson
mentioned above was Colonel Briggs, a leading magistrate of
Kendal, and an active commander in the Cromwellian army.
The ballad describing this scene is as follows :—
He leaped on his beaste, and he rode with heaste,
To mak his black oath good ;

’Twas the Lord’s day, and the folks did pray,
And the priest in chancel stood.

The door was wide, and in does he ride,
In his clanking gear so gay ;

A long keen brand, he held in his hand,
Our Dickon for to slay.

Our Dickon, goodhap, he was not there,
And Robin he rode in vain ;

And the men got up, that were kneeling in prayer,
To take him by might and main.

Robin swung his sword, his steed he spurred,
He plunged right through the thrang,

But the stout smith Jock, with his old mother’s crutch,
He gave him a woundy bang.

So hard he smote the iron pot,
It came down plume and all ;

Then with bare head, away Robin sped,
And himself was fit to fall.

Robin a devil he way’d him home,
And if for his foes he search,

I think that again he will not come
To late them in Kendal church.

It must be borne in mind that these scenes, which, unfortunately,
were by no means unfrequent in England, (see Woodstock of Sir
Walter Scott,) occurred at a time when the Royalist and Episco-

144

palian party were being deprived of their churches by the Round-
heads—in the time of the Cromwellian Revolution—and it cannot
be wondered at that they should now and then show reluctance in
giving up what they considered to be their own, or refuse to
relinquish them without a struggle.

These Philipsons of Crooke Hall and the island upon Winder-
mere, are noted elsewhere. Dr. Gibson, who was for many years
our Coniston writer and poet, in a long ballad, entitled, ‘‘The
Skulls of Culgaith,” describes how a fatal curse was pronounced
upon that same family for its over-reaching injustice. And a
gentleman—Mr. Rawnsley—who, the last time I was here,
delivered an address upon Lake District Defence, from this
platform, in his volume of very interesting sonnets upon Lakeland,
has written a piece upon these Skulls of Culgaith, in which he
follows in pretty much the same tack. Thus the Philipsons have
called forth the attention of not less than three of our poets to
their decline and fall.

Speaking of the fortunes of families, I am reminded of a theme
which in a varied form has often afforded a subject for Cumberland
legend and poetry, and is connected with the luck of castles
and other baronial residences. Often a cup or goblet is retained
there, and known as the luck of the place. Thus we have the
Luck of Muncaster, in a goblet said to have been given to the
Pennington family by Henry VII. Goblets connected with the
luck of other houses have been handed down in the same way.
Possibly the most famed both in legend and poetry is that famous
goblet called the Luck of Edenhall.

The best known legend on the subject is, that one of the
Musgraves rushed in amongst the festive revels of a band of fairies
and seized and gallopped off with their goblet. There was a chase
of course—very much in the style of the chase described in “Tam
o’ Shanter ;” and Musgrave, like Tam, made for the running
stream, for he knew that the fairies would be powerless to cross it.
He succeeded in crossing the stream in a more fortunate condition
than the hero of Burns—for his mare carried over it both the

145

goblet and her tail. The fairies, however, sent this parting denun-
ciation after him as he crossed the stream :—

If this cup should break or fall,
Farewell the Luck of Edenhall,

And words to that effect are still inscribed upon the goblet. He
is said to have been so exhausted when he reached his home, that
the cup dropped out of his hand, and the butler saved it from
being broken by catching it ere it fell to the ground. It has been
embodied in a ballad commencing—

A sudden thought fires Musgrave’s brain,
So help him all ye powers of light :
He rushes to the festive train,
And snatches up the goblet bright.

With three brave bounds the lawn he cross’d—
The fourth it mounts him on his steed.

Run, courser, or thy Lord is lost !
Stretch to the stream with lightning’s speed !

Uhland, the German national poet, has written a song or ballad
upon this same Luck of Edenhall, only he describes it as having
been originally snatched from the water nymphs or fairies (and the
goblets of water nymphs are possibly more fortunate in preserving
the luck of families than those used by spirits of a more potent
spell). He has thrown an air of German mysticism over the
legend, for he makes fire to issue from the walls of the castle at
the same moment that the goblet is shivered, by being brought
down upon the table with a kling klang.

Longfellow has made a translation of this ballad from the
German of Uhland ; attracted possibly, amongst other things, by
its connexion with Cumberland ; for I remember when Longfellow
visited England, and came over to Cumberland, he claimed to
be a Cumberland man, in that he was born at Cumberland in
Massachusetts.

Hitherto I have spoken of poetry rather than of poets; and
ballads or poetry, which, like the restless spirits that form its
leading subjects, may be looked upon as belonging to either side

1l

146

of the Border line—Cumberland or Dumfriesshire—and expressed
in a measure and dialect which are at times less Cumbrian than
Scotch.

I now turn to the Poets and Poetry of Cumberland properly
so called. Their dialect is the dialect of Cumberland and Lake-
land, without connexion with Scotland and the Borders, and their
pieces valuable, not perhaps so much on account of any intrinsic
excellence, as from the fact that they give us a reflex of Cumberland
and Westmorland manners and customs without interruption for
almost two centuries ; in that they have embalmed in rhyme and
rhythm a dialect which the rapid advances of civilization, the
increased intercourse brought into the most out-of-the-way places
by railways; and lastly, but by no means leastly—the rooting out
of the dialect by the compulsory school system, will speedily make
it to become one of the things that have been. And yet we
Cumbrians, and I may venture to add—some of you of West-
morland, cling to it. The dialect speaks to us of home and friends.
The kind words of a father and a mother were first spoken to us
in the dialect; and we still remember them in our heart in the
dialect, with all their utterances of care, of kindness, and of love.
It is the dialect that speaks to us of all the familiar scenes and
doings of our childhood and boyhood. And when separated by
the hard fate of circumstances, Cumbrians again meet in far distant
lands, it may be among men speaking a far different language, it is
often the dialect, with its masonic significance, that reminds them
—far distant from home though they are—of their bond of brother-
hood, and teaches them that in their case, at any rate—

Man to man, the wide world o’er,
Shall brithers be for a’ that.

We can trace the Cumbrian poets down in almost unbroken
succession from the year 1700 until the present time. It is an
advantage to them in their representative character, that they have
sprung from almost every class, and filled almost every rank in
their native county.

We have the quiet and retiring country clergyman and school-

147

master leaving his pupils at the close of a hard day’s teaching, to
go and muse in his church or on the banks of a quiet streamlet, -
and then committing his musings to writing, to be found, and
published, long after his early death. Then we have the blind
fiddler, fiddling away life to a merry tune, and writing down in
verse his experience as the musician of the party at the dances,
hakes, and merry-nights which he had himself enlivened. Then
we have two ladies—Miss Blamire and Miss Gilpin—occupying a
high position in the county, and, like Beaumont and Fletcher,
cementing their friendship by pieces of poetry which, in some
instances, seem to have been their joint composition. Then the
keen huntsman dashing off “ D’ye ken John Peel?” with as much
facility as he dashed off one of the notices of a hunting appoint-
ment. Then, in Mark Lonsdale, one who was at times a play
writer, a play actor, and a teacher, and who in this varied capacity
wandered about over great part of England and Ireland, but one
who shows by his terse sketches in the dialect, how well, amid all
changes, and how closely, he clung to home words and home
scenes.

In Sanderson, whose memory Wordsworth has embalmed in one
of his terse and enduring sketches, we have the history of a recluse
who, after contributing poetry for almost half a century to Cum-

-berland papers and periodicals, was, together with most of his
writings, burned in a fire that consumed his cottage.

In Anderson, the Cumberland contemporary of Burns, we have
what may be called the Burns of Cumberland. Like Burns, giving,
in his songs and ballads, truthful sketches of the every-day life of
the peasantry of his native county. Like Burns, living at times,
despite his poetic powers, in a state of extreme penury; and the
parallel between them is still more strongly marked in their
departing moments—for they both died in a state of fear and
apprehension, the one of the workhouse, the other of a gaol.

We have schoolmasters of almost every class—Lonsdale, Rayson,
Clark, and Richardson—giving expression in the poetry of the
dialect to their intimate acquaintance with the scenes and doings
of their native county.

148

_ We have in Dr. Gibson a gentleman who lived long in our own
neighbourhood, and who, amid his useful and arduous professional
duties, found time to give songs and sketches, written in the
dialect, seldom equalled, never surpassed.

And finally, we have a peer of the realm, William Earl of
Carlisle, for some time Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and representing
the name and family of Belted Will. His piece toa Jessamine
Tree that flourished at his old Border castle at Naworth, exhibits
such a striking contrast between the Border times and those that
he himself represented, that I make no apology for quoting it in
full.

. My slight and slender jessamine tree.

That bloomest on my Border tower,

Thou art more dearly loved by me
Than all the wreaths of foreign bower.

I ask not, while I near thee dwell,
Arabia’s spice or Syria’s rose ;

Thy light festoons more freshly smell,
Thy virgin white more purely glows.

My wild and winsome jessamine tree,
That climbest up the dark gray wall,
Thy tiny flow’rets seem in glee,
Like silver spray-drops down to fall :
Say, did they from their leaves thus peep,
When mail’d moss-troopers rode the hill ;
When helméd warders paced the keep,
And bugles blew for Belted Will?

My free and feathery jessamine tree,
Within the fragrance of thy breath
Yon dungeon grated to its key,
And the chain’d captive sigh’d for death.
On Border fray, on feudal crime,
I dream not, while I gaze on thee ;
The chieftains of that stern old time
Could ne’er have loved a jessamine tree.

The first poet who wrote in the Cumberland dialect was Josiah
Relph, born soon after the year 1700. It is best, when it is
possible, to let one poet act as the historian and interpreter of

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another, and I quote therefore the account which Robert Southey
has given us of Relph:—‘‘He was the son of a Cumberland
statesman, who, on a paternal inheritance which could not much
exceed, if it even amounted to, thirty pounds a year, brought up a
family of three sons and a daughter, one of whom he educated for
a learned profession. Josiah was sent first to Appleby school,—
one of the many excellent schools of this country,—then to
Glasgow ; he afterwards engaged in a grammar-shool in his native
place, and succeeded to the perpetual curacy there; but there is
no reason to believe that his income was ever more than fifty
pounds.”

“Tn a lonely dell,” says Mr. Boucher, “ by a murmuring stream,
under the canopy of heaven, he had provided himself a table and
a stool, and a little raised seat or altar of sods; hither in all his
difficulties and distresses, in imitation of his Saviour, he retired
and prayed ; rising from his knees he generally committed to paper
the meditation on which he had been employed, or the resolves
he had then formed. On business and emergencies which he
deemed more momentous, he withdrew into the church, and there
walking in the aisles, in that awful solitude, poured out his soul in
prayer and praise to his Maker. His sermons were usually medi-
tated in the churchyard, after the evening had closed. The awe
which his footsteps excited at that unusual hour is not yet forgotten
by the villagers.”

He continued his school when his constitution was visibly giving
way to that disorder which at length proved fatal, being accelerated
by his ascetic mode of living. ‘A few days before his death he
sent for all his pupils, one by one, into his chamber,—a more
affecting interview it is not possible to conceive; one of them,
who is still living, acknowledges he never thinks of it without awe.
He was perfectly composed, collected, and serene. His valedictory
admonitions were not very long, but they were earnest and pathetic.
He addressed each one in terms somewhat different, adapted to
their different tempers and circumstances; but in one charge he
was uniform,—lead a good life, that your death may be easy and

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you eyerlastingly happy. He died of consumption [in 1743]
before he had completed his thirty-second year.

Many of Relph’s pieces are pastorals and translations into the
dialect from Horace, Virgil, and Theocritus.* And in some of his
pieces he has very faithfully pourtrayed the chief characters of the
village in which he lived.

Ewan Clark holds the place immediately succeeding Relph. He
was a writer of pastorals in the dialect. His occupation was that of
a teacher. He was born in 1734, near the market-town of Wigton,
and he died at the age of seventy-seven, at the same place. His
writings are of more value as representing the dialect, than for any
original or poetic excellence they contain.

Coming in point of time soon after Relph, we have in Stagg a
poet who differed from Relph almost as widely as possible. Born
about 1770, at Burgh-by-Sands, near Carlisle, he was by an accident
deprived of his sight very early in life. He kept a circulating
library at Wigton, and eked out his existence partly by acting as
fiddler at dances, hakes, fairs, and merry-nights. Rough, ready,
and outspoken, fancying there was no place on earth like Cumber-
land, his writings and his outspoken rebuke of what he conceived
to be wrong, frequently brought him into collision with other
parties who were equally outspoken and equally quarrelsome ; this
is marked in some of his poetical pieces where in his opening lines
he expresses his willingness to make and sing songs for them,
provided, as he earnestly entreats them, they will not thrash him for
any disagreeable home truths that his songs may happen to contain,
He seems also to have been made the butt of some of the wags at
the gatherings he attended, for Anderson, another Cumbrian poet,
of whom I shall speak presently, says of him when he is describing
the doings of a wedding at Worton—

* Theocritus, the creator of Pastoral Poetry, wrote in a dialect (the Doric),
and from his time to the present the pastoral poets seem to have very closely
imitated each other. In metre, in names, in subjects, Virgil has very closely
imitated'—and almost at times translated—Theocritus ; and Virgil is the model
from which all our modern pastoral poets have drawn.

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Blin’ Stagg, the fiddler, gat a whack,
The bacon-fleek fell on his back .
An’ neist his fiddle-stick they brak,
Twas weel it was nea waur ;
For he sang, Whurry-whum, whuddle-whum,
Derry-eyden dee,

Bearing in mind that Stagg was doubtless sitting where the fiddler
usually did sit in the chimney corner, and that the “ bacon-fleek,”
of which some wag no doubt had cut the string, would fall upon
his back from the rannal boak some height above him, it is very
likely that Stagg would for that night, at any rate, sing no more
about—

Whurry-whum, whuddle-whum,
Derry-eyden dee.

And yet in spite of “bacon-fleeks,” in spite of poverty, in spite
of blindness, he went on fiddling life away to a merry tune. His
Songs bear evidence of good humour and contentment ; and,
notwithstanding the rugged and at tines somewhat coarse language
in which they are expressed, exhibit truthful pictures of Cumberland
scenes, manners, and society, as they existed one hundred years
ago.

His song, “The Bridewain,” or bringing home of the bride, is
perhaps the truest picture we possess of the keen neck-or-nothing
galloping and other amusements which took place at a Cumbrian
wedding. It took place in the Abbey Holme, where it is known
as the “Coat Wedding.” While his “Rosley Hill Fair,” which
describes the doings at a noted Cumbrian fair something like
Brough Hill Fair in Westmorland, is, from what I know myself, a
faithful reflex of such like scenes.

Robert Anderson is the next Cumbrian poet. He also was
born shortly after 1770, in Carlisle, and died in 1833, at the same
Place. He was a pattern drawer by trade. His life was, like more
lives, a hard struggle for existence; and he fell in his later years
into habits of intemperance, which may possibly have had some-
thing to do with those feelings of bitterness and misanthropy
which he exhibited in the decline of his life. Asa poet in the

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dialect he is undoubtedly at the head of the Cumbrian fraternity.
He carries us into their homes and domestic scenes, and lets us
hear their quiet fireside chat. He brings us to their fairs and
merry-makings, their marriages, hakes, and dances. He depicts
their wrestlers and other athletes as the greatest heroes; and,
endowed with all their partialities and prejudices, he lets us know
pretty plainly that he looks upon Cumberland as a county that
holds very decidedly the very front rank.

His “ Burgh Races” is a very truthful. sketch of an athletic
gathering that takes place at Burgh-by-Sands, near Carlisle, upon
the succession of the Earls of Lonsdale. His “Kit Craffet”
sketches a character which for learning, for athletic prowess, and
for virtue, was not, and is not yet, uncommon in the Cumbrian
dales. Dr. Gibson says of Anderson’s ‘‘Worton Wedding,” :—
“As a description of a long, rapid, and varied succession of scenes,
every one a photograph, occurring at a gathering of country people
intent upon enjoying themselves in their own uncouth roystering
fashion, given in rattling, jingling, regularly irregular rhyme, with
a chorus that is of itself a concentration of uproarious fun and
revelry, we have never read or heard anything like Anderson’s
‘Worton Wedding.’”*

In point of time Sanderson is the next Cumberland poet.
He withdrew himself in some measure from all society. I
have heard much of him, for I lived for some years in the
same parish in which he lived and died. His tragic fate, in
the year 1829, has, however, been well told by Wordsworth. I
shall make no apology therefore for quoting it from Wordsworth’s
account. It is as follows :—‘‘Shirley’s death reminded me of the
sad close of the life of a literary person, Sanderson by name, in
the neighbouring county of Cumberland. He lived in a cottage
by himself, which, from want of care on his part, took fire in the
night. The neighbours were alarmed ; they ran to the rescue ; he
escaped dreadfully burned from the flames, and lay down (he was

* For this, and for other extracts, I am indebted to the Songs and Ballads of
Cumberland and the Lake Country. By Sidney Gilpin. 3 vols. Published by
G. & T. Coward, Carlisle. 1874.

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in his seventieth year,) much exhausted under a tree, a few yards
from the door. His friends in the meantime endeavoured to save
what they could of his property from the flames. He inquired
most anxiously after a box in which his manuscripts had been
deposited with the view to the publication of a laboriously
corrected edition ; and on being told that the box was consumed,
he expired in a few minutes, saying, or rather sighing out the
words, ‘Then I do not wish to live!’ Poor man! though the
circulation of his works had not extended beyond a circle of fifty
miles in diameter perhaps at the farthest, he was most anxious to
survive in the memory of those who should hear of him in his
poems.” His ‘‘Lay” dedicated to his native village, is the best of the
works that have survived him. I shall quote from it a passage in
which he seems to regret—as old men often do regret—being left
alone by the death of the friends and companions of his youth.
Speaking of them he says :—

And blest are you in early graves,
For age is but protracted pain—

A longer strife with winds and waves,
Upon a wild and stormy main.

My lot has been to linger here
Till every earthly joy has fled ;

Till all is gone the heart holds dear,
And gather’d sorrows bow my head.

The lives of the Cumberland poets abound with contrasts ;
and possibly there could not be a much greater contrast than
is afforded between Sanderson and John Woodcock Graves,
the author of “D’ye ken John Peel?” I do not pause to ask
whether you ken John Peel or not—-I take it for granted that you
do; for it has been spoken of as the Cumberland anthem, and is
at any rate known and sung almost wherever hunters have made
their way. The author is not so well known. He emigrated to
Australia upwards of fifty years ago, and is, so far as I know, living
still. He has sent back the following sketch of himself :—‘‘I was
connected with the woollen mills at Caldbeck for some time, and
these turned out a ruinous game. I was cheated, robbed, and

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gulled to such an extent, by those who ought to have been my
best friends, that I resolved to go to the farthest corner of the
earth. I made a wreck of all; left machinery, book-debts, etc., in
the hands of a friend to provide for my two daughters whom I left
behind ; and landed at Hobart Town, in Tasmania, in 1833, with
my wife and four children, and with about ten pounds in my pocket.”

He afterwards had the anxious wandering life of many settlers.
He is now a very old man, and from what has been heard of him
lately, is in poor circumstances.

He gives the following sketch of the origin of the popular
song :—“ Nearly forty years have now wasted away since John
Peel and I sat in a snug parlour at Caldbeck, among the Cumbrian
mountains. We were then both in the hey-day of manhood, and
hunters of the olden fashion ; meeting the night before to arrange
earth-stopping ; and in the morning to take the best part of the
hunt—the drag over the mountains in the mist—while fashionable
hunters still lay in the blankets. Large flakes of snow fell that
evening. We sat by the fireside hunting over again many a good |
run, and recalling the feats of each particular hound, or narrow
neck-break ’scapes, when a flaxen-haired daughter of mine came
in saying, ‘Father, what do they say to what granny sings?’ Granny
was singing to sleep my eldest son—now a leading barrister in
Hobart Town—with an old rant called ‘Bonnie Annie.’ The
pen and ink for hunting appointments being on the table, the idea
of writing a song to this old air forced itself upon me, and thus
was produced impromptu, ‘ Dy’e ken John Peel, with his coat so
gray?’ Immediately after I sung it to poor Peel, who smiled
through a stream of tears which fell down his manly cheeks ; and ©
I well remember saying to him in a joking style, ‘By Jove, Peel!
you'll be sung when we’re both run to earth !’”

John Rayson (1803 to 1859,) was during the best portion of
his life a village schoolmaster, living on the whittlegate system.
“‘Charlie M‘Glen,” a sketch from life, is his best piece.

So far as I know, no sketch of the life of Dr. Gibson has hitherto
appeared. I have therefore devoted more space and attention to
it than I have done to the other Cumberland poets of whom

155

biographies have appeared before. I have lived for the last
twenty-three years in the very same district in which Gibson lived
and laboured, and whence he has drawn most of the materials
for his writings. His associations have therefore in a great measure
been my associations, and I have thus had greater facility in dealing
with his life and writings than any mere stranger could have had.
I have however had an advantage even greater than this—I have
had the most kind and cordial co-operation of Mr. Roger Bownass.
Dr. Gibson has himself borne willing testimony to the help he
derived from Mr. Bownass in his writings, and I have certainly felt
in the information which I have received from him on this subject,
that no one could have a more accurate or a more trustworthy
guide. 1

Alexander Craig Gibson was born at Harrington on March
17th, 1813. His father was a ship-captain, and owned the vessels
which he commanded, the last of which was driven on shore and
wrecked during a storm while endeavouring to enter Workington
harbour. He lived many years after this, but never commanded
another vessel, or looked up, as it were, afterwards, being
supported, I believe, in a great measure by his son, the subject
of this sketch. His mother, from whom he obtained the name
of Craig, came originally from Dumfriesshire, in the neigh-
‘bourhood of Lockerbie. He appears to have been in some
measure brought up, and to have obtained part of his early
education, when staying with his mother’s friends in this district.
It is a district with which I am myself very familiar, having lived
in Annandale when a boy; and I remember that once when
talking with him I remarked upon his intimacy with the persons
and places there whom I had myself known there, he said that this
was where some of his earliest associations and most lasting friend-
ships had been formed. This will account for the aptitude and
ease with which in some of his compositions he uses the dialect of
Dumfriesshire; and his intimate knowledge of persons, places,
and traditions in that neighbourhood is all brought out in his
poetical sketch, ‘‘The Lockerbie Lyke,” which, commencing with
an ordinary public-house brawl, leads on to a very fatal result.

156

After leaving school he was apprenticed, as the custom then was,
to a surgeon in Whitehaven, and having served the requisite time,
he at first commenced practice as a surgeon and apothecary in
that town ; but not meeting with the success he expected, he went
to Lamplugh to reside, and practised for some time in a district
that included Lamplugh, Ullock, Braithwaite, and Dean. He
came and commenced practice at Coniston in the year 1844,
having been appointed medical officer to the Coniston Copper
Mining Company. Sometime after he came to Coniston he
married a lady from that district of Cumberland from which he
had come; and they went to live at Yewdale Bridge, near the
head of the Lake. His practice took in the parish of Church
Coniston, The Langdales, Torver, Seathwaite, and a portion of
Hawkshead, comprising some of the loveliest and most sequestered
districts of Lakeland. This district seems to have exerted the
greatest influence on his mind and character ; and the sketches he
wrote after he left the neighbourhood, strongly evidence that he
still retained his old enthusiasm for this lovely land. His first
production was entitled “ Ravings and Ramblings about the Old
Man of Coniston,” It was a series of sketches chiefly of those
districts to which his professional visits were made. These
sketches appeared originally in the Kendal Mercury, but were
afterwards collected and published by him in a separate volume.
It is a clever but at times somewhat eccentric production, formed
—as he tells us in the preface to the earliest edition (now exceed-
ingly scarce)—upon a suggestion contained in one of the essays of
Professor Wilson. He everywhere professes the greatest admiration
for De Quincey as a writer, and he seems to me in this book in
some measure to have imitated De Quincey’s style. These sketches
are fraught with the closest and keenest observations of the scenery,
the characters and customs of the people, the local celebrities, and
the distinguished /z/eraéi who had made this region their home.
He devotes a considerable portion of his book to a description of
the romantic valley of the Duddon, and he at times hits out with
considerable force at Wordsworth and the Wonderful Walker.
Wordsworth and Gibson looked at things under two very different

157

aspects. Wordsworth saw everything at its best and brightest
Gibson saw more of what was matter-of-fact and afforded scope for
satire and amusement. To Wordsworth, men and women usually
appeared in their holiday garb, and upon their very best behaviour.
Gibson, visiting those districts professionally, doubtless saw more
human nature ex dishabille. Any one may see this well brought
out in his Folk-Speech of Cumberland, in a sketch in which he has
placed, side by side, Wordsworth’s description and his own descrip-
tion of Betty Yewdale, who lived at Hackett, Little Langdale,
and who is yet well remembered in the neighbourhood. Under
Gibson’s treatment Betty and her husband are certainly more
true to life. I think, however, he has unduly detracted from the
Wonderful Walker—a clergyman who upon a salary of five pounds
' a year laboured for considerably over half a century, first at Torver,
then at Seathwaite, one of the remotest districts of this neighbour-
hood, and who by his industry, frugality, and perseverance,
combined with his untiring care for his flock, left a name and a
memory which is not likely to be soon forgotten; and whose
example and influence have widened out very far beyond that
remote valley in which he lived and died. Wordsworth has made
him one of the most prominent characters in “The Excursion,”
much of the scenery of which is laid in the valley of which Walker
was pastor; and in sneering at Wordsworth, Gibson neglects no
opportunity of sneering at Walker as well.

The dawnings of Gibson’s poetical powers are to be seen in
Ravings and Ramblings, the original edition containing at least
three of his poetical pieces, one of considerable length, ‘A Ride
- to Dungeon Gill on a Wet Day;” the other two being “An
Address to the Old Man,” and “ Moonshine on the Lake.” They
are not written in the dialect, and they lack that force and terseness
which are to be found in his more matured poetical productions.
With regard to his later pieces both in prose and poetry, he tells
us himself that they were written more for his own amusement
than for anything else, in the midst of the many calls of a busy
professional life. ‘Joe and the Geologist,” and ‘‘T’ Reets on’t,”
mark perhaps more than any of his writings Gibson’s mastery over

158

the words and idioms of the Cumbrian dialect, and his intimate
knowledge of the Cumbrian character. The geologist has been
thought to represent Professor Sedgwick ; but Gibson himself tells
us that he had no one in particular in view in writing this sketch ;
but says that one day, when he was riding over Walna Scar into
Torver, the idea crossed his mind as to what one of the farm lads
of Torver or the neighbourhood would think about the labours of
a geologist, and following out the train of thought he composed
the sketch. “Bobby Banks’ Bodderment” has, I think, taken a
greater hold upon the popular mind than anything he ever wrote.
The poetical portion of it is certainly a masterpiece, for with a
very limited vocabulary—‘Ten things an’ yan, Bobby, ten things
an’ yan”—he manages to give us snatches of songs in almost every
variety of Cumbrian measure, and in some measures that had never
been attempted in that dialect before. Bobby’s explanation of
how those snatches of song were made, seems to me to afford us
a hint as to how Gibson’s own songs were composed. He says,
“T didn’t mack them, they mead theirsels.” And the best songs
are surely not those that are made by rule or measure, but which
come unsought for, and, in Bobby’s phraseology, “mack theirsels.”
This, however, was not always the case with Gibson’s productions
in the dialect, for he told me that he produced one of his dialect
songs by composing it first and translating it into the Cumberland
dialect afterwards. This was “ Breezy St. Bees ;” and it is still to
be found both as at first composed, and as he translated it into the
dialect.

Of his songs, “Lal Dinah Grayson,” or “ M’appen I may,” is
much the most popular. It has been set to a popular measure by
Mr. Metcalfe, and is published by him in one of his series entitled
Songs and Ballads of Cumberland, with Music. His various pieces
in the dialect were collected together and published in 1869, by
Mr. Coward of Carlisle, in a volume entitled “The Folk-Speech
of Cumberland and some Districts adjacent.” It includes one or
two poetical pieces in the dialect peculiar to Furness, and also one
or two in the dialect of Lockerbie and the Scottish border. A
second edition appeared in 1872.

-

159

Through the kindness of Mr. Coward I am enabled to give a
critique upon this volume by Thomas Carlyle, in a letter which he
sent to Dr. Gibson in 1869.

The opinion of Carlyle—born and brought up as he was at
Ecclefechan, near Lockerbie—has a peculiar value upon anything
relating to the’ Border or the Cumbrian dialects. Carlyle’s letter to
Gibson is as follows :—‘I received your book on the Border
Dialects ; and have read it over with a pleasant feeling of satisfac-
tion of innocent entertainment and thanks for your gift. A really
nice little book ; indeed, I may fairly say, the dest book I can
remember to have ever read on such a subject. Perfect under-
standing and expression of the thing in hand, workmanlike
treatment, variety, perspicuity, polite good humour, are nowhere
wanting. The bits of Cumberland song, especially, are of superior
excellence; truthful, graceful, free, flowing, very spirited and
pretty,—considerable ¢wve in them and honest feeling of the thing
sung. On the whole it would not surprise me, if the writer of this
book—should leisure, perseverance, and determined wish superadd
themselves (which I fear they won’t !)—were to come out someday,
with something really good and useful in wider fields of literature.
Accept at any rate my Hyge for what you have already done.”

Dr. Gibson left Coniston in January, 1851. Before he left, the

- sum of twenty-five pounds was collected, in many instances as the

unsolicited contributions of working-men, with which a gold watch
with its appendages, and a gold pencil case, were purchased and
presented to Dr. Gibson, by Mr. Roger Bowness, at a crowded
and most enthusiastic meeting which was held for the purpose at
the Black Bull inn* The watch bore the following inscription :—
“Presented to Alexander Craig Gibson, Esq., by 190 friends in

-and near Conistone, including 90 of his poorest neighbours, in

testimony of their gratitude for his services, respect for his character,
and approbation of his conduct. Jan. 1, 1851.” It was accom-
panied by an address, from which the following extract will serve

* The reader may remember the Black Bull inn, at Coniston, as being the
extreme point which De Quincey describes himself to have reached when
making a pilgrimage to have an interview with Wordsworth, but where, struck
with dread at the thought of Wordsworth’s greatness, he turned back.

160

to show the estimation in which Dr. Gibson was held. “The
period of your sojourn at Conistone has been characterized by so
much usefulness in your professional capacity, and by such un-
wearied attention towards your poorer patients—miners and others
suffering from accidents or sickness—united too with so much
kindness and courtesy to all, that we deeply feel the loss we sustain
by your leaving us. Be assured that you will bear with you our
warmest wishes for your prosperity and happiness ; and we trust
that the accompanying tokens, purchased with the spontaneous
subscriptions of the great body of the inhabitants, many of them
of the very poorest—will speak for us, and testify of our grateful
esteem, and sometimes remind you of your sojourn amongst us.”

Dr. Gibson left Coniston for Hawkshead, where he resided and
practised for between two and three years. His practice at
Hawkshead did not succeed as he had anticipated, and for a time
he appears to have been uncertain where to go to. After having
thought of various schemes, he eventually fixed upon Bebington,
in Cheshire, for practice, and there he spent the remainder of his
life. While there he still pursued his literary labours, and was
honorary curator of the Lancashire and Cheshire Historical
Society, to whose Transactions he contributed interesting papers
upon antiquities and other subjects of local interest, “‘The Last
Popular Risings in the Lake Country,” being the title of one which
I have read. He seems while there to have been much respected
by all classes. In his latter years he became very infirm. He
died June 12th, 1874, and a monument of polished light Shap
granite, eight feet high, was raised over his grave in Bebington
churchyard. It bears the following inscription :—“ In Memory of
Alexander Craig Gibson, M.R.C.S. and F.S.A., whose writings in
the Cumberland dialect, whether in poetry or prose, are the most
succcessful embodiments of the modes of thought and speech of his
native county. He was born at Harrington, 17th March, 1813,
and died at Bebington, June 12th, 1874; where by his genial and
benevolent nature, he gained a position as high in the regard of
all classes, as his genius had won for him in his own department
of literature.”

161

Dr. Gibson was possessed of a very kind and genial disposition,
and thus succeeded in securing the confidence of the dalesmen in
a remarkable degree, This was the means of obtaining from them
that rich variety of local legend, story, and anecdote, with which
his conversation abounded, and which gives such a charm to his
works. He was temperate; and in reference to this he once
remarked to me that Miss Martineau had said in one of her
writings that the doctors in the Lake Country are so often, in
hospitality, asked to take drink, that they all do eventually take to
drinking, if they live here long enough. ‘What would she have
said in your case?” I asked. “That I had not lived here long
enough,” he replied.

In quest of health he became a great traveller. He had been
to Constantinople, done the round of the Mediterranean, and had
also visited Norway and other regions that border on the Baltic
Sea.

His writings, whether in prose or poetry, are a very thoughtful
reflex of the Cumbrian dialect and the Cumbrian character ; and
any one well acquainted with Cumberland will at once recognize
that his sketches have been drawn from life. His mode of dealing
with writings and writers out of the range of the dialect, though
perhaps at times too keen and sarcastic, is in other respects full of
interest. For years he certainly occupied the very first place as
a writer in the dialect of Cumberland, and his death made a gap
in the ranks of its /:ferati which will not be easily filled.*

The following sketch, chiefly of Dr. Gibson’s later years, has
been drawn up for me by the gentleman to whose kind and cordial
co operation I have alluded before :—“ His Ravings and Ramblings
round Coniston, through which he first became known as of literary
tastes and capabilities hereabouts, and which has passed through
three editions, were in the first place rapidly thrown off at the

* The rule that I laid down for myself—to deal as little as possible with
works of any living writer, precludes me from writing a notice of Richardson of
the Vale of St. John’s. Some future chronicler of the poets and prose writers
of Cumberland will be able to show that he has as faithfully pourtrayed in prose

and verse the dialect and doings of our county in our own times, as have any of
our former poets in the era to which they belonged.

12

162

request of his friend the late Mr. Lee, editor and proprietor of the
Kendal Mercury, in which they originally appeared some time after
he first came to Coniston. Each chapter was written off-hand, a
day or two before publication, complete, and without need of but
little correction—for he had a most facile pen, and the work of
composition was no task to him, the matter being already fully
stored, and arranged with all the necessary information in his mind
as it should appear, so that the writing down what he wished to
convey was a most easy one ; for he had a most retentive memory
in those days, and anything told him, or read, that he wished to
remember, was never forgotten.

“ Blood-poisoning, it is said, accidentally contracted through a
scratch while attending on a diseased patient, was the cause of his
long illness ; and in later stages thereof, he was very far from being
his former self, mentally as well as physically. During the first
stages of his illness he was advised to take a lengthened sea voyage,
with the hope of deriving benefit therefrom ; and assisted, I believe,
by friends and admirers in and about Liverpool, he accordingly
took a passage up the Mediterranean in one of the Peninsular and
Oriental steamers, accompanied I think by Mrs. Gibson, calling at
Gibraltar, Malta, Beyrout, and other places on the Syrian coast,
returning by Constantinople and Greece—without deriving the
the anticipated benefit.

“ At different stages of his voyage, he sent home to his friend
‘Shimonius,’ of the Liverpool Porcupine, letters for publication
therein, describing places they touched at and incidents that
occurred on board, etc., which appeared in that paper, and were
read with much interest. But before the end of the voyage,
through failing health and strength, he was obliged to discontinue
these.

“ During his illness, and while staying at Coniston for the benefit
of his enfeebled health, he was laid hold of by a swindling concern
of a bogus mining company, and induced by the scheming pro-
moters and agent thereof, to lend his well-known name, as a decoy
to others no doubt, and to become a subscriber to a scheme for
re-opening a much bepuffed, worthless old copper mine in the

163

neighbourhood, which had already had three or four crops of
unhappy dupes. ‘The miserable thing again soon collapsed—not,
however, before getting hold of what plunder they could lay hands
on, as hundreds of such bogus companies, promoted in the
interests of swindledom, continue still to do—yet not before many
innocent, unsuspecting ones, were ‘taken in and done for,” among
whom was Dr. Gibson, to a considerable amount in his way, viz.,
the savings of a considerable period of his later years. This no
doubt was pain and grief to him, and a source of much chagrin,
embittering his declining days; not so much from the pecuniary
loss to himself alone—though he could ill spare it—as from
thinking how he had been duped; and others too, through his
example in some degree, had been victimized also, who otherwise
might not have been.

“The following affecting and affectionate letter—affectionate in
its loving memory of him—in reply to a word of sympathy, was’
received from his widow, by an old friend in Coniston, not long
after his death, telling somewhat of his long suffering and un-
complaining patience under it, may perhaps not be considered out
of place here :—

“Bebington, July 9th, 1874.

‘Dear Mr. B——,

' ‘© Your sympathy is truly kind. My loss is very great. Sometimes I
scarcely know how to bear the great loneliness. He has been so long my
companion and my care, which makes me miss him more now.

‘*He was so patient and so cheerful all through his long illness, and never
murmured. His death has left a sad blank in my life, but I would not recall
him now, for life was becoming to him weariness.

‘He always retained for you a warm friendship, and never forgot your

kindness. - * ° °
‘*Believe me, ever your very faithful friend,

““S. CRAIG GIBSON.”

Miss Powley is amongst the last of our Cumbrian poets, and of
her the following graphic account appeared about the time of her
death :—

“We record with deep regret, at Langwathby, on Saturday,
December 23rd, 1883, the death of Miss Mary Powley, whose

164

name as one of our local literary celebrities has been frequently
before the public for many years. Her poems, long known and
admired by her friends, gained a wider circulation when about
eight years ago she committed a selection of them to the press,
under the name of Zchoes of Old Cumberland, a name singularly
appropriate, for her object in life seemed to be to preserve every
record that she could remember or collect from friends, of old
Cumberland life. - + + Who would have thought that the
subjects were written by one who for many years could scarcely
grasp the pen when it was carefully placed between her fingers.
Brought downstairs each morning when the weather was sufficiently
fine, motionless all day and carried up again at night, her brain
was ever swift to conceive, though the hand was slow to execute.
And so she passed the time for many years, patiently waiting for
theend. And it came suddenly; for whilst inspecting the Christmas
cards which had been sent by troops of friends, she exclaimed
that she felt a peculiar sensation in her throat, and in half-an-hour
she passed away.”

_ To this sketch we may add that her best pieces probably are, a
description of Brough Hill, a noted fair in Westmorland, which
may be compared with Stagg’s “ Rosley Hill,” a fair which at one
time had a similar renown in Cumberland. Her poem upon Relph
is an excellent pourtrayal of the quiet, retiring, and student-like
character of the first Cumbrian poet. ‘A Tale of late October,”
describes a Border raid ; while her ‘‘ Brokken Statesman,” in the
dialect, describes well the fallen fortunes of one of the Cumberland
yeomen—a race of independent landowners who used to be more
characteristic of the county than perhaps any other class.

She read Danish well; attracted to it, doubtless, by its very
close affinity with our own Cumbrian dialect. And anything
connected with the county—its history, literature, local place-
names, or archeology, found her at all times ready to enter heart
and hand into its work.

I may be asked, What is the advantage of thus trying to elucidate
the writings and the dialect of the poets of Cumberland and Lake-
land? and this question in conclusion I shall endeavour to meet. ;

165

My idea at first as to call my address—The Songs and Singers
of Cumberland* and Lakeland, because the productions of the
poets of whom I have been speaking seldom get beyond the
compass of what we understand by a ballad or a song; though if
you take the word song in its fullest acceptation, it is difficult to
limit the kind of poetry to which it may be applied: David was
the sweet singer of Israel, and Carlyle calls the stupendous work
of Dante a song. »

It is maintained now by many, that the immortal work of
Homer consisted originally of songs or rhapsodies in which the
history and the manners of the earlier Grecians were sung by the
wandering minstrels at their festive assemblies.

Such songs seem to have formed the method by which the
traditionary history of the earlier Romans, in all their rustic austerity
and simplicity, was handed down to the knowledge of the later
historians. These are the songs which Macaulay has so success-
fully attempted to imitate in his Lays of Ancient Rome, and
possibly there was no more effective way of handing down the
history and the memory of their ancestors than when—

With weeping and with laughter
Still is the story told,
How well Horatius kept the bridge
In the brave days of old.
It is somewhat in the same way—to compare great things with
small—that we find the chief value for the songs and singers of
our native land.

They spoke a language which, though fast dying out, still retains
its hold in many of our sequestered valleys. They give truthful

glimpses of the manners and customs of our forefathers ; and some
‘ of the most enduring sketches of the history of our country are
preserved—when they are preserved at all—in the rhyme and
rhythm of their well-remembered lines.

For retaining a vivid remembrance of events ; for handing down

* «The Songs and Singers of Cumberland”’ was the title which I gave to
this paper when, with some omissions, I read it at the Mechanics’ Institute at
Coniston on October 3oth (under the presidency of Dr. Kendall), as the first of
the Coniston series of lectures for the winter of 1884-85.

166

the memory of manners and customs ; for uniting mankind in one
common bond of brotherhood ; for awakening in him pure and
hallowing remembrances of home and friends ; and, I will also add,
for educating him in all that is virtuous and good and noble, there
is no more powerful agency than song.

I am not now speaking of all songs: the place of light may be
assumed by darkness, and evil may usurp the character of good ;
and I know that all that is lewd, licentious, and demoralizing has
at times been garbed in the measure of a song.

But, as a rule, our own countrymen do not labour under that
imputation. I have told you how Relph, the first Cumbrian poet,
died. He died with his pupils around him, exhorting them to
remember his teachings, and to devote their lives to that which
was honourable, and dutiful, and good. And his poetry, beside
being the reflex of the dialect and manners of those amongst whom
he lived, is also a reflex of purity and simplicity. The same thing
may be said of Sanderson, of Wilkinson the Yanwath poet of
Westmorland, and others; and they have thus as it were embalmed
the customs and the dialect of their native counties, and given
home words and home memories to our hills and valleys, which
may serve as aname and a memory to those that come behind.

I do not claim for them any high place of poetic excellence—for
the quiet and unobtrusive manner in which they placed their
writings before the public, when they did place them before the
public at all, shows it was the very last claim they themselves would
have thought of making. ‘Their writings seem in many instances
to be but the natural outcome of their position and circumstances.
The quiet teacher and student reheving his studies by translating
into his native dialect the songs of Horace, or the pastorals of his
favourite Virgil and Theocritus. The blind fiddler describing in
the dialect the scenes of uproarious merriment to which he himself
had given the key-note. The keen huntsman at the close of a
hard day’s hunting, taking the pen he was using for hunting
appointments, and dashing off, “ D’ye ken John Peel?” till John
Peel is known from the hills of Cumberland to the woods of Tas-
mania.

167

These are our poets, and these are their subjects. They serve
to give us a bond of brotherhood one to another, and to bind us
with still stronger ties to our hills and valleys, to our native
customs and dialects, and to the remembrances of the friends and
the scenery amid which our lives are cast; and they seem to say
to us in the words of one of them (Anderson) with which I may
well conclude this paper :—

We help yen anudder—we welcome the stranger,
Ourselves and our country we'll ivver defend ;
We pay bits o’ taxes as weel as we’re yebble,
And pray, leyke true Britons, the war hed an end.
Then Cummerlan’ lads, an’ ye lish rwosy lasses,
If some caw ye clownish, ye needn’t think shem ;
Be merry and wise, enjoy innocent pleasures,
And still seek for peace and contentment at yem.

[Note by THE EpiTor.—For further information upon the subject of this
paper, the reader should refer to ‘‘Songs and Ballads of Cumberland and the
Lake Country,” First, Second, and Third Series; ‘‘Popular Poetry of
Cumberland and the Lake Country ; Gibson’s ‘* Folk Speech of Cumberland,”
&c., published by Messrs. CowarnD, Carlisle. ]

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Remains oF BOS PRIMITGEN/US From SILLOTH.

PARTLY FROM DRAWINGS BY DR. LEITCH. =

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION AND
FOSSILS OF THE SILLOTH NEW DOCK.

BY J; LERCH MoE. CMe

(Read at Silloth, )

THE excavations for the above undertaking being almost finished,
a complete account of the formations that were passed through,
and of the organic remains that were met with, may now (November
1884) be given.

Some of the latter have already become historical, and indeed
nothing of interest has been found for more than a year. But, in
order that a perfect list might be made, and in the hope that, up
to the last, some fresh treasure might be found, I have deferred
writing these notes until now.

The paper may be divided into two parts :—

1st. THE GEOLOGICAL FORMATION.
2nd. THE ORGANIC REMAINS,

1st. Geological Formation.—The average depth of the dock,
from the original surface to the floor, is thirty feet; and, as no
rocky strata were met with, the work of excavation proceeded
rapidly. At the entrance, however, where the foundations of the
most important structures are laid, a depth of over forty feet had
to be reached ; but for those of the side walls, a depth of several
feet less sufficed.

170

From the surface downwards, the following formations were
passed through :—

(2) Blown Sand.

(4) Alternating layers of Sand and Gravel.
(c) A main bed of Gravel.

(2) Boulder Clay.

(z) The Blown Sand—which, it may be mentioned, is the
surface formation for many miles along the coast, and which forms
ranges of dunes running from east to west—averaged about eight
feet in depth. But it ought to be observed that, when the old
dock was made, and when the lines of railway leading to it,
and which until lately ran over the site of the new dock, were laid
down, several dunes, twenty to thirty feet in height, had to be
removed.

(4) The alternating layers of Sand and Gravel averaged
respectively about twenty inches in thickness, and together
occupied a depth of from eight to ten feet. In this formation
a shell-beach was met with, which extended across the dock, with
an average thickness of two feet. The shells were, for the most
part, entire ; and they belonged to species at present existing in
British waters. Oyster, Mussle, Cockle, Whelk, Limpet, and
Scallop shells were found in great abundance. The beach was
first met with about eleven feet from the surface.

(c) The bed of Gravel was about ten feet thick throughout the
area of the dock. It was of enormous value to the contractors,
for, with the addition of a seventh part of cement, and of a
sufficiency of water, it made the concrete with which the dock
walls were built.

(z) Immediately under the gravel came the Clay, in which the
foundations are all laid. It greatest thickness, so far as is known,
is thirty feet ; five to fifteen feet of which had to be passed through
to form the floor of the dock. The clay, which is red and sandy,
contained a considerable variety of far-travelled boulders, including
many of Criffel Granite. These were met with chiefly at the north
end of the dock ; and, at the entrance, they formed a troublesome

lit

obstacle to the driving of the piles. The boulders had a rounded
contour; and they averaged half a ton in weight. On one or two,
indistinct scratchings were seen. They were found in the lower
levels, while smaller blocks, which included, amongst other far-
travelled stones, some from Ennerdale, were found in the higher
parts of the deposit. At the N.W. corner, the clay, which there
seemed to be rapidly thinning out, was found to overlie two feet
of soft sand, and (so far as examined) two feet of marl. While at
a spot about half way along the west side, three feet of black
laminated clay, nine inches of a very hard red sandy clay with
shingles, and lastly, sand and gravel underlay the clay.

The greatest depth explored was forty-five feet, and at this
horizon the rock met with consisted of sand and gravel.

2nd. Organic Remains.—The shell-beach has been already
noticed. The first mammalian relic that was found, was an
antler of the Red-deer ( Cervus elaphus). It possessed five tines,
measured twenty-six inches in length, and was fairly well preserved.
It, like the other mammalian relics, was met with at the east side
of the dock, about fifty yards from the east wall, and the same
distance from that on the south. The antler was found in gravel,
about seventeen feet from the surface. About the same place,
and about a foot deeper, the first trace of the Bos primigenius—
. the extinct gigantic Ox of Great Britain—was dug up. This fossil
was a humerus or upper bone of the fore-leg. It weighed five
pounds twelve ounces, was eighteen inches long, and was almost
perfect, only a part of the articular surface of the head being
decayed and filled with sand. The proportions of this bone
were very massive, and they indicated, in a striking manner, the
colossal size of the huge animal it had assisted in supporting.
Some yards distant, another antler of the Red-deer was found.
It was a much finer specimen than the first, the tines being seven
in number, and quite perfect.

Several months elapsed before anything further was discovered ;
but when a depth of about twenty-eight feet was reached, several
finds were made in close succession. The first of these was one
of the caudal vertebrze of a species of Galenoptera or Fin-whale.

172

It weighed four pounds, was in perfect preservation, and showed _
the concentric ridges for the attachment of the intervertebral
cartilages, in a well-marked manner.

Professor Turner, of Edinburgh University, to whom I am
indebted for the identification of the Fossils, considers this bone
to have belonged to a species of Ba/enoptera still existing. Close
to this fossil was found the most interesting of all the relics—a
portion of the skull of the Bos primigenius, with both horn-cores
in situ. The greater part of the skull was absent, but the cores
were perfect.

The weight was - - - - - - 22 lbs.
The length of core along posterior curve - 264 in.
Do. do. anterior do. - Cy aaa
Distance between tips of cores - - - 27.5
Breadth of forehead between cores” - - Lie ie
Circumference of core atroot - -~— - 12} ,,

The discovery of this fossil at once settled any doubts as to the
origin of the humerus. Curiously enough, just at this time, while
excavations for a gas reservoir were going on, some five hundred
yards further inland, another skull of the Bos primigenius, with
horns attached, was dug up. This was not so good a specimen
as the last, the horn-cores being much decayed. It was found
about ten feet from the surface, lying in sand, over a bed of grey
marl, which is, probably, of lacustrine origin. It thus differed
from the dock specimen, which was found in the gravel over the
boulder-clay.

There was next found another caudal vertebra of Balenoptera,
much smaller than the first, and probably belonging to a part near
the extremity of the tail. Other bones of the Bos primigenius were
discovered soon afterwards, viz :—

(1) A Tibia, weighing three pounds fourteen ounces, and
measuring nineteen inches in length, five-and-a-half inches across
the articular surfaces of the head, and twelve inches in circum-
ference at the anterior tubercle. (Plate 3, fig. 1.)

173

(2) A Metatarsal bone, weighing one pound twelye ounces,
and measuring eleven inches in length.

(3) A Lower Jawbone of the right side, in excellent preserva-
tion, and with all the teeth iv situ, (Plate 3, fig. .) It weighed
one pound twelve ounces, and measured, from angle to condyle,
nine inches, and from angle to symphysis, seventeen inches.
The teeth were five in number, and were very slightly tarnished.
The most posterior had five cusps ; the greatest diameter of
surface of crown measured two inches ; and, at its insertion into

the jaw, the circumference was four-and three-quarter inches,

Half way across the dock, about the centre, and at a depth of
twenty-six feet, the first fossil of vegetable origin was found. _ This
consisted of a longitudinal section of a piece of the trunk of an
Oak, and measured about sixteen feet in length, and twenty inches
in diameter. It lay in the gravel horizontally. The wood about
the centre was spongy and wet ; but the outer portions were sound,
dry, and could be removed in strips. The colour of the wood
was dark-brown, that of the medullary and cortical regions being
almost black.

In conclusion :—

(z) All the Mammalian remains were found in the Gravel.

(4) The majority of them were at a depth of about twenty-
eight feet, just above the Boulder-clay, and within a few yards
of each other.

(c) The Humerus was ten feet nearer the surface than the
other bones of the Bos.

(2) The symmetrical bones of the Bos belonged to the right
side of the animal.

The interesting question as to how these bones came into the
positions in which they were found, cannot of course be answered
with certainty. But, as we may see on our own shores, it would
seem highly probable that, during the dissolution of some stranded
carcase, the bones became separated one by one, and, carried by
the tides a greater or less distance, were finally washed up on this

174

prehistoric beach, which to-day lies buried sixteen feet below high
water level, and is four hundred and fifty yards further inland than
where the spring tides of the Solway now reach.

List oF FOSSILS.

Bos primigenius.

1 Humerus (Right).
1 Skull with horn cores.

1 Tibia (Right).

1 Metatarsal bone (Right).
1 Inferior Maxilla (Right).

Cervus elaphus.

2 Antlers.

Balenoptera species ?

2 Caudal Vertebre.

A Shell-beach, composed entirely of shells of species existing
in British waters.

175

CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A LIST
OF THE MINERALS OCCURRING IN CUMBERLAND
AND WESTMORLAND. (Conciupinc Part.)

By J. G. GOODCHILD, F.G.S., F.Z.S., H.M. Gro. Survey.

(Read at the Penrith Annual Meeting. )

FoLLowinc the arrangement adopted in the parts of the List
already published, the section of minerals that next comes under
notice begins with the important group of rock-constituents known
as the Silicates. These are primarily grouped in two series—the
Anhydrous, and the Hydrous Silicates. Each of these again is
subdivided in accordance with the ratio between the Oxygen and
the base combined with it. These subdivisions are further classed
according to their respective crystallographic characters.

Taking the group wherein the ratio of the Silica to the base is
as 2:1, and the crystallization is in forms belonging to the Rhombic
system, the first mineral we have to refer to is HyPERSTHENE
(MgO, FeO) SiO.. The existence of this particular species any-
where within the district herein specially referred to has been
much questioned of late by competent authorities. The principal
locality where it is considered by many persons to occur, is at
Carrick Fell, where, if it has been correctly identified, it forms an
important constituent of the beautiful rock composing a large part
of that mountain. This rock, all are agreed, is rock of igneous
origin—many regard it as a highly-metamorphosed series of old
lava flows—and it now consists of a coarsely-crystalline aggregation

176

of one or more species of plagioclase felspar, with a large proportion
of the particular mineral under notice. The minerals mentioned
are accompanied by much serpentinous matter and by kaolin ;
both due to causes affecting the rock since its exposure at the
surface. Other minerals associated are, as my colleague Mr.
Rudler has informed me, Hornblende in considerable quantity ;
one or more undetermined species of the Pyroxenic group, Biotite,
and Apatite. Quartz is also found occasionally. The mineral
usually referred to Hypersthene is generally of a very dark bronze
colour on the unweathered parts, and it exhibits well-marked
cleavage-faces, which are silky, or sub-metallic in lustre, and often
of much the same appearance as the alloy known as pinchbeck.

Some say that the mineral that has been called Hypersthene
at Carrick should by right have been named Diallage ; but the
question seems never to have been definitely settled as yet;
perhaps because the mineral itself, on account of its very great
geological antiquity (it is certainly of pre-carboniferous age), has
undergone such changes as render its correct identification a
matter of difficulty.

Owing to the fact that the felspar matrix of the Carrick Fell
rock weathers away faster than its associated minerals, large
crystals, frequently of an inch or more in length, of the mineral
now under notice, are left projecting as rough crystals with a
tea-green exterior on the exposed portion of the rock. It may be
collected in’ almost any quantity from the fallen rock-matter
accumulated on the eastern- and the south-eastern slopes of
Carrick Fell.

There is at present some doubt also in regard to whether the
next species, ENSTATITE, occurs as a constituent of the rocks of
Cumberland and Westmorland or not. There is every reason to
expect to meet with it as one of the constituents of our crystalline
rocks.

AUGITE, a mineral allied in composition to the two last-mentioned,
but crystallizing in forms belonging to the Monoclinic, instead of
to the Rhombic system, occurs as an important constituent in
many of the eruptive (i.e. plutonic and volcanic) rocks of Cumber-

77

land and Westmorland. So far as our present knowledge goes,
Augite does not occur as a product of metamorphism here, though
it is known to do so in other parts. Augite occurs in scattered
crystals, usually of small size, in the lavas of the Borradale volcanic
series—a fact of considerable interest and importance, if only as
proving that volcanic action at one of the remotest-known periods
of the earth’s history was essentially the same in character as can
be actually seen in active volcanoes at the present day. Augite
occurs in the two counties also as a rock-constituent of some of
the plutonic rocks of later date than the Silurian series. It is
found again in rocks known to be contemporaneous with the older
part of the Carboniferous rocks ; as along the Border near Bew
castle. In the well-known Whin Sill again, which is a_post-
carboniferous rock, it occurs as a representative of a period later
still; while in the Armathwaite Dyke, the Augite constituent
occurs in one of the latest manifestations of plutonic action within
our district. This dyke is probably of Miocene age, as Dr. Geikie
has shewn is the case with some Scottish dykes occurring in the
same manner.

DIALLAGE is another mineral closely allied in chemical composi-
to the three minerals just enumerated. It crystallizes in nearly
the same form as Augite; but differs from that mineral in displaying
very perfect cleavage along planes parallel to one of the crystalline
faces. Some of this mineral shews cleavage faces with a sub-
metallic lustre, something like Hypersthene. It is, like Augite,
exclusively confined to eruptive rocks, at least in Cumberland and
Westmorland ; but it is of much less common occurrence than
Augite ; and, so far as is at present known, it does not occur here
in any rocks of later date than those of the Older Palzozoic series.
Well-developed crystals occur in the beautiful rock known as
Gabbro, that occurs as an intrusive sheet in the metamorphosed
Skidda Slates at Cuns* Fell, near Ousby, as well as in the similar
rock forming Wallat Crag, Hawes Water. In both of these the

* Welsh, Cwn—a hill.

+ There is a Swedish word Walla, meaning ‘‘grassy”; hence the spelling
‘*Wallow,” which is sometimes used, is probably as little warranted by the
meaning of the word as it is by its local pronunciation.

13

178

mineral under notice occurs in crystals ranging up to about a
quarter of an inch in length. ‘These crystals exhibit well-defined
faces of cleavage, which have a somewhat horny-looking texture,
and a sub-metallic lustre. In each case the Diallage is associated
with Oligoclase Felspar, and with more or less titaniferous iron.

HORNBLENDE, again, belongs to the same mineralogical group
as the species already enumerated ; but it differs from any of them
in its crystalline form, as well as in its angles of cleavage, and, to
some extent, also in its chemical composition. Hornblende in
Cumberland and Westmorland occurs almost exclusively as an
original constituent of the eruptive rocks of Older Palzozoic age ;
and it is found rarely or not at all as a product of metamorphism.
It forms an important constituent in the crystalline rocks of the
Buttermere and Ennerdale ‘‘Syenite” or Hornblendic Granite,
and of the Diorite of Carrick Fell, as well as of several other
crystalline eruptive rocks occurring in the two counties. The
more important of these will be found described in detail in Mr.
Ward’s various papers on the Petrology of Cumberland and West-
morland.*

Crystals of Hornblende rarely attain to any considerable dimen-
sions in the area under notice ; and indeed it has not been possible
to prove the existence of this mineral at all in the case of many
varieties of rocks, except by means of an examination of thin slices
of rock with the aid of the microscope. Detailed descriptions of
these observations will eventually appear in the official publications
of the Geological Survey ; where the subject will be treated in a
fuller manner than is possible here.

ACTINOLITE, one of the fibrous sub-species of Hornblende,
occurs in a few localities; generally in association with one or
other of the Older Paleozoic eruptive rocks. Near Melmerby it
is found in the form of narrow veins traversing an altered and
much-decomposed intrusive mass of “‘greenstone”—using that
term in its old, and very convenient, generic sense, as meaning a
crystalline eruptive rock containing one or other species of either
the Augite or the Hornblende group. The Actinolite at Melmerby

* A list of these is given in Number VII, of our 7vansactions,

179

is in the form of close-set fibrous masses of horny-looking, tea-green
crystals, which extend across the veins from one side to the other.
In many cases they appear to be of very little later date than the
bed wherein they occur; and they probably represent the date of
the contraction of the rock consequent upon its passing into the
solid state.

OLIvINE, the Di-magnesian (ferrous, etc.) Silicate, a mineral that
forms an important constituent of many modern rocks of volcanic
origin, is rare, or, at the most, represented only by pseudomorphs
in most of the Older Paleeozoic rocks of the Lake District. In
some eruptive rocks of Post-Carboniferous age in North Cumber-
land it has lately been detected in small quantities.

Amongst the HyDRATED MownosILICATES is SERPENTINE, which
as a separate mineral, can hardly be claimed as a local species ;
though compounds of much the same general nature occur as
decomposition-products of parts of eruptive rocks throughout
nearly the whole of the Older Paleozoic rocks of the district.

Tatc, the Hydrous Magnesian monosilicate, is stated by Bryce
M. Wright (of. cz¢. p. Ixxx.) to occur “‘associated with hematite,
near Egremont.” As a decomposition-product it occurs under the
same conditions as the mineral last-enumerated.

HEMIMORPHITE, SMITHSONITE, the Hydrous Zinc monosilicate
has been obtained from two localties in the district. At one,
Alston, it occurs in the form of light-grey to white, encrusting
groups of minute acicular crystals, coating blende and other
minerals, in connection with the fault-breccia of mineral veins.
The other, and better-known locality for the mineral, is Rowtin
Gill, in the Caldbeck Fells. Here it occurs in the form of en-
crusting sheets composed of small acicular crystals set side by side.
These sheets of crystals are disposed layer over layer, to a thickness
of sometimes as much as an inch or more. The outer surface is
usually smooth ; but occasionally the outer ends of the separate
crystals project so far as to form a surface more or less’ rough.
Masses have been found extending over a surface of nearly a
square foot in area. Here too, as at Alston, this silicate is inti-
mately associated with fault-breccia in the mineral veins of the

is 180

district. There can be little doubt, from its mode of occurrence
in each case, that this mineral represents a secondary product
resulting from the decomposition of other ores of zinc, and the
rearrangement of the material in another compound. The Rowtin
Gill specimens are generally of a most beautiful blue tint, due, it
is said, to the presence of blue carbonate of copper. It is the
presence of this mineral that has earned for the Rowtin Gill variety
of Hemimorphite the name of Cupreous Silicate of Zinc.

CHRYSOCOLLA, the amorphous form of Hydrous Copper monosili-
cate, is another mineral occurring in the Caldbeck Fells. Like the
mineral last-named it occurs exclusively in connection with the fault-
breccia, or rider, of the mineral veins ; and it is also in like manner
probably a secondary product resulting from the decomposition of
other ores. The Caldbeck Fell Chrysocolla usually occurs in the
form of resinous, or sub-vitreous, masses filling the interstices in
the vein-stuff, but sometimes it occurs in the form Sf small
encrusting spheroids grouped together on the faces of the vein
stuff in such a manner as to remind one of cauliflower heads rather
than of anything else. The mineral varies in colour from a clear
whitish green to a beautiful turquoise. Chrysocolla occurs at
several other localities than Rowtin Gill. I have seen it at the
old mines in the Glenderattera; and Mr. Bryce M. Wright mentions
Newlands, besides one or two other localities in the neighbourhood
of Carrick.

Another series of silicates is formed by the species wherein
monoxides and sesquioxides are associated in the same mineral.
The first of these. in our list is IDOCRASE, or VESUVIANITE. It is
a fact of some interest that, although Idocrase is one of the best
known minerals formed in connection with the products of modern
volcanoes, yet the whole of the enormous accumulation of volcanic
material that forms our Lake District mountains has, so far, not
yielded even a trace of this mineral in the form of an original
constituent of the rock. In the only locality where its existence
has yet been made known, Wastdale Head, near the Shap Granite
Quarries, it occurs, it is true, in a group of rocks that are partly of

181

volcanic origin; but there can be not a shadow of a doubt, judging
from its mode of occurrence, that the existence of the mineral in
that instance is due simply to the action of metamorphism. The
rock where the Idocrase occurs belongs to the upper or newer
group of volcanic rocks of the Lake District, associated with the
Coniston Limestone as contemporaneous members of the series.
These, like the much-more-fully-developed series exposed on the
same geological horizon on the south west flanks of Roman Fell,*
which I have proved to be of Bala age, are altogether distinct
from the Borradale Rocks proper. The occurrence of the mineral
in Westmorland was first made known by Professor Harkness,
whose large series of specimens illustrating its mode of occurrence,
now, together with most of his minerals, forms part of the
increasingly-valuable collection in the Carlisle Museum. Idocrase
occurs elsewhere in the British Isles as a product ef metamorphism;
and it is interesting to note that at least in same of the cases, the
rock metamorphosed has been, as at Wastdale Head, more or less
calcareous.

The variety of ANDALUSITE known as CHIASTOLITE is a rock-
constituent of considerable importance in Cumberland. It occurs
exclusively as a product of metamorphism, resulting from the
alteration of the sedimentary beds of the Skidda Slate around
the granitic intrusions of the Cawda area. Mr. Ward has given
us detailed descriptions of the changes of lithological character
observable as the unaltered Skidda Slates are traced in the direction
of the granite. One of the manifestations of the regional meta-
morphism affecting that area is the sealing-up of the cleavage that
elsewhere affects these rocks.t Just outside the zone where this
phenomenon is observable, the crystals of Chiastolite attain their
fullest development. Within this zone, (in other words, nearer to
the granite,) the crystals of Chiastolite by degrees give place to
Mica, and the rock then passes from Chiastolite Slate into a kind
of Mica schist. It is noteworthy in this case that, in the stage of

* See the collection of specimens in the Rock Collection of the Museum of
Practical Geology, where these rocks have been publicly exhibited and labelled
** Bala Volcanic Series” since the early part of 1881.

+ This fact does not appear to have been previously noticed.

182

alteration marked by the presence of the mineral under notice,
there is, seemingly, little or no tendency on the part of the Chias-
tolite to develop more along the planes of cleavage or of bedding
than elsewhere ; while in the ultimate stage, where Mica takes the
place of the Chiastolite, the Mica appears to me to follow the original
bedding-planes of the rock. In other words, the Foliation of the
rocks appears to me to be coincident with the Bedding. The
subject is well worth further investigation. Even with all the
information that Sedgwick, Otley, Phillips, Harkness, Ward, and
others have published respecting the development of Chiastolite
Slate, there remains much that does not seem to be quite satis-
factorily explained.

Two or more species or sub-species of the GARNET group occur
as metamorphic products at several localities in Cumberland and
Westmorland. A few small Garnets may be detected here and
there in the Carboniferous shales where these are much altered by
contact-metamorphism, as where the Whin Sill is very fully-
developed. But the fullest development of Garnets occurs in
many of the more highly-altered Older Paleozoic tuffs of the Lake
District. They occur in great numbers in some particular beds of
tuff, especially in the neighbourhood of large intrusions of Plutonic
rocks. Mr. Ward mentions a bed of tuff near Great Gable, as an
instance ; another locality is one of the crags on the east side of
the foot of Ullswater. Bryce M. Wright (of. cz.) mentions Walla
Crag [Hawes Water] as well as several localities near Keswick.
At some of these the crystals may be detached from the rock-

“matrix with little difficulty; and the Garnets are frequently
sufficiently clear and free from flaws to be available for ornamental
purposes. As in the case of the mineral last-mentioned, the
genesis of our Garnets yet remains to be satisfactorily worked out.

EpipoTe occurs here and there in groups of small acicular
crystals, usually of some shade of dark yellowish-green, or of
olive, and forming small nests, or lining fissures, in the volcanic
rocks of the Lake District ; especially in such rock as shew evident
signs of having undergone a certain amount of metamorphism.
Several veins of it occur in the Volcanic rocks near Keswick. In

183

smaller quantities it is met with also in the highly-altered tuffs of
Bala age that form the deep rock-cutting on the London and
North Western Railway at Shap summit. As disseminated crystals
of small size it seems to be pretty generally diffused through most
of the Older Palzeozoic eruptive rocks of Cumberland and West-
morland. It has not, so far as I am at present aware, yet been
found in our district in connection with any other rocks than those
specified.

The important group of the Fetspars falls next to be noticed.
To describe the mode of occurrence and the locality of each
species would require many pages of description; and, seeing
that the subject can be treated in a manner adequate to its im-
portance only in such publications as the Memoirs of the Geological
Survey, I shall confine my remarks on the present occasion to little
more than a mere list of the species observed. As native products,
that is to say, as minerals that have originated in the rocks where
they occur, as distinguished from such as have been derived from
pre-existing crystalline rocks, all the Felspars we have belong to
to one or other of the eruptive rocks. They have either been
brought into their present position as crystals when the rocks that
contain them were in process of formation, or else owe their
existence to a rearrangement of constituents already in the rocks,
which rearrangement has been brought about through the agency
of the causes comprised under the general term metamorphism.
Under the first, may be included the crystals of Felspar floated to
the surface in the old lava flows, or that, in association with other
mineral matter, have been intruded amongst prior-formed rocks in
the form of dykes. The fine series of porphyrite lavas of Bala age
at Rake Brow, Melmerby ; (which have been well represented by
specimens publicly exhibited in the Geological Survey Rock
Collection since 1881 ;) or, again, the equivalent rocks of Berrier
Nittles, near Greystoke, well exemplify the mode of occurrence of
Felspar crystals in lavas. The relation of the same minerals to
granitic rocks, and to plutonic rocks in general, is well exhibited in
such granites as that of Shap, where crystals of Orthoclase, often

184

more than an inch in length, form a conspicuous feature in almost
every specimen of the rock. On a smaller scale they occur, again,
in such dykes as that of Armboth. Felspar crystals, resulting
from metamorphic action, occur in several areas contiguous to
great masses of plutonic rock, such as the granites. Good
examples of this may be seen in the metamorphosed tuffs of Bala
age in the neighbourhood of Shap Wells, and at Shap summit
cutting. Mr. Ward has mentioned several other localities where
phenomena of the same nature may be observed.

The species of the Felspar Group yet noted as occurring in
Cumberland and Westmorland are ORTHOCLASE, OLIGOCLASE,
LABRADORITE, ANDESINE, ALBITE, and MICROCLINE. Mr. Bryce
M. Wright mentions the occurrence of Glassy Felspar in a
Molybdena vein on Carrick. If this is SanipINE, that would add
another species to the members of the group already enumerated.

The remarks made under the last heading apply to some extent
also to the members of the Mica group, which stand next. There
are, however, some facts connected with the mode of occurrence
of Mica that call for remark. Mica occurs exclusively as a rock-
constituent with us. It is found under three conditions—(1) cognate
with the rock, as in the Mica of granites and other plutonic rocks ;
(2) as a product of metamorphism, as in the well-known Mica-schist
of the Cawda; and (3) as 'a derivative material, as in ordinary
sandstones. The commonest species here are BIoTiITE and
MuscovitTeE ; but other species, or sub-species, occur as occasional
constituents of rocks. It is a point of some interest to note that
native Mica, like native quartz, in all but’ exceptional cases, is
conspicuous by its absence in nearly all the volcanic rocks of the
Lake District. This fact has a bearing of considerable importance
upon the question of the correlation of the volcanic ‘Green Slates”
of the Borradale Series with the detrital and sedimentary “Green
Slates” of the Craven area,* near Ingleton and Horton in Ribbles-

* It would be well to distinguish these Ingleton Green Slates by some local
name, as their precise geological position has not been clearly made out. I
believe they are chiefly of true Bala age, like the lavas at Rake Brow, Melmerby;
the rocks below the S.W. face of Roman Fell; the beds at Shap summit

‘

—

~ ee pe =

185
dale. These Ingleton Green Slates contain both mica and quartz
in plenty ; though both constituents are, as above remarked,
conspicuous by their absence in the true Borradale Volcanic
series,

Another rock that is marked by the absence or by the paucity
of mica is the Penrith Sandstone ; which in this respect offers a
marked contrast to nearly every other sandstone yet known.

The series of changes that have resulted in the development of
mica in the metamorphic series around the Cawda Granite have
been fully described by the late Mr. Ward in No. 125 of the
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society and elsewhere, and need
not, therefore, be referred to in detail here, [ may, however,
mention that Mr. Ward was disposed to regard the schistose
structure in these rocks as something quite independent of the
original planes of bedding, instead of regarding it, as many others
have done both before the date of his observation and since, as a
case of foliation coincident with the original bedding of the rock.
This last view does not, of course, apply to the intensely-crumpled
laminze seen in the mica schist on the flanks of Carrick just below
the junction of Brandy Gill and the Cawda, where other causes
have been at work in obliterating the native structure of the rock.
Mica of metamorphic origin, or what I believe to be such, occurs
also in certain dyke-like rocks in the Skidda Slates near Ousby.
I cannot help thinking that some of these seeming dykes may
tepresent highly metamorphosed interbedded bands of submarine
tuffs, representing the seaward equivalents of part of the Borradale
Series.

Except in the granites and tocks of that kind there are few
examples of mica crystals that call for special remark. But in the
granitoid rock exposed near the west face of Dufton Pike, and in
some intrusive rocks of the same general nature exposed elsewhere
in that neighbourhood, crystals of Muscovite, rhombic in form,
may be found of an inch or more in length.
cutting ; and, I believe, all the upper volcanic rocks on the N.E. side of the

Lake District, Ingleton Green Slate Series would be a good name, especially
as they were the original ‘Green Slates” of the older writers,

186

BeryL, the Alumino-glucinum Silicate. So far as I know at
present, the claim of the Beryl to be counted as a mineral from
this locality rests on the identification of specimens now in the
Museum at Keswick. These specimens are from a vein traversing
the volcanic rocks at Walla Crag, on the east side of Derwentwater,
and are in the form of slender prisms about an inch and a quarter
in length, by an eighth of an inch in diameter, and varying in
colour from whitish grey to dark milk-blue. There is no reason
whatever why the Beryl should not be found here, as it has been
found in similar rocks in other parts of the kingdom.

The Hydrous section of minerals belonging to the last series of
silicates come next, and includes the ZEOLITES and CHLORITES.
This section will, doubtless, hereafter prove to contain many more
mineral species than present knowledge enables me to enumerate
here now. It is perhaps not unfair to previous observers to say
that a critical examination of the rocks of the Lake District has
only just been commenced, and that we yet have much to learn
on this subject and others allied to it.

PECTOLITE is occasionally found as a vein-mineral in some of
the fissures traversing the sheet of basalt intruded into the Carbon-
iferous rocks lying on the north-east side of the Pennine Fault.
This is the black rock so well-known under the name of the Whin
Sill.* Pectolite occurs in the form of close-set aggregations of
silky-looking acicular crystals of a light-grey colour, which extend
from side to side of the vein, in the same way as Actinolite does.
Calcite occurs in association with it; perhaps because limestones
at no very remote period, once covered the Whin where this
mineral occurs.

One of the most important and most widely-diffused of the
hydrated silicates, at least in the Older Paleozoic rocks of Cum-
berland and Westmorland, is the mineral CHLORITE. It is to the
presence of this mineral in a diffused state that the peculiar pale

grey-green colour of so many of our volcanic rocks is due. The
* Whin, in the North of England, means any rock hard enough to be em-

ployed as road-metal, and is by no means restricted to Basalt. S7// is used
as an equivalent term for stratum.

‘187

Green Slates so largely quarried at Patterdale, and again near
Ambleside, and so much used for roofing purposes even in Penrith
and the neighbourhood, owe their peculiar glaucous tint to the
abundant presence of this mineral. Mr. Ward has treated of the
mode of occurrence of Chlorite in these rocks in considerable
detail in a paper printed in the A/ineralogical Magazine, No. 4,
(1877). The general conclusion he arrived at is that Chlorite
represents a decomposition-product of several other minerals ; and
that, under conditions of extreme metamorphism, it may again be
converted into one or another of the anhydrous crystalline
silicates. The Chlorite group here has not yet been fully studied.

GILBERTITE, one of the hydrated forms of mica, occurs com-
monly in connection with the granite of the Cawda, near the
well-known lead mines.

Another hydrated silicate is represented by VERMICULITE. This
mineral was first recognized as occurring in Cumberland, I believe,
by Professor John Morris, F.R.S., who shewed that much of the
crystalline matter occurring in the Eskdale and Bootle Granite
previously regarded as mica, was really Vermiculite. Probably a
careful search would prove its existence in other localities as well.

TOURMALINE, BORO-SILICATE, or its variety SCHORL, occurs in
the form of divergent groups of glossy dark-brown acicular crystals
in the plutonic rocks of the Carrick Fell area. One or two fine
specimens collected from this locality are now in the Mineral
Collection at the Carlisle Museum. Schorl has also been recognized
by Mr. Wilfrid Huddlestone, and by Mr. William Atkinson, of
Knock, in the form of small radial groups of acicular crystals,
which occur along divisional planes of the Quartz-felsite now so
extensively-quarried by the Cumberland Road-Metal Company at
Threlkeld. It is also met with in small nests and veins in some
of the metamorphosed tuffs of Bala age that occur in the neigh-
bourhood of the Shap Granite. Other localities are Tentergill,
Braithwaite, and Skidda Foot.

Amongst the Silico-tantalates, SPHENE, as a native mineral, has
some claim to mention here. It is most commonly met with in
the boulders of Criffel or Dalbeattie Granite, so plentifully distri-

188

buted over certain parts of Cumberland and Westmorland. It
usually occurs in very small, wedge shaped, crystals, somewhat
lustrous, and of a pale-brown colour, interspersed, sometimes
plentifully, amongst the ordinary constituents of the granite
mentioned.

MOLYBDATES.

In one of the gills running up from the Cawda to the west
side of the summit of Carrick, several small mines have been |
opened out with a view to obtaining copper and lead. Various
ores of both these metals occur amongst the fault-breccia ; though
miners have every reason to be impressed with the fact that
variety is a more prominent feature connected with the minerals
than is the abundance of any particular species of economic value.
Amongst the various decomposition-products arising from the long
exposure of the mineral veins of this part to the action of meteoric
causes is one that I believe to be WULFENITE. Its occurrence at
the locality referred to was noted in the Geol. Mag. Dec. I. Vol. I.
p- 565. The mineral occurs in small and very thin ‘prisms, like
small scales, and is of a bright vitreous lustre and of an
orange colour. It occurs coating the rider, along with macles of
Cerussite, with Anglesite, and with various other mineral species
of more or less interest.

TUNGSTATES. 4

WotrraM, Manganese-and Iron Tungstate, occurs chiefly at
Brandy Gill in the quartz vein-stuff traversing the granite there.
It is found also at Godolfin Ball, and at Lockfells. The Brandy
Gill specimens do not differ in any noticeable respect from the
specimens obtained in connection with Tinstone in Cornwall.
The proportion of Iron Tungstate to Manganese Tungstate varies
considerably in specimens from different localities. It is as 2:3
at Lockfells, and as 4:1 at Godolfin Ball, according to Dana
(Mineral. 5th ed. p. 603). Wolfram is used in the manufacture
of tungstate of soda, which is employed as a mordant, and for
rendering light dress-fabrics inflammable, as well as for hardening

189

Plaster of Paris. An alloy formed of eighty per cent. of steel and
twenty per cent. of tungsten possesses a degree of hardness that has
never yet been obtained in the manufacture of steel (Bristow
Mineralogy, p. 410). The cost of transport, however, in the case
of the localities herein named, is against the remunerative employ-
ment of our supplies of this mineral.

Associated with Wolfram at Brandy Gill is the Calcium Tungstate
ScHEELITE. This usually occurs in the form of tetragonal pyramids,
more or less modified by other crystalline faces. The specimens
now obtainable at Brandy Gill are more or less decomposed. The
crystals are of the colour of Hock, and are lustrous and translucent.
Specimens an inch or more in length are not uncommon. Good
crystals are in the Museums at Carlisle, Keswick, and Penrith.

Sro.tziTE, Lead Tungstate, has already been mentioned as one
of the rare minerals occurring at Force Crag Mine, near Keswick.
I have not seen the mineral from that locality; but Mr. Bryce M.
Wright (of. cit.) states that it occurs in the form of minute yellowish,
or brownish, pyramidal crystals.

SULPHATES.

_ ANHYDRITE occurs in connection with the hydrous Calcium
sulphate Gypsum at Coat Hill. Probably it will be found at other
- localities where Gypsum occurs, when proper search is made. It
is usually of a somewhat bluer tint than Gypsum, and it differs
from that mineral sufficiently in hardness to be readily detected.

CELESTINE is said to’have been obtained at Burton in Westmor-
land, in limestone. It is certainly one of the minerals that may
be expected at many other localities, especially in connection with
the argillaceous members of the New Red Series.

BaRryYTES, Heavy Spar, sometimes called Cawk by the miners,
the Barium Sulphate, is of common occurrence throughout nearly
all the mineral veins of the two counties. Specially fine and
perfect crystals have been obtained from the mines in the neigh-
bourhood of Milburn and Dufton ; especially from Silveraband,
One such crystal, the largest single crystal of Barytes ever found,»
was obtained from the last-named locality, and was exhibited in

190

the Great Exhibition of 1851. It is now located in the Museum
of Practical Geology. It weighs over a hundredweight. Very
fine crystals from the mines of the same district are in the British
Museum Collection. Beautiful sapphire-blue, pale milk-blue, or
lead-blue crystals, and occasionally others of a clear rose-colour,
are obtained from the West Cumberland hematite mines,
especially from Hinniside and Frizington. Considerable variety
occurs in the form of crystals obtained from different local-
ities; and crystals of particular form, or of particular modes
of occurrence, are so characteristic of particular localities, that
practised mineralogists that have many specimens passing through
their hands can often name unerringly the precise locality whence
a particular specimen under notice may have been derived. A
careful investigation of these facts might throw considerable light
upon many points, connected with the genesis of minerals, at
present imperfectly-understood. I have myself noted many; but
it is impossible to describe them without entering fully into
crystallographic details ; which would be a little out of place in
such papers as the present.

Mention has already been made* of the entire removal of large
crystals of Barytes from the interior of investing masses of crystals
of Calcite at Dufton. A specimen illustrating this is exhibited in
the Mineral Collection at Carlisle Museum.

Judging by its mode of occurrence, Barytes is, in many cases,
one of the oldest vein-minerals, after quartz, that is found in the
district. Some of it is older than part of the quartz associated
with it, because pseudomorphs of Barytes in quartz are not un-
common ; especially in the vein-contents of the Caldbeck Fells.
Hematite, too, often replaces Barytes, and helps to prove their
relative ages in these particular cases. The British Museum
collection contains pseudomorphs of Barytes after Barytocalcite,
from Alston, and of Calamine after Barytes, from Rowtin Gill.

ANGLESITE, Lead Sulphate, occurs in bright, vitreous, translucent
crystals, usually of no great size, in the vein-stuff traversing the

Caldbeck Fells. The largest crystals are obtained from Rowtin
* Transactions of Cumb. and West. Assoc. No. VIIL., p. 196.

191

Gill and the adjoining mine of Red Gill. In each case Anglesite
is associated with Cerussite, Pyromorphite, Mimetisite, Linarite,
and other ores of lead; and it clearly represents one of the results
of decomposition of the Galena. Galena in the case of the ores
of lead, seems to indicate the high-water-mark (if one may so
phrase it), of the tide whose ebb is shewn by the decomposition-
products just mentioned. We can trace the course of the ebb
without much difficulty ; but our knowledge of the sequence of
events connected with the flow is very imperfect indeed.

Mention has before been made of the limited distribution of
Anglesite as a decomposition-product of Galena as compared with
Cerussite. Mr. A. Dick informs me that the absence of Anglesite
in certain areas where Galena is undergoing decomposition is due
to the fact that the sulphate of lead arising from the oxidation of
the Galena is decomposed immediately it is formed if carbonate of
lime is present. The presence of Anglesite in the non-calcareous
rocks of the Lake District, and its absence in the area where the
mineral veins traverse limestone, is thus at once explained.

Anglesite is found at very few other localities in the two counties
than the Caldbeck Fells; and it is by no means of common
occurrence even there.

SELENITE, the crystalline form of the Hydrous Calcium Sulphate
Gypsum, or Ha Plaister, is a native product of some commercial
importance now-a-days. Occasionally, but very rarely, it occurs
as a decomposition-product in rocks, and in mineral veins; but
the chief supplies of the mineral are obtained from beds occurring
in connection with the New Red—usually with some of the more-
argillaceous members of that series. Most of the Gypsum worked
in Cumberland and Westmorland is obtained from the shales
associated with, or on the horizon of, the Magnesian Limestone. Its
mode of occurrence seems to suggest, in some cases, that part of
it is not exactly contemporaneous with the particular beds where
it now occurs, but that (like the crystals of selenite occurring in
the London Clay, the Oxford Clay, and other similar deposits,
and like the chert and the flint in certain calcareous strata) it
represents, in a segregated form, mineral matter that was originally

192

diffused throughout a considerable thickness of the associated
rocks above. This view is quite compatible with the theory
regarding the origin of gypseous deposits advanced by Sterry Hunt,
and advocated by Sir Andrew Ramsay and others, namely, that
most of them represent deposits accumulated in great inland
lakes.

The preservation of our beds of gypsum is, I think, largely due
to the fact that they occur in the midst of what are practically
water-tight strata. The gypsum in almost any quarry one may
examine is manifestly disappearing so fast under the dissolving
influence of surface waters that it may be matter for wonder how
any of it has been preserved so near the surface at all. The explan-
ation I believe to be the true one is that all the portions of the
strata that had had their gypsum carried away in solution before the
Glacial Period were cleared off the face of the country along with
other weathered rock when the great ice-sheet swept the district
from end to end. It was to this same cause, as I have elsewhere
shewn,®* that all the preglacially-weathered limestone of the Carbon-
iferous areas owes its removal. The rock was scraped off down to
where sound-and unweathered stone occurred, and it is at this
point that the action of the weather is just beginning again to
reassert its sway.

In connection with the origin of gypsum we have yet to learn
whether its initial stage was that of Anhydrite, or whether Anhydrite
represents a dehydrated form of the commoner mineral.

Occasionally, beautifully lustrous, and satiny, deposits of fibrous
gypsum occur. One such may be well examined in the south
bank of the Eden at Windanwath. Specimens from this locality
are exhibited in the county Museum at Carlisle.

Gypsum occurs in the Upper Red Shales or Stanwix Marls as
well: probably, as it usually does on this horizon, in association
with Salt.

None of the Chromates seem yet to have been recorded from ~

Cumberland and Westmorland localities.
One of the rare minerals occurring at Rowtin Gill is BROCHANTITE.

* Geological Magazine, article on ‘‘Glacial Erosion.’

193

This occurs in the form of encrusting groups of minute and brilliant
dark-green crystals, generally lining cavities in the vein-stuff.
Usually it is associated with fibrous malachite, and with matter of
a more or less ochreous nature. It was discovered as a Cumber-
land mineral by Mr. Bryce M. Wright, who, as a native of Caldbeck
had abundant opportunities of making himself acquainted with the
minerals of Cumberland. Good specimens of Brochantite are in
each of our local museums.

Without doubt the most beautiful of all the minerals obtained
from the Caldbeck Fells, or, perhaps, from any locality in the two
counties, is the Sulphato-Carbonate of Lead named Linarire,
from Linares, in Spain, whence some of the earliest-known speci-
mens of the mineral were obtained. In Cumberland it occurs
chiefly at Rowtin Gill and the adjoining mine of Red Gill. At
each locality it occurs in the form of thin, tabular crystals, usually
of small size, of a bright-vitreous lustre and of a brilliant blue
colour. It is found in association with Cerussite, Anglesite, and
other ores of lead, as well as of copper, in the fault-breccia of the
veins of that district. The mines have not been much worked of
late years, and Cumberland specimens are therefore now becoming
somewhat difficult to procure. But good specimens exist in the
museums at Carlisle, Keswick, and Penrith; and there is a fine
series in the splendid collection of the British Museum.

At Rowtin Gill and Red Gill Linarite and some of the minerals
generally associated with it are found chiefly in the outer parts of
the veins and near to the bottom of the valley. In the outer parts
of the same veins nearer to the fell-tops, the assemblage of minerals
is of a somewhat different kind, and includes species that, to say
the least of it, are decidedly rare at lower levels. The same
phenomena have been noticed elsewhere, and have been alluded
to on a former occasion.

In connection with the extraordinary variety of decomposition-
products found along with Linarite in the Rowtin Gill area, there
are many facts that yet await a satisfactory explanation. It is just
possible that the peculiarly-complex and varied nature of the rocks

of that particular district may have had some share in contributing,
14

194

by their own decomposition, some of the constituents that have
entered into fresh combinations with the products of decomposition
arising from the action of percolating waters upon the contents of
the mineral veins. Another factor to be taken into account is the
great length of exposure of the fell-tops here, as compared with
other parts adjoining. This, of itself; must have led to great
complexity in the contents of the mineral veins, as there must
have been ample time under such circumstances for many minerals
that had crystallized as decomposition-products in the lower parts
of a vein to be again and again dissolved and afterwards recombined,
often under different circumstances, with mineral matter of a totally
different kind. The decomposition of the various sulphides, of
phosphates like Apatite, of Wolfram, of Mispickel, as well as of
the varied assortment of silicates associated with the veins of the
Caldbeck Fell area has had a very important influence in bringing
about great variety in the mineral constituents of the waters perco-
lating down from the surface, as successively lower portions of the
veins were exposed by denudation.

CALEDONITE is another rare mineral found in the same two
mines ; though it has been found more often at Red Gill than
at Rowtin Gill. It occurs in the form of small crystals of a bluish-
green colour, ranging between turquoise-blue to what is known
as peacock-green. These are found shooting inwards towards the
centres of the cavities in the quartz-rider.

LEADHILLITE is yet another of the rare mineral species found at
the same localities as the last, and often found associated with it,
and Linarite, Cerussite, Anglesite, etc., in the same specimen.
Usually it occurs in the form of small tabular crystals, cleavable
with great facility in one particular direction, and otherwise bearing
a close resemblance to white mica. It is usually brilliantly-lustrous,
and is clear and colourless. Crystals over an inch across have
occasionally been met with at Red Gill; but it is usually in smaller
crystals than that.

Hyprous ARSENATES.

ERYTHRINE, Erythrite, Cobalt-Bloom, Cobalt Ochre, the Hydrous
Cobalt Arsenate, is found at Force Crag Mine, near Keswick, at

AS ah a EI en a

195

Tyne Bottom Mine near Alston, and in a cross-vein in connection
with the Copper Mines at Coniston, just outside the district herein
more especially referred to. It usually occurs in association with
the vein-stuff in faults, in the form of an earthy, powdery, or
chalky-looking encrustation, with a general tint of peach-blossom
red, which ranges in one direction to pale puce, and in the other
to carnation. The mineral is rare at each locality named, and it
does not occur in well-crystallized forms at any one of them.

PHARMACOSIDERITE, the Hydrous Iron Arsenate, occurs in the
form of small cubes of a brilliant lustre, and a dark sage-green
colour, lining cavities in ferruginous rider in Burdle Gill. This
seems to be the only known locality in the district under notice.

OLIVENITE, the Hydrous Copper Arsenate, occurs at Tyne
Head Mine, Alston, also in connection with mineral veins. It
occurs along with Malachite in minute acicular crystals, of a sage-
green or olive-green tint, and highly lustrous, lining cavities in the
rider or vein-stuff. Another locality for this mineral is Goldscope
Mines, near Keswick. It does not appear yet to have been
detected in the Caldbeck Fell area; though all the conditions
requisite for its formation appear to be present at several localities,
especially at Brandy Gill.

PHOSPHATES.

APATITE, Calcium Phosphate, is found in the form of rather
small prismatic crystals, dispersed, in places somewhat plentifully,
throughout the granite of the Brandy Gill area.

PyRoMorPHITE, Green Ore, which is usually regarded simply as
a Lead Phosphate, is found, in some abundance, in the vein-stuff
of the higher parts of the Rowtin Gill area, especially near the
surface. It is usually in the form of very perfect prisms, varying
in tint from yellow of various shades to dull green. In small
quantities it is occasionally met with at several other mines in the
district adjoining ; and it occurs also, in smaller quantities still, in
the lead veins of the Alston district, as well as those of the Escarp-
ment. Small crystals are now and then met with at Helton, east
of Appleby ; but in nothing like the same perfection as the crystals

196

from the Caldbeck Fells. A chromiferous variety is occasionally
found in the Caldbeck Fells.

MIMETISITE, MIMETITE, KAMPYLITE, the Lead Arseno-phosphate,
occurs chiefly at Dry Gill, a short distance to the east of Rowtin
Gill. It is associated, on the vein-quartz of that part, with Pyrolu-
site, and other ores of Manganese, and it occurs in the form of small
barrel-shaped aggregations of crystals, which present a cross-section
of an hexagonal form. The staves of the barrel, if one may so
speak of them, are usually as smooth and bright as if they each
really represent a single veritable face of crystallization, notwith-
standing that the faces of the staves are considerably curved. This
is another point connected with the minerals of our district that
yet requires to be worked out. Another point in connection with
the same mineral is, why it should be present in one particular
vein where there are no traces of other compounds of either Arsenic
or Phosphorus, while in an adjoining vein where Arsenates, Phos-
phates, and ores of lead are decomposing in the same vein, this
particular mineral should be rare or entirely absent.

197

GENERAL INDEX TO LIST OF CUMBERLAND

AND WESTMORLAND

Actinolite

Agate

Albite

Alstonite
Andalusite
Anglesite
Anhydrite
Anorthite
Anthracite
Antimonite
Apatite ...
Aragonite
Argentite
Arsenical Pyrites
Asphaltum
Augite
Aurichalcite
Azurite .. é
Barium Carbonate
Barium Sulphate
Barytes ...
Barytocalcite
Beauxite

Beryl

Biotite

Bismuth

No.
1x.

Vii.

Page
178

184
201
181
190
189

102

MINERALS.*

No.
Bismuthine Vii.
Bismuth Ochre
Bitumen
Black Copper vii.
Blende ... vil.
Bog Iron Ore Vil.
Bornonite
Brewsterite Vil.
Brochantite ... 1x.
Bromlite Vill.
Calamine viii.
Calcite ... Vill.

Calcium Carbonate viii.

Calcium Phosphate ix.
Calcium Sulphate ix.

Calcium Tungstate ix.

Caledonite Bhat eb 34
Celestine cou aene
Cerussite viii.
Chalcedony Vil.
Chalcopyrite Vii.
Chalcosine vil.
Chalybite Vill.
Chert Vil.
Chessylite viii.

Page
113

115
106
I2I

115
192
201
197
195
190
195

190
189
194
189
93
124
110
105
200
124
204

*In this Index are included several minerals that will probably be found in
Cumberland or Westmorland, but that are not yet recorded.

Chiastolite

Chlorite (group)

Chromiferous |
Pyromorphite j

Chrysocolla

Cinnabar

Coal

Cobalt Arsenate

Cobalt Bloom

Copper Arsenate

Copper Blende ...
Copper Carbonate

Copper Glance ...
Copper Pyrites ...

Copper Sulphide
Corundum

Cube Ore
Cuprite
Diallage...
Dolomite
Enstatite
Epidote ...
Eryrithrine
Fahlerz, Fahlore
Felspar (group)
Flos-Ferri

Fluor, Fluorite .
Galena, Galenite
Garnet .
Gilbertite

Glassy Felspar ...

Glauconite
Gold
Geethite...
Graphite

ix.
Vil.
Vili.
Vil.
Vii.

vil.
Vii.

. Lead eae

Greenockite
Gypsum...
Hematite
Halite
Hausmannite
Heavy Spar

Hemimorphite ...

Hornblende
Hydrozincite
Hypersthene
Idocrase
Ilmenite...

Iron Arsenate ...
Iron Carbonate...

Iron Pyrites

Iron Sesquioxide

Iron Sulphide {

Iron Tungstate ...

Jasper
Kampylite
Kaolin
Labradorite
Lead

Lead Arsenate ...

Lead Carbonate

Lead Chromo-
molybdate

Lead Chromo-
phosphate

sulphate

Lead Cupreous
sulphato-
carbonate

Lead Oxide

Page
107
Igl
116
114
120
189
179
178
202
175
180
119
195
200
III

116
I2I

Ill
214

188

124
196

184
103
196
193
188

196

193

105,

190

:
|
'

Lead Phosphate
Lead Sulphate ...

Lead Sulphato- |
tricarbonate

Lead Sulphide ...
Lead Tungstate...
Leadhillite
Lignite

Limonite

Linarite ...
Magnetic Pyrites
Magnetite
Malachite

Manganese Oxides

Manganite
Marcasite

Melaconite

Mica (group)
Mimetisite
Mispickel
Molybdenite
Molybdic Ochre
Muscovite
Nickeline
Oligoclase
Olivenite
Olivine ...
Orthoclase
Pearl Spar
Pectolite

Pennine (under Chlorite)
ix.
Vil.
vil.
Vii.

Pharmacosiderite
Plumbago
Psilomelane
Pyrites ...

vil.
Vill.

1X.

Pyrolusite
Pyromorphite
Pyroxene
Pyrrhotine
Quartz ...
Redruthite
Rhodonite
Rutile
Salt
Sanidine
Satin Spar
Scheelite
Schorl
Selenite ...
Serpentine
Siderite ...
Silver
Smaltine
Sphene ...

Spongy Quartz ...

Stibnite ...
Stoltzite...
Strontianite
Sulphur ...
Tale

Telluric Bismuth

Tetradymite
Tourmaline

Tungstic Ochre...

Turgite ...
Umber
Vermiculite
Vitreous Copper
Wad

Witherite
Wolfram
Wulfenite

901

LOCATE ‘EN TOMO £0 GY PArr 4
By GEO. DAWSON.

(Read at Carlisle. )

CUSPIDATES.

TueEseE form the smallest group of moths we have, as there are
only thirty-three species of them found in the British Isles. Of
these I have found eighteen in this locality. These moths are
easily distinguished from any other in either the larva state or that
of the perfect insect. All the larve of this group have humps on
their backs; and some have, in addition, a kind of horny tail.
The perfect individual insects are very variable in coloration.
This, I think, may arise chiefly from differences in the nature of
their food ; and partly, also, from the nature of their surroundings.
The first species I shall take is—

The Pebble Prominent (JVotodonta ziczac). The larva of this
moth is very variable in coloration. The commonest variety has
the head dark brown, and the remainder of the body brown of a
paler shade. They have three humps of a pale pink colour on
their backs, and the abdomen is of a light green. ‘This variety is
taken at Newby Cross on the sallows, as well as on the small
poplars that grow in the wood there. Those I have taken at
Orton and at Thurstonfield are much brighter in colour, and they
are also larger. At these localities I find them more commonly
on the small birch trees. ‘The larvee here have the head of a bright
brown, and about half of the body is of the same bright colour ;

202

while the three dorsal humps are of a bright salmon-colour with a
few rows of pale-green markings running through them. Their
abdomen is of a very rich green, and at the end of the body is a
small hump, which is of a very bright pink colour. The differences
in coloration in the larve from the two localities mentioned arise,
I believe, partly from the nature of the food-plant, and partly from
that of the situation where they are found. Those found at Newby
Cross are from the large fir-wood, and their paler colour and duller
tints result from the shady nature of their surroundings. The
lary taken at Orton and at Thurstonfield, on the other hand, are
chiefly found in open situations; and I think that the sunlight
has, in this case, had something to do in developing the brighter
colours observed. Besides the food-plants mentioned, I have
taken these larve on sallows, especially at Thurstonfield, where
the insect is sometimes found in great numbers on’ the sallows
growing on the Moss.

A few remarks upon the best method of collecting the larve of
this group may, perhaps, be of some service. The perfect insect
itself can be captured but seldom, and in such cases they are
generally found on the trunk of trees, or on old palings. There
is only one species of the group that may be taken on gas lamps;
so that if it is desired to make anything like a complete collection
of the Cuspidates, it becomes necessary to rear the insects from
the larve. For larva-collecting it is necessary to be provided with
a large umbrella, or else with a piece of wrapping about two yards
square, and also with a stout stick to beat the trees with. Open
the umbrella (stick upwards), or spread out the wrapping under
the tree chosen for operations ; but, before beating, carefully search
for any leaves that may be attached together by the edges, and
examine them for the larve they may contain. Then bend the
branches over the sheet and strike them smartly with the stick,
with the object of shaking off any larve that may be feeding
thereon. Large numbers of individuals, including, occasionally,
many species not attainable in any other way, may be collected in
the manner described. Carefully put the larve into a collecting-

3U3

box, and sort them as soon after as possible, as there are many
species that will devour the others in a very short time. The
larvee of the Cuspidates do not roll themselves into a ring when
they fall, and they may be known also by their having from one to
four small humps on their bodies, and by their having but little
hair; they are, besides, very active when touched. Any that
present these characteristics, it will generally be safest to place by
themselves, for the greater number of them are almost sure to prove
cannibals, which will attack and devour both larve and pupz of
other insects, and in a single day a batch of them will often destroy
the results of a whole season’s collecting. They do not eat the
whole body of any larva they may attack ; but will crawl about the
cage, and fasten at the back of the head of any larva they may
meet with and keep their hold there until their victim falls dead to
the bottom of the cage, when they renew the attack on another.
In this way I have seen one of these larvee destroy seven others in
the course of about half an hour. At that time I had only one
breeding cage; but now, profiting by experience, I have three
made of wood and muslin for the more peaceful kinds, and one
made of glass and zinc, perforated at the ends, specially for the
accomodation of larve that will not live amicably with the other
kinds. Geometer larve especially suffer from the attacks of these
Cuspidates, as they are very delicate, and a slight grasp will suffice
to kill them. The Geometer pup are delicate likewise, and I
believe that they are a favourite prey of the larve specially under
notice. Whenever it is possible, the better plan in collecting is to
keep the larvee in separate boxes from the first, and if they are
taken up in small boxes, these can be placed open in the breeding-
cages, and the larve will soon crawl out by themselves, and so
save the risk of injury liable to be caused by having to handle
them. Lepidopterous larve that have been much handled fre-
quently develop crippled or otherwise imperfect imagos, with the
wings curled up like dried leaves, so that no one could set them
in a satisfactory manner. In searching for the larve of the
Cuspidates search the trees carefully when the leaves are falling,
looking out especially for small clusters of withered leaves. On

204

opening them you will often find that they contain pupa. Some
will be those of the Geometers ; while others will contain the pupz
of one or other of the Cuspidates. The best trees to search are
the Sallow, the Birch, and the Oak ; though there is some difficulty
in the case of the last-named, on account of its height. Still there
will generally be a few small oaks in every locality. After searching
the withered leaves referred to, the next thing to do is to carefully
examine the branches and the trunk for pupz ensconced in the
crevices of the bark. This part of the work requires the greatest
care, for the caterpillar, when selecting a site for changing to pupa,
seems to exercise great care in the selection, so that the crevice
not only holds the pupa exactly, but the nature of the surroundings
are usually such as to afford the helpless pupa the fullest possible
protection against the attacks of its many enemies. On looking at
the surroundings of the pupa of the Puss Moth, for example, one
cannot help wondering how the perfect insect can manage to
emerge unhurt from so hard and close-fitting a case as that where
itis found. Next turn attention to the roots of the trees. Remove
all the moss, and carefully examine that first, as many pupe are
easily overlooked, as they are more like a fine lock of tangled wool
than the cocoon of a caterpillar. In flimsy cocoons of this kind
many different species may be found. The loose leaves at the
root of atree are another favourite place for larve; these must,
therefore, be searched as carefully as the moss just referred to.
Then, with a trowel, dig up the earth around the roots. Each
trowel-full of earth should be spread out on a piece of paper, and
be carefully examined for pups. Great care is required, as the
pupz that form an earthy cocoon are with difficulty distinguished
from the earth surrounding them. The other pupz may be found
easily enough. It is often stated that the south- or the south-west
side of a tree is the best for finding pupe. But, so far as my
experience goes, this rule does not invariably hold good. ‘The
form of the tree itself, and the locality where it may happen to be
growing are often points of much importance to attend to. If it is
near water, the side of the tree nearest to that will always yield
most pupa. Again, if the tree is growing near the middle of a

el ie

—

205

field where cattle or where sheep are grazing, the pup will usually
be found close to the tree. In a wood, the pup will be found
mostly about six inches from the trunk; though some species are
found as many feet, or even yards, away from their feeding place.
Very good trees for pupz-hunting are birches, growing in a hedge.
These will repay a careful search through the Winter and the early
Spring; and if they are looked over in May, June, July, and
August, there will generally be found some pupe or larve to
reward one for the trouble. The Willow and the Sallow are also
good trees to find larve on, as certain early moths make use of
the catkins of these trees as their only food. In the Spring I have
seen over seventy moths fall from one sallow, where they were
busy depositing their ova after emerging from hybernation. The
insects that make use of the Willows as food-plants are, generally
speaking, early to appear in the perfect condition; while those
that feed on the Oak and the Ash and other trees coming later into
leaf are generally of late appearance. -

The Scalloped Hook-tip (Platypteryx lacertula). Found in good
numbers at Newby Cross, Newbiggen, Orton, and Thurstonfield,
in June and July. Newman does not record this species from
Scotland, nor from the Northern Counties. This species is best
taken with the net, after beating birch trees. ‘The larve are easily
found on the same trees, either in a cluster of leaves, or else
hanging from the trees.

The Pebble Hook-tip (P. fadcula). Found in all our woods
where the birch grows. I have taken them from the early part of
May up to the middle of September. Newman considers that
they are double-brooded ; but I have never found any larve except
in September. They are very pretty, of a pale green with a yellow
stripe along each side. The pupa of this moth can easily be found
in the proper localities, as the larva spins up a birch leaf, and the
pupa often remains on the tree long after all the other leaves are
gone.

The Chinese Character (Ci/ix spinula). This, one of the
smallest and prettiest of the group, may be found in the early

206

summer mornings sitting on blades of grass, whence they may be
lifted without their making any attempt to fly. When the sun is
up they are very active, and the least touch with your stick amongst
the bushes near them will set them off. They are then very
troublesome to take. I have never met with either the larva or
the pupa of this species.

The Sallow Kitten (Dicranura furcula). 1 have found this
insect in great numbers at the Cemetery, Newby Cross, and
Thurstonfield, in the autumn of last year (1883). The larve are
most plentiful about the middle of August.

The Poplar Kitten (D. Jifda). This is the larger and the
rarer of the two species of Dicranura we get here. I have found
Newby Cross to be the best locality for it. The larva is full grown
about the middle of August. When beating for larve this one is
difficult to shake from the food-plant, as it clings with so-firm a
grasp. They change to pupa in the bark of the tree, which they
resemble so strongly in colour that they can be found only with
difficulty.

The Puss Moth (D. winula). A very common species here,
and one that can be found along the banks of our rivers in May
and June at night. The larve are easily found, for they strip
parts of the twigs of willows, and of poplars, bare of leaves to such
an extent as to attract attention at once. The colour of this larva
varies a good deal. In some, the markings along the back are of
a very bright purple, and the sides are of a bright pink spotted
with black. The head bears considerable resemblance to that of
a cat, especially in the character of its markings. The cocoon of
this moth is very hard, and is difficult to distinguish from the bark
where it is located. The larve can be found from the end of
June up to the end of October. I have found them in all the
localities where I have collected where the Narrow-leaved Willows
grow. Seldom more than two individuals are to be found on any
single tree. I believe they feed more by night than by day, as I
have watched great numbers of them alive, and have never séen
them attempt to take any food by day. When they are at rest

207

both their head and their tail are held quite erect. They hold to
their food-plant very firmly.

The Sprawler (Petasia cassinea). ‘The larva of this moth bears
a very bad character amongst entomologists, as it has a habit of
destroying any other larve it may find in the same breeding-cage
with itself. I have taken them commonly on the oaks at Orton.
When beaten from the branches they are very restless. In colour
the larvee are of a pale green, with three yellow stripes along the
body. This is one of the latest to appear; I have found them
from the middle of October up to the end of December.

The Buff-tip (Pygera bucephala). This beautiful moth is one of
the commonest of the family; and I think there is hardly a tree
that grows here that does not serve as the food-plant of this species.
It is the only one of the Cuspidates whose larve are to be found
in large broods. I have seen as many as three broods on one
tree, and their habit of stripping off all the leaves around their
feeding place renders their discovery a comparatively-easy matter.
The moth appears in June; and the larva from July up to the end
of October.

The Small Chocolate-tip (Clostera reclusa). This is the smallest
of the Cuspidates, and one that [though generally distributed over
both England and Ireland] is locally confined to rather limited areas.
They occur in great numbers at Orton and Newby Cross. I have
never taken the moth either on the wing or at rest ; though I have
reared hundreds from the larve, which were usually collected from
the Dwarf Sallow. From its earliest stage this larva is in the habit
of sheltering itself by drawing together the edges of leaves, and in
a shelter of this kind it changes to pupa.

The Pale Prominent (Ptilophora |Ptilodonta] palpina). This
very strange-looking moth I have found only in one locality here
—at Orton. They are very common near Langholm. The perfect
insect I have never taken. The larva is a very rough-looking
creature, with the skin very much wrinkled. It feeds on both the
Willow and the Poplar. The pupa I have taken by pulling up the

208

coarse grass that grows in wet ground at the foot of these trees and
then shaking the delicate cocoons out of the grass roots.

The Coxcomb Prominent (JVotodonta camelina). This moth is
generally distributed throughout this district. They occur in great
numbers at Wragmire Moss. ‘They are often taken when at rest
on trees, old palings, or gas-lamps. The larva is easily taken by
beating the birch, or the oak. The pupa may be found at the
roots of trees, almost without any covering over them, about the
early part of October. The moth is on the wing during the whole
of the summer.

The Swallow Prominent (V. dictea); The Lesser Swallow-
Prominent (VV. dicteoides), These two moths differ from each
other only by a small mark on the upper wings; so that they are
often confounded in collections. Both forms occur here, and are
often taken while resting on old palings, tree trunks, and stone
walls. Hardly a season passes without someone obtaining the one
or the other from the Castle walls. The larvee of each is like the
other; and both feed on the same trees—the Sallow and the Birch.
I have taken them at Orton, Thurstonfield, Newby Cross, and
Wragmire Moss. The pupe are often met with while searching
for others, and generally about the end of October. The larva
spins a slim cocoon, and attaches it to the earth, just below the
surface, and close to the tree. They always draw a leaf over
themselves, and this too is attached to the tree. In searching for
the pupe it is well not to turn out too much soil at once, or there
will be a risk of losing them.

The Iron Prominent (lV. dromedarius). This form closely
resembles the two last both in habit and migde of occurrence.
They are very easily reared.

The Pebble Prominent (/V. zéczac). This, one of the commonest
of the Cuspidates, is very irregular in its time of appearance. I
have had them coming out in my cages from March until the early
part of August.

The Great Prominent (ZV. ¢vepida). The only specimen I have

209

taken here (now exhibited) was found in one of my breeding cages
in May, 1881, along with other insects that I had certainly collected
from various localities near here ; but how it came into the cage I
do not know for certain.

The Figure of Eight Moth (Diloba ceruleocephala). This is a
common species wherever it occurs at all. If you find a place
where they once occur, they may usually be met with there at the
right season at any future time. I have collected great numbers
of them at Cummersdale ; and about four years ago I took forty
of them to Bellevue, where they are now well established. The
larve are found about the end of June, feeding on the Whitethorn,
and the Blackthorn, They spin a tough cocoon, and remain in
the pupa state about six weeks. I have taken only three of them
on the wing, and have never captured any at rest. Like the rest
of the Cuspidates, they have to be reared from the larve if it is
desired to make anything like a complete collection.

15

ELOCAL SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND
MEMORANDA.

WILDFOWL NEAR CARLISLE.—Examples of the following species
were shot during the Autumn of 1883, and the Spring of 1884, the
weather being very open, and fowl unusually wild :—Bernicle
Goose, Bean Goose, Sheldrake, Goosander, Mallard, Shoveller,
Wigeon, Scaup, Tufted-Duck, Common Scoter, Goldeneye, Long-
tailed Duck, Teal, and Garganey Teal.

In addition to the foregoing, most of which I saw on many
occasions, I twice met with single Pintails (one drake and one
duck). Grey Lag Geese visited the Esk, and a Great Crested
Grebe was shot on the Eden near Carlisle.

In 1883, the first Wigeon were shot on Burgh Marsh on
September 22nd. Bernicle Geese arrived on October 6th, 1883,
and lingered until April r9th, 1884.

H. A. MacruHerson (Carlisle).

THE LoncraiLteD Duck.—When visiting Monkhill Lough on
January 24th, 1884, I was pleased to find an example of this
northern species (which rarely visits Cumberland,) harbouring at
the narrow extremity of this small piece of water. Though
frequently fired at, it continued to haunt the Lough until March

212

tgth, when it was shot, and proved to be an immature male. It
had afforded me many excellent opportunities of studying its habits,
though very shy. Once, at the close of a violent shower of sleet,
it flew towards me and pitched on the water in a direct line with
the bush behind which I was lying. It fed by diving at the
narrow end of the Lough, and often associated with some Golden-
eyes. It was very reluctant to take wing; but, when it did so,
would fly round and round the Lough at a great height, with a
peculiar motion of the wings, which readily distinguished it from
the other wildfowl.

When swimming rapidly, it appeared to cut through the water,
but when resting quietly bore a rude resemblance to a small gull.

The fact of its having frequented a small piece of fresh water for
so many weeks appears to be diametrically opposed to the usual
habits of this sea-loving species.

H. A. MacpHerson (Carlisle).

ADDITIONS TO THE PUBLISHED LISTS OF CUMBERLAND PLANTS.
—Ranunculus fiuitans has flowered most freely this year in the
Eden—where it is about the most common plant there is—on
account, we suppose, of the long low state of the river. The
flowering plants growing in shallow- and quiet water, were always
shorter in the leaves than those growing in the streams, which did
not flower. On July 4th, near to Crosby, we found a very fine plant
with all the flowers double. Myriophyllum spicatum occurs in the
Caldew. Stachys ambigua, on Dalston Green. Rumex nemorosus,
v. sanguinius, at Thurstonfield. 2. Aydrolapathum, Moss Pool,
near Woodside. Valeriana pyrenaica was growing very rank this
summer (1884) in a plantation called the Gap, about two miles
from Longtown. This plant, according to Hooker’s “Student’s
Flora,” is not indigenous. It gives out a most offensive smell
when decaying. Habenaria albida grows by the side of Derwent-
water. An old station for the rare Cephalanthera ensifolia has
been rediscovered this year near Talkin, Brampton.

W. DuckwortH & P. SHEPHERD (Carlisle).

:
:

215

THE CARLISLE WATER SuUPPLY.—An amusing note on this
subject appears in the “Carlisle Journal” of October roth, 1884.
The writer comments on the “ancient and fish-like smell” which
occasionally characterizes the Carlisle Water Supply, and notices
its likeness to a similar shortcoming in that of Manchester, where
it has.been found to result from the presence of multitudes of
pond-snails. These creatures “deposited their spawn on the sides
and bottoms of the reservoirs, and the decomposition of this mass
imparted the taint to the water.” The remedy applied at Man-
chester has been the introduction into the reservoirs of trout and
char to keep down the snails; and the writer in the “Carlisle
Journal” suggests—though somewhat doubtfully—a similar plan
at Carlisle. Fish, however, and their products, are, in their turn,
as liable to decompose as snails or snail-spawn, while the intro-
duction of otters to keep down the fish hardly promises to prove a
satisfactory settlemeft of that difficulty. Carlisle, however, has
many geological advantages over Manchester, inasmuch as the
structure of its neighbourhood insures an ample supply of water
from the sinking of an artesian well; water infinitely superior in
quality to that now obtained from the Eden. Such a well, sunk
in the district of Harker, would tap the copious supply of water in
the Kirklinton and St. Bees Sandstones, beneath the surface beds,
and provide Carlisle with a supply of water second to none in the
kingdom.

Le Mat

SecTION NORTH oF SILLOTH.—Mr. Goodchild has sent me an
account of a recently-exposed section on the coast a little north of
Silloth. The low foreshore consists of tough boulder clay. Above
it rises a belt cf fine clay, covered in its turn by blown sand, which
is now being cut back at a faster rate than the tougher clay below.
The most interesting point about this section was the fact pointed out
to Mr. Goodchild by Dr. Leitch of Silloth, that the surface of the
fine clay had been regularly drained, and that it exhibited the most
unmistakeable evidences of the action of the plough, the furrows

214

remaining perfectly distinct. In short, the remains of a ploughed
field covered up by blown sand, were exposed to view at this part
of the coast, a striking piece of evidence, pointing to the much
greater extension of the land westward at no very remote period.
So few are the sections on the Solway, and so sudden and unfore-
seen the changes on its shore—as the first years of the fourteenth
century bear witness—that the [fact of competent observers like
Dr. Leitch being on the spot to record points of so much interest]
is a matter on which we may well congratulate ourselves.
Te, Vogels

SILLOTH New Docx.—Mr. J. G. Goodchild has kindly sent
me notes of his observations of the strata exposed in the excavations
for Silloth New Dock, which he visited with Dr. Leitch and Rev.
Mr. Williams last April. The beds seen consisted of alternations
of sand and well-rounded, false-bedded gravel, resting on a chocolate
clay. The clay contained both local and far-derived boulders,
Criffel Granite, Ennerdale Syenite, Grassmoor grits; tuffs and lavas
in abundance. Scarcely any St. John’s Quartz-Felsite was seen.
The mammalian remains (Bos primigenius, &c.) were found at or
near the base of the sand and gravel. This upper formation also
contained the remains of recent littoral shells, the genera Li¢torina,
Ostrea, Trophon, Fusus, Cardium, Tellina, Pecten and Mactra
being all represented. The chocolate clay beneath was evidently
of much earlier date, and belonged to the Glacial Drift, the sand
and gravel being an upheaved recent marine deposit or raised
beach. Mr. Goodchild noticed that the thin layers of sand and
gravel making up the raised beach all sloped downwards from the
sea towards the land, the direction of the current depositing them
being thus indicated. The range of this raised beach is shown in
the map illustrating the physical geography of north-west Cumber-
land, Trans. Cumb. Assoc., Part vi., 1880-81.

WA ERS i

215

CHANGES OF CHANNEL IN THE Sotway.—In Part vi. Trans.
Cumb. Assoc. are maps showing the changes in the Solway
channels between the years 1841 and 1877. The channels E. of
Bowness are not shown in the Admiralty Chart of the Solway
published at the latter date; but on comparing the older chart
with the Ordnance maps showing the Scottish and English shores
of that estuary, and dated respectively 1861 and 1869, we see the
following variations. In the chart 1837-41 the channel of the
Eden between Rockcliff and Glasson keeps close to the southern
shore. In the Dumfriesshire map of 1861 the Eden is seen
making directly for the Scottish side, and effecting a junction with
the Esk about half a mile S. of Tordoff Point. While in the
Cumberland map of 1869 the Eden keeps as closely to the English
shore asin 1841. In the survey of the coast published in the
“Gentleman’s Magazine” in 1748, and quoted by Hutchinson,
(Vol. il, p. 401,) it is remarked :—‘‘ The river Eden has of late
years kept almost close under the Scottish shore; but its
course is constantly varying.” This variability in the Solway
channels is so well known that it is somewhat surprising to read in
the “Carlisle Journal” of September 5th (1884), that at a Special
Meeting of the Eden Fishery Board, a letter from the Home
Secretary had been read in which he suggested that the boundary
line in the Solway should be the middle of the channel at low
water—scarcely a “scientific frontier,” under the circumstances.
With the existing relations between England and Scotland, it is
surely as absurd to have different fishery relations on the northern
and southern sides of the Solway as it would be on those of the
Humber,

Te Voce:

ANCIENT Lake DWELLINGS IN GaLLoway.—Articles in the
“Times” of September 8th and 16th describe investigations among
the crannoges of Galloway. The following remarks, however, are
not intended to serve as an abstract of the articles in question, but
as notes of matters likely to afford useful hints to future explorers

216

in Cumberland. The first crannoge selected for examination by
the Ayrshire and Wigtownshire Archeological Association was
situated in the centre of a peatmoss in Mochram parish, this
summer being especially favourable on account of the long drought.
In the centre of this moss, which is about sixty acres in
extent, there is a circular enclosure fifty-four feet in diameter,
surrounded by a low wall, the whole surface of the enclosure being
green with grass, while the surrounding moss is covered with
heather and bog plants. The moss around this crannoge had
grown up to its level since its construction, and it appears that in
a laborious and accurate map, published in the year 1672, the
present moss appears as a lake. A crannoge in the bed of Bar-
happle lake, in Old Luce parish, which was drained off in 1878, is
described by the writer in the “Times” as measuring one hundred
and fifty-seven yards in circumference. ‘The country in its neigh-
bourhood is said to be now bleak and treeless. “Low drums or
sow-backs, so characteristic of a glacier-scraped country, rise out
of vast tracts of peatmoss.” Barhapple Loch was of small extent,
some five hundred yards long by three hundred broad. The piles
of the causeway connecting this crannoge with the shore extended
for seventy-five yards, there being a space of ten yards without any,
either for the passage of canoes or the erection of a defensive
movable bridge. At Dowalton we learn that a great part of the
bed of the lake (now drained) is solid rock of the Lower Silurian
formation, rising here and there into dome-like roches moutonnées,
beautifully striated and scraped by the ancient land ice. Some of
the crannoges there are built against these masses of rocks, pro-
jecting from them into the muddy alluvium around. When
Dowalton Loch was drained in 1863, the crannoges only became
visible as the water receded. The “Times” writer thinks that
their submergence was due not merely to the collapse of their
material, but to an elevation in the level of the lake-surface.
Owing to the invisibility of the crannoges before drainage, nothing
of archeological interest had been expected. It is interesting to
note, therefore, that there was a vague local tradition in this case,
that a village lay beneath the waters of the loch. Dy Nie Ay

zy

THE PROBABLE EXISTENCE OF LAKE DWELLINGS IN CUMBER-
LAND.—There can be little reason to doubt that the Lake Country
of Cumberland and Westmorland must once have furnished many
eligible building sites to the ancient lake-dweller But situations
much more like those of the Galloway crannoges are very common
in N. Cumberland towards the shores of the Solway. The Bowness
peninsula especially abounds in them. It is by no means improb-
able that the great peatmoss which stretches from Cardurnock to
Glasson may have been in the Roman period mainly or wholly a
shallow lake, with islands rising from it here and there, as at
Rogersceugh and towards Cardurnock. Indeed the remains of
such a lake (now drained) are shown in the map in Hutchinson’s
“History of Cumberland,” between Cardurnock and Anthorn.
Near Wigton, again, N.E. of Oulton, we have Moorhouse (or
Martin) Tarn, which must once have been about ten times its
present size, the remainder of its former area being now peatmoss.
Then we have the singular group of former lakes and morasses in
the neighbourhood of Rockcliff, the peaty portions of which may
perhaps hide prehistoric remains of interest. Hutchinson’s map
shows a small lake in this locality. Many other promisiag neigh-
bourhoods might be mentioned, but enough has been said to show
that Cumberland is by no means destitute of spots likely to repay
the explorer of ancient lake-dwellings.

Dye. EP

SoME AppiTIONAL NoTEs ON THE LAND AND FRESHWATER
SHELLS OF CUMBERLAND AND WESTMORLAND.—In the Zvans-
actions, Part vil., 1881-82, p. 51, a list is given of the Land and
Freshwater Shells found in Cumberland and Westmorland previous
to that time. I think it may now be of interest to record the
names of the species which have since been found, as well as to
give additional localities for some of the more uncommon species
noticed before. The number of species previously recorded was
seventy-five, and to this number I now add three species, making
a total of seventy-eight ; the names of five more varieties found in

218

the district are also given. Of the seventy-five species of the
former list, seven were mentioned as peculiar to Westmorland ;
one of these, Pupa marginata, I have since found in Cumberland
—the number is therefore reduced to six. In the following list
the species and varieties new to Cumberland and Westmoriand
are marked with an asterisk.

Pisidium fontinale, Drap. Pond at Corby.

Anodonta cygnea, L. I obtained one specimen from Rickerby Beck. The
shell is not fully grown, and it is thinner than those found in the
Petteril at Wreay, though it is of a similar olive brown colour.

*A. anatina, L. River Petteril at Wreay. The shell is beautifully rayed
with green.

Limnea peregra, var. lacustris, Leach. Mr. Madison of Birmingham has
found this shell in Windermere.

L. peregra, var. ovata, Drap. I found some small specimens of L. peregra
in a pond at Blaithwaite, of which the shell is thin, spire short,
and the mouth is large in proportion to the size. I sent some to
Mr. W. Nelson of Leeds, —_ he considers them to be dwarfed
forms of the var. ovataetse? 3.

LT, peregra, var. *acuminata. I found large specimens of L. peregra at
Moorville and in Rickerby Beck resembling the var. ovata, but
having the mouth less expanded, I therefore thought they must be
the var. acuminata, and sent some specimens to Mr. W. Nelson,
who kindly examined them and confirmed my opinion.

L. glabra,{Mull. Silloth,

* Ancylus fluviatilis, var. albida. Mr. Maddison informs me that this shell
is abundant in the river Rothay, near Rydal, and he has kindly
given me some specimens.

Zonites cellarius, var. albida. St. Bees.

Z. purus, Ald. Headsnook, upon dead leaves in a ditch, associated with
Z. crystallinus, Helix aculeata, and H. pygruca.

*Z. purus, var. margaritacea, Jeffr. Headsnook, in a ditch, associated with
the type form.

Z. radiatulus,jAld. Silloth, at the roots of grass on the sandhills.

Helix aspersa,,;Mull. This shell—though rare in the neighbourhood of
Carlisle—abounds on St. Bees Head.

*H, hispida, var. subrufa. Hayton, near Carlisle.

*H. virgata, Da Costa, Silloth. I found this species on the sandhills in

219

May; it was not by any means abundant, and the shells are
bleached and but faintly marked. Dead shells were more numerous
than living ones. Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys says that this shell is found
on sand downs and heaths in most parts of England, Wales, and
Treland, from Yorkshire to the Channel Isles. The most northern
locality given by Mr. Rimmer is Alnmouth in Northumberland
(Mc. Murtrie), and he also states that it does not seem to have been
found in Scotland. It is therefore interesting to note its occurrence
at Silloth, so near the Border.

*H. pygmea, Drap. Headsnook, on dead leaves in a ditch.
HI, pulchella, Mull. Silloth, at the roots of grass on the sandhills; St. Bees,

*Pupa wmbilicata, var. alba, Gyrassmere (Jeffreys). I overlooked the

notice of this shell before.

P. marginata, Drap. Silloth; abundant at the roots of grass on the

sandhills.

Vertigo pygmea, Drap. Near St. Bees, on the Magnesian Limestone.

Balia perversa, L. St. Bees,

J. Donatp (Carlisle).

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CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES OF
THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE CUMBERLAND AND
WESTMORLAND ASSOCIATION

For the Advancement of Literature and Sctence.

Vol, I.—1875-76. (94 pages.)

J.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL Meetine (Whitehaven) :—

Inaugural Address by the President, The Lord Bishop of Carlisle.

Reports from the Associated Societies.

General Discussion on the Work of the Societies,

Notice of Excursions made.

PAPERS READ AT THE GENERAL MEETING :—

‘‘Some Plumbago Coining-Moulds.” (Abstract.) By R. S. Ferguson,
M.A. (Carlisle. )

‘Local Tokens.” (Abstract.) By Wm. Jackson, J.P. (Whitehaven.)

**Harbours and Docks.” By J. E. Williams (Whitehaven),

‘‘The Cumberland Dialect.” By John Richardson (Keswick),

‘* Sketch of the Geological History of the Lake District.” By J. Clifton
Ward, F.G.S. (Keswick.)

IJ.—OricInAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Srssion 1875-76, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FoR
PUBLICATION :—

‘«The Cumberland Dialect.” By John Richardson (Keswick).
‘*Old Borrowdale.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick).
‘*Personal Names.” By Peter Harrison (Keswick).

Vol. II.—1876-77. (210 pages.)

I,—PRocEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (Keswick) :—
Programme carried out.

Address by the President, The Lord Bishop of Carlisle, ‘‘The Analogies
and Contrasts between Human and Divine Science.”

Reports from the Associated Societies.

(Contents of Vol. I1.—continued. )

PAPERS READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

«Notes on the Meteorology of Cockermouth.” By H. Dodgson, M.D.,
F.R.M.S. (Cockermouth. )

‘‘The Rainfall of Keswick.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick).

‘* Notes on some Peculiarities of the West Cumberland Coal Field.” By
R. F. Martin, M.A. (Whitehaven. )

‘© The Hematite Deposits of Cumberland and Lancashire.” (Abstract.)
By J. D. Kendal, C.E., F.G.S. (Whitehaven.)

‘¢ The Raised Beach on the Cumberland Coast between Whitehaven and
Bowness.” (Abstract.) By R. Russell, C.E., F.G.S, (Whitehaven,)
and T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

“¢ Remarkable Boulders of the Keswick District.” By J. Clifton Ward,
Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S. (Keswick. )

IJ.—OrIcInAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE
Srsston 1876-77, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

‘‘ Fletcher Christian and the Mutineers of the Bounty.” By William
Fletcher, F.G.S. (Cockermouth. )

‘Old Customs and Usages of the Lake District.” By John Richardson
(Keswick).

“Jonathan Otley, the Geologist and Guide.” By J. Clifton Ward,
Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S. (Keswick.)

‘Notes on a few of the Migratory Birds of the English Lake District.”
By John Birkett (Keswick).

“Coleridge.” By the Rev. J. D. Harrington, M.A. (Lecture given
at Keswick.)

Vol. III.—1877-78. (229 pages.)

I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL Mzetine (Cockermouth) :—
Programme carried out.
Address by the President, I. Fletcher, M.P., F.R.S.
Reports from the Associated Societies.

PAPERS READ AT THE ANNUAL MEETING :—

‘*On the Probable Condition of the Interior of the Earth.” By Sir
George Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S., Astronomer-Royal.

‘‘ Local Names.” By Peter Harrison (Keswick).

‘Quartz, as it occurs in the Lake District; its Structure and its
History.” By J. Clifton Ward, F.G.S., F.R.M.S. (Keswick. )

“Wordsworth.” By Rev. Professor William Knight, St. Andrews.
II.—OrIGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE

Sxssion 1877-78, AND SELECTED ‘BY THE ASSOCIATION CoUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

‘*Boulder Clay.” By C. Smith; M.R,L.A., F.G.S. (Whitehaven. )
‘Submerged Forest at St. Bees.”” By R. Pickering, C.E, (Whitehaven).

(Contents of Vol. I1I.—continued. )

‘‘Theory and Practice in their Relation to each other.” By J. D.
Kendall, W. H. Kitchin, and J. Nixon { Whitehaven),

‘*A Day at Ennerdale.”’ By Joseph Adair (Whitehaven).
«Peter Crosthwaite.” By J. Fisher Crosthwaite (Keswick).
‘‘ Symbolism in Art.’’ By J. A. Wheatley, Carlisle (Cockermouth).

‘¢ Half-an-Hour with a few Common Beetles.” By William Duckworth
(Carlisle).

Vol. IV.—1878-79. (339 pages. )
Reports from the Associated Societies,

Annual Report and Treasurer’s Account.

ORIGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE SESSION
1878-79, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :

‘‘The Formation of Cumberland.” By R. 8. Ferguson, F.S. A. (Carlisle. )

‘The History and Ballads of the Border.” By R. A. Allison, M.A.
(Longtown.)

‘The History and Customs of the Manors of the Marquis and Richmond
Fees in the Barony of Kendal and of the Manor of Hawkshead.” By
W. Hopes Heelis (Ambleside).

*‘Notes on the Whitehaven Rural Sanitary District.” By James
Syme, Medical Officer of Health (Whitehaven).

‘‘ Restoration of Ancient Buildings.” By the Rt. Hon. G. C. Bentinck
(Whitehaven),

‘©Our Summer Visitors.’”” By T. Duckworth (Carlisle).
‘© With the Dipper.” By Wm. Duckworth (Carlisle).
‘¢ The Entomology of the District.” By George Dawson (Carlisle).

“The Stability of Rowing and Sailing Boats.” By the Rev. E. M.
Reynolds (Ambleside. )

‘¢The Great Lake, Lagoon, or Bay of Triton.” By B. A. Irving, M.A.
(Ambleside. )

‘‘The Old Maryport Furnace, and its place in the History of Iron
Manufacture.” By John Addison, C.E. (Maryport. )

‘“‘The Drama and Dramatists.” By E. Fletcher (Whitehaven).
‘Plax and Flax-Workers.” By W. Wilson (Whitehaven).
“‘English Music.” By J. Macqueen (Whitehaven).

“‘The Hon. Charles Radcliffe, and his connection with the Rebellions
of 1715 and 1745.” By J. F. Crosthwaite (Keswick).

‘‘ Robert Southey.” By the Very Rev. A. P. Stanley, D.D., F.R.S.,
Dean of Westminster (Keswick.)

‘¢ List of Cumberland Birds in the Carlisle and Keswick Museums.” By
George Dawson (Carlisle,) and the Rev. J. Clifton Ward, F.G,S.

VOL. V.—1879-80. (208 pages.)
Reports from Associated Societies.
Report of Association Secretary.

Treasurer's Account.
Ward Memorial Fund.

J.—PrRockEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MeEeEtTING (Maryport):—

Programme carried out.
President’s Address.
Papers Read at the Annual Meeting :—

‘Distribution of Boulders in West Cumberland.” By J. D. Kendall,
C.E., F.G.S.

‘-Maryport Camp.” By J. B. Bailey.
Il.—OrIcGINAL PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE

SEssion 1879-80, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR
PUBLICATION :—

Inaugural Address to Carlisle Society. By Robert Ferguson, M.P.

“¢Soul-Cells and Cell-Souls.”” (Translated from the German of Heckel.”
By the Rev. C. H. Parez (Carlisle).

‘¢ The Influence of Geological Structure on Scenery.” By J. D. Kendall,
C.E., F.G.S. (Whitehaven. )

“¢ Some Account of the Life of the late Captain Huthart, F.R.S.” By
E. T. Tyson (Maryport).

“The Local Museum, and its Relation to the Natural History of the
District.” By James Arlosh, M.A. (Carlisle.)

** Notes on Inglewood Forest.” By John Jackson (Carlisle).

“Water and Air: their Relations to Health or Disease.” By W. H.
Watson, F.C.S., F.M.S., &c. (Whitehaven.)

‘‘The Moths of the District.” By George Dawson (Carlisle).

“The Character and Distribution of the Diatomacee.” By B, Taylor
(Whitehaven). :

VOL. VI.—1880-81. (212 pages.)

Reports from the Associated Societies.
Report of Association Secretary.
Treasurer’s Account.
Ward Memorial Fund.
I,—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL Meetine (Workington) :—
President’s Address.
Papers Read at the Annual Meeting :—

‘The Public Water Supplies of West Cumberland.” By Archibald
Kitchin, F.1.C., F.C.S., &c.

“‘The Grasses of Mid-Cumberland.” By William Hodgson,

phe ere on the Flowering Plants of West Cumberland.” By J.
Adair.

(Contents of Vol. VI.—Continued. )

*«The Lichens of Cumberland.” By the Rev. W. Johnson.

“Notes on the Occurrence of the Iceland Falcon in Edenside.” By J.
G. Goodchild, H.M. Geological Survey.

‘* Notes on the Physical Geography of North-West Cumberland.” By
T.. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
II.—PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE Session 1880-81,
AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICATION :—

«The Chaloners, Lords of the Manor of St. Bees.’? By William Jackson,
F.S.A. (Whitehaven.)

“* Contributions towards a List of West Cumberland Flowering Plants
and Ferns.” By Members of the Botanical Section of the Whitehaven
Society.

**On the Wing; or, Bird Life.” By Charles A. Parker, M.D. (White-
haven. )

“Notes on a Submerged Forest off Cardurnock on the Solway ; and on
the Destruction of Skinburness by the Sea about the year 1305.” By
T. V. Holmes, F.G.S. (Maryport Annual Meeting.)

‘Distribution of the Diatomacee.” By B. Taylor (Whitehaven).

Vol. VII.—1881-82. (212 pages.)
Rules.
List of Officers.
Reports from the Associated Societies.
Report of Association Secretary.
Treasurer’s Account.

I.—PROcCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING (Carlisle) :—

Address by the President, Robert Ferguson, M.P., ‘Concerning the
Future of the Evglish Language.” "

‘* Notes on the Land and Freshwater Shells of Cumberland.” By Miss
Donald, of Stanwix.

“The Glacial Deposits of West Cumberland.” By J. D. Kendall,

C.E., F:G.S

‘On the Distinctive Colours of the Carboniferous and Permian or
Triassic (Poikilitic) Rocks of North Cumberland.” By T. V.
Holmes, F.G.S.

*‘Contributions towards a List of the Fungi growing in the District
around Carlisle.” By Dr. Carlyle.

‘Contributions towards a List of the Minerals occurring in Cumberland
and Westmorland.” By J. G. Goodchild, H. M. Geol. Survey.

**On the Geological Evidence of the former Existence of Coal Measures
over Edenside.” By J. G. Goodchild, H. M. Geol. Survey.
CoMMUNICATED AT THE WORKINGTON ANNUAL MExErine :—

“A List of Works relating to the Geology of Cumberland and West-
morland.” By Wm. Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S., H. M. Geol. Survey.

(Contents of Vol. VII.—continued. )

IIl.—PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES DURING THE SESSION

1881-82, AND SELECTED BY THE AssocIATION COUNCIL FOR PUBLICA-
TION :—

**Local Entomology.” Part 3, Geometree. By Geo. Dawson (Carlisle).

*‘Notes on the Flora of the Ullswater District.” By Wm. Hodgson
(Penrith).

“‘Our Northern Mosses.” (Abstract.) By Fredk. Harrison (Carlisle).

‘© Additions to the List of Flowering Plants of West Cumberland.”’ By
J. Glaister and Dr. Leitch (Silloth).

Addenda to the List of Minerals occurring in Cumberland and West-
morland.

Vol. VIII.—1882-83. (256 pages.)
Notes on the Proceedings at the Annual Meeting at Ambleside.
Rules.
List of Officers.
Reports from the Associated Societies.
Report of Association Secretary.
Notice to Members of the Association.
Treasurer’s Account.

I.—PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL Megrine (Ambleside) :—

Address by the President, Robert Ferguson, M.P., ‘*‘ Notes on the
Place-Names of Cumberland and Westmorland.”

‘* Graptolites of the Skiddaw Slates.” By J. Postlethwaite, F.G.8.

“‘The Proposed Permanent Lake District Defence Society.” By the
Rev. H. D. Rawnsley.

“The Language of Lakeland in its Testimony to the Norseman and
the Celt.” By the Rey. T. Ellwood.

II.—PAPERS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETIES CURING THE SESSION

1882-83, AND SELECTED BY THE ASSOCIATION CoUNCIL FOR PUBLICA-
TION :—

‘*Contribution towards a List of Cumberland Mosses.” By Rev. R.
Wood (Carlisle).

‘©The Botany of the Caldew Valley.” By Wm. Hodgson (Carlisle).

‘Professor Robert Harkness, F.R.S.” By J. G. Goodchild, H.M.G.S.
(Penrith).

‘* Water Supply in the Carlisle Basin.” By T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.

‘Further Additions to the Flowering Plants of Cumberland. (West
and East.” By the Rev. R. Wood.

** The Lepidoptera of West Cumberland.” By G. Mawson.
‘‘The German Miners at Keswick.” By J. Fisher Crosthwaite, F.S.A.

Section II.—‘‘ Contributions towards a List of the Minerals occurring in
Cumberland and Westmorland.” Part 2. By J. G. Goodchild,

(Contents of Vol. VL11.—continued. )

Locau Screntrric Nores anp MEmoranpa :—
Footprints in the Penrith Sandstone. G. Varty Smith.
The Iceland Falcon in Cumberland. W. Duckworth,
The Waxwing. W. Duckworth.

The Sea-Owl or Lump-Fish. W. Duckworth.

Further Additions to Lists of Cumberland Flowering Plants. W.
Duckworth.

Coal Measures below the New Red Sandstone. T. V. H.
Discovery of ‘Mammalian Remains at Silloth. T. V. H.

Bos primigenius and the Chillingham Wild Cattle. T. Ve He
Note on Shawk Beck. T. V. H.

Remains of the Beaver in Westmorland. J. G. G.

Bos primigenius in Westmorland. J. G. G.

The Black Rat in Westmorland. J. G. G.

The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker in Cumberland. J. G. G.
Lpipactis palustris in Cumberland. J. G. G.

Pyrrhotite. J. G. G.

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