ea one Oe rw tee) * aoe Ceres ~ a ee rere Cake eee re “ nme . ry ~ ~ pene Pa ee \ wee e - an . . . —— “ : ea : . ren) ax : rime r . oe tle ° ’ a Sat : : an ples ee oe. a AO v0 ve . 7 ¥ t ea bids went ‘ . ~ ore twee aye ed > : aves een ante Herts de A rs ‘ na . migiogee oe We - .. . » 7 o yewre + ~~ hae . > mort yo ‘ ee - “ J Me * wi 1 Stel . : Oe tee —— ~ ve eh sin te if - . = pnd tees sort, : : ; rhe ~ he, 2 og glia Fema ~ : re ~ne ea 7 ‘ a 4 eee wy Ae, a eS aA we virky a Ba: ate & t Pa " ais; c BRARY OF S424 RK BOTANICAL G i ; BH \\ a { : : SY = 4 YI & . / ev Jam yy, 4 * s sew at cote b 1899 YINY-R WeCibson-nve li —= 1%, —=—=—_—_ = ETE - 428 eee 3 oi be EM oF ee tei F ER SS aed amo it e's erat. 3 . > Si) = | oe Ss = > eR * Jal a 4 - ts ‘a 5 De Sn ag . iv te ~ 7h, bd st oy Fe. * +8 . ts yr - Z 2 2 — ~~ e ~ a TRANSACTIONS OF THE Ge ? aS «eh & oo ts . 5, [PRINTED BY AUTHORITY OF THE STATE OF TLLINOts} ee Ge ee at Of Sch _ TWELFTH ANSUAL MEETING Illinois, March 21 and 22, I9I9 ay TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING Jacksonville, Illinois, March 21 and 22, 1919 VOLUME XII EDITED BY ng OH J. L. PRICER anv A.R. CROOK 1920: /(30792-1m) ILLINOIS PRINTING CO., DANVILLE, ILL. ) - TABLE OF CONTENTS - Officers and Committees for 1919-1920 Past Officers of the Academy...............+------ ioe ee eeety a3 “Minutes of the Twelfth Annual Meeting.........-.--- NRE Bn" - Reports of Officers and Committees...........--- Ah as ae We a ee Report of the Secretary....... Bare ok, Oe Wipe pot te sn sae eee A Plan of Affiliation between the Illinois State Academy of Science and the State Museum ‘ Seerport ate retires... eg wx ob o.yidags se~ ep ae ns lees a + Symposiom on Science and Reconstruction The Effects of the War on Science and the Opportunities and Responsibilities of Science under the New Order of Things, Zoology, Henry B. Ward The Problem of Food Production since the Armistice, Tigpene Davenport :.. -Y. E. SHELForD, University of Illinois. ; _ H.S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Geo. D. FuLier, University of Chicago. EB _ A. G. VesTaL, State Normal School, Charleston. . _ Frank C. Gates, Carthage College. Committee on Conservation of Wild Life i E. WaGER, State Normal School, DeKalb, Chairman. H.C. Cowes, University of Chicago. H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. PRANK SanTH, University of Illinois. -] perns Se f/ tea Tr c. Ae ie University of Chitazo. resident, HENRY CREW, Northwestern University. Me 6 R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. , J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1909 ssident, S. A. ForBes, University of Illinois. e-President, JOHN M. Covutter, University of Chicago. etary, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. easurer, J. C. HEssteR, James Millikin University. . 1910 President, JouN M. Coctrer, University of Chicago. Vice-President, R. O. GRAHAM, Illinois Wesleyan University. ecretary, A. R. Croox, State Museum of Natural History. ’ red surer, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. as 1911 _ President, W. A. Noxes, University of Mlinois. Vice-President, J. C. Upper, University of Texas. ‘Secretary, Frank C. Baker, Chicago Academy of Science. _ Treasurer, J. C. HEssteR, James Millikin University. 1912 resident, HENRY CREW. Northwestern University. Vice-President, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. etary, OT1s W. CALDWELL, University of Chicago. er, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. fol 1913 Pp esident, FRANK W. DEWo tr, State Geological Survey. _ Vice-President, H. S. Pepoox, Lake View High School, Chicago. Secretary, E. N. Transeav, Eastern Illinois Normal School. _ Treasurer, J. C. HessterR, James Millikin University. i914 ‘President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. e-President, U. S. GRANT, Northwestern University, Evanston, | Treasurer, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. ve 1915 President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University, Evanston. _ Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. ‘ oe H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. 1916 ii chident, WILLIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois, Urbana. _ Vice-President, H. EB. GrirritrH, Knox College, Galesburg. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. reas, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. iM 1917 President, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University, Decatur. * _ Vice-President, JAMES H. Ferrets, Joliet. _ Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. } pad T. L. Hanxryson, State Normal School, Charleston. ¥ Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. 1918 _ President, R. D. Satispury, University of Chicago, Chicago. a Vice-President, IsaseEL S. SmitTH, Illinois College, Jacksonville. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. _ Treasurer, T. L. Hanxryson, State Normal School, Charleston. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. :? . . ae & inrctery, Epear N. TRANSEAU, Eastern State Normal School, Charleston. Vice-President, E. W. WasuHstren, University of Illinois, Urbana. vat 4 | ee en ae rie aw De. RP 2 Ll &e fi * o 2 L {BRARY S vw yYoRK 407 ANICAL pada MINUTES OF THE TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING ILLINOIS COLLEGE, JACKSONVILLE, MARCH 21-22, 1919 The twelfth annual meeting of the Llinois State Academy of Science was called to order in the Chapel building of Illinois College, Jacksonville, at 2:00 P. M. Friday, March 21, 1919, by Dean R. D. Salisbury, Presi- dent of the Academy. After a very cordial address of welcome by Dean F. 8. Hayden of Illinois College, and a response by President Salisbury, the following business was transacted. The minutes of the 1918 meeting, held at Joliet, were read by the Secretary and approved as read. Next, the Secretary read his annual report. On motion, the Academy voted unanimously to approve the action of the Council in accepting the terms and conditions of affiliation between the Academy and the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and Education of the State Government submitted to the Academy by Dr. F. W. Shepardson, director of said department. On motion, however, the Secretary was instructed to endeavor to- secure the consent of Dr. Shepardson to a slight change in the wording in sections one and two of the plan of affiliation. Dr. Shepardson gladly agreed to the suggested changes and the revised form of the terms of affiliation is included in the Secretary’s report printed later in this volume. Following this action, the following proposed amend- ments to the Constitution and By-laws were adopted by unanimous vote: First, to amend Article V of the Consti- tution, (1) by adding the word “Librarian” after the word “Treasurer” and (2) by adding the following paragraph at 9 Pees 8 | . ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCH / 4 . j ; - the end of the present article. The Board of State Musew Weel eye Advisors, created under the provisions of Civil Adminis- — trative Code of Illinois, shall be consulted by the officers of the Academy, in all matters which concern the general policy of the Academy in its relations to the Division of State Museum. Second, to amend the By-Laws, (1) by substituting the word “Librarian” for the word “Secretary” in Article VI, and (2) by adding the following paragraph to Article VIII: Papers presented by authors in absentia, shall be read by title only, unless the Academy votes to hear them. ‘On motion, the Academy voted unanimously to express its willingness to become affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, on what were at the time the tentative terms for such affiliations pro- posed by the said association. These terms are included in the Secretary’s report. Since that time, however, the Committee of the American Association, on affiliations, has decided on terms for such affiliations, which are sufficiently different from the terms voted on by the Academy to make a reconsideration of the matter as a whole, by the Academy necessary. On motion, the Academy voted to have a committee of three appointed by the President to formulate plans and conditions, and to secure the affiliation of science clubs in high schools and colleges and other local science organiza- tions with the Academy, according to a plan suggested in the Secretary’s report. J. L. Pricer, H. S. Pepoon, and W. G. Waterman were appointed as this committee. On motion, it was voted that the President appoint a permanent committee of three on Secondary Education in Science, to make annual reports to the Academy as to the conditions of secondary school science, and to devise and suggest means of cooperation between the Academy and this important interest. C. H. Smith, F. D. Barber, and Isabel S. Smith were appointed on this committee. Next, the Treasurer made his annual report and on motion it was referred to a committee on auditing. On AP Tbe ~~ - MINUTES OF TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING 11 if motion, it was voted that the officers offer for sale to libraries or to individuals 150 full sets of published ___ transactions at $5.00 per set, net. On motion of Dr. Noyes, the Academy voted, with but _ two dissenting votes to endorse the movement for two-year - courses in fundamental science for secondary schools, as - suggested in a paper read by J. L. Pricer, and printed in OO this volume. Dr. Noyes supported this motion by making the point that such a plan was in harmony with the move- - ment for a synthesis of the sciences such as botany, advo- cated by Dr. Coulter in his symposium paper. Next, the President announced the following commit- tees: Committee on nominations: De Wolf, Cowles, and _ Pricer. Committee on resolutions; Pepoon, Forbes, and Millspaugh. Committee on auditing: Van Cleave, Fuller and Hessler. = te wee Ao 4 Ie Pa =o fs Following the business session, several papers of gen- _ eral interest were presented, and then followed reports on the forestry survey which had been conducted during the previous year by members of the Committee on Ecological Survey, at the suggestion and under the direction of Dr. S. A. Forbes, chairman of the committee. bt ees Site so ad = - = At six thirty o’clock, the members of the Academy pres- ent, and a large number of Jacksonville citizens, enjoyed together a delightful dinner prepared by the ladies of the First Christian Church, after which Dr. Josephine Milligan of Jacksonville, who had recently returned from a year’s service under the Red Cross in France, delivered an inter- esting lecture on her work among the civilians of France. At eight thirty o’clock, the largest audience that has at- tended an Academy meeting in several years assembled in the Chapel of the Illinois Woman’s College to hear Presi- dent Salisbury’s illustrated lecture on Porto Rico. Ee ee et eae FMS LIE E A Gee ay XS -, -Ve, Po. eo o> es Li The session of Saturday forenoon consisted of a sympo- sium on the general topic: “Science and Reconstruction.” At noon, Saturday, the visiting members of the Acad- emy were given a delightful complimentary luncheon by the faculty of Illinois College, at Academy Hall of the col- lege. | aN Pact N re SES ae | SP ae = y ae we oe = “ ¥ 12 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tile At two o’clock P. M., a brief business meeting was held — to hear the reports of committees on auditing, on resolu- tions, and on nomination of officers. The officers elected for the ensuing year are as follows: President, Dr. Henry B. Ward, University of Illinois; Vice President, Dr. Geo. D. Fuller, University of Chicago; Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University; Treasurer, Dr. W. G. Water- man, Northwestern University. Membership Committee, Dr. Eliot Blackwilder, chairman, University of [linois; Clarence Bonnell, Harrisburg Township High School; Dr. J. H. Whitten, Chicago Normal College; H. E. Griffith, Knox College; Dr. Stuart Weller, University of Chicago. Member of Committee on Publications, Dr. H. J. Van Cleave, University of Illinois. After this business session, and the presentation of a few general papers, the meeting was divided into two sec- tions for the presentation of the remaining papers on the program, and adjournment occurred about four thirty P. M. J. L. Pricer, Secretary. (Tye, SS STS al Bee laren a REPORT OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 13 ; REPORTS OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES SECRETARY’S REPORT JACKSONVILLE, Marcu 21, 1919 No meeting of the Council has been held during the year. All business of the Academy, including the arrangements for this meeting, has been carried on by correspondence. This variation from the usual practise was suggested by the urgent necessity of reducing the expenses of the Academy to the minimum. In accordance with the motion adopted at the Joliet meeting giving the Council power to perfect an affiliation of the Academy with the Division of State Museum, of the Department of Registration and Education, of the State Government, the secretary took the matter up with Dr. Francis W. Shepardson, Director of the aforesaid depart- ment, early last spring. After much correspondence and one personal conference with Dr. Shepardson, he finally submitted a very simple plan of affiliation under date of Dec. 7, 1918, as set forth in the following letter and plan: December 7, 1918. Mr. J. L. PRICER, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois. “Dear Mr. PRICER: After conference with Mr. Crook on the general plan of affiliation, I am sending you a revised statement which is simpler than the one I gave you under date of December 5. Should this general plan be approved by you, I think there will be no difficulty. I feel that in view of the state appropriation, the Chief of the Museum ought to be a member of the Executive Committee, as in a sort of way, the protector of the interests of the State. The oversight by the State Museum Board, in my judgment would be extremely general since their feeling would naturally be entirely friendly to the Academy. But as the Code pro- vides that this Board shall have general oversight of the _ Museum, it is put into the arrangement as a matter of — courtesy. Ph iat a oy ae td ake AL J Wy Wed Lp) eh aie REN beg Se ay TAUGHBS PRUE 4 Vy ATER te ¥ i 4 ‘ y ray uy f « by ONS) Mu, Ey), =| 14 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE I have already arranged for the inclusion in the budget — i of an item of a thousand dollars per annum for the Acad- emy, this being contingent upon the closing of the ar ane ment on your part. Yours very truly, FI. W. SHEPARDSON, Director. A PLAN OF AFFILIATION BETWEEN THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND THE STATE MUSEUM 1. The Illinois State Academy of Science, by action at its annual meeting, declares itself to be an affiliated divi- sion of the State Museum Division of the Department of Registration and Education of the State of [linois. 2. The Illinois State Academy of Science agrees to seek the Council and advice of the Board of State Museum Advisors, created under the provisions of the Civil Ad- ministrative Code of Illinois in all matters which concern the general relations between the two divisions. 3. The State Museum at Springfield shall be the depos- itory for the books and other property of the Academy. The Chief of the State Museum division of the Department of Registration and Education shall be librarian and cus- todian, and, during the continuance of this arrangement, shall be ex-officio a member of the Executive Committee - of the Academy. 4. With the exception of the addition of the Chief of the State Museum to the Executive Committee, the consti- tution of the Illinois Academy of Science, and its present methods of procedure, need not be changed under this arrangement. 5. The Department of Registration and Education, on its part, will seek through the State Museum division, an annual appropriation from the legislature toward the ex- penses of the printing of reports and other publications of the Academy and for postage, express and stationery con- nected therewith. 6. This affiliation arrangement may be terminated at any time by either party but only upon a year’s notice in advance. Wa te aT ee ete Fe Picx & _ REPORT OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 15 - ‘Upon receiving this statement of the plan, the Secretary immediately submitted it by correspondence to the differ- ent members of the Council and all voted in favor of its adoption. A brief and simple amendment to the constitu- tion of the Academy covering the essential changes in- volved in the plan is to be voted on at this meeting. ps0 ae On March 4th, the appropriation committees of the two houses of the legislature, held a hearing on the request of the Academy for an appropriation of $2,000.00 for the bien- nium. Dr. Crook, Dr. Hessler, Professor Hankinson, and I were present. We were given a very courteous hearing, and feel that we have every reason to expect that the ap- propriation will be made. Thus, this affiliation with a branch of the State government, seems to be an altogether proper and a happy union. ; We have now presented to us, an opportunity for an- other equally desirable affiliation. We are invited to be- - come affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. _ The revised constitution of the American Association, _ presented at the Baltimore meeting for adoption at the St. Louis meeting next December, contains an article provid- ing for the affiliation of such local Academies as ours. The American Association has appointed a committee of three to consider and recommend a detailed plan for such affiliations. The members of this committee are: Dr. Catell, Dr. Coulter and Dr. Ward, the latter two, members of our Academy. This committee has had appointed, in each of the several states in the central west, which sup- port state academies, and in Missouri where there is the city academy of St. Louis, a committee of five, to cooperate with the committee of the American Association in work- ing out the details of such affiliations. This committee for Illinois consists of Messrs. Coulter, Ward, Crew, Hessler, __ and Pricer. One meeting of our state committee has been held with but two members—Coulter and Pricer—present, - _ but with some letters from others. The Committee of the American Association has pretty definitely agreed on the essentials of the plan which they _ Shall recommend for the affiliation of state academies, and I may state these with the understanding that they are as yet tentative, but nevertheless quite certain to prevail. 16 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The main feaures of such tentative terms are as follows: 1. The local academy will be permitted to have two classes of members, namely: first, those who are merely members of the local organization, and who pay only the local dues, which is a dollar a year in the case of the [li- nois Academy; second, members, who are also members of the American Association, who pay annual dues of five dollars, and receive the weekly journal, Science. 2. The local academy will collect all dues from mem- bers of both classes, including initiation fees, then it will send to the American Association four dollars for each affiliated member, keeping all the rest for local use, except, of course, the initiation fee to the American Association. 3. The local organization will be given representation on the council of the American Association in proportion to the number of affiliated members it has. It seems to me that in accepting such a liberal plan of affiliation, we would have everything to gain and nothing to lose. By this plan, no member of the local organization will be compelled to join the American Association, and yet one may do so at a saving of a dollar a year of annual dues over what is possible at present. On the other hand, there are within the State many subscribers to Science and members of the American Association who are not members of the Illinois Academy. Any of these might be- come members of the local Academy, with no additional expense except the one dollar initiation fee. It is obvious that the American Association is seeking no financial advantage or any other kind of advantage for itself as an organization, in this plan. It is simply endeay- oring to mobilize and organize the scientific forces of the nation so that they may co-operate more effectively in rendering their natural services to society. One thing that should make such an affiliation pecul- iarly desirable for our organization just now, is the fact that the next two meetings of the American Associa- tion are to be in St. Louis and Chicago respectively. Dur- ing these two years, we should be able to greatly increase our membership if a suitable campaign is carried on. as el ae * i)... ; oe i a TS REPORT OF OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES 17 While we are in the affiliating business, it seems to me that we might carry the thing just a little farther. I will give a concrete illustration of what I have in mind. We have at the Normal University at Normal, a science club, consisting of the members of the science faculty, and not - more than forty student members, who are elected to mem- bership on the recommendation of faculty members. For the past three years, this club has sent a student delegate to the meetings of the State Academy, paying his or her expenses. One such delegate is here today. The next meeting of our local club will be devoted to a report on the Academy meeting, in which this student delegate will be the principal speaker. Now, there are science clubs like this in many high schools, and they could be organized in many other high schools. There are small scientific organ- izations among the grown people in some of the larger cities of the State. Why should not all such organizations be affiliated in some way with the State Academy. I be- lieve that we should have a permanent committee of three on affiliations, whose duty should be, first to work out a plan for such affiliations and, second, to seek to bring about as many such affiliations as possible. Education in science is so vital to the general welfare of every other phase of science, that it seems to me that every member of the Academy should have some interest in the problems of science education in the secondary schools. Therefore, I believe that the Academy should have a permanent committee of three on science education in the secondary schools. It should be the function of this com- mittee to make annual reports to the Academy on the status of secondary school science, and on occasions to call on the Academy for cooperation and help in the solution of certain problems. J. L. Pricer, Secretary. 18 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE REPORT OF THE TREASURER March 21, 1919. * RECEIPTS February 18, 1918, Balance on hand........... § 222.93 : marcha bot. ues to date. wisn as tieg Sin 573.00 ( March 21, 1919, Life Membership fees.......... 302.00 4 Rraeiniiet)) LOLO Mom AatOn se ES ks ieeiat alma 238.00 . DUAL RECEHOES iM ec )a Wonka eys aati a BAe Srelaces uf ebabate $1,335.93 EXPENDITURES Prem LITER Wiest WM cept Rel le shh Cea ah le $1,204.25 ODBC NOD OMIGOIS lis OL acs aU ea 88.00 Pata Pe! Sia CONERY: CLC. le cic es aie 8 belle ibnenhe ahaa 26.40 Balance on hand, March 21, 1919.............. 17.22 oral expenditures, 2). Movi ie INAV A NB MTA $1,335.93 T. L. HANKINSON, Treasurer. g @ 3 ra OSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION << | THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON SCIENCE AND THE OPPORTUN- ITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCIENCE UNDER THE NEW ORDER OF THINGS ZOOLOGY Henry B. Ward, URBANA, ILLINOIS ___ In a sense the effects of the war on the science of zoology are not very different from those it exerted upon other branches of science. In many particulars identical results q have followed. The expenses of maintaining work have i meecreased with astonishing rapidity. The number of work- ers available has been cut down so greatly that many lines 44 of activity have been necessarily suspended if not actually o abandoned, and it is hard to see how the pre-war organiza- tion can be re-established. In any event it will require considerable increase in endowments and appropria- tions to finance the work that was under way when the - eonflict broke on the world. In case new activities are necessitated by the war, as appears to many to be urgently needed, then an even greater increase in financial support will be required. In certain ways the monetary aspect im- work in institutions for teaching and research. Shen) ew ere) | *' a I do not attach any special significance to the fact that in some such institutions the staff has been depleted in its _ higher ranks in that men have been called to assume duties in connection with some branch of warfare that demanded the services of an expert zoologist. This has been true, of __ course, but at the close of the war many such men will _ return to their old positions and if some have been at- tracted away from university and college life to what _ seemed to them to be larger opportunities in other fields, this loss can be made good by advancing those of subor- dinate grade who have demonstrated their fitness in the meanwhile. The period of pressure during continuance of & the war was exceptionally well calculated to test the fitness of men for larger responsibilities and to prepare them rap- _ idly for the assumption of such duties. While in a narrow sense they are lost to our science, yet in the broader infliu- - ence they are enabled to exert zoology will profit. 20 .s Sara presses itself most forcibly on those who are in charge of 28 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE To one who examines carefully the entire field both in teaching and in research, the most serious element in the situation seems to be the failure of the stream of recruits to the profession at its sources. Those undergraduates who were in position to be attracted by the opportunities of graduate work in zoology have had their attention diverted to other lines by influences so powerful that in the majority of cases they will not turn back. Those grad- uate students who were in preparation for the duties of teaching and research have largely been called upon to take up work in other lines and many of them have become so thoroughly intrenched in other fields that they will hesitate to assume the loss incident to the transfer to another line of activity, even if that be the field in which they were interested of old. With the coming of the war the undergraduate body was greatly reduced in numbers, but the enrollment of the graduate schools was affected far more seriously. In zoology at least the enrollment in various institutions fell off from 20 to 90 per cent and those who were left were by no means sufficient to meet even the limited demand for the services of graduate students in this field during war times. The numbers now available will be entirely inadequate to supply the needs for the instructional staff that is sure to be demanded in the period immediately after the war. Furthermore, the stipends of such positions have always been low, and in comparison with the greatly reduced purchasing power of money, which does not seem likely to be increased in the near future, these positions will not only be much less attractive but are likely to prove im- possible for such as previously sought to secure them. While ten years ago or less the stipends furnished were adequate to provide, though scantily, for the actual ex- penses of the graduate student, now they must be supple- mented very considerably to meet even the most modest re- quirements of such workers. In the face of opportunities on every hand to secure occupations in other lines with generous stipends, the practical disadvantage will deter many from going back to graduate study. They will give up, accordingly, their plans for an academic career and leave the sources of professional assistants seriously de- pleted. When it is considered that under the requirements for the Ph.D. degree, which in the majority of good institu- tions has been a condition for entrance to the faculty in SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 29 zoology, a student is obligated to spend at least seven years in training beyond the completion of the high-school course and to reach an age of 25 or 26 years before becom- ing in any degree self-supporting. All must realize that the present salaries paid to members of our teaching staffs are so inadequate as to deter men from entering upon the career unless they are in possession of private means and are moved by an overwhelming desire to devote themselves to this field of work. Once that the supply of trained workers is reduced, it will require considerable time to re- store it to proper dimensions because of the time element involved. During the war period zoology has not experienced the same stimulating effects that have influenced the develop- ment of chemistry and physics, for its relation to practical aspects of warfare are not so direct and so striking. It would be wrong, however, to pass over the indirect influ- ence which has been exerted upon it by the general stimula- tion of war conditions, and the need for efficient workers and dependable work. It is not too much to say that every worker in scientific fields has been impressed with the necessity of pushing his investigations as rapidly as pos- sible and securing the maximum results with the time and energy at his disposal. The drive of the war, which has influenced greatly every phase of human activity, has been to a considerable extent free from the serious effects of pressure under other conditions by reason of the exacting demand for precision and accuracy, and the rigid test to which all the results have been put before they were utilized in a practical way. This increased intensity of effort and emphasis upon the quality of results achieved _ has, I think, been evident in every field and constitutes a helpful influence for the development of zoological research in the future as well as in the immediate present. The standards necessarily set in war work will serve a good purpose for the development of science in the next period of its activity. The universal emphasis upon the conservation of natural resources, including human life, and upon the application of discoveries to the elimination of every possible waste and the development of every obtainable advantage in the struggle, has exercised a specific and important influence upon zoology, even though biological work had a less immediate bearing upon the situation than did the work in 30 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE some other fields of science. It was what are sometimes denominated as the practical or applied aspects of this — science that have been particularly emphasized and devel- oped. Specific examples of this may be taken from various parts of the field. Thus, the need of conserving and even increasing as — largely as possible the food supplies of the nation led to research inquiry into those influences which tend to reduce the numbers of food animals and thus deplete the food sup- ply. A study of the national bill-of-fare, as shown by the statistics of commerce in food articles, indicated at once © that the population of the central area of the United States consumed on the average a very much smaller supply of fish as food than was utilized by most other countries in the world. Further inquiry into the situation indicated the presence of numbers of different kinds of fish that were utilized only exceptionally, if at all, as human food. Ex- perimental data furnish in various ways the evidence that among these types of fish which were neglected or scorned were various sorts that possessed qualities of flesh and flavor such as to make them admirable articles of food. It appeared in the examination of the situation that pr-- judices of one type or another interfered with the use of these fish, and a campaign of publicity which utilized zoological as well as psychological influences resulted in largely increased consumption of types of fish that were previously utilized as well as created a demand for species that had never been included in the human bill-of-fare. Improvements in methods of catching, preserving, dis- tributing, marketing, and preparing various fish foods were included in this campaign, and the demand for better knowledge of the species of fish, of their distribution and habits made demands upon zoological investigators familiar with this group that could be met in part only by examination and critique of existing data and demanded as well renewed study of the fish and their distribution, food, environment and habits. It is evident that the same general problem demanded a | reconsideration and improvement of the methods which were in vogue for maintaining and increasing the number of fish. As a result hatchery methods, the plans for obtaining supplies of fish eggs and for planting them under favorable conditions, the possibility of finding unutilized environments for fein: food fishes, and a host of other rf S milar questions came up for attention among those who were ae working on such problems and also foreed _ themselves upon the notice of others who had not before beer concerned i in the study of applied ichthyology. As this field of investigation was being :brought more _ fully to the attention of biologists, one factor which had previously been emphasized without having won effective - noticeattracted general attention as of distinct importance. _ Pollution of our streams by domestic and industrial wastes had often been pointed out as a source of damage to the _ fish life and thus, indirectly, to the general public. So - long as food was abundant and the loss eould be replaced readily by food supplies drawn from other sources, the sig- nificance of the draft upon the nation by reason of the 2 _ pollution of its waters did not seem to demand particular _ attention. Under the changed circumstances the loss be- came significant and the situation was still further modi- “fied in an unfavorable way by another factor. As neces- _ sary adjuncts of war activities, numerous plants for the manufacture of chemicals had sprung into existence. Utilizing processes marked by their efficiency in terms of _time rather than by their ultimate effectiveness, they were _ paying no attention to the by-products that were produced - in connection with the main processes, and were dumping _ into streams enormous quantities of chemical substances _ that exerted conspicuous and serious effects on the life of a the waters. Attention was thus still more forcibly directed _ to the need of controlling waste products and avoiding the é i damage produced by them. The opportunity afforded for } - scientific study was great, but few were free to take up the see rovlems intensively and the desired results are evidently _ to be looked for in the future rather than immediately. _ The urgency of war production was in many minds a sufi- ; % cient answer to the complaint of loss resulting from the oy, situation, and while some record has been made of the _ losses incurred both in the industries themselves through the wastage of valuable by-products and to the public in - general through the destruction of areas adapted to the ee Paeation and growth of food fishes as well as in various _ other ways that are indirect, though very real, it is only now that conditions are really favorable for investigating __ the ways in which the loss can be prevented and the “pollu. tion cleaned up. ~~ er 32 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCH Perhaps the most conspicious field in which the war influenced the development of zoological science was that dealing with the relations of animals to disease. It be- came of paramount importance to preserve the health of the soldier. The conditions under which he worked had been in previous wars characterized by a striking increase in the amount of disease, even to the extent of incapacitat- ing armies and defeating well-planned military campaigns. Within rather recent times the investigations of the rela- tions of animals to disease had resulted in disclosing an essential connection between certain types of animal life and specific maladies. It was known that some of the diseases which had threatened the existence of the soldier in previous wars depended absolutely upon specific types of animals for transmission. In other cases where the demonstration had not been made so directly, there was reason to believe that similar relations existed. In the study of the relations of animals to disease, which, was inaugurated and pressed with intensity in connection with the health service of all fighting forces discoveries of striking magnitude were made. Because of their evident and immediate relation to the welfare of man these discoveries are sure to exert a power- ful influence upon the trend of scientific research. They have aroused widespread interest among workers in other fields and have given a significance to work of this type which assures it a permanent place among the research activities in zoology. THE PROBLEM OF FOOD PRODUCTION SINCE THE ARMISTICE EUGENE DAVENPORT, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS thousards have died during the war for lack of food. 5 aig lara Sh 2 Ke eel Te tage Pry e , ad of the actual conditions across the water. NO PL IT Ee 4 © 5 and eastern districts. entirely stripped of live stock and of all forms of food. 33 2 etn “ah Bt li ol i i tara The farmer is greatly perplexed as to what his policy ' _ should be in regard to food production for the coming sea- son. One year ago notices were posted everywhere that food would win the war. Whether or not it was true that food would actually win the war, we know now that the lack of food would have lost the war; that is to say, we nearly lost it in the early summer because of the shortage of food. The world was scoured for wheat and for every substitute that could save wheat. A stimulating price was _ fixed to increase its production, and people began to talk about famine, not without reason, for unquestionably Now, however, we are literally smothered in wheat. We have more meat and dairy products in storage and in prospect than ever before in our history. It looks as if the war is over, and the question with the farmer now is, “Has our stress for food production passed?” The only adequate means for answering this question is to learn what we can In the early autumn the Secretary of Agriculture dis- patched a commission to Europe to study the agricultural situation in England, France, and Italy; and since that time Mr. Hoover himself has been abroad endeavoring to learn still more accurately what the food conditions are, not only with the Allies but more especially in the central The Secretary’s commission reported substantially that despite the distressed conditions, the cattle population of England had actually increased since the war began; both sheep and pigs had declined in numbers but not alarm- ingly. In France all live stock had unquestionably been reduced, and the same was true in Italy; but even so, the reduction had been made with care and a very large amount of breeding stock was preserved and widely scat- tered. Belgium, of course, and northern France were 34. ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Quite aside from these considerations, it must be re-— membered that, except for the Percheron horse, England is the only belligerent country which uses our breeds of live stock. We shall not expect, therefore, any considerable call for breeding stock, because in general each country, except Belgium, will restore its own herds. But every one of these countries will require large shipments of animal and dairy products and wheat, in order to preserve its own herds as far as possible for breeding purposes. The best study which the commission was able to make led to the report that the Allies would need from us this year some twenty million tons of food as against the eleven millions of the preceding year. It must be remembered that this estimate was made before the signing of the armistice and that now, with shipping somewhat released, a wider market is open, especially for wheat. Little is yet known definitely about the condition of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The systematic thor- oughness with which they stole everything which could be eaten, taken in connection with the fact that this was an industrial war in which the Central Powers set out to destroy their neighbors, leads us to conclude that Germany at least is fairly well provided for. Such was her own assertion, although there are indications now that all is not well in Germany, especially in respect to food. Conditions in Russia are practically unknown except that in general she has ceased producing and millions of people are starving in the very districts which were once exporting wheat. How then may we sum up the outstanding conditions as a whole? [First of all, western Europe will probably not need any very great numbers of breeding animals from this side, but will require extensive shipments of animal prod- ucts, especially fats, certainly for the current year and probably for at least another. As to the middle and eastern sections, everything de- pends upon the stability of government. The need for food in those districts is unquestionable, but without stable governments and the required credit they cannot secure it unless we are generous enough to give it to them, and there are those who are inclined to say that Germany has SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 35 sent to the bottom of the ocean some millions of tons of perfectly good wheat and meat. It is there. Let them go and get it! Perfectly just though this might be, it is neither foresighted nor diplomatic, and unquestionably the Peace Conference is wise in doing everything it can to establish governments in the defeated sections with the greatest speed and the greatest certainty possible. If this cannot be done, and if the Russians are to go on butchering each other indefinitely, then the actual call for food, be- yond that of our Allies, will not be large. - It is fair to assume, however, that arrangements will be ~ made for feeding Armenia and for relieving distress in all allied or neutral countries so far as credit can be arranged. Even this will call for an enormous amount of food and if in addition the Central Powers and Russia should succeed in establishing stable governments in the next few weeks, the call upon the United States for food will be enormous. We must not forget that Russia, next to the United States, is the greatest wheat producing country in the world, producing over one-fifth of the entire crop of the earth, and yet, if she should establish a stable government she will at once become an importer. Very much has been said of the Australian wheat crop, but Australia under normal conditions produces rather less wheat than Spain. Besides, under present conditions the famine in India, which is the third wheat-producing country in the world, is so great as to require that the Australian wheat crop shall be moved in that direction. The last crop in Argentina is small. Even at the best, it must be remembered that all of South America produced less wheat than either Canada or France before the war, and that Argentina produces less than Italy. Last of all, we are easily deceived about our own sup- plies. The wheat crop of the United States is harvested during the four months from May through August, and an- other month would include the entire North American product. Under ordinary conditions, this crop makes its way into the market somewhat slowly, and usually a great amount is held back by the producer for the increase that follows the harvest season. This year, however, the price was fixed. There was no reason for holding the crop even twenty-four hours, to lose in weight by drying or in amount 36 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE | by insect and rodent depredation. The cry for wheat had become insistent and every influence operated to put this crop quickly and completely upon the market. It taxed transportation to the utmost, particularly as we were still in the war. The storage capacity of the country was not equal to its reception and the problem at once arose of getting rid of wheat in every conceivable way. It was for this reason that Mr. Hoover took off the lid and told us to eat it up, even while he knew that thousands of people were in distress for the wheat that we did not need but. which they could not get. The same thing is true of other products. We had fallen into the habit of saving waste and as a result we have been overtaken by the flood tide; and that is why we can pull down our conservation signs. However, should conditions suddenly improve across the water and should the distressed people there be able to transport and pay for the food which they sorely need, the | call upon America will be sharp and our supply will be inadequate. That is why Mr. Hoover has said that when the fixed price is removed, wheat may again go to $3.50 a bushel. Taken all in all, the situation is no longer one of dis- tress so far as the Allies and ourselves are concerned, Russia excepted. So far as all other parts of the world are concerned, food is yet the most critical question before humanity. Such a war as this cannot be fought without famine and its attendant pestilence. It has never yet been done and doubtless never will be. From the standpoint of production, the great question now is the rapidity with which the world can get ready to buy. Europe clearly has need of food long before it can produce it, so that if the world is to be fed in the next few months it must draw heavily upon the United States,— just how heavily no man is able to predict. = OO + peas - wu? ieee - -‘ MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH SINCE << THE WAR a Sr. Cuam DRAKE, DrrRecTOR STATE DEPARTMENT OF a : Pusiic HEALTH The request of your Secretary that.I discuss the effect ot the war on medical and sanitary science and the re _ sponsibilities and opportunities of medical and sanitary if science under conditions following the war, is a large order and one which I hardly feel qualified to fill. The _ knowledge I have of the development of military surgery, of the brilliant advances in plastic surgery, of the investi- ia gations that have been made of the physical ‘conditions and ; Beouries peculiar to this war, comes to me at second or _ third hand and in no more authoritative form than it has -eome to the other members of this Association in the popu- _ lar and technical periodicals. If what I have to say con- _ tains anything which is original or authoritative, it must - eonsist of a discussion of the advances which the war has _ brought about in the field of preventive medicine and of 3 Sanitary science. It is to be regretted that the breadth and 2 scope of this program made it impossible to include a physician or surgeon who could review briefly actual war- _ time accomplishments in the field of medicine and surgery. _ For, we are led to believe that the medical history of this _ war, when it is written, will be a tremendous contribution _ to the medical and surgical literature of the world. How- _ ever, there is enough to be said on the progress of pre- J - yentive medicine and public health to more than occupy | _ the time which is assigned to me today. Ss The immediate effect of our entering the world-war was _ the realization that our man-power is quite as important, if not more important, than our monetary wealth and in- _ dustrial power, and further that the strength of our man- Bpower is determined, in the last analysis, by the individual d fe: Presented before the Illinois Academy of Science, Jacksonville, Hlinois, March 21-22 aT 38 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE health of the men of the nation. It was impressed upon — us that it was not only essential that we should have men free from disease and physical defects for the military service, but that it was quite as essential that we should ig have strong men and women to meet the demands of the : tremendous speeding-up of our industrial activity. iy). \ up The actual story of accomplishment in the prevention of "4 disease during the war is effectively summarized by Colonel Victor C. Vaughan in a recent publication and ~ under the caption, “The Fruits of Preventive Medicine.” - 4 In this very striking article Colonel Vaughan says, “By q making use of our increasing knowledge of medicine and sanitation since the civil war times it has been possible during the war just closed to prevent 500,000 cases of disease and save the lives of 10,000 soldiers.” eee ee ne Colonel Vaughan contrasts the sickness rates prevailing among the Northern armies engaged in the Civil war with those of the American Army engaged in the recent world- war, and sets forth the following extraordinary facts indi- cating the progressive tendency of preventive medicine and Sanitation, and the part which they have played in winning the war for democracy. According to Colonel Vaughan the incidence of typhoid fever has been reduced over ninety- nine per cent ;minor intestinal infections have beenreduced ninety-six per cent and malaria has been reduced to the same extent. Infiammations of the mouth and throat have been reduced to eighty-seven per cent and pneumonia sixty-five per cent. Measles, which was one of the serious menaces in Civil War days and whose epidemiological problems are not fully mastered at the present time, was reduced thirty per cent, while the incidence of tubercu- i losis, aptly termed “The captain of the men of Death”, has been decreased fifty per cent. ; : ext > eee a a te eee — Ce ae ee Se Ee Se For a number of years, health officers and physicians have urged the periodical physical examination of all per- sons to determine the existence of serious disease in its incipient and curable stage. While some progress has been made in this line, we have all been so engaged with our personal, professional and business interests that we have ignored individual health and precautionary meas- ures to a large extent. h es 7 ; SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 39 The physical examination carried out by the Exemption Boards in the creation of the new National Army, how- ever, gave us a definite idea of the extent of which serious disease prevails in the rank and file of the people, gener- ally unrecognized by those individuals until relatively far advanced. | ‘The results observed by some of these Exemption Boards were astonishing and aroused the more or less preoccupied public officials to an activity which the nation had never before known. The American people, with admirable spirit, accepted the dictum that every public and private interest must be regarded as secondary to the successful pursuit of the war, and to this end traditions, customs and 4 a r a J ‘ : F prejudices were swept away as they could not have been Z under other conditions. Without the records of the first draft, which, unfortu- _ nately, were not preserved, it is estimated that overseventy- five thousand young men were rejected by the Exemption Boards on account of tubereulosis, and it was found that, with the necessarily hasty examination made by these Boards, thousands of others had been passed who were suffering from this very evasive disease. On this account, and very largely through the personal influence of Colonel Frank Billings of Illinois, the Surgeon General of the United States Army designated over two hundred tubercu- losis experts to re-examine the recruits in the camps and cantonments with the result that approximately twenty- five thousand young men were discharged from service on account of tuberculosis. The importance which the Federal Government and all European nations attached to tuberculosis as a war-time problem, made it very easy for state health departments to formulate new rules and regulations for the control of the disease, requiring the reporting of all known or suspected eases to the local health authorities and empowering such authorities to isolate and segregate the victims of open disease. A feature of the regulations promulgated in Illinois as a part of a very comprehensive tuberculosis war-time pro- gram, is the requirement that the physician shall advise the patient and members of his family as to the exact na- 4 i 40 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ture of the disease, thereby overcoming that unfortunate — secrecy which has ‘caused untold thousands of cone tives to lose their opportunity of recovery. On account of a false sense of modesty upon the part of the people, or on account of the unfortunate manner in which educators had approached the subject, relatively little progress had been made throughout the United States in the campaign against venereal disease until our participation in the war. For the most part, venereal disease literature had been written in a style which indi- cated that the author regarded his subject as an improper one, or, upon the other hand, colored with such lurid hues as to make the subject morbidly interesting. The recogni- tion of the tremendous prevalence of gonorrhea and ~ syphilis in the armies of Europe, and the confirmation of a similar condition among the young men of the United States through the reports of the draft boards, caused the Federal and State governments to take a firm hand in the venereal disease campaign and to approach it in the same sane and practical manner that they have approached other communicable diseases. The change which venereal disease literature has undergone during the past year is quite astonishing, and the response of the people of all classes to this educational campaign has been equally sur- prising. There is now good reason to anticipate that, on account of the impetus given the subject by the war, a suc- cessful fight will be made against social disease on a simple public health and disease prevention basis. Ques- tions of morals and of religion, which formerly confused this subject, have been generally eliminated and the problem has been attacked with the same frankness and candor that marked the action of the Surgeon General’s office in establishing stations for preventive treatment in the various camps and cantonments. Illinois was the second state in the union to join with the Federal government in its battle against venereal dis- ease, and the rules and regulations of the State Depart- ment of Public Health, which were first applied in the zones surrounding military cantonments and later ex- tended throughout the entire State, have been accepted as practical in application, rigid enough to produce salutary results and yet not so drastic that they would produce unfortunate reaction. The war and the necessary protection of the fighting - mile zones surrounding military camps, and to subject _ them to thorough examination. Moved by the exigencies et of the war, the courts were ready and willing to impose - sentence which was suspended so that these unfortunate women might be placed in hospitals for scientific treat- ment at the expense of the county in which they were found. The program which is now being carried out, and which will continue to be carried out throughout the state, gives better promise of the control of isolated vice districts and the reasonable suppression of vice than any 7 program that has been contemplated or adopted in the _ past. The quarantining and placarding of premises in - which there are persons venereally infected, seems to go - further than any form of police regulations. This program = no more drastic than conditions of peace-time would _ warrant, but I feel satisfied that the tremendous strides _ which have been made could not have been accomplished _ in a decade had it not “been for our participation in the war. ____-‘The accent which has been placed upon the importance of sound physical condition of the people, together with _ the almost prodigal liberality of the federal government in bs y attaining desirable ends during the war, will have its _ effect upon the public health history of the nation for all times to come. The Federal government has appropriated _ large sums of money for the warfare against venereal dis- _ ease, and is meeting state appropriations with dollar for _ dollar grants of funds. . Early in the war, when men were found to be tuberecu- lous or physically unfit, they were discharged from mili- _ tary cantonments either as “in line of duty” or “not in line of duty”, depending upon the length of time they had been in service. After a few months, this policy was abandoned _ and every man who was accepted in a military cantonment Was regarded as “in line of duty,” the Federal government _ assuming the responsibility of his financial compensation _ just as though he had sustained his disability through ig wounds on the field of battle. As months went by, and as _ troops began to return from the front, the government _ policy was made even broader and more generous. Instead of being discharged with pensions or financial grants, and By a 2 forces made it possible to seize the prostitutes in the five ee ot PROVO MUA nec y edt re ORL Weed an dace Ly Ae ai Ne Tale Eo Mat Nh cg oe ity Hy DSc aa A ae Ae coer rane A ana, Aad i MVC 9, Ot ry ’ ah 42 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIBNCE permitted to make their way through life as the victims offs physical defects, the Federal Government, as far as pos- sible, is retaining the sick and wounded and disabled in service, assigning them to special hopsitals where they not only receive medical care of the highest type, but where they are being re-educated to a condition of self-sustaining efficiency. At the present time, if the sick or wounded soldier will avail himself of what the government urges him to accept, he will be returned to civil life physically rehabilitated and ready to resume his former occupation, or he will be specially trained in a new means of livelihood adapted to his physical condition. Merely as a minor part of this ereat program of reconstruction the Federal Congress has recently appropriated the sum of seven million and fifty thousand dollars for the erection and maintenance of tuberculosis sanatoria to be operated under the direction of the United States Public Health Service. As important as the steps of this reconstruction policy may be, and as great as the public investment in health, I still feel that the secondary or remote result of this great program will be more important to the nation, as a whole, than the direct or immediate result. That is, I feel that the realization of the value of individual and community health, brought about by the war, will not be forgotten, and I am convinced that the policy of generous appropria- tions and generous expenditures for health purposes will be continued not only by the federal government, but by the states by local communities. The influence of the liberal policies of the government in attacking health problems during the war bore fruit in Dlinois when at the autumn election of 1918, the people of thirty-three counties voted by overwhelming majorities to establish county tubercu- losis sanatoria, free tuberculosis dispensaries and visiting nurse service. While Illinois has sorely needed these insti- tutions and has apparently been very reluctant in the past to adequately meet that need, I am satisfied that such a result could not have been attained at this time except through the awakening influence of the war. In times past, child welfare work,—the effort for the conservation of child life and the protection of child health —has been regarded by the average citizen as a phase of public health activity of only moderate importance. The oe —s _— - SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 43 attitude of European nations and especially the findings of of our exemption boards, have radically altered our con- ception of the importance of child welfare work. Strong manhood has its foundation in infancy and childhood, and, as never before, rugged manhood is recognized as essential to the nation which seeks industrial, intellectual, financial or military supremacy. On this account, in this country as abroad, child welfare work has been given an impetus such as it has never had before which will result not only in a material lowering of our present shocking infant mortality; but which will cause a very different showing if we ever have a selective drait in another generation. The examination of several hundred thousand school children, which was brought about on account of the stim- ulated interest due to the war, has brought forcefully to our attention the fact that physical defects are more com- mon among children in rural schools than among those res- ident of cities ; accentuating the importance of sanitary and health work in rural communities which has been over- looked to a considerable extent, through the former con- ception that rural life and healthfulness necessarily go hand in hand. Incidentaily, our experiences with communicable dis- eases, in mobilizing and maintaining an army, has caused public attention to be more definitely centered on- these preventable ailments than could have been possible under any other conditions. The ravages of measles, of pneu- monia and influenza in our camps at a time when the out- come of the war seemed to depend upon our organizing a gigantic force of fighting men, caused the American people to think seriously in terms of preventive medicine and to appreciate the importance of these diseases in their own communities. The complete elimination during this war, of typhoid fever—the disease which played such havoe in the war with Spain—has caused our people to realize that typhoid fever need not be endured in times of peace. The absolute prevention of smallpox among hundreds of thousands of men has accented the truth about vaccina- tion,—a truth whose neglect is manifested by the repeated invasions of this wholly unnecessary disease. Camp sanitation with the destruction of the breeding places of mosquitoes, with consequent prevention of ma- laria and yellow fever among the troops in southern 4 . \ I ny states, has greatly interested the average citizen. While the influenza epidemic, sweeping away thousands of our — much needed troops came as a tragic lesson of the utter — futility of governmental endeavor in the face of the out- — break of disease. When the influenza epidemic was at its height, the pub- lic press reflected the fear entertained by many high officials, that communicable disease might spell defeat for the allies, and, for the nonce, public health stood in its 5 correct position,—the paramount subject of the nation. While the influenza epidemic was responsible for twenty- five thousand deaths in Illinois, and between five hundred thousand and six hundred thousand in the nation, consti- tuting perhaps the most serious scourge the country has ever seen, it is not unlikely that the benefits which will accrue from the tremendous arousing of public sentiment through the epidemic will more than compensate for its frightful cost in human life and human suffering. The | epidemic seems to have been, at least indirectly, a result of the war. Its explosive invasion of many states having its. origin in the large concentration camps. The regulatory measures in which the public readily acquiesced during the epidemic have already borne material fruits. On account of the medical school inspection required in communities where schools remained open, the communicable disease of childhood have been less prevalent in Illinois during the past winter than at any time during the history of the State Department of Public Health, and people have seen the advantages and necessity for the expenditure of public funds in the safe-guarding of community health as they have never done before. This enforced concentration of public attention upon matters of public health has had a natural tremendous in- fluence in the more progressive communities of Illinois, and, from studies recently made by the State Department — of Health, there is ample occasion for grave concern over the problem of disease prevention in our cities and villages and rural communities. Terms of dollars and cents are more readily intelligible to most of us than terms of grief and sorrow and human suffering, and the studies of the cost of preventable diseases made by the Department are staggeringly convincing. ea sn ORT Ie aR Bk OR Nig ete Sy Ret Myers oe hy 0S Saat tay a) 8 9? ne ee ex oat Tes Ns oe gs , : “ ee / SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 45 Estimating the cost of human life, the loss of time in gain- ful occupations, medical and nursing care and the expense of burial, it is found that eleven communicable diseases during the year ending July i, 1918, cost the peo- ple of Illinois approximately $155,000,000, or $24.67 for every man, woman and child in the state. The per capita cost to the various counties ranged from $4.72 in Stark County to $124.16 in Kendall. In one county this loss equalled 37.61 per cent of the valuation of the total assessed wealth. Of this gigantic sum $115,000,000 was due to tubereu- losis; $30,010,000 to pneumonia; $3,007,000 to typhoid fever; $2,660,000 to malaria; $1,157,000 to diphtheria; $735,000, to whooping cough ; $675,000 to smallpox; $461,- 600 to poliomyelitis ; $456,000 to measles ; $426,000 to epi- demic meningitis; $388,300 to scarlet fever. It will be borne in mind that these figures are for the year ending last July and do not include the months of the epidemic of influenza. The experiences of the war, in handling hundreds of thousands of men, closely crowded together, with typhoid fever, smallpox, and malaria absolutely eliminated, sug- gests a definite and certain saving of great magnitude which can be brought about in Illinois by relatively simple means now available to us. Greater savings in dollars and cents, but not so easily demonstrated, may be made through intelligent attack on the other communicable dis- eases. For successfully meeting the problems of disease pre- vention and health promotion whose importance the expe- riences of the past two years have revealed so clearly, the war has provided a personal and a public sentiment which will be tremendously effective if properly utilized. A large number of physicians have gone into military service from every section of the nation. Some of these men have been assigned to sanitary service in the army and have re- ceived excellent intensive training. All of them, regard- less of their branch of service, have had impressed upon them the paramount importance of maintaining the men about them in the highest degree of health and efficiency. In the army they have seen flagrant violations of health regulations looked upon as nothing short of crime, and they are all returning imbued with the necessity for a 46 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. closer and more rigid adherence to the laws of public health. Many of these physicians, having had their first experience in executive positions and in preventive medi- cine, will be reluctant to return to the humdrum of private pr actice, and out of their ranks we should be able to obtain the full- time medical health officers essential to the proper safe-guarding of every community. In: addition to these medical officers who will come back to us from the war, there has also come the great army of soldiers in line who will create a new sentiment in regard to public health control. These young men who enlisted in service from every city and village, and from all walks of life, had impressed upon them in a way that they will not forget, not only the advantage of keeping physically fit, but the obligation to maintain the highest degree of health as citizens and soldiers. They have seen examples of ef- fective disease prevention. They have seen the price that must be paid in the ravages of communicable disease. They have had impressed upon them the necessity and the reason for ready and cheerful submission to sanitary rules and regulations. The nation has never had before so many young and pro- gressive men active in the affairs of their own community, trained to the necessity of public health supervision as we have today, and the nation has never had so many men capable of leadership in the field of preventive medicine. These forces have come to us from the war, and their intel- ligent utilization will bring such benefit to the state that our war-time casualties and losses will sink into relative insignificance as compared with the saving of human life which the war thus indirectly will make possible. The sentiment created by the war has caused the people of Illinois to be ready for progressive legislation for the conservation of health which in all likelihood will be introduced in the present session of the General Assembly. One bill which is attracting wide attention is that requir- ing a full time medical health officer in each community in the state. I am satisfied that the introduction of this measure will find the General Assembly and the people at large thoroughly responsive to it, and that within the next few years there will be established in Illinois a_ publie health organization whose incentive and whose personnel havé been for the most part, the contribution of war-time conditions and war-time sentiment. THE OUTLOOK FOR GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY F. W. DE WoLF, STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, URBANA. 1. EXPERIENCES OF THE WAR Before speaking of the outlook in geology and geogra- phy it will be worth while to consider briefly some applica- tions of these sciences to war activities in the several armies. The usefulness of geology and geography in the war is not generally realized. Indeed their possible use, either directly or indirectly, seemed unlikely to those in respons- ible charge of the American program, until the scientists themselves had by persistence shown that these earth sciences have many practical applications to warfare, and to those home industries necessary to sustain the army and the nation. However, the government accepted these pro- fessional services gradually; rapidly in some lines and slowly in others. The strenuous efforts made by groups and by individuals to bring this about would make a most interesting and entertaining story if it could be fully written. It is enough to say of the efforts, that they suc- ceeded to a marked degree before active fighting stopped, and that geologists and geographers were giving increasing Service with the following agencies: the field army, the military intelligence, the officer training camps, the war industries, war trade, and shipping boards, the fuel admin- istration, and the House commission engaged in preparing for the peace conferences. The work of these men made a splendid impression, and a brief statement covering some of it will be enlightening. Of first importance was the making of accurate topo- graphic maps of large scale for control of artillery fire. About one hundred commissioned topographers from the U. 8S. Geological Survey were engaged in the work on the American lines, and in cooperation with the French. A map-printing plant, larger than the combined plants in 47 48 a ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Washington and capable of producing nearly 1,000,000 — maps each month was erected and operated. Many of the maps were revised and reissued daily. As a result, all officers now realize as never before the dependence of an army on topographic maps. Related to map-making was the building of relief mod- els. These were used in studying the visibility of the country from observation posts; and assisted in control- ling shell-fire on enemy targets. Finished models showing relief and villages and roads were made by the thousands, and in the remarkable time of a few hours for each original mold, after which any number of fac similes could be made quickly. Another vital need of the army was an enormous supply of water for men and horses, for concrete construction work, and for power plants and locomotives. Geologists made maps showing locations of springs and of shallow and deep water-bearing rocks. They also supervised the boring of wells, especially in the British army. Supplies of rock, gravel, and sand were also needed in large amounts for building roads, gun foundations, dug- outs, supply depots, and harbor works. Geologists assisted in locating the material. Finally, maps and diagrams were made of the rock formations along the lines held by our army, and by the enemy, in order to show their suitability for the construc- tion of trenches, dugouts, and mines. It was possible to observe existing works, and then to predict the conditions in new areas which were geologically similar. Thus, it was possible to say in advance whether trenches would stand without revetment of the walls; whether they would be wet or dry during certain seasons ;and to advise regarding tools which would be needed to construct defensive works. Maps were prepared to show the probable effect of artillery fire on the formations; thus, whether the rocks would shatter and add to the casualties; and whether barrage fire would make the ground impassable for tanks. These various uses for geologists in direct warfare were developed by the allied armies in varying degrees, but the Germans had prepared a systematic organization in ad- vance, or at an early date. Our geologists and geographers “XS Co = -’ be AMIN oF we te oly Seal rether impervious *\- . ==" a “30 *ya\ see Set ek Tey —S —————-—— = ee) ee Se! — Cley, impernoc: —— a ' SiN tN a ay steve ts3 Tidak eye ee ea ees RS ZI ye fo shee X Beye ae as xe Gy is27\- 2x1. “x 1 ey eZ eN NN 43 fet ee tA Eee he ok LF NX efeye%s 2 sf). Fe i a LS ae ly ad ~ PAA te bl RS A ah aE phe sto fey VAL. rate een So Pie ie Jai eh?) es 2 aa 1S; Qa, Boren. *t wa th a oe abe el . . - < ot Cc w se at (a! tie, Sia eae oo ES Br aa Paty 2 os > = SS ee ee ee Clex, imper:tous —— ’ < X.Y. Ja. ° NWN cS ria Soil rather impercious > oht Vet led NO VEX- ENeesbesl = I= ¥ wi ~-- i tat at se! ae Seta. a <* | = « « Sand porous « Clay. imper:iou. Jointed limestone, porous Fig. 1. Illustrating correct and incorrect methods of locating trenches and dugouts. A. Correct trench construction. Water escapes through the porous jointed limestone. B. Incorrect trench construction. Water is held in trench by impervious clays. C. Correct trench construction under same conditions as “B”’, when it it is not feasible to sink the whole trench to the level of the porous limestone as in “A”... A small drainage trench carries water down into the porous limestone, permitting its escape. D. To the left, properly placed dugout. Drainage takes place read- ily through the limestone, making the dugout relatively dry. To the right, improperly placed dugout. Water fails to escape through the im- pervious clay and the dugout is subject to very poor drainage or even flooding. el rea ee f Hise PRM een PR ERE eR TO NHRY MUR WAY RCL URA eT Ba Stn SU TEA NTA WIATS c” IPaNMtG Ly TEEN ORC \ : 50 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE at home tried unsuccessfully in 1917 to have techincal units organized for service at the front, and to introduce certain kinds of instruction in the officers’ training camps. In 1918 these hopes were partly realized when a number of geologists and geographers were commissioned in the war college intelligence office, and the geological service with | General Pershing began to expand. Later, the educational committee in charge of the S. A. T. C. courses planned to require certain courses in map reading, map-making, and military geology. For this purpose the Geology and Geography Division of the National Research Council pre- pared three textbooks covering military geology, meteor- ology, and the geography of western Europe. Aside from these military efforts, the most active service of American geologists during the war was in the develop- ment of domestic mineral supplies for essential industries. The average citizen was aware of the threatened shortage of coal and of oil, but did not realize that we were de- pendent on foreign imports for manganese, chromium, and molybdenum for steel tempering; of pyrite and platinum for making acids for explosives; of graphite and clay for metallurgical crucibles and retorts; of antimony for hard- ening lead bullets; of potash for fertilizers ; of optical glass for instruments; and of numerous other minerals for essential purposes. Geologists pointed out that the development of domestic supplies of many of these minerals would lessen the danger of submarine attacks on vital commerce, and would permit the use of more ships for transfer of soldiers and munitions to Kurope. The search for domestic supplies and the encouragement of production and use, was undertaken by the U. S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, the state geological surveys, and by mining engineers and metallurgists. The results of the work were so successful that many large ships were transferred to direct war serv- ice, and many of the industries formerly dependent on im- ported minerals were largely or wholly supplied from home sources. Furthermore, to relieve railroad burdens, many ordinary domestic minerals were located and de- veloped in new places close to market. Work of the kind just described was undertaken in Tli- nois by the State Geological Survey in cooperation with other state and federal agencies. Fluorite for optical use ER Rtas RR TCM Lee SL EE UM aL d Ode IBRD les he ae 3 oy ire oe = a ‘ . . ‘+ ‘ dernd Le fo ee © b ! - fr ee aoe ye a Me oP DN Be Ne ait, oe ‘ te 5 SS : Fea SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 51 was discovered, and sand for optical glass was investi- gated. The Survey demonstrated the practicability of recovering pyrite cheaply from our coal mines and made an estimate of possible output. Promising deposits of fire clay and ganister for making refractory linings were exam- ined and tested. The efforts of former years to locate new oil fields were continued, new work was undertaken to prolong the producing life of our old fields by demonstra- ting methods of protecting oil sands from encroaching water. Other work of permanent as well as war-time value was the development of methods for using Llinois coal instead of transporting eastern coal and coke for the man- ufacture of city gas. These various special activities largely supplanted the usual work of the Geological Sur- vey. 2. THE FUTURE PROSPECT Having now reviewed the work of geologists and geogra- phers during the war period, can we foresee any further development or any change in the application of these sciences for the immediate future? As a colleague has said: “For two years we have been sharpening the sword and applying every effort to perfect its cutting edge”, now we are to return to the field, the laboratory, and the class- room. What lessons have been learned regarding the practical value of the earth sciences to the world, the nation, the state, and the individual? What improvements are possi- ble in research? What of the larger social and political value of a knowledge of natural processes, world-geogra- phy and of world resources? In answer, we have gained an added conviction of the fundamental value of topographic maps for defensive and offensive warfare; in the selection of routes for highways, railroads, electric power and communication lines; in the development of drainage and of water supplies; in the search for, and development of, minerals and other natural resources. The topographic map of the United States should be completed, not in 80 or 90 years, according to the former rate of progress, but in twelve or fifteen years. The map of Illinois should not proceed at the old rate, which promised completion in 1960, but should be finished by 1930. The cost will be more than saved to the taxpay- ers by eliminating surveys for roads, water supplies, and other necessary developments throughout the entire State. af Be i 7 NAG hia es Ama tab aes GARE ones as HN Lite ol CE eh es P is ) 52 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Similarly, geology has again demonstrated its practical — value in locating-water for domestic and industrial uses, and stone, gravel, and sand, for building of roads, rail-_ roads, and other structures. A state like Illinois, about to invest $60,000,000 in the beginning of a hard-road system, should first locate and investigate the materials which are available close to the selected routes. Furthermore, a state about to build a great waterway, should know the location and usefulness of the heavy, slow-moving mineral wealth in the adjacent territory which will help furnish profit- able cargoes. Again, we have seen in connection with minerals for war industries, the value of statistics of mineral production, of lists of producers, and of geological investigation of possi- ble new sources of supply, in advance of acute need. Thus, in Illinois, we owe it to the nation, as well as ourselves, to collect accurate statistics, to complete an inventory of our enormous mineral wealth, and to encourage new or im- proved methods for its production, conservation, and wise utilization. But while some of us, who needed no demonstration, have seen the justification of practical geography and geology, we have been dismayed to find, even in high places, that there was little, if any, advance appreciation of the military, industrial, and social significance of these sciences. They had been considered purely cultural and academic! No conception of their importance existed in the academies at West Point or Annapolis, in the intelli- gence service, or in the early organization of the boards for war industries, war trade, and fuel control. Repre- sentatives of the professions were repeatedly refused the chance to serve the country with their special talents, and finally gained the opportunity only by personal persistence, and in many cases without recognition of their profession. One cannot blame others for this condition, and I do not wish to criticize those who were doubtless following to the best of their ability the lines indicated by past education and experience. It is our fault that these subjects have almost disappeared from the high schools, and have never been so perfected as to be appreciated by engineers and by the general public. CA eee ne Co, Ss ~ : x i Tes < A ay : \ 3 SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION Evidently the future problems of geology and geography include not only the better organization and pursuit of re- search, but the better dissemination of knowledge of the usefulness and significance of these sciences to every-day affairs. Our common schools and high schools should teach some of their required courses in terms of earth science. Our colleges and universities must develop _ special courses in geology and geography which will be recognized as essential to professional courses in civil, mining, chemical, and ceramic engineering, and to those in economics, sociology, and history. Many engineering schools now give such instruction without requiring geol- ogy. In the future it will not be sufficient to teach only general courses and others adapted to students who are specializing in the earth sciences. Similarly, in the routine work of official surveys and bureaus, an effort must be made to meet more of the needs of the mineral industries by cooperation with them, and by making known the results of investigations in common language rather than in the stereoptyped form and profes- sional lingo to which we have been accustomed. The maps presented should display more effectively and in more detail the character, usefulness, and distribution of the rock formations, while continuing to show also as formerly their relative ages and modes of origin. There should be more efiective consultation and cooperation between state surveys and between state and federal surveys regarding development of purposes and methods, in order that official © geology may be more practical than in the past, and also in order that fundamental problems of origin and correla- tion of the various formations and their enclosed minerals may be attacked on a national scale more vigorously than heretofore. Just as the experience of the war indicated the impracticability of centralizing all knowledge and all administrative power in Washington, and the consequent need for state councils, directors, and administrators, so strong, official surveys and bureaus are required in both the national and the state governments, and their work should be better correlated and more cooperative than in the past. In regard to pure research in the earth sciences, it seems probable that much talent and time has been wasted in the universities and other research institutions by lack of 54 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cooperation on a national and international scale. There has been too little knowledge of progress elsewhere, and of the relative value and timeliness of alternative problems to be undertaken. A most promising sign for the future lies in the proposed development of the National Research Council in this country, and of similar councils in many foreign countries. These councils will surely stimulate and systematize all scientific research, without improperly checking individual initiative and originality. Following development along the lines which I have indicated, I trust the earth sciences will influence the United States and the whole world to a marked degree in the coming period. As a result of our participation in a foreign war for democratic ideals, and as a result of the world trade in which we shall engage, we must. have a knowledge of foreign lands, their physical character, their resources, and their peoples, together with a_ better knowledge of our home country. A knowledge of human geography is to become of great importance to our whole population. Furthermore, for the solution of problems leading to social and political unrest, and for the universal establishment cf justice, the world needs to know and to rely on the orderly and inevitable processes of nature, which are nowhere better exemplified than in the study of the earth sciences. Papers of General Interest x se Se ta) PaRat ‘ear hae i ue Nis c ny eri at VEO, od os - as Oi =e 4 ig eS Aa Ai ? fre 7 we Ake Caapaa ge. 2 Okt meee Sa : A : Wi ; § SWE) knee prs ik Se dt] Pigs € THE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS? By FRANK COLLINS BAKER, CURATOR OF THE MUSEUM. In these days of strife, when Democracy, Autocracy, and Anarchy are fighting and seeking to control the world, such an institution as a museum, devoted to the peaceful work of interpreting nature’s. laws, is likely to receive . scant consideration. It will be remembered, however, that early in the late war, England for a time closed the museums, art galleries, and kindred institutions, and otherwise curtailed the usefulness of these instruments of education ; but the British public sent forth such a protest that the government hastened to reopen the halls and to encourage the people to visit such places, justly realizing that at this particular time such interesting. places for healthful recreation are of the greatest value. And not long since, a report came from France, when a vindictive enemy was pounding for admittance within seventy miles of its gates, that a new museum had been founded to exhibit the history and use of the horse—from the time this animal roamed the plains and swamps of America, in those far off Eocene days when it was no bigger than a fox and had five toes, to the present time when it has become one of man’s most faithful and important helpers. With these examples before us of museum activities conducted under the stern stress of war, no apology for such an institution seems necessary. | VALUE OF MUSEUMS Museums differ greatly in their relative values, but all, if rightly conducted, have a very real value to the commun- ity. Dr. G. Browne Goode, considered by many the father of the modern American museum, has defined the museum as “a collection of well written labels illustrated by specimens.” And the noted English museum expert, 1. Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois, Number 3. 57 58 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Sir William H. Flower, says of museums and their pur- poses, “It is not the objects placed in a museum that con- stitute its value, so much as the method in which they are displayed and the use made of them for the purpose of instruction.” This definition of the veteran museum ad- 4 ministrator is perhaps the keynote to the modern expan- sion of the museum idea. Museums are of many kinds; some are devoted to exhibi- tions for the general public and are supported by munici- palities ; others belong to learned societies, universities, and , even private individuals. At the present time more than 600 such institutions, large and small, are known in the United States, and many exist in Europe and other parts 4 of the world. . But it is the university museum to which I wish to By direct your attention at this time. It has been urged by some educators that the methods in use in the larger museums of the great cities are not alppicable to a univer- sity museum; and one wonders why such an opinion should be held because the new museumology is highly educational and of all places it should best fit into the educational plans of a seat of learning, such as a university. The great public museums, during the past twenty years have passed through a period of active evolution and they have now attained a measure of organization which makes them efficient factors in the educational systems of the larger cities. University and college museums are now passing through the same period of evolution. A few uni- versity museums have forged ahead, but the majority have searcely passed the old stage of the cabinet of natural his- tory so much in vogue two generations ago. What, then, should be the character of the natural his- tory museum of a large university and how may the collec- tions and exhibits be made of general educational and in- structural value? The exhibits should be so arranged as to bring out clearly the phenomena of life observed in na- ture. These may be a direct help to the instructional staff by providing illustrative material amplifying the informa- tion given in the texts and lectures; a synoptic collection, for example, may be so arranged as to give the student a birdseye view of the whole animal kingdom such as would ~ >. > ~ eo ’ SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 59 be impossible from the study of texts alone. Such an exhibit is made intelligible by means of models, drawings of the animals, diagrams of their structure, and descrip- tive labels binding the whole exhibit into a comprehensive unit. The student may get from the museum an interpretation of the many phenomena observed in nature which are totally incomprehensible to him without such aid. The interrelationships of animals and plants may be shown by means of groups, transparent photographs, and specially arranged specimens. Under the skilful hands of the artist, the sculptor and the naturalist the animals and plants in natural groups are made to live again and to show in an interesting manner their modes of life, their associates, both friends and enemies, and the working of the great biological laws that are ever adjusting these creatures to their environment. The testimony of the rocks, under the hand of the trained geologist, may tell us of the great drama that has been played during the long period of time that has elapsed since the dawn of life on our globe, and by the proper arrangement of the objects that we call fossils, which are the bodies of the actors, there may be unfolded a continu- ous picture of the different acts in this great drama, during which life has passed through so many changes and has finally culminated in Man, who thus boldly chronicles the history of his long pilgrimage. The museum may not alone be confined to the exhibition of those objects related to pure science. Here the student taking a commercial course may study the evolution of some common commodity from the raw material to the finished product—pearl buttons from river mussels and pearl oysters, silk from the silkwerm, cloth from the cotton field, cil from petroleum, and so on down the list. And the farmer may come to the museum and see in a group the enemies of his corn field, his orchard, and his grains, and he will be able to comprehend better, after seeing the care- fully prepared groups, just how the insect damages his crop and also how best to combat this enemy. Of course, all this information is available in the literature, but a model will give at a glance more real information than pages of description. he aie oS ints Pa Sis te a eee a eee Ree Le - ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The museum is also of real value to another class of stu- "ARR dents not usually considered when thinking of a museum of natural history, namely, the students who casually visit the museum out of curiosity, invited by the queer and — unfamiliar objects, or from the “exploring” instinct so deeply instilled in the human species. These students, if interested, will acquire a fund of facts relating to nature which will be second only to that acquired by the regular students taking courses. In passing, it might also be added that the exhibits are of value to another class of students, those taking English composition and related subjects, for the objects in the museum are very suggestive for studies of this kind. Some of these classes in the University of Illinois have already made use of the museum for this pur- | pose. And thus one might go on enumerating the various sub- jects that can be treated in a museum of natural history that are of value to a university, but the inference is plain aud need not be dwelt upon further. In addition to all . that has been said, the museum affords a place for quiet and healthful recreation and often provides a stimulus to the enthusiasm of many students. It must be remembered, also, that a museum is always on the job, continuously teaching all who will but tarry long enough to examine the exhibits. They are thus perpetual instructors. AIMS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS MUSEUM It is the aim of the Natural History Museum of the University of Illinois to provide all that is inferred in the foregoing discussion. The lack of room, aside from insuf- ficient funds, is the chief drawback to the proper expan- sion of the museum exhibits. It is probably not generally known by either the student body, the alumni, or even the faculty, that the museum possesses enough material at the present time to require a building as large as the Univers- ity Library for its proper display. It is quite pertinent to note here briefly the character and extent of the collections now in the possession of the University Natural History Museum. Perhaps of chief interest is the material brought back by the Crocker Land Expedition from Northern Greenland. This includes many fine specimens illustrative of the culture of the SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 61 north Greenland Eskimo, embracing weapons of the chase, wearing apparel, domestic implements, games, toys, etc. This collection, contrasted with a somewhat similar one from Point Barrow, Alaska, represents quite well the dif- ference in the cultures of the two groups of Eskimo repre- sented by these regions. From this northland the expedi- tion also brought back enough musk-oxen, caribou, polar bears, blue foxes, and other smaller mammals as well as birds, to make a very instructive exhibition of the fauna of this Arctic region. Of insects the museum possesses the great Bolter collec- tion containing upwards of 100,000 specimens of insects from many parts of the world, but particularly representa- tive of North American species. Stored in the Physics Building are many fine specimens of corals, echinoderms, mollusks, and other invertebrates, from many parts of the world, but chiefly American, which aggregate 50,000 speci- mens. These include an almost complete series of the Union- idae or fresh water mussels of our rivers obtained by that veteran collector, Mr. A. A. Hinkley. In addition there are several thousand fossils from American formations. It is not making too large an estimate to state that the Univer- sity Museum possesses at the present time about 200,000 specimens as a nucleus with which to build up a modern. Natural History Museum. : To fulfill its ideal function the museum must be devel- oped along two quite distinct lines. First, the exhibit series, which may be made of educational value to many departments in the University. This series should contain synoptic collections of both living and extinct animals and plants; evolution series showing the development of many forms of life through past geological periods; series illus- trating correlation of structure with function; geographic distribution series; habitat groups showing the ecological relation of animals and plants to their environment; show- ing the relation of natural objects to agriculture, industry, and commerce; series showing the geological history of the planet upon which we live, including the minerals and ores obtained from the rocks; and many other topics which can be treated by the exhibition method. The second line of development is the study or research series. This should include large series of specimens,— animals, plants, fossils, minerals, ete.—which may be PANT Ce METRO ST OMT CAE RI EMR COMME RET En Re RE y ; { ) WAT etary Hi tah : N vt Hae 4 ; Ue ie 62 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE used for research purposes and which would be the basis — for scientific papers. It is highly desirable that the Uni- versity should accumulate a large amount of research ma- terial which has been used for the advancement of Science, © that it may draw men to study this material in connection with further advancement of knowledge. Such collections — should be placed in comfortable rooms, systematically arranged in easily accessible cases, the different subjects — occupying separate rooms. The possession of type material places a museum in a position of value and usefulness not possible for an institution not having such collections. A good beginning has been made in this line of development and new material is being added very rapidly. Collections which have formed the basis for one large volume and a number of smaller papers are now in the research series of the Natural History Museum. The present available exhibition space in the Natural- History Building is limited to the small museum hall and the corridors on the three floors of this building. A synop- tic series of animal life, including both living and extinct groups, 1s being prepared and is partly completed and on exhibition, which will fill half of the space in the museum hall. This includes selected, typical specimens representa- tive of the higher groups; models, diagrams, drawings, and full descriptive labels. A model showing the twelve most injurious insects that infest the corn plant has been pre- pared, the group containing models in wax of the corn plants with the insects in all stages of growth feeding upon the plant. Carefully prepared labels describe the insects and their work and are made simple enough for the aver- age farmer to understand. A habitat group, with a photo- graphic enlargement of the old Brownfield woods near Urbana for its background, and with the plants character- istic of such a locality, shows the animal life in and about an old decaying log. Other exhibits along these educa- tional lines are in preparation. A number of our American universities possess museums of large size-——Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Chicago, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas,—and some of these museums contain material that has formed the basis for classical works in the Natural Sciences. Why should not illinois also be numbered among these universities with a museum containing valuable and interesting collections rk TS ai Mae ; vi. SEMPOS > Ur a: * z AA ON SCIENCE ‘ IUM made available for the lay visitor, the undergraduate, the - research student, and the scientific specialist? And why may not illinois be a leader in museum work among the universities? The time is not far distant when a museum ~ building will become a necessity on the campus, a building which may not be numbered among the largest of museum edifices, but which may well be one of the best buildings devoted to the particular needs of a university community and an efficient aid to the educational forces of the Uni- versity in nearly all its departments. To hasten the realization of the aims outlined, may I ask the cooperation of the members of the State Academy. There are doubtless collections in different parts of the State that could be obtained if their owners knew that spe- cial attention is now being given to the development of the museum along modern lines. Many of the members may be in position to make collections during their summer vacations and these might form really valuable additions, especially if the material came from a locality which was little known scientifically. Much of the material obtained in this way is of considerable research value, frequently revealing new species to Science or adding information of value concerning geographical distribution or variation. The alumni of the University should be especially active in the museum’s behalf, as is the case with many of the nniversities previously mentioned. In closing let me express my appreciation of the labors of my predecessor, Professor Frank Smith, of the Depart- ment of Zoology, who laid the firm foundation for the development of the museum along the lines outlined above, and who established a standard of equipment and a system of record that has made possible the present and future development along the most approved modern lines. RECONSTRUCTION | 63 A PROPOSED NEW STATE PARK H. 8. Peroon, LAKE Vinw HicH ScHoon, CHIcaco. I am before you today to present and speak in favor ofa Proposed New State Park, the Canyon Park, located in Jo Daviess County on the upper approaches of Apple River, a _ small tributary of the Mississippi. It seems hardly neces- sary for me to argue in favor of such a place of recreation, before a body of enlightened men and women such as con- stitute the Illinois Academy. All of you, doubtless, will subscribe to the proposition that within reasonable limits, all the more remarkable natural feature of a state ought, at least in part, to be preserved as playgrounds for our own and succeeding generations. Let me, however, briefly, as stirring up your remem- brance of the vital points of such a contention, that this may in turn be used by you on any doubting Thomas, state them as briefly as possible :— The first desideratum of any commonwealth is to por- sess a vigorous, contented, and ever improving citizenry. In these times of fierce and uncompromising strife for com- mercial advancement, personal betterment, and all that goes with the modern struggle for individual and commun- ity success, the strain of labor becomes more and more im- perative and exacting, and the absolute necessity for relax- ation is an equally imperative call. No man, young or old, can, with impunity, and without serious danger, toil ever without play spells; for if he is able to do so physically, the reaction on the higher qualities of mind and soul are disastrous. My first contention, therefore, is that a man or woman to keep normal must play .at times, must relax and give place to these higher qualities, that, in their culti- vation, he or she personally, may receive enlarged bene- fits, and the state have developed a better and more desir- able people. 64 In the Canyon Leal hal ie he * Ken ae DWN Eis Syn Sey met ee at Millville Ciiit io di ig had yy si Sa! mae hk Ik 1 : = 4 6 “ ws} ¥ — oy ‘m5 Vink ai © ay 2 Fe . a eke > Ro a1, goer i 4 >A & : ia % * i \ S ’ : % . ." > ’ me? =o <> _ «SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 65 _ My second point is, that no method is more sure of mind and soul enlargement, so that broader and higher vision may attain than to send to the hills and woods, these tired and business befogged men of affairs, and let them absorb from the ozone of air and rock, water and leaf, new and more extended outlook, with broader horizon and higher vault of heaven, with purer and sweeter breath of life, and with food and drink stimulating to more perfect growth in manly power and experience. The man who drinks in the love of Nature and studies her varied phases, is not a wrecker of the commonwealth or a despoiler of her best interests. And again, I hold, that these schools of God’s Outdoors are not merely the best places for broadening the charac- ters and forging principles of eternal right and justice, because their influence is always uplifting and never at variance with normal development; but that further, the State has no force at its command, that, for the minimum of expenditure will produce such a maximum of increment in citizens strong in body, acute in mind, clear in vision, broad in humanity, deep in reverence, loyal in patriotism; for Nature teaches no heresy and breathes no false doe- trines of social or political expediency, but ever demands the best. When we look at the condition of affairs in our own great state, we find her woefully behind her sister and neighbor- ing commonwealths. It may be news to many of you that our nearest neighbors on the north and west, Wisconsin and Iowa, neither possessing but a fraction of our great wealth and resources, are far more long-sighted and proy- ident than we are. Iowa has a law on her statute books permitting and appropriating a large sum annually for the purchase of large or small tracts of land possessing desir- able features that ought to be preserved and conserved for the people. In this way a lotus lake here, a fine primeyal forest there, an area of cliff and stream or a piece of original prairie are bought, and a well trained corps of enthusiastic men and women are ever on the search for any obtainable lands. In this simple and perfectly feasible way, Iowa has now between 20 and 30 state parks and reservations purchased or provision made for their acquire- ment. It is needless to say her citizens, from Gov. Hard- ot opiacin Si Ua Mag SSS ea aie Sete teehee ib * teat Rl yee Se hee ro . m Sat oe M S5ek o) ede Ae . - a , , *"f i ¥ [ *- 66 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ing down, are proud of this record, and well they may be, : ee: for who will be more benefited by such farsighted philan- throphy, (note the word “love of mankind’) than the peo- ple themselves. Wisconsin has already made provision for some 13 state parks, the largest being in Door County and at the mouth of the Wisconsin River, where some thousands of acres each have been reserved for perpetual playgrounds for her citizens. If one talks to those conversant with the am- bitious plans of the Park people, there appears no ques- tion of the advisability and expediencey of such a move- ment, the only problem being how to obtain as many of the desirable beauty spots before they are ruined by com- mercialization. When we turn to Illinois, a very different condition econ- fronts us. We have one State Park at Starved Rock, beau- tiful in scenery and rich in educational and_ historic features, and rumor is, that one or two other insignificant plats of a few acres have been acquired. But how utterly inadequate is such a condition to meet the actually needed requirements of five millions of people! We ought to have 40) state parks—large and small—to provide for this host, and Jllinois is abundantly able to pay for all such lands, receiving not dollars and cents of cash in hand, but what is far more important, better equipped men and women, who will add immeasurable assets to the commonwealth. And so I present for your consideration, The Canyon Park of Apple River, and bespeak for it your hearty sup- port. The region proposed comprises about 1,000 acres of the wildest, roughest and most picturesque lands in TIli- nois, lying along Apple River from the junction of the east and west branches five miles southwesterly. This canyon is a chasm eroded in the Galena limestone to the depth of 250 feet, and it has a bottom width of 8-10 rods. The walls on either side are 45° forested slopes or vertical cliffs, these alternating from side to side as the enclosed river meanders from the west to the east rim of the ean- yon. The highest cliffs are 150 feet vertical walls of gray or buff dolomite unevenly bedded, full of gash veins or eon- traction fissure, with many small caverns, isolated towers, castles, rock masses, and huge talus blocks of all dimen- sions. Everywhere a forest growth rich in species, clothes Water-worn Cliiis = naa gl otal eae ve } . =p Be ya re riers POO BAG ade ee. ea x 5 a NY 3, sss S¥MPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 67 the canyon floor, the steep slopes and all but the most ex- posed and precipitous cliffs. Springs, seepage areas, and side ravines and miniature canyons are everywhere, and all abounding in a rich and diversified flora. Some sixty species of forest trees and 400 species of smaller plants, many exceedingly rare, add charm to the region and make it a veritable Botanist’s paradise. As a preserve for fish and birds it is ideal. As it now is Apple river is one of the finest small-mouth bass streams of Illinois, and certain kinds of trout wouldcertainly thrive - in its cold shaded depths. The angler would find here a a place of rest and recreation second to none in the state, with a park affording protected camp sites, with neigh- boring farmers supplying the daily menu, and with game in the rushing waters, to tax his best skill and endeavor, there would be little to complain of. For the bird lover the varied topography and the innumerable trees and thickets make a haven that birds find specially alluring. Protected from all piercing winds of winter, with many springy places giving water at all times, with seed and fruit plants galore, many forms linger late or even winter in the canyon. For example, a jacksnipe was enjoying himself immensely Christmas day, 1918, when the upland temperature was arctic. He had a deep side gully, filled with a living spring water full of algae and small animal life, so what cared he for wintry blasts? Nearby a flock of waxwings ate juniper berries, a pair of cardinals flashed their brilliant wings, and a horde of pine siskins made the air full of their dainty twitter, whilst across the gorge a long-eared owl defied a roystering band of crows. Historically, here was one of the happy hunting grounds of the turbulent Sauks, and in the primeval white oak forest as it stood in 1870 ancient areas of cultivation were yet to be seen. Untold wealth of arrows, spears, hatchets, and other fiints attest to the esteem in which this land of vale and hill, forest and glade, was held by the red man of long ago. The ancient stage routes from Ft. Dearborn and Dixon’s Ferry join not far from Millville, at the canyon’s head, and thence proceeded via Frink’s barn to Galena, the ancient mining town of the Indians, French, and later, Americans. ty é. Te eel arise to the occasion and acquire the same, as ie can now be done for a not unreasonable outlay ; so that gen 1 Se ations now living and the untold number of those to co saa eye bless the foresight, wisdom, and broad ‘ener “hae Tee that all who can visit this region, ‘and rea ae _ first hand what it has to offer of beauty an bese re- i in thei jaune and outer man. CURRENT TENDENCIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS J. L. PRicER, STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY The last meeting of this Academy was devoted largely to a most admirable and thorough discussion of the subject of science education, and under ordinary circumstances, — it would be unnecessary to discuss the subject again so soon. But it is true that during the last twelve months, some things have happened, in connection with this im- portant matter, which are quite new and which need to be reported. I can present these new developments in better light, if I may first review briefly, the main features of the more or less blind struggle toward better things which the students of these problems have gone thru during the past fifteen years. Altho I have been more or less engaged in these struggles during these years, I shall endeavor on this occasion, to view the whole matter as objectively as pos- sible. Fifteen years ago, all was comparative peace and con- tentment in this field. Secondary school science was viewed as simply so much subject matter, which had been fairly well crystalized and standardized, and which was to be imparted bodily to young people, at least partly by the laboratory method. The standard high school curriculum in science, here in the middle west, consisted of half-year courses in physiology and physical geography in the first year; half-year courses in zoology and botany in the sec- ond year ; and year courses in chemistry and physics in the third and fourth years, and most students took all the science offered. About the only evidences of unrest at the time consisted of a little jockeying on the part of the friends of the several sciences for a better position in the curriculum for the favored subject, the fourth year of the high school course, being the one most desired. 69 4 ondary field, and soon, some of those who had the clearest vision of the possibilities of and the urgent need for a more practical education for the young people in the high schools, began to insist that courses in agriculture and in home economics be offered in the high schools. Now, since the science curriculum was already full, this demand usually took the form of a proposal to substitute these new subjects for some of the sciences already in the curricu- lum. This situation soon divided the friends of science education into two camps, under the banners of pure science and applied science respectively and a bitter civil war ensued, involving many odious comparisons of the relative educational values of the two kinds of science. This warfare lasted for five or six years during which time, the High School Conference at the University of Illinois, the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers and other similar organizations, staged annually, royal battles over these issues. Even this Academy was drawn into the fray, and the symposium at the Urbana meeting in 1910 on the subject: ‘The Relation of Pure and Applied Science to the Progress of Knowledge, and of Practical Affairs’ did much to help clear the atmosphere. It is pleasing to relate that this war ended definitely and as suddenly as it began. I recall definitely that the battle was going on with all its fury at the meeting of the High School Conference in November, 1909, and that a year later, all the smoke of battle had cleared away. Every- thing that was said and done at the 1910 meeting of the High School Conference was marked by a spirit of coneili- ation and mutual understanding and appreciation between the late belligerents. What had happened? Simply this: Discussion, and thought and fair and open mindedness had cleared away the misconceptions which had been the real cause of the war. The friends of the older sciences had discovered that there are some real possibilities for good in the new ones, and that they have a real claim to a place in the sun. The friends of the newer sciences had profited by the criticisms that had been hurled at them, had gained a clearer vision of the true mission and place of their sub- jects, and had. also discovered that some knowledge of the About this time, however, the agricultural colleges and schools of home economics, which had reached a high state _ of development in the universities began to scan the sec- Ce taal wh iy Be older and more fundamental sciences was a necessary pre requisite to theirs. The friends of the older sciences were ready to admit that an academic knowledge of funda- — - mental science alone, is not a sufficient education for the ~ — masses of young people flocking into the high schools. The | Be - war was over, science education had taken a distinct step forward, and the friends of science education were once es more united in the interests of the common cause. eine: ahs Pe Not all the problems of science education were solved, _ om however, when this peace was declared, for two new _ __ sciences, each demanding more space than was demanded by any of the older sciences had been added to the list * which must compete with other subjects for space in the brief four-year high school curriculum. Instead of crowding other subjects, which had the force of tradition and inertia behind them, cut of the high school, the numer- a ous sciences began to crowd each other out. The statisties _ eollected by the Commissioner of Education, began to Rs show a rapid decline in the percentages of high school] stu- dents pursuing the older sciences, and especially of those - which happened to occupy the first two years of the course. Botany, zoology, physiology, and physical geogra- phy soon began to verge toward the vanishing point, and some of them have almost reached this point in some parts of the country. <_ af In the midst of this perplexing situation, there suddenly appeared above the horizon, what seemed to many of us, , another menacing factor in the form of an exceedingly effective catch-phrase, and slogan: General Science. At first, this phrase meant many different things to different . people, but it soon gathered under its banner all people to _ - whom it meant anything good, no matter what that mean- ~ a es 4 ing happened to be, and so it soon became a formidable <— = factor. To some of its early advocates, it meant merely nee f eyir _ samples of all the sciences done up in small packages. To Ne some it meant a much more substantial thing, namely: ES environmental science materials, attacked from the stand- Be "point of the child’s immediate interests and needs. To ome A some administrators, it meant an opportunity to put all ati -_- Science into a smali space and thus a satisfactory solution ey of their administrative troubles. To some of the conserva- pe tive students of science education, it meant simply an- ees EB NE OR MORN AN ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE \ Y } other science seeking space in the already overcrowded Hh curriculum. Being thus capable of so many different interpretations, it has been an ideal topic for argument, — for difference of opinion, and warfare between the friends of science education, and so another civil war has been in progress for the past five or six years. Along with general science came the Project Method, and this to most of us was at least a vague and indefinite stranger, and possible enemy in the camp. We made urgent demands for his credentials but nothing in the form of a satisfactory definition, or even a good illustra- tion was forthcoming, and so we were against him. I believe that nearly all of the partizans on both sides in these internal wars among science teachers are earnestly and honestly seeking to help the cause of science educa-_ tion, and I believe that the wars themselves usually arise out of the shortcomings of science teachings, but it is usually the case that the reforms needed are at first felt, rather than seen clearly, and so it seems almost necessary that the issues be threshed out by a period of dis- cussion and experiment. But the most unfortunate thing about such a method of progress, is the tendency of the partizans to criticize so unmercifully and often so un- justly, the things that are being done in the line of science education. The most severe and unjust criticism that I have ever heard of botany, for example, as a high school subject, has not come, as one might expect, from some teacher of the humanities, but rather from some science teacher, usually a physicist, or a geologist, who has_ espoused the cause of general science. Such a person usually takes up the botany of twenty or forty years ago, when he was in college, and shows what a miserable thing it is as a preparation for life in these modern times, and then tries to show by contrast what a superior thing this brand new modern general science is. If we were never heard by anyone but ourselves, this would not be so serious, but unfortunately, we have been influencing a lot of inno- cent bystanders. The non-scientific administrator, who is perplexed by the numerous sciences from which he must choose his science curriculum, and who gets such conflict- ing advice from science educators, finds plenty of argu- ment to support him in giving science little space, in the SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION = 73 criticisms of the different sciences, and the different ways of teaching science, which he hears uttered by science edu- cators. There is nothing that we have ever done or pro- posed to do that has not been scathingly criticised by some members of our own group. As a matter of fact, I am convinced that the results ac- complished by the teaching of science in the secondary schools during the past fifteen years, have been quite as satisfactory and valuable as have been those accomplished by the teaching of any other high school subject, but we have been losing ground while some of the others have been gaining, and I believe that this is largely because of the strife and conflict within our own camp. Some other sub- jects like Algebra and Rhetoric have during part of this period, gained ground, probably more because their friends have been at peace among themselves than because of actual merit of the subjects. Doubtless this unrest and agitation among us is an evidence of life and growth, and we may profit by it in the end, but I believe that we might at least try to see to it that the criticisms we utter are just. I now come to the new thing that I have to report, and it is that this last conflict which was aroused by general science and the project method, is suddenly over. Essentially the same treaty of peace was drafted independ- ently, and unanimously adopted, both at a joint meeting of the science sections of the Illinois High School Confer- ence, and at a meeting of the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers, last November. The first number on the program of the joint science session of the High School Conference meeting, was a very excellent paper by Dr. J. A. Stevenson of the University of Illinois, on “The Project in Science Teaching.” Dr. Stevenson made perfectly clear to us what a real project is, and he summed it up in the following definition: “A project is a problematic act carried over to completion in its natural setting.” For example, one may teach by ordinary class-room and laboratory methods, the life his- tory, the breeding habits, the disease spreading propensi- ties, and the common methods of destruction of the house fly. This is not a project, but a project may be made out of these same materials, by attempting a fly eradication Second 2 the high school course as there is demand for, and as the e of the faculty and equipment of the school will permit. These later courses, unless it be in the case of agriculture and home economics for certain groups of students, should be purely elective, and should be so organized and taughe that each year course may answer as the equivalent of a first semester course in the subject in college.” resolved that we pledge our united support to the following program for science instruction in the high school fundamental science; this work to be given in the first two hf cry ~ | o years of the high school, or where junior high schools erades, or spread over the seventh $5 a exist, the same work may be done in the eighth and ninth Ah, eig erades; this work to be required of all students, insofar as it is administratively possible NCES, é ences, and pure seiences, should be given the later years of ‘campaign in the community of the cenbel -paign involves many problems which a class of agile ee - work out under suitable direction, and if the flies are eae eradicated, the act is carried to completion in its . 2 + g y} ; Le in it to be afraid of natural setting. Now, if this is a project, there is nothing ors 4, Furthermore, it is not altogether new. I had carried out a fly eradication campaign in-my community some years before I recognized the act as a project, and yet I believe that it is a perfectly typical example. So, the project, being not entirely new, being now clearly worked out as a definite and workable device, - and being in this form an altogether desirable addition to our collection of recognized teaching devices, is no longer a cause for strife or difference of opinion. Following this paper, we had a sort of symposium on the 1g ch Se co) topic: “The High School Science Curriculum, with Spe- cial Reference to the Common Pabulum of Science.” cena (ys a ie 1 consisted of five papers, one by a representative of each of 4 the five science sections of the Conference 2 followed seemed to be in substantial agreement with the of the meeting. This All of these papers except one which was only a little see i ere resolutions which were finally adopted by unanimous vote ® i : discordant, and nearly all of the general discussion which The following is the resolution: s “Be it First: Two full year-courses in what shall be essentially ig ighth and ninth \s many full-year courses in the applied sci- SYMPOSIUM « oN SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION Following the adoption of this resolution, a motion was ie made and carried, providing for the appointment of a com-_ mittee of ten, whose duty it is to attempt to draft an out- line for a suitable content for these two year courses, in fundamental science, which should be required of all high school students. One week after this High School Conference meeting, the North Central Association held its meeting in Chicago and among other things, appointed a committee of seven with Dr. E. R. Downing as its chairman, and called the Committee on Reorganization. - Later, the following reso- lutions were adopted for the guidance of this committee on reorganization: 1. Instruction in science for the first two high school years should be such as to put the child in an understand- ing and appreciation of his environment, that he may become a better social being and better citizen. 2. That this instruction should be such as will con- tribute to the further development of any science he may choose to pursue. 3. These aims and principles should be incorporated within the material content of the course in general or fundamental science. Now, you may be asking, why I can say that the adop- tion of these two sets of resolutions and the appointment of these two committees means the end of the war over general science. First of all, this is because both of these meetings were pervaded by a splendid spirit of compro- mise and a seeking for common ground, and second be- cause So much common ground was revealed in the discus- sions of the two meetings. It is clear now, for example, that general science is not a new science; it is not a different subject matter, neces- sarily; it is merely a different method. It is a method which seeks to place the emphasis on application, to appeal to a child’s native interests, and to present the work in problem form as much as possible. These are _ things which have been too much neglected in some science teaching. The main common ground, however, which these meetings brought out, is found in the fact that all of us seem to be convinced and united in the belief that the a | “we sy kore Pad ¢ ay Ty Ye =) he x meee de Pee "4 ale TDs 4 i ea) Hiatt «re fed et i i 76 . ILLINOIS AC ADEN SCIENCE first two years of science atu 3 in the high seit ahee do ‘i x4 be devoted to a mastery of such fundamental principles © and facts of science as are likely to have the largest pos- i sible practical social outcomes in the lives and citizenship of those we teach. It is not a matter of such great mo- ment, whether we teach this science by the general science method, the project method, the special science method, or some admixture of these various methods; the matter of common concern, is that we select, organize and teach by some method, the kind of science that would be of most social value, should it become generally known, among high school graduates. Now, I know that it would be a perfectly fine thing if every high school student could spend a year or even two years in the study of botany or chemistry, or geography, but it would be a deplorable thing if he had to remain forever ignorant of all other science in order to do this. At present, there are six fundamental sciences competing — with each other for space in the high school curriculum, . namely: botany, zoology, physiology, physical geography, physics, and chemistry. It is absolutely impossible that every high school student should be expected to study each of these sciences, even if they should be offered in half-year courses. I take it as self-evident, too, that each of these six sciences contains something which ought to be a part of the common pabulum of science knowledge pos- sessed by high school graduates. Consequently, I believe that the best thing to be done is to select from these six, and possibly from other sources, the facts and principles which are most worthy, because of their direct social outcomes, to be made common knowledge among the future citizens who are now passing thru the high schools, and then teach this science to all these people, by the best methods that we can devise. You may be asking: Am I overvaluing the knowledge side and forgetting training in the scientific method and the scien- tific attitude of mind? That is a matter of method, and not so much a matter of subject matter. The science that is socially most valuable, is just as good for training as any other kind of science. By deliberately selecting a common pabulum of science and seeking to teach it to every one who stays in high school long enough. to learn it, we shall greatly increase the | ledge nae a common medium for the oxhaieet a Nee = of Sica ‘it will naturally lead to community of action and Fey) it will function in community life, just because it is com-— es mon knowledge, in a manner that the heterogeneous’ train- o ey _ ing in science that we are giving today cannot. _ It may be said that we can not determine accurately an once what science is most valuable. This is true, but we — We Nar Pirect ls Shar det WRITES DOT LN a ae ea THE USE OF CENTRAL DISTRICT COALS IN WATER-GAS MANUFACTURE W. A. DUNELEY, ILLINOIS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. An extensive investigation of coal and coal mining has been in progress since 1911 under a cooperative agreement between the U. S. Bureau of Mines, the [linois State Geo- logical Survey, and the Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois. The particular phase of this investigation which will be discussed in this paper is the use of coals of the central district, including Illinois, Indi- ana, and Western Kentucky, in the manufacture of car- buretted water-gas. In discussing this topic it is not the intention to go as extensively into the details of operation as would be done in a paper addressed primarily to the gas operator, but rather to treat the subject in a more general manner and point out its bearing upon the development of the coal resources of this region and upon the gas indus- try. The production of manufactured gas in the State of Illi- nois alone amounts to approximately thirty billion cubic feet per year. Of this amount about one-third is coal gas made by the distillation of coal in retorts or coke ovens, and about two-thirds is carburetted water-gas. To make this amount of gas the amount of fuel required is roughly - about one million tons of gas coal, 350,000 tons of coke or its equivalent, and 65 million gallons of gas oil, in addition to the fuel required to operate the steam power plant which is a necessary adjunct to every gas plant. It will be seen, therefore, that the gas industry is a fairly large user of fuel, and it may also be stated that it is a particular user. To be suitable for gas manufacture, whether coal-gas or water-gas, the fuel must comply with certain standards which are fairly well defined, and which narrow the selec- tion very greatly. While in the present case we are chiefly concerned in the water-gas process, it may be said that coke produced as a by-product in retort and oven coal-gas 78 Oh oi pa A eae | os ae Aree A Nother R E , ra * + a manufacture has been heretofore the chief generator fuel used in water-gas manufacture, and therefore the require- ments of the water-gas process have had an important bearing on the selection of coal for coal-gas manufacture. To be suitable for use in water-gas making, a fuel, whether coke or coal, must have fairly good physical strength, so that it will stand transportation and will not break up too much in the generator. It must be low in sulphur, since usually at least one-fourth of the sulphur is transmitted to the gas made. When burned in the water- gas generator, it must not produce a clinker which is too difficult to handle or which cbstructs the passage of air too much within a reasonable operating time, nor should the amount of clinker be excessive; therefore the ash content of the fuel should be as low as possible. - These specifications as to fuel quality, both for coal-gas | and water-gas manufacture, have heretofore narrowed the production of coal for these purposes to certain rather limited areas. Among these the most notable ones in the eastern part of the United States are the Pittsburgh dis- trict and certain areas in West Virginia and eastern Ken- tucky. The enormous growth of the steel industry which uses roughly one ton of coke for every ton of pig iron pro- duced, and the steady growth of the gas industry, even in the face of electrical competition have drawn heavily upon _ the resources of the best coking coals, and already the necessity is felt for using coals from other regions which even if somewhat inferior to those from the localities just named are at least usable without too radical changes in the gas-making methods and equipment now in use. The State of Illinois has enormous bituminous coal re- sources, estimated at about 200 billion tons. This is one- third more than West Virginia, nearly twice as much as Pennsylvania, and more than twice as much as Ohio. Of this enormous amount of coal, very little if any fulfills completely the rigid requirements of the gas and cooking industry. In general, it may be said that most of the central dis- trict coals, under present operating methods, produce a softer, more fragile coke, and about 20 per cent less gas per ton than the best eastern gas coals and while the by- product yield is good, most of the central district coals _- SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION rh 80 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE contain considerably more than 1 per cent of sulphur, — which was formerly regarded as the upper limit for gas coals. As water-gas generator fuel, the coke from central district coals does not usually produce as large a volume of gas in a given time as some eastern cokes and the ash frequently fuses to a clinker which is very obstinate to handle. With present methods, therefore, only a few re- stricted areas produce coal which is considered usable. Nevertheless, even these restricted areas are capable of producing much more than sufficient tonnage of coal to meet the gas-making needs of this region. The production of central district coal for gas making was greatly stimulated by the war. Transportation diffi- culties and the zoning system of the Fuel Administration made fuel supply conditions very critical for the gas indus- try of this region. Many gas companies found it not only impossible to obtain eastern coal for coal-gas manufacture, but were even unable to obtain any kind of coke at all for water-gas making. Their only resort was to turn to raw bituminous coal, a fuel which though it had been tried by some enterprising water-gas makers at various times, had never been used with any marked success, on account of many difficulties attending its use. With necessity as a spur, however, many gas operators accomplished wonders. They not only kept their plants in operation but were able to realize economies which made the use of bituminous fuel financially attractive under prevailing price conditions, even when other fuels became obtainable again. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss some of the problems en- countered and their solutions. For the benefit of those who may not be familiar with the water-gas process, a brief description may not be out of place. The accompanying diagram illustrates the usual arrangement of parts of the apparatus, though there are some machines which are different in design though sim- ilar in principle. The machine consists of three principal chambers, the generator, carburetor, and superheater, marked G. C. and 8., respectively. In general these cham- bers consist of cylindrical shells of heavy steel plate lined with refractory blocks. The generator is the heart of the gas machine. In it is a deep bed of fuel resting on a grate and filling the generator nearly to the take-off connection. PR TR OT) ok GEE SERS fry eh ae a --s« SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 81 Below the grate is a connection by which air is admitted from a high-speed blower during the blasting portion of the operation. The air soon brings the fuel bed to a high state of incandescence. During this blowing period the air gas formed, which contains a considerable percentage of carbon monoxide, is burned by a secondary air blast in the carburetor and superheater, and some of the heat is stored in the piles of staggered brick checkerwork with which these chambers are filled. The combustion products pass through the open stack valve into the air. When the fuel bed and the checkerwork have attained the proper temper- ature, the blowing is discontinued, the stack valve is © closed, and steam is then blown through the incandescent fuel bed. The steam reacts with the carbon of the fuel, forming carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen. The ecar- bon dioxide content of the gases leaving the generator is at ‘first low, but increases as the fuel bed cools. Since this constituent is of course undesirable, the steaming process is interrupted so soon as it becomes unduly prominent, and the fire is again blasted with air. The gas produced during the steaming, or run period as it is called, usually has a heating value of about 300 B. t. u. per cubic foot. Since most states require a heating value in the finished gas of at least 565 B. t. u., as in Illinois, it is necessary to enrich this “‘blue” gas, as it is designated, by gas men. This is accomplished by spraying oil onto the hot bricks in the carburetor. The oil is broken up into vapor which mixes with the “blue” water-gas, and this vapor by further con- tact with the hot bricks in the superheater, becomes largely fixed as a permanent gas which will not condense back into oil when cooled. The carburetted gas passes through the water seal of the wash box, W, and thence through further apparatus where it is cooled, cleaned, and purified before being distributed to the consumers. It is not to be assumed that the operation is so simple in practice as just described. The blowing and steaming periods have to be regulated with great care, not only as to duration, but also in respect to the amount of air, steam, and oil admitted. A small fraction of a minute added to or subtracted from one of these periods has marked effects on the temperature balance of the machine and nearly all modern gas sets are equipped with steam, air, and oil f ILLINOIS: ACADEITY OF SCIENCE ie * meters and with pyrometers to show temperatures in the fixing chambers, and the gas maker times the operation — with a clock equipped with a second hand. The steaming and blowing periods are different in different plants. While an infinitesimally short blow, followed by an infin- itesimaily short run would probably be the ideal arrange- ment or cycle, the time required to operate valves makes extremely short periods impracticable. In practice we find blow periods from 2 to 4 minutes and run periods from 3 to 6 minutes or possibly even longer in some cases. During the blast period the air always passes upward through the fire, but in modern practice a portion of the steam runs are made down through the fuel, the gas pass- ing to the carburetor through the refractory lined pipe, P. This reversal not only protects the hot valve, H, from be- coming overheated, but also puts the fire in better condi- tion for 2 gas making. The lid on the top of the generator is opened at intervals of perhaps five or six runs to intro- duce a fresh charge of fuel. At intervals of perhaps 8 to 10 hours, depending upon the fuel, operation has to be dis- continued and the accumulated ashes and eclinkers re- moved through the lower doors. This procedure, which may require anywhere from a few minutes to four or five hours, of course shortens the actual operating time and may cause the rejection of a particular fuel, which other- wise might be considered suitable, and frequently much ex- perimenting is done to find a set of operating conditions which will make practical the use of a particular fuel which, though otherwise good, gives an obstinate clinker. It is remarkable what can sometimes be accomplished by slightly modifying the amount or duration of the blowing or steaming, or by changing the percentage of up and down steam runs. Coke or anthracite coal, since they contain very little volatile matter, could, except for the complications some- times introduced by the nature of the ash formed, be con- sidered as pure carbon. With bituminous coals, however, the gas maker is confronted by new problems. The coals of the central district usually contain from 35 to 45 per cent of volatile matter, and exhibit the property of caking when heated. The volatile matter of the coal consists not only of water vapor and permanent gases, but also of heavy condensible vapors which upon cooling form tar. Ph, , > ~ = - The volatile matter and the caking property are the chief factors which make the use of bituminous coal for this pur- pose, a problem of many difficulties. To follow exactly the same methods as employed with coke or anthracite would be to court failure from the start. Among the difficulties usually encountered may be mentioned, the production of great volumes of smoke, a marked decrease in gas produc- tion capacity, and the rapid plugging of the brick checker- work with pitch and soot. To overcome these difficulties a vast amount of experimenting has been done by various gas operators. While there has been some exchange of views among the operators, it was found on an inspection tour made last summer, by Mr. W. W. Odell, gas engineer of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, and the writer, that many operators were beset by so many difficulties connected with securing labor and materials and maintaining their plants that they had little time to devote to the solution of actual machine operating difficulties. As a result of the inspec- tion, the Geological Survey published its Cooperative Min- ing Investigations Bulletin No. 22, describing the observed practice in operating with bituminous coals up to that time and it was decided to make an investigation on a practical scale to learn more facts if possible for dissemi- nation to the gas industry. The Public Service Company of Northern Illinois very generously offered the facilities of the Streator plant for the experiments. Mr. Odell and the writer spent several weeks in that plant, experimenting with various coals under different conditions. While there are still some difficulties to be overcome, it is felt that the results obtained there and the application of the methods employed to some other plants have justified the time and money spent and have demonstrated that many of the diffi- culties formeriy encountered can be entirely overcome or greatly diminished. In discussing the methods used at Streator, no attempt will be made to go into great detail. The main facts will be mainly outlined. It is not claimed that all the methods tried originated in the Streator tests. Some of them had been worked out by other operators and to them great credit is due for the pioneer work accom- plished. One of the first difficulties to be overcome in the use of bituminous coal was the obstruction to the passage of air blast and steam caused by the caking of the coal. With ry SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 83 yy PALE DEN Sy it) VAN A ye te Mey Sa iy APE MET ES An i Eee am " 4 ' 84 _ ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ‘coke or anthracite it is often customary to make fuel RAGE charges of perhaps 700 or 800 pounds at a time in a 6 ft. set and after cleaning the fire it is often the practice to Me make double or even triple charges to build the fuel bed — rapidly up to the proper operating depth. If this pro- cedure is followed with bituminous coal, within an hour or so the caking of the coal has progressed to such an extent that an arch of partially caked fuel, almost impenetrable to the air blast, is formed. The result is that the rate of combustion is greatly slackened, the fuel bed becomes relatively cold, and the gas-making reactions of the steam run are also slackened. Under these conditions the rate of production falls far below that ordinarily obtainable with coke. The only remedy for this condition after it has taken place is to break up the caked fuel frequently, with heavy iron bars, a laborious time-consuming operation. The remedy applied at Streator and elsewhere was to avoid all double fuel charges and rather make the charges lighter and more frequent at the start until the fuel had been brought up to working depth. By this procedure barring the fire could be entirely avoided. While the rate of gas production was increased, it did not equal the pro- duction with coke, and a method developed at Streator for increasing production will be discussed a little later. The smoke problem was also one which caused much concern to the gas operator, but especially to other estab- lishments located in proximity to the gas plant. Water- gas sets do not usually have high stacks which dissipate smoke in the upper atmosphere. The combustion products are usually expelled just above roof level; consequently near neighbors get the full benefit when smoke is pro- duced. The greatest difficulty was experienced after the machine had been idle for several hours and the fuel bed and checkerwork had cooled somewhat. If a charge of fresh coal were added to the fire and the blast commenced, the blast gas produced in the generator at first would not be rich enough to burn upon the addition of secondary air, or if it were the temperature of the checkerwork might be too low to ignite it. Asa result, the tar vapors formed from incomplete combustion of the coal would pass through the carburetor and superheater unconsumed, and even the pilot light kept constantly burning at the stack would only partially ignite them if at all. The result was s.. s* Anas a Sal aE BNE e Moe Eee a Ray ; Pr .Gep Maga mee ; oe 2 - SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 85 a “a dense cloud of yellow or brown smoke. After the fuel bed and checkerwork were well heated, little more trouble from this source would be encountered. A remedy which was developed at Streator worked out quite successfully, was to make a fresh charge of fuel just before shutting © down the set and making only one or two runs from it. During the succeeding lay-over period this coal coked gradually and by the time the set was again put into operation it had become completely coked. Then upon blasting the machine could be brought rapidly up to temperature, and after one or two runs had been made, the addition of fresh fuel produced very little if any smoke, ~ since the tarry vapors could be ignited and completely con- sumed. As has been previously explained, the blow and run periods are so timed as to bring all three chambers to the proper operating temperatures at the same time. Since the caking property of the coal tends to make the fuel bed more resistant to the passage of air than coke fuel, it is evident that with a given air-blast pressure available, it will take a longer blowing time to get the coal fuel to the proper temperature. However, since there is considerable rich volatile matter given off from coal, this upon burning in the carburetor and superheater tends to overheat these chambers before the generator is hot enough. Since the temperature most favorable for properly fixing the gas oil is quite well defined, excess temperature tends to break up the oil too much with the formation of lamp-black which rapidly fouls the checkerwork and chokes the connections. If a great part of the combustible gas is burned outside the machine at the stack, the latter becomes overheated, and at any rate fuel is wasted. Several methods for remedying this condition have been tried, but practically all of them result in a great deal smaller production of gas in a given time than is possible with coke, the reduction amounting to as much as 30 per cent. A method was worked out at Streator which obviates this difficulty and at the same time increases capacity, and this method will be briefly de- scribed. The gas produced during the blow period becomes momentarily greater in heating value as the blow proceeds, due to the increasing percentage of carbon monoxide. At the end of a three-minute blow, for example, it may have a rk ee ae. Ee OT EES. ee kk ah ee See SP ta eS Ree teat Oe aT ee Ona Tum ae) Geog ae Loe ef Mai > a 7 + “ se * . be ’, te LE ae, Tears 7 ie ve aE eRe an SAAR YH SURETY EY 86 heating value of perhaps 155 B. t. u. per cubic feet with coal fuel, due to the presence of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. It was concluded that a certain amount of this gas was worth saving and as the carburetor and super-_ heater had usually attained a suitable temperature of 1350 — to 1400 degrees IF’., by this time, the stack valve was closed and the blast continued for 15 to 30 seconds, no secondary air being admitted during this time.’ The term “blow-run” was coined for this part of the operation since it was a run with blast instead of steam. This additional blasting time improved the generator condition and since the gas was not burned in the carburetor and superheater, these cham- bers were not overheated by this additional blast. A vol- ume of gas equal to 20 to 80 per cent of the usual volume ~ was added to the production and while the amount of oil required to enrich this relatively poorer gas was somewhat greater, it did not equal that usually required with coke. The amount of generator fuel consumed per unit of gas volume materially decreased. While this method is not claimed to be a panacea for all the troubles experienced in using bituminous coal in water-gas making, it worked successfully at Streator and has been applied with more or less success at other plants according to the extent to which the particular conditions are favorable to it. It is hoped that the investigation of its application may be continued farther. The choice of a generator fuel for gas making is an economic matter depending upon the cost of the fuel and the efficiency with which it can be used. Assuming that a given fuel is usable and will produce the amount of gas required, the question which must always be answered is, what will be the relative cost of making 1000 cubie feet of gas with various fuels. Not only cost per ton and the actual amount of fuel consumed enter into the problem but also the effect on the amount of oil required to enrich the gas and the cost of other materials and of labor ocea- Sioned by its use. These costs will not be the same for a particular fuel in different plants, even if the actual cost of generator fuel is the same. To take a particular case and assume certain costs for materials and labor is always likely to lead to erroneous or misleading conclusions for there are always those who are sure to take assumed iA - Pay A PL oer KS 6157 re; Gt oe SM) Md ee Oy ne! Fe OY OF ap Ot MPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION - ~~ with the difference in price in these fuels which has pre- vailed, many operators who were so equipped that they could maintain their gas production with coal have realized a very substantial saving from its use. _ While during the earlier experimental stages a very large percentage of the heat in the coal was wasted in smoke and otherwise, some operators have now perfected their operation so that nearly if not quite as much of the heat in the coal is now utilized in the finished gas as when coke was used. The volatile matter of the coal also assists to a certain extent in enriching the gas. The gases leaving the generator when coal is used are richer than “blue” gas from coke, and consequently less oil is required to enrich the gas to a given quality. The saving in oil frequently amounts to a third of a gallon per 1,000 cubic feet of finished gas. The relative labor, repair, and purification costs with the two fuels depend upon the particular coal or coke used, the capacity obtained and the operating diffi- culties encountered. While these costs are in some cases slightly greater with coal than with coke, the difference is relatively unimportant. In general, it may be said that even with normal prices of materials and labor, coal as generator fuel shows a distinct economical advantage where it can be used, and its use can be greatly extended. Aside from the gas operator point of view, this subject has a significance to the general public. Any saving eifected by the gas companies in operation will in time be reflected in the quality of service rendered to the public. In some cases the use of coal in place of coke will either result in lower rates or will enable the gas companies to continue operation without increasing rates. Every ton of coal substituted for coke in this process releases a certain amount of coke for domestic use, and if coke were used more for domestic purposes in place of bituminous coal the atmosphere and surroundings would be distinetly brighter. Further a saving of a few tenths of a gallon of gas oil in the manufacture of a thousand cubic feet of gas would in the aggregate amount to several millions of gallons a year in this State alone, could such a saving be realized by all companies. The saving of long freight hauls of coke from peci lly those AN THE ILLINOIS PYRITE INVENTORY NATIONAL SULPHUR SITUATION IN THE SPRING OF 1918 G. H. Capy, ILLINOIS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, URBANA. With the entrance of the United States into the war and with the reduction in the importation of Spanish pyrite that followed, the increased requirements of raw material from domestic sources for use in the manufacture of sul- phuric acid became a matter of some concern. Consider- able tension developed over the situation in some quarters. The production of sulphuric acid (monohydrate) in 1917 was about 4,800,000 tons, against about 3,900,000 tons in 1916. We imported from Spain and Portugal in 1917 about 833,000 tons of pyrite which may be reckoned as equivalent of about 1,000,000 tons of sulphuric acid (monohydrate) ; so that from domestic and Canadian resources we manufactured in 1917 about 3,300,000 tons of sulphuric acid. The government estimated a requirement of 5,000,000 to 5,600,000 tons in 1918. It appeared neces- sary, therefore, to find raw material in 1918 sufficient to manufacture about 2,500,000 additional tons of acid. A careful review of the possible sources of raw material by government agencies revealed what seemed early in 1918 to be incapacity of the then existing sources to meet the probable demand. Sulphurie acid is manufactured from three sorts of material:—native sulphur or brim- stone, pyrites, and as a by-product in smelting and refin- ing. In 1917 brimstone used in the manufacture of sul- phuric acid amounted to 463,364 tons producing possibly about 1,300,000 tons of acid (monohydrate) ; in the same year 1,257,128 tons of pyrite produced about 2,000,000 tons of acid; and by-product acid to the amount of about 1,000,000 tons was manufactured, mainly in the western states—a total, as has been stated, of about 4,300,000 tons. With about 800,000 tons of Spanish pyrite cut off the market and a probable additional demand for raw material 89 Pad Suet ia Leche Ca AL So. “TGS en tase nd ik, ote | 7.) ETM LY LET MR COAT eae ay eit aS at Mie SULAIMAN OD A iY py q , Pa Ne ale te at Ber YAS A Vit 90 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE necessary to manufacture about 1,300,000 tons of acid, there was an apparent need for the stimulation of the _ industry and the discovery of additional sources of raw material. It was also obvious that because of the sy high freight rates from the western smelters, the acid in- — dustry would have to depend upon the brimstone and pyrite producers for the additional amounts of raw material necessary to carry on the industry. Naturally the acid manufacturers, when the importa- tions of Spanish pyrite were restricted, turned to the most readily available source of supply—the sulphur or brim- stone deposits of Louisiana and Texas. These are located respectively at Sulphur, Louisiana, and Bryan Heights, Texas. Among those agencies interested in determining the resources available for the continuation of the war activities at the scale required, it became a matter of doubt whether the Texas and Louisiana deposits were going to be anywhere nearly adequate to meet the needs. The amount of sulphur necessary to manufacture the postulated addi- tional 2,300,000 tons of acid that must be produced from domestic resources was about 1,260,000 tons. As the amount of brimstone used the preceding year was less than 500,000 tons, and as the wells were supposed to be produc- ing about up to their capacity, it was thought quite impos- sible for the two companies to produce the necessary re- quirements of brimstone to meet the acid manufacturers’ needs. Unfortunately, actual statistics of the sulphur produced in 191’ are not available, so that it is possible that the amount of brimstone used was actually less than that produced. In view of what was interpreted to be an impending shortage of brimstone the pyrite resources became a mat- ter of investigation. Pyrite in the central and eastern states was of especial interest because of its nearness to the acid plants. In this part of the country it occurs as “coal brasses” in coal mines and as mineral deposits in certain states such as Missouri, Virginia, Georgia, and Wisconsin. Under the influence of interest stimulated by war committees, such as the War Minerals Committee, the U. 8. Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the geological surveys of several states, instituted an extensive inventory xa i ao i “y ae Me Me ree We GRP. Eee Laer, a i A Re oT TT Oat aD bk, iy ie inlay Sy URS eR ie es Se A SOS aca a io iy 3! Seine fy fs se hs A . 4 Dae © ¥ SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 91 By SP haa of the pyrite resources of the central and eastern states. The coal-producing states were given special attention, because of the recognized importance of the coal mines as the most probable source of large quantities of pyrite. As a result of this investigation carried on in the coal fields under the direction of Mr. E. A. Holbrook of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, it is now known that the coal mines of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, I1li- nois, and Missouri can easily furnish, with the equipment now available, up to more than 2,000,000 tons of pyrite annually, and that the mines of Illinois, on a very con- servative estimate, could easily produce 200,000 tons with- out additional equipment. During 1917 this State pro- duced about 24,000 tons, so that it is probably producing not over one-tenth of what it could easily produce. Indeed, with additional rather inepensive equipment, the output could be increased very materially beyond 200,000 tons, probably nearly 500,000 tons annually, a figure which is essentially the amount of pre-war demand for pyrite from domestic sources. That the stimulation of the pyrite industry has not re- sulted from the growth of war industries has been some- what of a surprise. Events have shown, however, that the country possesses larger resources of brimstone than could have been suspected at the time the pyrite inventory was inaugurated. New areas have been opened to development, and new wells have been drilled on the original properties, so that at the opening of 1919, it is a serious problem to find a market for the prospective production of brimstone. In fact, as early as July, the War Industries Board issued the statement that there was above ground at the mines in Louisiana and Texas, over 1,000,000 tons of brimstone— a sufficient stock for 8 months at the rate of 120,000 tons a month, which was approximately the current demand, ac- cording to one authority. There was the additional un- certainty, however, in regard to these deposits that was occasioned by their location near the coast, thereby making them possible targets of marauding German vessels that might escape into the Gulf. In general, however, uneasi- ness in regard to a possible sulphuric acid shortage had disappeared in the latter part of the summer, before the pyrite inventory had been completed in all the states. Aigo aa ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Pyritp SITUATION IN ILLINOIS. The pyrite inventory in Illinois, as well as in the other — states, can most properly be looked upon as insurance against a possible contingency. Yet so far as Illinois is concerned, it will possibly lead to some benefits to the coal trade on a peace basis. It has been shown that pyrite can be recovered at wash-— eries at a very small expense. The expense involves the installation and operation of one or two more jigs where the refuse is washed, to recover the pyrite, the refuse itself being furnished without cost as a product of the coal washery. Atleast one coal washery has installed a pyrite- recovery section during the last year. Others would prob- ably find it profitable to do the same. The pyrite inventory has also furnished a more sys- tematic body of information relative to the distribution and occurrence of the pyrite than heretofore has existed. The investigations of the resources and the search for low- sulphur coal in connection with the work on gas coals performed by the Gas Section of the Illinois Mining In- vestigations have together furnished information relative to the distribution of sulphur and pyrite that is doubtless of sufficient general interest to warrant brief comment. The accompanying map shows the Illinois coal basin surrounded by a red border. It shows also in colors the areas wherein the various coals are mined. Thus, in the pink areas No. 2 coal is mined; in the green, No. 1; in the yeellow, No. 5; in the blue, No. 6; and in the brown, No. 7. The bright yellow area with a reddish area within it, in the southern part of the State, has no reference to the number of the coal. It lies within the area in which No. 6 coal is mined. The actual sulphur content of the coals of the State, as determined by analyses of face samples, differs in a con- spicuous degree only as between coals of southern Tlinois and coals of central and northern Illinois. Small black figures on the map show the average sulphur content of the coal at about 100 representative mines, as determined by 3 or more analyses of face samples at each mine. There y . ts li Bae nie rakes b ie 3 SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 93 is possibly a variation of about 1 per cent in the sulphur content among the coals north of Jackson, Jefferson, and Saline counties, except for Mercer and Rock Island counties. These coals have between 3.25 and 4.00 per cent of sulphur. The Rock Island and Mercer County coal (No. 1) has an unusual sulphur content, varying from 4.25 to 5.02 per cent. In the southern counties, Jackson, Williamson, south- eastern Perry, Saline, and Gallatin, the sulphur content averages 1 to 2 per cent less than it does to the north, vary- ing from about 1 to 2.75 per cent. In the yellow area, shown on the map in Franklin, Williamson, and Jackson counties, the sulphur content averages below 1.5 per cent, and in the pink area within the yellow, below 1 per cent. The low sulphur content of the southern Illinois coals is one special reason for their greater desirability among the coals of the State for domestic as well as for gas-making purposes. It should be stated, however, that coal from other parts of the State, if properly prepared at the mine. could probably be used with equal satisfaction by the householder, thus reserving the low-sulphur coal for in- dustrial uses, to which it is specifically adapted. In general, the low-sulphur coals containing less than three per cent of sulphur do not contain much pyrite in free or nodular form. Very little recoverable pyrite is present in these coals. The higher sulphur coals, however, although they all contain free pyrite in some form, do not always contain it in recoverable form. Its ease of recovery may in fact be taken as an index of the ease with which clean coal can be furnished at the shaft head. The ease of recovery, furthermore, can by no means be inferred from the coal analysis, but can be determined only by an inspec- tion of the coal at the face in the mine. Most of the pyrite occurs in one of three forms: (1) as nodules or balls; (2). as sheets or thin lenses in the parting between benches; and (3) as lenticular masses fingering laterally into the coal. Coals differ somewhat character- istically in regard to the form of pyrite most commonly found in each bed. Thus, No. 2 coal of northern Illinois 1 ener Hy a UA Abe LS A Eh SAAR Reslde ec Wan a ce yh Wii Ky yard teehee YM a ri yar > ares mane i.) x i ( i ' t * manu tehi ts. QA | ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE has free pyrite most commonly in the form of nodules of — brassy, mettalic-like, massive sulphide. No. 5 coal in the © Peoria-Springfield district has pyrite balls of the same sort _ in the upper coal, but more characteristic is what is known ~ : as the brown or gray sulphur lenses. These are lenticular — or irregular masses of banded stony pyrite that finger later- ally into the coal. No. 6 coals is distinctly a bedded coal, separated into three or more persistent benches. The py- rite is most commonly found as plates or thin lenses in the = parting between the benches. No.7 coal carries a large ~ i : ° . : noi! amount of pyrite as irregular lenses of massive stony sul- ~ é A zt a ll phide much like that found in No. 5 coal, but not commonly banded. Pyrite can be recovered in two places: at the coal face by the miner and loader, and at the tipple by pickers, by — | mechanical dry separation, and by washing the coal. The latter method is probably the most efficient, but the coal i should also be picked at the face to remove the large pyrite 4 nodules, if the pyrite is to be marketed. i) The ease of recoverability of the different forms of pyrite varies. The more easily the pyrite can be recovered the cleaner the coal that can be produced without special facil- ities for treatment at the tipple. Large nodules of bright pyrite such as are found in No. 2 coal are easily seen by the : miner, and relatively easiery removed. Irregular lenticu- lar masses “frozen” to the coal, such as are found in No. 5 and No. 7 coals, are not readily removed, and the miner is too inclined to throw chunks of coal containing such lenses into the car, risking possible discovery at the tipple, and the resulting fine. Too frequently this is a very slight risk. Sheet pyrite is easily hand-picked when thick enough to resist the shattering incident to mining. When thin, however, it breaks into small pieces and forms accord- ingly a considerable part of the fine coal or screenings and can only be removed by mechanical separation of some sort. If pyrite is to be considered as an impurity to be dis- earded rather than a commodity to be saved, as apparently it must continue to be regarded until its recovery becomes a matter of economic importance, the investigations have indicated that more systematic efforts than have been in LAM OF RLY ee AR BNR AD Ayes PRR FRY CIR tine 3 ‘ CS dah wy ia fh ¢ + SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND RECONSTRUCTION 95 force in the past should be instituted to eliminate this ma- terial from the coal before it is furnished to the public. Certainly the material has not been removed from the coal] nearly as effectively as it might be, nor possibly have. the means adopted in individual cases been especially applic- able to the form of pyrite present. Some blame attaches to the miner for not obeying the rules and to the operator for not enforcing the rules in regard to clean coal. But a large part of the blame attaches to the general public in not insisting that all coal be subjected to some adequate form of preparation at the tipple. Itisa glaring economic sin to use an unmanufactured product such as raw coal when with a little foresight we might be getting several times the return now obtained. The first step in repent- ance should be an insistence that all operators properly prepare their coal for the trade. In summary: The pyrite inventory in Illinois has served its immediate purpose of furnishing the nation definite data concerning its supply of one of the essential war minerals. Aside from furnishing desired information along the original lines of the investigation, the pyrite in- ventory has some economic bearing upon the industry in the normal times of peace. In connection with search for low-sulphur coal, it has effected a definite delineation of areas of coal suitable for special purposes, such as the manufacture of metallurgical coke and city gas. It has also furnished information relative to the varieties of free pyrite found in the higher sulphur coals which possibly may lead to a better understanding of the various condi- tions affecting the production of clean coal at the shaft head. This information is preliminary to a more system- atie adaptation of the means of cleaning coal to the vary- ing conditions of occurrence of the impurities whose elim- ination is desired. The pyrite inventory was an investi- gation conducted to safeguard the public safety. It had uncertain, commercial application and was of such a nature that private capital could only with difficulty have been found to carry it through. It is such services that can best be accomplished with public funds such as are allotted to the State Geological Survey. _ Papers on Botany \ SOIL AS A LIMITING FACTOR OF FORESTS IN LA SALLE COUNTY, ILLINOIS GEORGE D. FULLER, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. La Salle County, Illinois, is situated in the north-central part of the state within what is usually termed the “corn belt” on account of the extensive culture of that crop on the dark brown or black soils of the prairie. It is also within the region of the early Wisconsin glaciation, the Bloomington moraine skirting its northern boundary. The surface is gently rolling, the highest altitude at the north- west corner being 930 feet from which the plain slopes gradually to about 630 feet at the edge of the Illinois River valley. This valley, intersecting the county from east to west, lies about 200 feet below the level of the adjacent uplands. On account of the peculiar distribution of for- ests in this prairie county it was selected in the autumn of 1918 as one of the areas to be included in a State Forestry Survey. It seemed probable that it might present prob- lems involving the factors which determine the relative extent of grassland and woodland in the State of Illinois. This is not an opportune time to present the different theories as to the causes of the development of a grassland vegetation. These have been well summarized by Shimekt, who has also given in the same report an excellent bibliog- raphy of the earlier American literature upon the sub- ject. Gleason? has stated some of the unsolved problems of the prairies and Cowles® has pointed out that the causes which explain the prairie vegetation of Illinois must not be applied, in all cases, to the great climatic prairies of the farther west. 1 Shimek, B. The prairies. Bull, Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa 6: 169- 240. plates 13. map. 1917. ?Gleason, H. A. Some unsolved problems of the prairies. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 36: 265-271. 3 Cowles, H. C. The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity. Bot. Gaz. 31: 73-108, 145-182. figs. 35. 1901. 99 100 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ In the course of our forest survey certain relations in — the distribution of soil types and native vegetation have impressed themselves upon the writer as affording some elucidation of one phase, at least, of the problem of the relative limits of the distribution of forests and grasslands) _ in a portion of Illinois which lies in the tension zone of the ereat forest and grassland formations of this continent. In the portion of the county covered in this survey the surface soil is dark brown in color and in a soil survey* is referred to as an upland prairie soil known as the “brown silt loam.” It is described as composed largely of wind-blown loessial material to a depth of three to five feet _ the upper 6 or 8 inches having a humus content of about 6%. In depressions where drainage is poor a black silt loam is found. These together cover 80% of the entire area of the county. In these soils streams are cutting their channels and developing their valleys. In the northern part. of the county the cutting is slight and little or no valley has been developed, but as the Fox and [Illinois Rivers are approached the tributary streams are found to be from 50 to 80 feet below the upland. As these streams have developed shallow valleys have been formed, portions of the surface silt loam being removed to depths varying from a few inches to several feet. As the usual depth of the prairie silt loam is about three feet it is clear that along the streams that have eroded definite valleys there will be exposed a strip of the soil immediately below that covering the upland. This soil naturally varies somewhat from that which overlaid it and this variation is manifest in differences of color and texture, and what is probable | of much greater ecological significance, in slope and drainage. This difference in topography doubtlessly affects in a very material way the water content of the soil at various seasons of the year and these differences of soil moisture will naturally react upon the vegetation. The Department of Soil Survey of the State Agri- cultural Experiment Station in making a soil survey of the county has recognized the differences between the — upland prairie silt loams and the soil of slightly lower * Hopkins, Cyril G., et al. La Salle County soils. Soil Report No. 5, Univ. Ill, Agr. Exper. Station. pp, 45. maps. 1913. Y or a Ag ey Ree Work ae 7 = y ee “tr 6 Oe VA 5? _—. I, i; : 5: Reh a ¥ ' LA, 3 =) * ; 7 ‘ Cin Pry wh ; } y i ae, r : OF) , - PAPERS ON BOTANY , 101 “level bordering the streams, the latter being designated “vellow-grey silt loam.” Aside from differences of color and water content it contains less of the finer wind blown material and has a lower humus content. The excellent maps accompanying the report of the Soil Survey, pub- lished in 1913, show the larger streams bordered by a nar- rower or broader band of this yellow-grey silt loam soil. Two or three of the streams flowing through the townships covered during the autumn of 1918 in our Forest Survey may be taken as examples of this soil distribution. Along the Little Vermilion in Troy Grove and Dimmick Town- ships the bordering strip of yellow-grey silt loam varies in width up to a maximum of 1500 yards. Along Big Indian Creek in Earle Township it reaches a width of over a mile, while along Little Indian Creek in Adams and Serena Townships at its widest part the stream valley as indicated by the soil difference is two miles across. For some reason not as yet clearly understood the strip of yellow-grey silt loam is decidedly wider upon the east side of these streams than upon the west. At times this difference is not great but it frequently happens that three- fourths of the entire strip is upon the left bank of the creek. An examination of other north and south streams shows that they possess the same soil fringe with a similar unequal lateral distribution. It has been suggested that since the prevailing winds are from the west the inequality of the soil strip must be connected with the action of such winds in causing more deposition of wind-carried soil on the west bank of the stream or more wind erosion upon the east side. Another attempted explanation is connected with the movement of prairie fires from west to east but the causes of the distri- bution of this soil in this peculiar way is not of immediate importance in the present discussion. It is sufficient to point out that the soil has been recognized as essentially different, in some particulars, from the upland brown silt loam and its extent has been mapped in La Salle and other counties in the published reports of soil surveys. In making our forest survey of portions of La Salle County it was soon noted that with the exception of a very narrow fringe of such trees as black willow along the small 102° ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE streams there were no indigenous trees upon the brown | silt loam soil nor could any indications be discovered that at any time had there been any forest upon this type of soil. The characterization of the brown silt loam by the members of the Soil Survey as an upland prairie soil seemed thus perfectly accurate. On the other hand although all the bits of upland for- est in the northwest portion of this county were upon the yellow-grey silt loam much of this soil was under cultiva- tion and all trace of tree growth had disappeared. There is, however, good reasons for believing that it was all originally forested and hence that it may appropriately bear the designation given it by the Soil Survey of “upland timber soil.” The evidence of former forestation is briefly as follows: (1) A map made in 1819 purporting to show the original forest areas of the county; (2) The township maps showing that these areas of yellow-grey silt loam were in the early surveys cut up into lots of 5 to 20 acres and that these areas were held as wood lots by farmers having larger farms of prairie soil elsewhere in the county ; (3) The testimony of the oldest inhabitants which seems to agree perfectly with soil distribution as charted; and (4) The remnants of forest remaining at the time of our sur- vey which were scattered over all parts of the yellow-grey silt loam but were found nowhere upon the brown silt loam. Therefore since the original distribution of upland for- est in this portion of Illinois where the vegetation is pre- dominatingly grassland is limited to a particular type of soil bordering the streams and somewhat below the level of the prairie upland, it seems fair to conclude that here, at least the character of the soil is the controling factor in deciding the limits of tree growth. Serv) yn: THE OCCURRENCE OF A WHITE FORM OF TRA- DESCANTIA VIRGINICA IN SOUTHERN ILLINOIS CLARENCE BONNELL, HARRISBURG TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL For a number of years, students in the Harrisburg Township High School have studied Tradescantia Virgin- ica as a type, also, on account of the interesting opportu- nity it affords of seeing circulating protoplasm within the cell. On several occasions, such students have told me that they had seen white specimens of the flower, but none were ever brought to my attention. During more than twelve years of rather careful study of the spring flora of Saline county, I had never come across such a specimen as had been described. In April, 1917, Leonard Atkinson, a student in the school, found in a recently cleared field about two miles north of Harrisburg, Llinois, a group of Tradescantia with snow white flowers. He secured a herbarium speci- men, brought another to the class room, and transferred another to his home yard. This transplanted specimen grew and bloomed again, and in profusion in the spring of 1918. Itis, at present, growing and has spread sufficiently to be divided for further propagation and study. A visit to the field where the first specimens were found in 1917, made a year later was disappointing, for the field had been plowed close up to the stump and no Tradescantia of any kind were to be found. While I have not had access to authorities that mention white flowers in Tradescantia, I am informed that some authors do mention this feature using the expression, “rarely white.” This matter has been of interest to us as an illustration of a very distinct variation from the type, whether it is to be called a distinct species, a mutation, or a more or less frequently recurring variation. 103 { SOME FUNGI THAT ARE RARE OR HAVE NOT PRE- VIOUSLY BEEN REPORTED FROM ILLINOIS W. B. McDOUGALL, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. With two exceptions the mushrooms described below have not, to my knowledge, been previously reported from ‘ Illinois. The exceptions have only recently been reported by Mr. C. G. Lloyd, one of them as a new species, his report in each case being based on collections made by me. They are included here because they are of special interest. My object in reporting these species at this time is two- fold. In the first place, if I am not mistaken about their not having been reported from Illinois, they ought to be placed on record as occurring in this state. In the second place I have hopes that I may stimulate others to collect these larger fungi and especially to report what they have found. I am not myself so much interested in the system- atic or taxonomic study of these mushrooms as in their distribution and ecology and what I have found has been the result of chance rather than of long hunting. But no one has ever collected the higher fungi extensively in this state and I am convinced that were a competent person to do so it would result in the discovery of a considerable number of undescribed species. ASCOMYCETES Bulgaria inquinans Fr. (Fig. 1)—This plant is not rare but is easily overlooked and is not often found in lists of collected fungi. It grows on partly decayed and usually partly buried oak sticks in woods. The larger specimens become 4.5 cm. broad and 3 em. high. The receptacle is at first closed but soon opens, forming a cup, and may later become a nearly plane disk. The stem is short or some- times entirely lacking. The plant is dark brown or almost black and rough or wrinkled on the outside. The disk of the cup is smooth and lighter colored. But the most strik- ing characteristic of the plant is that it is very tough and 104 suvumMpUL BIIRSs—Ng “TT “sty HOLEGiuy, Uppoory *" elastic and internally gelatinous. Its edibility so far as I know has not been tested but it does not look nor feel very inviting and is probably to be classed as non-poisonous but also non-edible. The specimens shown in the photograph were collected in a woods near Urbana. Leotia lubrica Pers. (Fig. 2)—This plant like the pre- ceding one is not at all rare and the only excuse for includ- ing it here is to put it on record as occurring in Illinois. It usually grows in clusters 5 to 8 em. tall with the individ- ual caps 1 to 3 em. broad. The cap is irregularly hemi- spherical and usually somewhat wrinkled. The whole plant is of a peculiar yellowish green color. It is said to be edible but not of good quality. It grows in the woods often among mosses. The specimens photographed were found in the Forestry of the University of Illinois. BASIDIOMYCETES Craterellus cornucopioides Fr. (Fig. 3)—-The “horn of plenty”, as this plant is called is easily overlooked because of its blackish-brown color. It is trumpet-shaped, hollow to the base, and sometimes as much as 10 cm. high though more often not more than half that. It does not look very palatable but is edible and is said to be very good. It also drys well and so can be kept for future use. The speci- mens photographed were collected in an open upland woods in Vermilion County in September. | Polyporus giganteus (Pers.) Fr. (Fig. 4)—This plant ‘reminds one of the common P. frondosus but the branches of the pileus are fewer in number, larger, and thicker. It is characterized also by the fact that it turns black where bruised and blackens also in drying. The plant is edible but like all the edible species of this genus it is good only when young and tender. The photograph shows a plant collected within the City of Urbana. It was growing on the ground near a buried stump. Polyporus robiniophilus (Murrill) Lloyd (Fig. 5)— Named robiniophilus because it was first found on locust this plant has since been found as a wound parasite on various deciduous trees but most frequently on locust, hackberry and maple. The fine large specimen photo- graphed grew on a hackberry in Urbana. It was produced from a wound about 15 feet above the ground and after it et vs HS kau pects il ee oe ny ed AOS Oye kaa, a ae IRN Se tee 106 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE had been removed several other smaller ones grew from the same place. The tree was finally so weakened at this point that it was blown over during a storm. When fresh the pileus is somewhat watery but firm, whitish, and smooth or nearly so. The context or flesh is white, soft and punky, and has a sweetish odor when dry. The tubes are 0.3 to 1 em. long, the mouths small and white. Polyporus induratus Lloyd (Fig. 6)—Three specimens of this plant have been collected from a box elder stump near the University campus in Urbana. Since it was new to me I sent a specimen to Mr. C. G. Lloyd of Cincinnati. It proved to be new to him also and he named it as above and reported it with a brief description in his Letter No. 68, page 11, note 743. It is a large plant, extremely tough and spongy when fresh, and becoming hard and punky when dry. The whole plant is light colored when fresh but turns black where bruised or wounded and darkens in dry- ing. The tubes are very minute and only 3 to 5 mm. long. Polyporus dryadeus (Pers.) Fr. (Fig. 7)—This plant is considered rare and is usually reported as growing on liv- ing oak trees. The specimen ‘shown in the photograph was found on an old oak stump north of Urbana. I am indebted to Dr. L. O. Overholts for its identification. When fresh the pileus is spongy and somewhat watery, grayish brown in color and glabrous. The context is also brown and becomes somewhat brittle when dry. The tubes are small but sometimes as much as 2 em. long. Entoloma grayanum Pk. (Fig. 8)—Entoloma is a dan- gerous genus and this species like its near relatives is probably somewhat poisonous. It is a very ordinary look- ing mushroom growing 6 to 8 em. tall with its gray or drab colored cap 3 to 6 cm. broad. The gills are attached and there is no ring on the stem. The spore when caught on paper are light salmon color. The specimens photographed were collected in the University woods near Urbana. Stropharia caesifolia Pk. (Fig. 9)—One morning while collecting Agaricus campestris in a cemetery north of Urbana I chanced to pick up a specimen which looked the Same as the others but which on turning it over I found to have beautiful light blue gills instead of the familiar pink. Closer examination showed that the gills were attached and indicated that it was a Stropharia instead of an Fig. + Polyporus giganteus Fig. 5. Polyporus robiniophilus Fig. 6. Polyporus induratus Fig. 8. Entolma grayanum ~ he? v € . f ‘ , j rae A ‘ F _ : & : ’ . , F , Pee f i Jola : i y ‘ wake” 4 rs 2 ‘ I ‘ Z : re, F ne = : : : : A ‘ ( i : ~ a ’ . bs 7 7 g i gta Vy i - -" 7 ry ‘ * © ale ‘ a Fig. 9. Stropharia caesifolia SSS WSS LINAS Fig. 10. Tricholoma rutilans PAPERS ON BOTANY 107 Agaricus. I later found other specimens growing along with the common mushroom. I photographed some of them but for a long time was unable to identify them. Finally I found that the plant was described by Peck! in 1895 from a collection sent to him from Kansas. So far as I know it has not been mentioned by anyone since that time. It grows 6 to 8 cm. tall and the caps become as much as 6 cm. broad. The ring is very prominent and the spores are purple brown. The color of the gills alone will identify it. Its edibility has not been tested. Tricholoma rutilans Schaeft (Fig. 10)—This is a species that one would not expect to find commonly in Illinois since it grows only on pine wood or occasionally on hem- lock. Nevertheless the plants shown in the photograph were collected in Champaign County. They were growing on a pine stump in the Forestry at the University of Illi- nois. It is rather a pretty plant, the surface of the cap as well as the lower part of the stem being dark red or pur- plish. The larger specimens become 10 cm. tall and 10cm. broad. The spores are white, the gills attached, and there is no ring. This species is said to be edible and of good quality although the flesh is somewhat gummy when cooked. Panus strigosus B. and C.—The hairy Panus was found on living willow along the Sangamon River near the west- tern boundary of Champaign County. This collection was noted by Lloyd in Letter No. 67, page 16, note 691, as the first collection from the west although the species is not uncommon in the east. The plants collected were partly eaten by insects and so not fit to photograph. An excellent photograph was published by Lloyd in Mycological Notes, page (47. Both stem and cap are covered when young with fine soft hairs which become long and stiff as the plant becomes older. The larger specimens are 8 to 10 em. broad and have stems 6 to 10 cm. long. The gills are slightly decurrent and the spores white. It is edible when young but soon becomes tough. 1 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 22 :489. ?Snce wrtng the above I have learned that Dr, Peppoon collected ths plant several years ago n Jo Davess County. “ iB oe ae THE JACK OAK* (Quercus ellipsoidalis ) By WILLIAM TRELEASE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. Northwestward from the head of Lake Michigan the usual sharp distinction between the red oak (Quercus rubra—or maxima as people are disposed now to call it), the scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) and the black oak (Q. velu- tina) is confused by the occurrence of numerous trees that present various types of fruit, rather like that of the. scarlet oak but sometimes suggesting that of the red oak, associated with the multiform foliage for which the scarlet and black oaks are noted. Typical red oak and black oak trees very often occur associated with these aberrants: and, except for an infrequent individual now and then which suggests a hybrid, these suffice to indicate that the questionable trees do not represent a transition by which one of the usually recognized types blends into the other. Many years ago, Engelmann! called attention to these peculiar oaks which he was unable to identify elsewhere than with that tree of the lower St. Lawrence to which the younger Michaux” gave the specific name ambigua, though, being preoccupied for another oak, this name was replaced by him shortly* by borealis. A peculiar bulging or thick- ening of the cup-scales of some of the northwestern oaks © was noted by Engelmann, who perhaps indicates his diffi- culty in their identification when he frankly admits that the fruit of ambigua as figured by Michaux does not re-_ semble any form of gray-oak acorns he himself has seen. Though Engelmann was well acquainted with Dr. George Vasey, then a resident of Illinois but editorially connected with The American Entomologist and Botanist, *Presented in abstract before the Botanical Society of America and the Eco- logical Society of America, December 29, 1916. x malign 1Trans, Acad. Sci. St. Louis. 3: 401; 4: xx. 2 Hist. Arb. Amer, 2: 120. pl. 24, 1812. 3N. A, Sylva. 1: 81;—but the nameambigua remains on the plate, 26, and | the reason for using it originally is explained in the text. 108 end a ‘ A, 109 published in St. Louis, there is no published evidence that he connects his borealis oaks with either of the forms into which Vasey had attempted to divide Q. coccinea as he understood it. Yet as early as 1870 this attempt had been made,* and one of the forms, his var. microcarpa, is un- mistakably figured. It may be that Vasey meant to refer this form to Q. coccinea microcarpa Torrey, of the South- west—now known as Q. terana, from which it is distinct though even the latter species is so like in foliage to Q. palustris as to have passed for it. Most of the speci- mens collected by Dr. Vasey are without definite indica- tion of locality; but he is known to have collected exten-. sively about Ringwood, in one of the northernmost coun- ties of Illinois, and one such specimen is labeled as from Ringwood. Also before Englemann’s short publication on these ambiguous oaks of the lake region, one of the most acute local botanists who has yet appeared in the United States, M. S. Bebb, had puzzled over them as they occur in an- other of the northern counties of Illinois, where, about Fountaindale, he studied them in numerous individual trees of which he made excellent specimens, some of which were communicated to correspondents and the remainder of which have come to rest as a part of his personal herba- rium, now housed in the Field Museum of Chicago. Un- fortunately the conservatism for which Bebb was noted kept him from recording even on the labels his determina- tion of most of these specimens, though some few are labeled as Quercus rubra or as Q. coccinea. In 1898 Rey. E. J. Hall, to whom the flora of the neigh- borhood of Chicago was better known than it has ever been to another, deseribed* and figured what he took for a local hybrid of Qwercus coccinea and Q. palustris: and the fol- lowing year, without indicating its relation, if any, to this hybrid, he characterized} a common oak of that region under the specific name ellipsoidalis, given because of the elongated acorns produced by trees that he took to be typical of it. In aspect, bark, and foliage this species was made to compare more or less closely with Quercus palus- *American Entomol. & Bot. 1 :344-5, f. 213. *Botanical.Gazette, 16:53. pl. 5-6.—Specimens of this, which I take for what is here called Q. ellipsoidalis intermedia, occur from Th is i L/oe 6797 n ornton, Illinois, as Hill, 7Botanical Gazette, 27: 204, pl. 2-3. (110 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tris; but in fruiting cup, with Q. coccinea* from which its eS foliage differed in less intense autumnal coloration. — Locally, it seems not to have been distinguished commonly by name from the associated black oak, Q. velutina, though Mr. Hill mentions the name yellow oak as applied to it by one person. Since its publication, Quercus ellipsoidalis has been rec- ognized generally as a valid species, and it is figured in a number of books.? It appears to be one of the dominant oaks of the region west of Lake Michigan and south of Lake Superior and extends through Minnesota and Wis- consin to northeastern Iowa, and thence to the country im- mediately southeast of Chicago. This distribution is ind1- cated on a small map accompanying Hough’s excellent account and photographic illustrations of the species. Though the supposed hybrid of Quercus palustris and Q. coccinea bore relatively short and thick acorns, and his_ description of Q. ellipsoidalis showed that what he took for this species sometimes produces nearly spherical acorns, Mr. Hill was careful to differentiate his new species from the associated oaks referred to coccinea and velutina; and this has led those who have dealt with it of recent years to dwell upon the deep turbinate cup and slender elongated acorn as its chief differentials, which, as is shown in the well-drawn figures of the ‘Minnesota Trees and Shrubs”, stand in marked contrast with the otherwise . searcely distinguishable oak called Q. coccinea, of the re- gion in which Q. ellipsoidalis grows. Though an early contributor to The American Entomologist and Botanist, Mr. Hill does not seem to have recognized in these oaks the assemblage that Vasey had considered a generation earlier, nor to have noted that Vasey’s coccinea microcarpa well pictures his own typical ellipsoidalis. 4 Specimens representing coccinea as understood by Mr. Hill, which I take for what is here called Q. ellipsoidalis depressa, occur from Thornton (Hill, 1614/95, 78/96, 82/96, 293/97, 165/95, 83/96, 121/01, @2/01, 15/99, Glenwood (Hill 81/96, 90/96, £99/97), Barington (Hill, 215/00, 216/00), and Wauconda (Hill, 334/98, in Illinois. and from Hammond, Indiana (Hill, 73/91), and Liverpool, Indiana (Hill, 334/98, 335/98); and, without name, from Thornton (Hill, 162/95, 164/95, 65/96, 79/96, 81/96), Glenwood (Hill, 170/95, 88/96), and West Pulman (Hill, 147/9/95, 70-72/96). Other specimens, referred to Q. velutina, occur from Willow Springs, (Hill, 140/90), and morely (Hill, 156/95) in Illinois, and from Liverpool, Indiana (Hill, 337/98). 2 Britton and Brown, Ill, Flora, 2 ed. 1:618. f. 1518.—Britton and Shafer, N. A. Trees, 291. f. 243.—Clements et al., Minnesota Trees and Shrubs. 261. f. —Deam, Rept. Indiana Board of Forestry. 11 202. pl. 56.—Hough, Handbook. 144. ff.—Otis, Micigan Trees, 114. f.—Sargent, Manual of Trees. 234. f. 189.— Robinson and Fernald, Gray’s New Manual. 7 ed. 342. f, 683.—Trelease, Proc. Amer. Pilos. Soe. 51. pl, 11. PAPERS ON BOTANY 111 During several seasons past, in cooperation with the State Laboratory of Natural History, I have spent some little time in the examination of these scarlet and ellipsoid oaks as they occur in northern Illinois, and I have viewed eritically such herbarium material of Q. coccinea and Q. ellipsoidalis as I have been able to see in herbaria, with the result of finding it impossible to recognize the former species in the region in which the latter occurs ;—what has passed for Q. coccinea west of Lake Michigan and north of, say, the lower Wabash river and the granite mountains about Bismarck, Missouri, being either so-called in the broader and older sense in which even Q. velutina has passed for a variety of Q. coccinea, or with reference to the rounder-fruited form of Q. ellipsoidalis. While Quercus ellipsoidalis seems to be limited on the east by Lake Michigan, and on the north by Lake Superior, its range to the west is not closely fixed; and, particularly, I have had difficulty in finding any reason for its abrupt cessation in the south. So far as evidence has been pro- curable, it does not occur on or to the south of a line con- necting Kankakee, LaSalle, and Rock Island, in Illinois. On the other hand, it is present in quantity about Glen- wood and Thornton, south of Chicago, occurs sparingly in ~ the vicinity of Joliet, is abundant on the Fox River about Aurora, in the neighborhood of Samonauk, and around Dixon, and it crosses the Mississippi river somewhere near Fulton, Illinois, and Clinton, Iowa. North of this, it is found everywhere where oaks occur. No connection is apparent between the southern term- ination of its range and the soil belts or glacier limits rec- ognized in Illinois, and as yet it has not been found to follow the larger streams, though its abundance on the upper Rock River would lead one to suspect that further search may reveal its presence as far south as Rock Island,—where, however, I have been unable to find it. Though I have seen no specimens from the upper penin- sula of Michigan, it is evidently this species that Farwell* reports as there becoming a large tree in the valleys but reduced to a bushy shrub or small scraggy tree along rock ledges, under the name Q. rubra borealis. *Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 6:206, 1904. 112 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Though not distinguished by a common name near the — limits of its range, it appears to be known in northwestern Illinois as jack oak,—occasionally varied into black jack, — though not through confusion with the true black jack, Q. marilandica. It isa tree of the timber fringe along water courses in the flat prairie region, forms an abundant constituent of similar belts flanking the more northern rivers, and enters into the “oak openings” that are charac- teristic of the rolling prairies of Wisconsin. This jack oak is a tree which closely resembles the black oak (pl. 139), and, like the black oak, it holds its dried foliage far into the winter, so that from a distance individ- uals of these species may be picked out then when in groves that contain a good deal of red oak. Though on the sandy soil in its type locality it does not become very large, and may fruit when scarcely ten feet high, it reaches a height of sixty feet or more, with a trunk diameter of nearly three feet, on the rich land in western Illinois, as about Morri- son. More finely and densely branched than the red oak usually is, in this respect resembling the pin oak and black oak, it is less percurrent than the pin oak usually becomes, and. like the black oak and the pin oak it has more glossy foliage than the red oak, and its leaves (pl. 141) are varying and prevailingly as deeply cut as those of the pin oak or of the very variable black oak. In external bark characters (pl. 140),it stands between the red oak and the black oak. ‘Some trees have a smoother trunk than most red oaks, but others are quite as rough as even any of the associated black oak trees. Its inner bark lacks the characteristic yellow coloration of that of the black oak. As Oersted insisted long ago, and as I have shown for our black oaks collectively,* and Miss Cobb for our eastern white oaks,+ the mature buds of oaks afford fairly depend- able specific characters. In this respect, Quercus ellip- soidalis stands out distinctly among the oaks that it occurs with (pl. 143). Quercus palustris, which barely enters its range from the south, is readily known by its rather small conical glabrous brown buds; Q. maxima by its much larger equally glabrous red-brown buds; and Q). velutina by its still larger often 5-angled or 5-grooved *Proc. Amer. Philosoph. Soc, 51 :167-171. pl. 10-13. 7Proc. Amer. Philosoph. Soc, 54165-174. pl. 4-6, cs Peet o Pe a Mea Sen em 8 ie) Oa si eis ies ie Cra te ke Oey Pe aS SES oe cathy Se PAPERS ON BOTANY 113 yery hairy buds. The jack oak has buds more nearly like those of the eastern scarlet oak though smaller,—distinetly smaller and usually blunter than those of the black oak and, like those of Q. coccinea, different from those of the red and pin oaks in being more or less silky pubescent. This is a character that varies somewhat in the scarlet oak. In Q. ellipsoidalis there is still greater variability, for some trees have nearly glabrous buds, and others dis- tinctly canescent buds. One of the earliest students of bud characters in this country, Dr. Brendel of Peoria, for whom what we now know as Quercus velutina represented the scarlet oak, recordsi that after coming to believe that he had found a dependable character for this in its large pubescent angular buds his faith in this mark was shaken by finding that the coccinea of northern Illinois has round and smaller buds more like those of the red oak,—this of course referring to the ellipsoidalis aggregate of forms, shortly afterward differentiated though not separated from coccinea by Vasey. Though the extremes under which the acorns of Quercus ellipsoidalis occur pass into one another so that the recog- nition of forms based on them is scarcely more than a con- venient way of ensuring their reference to this alliance, the fruit of a given tree is fairly uniform: and in this respect the trees will probably be found to breed true. Whether this is equally likely for the different foliage forms seems questionable: but this has never been tested, so far as I know, for either this species or the still more variable black oak. As yet, I have been unable to correlate the bark, bud, foliage, and fruit differences that have been observed, so that for the present it seems possible to differentiate the forms only on the following characters :— Leaves broadly elliptic, regularly pinnatifid. Cup more or less turbinate, not dilated much beyond the diameter of the acorn. Acorn elongated, about in the ratio of 2:3. Seales of cup not incurved, Q. ellipsoidalis Hill. Scales incurved about the acorn, f. incurva Trel, Acorn broadly ovoid, about in the ration of 3:4. f. intermedia Vasey. Acorn subglobose. f. depressa Vasey. tAmer, Naturalist 4:248, 1870. 114 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Cup dilated saucer-shaped, abruptly constricted _about the acorn. f. coronata Vasey. Leaves obovate-oblong, irregularly lobed or incised. f. heterophylla Trel. So far as I know, each of the fruit forms (pl. 142) may be expected wherever the species occurs, though the depressa and coronata forms are less frequent than those with the more typical elongated acorns or narrow cups. The heterophyllous aberrant, comparable with forms offered by many other species of oak, has been collected at Spooner Lake, Wisconsin, (Miss Ruth Marshall), and in Clayton County, Iowa (Pammel). The synthetic characters of Quercus ellipsoidalis have led to the supposition that one or more of the forms or individuals that are here called by this name may be really of hybrid origin between Quercus palustris, Q. coc- cinea, Q. velutina,—which is meant sometimes when the name Q. coccinea is used in the former broad sense, and possibly Q. maxima. The tree which Mr. Hill considered to be a hybrid of palustris and coccinea before he dis- tinguished his own species, as is noted on one of the sheets representing it was considered subsequently to be rather a cross between palustris and ellipsoidalis itself; but I should say that it is merely a form of the latter. Though of restricted range, for an oak, this species is too abun- dant in its region, and too distinct from its congeners, to be considered as of a different nature from these notwith- standing a greater variety in fruit and buds than any of them shows except Q. velutina. On the other hand, there is no reason to suppose that it may not cross with one or more of these species, and as it becomes better known in individual trees such hybrids are very likely to be discov- ered. Specimens that suggest such an origin are one from Kil- _bourn, Wisconsin, collected by Miss Marshall in August, 1916, which in leaf and fruit is scarcely more than the less- lobed form of velutina though as yet with relatively small buds for the black oak; and an eight-foot bushy tree in the sands of Chicago which Dr. Pepoon collected in September, 1916. Though the acorns of this are more persistently downy than is usual in ellipsoidalis and its buds are un- - PAPERS ON BOTANY ALS usually large and hairy, the foliage and fruiting cups are as they should be in ellipsoidalis. So far as I can see now, therefore, Miss Marshall’s tree must be taken for velutina and Dr. Pepoon’s for ellipsoidalis. On the other hand, among the many specimens collected by Mr. Bebb about Fountaindale are three sheets in the Field Museum which really appears to represent a hybrid. _ Their leaves are of the hard texture, moderate size and rather rounded outline with deep open sinuses that are frequently found in Q. coccinea, and they are glabrous except for axillary domatia beneath. The rather large fruit, with acorns 15 mm., and cups over 20 mm. in> Distribution of Jack Oak diameter, might pass for that of coccinea. But the buds, much larger than in ellipsoidalis (as much as 3X7 mm.) though not larger than in coccinea, are rusty-hairy as in velutina as in which they may be somewhat prismatic, thus differing from ellipsoidalis and the related but not associ- ated coccinea. For this hybrid, represented by sheets 5766 (Bebb, 16), 6129 (Bebb, 47, “Westfield Woods”) and 204583, in the herbarium of the Field Museum, I have pro- posed* the name XQ. palaeolithicola. Specimens that I have examined show the distribution of Quercus ellipsoidalis in its various forms to be as indi- cated on the accompanyig sketch-map and in the following tabulation :— *Proc, Amer. Philosoph. Soc, 56: 50, pl, 1. 1917. By Sea NADA ees es ae pr ied > ett Da a ae Beet TARE: es ) cia Me aY 116 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF a RA Minnesota :—Cass Goan Ballard, 1893). Crow | Wing County, (Sargent, 1882). Hennepin County ( Engel- mann, 1878; Mearns, 617; Sargent, 1882; Sandberg, 1890; Schuette; Sheldon, 1895; Waggoner, 1916). Wisconsin :—Bayfield County (Gillman, 1876). Forest County (Johnson, 1814). Washburn County (Miss Mar- shall, 1916). Oneida County (Roth, 1897). Marinette County (Shuette). Kewaunee County (Shuette). St. | Croix Co. (Miss Mulford, 1686). Brown Co. (Schuette).— Waupaca Co. (Garesche, 1907). Winnebago Co. (Keller- man, 1878). Juneau Co. (Mearns, 620). Sauk Co. (Miss a Marshall, 1916). Dane Co. (Denniston & Davis, 5, 6, 8, 9, | 12}. Milwaukee Co. (Lapham,—as “Q. palustris”). 1 Iowa:—Fayette Co. (Fink, 513, 515; Gardner, 335). Mitchell Co. (Mrs. Tuttle). Black Hawk Co. (Hitchcock, i 1889). Hardin Co. (Pammel, Hume & Fitz, 1605, 1609). i Boone Co. (Pammel, 1809). Story Co. (Pammel if Ashe, 1836, 1838). Jackson Co. (Lazell, 1916). Clinton Co. (Butler, 1878). “N. E. Iowa” (Schultz). Illinois:—Jo Daviess Co. (Pepoon, 62; Umbach, 1896). Stephenson Co. (Trelease, 1916). Whiteside Co. (Tre- lease, 1617-8-9). Lee Co. (Trelease, 1916). Ogle Co. (Terry, 1907). Winnebago Co. (Bebb, 1870, 1, 4, 5-10, 12- 14, 17-20, 48-5, 47-52, 54; Miss Marshall, 1916). McHenry Co. probably about Ringwood (Vasey, “TMinois”, 1862, 1, 3, 6, 9, 15, 16, 18). Lake Co. (Engelmann, 1882; Gates, 2981 : Sherf, 1893, 1912). Cook Co. (Calkins, 229: Mrs. ‘Chase, 46, 55, 61, 749, 752-4, 1003-5, 1007, 1018-1022, 1515-6) ; Hill, 129/91, 134/91, 26/92, 104/92, 134/2/94, 150/95, 151/95, 152/95, 152a/95, 166/95, 167/95, 168/95, 169/95, 172/95, 173/95, 174/95, 175/96, 64/96, 73- 76/96, 84/96, 85/96, 86/96, 91/96, 93/96, 94/96, 98/96, 173/96, 329/98, 330/98, 19/99, 237/99, 85/199, 7/02; Smith, 1802, 1902; 1912 - Trelease, 1916). ‘Will Co. (Ferris, 1916; Hill, "157/95, 158/95, 298/97, 290/97). Indiana :—Lake Co. Hammond (Hill, 134/91). Liver- pool (Hill, 333/98, 338/98). Miller (Duwesner, 1908). Glen Park (Smith, 1912). Michigan :—Ionia Co. Muir (Smith, 1-3). Washtenaw Co. Dexter (Davis, 1-8). Pe TRA y Ctrl WE Ole Ptah Su Py gn LY PUR AY) a OSLER PUL a OR a NE OPT ARAM BELOR'A Cif Ral AM TRA Maen ul PAPERS ON BOTANY 117 So far as I have been able to see, nothing very peculiar marks the ecological occurrence of Quercus ellipsoidalis. Its associates where I have found it in Illinois are the usual components of groves in the northern part of the State, and there is no evidence that it is influenced by them or influences them materially. As has been stated already, its distribution has not been connected either with evident barriers, drainage systems, or particular superficial glacial deposits. On the other hand, the south- ern limit of its occurrence in the State coincides in general with the southern limit of underlying geological strata older than the Carboniferous, and its entire known distri- © bution falls in Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian regions: but in eastern Illinois it does not reach the southern limits of the Silurian. I have no knowledge of its occurrence over these older rocks to the southeast of the Lake, for it is reported for Lake County, Indiana, only, and, so far as { know, is not found in western Ohio, which is of similar geologic age. The absence of the jack oak from this part of the ad- jacent older formations requires separate consideration, though its explanation may perhaps be sought in the vary- - ing chemical composition of the soil through the territory covered by these older outcroppings; but the failure of the tree to penetrate the Carboniferous territory, which consti- tutes the larger part of Illinois, apparently bears a very close connection with the circumstance brought to my attention by my former colleague, Dr. J. L. Rich, that the glacial drift which overlies local rocks in this region may be all but exclusively derived from rock of the immediately adjacent country.* If this conclusion be correct, the peculiar and abrupt ending of the range of the jack oak in Illinois may be due primarily to its intolerance of the iron, sulphur, magnesium, ete., with which the rocks of the coal country are charged and the presence of which is very evident in the water of this region. *Alden, Professional Paper, U. S. Geol. Survey. 34:75, 1904.—In a very extensive study of the soils of southern Wisconsin, though only 50 per cent of the drift materials were found to be of local origin in one case, the general local constituents comprised between 68 and 97 per cent in 118 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE all others—and the average of the entire series showelg about 87. per cent to have originated locally or at no great distance. If I understand my colleague, Professor T. E. Savage, correctly, his extensive studies of Champaign County do not warrant a belief that the largest part of even the very deep drift which covers central Tllinois has originated more than fifty miles away from its present position. The University of Illinois, March, 1919. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 139. Quercus ellipsoidalis. The tree from which type collections were made. Photographed near Thornton by Mr. C. F. Millspaugh in company with the author of the species. Published by permission of the Field Museum of Natural History. 140. Quercus ellipsoidalis. Representative but rather rough bark. Photographed near Thornton by Dr. C. F. Millspaugh. Published by permission of the Field Mno- seum of Natural History. 141. Quercus ellipsoidalis. Two of the many foliage forms found in the type region of Cook Co., Illinois, about one-third natural size. From specimens in the Hill herb- arium at the University of [linois. 142. Quercus ellipsoidalis. Forms of fruit: natural size. Upper row, the typical form. Second row, f. incwrva. Middle row. f.intermedia. Fourth row, f. depressa. Bot- tom row, f. coronata. 143. Above: buds of Quercus ellipsoidalis, in the upper row; Q. palustris in the center, Q. coccinea at the left, and Q. velutina at the right, in the lower row. All enlarged 4 diameters. Below: Range of variability in the fruit of Q. velutina, for comparison with the range in ellipsoidalis fruit. All of natural size. t r Pp 5 . oe | m4 ee ll ~ og tel a liad eee eo eee: JacK Oak (139) = nl hd bit td 'S) Bas) Lew) # Se eataner iy oy Ae et rpenre Redview eal~ 5 an same Sites = ine kK (141) JACK Oak (141) a." r ey bfig hh JACK OaK (142) JACK OAK. JACK Oak (145) STUDIES IN THE NORTH AMERICAN OPUNTIA C. Z. NELSON, GALESBURG. In the years of 1891 and 1892 while a student in Denver, Colo., the writer became closely associated with Prof. F. BE. Seanlon and Dr. J. F. Saler. Prof. Scanlon was an assayer and mine expert of high standing while. Dr. Saler was a physician and chemist. Both of them were also good botanists. During the summers of 1891 to 1895 we visited and camped in several localities in Colorado, Ari- zona and New Mexico. In 1896 I returned to Illinois, maintaining regular correspondence with my former chums. In 1900 both of them made itineries into Mexico in the interest of different mining concerns and in their travels collected much botanical material which was sent to me to care for and to identify. Unfortunately the activity of my friends was of short duration. Mr. Scanlon succumbing to some form of fever in the State of Oaxaco, April 3, 1902, and Saler was last heard from in Cerco Blanco, Chile, June 9, 1903. Among other important correspondents the writer has been much aided with material and data by Prof. Macken- sen, San Antonia, Texas; Dr. Forrest Shreve, Tucson, Arizona; Jesus Gonzales, Paras, Mexico; J. E. Brown, Sanborn, Kans.; B. R. Russell, San Saba, Texas; L. B. Childs, Boerne, Texas, and Pacific Grove, Calif.; F. H. Young, Haines City, Fla.; Ella Huber, Ybor City, Fla., and scores of others. From the plants received the follow- ing new species have been described and published in the Galesburg Republican Register, July 20, 1915: Opuntia youngi, sp nov. Type loc: nine miles northeast of Tampa, Fla. 119 at } 4 Distribution: Extending northward probably to At- Janta, Ga. Diffuse and prostrate with young joints ascend- ing or erect. Roots fibrous. Joints moderately thick, ovate, ri obovate or circular. 4 to 6 cm. wide and 5 to 10 cm. long. — Bright green, arcoles tinged purple, tuberculate, causing the margins to become indented and undulate. Specimens dant have borne from 1 to 3 needle-like spines 5 to 20 mm. long. Variegated or gray with darker tip and base. Wool sparse, light gray bristles in pencilate tufts, dingy yellow to almost gray. Flowers opening yellow shading to orange with brownish center. Fruit long pyriform with shallow umbellicus. Opuntia seguina, sp nov. Type loc: Seguin, Texas. Distribution: Lococit, and surrounding country. © Prostrate, joints obovate, bright green, moderately thick. Slightly wrinkled and with elevated arcoles. 4 em. wide by 5.5 em. long. Wool not apparent. Bristles light brown. Spines 1 to commonly 2, unequal, 12 to 25 mm. long. Variegated or brown with lighter to white tips, sometimes 1 to 2 smaller secondary ones. Flowers yellow with brownish center. Fruit long clavate. 5 cm. long by 1 cm. broad, greenish purple, with few low linear tubercles and areoles bearing brown bristles, umbellicus funnel form, seed proportionally large. 3.5 mm. thick, sub-reni- form white, and slightly beaked with the small but broad border. Also frequent in loose sand south of San Antonio. Opuntia longiglochia sp noy. (Mackensen, No. 125). Type loc: San Antonia, Texas. Distribution: Lococit, and southwestward. Erect and spreading with age, often forming a dense bush 9 to 12 cm. high. Joints obovate bright glossy green 1.5 cm. long and 1 em. wide. Areoles large, filled with remarkably long, coarse and bristle-like bristles. Brown in crescent form tufts 1 mm. long. Spines 1 to commonly 2, compressed and twisted, about 4 em. long, sulphur yel- low to amber at the base. Fruit clavate, one-half inch thick and two and one-half long. Umbellicus funnel form. Flowers not in perfect condition, apparently light yellow with brownish or redish center, characterized by its remarkably long and brush-like tufts of brown bristles. yo Opuntia shreveana. sp. nov. Type loc: Tucson, Arizona. Distribution: Tucson, south and westeward. Plant 60 to 140 em. high, nearly as broad as tall with a short and somewhat definite trunk. Joints circular or broader than long. 2dm. or more. Blue green, with a _ space about the areoles and the margins deep purple or _ sometimes especially in new growth pinkish or purplish throughout. Areoles 1.5 cm. apart bearing chestnut brown bristles, usually spineless, when present usually 1 or 2, __ needle-like and chestnut brown, 2 to 4 mm. long. Flowers deep yellow, 6 to 7 em. across. Fruit purplish, short oblong with shallow umbellicus. One of our handsomest plat _ optunia material and data furnished by Forrest Shreve, _ Desert laboratory, Tucson, Arizona. Two specimens also in Mackensen’s collection without data or number, one from Haines Wells, Arizona. While other genera of the family have also been considered, the Optuna on account of their more diversified characters and more abundant distribution has furnished the best field and in addition, the following notations may be useful to future botanists who undertake their study. It was my original idea to adjust the descriptions to the more definite types of already well defined species so as to cover the frequent large quantity of near related and not sufficiently distinct types, so that the great maze of varia- tions can be definitely referred to some recognized type, and to exact a type locality where typical specimens of each species and variety accredited to the United States can be secured. The portion east of the Missippi except part of the lower regions of Florida has been fairly well canvassed and examined and the following species can be reported: Opuwutia opuntia occurs intermittently along the Atlantic coast from Rhode Island south at least to Titusville, Fla., eastward in Florida and very abundant in Polk County. O. austrina (not true to description, very much resembling O. tennispina, but always smaller and sub-prostrate) Palm Beach to Miami and inland. PR CeO Tee LL ay te eae” ie ats E> aR i _ pales 8 bab arcu sh Pew! MED CTR Ml vai iam el late Aaa a Out wl at 7 f ‘ FS Pecan ARS te thivh gor ; . sf 7 v rac i, “ary SST " - ; i 4 < 122 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE O. Tuna. Key West, Fla. - Specimens of what is supposed to be O. dillenw have — been secured from the main coast of Florida. The most — perfect by E. N. Reasoner. None show any definite differ- — ence from O. Tuna except in size. . O. pes-corvi. Sand wastes North and South Carolina, more abundant in the mountain regions in Virginia and West Virginia. This species although often resembling O. opuntia is always smaller and the older growths always prostrate. O. youngi. Sand wastes a few miles below Atlanta, Ga., to Ybor City, Fla. . O. pollardii. Coast near Biloxi, Miss. O. Traccyi. Sand wastes northward of Biloxi. One of our smallest and spineist optuna. Spines are often more than twice the length of the joint. O. humifusa. Havana, I11., and southward along the [li- nois river. Raffinesque’s type was undoubtedly from near either Quiver or Beardstown. Therefore the true type is procumbent or prostrate, with redish brown bristles, 1 to 2 strong variegated spines and 1 to 3 secondary gray ones. Flowers bright yellow. Fruit greenish or purplish on upper side, small areoles bearing short bristles, pyriform, with deep umbellicus, seed light gray. The unlimited number of variations extending from this locality westward well into California and merging into O. camanchica in the prostrate forms and O. leptocarpa in the upright forms unless well marked cannot reasonably be separated as species. Opuntia fragalis. Distribution, sterile but often moist situations, Lake Michigan to the foot-hills of eastern Colo- rado, thence southward into New Mexico, where it becomes var. brachyarthera. Northern limits extending into Can- ada southern limits; Kansas, central Iowa and southern Wisconsin. The only dry fruited species east of the Mis- sissippl. This little Opuntia is also the most widely dis- tributed and the most definite in character of any in the genus. .s x a iv : ~“Y =: : 7. % PAPERS ON BOTANY 1238 There is also a small red bristled opwntia peculiar to Ohio, which in the near future is very likely to be recog- nized as a species. Regarding the great quantity and variation in these plants in the southwest, Botanists of recent years have shown an inclination for defining every type into a species. The writer can hardly agree with either this idea or the idea of referring all near related to one species. The pre- vailing specific requirements should be adhered to in this class of plants the same as in all others. We are all familiar with the vast variations in our cultivated apple. Several types of well marked fruits; color of bark both on old trunks and twigs, also difference in color of the leaves. But they are all of one species and no Botanist would think of dividing it into as many species as there are even decided variations. Neither would we think of referring the apricot to the peach or plum on the supposition that it is a hybrid between the two. In prunus Pennsylvanica and P. serotina we have much less difference in the trees and leaves than we have in some of the forms of the apple and their specific difference is chiefly in their mode of flowering and fruiting. We would therefore suggest that by applying the same methods to the opuntia as is applied to other plants, and basing their specific status on definite characters it is no question but what these plants can be defined and under- stood as accurately as any other. As an illustration, O. leptocarpa was established by Mackensen by its fruit, still the plant itself is more definite than the fruit. Experiments by B. R. Russell, San Saba, Texas, developed that ten cuttings from the same plant produced six forms of fruit, but all the plants retained the resemblance of the parent. Many instances of confusion among recent botanists are also evident, many of which can be traced by the difference in geographical location while others can be accounted for by the difference in geological conditions. We have in Opuntia arizonica, Griffiths, C. N. H. 12 :402, 1909, wherein Dr. Rose also states that he had probably recognized this opuntia as a new species, does not occur in Arizona as described. If the specimen in the writer’s col- Are t i fe wf & pe y i “a mn Peed we ar) ILLINOIS ACADEMY. OF SCIaNCH ‘ lection and identified by Dr. Griffiths as a ad type is e rect, then the description needs amending. It is the only type that can be taken as O. arizonica,, although it is more © plentiful in New Mexico than any place in Arizona and very common in central Texas. There is also O. discata. Griffiths. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 266, 1908. Type locality also near Tucson, has proved by cultivation to be only a more glaucous and spreading form, with more circular joints than the true O. engelmannit Salm-Dyck. Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist. 6; 1850, which may be regarded as typical in the St. Ulalia mountains. A peculiar instance also is the two names of Opuntia microcar pa. O. microcarpa. Eng. Emory mil. recon. Folio 7, 1884. Reported by Emory to be abundant in the Del Norte and Gila regions, which would be in southwestern New Mexico. O. microcarpa. Schum. Gesem, Cacteen, 1899. Cul Du Sac. Haiti. It is difficult to understand Drs. Britton — and Rose’s opinion that Schumann’s name is a homonym of Engelmann’s (Smith Misc. coll. 50:522). Thorough in- vestigation evidences that no opuntia answering to Dr. Engelmann’s description exists in the given locality. Nor has any been collected and authentically reported since. Neither is there any herbarium specimen known. Engel- mann’s description was from a drawing which may not have been accurate. But even then berries three to four inches long are not small for an opuntia. O. pharacantha is the smallest opuntia in this locality and Engelmannii cyclodes the most common. Therefore if Schumann’s plant proves a good species it could retain the name and Engelmann’s name could be regarded as a nom- nudum. There also appears to be a misunderstanding in Opuntia griffithsiana. Mack. and O. Mackenseni. Rose. The descriptions of the two plants differ very little and the specimens received from Prof. Mackensen differ less. By eliminating the many indefinite characters on which many species have been based we can recognize the follow- ing as good types of the tall growing opuntia. Engel- mannii, N. W. Mexico and Ariz. (var. discata), dark green and glaucous, short almost black bristles and gray | deflexed spines. So Sie SUG AL a aa eA ea PAPERS ON BOTANY 125 Lindheimeri. New Brunsfels, Texas. South, north and westward. Bright green. Bristles and spines various but always yellow or greenish yellow. O. arizonica, Tuc- son, Arizona; eastward far into Texas. Bright green. Bristles various shades of brown. Spines yellow with col- ored base. O. occidentalis and litoralis come under the lindheimer type as does also linguiformis but are well described in other literature and quite distinct. O. chloro- tica can hardly be classed here on account of being smaller in every way. O. Toumeyi is also much smaller than O. arizonica, al- though of the same type. O. castillea Griff. Tucson, Ariz., is of the Ficus-Indica type. Dark green slightly glaucous and few spined. O. fusicanlis appears to be a variety of it with thicker and larger joints. Another peculiar incident is O. Elisiana. Griff. the only good types definitely known are those cultivated and advertised by B. R. Russell, San Saba, Texas, as his natural spineless cactus. It appears by Emory’s records that this plant also received the unpublished name of anacantha by Engelmann. From information by old set- tlers it appears that in earlier years this plant like mam- millaria lasiacantha was abundant in central Texas, and the former very likely also in New Mexico. Many reasons for their near extinction have been proposed, the most logical being that they were obliterated by the vast herds of grazing cattle. Papers on Zoology oe y ry { TORY My ik ‘ ab A MUSSEL SURVEY OF THE UPPER WATERS OF THE VERMILION RIVER WITH SPECIAL REF- ERENCE TO THE SALT FORK? By FRANK COLLINS BAKER AND FRANK SMITH, UNIVERSITY oF ILLINOIS. ABSTRACT. The study was undertaken for the purpose of ascertain- ing the distribution of the mussel fauna of the upper waters of the Vermilion River. Extensive collections were made at definite stations between Urbana and Homer Park, each station embracing a stretch of the stream measuring 500 feet or more. The water was fairly low during the 1918 season and it was possible to give the bed of the stream a most searching study. This was done either with the bare hands or with a Walker dredge for the smaller species. Thirty-two species, representing 12 genera, were ob- tained. Twenty stations were established between Urbana and Middle Fork, near Danvilie, 12 of which were between St. Joseph and Homer Park, the part of the Salt Fork most thoroughly explored. As would be expected, tne mussel fauna is the least developed in the upper part of the Salt Fork above Crystal Lake, Urbana, where but four species were found. Below the dam at Homer Park the greatest faunal development was seen, 26 species being definitely identified. The dam at this station appears to form a barrier to the migration up stream of several spe- cies, only 16 of the Homer Park mussels occurring in the stream between the dam and the neighborhood of Sidney; 10 species appear to reach their limit of upstream distri- bution below the dam. It is possible that the fish carrying the glochidia of these species are not able to pass the dam and do not occur above it. Next to the Homer Park sta- tion, the lower part of the Middle Fork, near Danville, 1 Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois, Number 14. 129 Oa Soke a a irae Le ids Ac MiLAN RE Ys oh MBN hte Ma bien aut: La be Ran, Ak an Rl M ba Aas Pee Sie ried { 130 ety a “ILLINOIS ACADEMY or rScImNCE a \ gave the next highest ater of species, 20. More? dk tended search, however, may increase the number in the Hy Middle Fork. During the investigation it was observed that the sewage — and wastes which enter the Salt Fork at Urbana, pro- ~ duced a marked effect upon the mussel fauna. In the ditch and Salt Fork above Urbana (Crystal Lake) four species” have been identified; between Urbana and the first bridge south of St. Joseph, a distance of 14 miles by the stream, __ only a broken valve of Anodonta grandis and a single valve of Quadrula undulata were found. It is fair to state, how- 4 ever, that this portion of the stream has not been as thor- oughly searched as that part below St. Joseph, and addi- , tional work may change this statement to some extent. Our = observations lead us to believe, however, that no molluscan life of the Unionidae character will be found in this part of Salt Fork. Not until a point two miles below St. Joseph is reached do we find a single living mussel, Anodon- toides ferussacianus. About a mile below the latter sta- tion the mussels become fairly abundant. In the neigh- borhood of Sidney, 20 miles by stream from Urbana, the mussel fauna assumes good proportions both in number of species and in individuals, a dozen species being recorded. The most significant observation made was the sudden break in the fauna about a mile above St. Joseph. Spoon River, which is a large branch joining Salt Fork about a mile above St. Joseph, has a mussel fauna of 12 species about a mile upstream from the junction with the Salt Fork. These gradually decrease aS we go down the Spoon River and cease altogether at or near the mouth. One must pass down the stream (the Salt Fork) for the distance of six miles before encountering a mussel fauna of comparable extent. These facts offer adequate evidence that the sewage and wastes affect the environment render- ing it unsuited to the life of these mussels. The struggle for survival is seen in the large number of empty valves no living representatives of which could be found after care- ful search. It is possible that the water is diluted enough in the spring and winter to permit the mussels to migrate up stream for a considerable distance; but the concen- trated condition of the sewage during low periods possibly kills those that venture up stream or perhaps causes them eyer, no shells wit ; sa i nvestigations and it may be that ihe na shells and ex alves found represent beds that have been killed by the wage in earlier years. It is possible for mussel shells to preserved for hundreds of years, if buried in the mud or Br i sand, and to retain the epidermis as fresh as recently liy- “ ing shells, and it is not at all impossible that these empty - ee may represent a fauna killed several years ago by © _ Detailed studies covering aael and other ae arenow in progress and additional field work will be carried on in’ i. “the fali, after which a more extensive paper will be pre- _ wie NOTES OF LIFE-HISTORIES OF ILLINOIS FISH. By T. L. HANKINSON, ICHTHYOLOGIST, ROOSEVELT WILD Lire Forest EXPERIMENT STATION, SYRACUSE, N. Y. In the progress of the field studies being made of the animal life about Charleston, Illinois, data on the life- histories of twelve species of fish have been obtained, and these will be treated in this paper together with related data obtained from literature. Little appears to be known ~ of the life-histories of the species of fish in the region, proba- bly because most of them are small and of little economic value. Of the seventy-two species found there, there are thirty-eight have apparently nothing definite published on their life-histories. About three-fifths of the 150 or more species of fish found in the whole State have their breeding habits and breeding habitats almost unknown to ichthyolo- gists, although [linois has probably had its fish fauna more thoroughly studied than any other state. Forbes and Richardson (’09) brought together the im- portant facts on the life-histories of Illinois fish, but since this work was written there have been some published contributions to this subject by Richardson (713) from the Havana region ; by Bertram Smith (’08) from Lake Forest ; by Shelford (711; ’1la; ’11b) and Hubbs (719) and Meek and Hildebrand (’10) from the region about Chicago; and by Hankinson (’10) from the Charleston region. Besides these notes from observations and investigations in the State, species represented in L[llinois have been studied outside of the State since Forbes and Richardson’s writing as shown by the following publications :— Reighard (’10) on the Horned Dace; (10a) on the pearl organs of minnows; (713; 715) on the Log Perch and some other species; (714) on the common Pike; (’20) on suckers. 132 Fie —_ me i Ba i ee PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 133 Reeves (’07) on the Rainbow Darter. Kendall and Goldsborough (’08) on the Common Sucker and on a number of other species. Kendall (710) on catfishes; (17) on pikes; (’18) on sev- eral species represented in Ilinois. Fowler (712; ’17; 17a) on many species, mostly min- nows and suckers. -Embody (’14) growth data on several species. Creveceur (’08) on Campostoma. Barker (718) on the Brook Stickleback. Jaffa (17) on the Iowa Darter. Shira (17; 17a) on the Channel Cat. Pearse, A. S., (19) on the Black Crappie. Hankinson (’08; ’20) on a number of fish in southern Michigan, also found in Illinois. Wright and Allen (713) give a table with the important facts concerning the life-histories of many common spe- cies; and Gill (’07) includes a few notes on breeding of species present in Illinois. Some life-history data is given by Johnston and Stapleton (715). In many local lists notes of value on life-histories are published. Important among these from the standpoint of Illinois ichthyology are the lists by Bensley (715), Nash (’08), Ellis (14), and Smith (07). The twelve species of fish, upon the life-histories of which the writer has obtained data through field studies chiefly in the region about Charleston, Illinois, are as fol- lows: Chub Sucker; Common Sucker; Common Red- horse: Hogsucker; Stone-roller; Blunt-nosed Minnow; Horned Dace; Silver-mouth Minnow; River Chub; Green Sunfish, Long-eared Sunfish; and Johnny Darter. These fish all breed in shallow parts of streams in this locality and during the spring. The breeding season for the two sunfish, the darter, the Blunt-nosed Minnow, and the River Chub extends into the summer. The sunfish appear to nest chiefly at this time, breeding as late as August. The Common Sucker, Stone-roller, and Horned Mel eed nt Pe ELINA) ange NE aT pa dent Str col A Re AB Le eR COCA a Waa gee Dea 1 WA oN a eka eS CaN at ea) Nie : ARAN UCR Mais) ta ME Eaeit Phra heal Wea. Ns ei 184. °—~= ors acapeMy or scrmncn Dace were found spawning in shallow water over gravelly — bottoms, in or just above riffles and always with some good retreating place like a deep pool easily accessible. Blunt- nosed Minnows, River Chubs, the two sunfish, and the Johnny Darter breed in the less rapid stream water, com- monly not far from a foot in depth, and on hard bottoms, usually stony or gravelly and with little sediment. Breeding conditions for fish in the streams of the Charleston region are very uncertain. Hard rains raise the streams rapidly and give them an intense turbidity, | which is prolonged, although the water goes down quickly and leaves them in their ordinary, sluggish condition. Dur- ing one of these brief freshets, a breeding area may have its character completely changed by the deposition of sedi- ment or rubbish, by the removal of stones, gravel, and other bottom material, and often by a marked change in depth. Many eggs of these stream breeding fish are undoubtedly destroyed, since changes of this nature frequently occur at — the principal spawning time in the spring. There is considerable difference among our fish as to the way the eggs are cared for after deposition. Some, like the Common Sucker and the Silver-mouthed Minnow, drop them on unprepared bottoms. Some spawn on selected though unprepared areas and guard the eggs there, as Miss Reeves (’07) found in the case of the Rainbow Darter, where males had “holdings” commonly about fifteen inches in diameter. Some fish, like the Stone-roller and the Horned Dace and the sunfish, make structures for their eggs, and these may be called nests. In Illinois there are at least twenty species of fish known to construct nests. Some use natural cavities and depressions for their eggs and appear to do little if any building; such is the case with the Blunt-nosed Minnow* and the Johnny Darter as _ far as observed and probably the Channel Catfish (Shira 17a) and the Tadpole Cat, Shilbeodes gyrinus (Hankin- son 708, p. 208). The streams (Map, Fig. 1) where most of the field work was done are in the southeastern part of Coles County, I1l- nois, and belong to the Wabash system. Some observations *Professor Jacob Reighard writes that breeding Blunt-nosed Minnows ob- served by him usually excavate under stones. :% He m8 Pomp . yj ¥ & oer, RA ER NA Mg. 1. a e e he o al o n a 2 o Streams near Charleston, Illinois Sm rere tae be, eae awd were made in Flat Branch, n near Humboldt, Illinois. This E is a tributary of the Kaskaskia River and hence is in the _ Mississippi drainage. Notes on each of the twelve species of fish upon which data concerning life-histories have been obtained through field studies in the region about Charleston and other parts of Coles County, Illinois, are here given. The distri- bution and relative abundance of these species in this region are treated by the writer in his paper on the Distri- bution of the Fish in the streams about Charleston, Illi- nois (Hankinson 713). Erimyzon sucetta oblongus (Mitchell), Chub Sucker. On April 10, 1910, in Cossel Creek near Mound Ceme- tery, two large Chub Suckers with tuberculate snouts were seen pulling at the stones of a piece of broad, gravelly shoal. At one time these two fishes, which were in all probability males, were seen to place themselves against the sides of one of the several smaller Chub Suckers, prob- ably females, that were associated with them. The act was very similar to the spawning act of the Common Sucker. Little appears to be known of the breeding of the Chub Sucker. It evidently spawns early in Illinois, in March and April according to Forbes and Richardson (’09, p. 82), who found fish ready to spawn at that time. Richardson (713, p. 410) found young more than an inch long in early June at Havana. Meek and Hilderbrand (710, p. "252) say that the Chub Sucker spawns in April. It evidently breeds in streams, up which it may run in spring (Fowler 06, p. 162; Wright and Allen °13, table). Catostomus commersonii (Lacepede), Common Sucker. In the early spring this species runs up small streams for spawning purposes, chiefly at night. In Kickapoo Creek, about three miles west of Charleston, I observed the spawning activities of this species on March 31, 1910. There were about twenty of these suckers poising over a clean gravelly bottom just above riffies near a deep pool (Fig. 2). Each fish was about ten inches long and very dark colored, almost black, dorsally; and the sides were jet black. They were very different in appearance from other Common Suckers associated witk them on this shoal. These were probably all or mostly females and had the ordinary coloration of the species. 136 . ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE \ : it Ae Now and then two fish, evidently males, would crowd on either side of a sombre fish, very probably a female, __ and there would follow much bodily agitation and water disturbance. This was undoubtedly the spawn- ing act and is like that described by Culbertson (’04, p. 65) and by Reighard (’20, p. 10). wets ses « pennsylvanicus DeGeer. First dorsal abdominal segment entirely black. .terricola Kirby. First dorsal abdominal segment not so colored ............-. Both second and third dorsal abdominal segments ferruginous Second and third dorsal abdominal segments not both LETT USINIOUS) pals heya eidlleh aya ove ray amet ea a eal otlo a Lae La ea aledacahaseps Ocelli just below the supra-orbital line; occiput usually domi- nantly yellow; black band between the bases of the wings more or less indistinct; fourth dorsal abdominal segment ROL TOULINOUS (elas clone ictal ane oer meget es okilobadte rufocinctus Cress. Ocelli not below the supra-orbital line; occiput usually dominantly black; black band between the bases of the wings distinct and broad, with its posterior margin usually extend- ing backward in the form of a V; fourth dorsal abdominal SESMENE)) VOMOWy veicin'h suoielatareto die ansialieterenele Seloheconavore ternarius Say. Last two dorsal abdominal segments with black pubescence dominant; corbicular fringes black...... rufocinctus Cress. Last two dorsal abdominal segments with a light ferruginous pubescence dominant; corbicular fringes with some FETLULINO US! SAUTE Yael otenc lieder ekele average teivebors frigidus F. Sm. Second dorsalabdominalsegment entirely black .impatiens Cress. Second dorsal abdominal segment not entirely black.......... First dorsal abdominal segment yellow ; second segment, except for a basal middle tawny patch, black; remaining segments black; ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital line lerl@) Srila ney ahapteteonta suis ratisttal ali cvich Late war mPeytn ie Coup toe Paes et a separatus Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored; in some species the ocelli not below the supra-orbital line...............0.. First four dorsal abdominal segments yellow; fifth and sixth segments \Dlaek yo. mat is fervidus subsp. dorsalis Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored...........e.eee0- Yellow pubescence of the pleura not extending to the bases OK) EHS | LESS lS Sasi lois Dae Sl aioe Bes ayane bot ead ape Saale Ne a Yellow pubescence ‘we the pleura, at least the meso-pleura, ex- Malar space pelle yest its width at lower margin; ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital line; first three dorsal abdominal segments mostly yellow, the remaining segments TCE ans ie iA rae ae mi N ora a Oram hay (bees AY e nevadensis Cress. Malar space not longer than its width at lower margin; ocelli not placed below the supra-orbital line, or only slightly so; first three dorsal abdominal segments not as above.......... Ocelli placed near the supra-orbital line, above the narrowest part of the vertex; malar space about as long as its width at lower margin; first two dorsal abdominal segments usually yellow, and the remaining segments black; size medium [On U2 Bia vy 27 A) aa ae A a oi aie avs baal eoliate di aia aetate perplerus Cress. Ocelli placed just below the supra-orbital line; malar space shorter than its width at lower margin; second and third dorsal abdominal segments usually with some ferruginous pubescence, but the second segment sometimes with a basal median patch of yellow pubescence, the remainder of the segment being black; size small (14-16mm.) rufocinctus Cress. 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 17 > id 10. First dorsal abdominal segment and a basal median patch of the second segment yellow, remainder of the pubescence of ney aimiamen , BIack i. S05 tks sista odessa bimaculatus Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored...............0-- Malar space longer than its width at apex; occiput usually with yellow pubescence dominant; sixth dorsal abdominal segment always black.............. Y ication vagans F. Sm. Malar space at the most not longer than its width at apex; occiput usually with dark pubescence dominating; sixth dorsal abdominal segment sometimes rusty colored at its tip dissls eps eae FEA Ae Cae tn bine Wedecte Kise ae, CHGS, JOress: Key for the Separation of the Workers of the Genus Bremus from Illinois Anterior dorsal portion of the thorax yellow; a black band between the bases of the wings; scutellum usually yellow, but sometimes completely dominated by black pubescence.... Dorsum of the thorax completely yellow, except for occasional black hairs about the center of the disk..................06. Third, fourth, fifth and sixth dorsal abdominal segments with black pubescence BS ei RUE ag ta pn ete © EP Phe ee Third, fourth, fifth and sixth dorsal abdominal segments not entirely BRIGIE tok load dois ata au dain! stares Sh ieimials ae ow ole exten were First dorsal abdominal segment with yellow pubescence; second segment brown-ferruginous, except the sides and the apical portions, which are yellow; remaining segments mainly RES is Suid Sask He Sines Oe the eeneee Pots affinis Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored............002000- Occiput bearing black pubescence, or with only a few yellow hairs intermixed; ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital line; second dorsal abdominal segment entirely yellow; medium to large size (13-22mm.).......... fraternus F. Sm.° Occiput bearing mostly yellowish pubescence; ocelli not well below the supra-orbital line: second dorsal abdominal seg- ment usually with side margins black; small size (7-14mm.) Bt aha Ngee Low 2) 5) Re ara Siete a devia a Mutgs o-aliahes weeee-- -Pufocinctus Cress. First four dorsal abdominal segments entirely yellow; fifth and Reed fae SOSITIOTIGS PHL GR os Ga banie's = aoe ale! oak a an'aja/e die idialal nis.e cm Dia rates Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored..............2-00- Occiput and face with much light yellowish pubescence: the middle anterior portion of the clypeus smooth and glossy © Bima ta stoma hate aiuiets Lise S\talaud told oe alee aa ane om ONCILIRS we ANT DE Occiput and face with black pubescence; clypeus with its middle anterior portion more or less punctate and as a rule WIGS EIOESY cr eB Sitka niente hin earl eens eae, araicto eleva eae fervidus Fabr. Second and third dorsal abdominal segments entirely yellow; first segment yellow, black or both; remaining segments black Dorsal abdominal segments not entirely so colored............ Ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital line, in the narrowest part of the front; first dorsal abdominal segment usually black; scutellum usually with yellow hairs..auricomus Robt. Ocelli placed near the supra-orbital line, above the narrowest part of the front; first dorsal abdominal segment usually black, but often with yellow hairs: scutellum usually with a strong mixture of black hairs........ pennsylvanicus DeGeer. First dorsal abdominal segment entirely black; apical segment RSE Set Ch oiare nino la eas) oan e's occlo neue more eae e terricola Wirby. First dorsal segment not so colored........ DENG ele eevee ets k Both second and third dorsal abdominal segments fermiinbieh - PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 163 19 10 11 164 13. 14. 19. 20. ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Second and third dorsal abdominal segments not both FELTUSINOUS Wis, < area eee ae SNS Se ws lpiatle'w alish states ox etete oho Teepe ena Ocelli just below the supra-orbital line; occiput usually domi- nantly yellow; black band between the bases of the wings more or less indistinct; fourth dorsal abdominal segment with ferruginous pubescence............ . rufocinctus Cress. Ocelli not placed below the supra-orbital line; occiput usually dominantly black; black band between the bases of the wings distinct and broad, with its posterior margin extending backward in the form of a V; fourth dorsal abdominal seg- ment with yellow pubescence...........seee: ternarius Say. Last two dorsal abdominal segments with black pubescence dominant; orbicular fringes black........ rufocinctus Cress. Last two dorsal abdominal segments with light ferruginous pubescence dominant, corbicular fringes with some ferru- SIN OUS UES 5 ass icing Se crsate Rete Re nie Tes oosics Se Moe ae frigidus F,.. Sm. Second dorsal abdominal segment entirely black impatiens Cress. Second dorsal abdominal segment not entirely black....... Heke First dorsal abdominal segment yellow; second segment, ex- cept for a basal medial tawny patch, black; remaining segments black; ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital LTTIO 2 rs Beaches lopsvolels wleliavolasdse iaiel Shaler alan \es set ane Rests aye separatus Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored; in some species the ocelli not below the supra-orbital line............2..cceee First four dorsal abdominal segments yellow; fifth and sixth segments: blacks Jiatcisns cise 6 eis fervidus subsp. dorsalis Cress. Dorsal abdominal segments not so colored..............- Yellow pubescence of the pleura not extending to the bases of THT LORS eisia's: stetelasele eae lerate te wpe ele reavavaltvel etsy aie cote ret sigsere Sere lereishers arenes Yellow pubescence of the pleura, at least the mesopleura, ex- tending to the, bases of the legs sai 43, 5.08 ee si aisle: olaste nlerst aes Malar space longer than its width at lower margin; ocelli placed well below the supra-orbital line; first three dorsal abdominal segments mostly yellow; the remaining segments DTACKA case ates pS rencicte lalie latlovacerecn eters ctehes aceite nevadensis Cress. Malar space not longer than its width at lower margin; ocelli not placed below the supra-orbital line or only slightly so; first three dorsal abdominal segments not as above......... ce Ocelli placed near the supra-orbital line, above the narrowest part of the vertex; malar space about as long as its width at lower margin; first two dorsal abdominal segments usually yellow, and the remaining segments black....perplerus Cress. Ocelli placed just above the supra-orbital line; malar space shorter than its width at lower margin; second and third dorsal abdominal segments usually with some ferrguinous pubescence, but the second segment sometimes with a basal middle patch of yellow pubescence, the remainder of the Seo ment Weis DlIACK A valet email arate s eiebe.lsiele rufocinctus Cress. First dorsal abdominal segment and a medial basal patch of the second segment yellow; remaining segments' black Sarai labere iota at Mei aN atond ive late le UNG eno otate aa tater eIalats bimaculatus Cress. First two dorsal abdominal segments yellow....vagans F. Sm. First dorsal abdominal segment yellow, senana segment with ferruginous and yellow pubescence...........-- affinis Cress. Key for the Separation of the Males of the Genus Psithyrus from Illinois. Yellow pubescence of the thorax extending down on the pleura 14 15 16 17 19 18 20 ro | 1802. 1802. 1805. 1852. 1884. 1903. 1912. 1914. 1915. 1916. 1917. 1918. \ PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 165 Yellow pubescence of the thorax not extending down on the pleura to the hases GE ae AHS. 66 .'ssic wc ole nid oes Bele cis a.c'eloere 3 Fourth dorsal abdominal segment bearing black pubescence Ree we stale Sat ete ol ete aria Meche aiaintel = eyurace wat altcl oy ete (aoe laboriosus Fabr. Fourth dorsal abdominal segment bearing yellow pubescence witiarntdeiete o Stee wesc a whee insularis F. Sm. (consultus Frankl.) First dorsal abdominal segment bearing mostly black pubes- cence; fifth antennal segment longer than the third segment De acct We ein Sis ciel oat aoe ointe ed a mars fora ee ears sonia wens variabilis Cress. First dorsal abdominal segment bearing mostly yellow pubes- cence; fifth antennal segment no longer than the third SSUMBET ea iardia cree cetiknta ha Sie Gio Sena 6 cle aa auein wipietolcts ashtoni Cress. Key for the Separation of the Queens of the Genus Psithyrus from Illinois. Occiput of the head bearing mostly black pubescence Sete Nae Poem ae Roe lale ata ea lbe Se Se ee a Cekale we ashtoni Cress. Occiput of the head bearing mostly yellow pubescence........ Yellow pubescence of the thorax not extending far below the Bases. Gb ERE. WEES Jiie nc ain os wtelnswis nla aS ate variabilis Cress. Yellow pubescence of the thorax extending well down on the GUE E Fae as cla actin ec whee inie oars Seis bie code bee ai a abate ee 3 Dorsum of the thorax yellow, except for occasional black hairs about the center of the disk; usually with some yellow be- EWECH “ENG (CYON = oe ac.ac nro saiaincc mre ow ah etm ara crate laboriosus Fabr. Dorsum of the thorax with more or less of an indistinct band between the bases of the wings, or a large number of black hairs about the disk; usually with a great deal of yellow pubescence on the uper half of the space between the eyes Baral e Gain nian hotels 's piu a Ca al nicl atelave Seid eeita ates insularis F. Sm. bo BIBLIOGRAPHY Latreille, P. A. Histoire naturelle, generale et particuliere des Crustaces et des Insectes. Tome 3. Paris. Latreille, P. A. Histoire naturelle des Fourmis. Paris. Panzer, G. W. F. Faunae Insectorum Germanicae. Lepeletier. Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1, p. 372. Radoszowski, O. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscow, Vol. 49. Robertson, C. Synopsis of Megachilidae and Bombinae. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. 29, pp. 176-178. Franklin, H. J. The Bombidae of the New World. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. 38, pp. 177-486., Vol. 39, pp. 73-200., pls. 1-22. Morice, F. D., and Durrant, J. H. The Authorship and First Publication of the “Jurinean Genera of Hymenoptera”. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 339-437. Sladen, F. W. L. Inquiline Bumble-Bees in British Columbia. Can. Ent., Vol. 47, p. 84. Frison, T. H. Note on the Habits of Psithyrus variabilis Cress. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc., Vol. 11, pp. 46-47. Frison, T, H. Notes on Bombidae, and on the Life History of Bombus auricomus Rott. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 10, pp. 277- 286, pls. 23, 24. Frison, T. H. Additional Notes on the Life History of Bombus auricomus Robt. Ann Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. 11, pp. 48-48, pl. 3. eg eet OC BIRD SONGS. ANNE WAKELY JACKSON, JACKSONVILLE. The most neglected of our senses is undoubtedly the sense of smell; but the next in order of neglect is probably that of hearing. Verily, we have ears and hear not. The majority of us are deaf to the more delicate and elusive sounds of everyday life. We are aware of the noises, but the subtle, musical sounds escape us. However, suscepti- bility to agreeable sounds is not a gift, but a matter of training; and it is well worth cultivating. So much pleasure and interest may be gained by a culti- vation of the listening habit that I would urge all to whom is committed the guidance of children to do their utmost to develop this habit. It is not a difficult matter. Call the child’s attention to each bell and whistle in his town or vicinity, and teach him to distinguish one from another and to name them. If he possess a musical ear he may quickly learn to determine the pitch of each one. Teach him to listen to the tones in running and falling water, in singing wires, in all the sounds made by so-called dumb animals. When his ear has become duly trained in this way he will hear the musical sounds above the noises, and a new world of enchantment will be open to him. Bird music is one of the most fascinating departments of bird study. And like all the others, it is always offering fresh delights to the student. Persons to whom the vocal sounds made by birds do not appeal as music may be divided roughly into two classes— the musically insensitive and the deaf, the latter class being the more numerous. These practically do not hear birds at all, or hear them with little or no discrimination. Having been almost deaf to bird sounds myself up to the time when I began to study them, it would ill become me to cavil at others in a like condition of insensibility. But anyone who overcomes this unnecessary limitation of the 166 PAPER SON ZOOLOGY 167 senses must wonder ever after that he could have been deaf so long in the world of delightful sounds. One’s ears are truly “unstopped” when one begins to cultivate the listening habit, To the untrained ear a bird chorus offers but a jumble of sounds, somewhat like the tangle of colors seen on the wrong side of a piece of embroidery. The trained ear dis- entangles the various sounds and sees the pattern clearly. It is a rare gift to be able to imitate bird notes. No in- strument but the human voice can do it to perfection. The musical intervals between the notes of many bird songs are often so small and indefinite that they cannot be satisfac- torily reproduced in musical notation, although attempts have been made to reproduce some of the more elusive songs. The best that can be done in such cases is merely to suggest the sound. One might think that those persons who translate bird songs and calls into human speech are highly imaginative; but the reverse is probably the case. In reality they lack the ability to think of a bird as a complete entity, apart from its merely incidental relation to human life. In this class I would not place those writers who have used phrases of our speech.as suggestive aids to the identifica- tion of bird songs. Such phrases are often a distinct help; as when Thoreau writes in his “Summer” that the country girls in Massachusetts hear the song sparrow say, ‘Maids, maids, maids, hang on your teakettle, teakettle, teakettle- ettle-ettle.” The rhythm of “Witchery, witchery, witchery” is easy to recognize in the song of the Maryland yellow- throat, as is “Cheerily, cheerily, cheer-up, cheer-up” in that of the robin, or “Drop it, drop it, Cover-it-up, cover-it-up” in the brown thrasher’s melody. Nor is it over-fanciful to name birds according to the sound of their call-notes; as the towhee (or chewink), the chickadee, the chebec, the pewee, the phoebe, etc. But with the exception of a few such callnotes, when someone tells you that such-and-such a bird always Says so-and-so you may have your doubts. Most birds have a greater variety of calls and songs than the untrained listener would imagine. I was once told that the meadowlark always said a cer- tain phrase, and that if one listened for that phrase one could not fail to recognize the bird. So I listened aceord- 168 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ingly; and it took several years of attentive listening be- fore I succeeded in hearing a meadowlark whose song remotely suggested the words given. A bird whose song can be identified easily by words which suggest its rhythm is the white-throated sparrow. In Massachusetts it is called the Peabody bird because the natives think the bird says, “I-I-Peabody, Peabody, Pea- body ;” while in Maine lumbermen declare it says, “AII- day-whittle-ing, whittle-ing.” Just over the border in Canada the same bird sings, “Swee-eet-Canada, Canada, Canada.” There is even a story to the effect that a New England farmer by the name of Peverley was in doubt one spring as to what grain to sow in a certain field. As he stood there cogitating he heard a bird sing out loud and clear, “Sow-wheat-Peverley, Peverley, Peverley, Peverley.” So he sowed wheat. (Ex. 1). The poets have done much to make bird songs real to us. I will cite but a few examples from a myriad of lovely ones. What better description of the redwinged black- bird’s song than this line from Emerson: ‘The blackbird flutes his ‘O-ka-lee!’”’ Or who can fail to see and hear the bluebird, spring’s darling, whom Lowell describes as, “Shifting his light load of song From post to post along the cheerless fence.” Or that “wise thrush” (the English counterpart of our own brown thrasher) in Browning’s ‘Home Thoughts from Abroad” : “He sings each song twice over Lest you should think he never could recapture The first fine careless rapture!” What better name for the racket made by a flock of blackbirds than a “‘wheel-barrow chorus?” Among our common birds there are quite a number who sing such clear and definite musical phrases that these may be easily transcribed in musical notation. Among these are the meadow lark, wood thrush, robin, tufted titmouse, Baltimore oriole, song sparrow, white-throated sparrow, wood-pewee, quail, chickadee, dove, our barn-yard friend, the rooster, ete. PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 169 EXAMPLES BIRD SONGS Anne Wakely Jackson ore Sparrow ee ee ig eee has a z 2 ) =i DB se] Bes “See EE. aiuir, Tess es BS ee, > 3 ~~~ Pee F_—_+ __g@ i 3? AS EO 7 a RSE PG ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 170 3 p .e) “ P M4 a. 5 ” = Lo oe 3 "S Nh Q le PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 17 In my experience the meadow lark easily heads the listin variety. I have transcribed between three and four hun- dred songs of this bird. His repertoire seems to be inex- haustible. Of course there are certain strains that one’ hears more often than others. (Ex. 2-9). Or one may hear a particular song in one key today and in another key tomorrow or next week. One may hear several variations on a particular strain. A very unusual song, because in a minor key, I heard from the same field five springs in suc- cession. There were two variations upon this theme. (Ex. 10-12). I doubt very much if any one meadow lark always sings the same strain on all occasions, as some seem to think. I have listened to one of these birds for twenty minutes, keeping it in view all the time, and have heard it sing no less than twelve different songs during that length of time. Often two birds will sing antiphon- ally, answering each other from neighboring trees. It is strange how differently bird songs affect different people. Some think the meadow lark’s song “so plaintive,” although it is rarely in a minor key. Others say that the dove and the wood pewee sound mournful and that the screech owl’s quavering song gives them the _ shivers. Sounds of the joy of life, one and all. Indeed, I frequently have conversations with screech owls and find them very good company! : The song sparrow is one of the best singers of his branch of the finch family; although his song is not easy to trans- scribe in musical notation, owing to its greater length, more varied time, and the intermixture sometimes of rather indefinite tones. This bird is much given to em- bellishments, such as grace notes. Once I heard a song sparrow do what one would reasonably suppose to be an impossibility—sound two notes at once, as though one struck two piano keys, half-tones, together. (Ex. 13-16). There is a great charm about the simple strain of the field sparrow. No matter where it is heard, the first note conjures up a vision of wide expanses of sunny meadows. The song rests the ear as a distant country view rests the eye. The starling family, to which our blackbirds, orioles, and meadow larks belong, might be called the flute singers, as their voices have a flute-like quality. The Baltimore 172 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE oriole plays the flute proper, while the meadow lark plays the piccolo. The less conspicuous orchard oriole is a sweeter singer than his brilliant cousin, his song being more connected, as well as more delicate and lyrical. It is quite difficult to transcribe. The Baltimore is a beauty, and we love to hear him when he first returns from the south. But after a time his song grows a bit wearing. It is so insistent. The flute is necessary and lovely in the orchestra; but few of us care to listen to prolonged flute practice. One does not tire of the orchard oriole’s song, however. (Ex. 17-19). The song of the robin is rollicking and clear and definite for the most part—broken up into boisterously uttered (sometimes shrieked or yelped) fragments. (Hx. 20-22). The rosebreasted grosbeak has a lovely, smooth, musical voice, like the “divine Sarah,” and its song is a delicious, melodious warble. Like its relative, the cardinal gros- beak, both male and female birds sing. Indeed, the rose- breasts are the most “advanced” birds of my acquaintance. Both parents share the duties of home-making and incuba- tion, and their young are quite the most helpless with which I have had any experience; but that is another story! However, we have in the above biological proof of the very high state of civilization the rosebreast has reached. Some give high praise to the song of the scarlet tanager, which somewhat resembles that of the robin and Balti- more oriole, though less musical than either. It hag the acrid quality of the martin’s notes. But one should not require a fine voice of a bird which, like the peacock, is so — incomparably lovely. The cardinal is one of our dearest singers. His song is as jaunty as his appearance. His most common songs are the rapidly repeated two-note phrase (the notes usually a fourth apart) and the clearly whistled “wheet-tew-tew- tew-tew” song. I once heard a cardinal sing the two-note phrase seventy times without stopping. His audience was quite out of breath long before he had finished. These two songs of the cardinal are very easy to identify, although they by no means exhaust his possibilities. He sings many variations and sometimes fools the trained listener. When in the slightest doubt about a bird song, always see your ae PAPERR ON ZOOLOGY 173 it iS) A i = ley RM & °o pm a = iS) 4 2] = fo) 4A i 4 4 I 174 Citmouse 2, 24 Cufted 30 Gowhee tr 32 a 33 Rooster PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 175 singer to make sure. It took me four years to identify one song, that of the white-crowned sparrow. Both song and bird had long been familiar to me; but it took that long to make the very necessary connection between the two. Undoubtedly the finest singer we have here is the wood thrush, a veritable prince of birds. His song is not long or elaborate, but in quality of tone it is peerless. Such clear, bell-like notes! Each short phrase of purest music the bird sings is followed by a curious sort of trill which cannot be indicated by notes and which wellnigh defies imitation. Sara Teasdale best describes the wood thrush’s song when she says: “T heard a wood thrush in the dusk Twirl three notes and make a star—” The “three notes’ (sometimes four—sometimes five) are as clear and ringing as a bell, but the “star” defies transcription. (Ex. 25). Another bird whose notes are loud and clear is the tufted titmouse, whose whistle, so it is said, has been known to foola dog. This small bird can make himself heard a long way off. (Ex. 24-5). The unpretentious song of his kins- man, the chickadee, contains but two clear notes. The chickadees are winter residents and one hears their two- note song very early in the year. Hence people come to me in January or February to announce that the pewees are back—they “heard one today!” As pewees are flycatchers, and as flies don’t usually fly so early in the season in this climate one is forced to break it to them gently that what they heard was not the call of a pewee, but the song of the chickadee. (Ex. 26-29). The callnotes of birds are always interesting, for in these they carry on their conversations and soliloquies and express their private emotions generally. The calls used to express anxiety, fear, and sorrow are very appealing. The fear call of a brown thrasher would surely melt the heart of anyone who heard it. But who hears it? That is the trouble—we don’t hear! One can often trace family relationships in callnotes, such as the blackbird’s “chack,” the redwing’s “chuck,” and the oriole’s “check.” The meadow lark and the redwing have a call of a single clear MAR Det es 176 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE note that is practically identical. The boat-tailed grackle has a rather musical call of “chur-dick” besides its numer- ous harsh squawks and calls. The rapidly repeated ground eall, or cackling sound, of the meadow lark is similar to single-note calls of the family. The callnote of the warbler family is a sharp “chick.” The native sparrows have very similar callnotes: “‘tseep” or “tseet” and a sharp, metallic “chink.” The cardinal and the rosebreast show their relationship to the finches in their calls; that of the cardinal being a sibilant “tsip”’, while the rosebreast gives a bacchanalian “hip.” The towhee is one of the most engaging of the finches, his callnote being his own name, which to some ears sounds like “chewink”, but which is very distinctly “towhee” tome. His song is charming, sounding something like the sylla- bles “tee-tew-pilla, willa, willa.” (Ex. 80-32). The robin and the blue jay have a great variety of call- notes and seem able to express whatever they wish, even to swear words! Among the robin’s calls are “quiddle, quiddle, quiddle, quiddle”’ and “quee, quee, quee, quee’’ or squee-ee— Squee-ee,” sometimes ‘‘squee-ee—squee-ee, tut, tut.” He also has a rapidly repeated “tut, tut, tut, tut, tut,” and a “kek-kek—kek-kek-kek.” The robin has a comical habit of singing his regular song for a while and then repeating it sotto voce in a high falsetto. One of the strangest of the blue jay’s calls is that which sounds like the rattling of a handful of nuts. The calls and songs of the flycatchers offer an interest- ing study; among them, the “sneeze” of the kingbird; the jolly, loud, boistrous and self-assertive calls of the great- crest, the pensive ‘‘pee-a-wee, pee-ur’ of the wood pewee, and the self-named “phoebe” and “chebec.” The woodpeckers, too, offer a fertile field for study. There is the loud “pique” of the hairy and the downy which sounds like the stone-mason’s chisel on the block. This callnote is sometimes rapidly repeated to make a kind of a song. Then there is the “perk” of the redhead, the cat-like snarl of the sapsucker and the “‘burr-rr” of the red- bellied woodpecker. The flicker, or yellowhammer, has the PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 177 greatest variety of calls and songs of any of the woodpeck- ers in our part of the country. He is especially eloquent and versatile during the season of courtship. The notes of the purple martin are very attractive. He is perhaps the most ambitious of the swallows from the standpoint of song, though the tree swallow is a close sec- ond. The aerial twittering of the chimney swift is a delight to the bird-lover. There is not much music in it, but it expresses the joy of motion. Perhaps few people know that we have a bird in this locality whose song resembles that of the far-famed European skylark. This is the horned lark, the only repre- sentative of the true larks to be found in this country. Its song is not a continuous shower of notes like that of the skylark. It is broken and fragmentary, but its notes will recall those of the skylark to one who has heard that bird beloved of poets. The catbird has not received the recognition due to its vocal abilities. Yet it is a singer of great charm and versa- tility. Its contralto song is full of variety and sweetness, and is much more often heard during the singing season than the catcall from which it derives its name. One of the most remarkable singers for its size is the kinglet. This diminutive bird pours forth a wonderfully sweet, lyrical strain. Its call is a tiny, high-pitched note. In the spring when the trees are visited by these little creatures, one would think the branches were hung with fairy bells as these tinkling notes fill the air with sparks of sound. The mouse-like little brown creeper has a funny, creaky little callnote. And when the spring days begin to grow warm it strings its callnotes together into a creaking little song. I shall barely touch upon the numerous warbler family, for that way lies madness. For the unleisured who long to put these elusive songs and birds together each spring brings on a fresh attack. A few of the warbler songs are quite distinctive and easily remembered. But these are the exceptions. There are a few birds who are especially dear to us owing to the fact that they continue to sing despite the growing heat of the summer. 178 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Among these are the house wren, the indigo bunting, — ‘ and the red-eyed vireo. One may hear these brave singers on the hottest days of the year. In a paper of this length dealing with a subject so inex- haustible, of necessity more must be left out than can be put in, and many delightful singers cannot even be men- tioned. But if I have been enabled to unlock my world of enchantment to one other, my object will be attained. My own studies have been pursued, for the most part, during my walks to and from school. Of course there have been occasional excursions to the woods and fields, and certain red-letter days of discovery never to be forgotten. There will scarcely be a day in the whole year when one may not hear a bird note. The nature lover can never be lonely out of doors with the loved voices of his brothers, the birds, greeting him by day and the faces of the friendly stars looking down at him by night. No day comes amiss. The wind is his brother and the rain his sister; and all about him are loveliness and wonder. A goodly number of birds do not exhaust their musical enthusiasm during the love season, but save a few strains to stir up happy memories later in the year. I will close with a few lines about these, SPRING EcHo. Sometimes in August birds begin to sing As though a second spring Were come to bless the year. For weeks perhaps we’ve heard but plaintive calls And hungry fledglings’ squalls To tell us they were here. Then suddenly some morning ripples out, Amid the blue jay’s shout, The dear song sparrow’s lay: And straightway we forget midsummer’s gone, And nesting cares are done, Remembering some cold day - Early in March when, wandering by the brook, From out a brambly nook Rang this same merry tune; Prophetic of the days that were to be When every bush and tree Would shelter songsters soon. And ere we have recovered from surprise, We hear from out the skies Another sound of spring: For though we do not see their azure coats, We catch the warbled notes Of bluebirds on the wing. The pewees lend their voices to the choir, And orioles, flashing fire, Contribute their flute notes. And soon, above the insect voices shrill, The air is all a-trill With music from bird throats. And when October lays upon each field Her glimmering, golden shield The meadow lark will sing A reminiscent song,—most sweet to hear In the departing year,— Last echo of the spring. “e J es S ent i 0) Oo oo ‘ oe ; ae RES See otk ‘s $ j o> 5 a Sf * * ”, co 4 iw rs em iS " hie Vue Mons 9, % Lan A Whe caleba Oe aI ae Ry D iS y , ey, * on Forestry Survey 1 Ecological Committee Report _ pis tans fu Kare ae Tama pho 6 oes =} oat. a ? eet ne BN Nae ‘" THE FOREST LANDS OF JO DAVIESS COUNTY H. S. Peroon, LAKE Virw HigH ScHoon, CHicaco, ILL. PRELIMINARY STATEMENT. Jo Daviess county, and the adjacent parts of Stephenson county on the east and Carroll county on the south, occu- pying the northwest corner of Illinois, are of great interest from several viewpoints, geological, topographical, and historical. These aspects are secondary, however, in the present paper to forest conditions, and it is with this latter © feature that we are concerned. The vital importance of the woodlands in the natural economy of any region is supposedly too well known to be more than mentioned, and yet it is plain, judging by actual practices prevailing among many of our landholders, that this importance is ignored. There yet seems to be much ignorance of the part forested areas play in the ameliora- tion of local climate, the conservation of ground-water, the vitalization of stream flow, prevention of erosion of the land, the control of floods, as harbors for bird-life, or, from the aesthetic standpoint, as adding color and beauty to the surroundings, and as a valuable resource for timber, fuel, and posts. In other, less manifest, ways their addition to the sum total of rural assets is altogether too important to be ignored in their management. THE REGION IN GENERAL. Jo Daviess county and the areas adjoining it on the east and south may be briefly characterized as a very old region, geologically speaking, that has been rejuvenated by the influence of the glacial age so as to assume in many por- tions the aspect of extreme youth. Never covered by the continental ice-cap, it was nevertheless so surrounded by this great frozen flood that its preglacial drainage lines were so modified that new ones had to be substituted, and it is these new channels of erosion that make so pronounced an impression on the beholder. 183 184 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE . The opinion largely prevails that the preglacial surface was a peneplain with old or mature valleys carrying off the surplus waters so that the damming influence of the glacial ice on the eastern margin changed the direction of flow of Apple River while at the same time the mighty waters resulting from the melting ice on all sides, but par- ticularly to the north, combined to change very strikingly the ancient aspect of the surface. We find now a multi- tude of valleys, often with precipitous slopes, and all trend- ing southwesterly towards the Mississippi River, with the exception of the upper course of Apple River, which fol- lows the preglacial axis northwest tosoutheast. The general outcome of all this battling of the erosive powers of the past is a topography exceedingly broken up into valleys, ravines, hills, ridges, and mounds, rendering a large amount of the surface too rough for cultivation. Fully twenty per cent of the entire county is thus too steep for safe agriculture; or to express it in sq. miles and acreage, 100 sq. miles or 64,000 acres are practically untillable. All of these valleys before mentioned originally had living water courses, and while many of the larger ones yet pos- sess streams of very erratic flow, most of the smaller drain- age lines carry water only in spring or at times of espe- cially heavy rains in winter and summer. This result, as will be shown more fully later, has been brought about by forest destruction; for it is the consensus of opinion among foresters that while forests do not in any way in- crease the amount or volume of water in streams, they play an important part in the fluctuation of those streams.! THE SOILs. There is no question that the ancient soil of this region was in the main the disintegrated rock of the three forma- tions that underlie the surface, viz., the Niagara, Maquo- keta shales, and Galena, more or less modified by plant growth (if any such existed in those remote ages), by wind action, and, along the valley drainage channels, by erosion. Such disintegration would have produced clays of various character, and remains of these ancient soils are in fre- quent evidence in many places where extensive weathering 1 Diminishd Flow of Rock River in Wisconsin and Illinois and its Relation to surrounding Forests, by G. F. Schwarz. Bull. 44, U. S. Forest Service, Wash- ington, D. C., 19138. FORESTRY SURVEY 185 has denuded the surface of the more recent soil additions. These clays are, as a rule, exceedingly tenacious when saturated with moisture, and almost rock-like when dry. Fortunately for the agriculturist, this class of soils rep- resents a very small per cent of the whole area, and, as intimated above, it is only on the more broken and steeper land surfaces that the peculiar characteristics of the clays are clearly pronounced. Here, almost without exception, the land is deyoted to woodland or pasture or a combina- tion of both, and so soil defects play very little part in the calculations of the farmer. LOEss. : The very large majority of Jo Daviess county soils are to be classed under the very much debated name of loess, which, in the language of the soil experts, signifies silts or silt loams. Briefly, some intelligent idea of how these soils originated may be obtained from the following visualiza- tion of a condition of the time during or following the glacial ice-cap stage in the Mississippi valley ; a tremendous melting ice-sheet to the northward, sending down by the great glacial flood river, the Mississippi, immense quanti- ties of debris of every sort resulting from the ice action; this flood of very variable volume, according to the inter- mittent character of the melting, now extending from bluff to bluff of the ancient drainage trough, and now very largely reduced, with immense flats uncovered and with- out vegetable cover, subjected to the desiccation of sun and wind. Large impounded bodies of water covered much of the peneplain and of the drainage valleys, due possibly to overflows from the glacial margin into and over the drift- less area. Prevailing westerly winds, presumably from altered climatic conditions more continuous and intense than any now existing, catching up great clouds of this desiccated and minutely comminuted soil of the exposed flats gradually losing their earth burden the farther they travelled away from the source of the soil, deposited a horizontal soil cone, or, rather, wedge, thick near the river margin and thinning to zero at an undetermined distance eastward. This mantle, covering hill, valley, mound, ridge, and every retaining surface and depositing in the great impounded waters a similar load to be modified by water action, is the “loess” of today. The thickness of this loess layer varies remarkably, due Bis in large part to the factor of later erosive extent, but is at its maximum depth along the western margin of the county, where a depth of thirty to forty feet has been re- corded. At Warren, near the eastern border of the county, a depth of ten to fifteen feet is by no means a rare occur- rence. . Among the physical characters of this loess or silt, there are several features that stand out very prominently, namely, the extreme degree of comminution as evidenced by the fineness of the soil particles, the lack of any pro- nounced, “grit”, the yellowish tint, the ability to with- stand long periods of weathering and yet continue ‘to assume almost vertical forms, the clay-like unctuousness and tenacity when wet and the angular and multitudinous lines of fracture when dried,—all these characters are more or less evident in all samples. Porosity is also marked in most varieties, giving, therefore, excellent soil drainage and at the same time retaining moisture, making this, in general, a superior crop soil. Chemically it contains, as one would expect from its origin, practically all of the elements found in the lower stratified and igneous rocks. Largely composed of silicate of alumina, it contains also appreciable amounts of iron, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, and traces of many other minerals. It very commonly effervesces with acid, indicat- ing an abundance of lime carbonate, and this presence of lime is further shown by the great luxuriance upon it of red elover, which thrives so well in a calcareous soil. An item of interest in connection with its chemical composi- tion and the consequent relation to soil fertility is the experience of those farmers living in the lead-producing area. Abandoned, filled-up mine-shafts, which are always surrounded by an area more or less loaded with the deeper soil layers, invariably become veritable oases of crop lux- uriance once the deep soil has become mixed with the original surface earth, which acts in fact better than manure because the effects are more lasting. Sort VARIETIES. From the standpoint of forest distribution, as well as that of agriculture, the soils that are of especial impor- tance are few in number, by far the larger part of the area im _ under consideration haying but one or more of four types of soil. In the order of their extent and influence on tree __ growth these soil types, are as follows: A, yellow silt loam; B, yellow-gray silt loam; C, the stony silt loam; D, brown silt loam or prairie soil; 2. black silt loam or alluvium; F,. rock soil; G, sand; H, black muck. The first four com- prise probably 90 per cent of the soils of Jo Daviess county. Suppose that we take up a brief description of these varieties of soil, in order. A Yellow Silt Loam.—They ellow silt loam is the ex- tensive soil occupying most of the elevated land and slopes down to the usually abrupt declines bordering the immedi- ate flood-plains of the streams. This soil is the chief farm- land soil, and at least 50 per cent of the forest growth is found upon it. By reason of its position it is always more or less rolling or hilly, at times even abrupt, but is every- where free from rock, usually, however, containing many flint stones of small size. B, Yellow-Gray Silt Loam.—In a general way the yellow- gray silt loam is found on the flat summit elevations of nearly all the ridges between the lines of drainage. These flat lands are commonly called “hardpan” and are notori- ous for their poor drainage. It is here that all of the ancient “buffalo wallows” are found. These are circular ponds, forty to a hundred feet in diameter and from one to three feet in depth, surrounded by a fringe of marsh, eaused by the buffalo of the early day standing in dense numbers and gradually stamping out a depression that became filled with water. These ponds were subsequently used as drinking-places and as a refuge in hot weather from the forest flies. So they were perpetuated until the farmer drained them, as nuisances from his point of view. C, Stony Loam—The stony loam occupies the steep slopes adjacent to all the larger streams, and represents the disintegrated and broken-up rock exposures, covered to a larger or smaller degree with the debris washed down from the adjacent elevated lands. The soil is usually dark and very fertile, but so full of stones of all sizes as to be > totally unfit for cultivation. It is also invariably covered with timber more or less culled of better trees and, if used at all as a farm asset, is devoted to pasturage. 188 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE D, Brown Silt Loam.—The brown silt loam forms a fringe along the northeast and east margins of the region, narrowing to the west and south. It reaches a maximum width of three miles in northeastern Jo Daviess county, but extends for a number of miles into Stephenson county to the east and Wisconsin to the north. This soil is very dark by reason of its humus content and is highly fertile and almost coextensive with the drift, extending, however, on an average about two miles beyond the western margin of the same. The portion adjacent to the drift appears to have been always prairie while that portion adjacent to ° the yellow silt loam has been invaded by forest. EL, Black Silt Loam.—(Uintonia loam of the Dubuque soil survey.) This is the fringe of alluvium along all of the more important streams, varying from zero to a mile or more in width. Always black in color and of high fertility, this soil was originally either occupied by a heavy growth of timber or by curious narrow strips of marsh grass, re- sembling small prairie areas. These grasses usually occu- pied the very wet portions of the alluvium, and almost invariably indicated a spring or water seepage. Agricul- turally this soil is the most fertile of any, but is subject always to the menace of floods. F, Rock Soil; G, Sand; H, Black Muck.—A brief para- graph will dispose of the soils above named. The rock soil (F') is represented by the outcrops of the Niagara and Galena limestone. These have a vertical separation of a hundred feet or more occupied by the shales of the Maquo- keta formation which do not outcrop at any point. Sands and sandy loams (G@) are found only in the terraces of the Mississippi River and on the adjacent bluff crown. They are particularly developed in the sand prairie, a strip from one-half to two miles wide and fifteen or more miles long occupying the southwest border of the county and present- ing in almost every feature the aspect of the arid western plains. These soils are coarse or fine in texture, according to their position, and are plainly river or dune formations. The black muck (H) soil is very limited in extent, and appears only in the bottom-lands, here and there, as un- drained areas or as “quaking bogs” of limited extent and curious physical structure. The former are usually heav- ily wooded; the latter, never wooded. FORESTRY SURVEY 189 THE FORESTED AREA. In the days before the coming of the first farmers, the wooded area of Jo Daviess county amounted to 95 per cent of the total acreage. Practically all of the open prairie land was in the extreme northeastern portion and extended asa broad belt into Stephenson county. The demands of agri- culture have continually lessened the amount of woodland until at the present time only about 15 per cent remains in timber, and even this has been depleted of all the virgin growth and thinned by successive winter chopping until the actual total amount of standing timber is not more than 5 per cent of the original stand. As examples of the extent to which deforestation has proceeded the following illustrations may be given (see maps for further particulars): Section 26, in Warren township, in 1850, in its south half, had not to exceed 20 acres of cleared land. By 1876 there were 150 acres in farm lands, while in 1918 there remained but 5 acres of thin woodland. Section 35, due south of Warren town- ship, was in 1850 all timber; today 25 acres remain. Sec- tion 2, continuing south, which is rough land adjacent toa considerable stream, and likewise all timbered originally, now has possibly 30 acres of forest. Even in an exceed- ingly broken region like Section 4, the southwest quarter of which is shown in Map 4, nearly one-half of the acreage is cleared and cultivated. That this clearing of the timbered slopes has been ex- tremely prejudicial to the best interests of conservation in all its relations, may be easily conceded after one sees the numerous gullies washed in-the slopes, effectually barring cultivation, seriously injuring pasture, causing a silting up of former clear and picturesque creeks and rivers, and ever recurring disastrous floods. One of the latter was of such magnitude that though only five miles in length, the stream, Clear Creek, running through the east half of Section 4, destroyed a stone mill-dam of seemingly inde- structible proportions and absolutely wrecked the large flouring mill. When the escaping waters had subsided, some fifteen feet of silt was found on the bed of the pond, the result of the wash of the surrounding cultivated slopes, or expressed in another form, the equivalent of one foot of eroded soil from four square miles of farm land. 190 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE While farmers of the present day are more intelligently conducting their hill farms, there yet remains much to be desired in the conservation of the steep slopes—formerly all forest, but in many cases now deforested on the assump- 4 tion that thereby much pasture is gained. And yet these — Same uncovered slopes, even without cultivation, often show great gullies started from some well-trodden cow- ‘path and now assuming very threatening proportions, so that in future years, unless controlled, they will result in wreckage of valuable farm assets. SPECIAL EXAMPLES OF FORESTED AREAS. ues 1 MAP ARBA. ia ae cal” a Qasr ras =o ING a Si Sed Pe"? SR oe std KN Vi ae 4 gee Lx ihe ae wyhdHowinG Forest AREAS SSH or WARREN JownsHiP AND| Portions Or acs & Pusn Townsnies LhAVvIESS COUNTY ECEND lS aaeae! Cy By reference to Map ie 1 the extent of the present for- est areas may be seen for the township of Warren and adjacent parts of Rush and Nora townships, covering an a Oe eee ee ee ee ee ee - ‘ mw = LIAL OZ “WAATLN] YNOLNOD LEV] WYINAD 'Nj | TAOTS WVOT LTIG MOTTA INV | TIOG HAMOUD INOSTG ! LEAVOY So =r) al he GILIA ‘KY TING “Snengy ; SNHBO) ‘HEY ATH SALVE] BANSHES oy) a GNadSYy v | avay o LON TV « WOT Heyy ately ee TTAVIN AdviJu HOW LUM 4+ cat i AYMAHS WO TA o LAND v fi “4 AOOMNOY| y ABVEDVHS y an MVO A741 o r, s | WT LIM WYO YUNG « ‘ 4 WY Tat i YWVO SB TTHI o 3 “3 | doomssyg - HAVO ALIHM Ay Jy 4 SS ae Poi z ra) 7, Faia “TTT ALNOOS SSAIAVG OF ? TAISNMO] Naa tvAA ‘Ce NOILOTS 40 / NS AL AO % IN BHU ONIMOHG zc JdVW dO UALNAD anw-T AMLvAILTAS 192 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE area of 82 square miles. Of this area three square miles, or 9.3 per cent, is in woodlands. The region occupied by prairie is also shown by shading. In this paper, the initial chapter of the complete report, three of the wooded ‘areas are dealt with in detail and each is illustrated by a special map and each concerns a particular phase of the forest problem. (For details not given here consult maps 2, 3, and 4.) One thing stands out very prominently in all of the maps shown, and that is the almost universal distribution of forest upon that portion of the surface too rough for cultivation, the wooded areas being on the streams and rough hillside slopes. There are very limited areas of really good farm land still occupied by woods. This, how- ever, emphasizes even more strongly the evident conclu- sion that not a desire for conservation but unsuitability for the growing farm crops has saved these remnants of forest from extermination. No. 2 map area illustrates what may be accomplished by permitting a stand of second-growth trees to remain prac- tically undisturbed by the woodman or by the equally dangerous grazing stock. The soil is all yellow silt loam, the exposure being in general towards the east, but with sharper slopes to north and south by reason of a forking ravine which extends almost the entire width of the woods. These secondary slopes afford excellent illustrations of the effect of topography or slope upon the distribution of tree species. The forty acres shows well hydrarch-mesophytic associations along the lower level of the ravine, xerarch- mesophytic on middle ground, and a mesotropic associa- tion on the higher portion. While there is a marked com- mingling of species, in the main the type species predom- inates. A very striking feature of this woodland is the very large number of young oak, ash, hard maple, and to a less extent hickory, elm, basswood, and ironwood trees. Many of these seedlings have reached the height of 6 to 8 feet and are evidently well started in a successful struggle to reach maturity. This shows better than any other fact the benefit to reproduction of keeping out cattle, sheep, and hogs. From this we may say that any forest land in this area will be able to perpetuate itself if properly protected Daye NL “) 4 ee ori iee ee FORESTRY SURVEY 193 from grazing animals. There is also the presence of many rare or fastidious herbaceous plants that will not endure any prolonged pasturing. Among these are the coral root, ay-blades, habenarias, showy orchis, yellow lady’s slip- per, rattlesnake plantain, shin leaf, bloodroot, drop-seed, wild ginger, bellwort, maidenhair fern, Clayton’s fern, and others equally as intolerant of “civilization” as manifested in the browsing cow and rooting swine. A more extended and careful study of the map will show well-marked topographic zones of the particular spe- cies, which we may call forest types. The high and dry summit elevations are occupied by white oak and shagbark hickory, the former almost pure stands in some places. The white oaks are 60 feet in height and from 10 to 18 inches in diameter and represent the growth of from 40 to 70 years. The original virgin white oak forest had trees from 214 to 5 feet in diameter, 80 or more feet in height, and from 300 to 350 years of age. The writer is informed by old settlers that in those days there was very little underbrush except in moist places, and that one could ride in any direction through the timber without difficulty. Mixed with the white oak in the proportion of one in fifty is the shagbark hickory, which is always a striking tree with its bark in great loose strips. This tree is a slow grower, averaging not more than a foot in diameter in 100 years. A zone or belt lower down than the white-oak-hickory zone is almost entirely occupied by an oak which the natives call pin oak or black-jack oak. Up to a few years ago this was called scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) by bot- anists, but it proves to be the Q. ellipsoidalis of Prof. Hill. By the former names, however, it will always be known to the country folks. The upper level of this zone con- tains many red oaks, white oak, red ash, and an occasional wild black cherry (Prunus scrotina). The largest of the pin oak trees are about 24 inches in diameter and about 60 years old. This particular belt is always considered good soil by the farmers. The red oaks are of the same average size and age. In patches of nearly pure growth in the “pin oak” zone the two native poplars are found, each attaining a height of 70 feet and a diameter of about 16 inches. The large toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata) is considered much more valuable than the trembling aspen (P. tremu- loides) for construction purposes. 194 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Approaching the ravines, particularly where there are abrupt slopes, a number of trees appear in rather narrow and local communities. The ironwood (Ostrya vir- giniana) seems to prefer steep north exposures and is of rare occurrence. The hard maple (Acer saccharum) is found covering an area 20 rods long by 10 rods wide on a gentle south slope of the south ravine. Basswood and white elm, butternut and black walnut occur along the lower level of the ravines, particularly the south one. The last named occupies a narrow alluvial strip. It is rather remarkable that this species, everywhere considered a sure sign of rich soil, grows normally in Jo Daviess county in two quite distinct sites, namely, on alluvium and on the slopes formed by the weathered Maquoketa shale. In each case the water content of the subsoil is large in amount. This piece of timber contains by count and ocular esti- mate, 12,000 trees of all species, each averaging one-fifth of a cord per tree, or about 250 cords for the “forty.” This is an exceedingly conservative estimate, but even this will give a stumpage value of nearly $40 per acre. As before mentioned, such land is held in high repute for farm land © and practically all of this tract could be placed under eulti- vation. Being owned by an outsider, it has so far escaped the fate of most of this sort of land and type of forest, and stands as a fine example of what such land will produce as forest crops. Estimating the average age of this stand as 60 years, each acre has, by the interest on the forest cap: ital, increased in value about 60 cents a year. A_ special use, however, of the white oak as first-class fence-post ma- terial greatly enhances the returns from that portion where white oak grows. While as cord-wood each tree is worth about $1.50, as post timber its value is about $2.50. The prevalence of white oak on the upper level is ex- plained by the fact that the soil is drier and more sterile as it approaches the border of an area of yellow-gray silt loam or “hardpan” land that lies just west of this wood- land. Everywhere this oak signifies thin soil, by which the soil expert means that it contains a small per cent of humus which results in scanty vegetation. And here our investigation harks back to the primeval white oak forest before pictured, with a small supply of humus and an absence of underbrush and rank herbaceous plants. . 1 W ro pe Becta e 4 Bag ee ago an was | oR, fe Ae Ee = . Dog a am. Pao 4 e¥ 2 4 an Bot E ; n & & | ’ a a beg bes 3 Bae E'S 4 Val i ie os pee SS sas oe 3 a So moe Gt gS, F bh a. AEE ES WOM TVG ATeod -oUcy dO ABvANNOY ESSY NV0'T L1G Wow Cer. ANY TACO, WYO"'T LTIG] BIA, BNO TY nov AIDLG Mouaynh WOT LTC STdoT aL ANOLC es S Wyo SIAOTS BWtisLNAC LNG MOTTAL S 5 wvorT L STIART HO! Ava Satie T H SONeS a7. TI] AIUATIHIPY NOLLAGIULGIC] Lago - THI OINIMOHG . 196 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE forming a closed canopy; B—an under story of young saplings or poles and of small trees such as chokecherry, plum, and crab-apple; C—the underbrush of hazel, bram- bles, dogwood, and the taller forest herbs; D—the ground- cover of sedges, grasses, herbs, and creeping vines. The better moisture conditions and the shade stimulate such growth, and this in decaying adds new richness to the soil. The junction of the east and west branches of Apple River and the adjacent square mile of territory represents what is probably the roughest bit of topography in Jo Daviess county. Nearly one-half of the area is forest-cov- ered, four of the characteristic soil types are well shown, and every possible difference in slope is found. Thus a rare opportunity is offered for correlating soil and forest types, aS well as the relation of forest types to water con- tent of soil and to deeper underlying strata. All of the area was originally timbered but most of the level land is now cultivated, while only the slopes, ravines, cliffs, bluffs, and a narrow alluvial strip along the streams are covered with timber. The higher levels have yellow- gray silt loam soil; the more gentle slopes have yellow silt loam; the steep slopes are composed entirely of stony silt loam or rock outcrops; while the narrow alluvial strip along the river is classed as black silt loam. This highly diversified topography and the attendant soil variations result in a very interesting forest flora of markedly peculiar distribution; at the same time the deep canyon, freed from all bleak winds, and having a direction such as to receive the warmest rays of the winter sun favors the presence of some rare tree species and the vigor- ous development of many others. This canyon floor of alluvium, well watered and drained, shows very fine speci- ‘mens of red, white, and cork elm, hackberry, walnut, but- ternut, red mulberry, rock maple, basswood, white ash, bur, red, white, chestnut and many other oaks, and, rarest of all, the coffee-bean (Gymnocladus dioica). Within a distance of one-half mile on a strip never more than 10 rods wide, fifty species of trees are found. (See appendix for list.) The very large walnut trees have been felled and probably two-thirds of the valley timber has been re- moved. The land, however, is practically worthless for any purpose except for tree growth. The cutting off of FORESTRY SURVEY 197 certain parts to improve the growth of pasture almost invariably results in denudation of the soil by the tre- mendous river floods, the standing timber, on the con- trary, affording complete protection. The steep slopes and even the rock exposures have a coy- ering of many species of oak, ironwood, and shagbark hickory. A few white pines, red cedars, and clumps of basswood are common. The common oak is the chestnut oak (Quercus muhlenbergu). A veritable jungle of under- growth, shrubby and herbaceous, tends to make this can- yon a botanical paradise, lessened somewhat in the esteem of many by the numerous rattlesnakes. These _ slopes, facing respectively southeast and northwest and removed but a few rods from each other, offer wonderful contrasts of xerophytic, mesotropic, and mesophytic associations. They show true xerophytic black oak, white pine, oak, hickory, xerarch-mesophytic red oak; hydrarch-mesophytic basswood, ending below in hackberry-elm, which may be called a mesotropic association. Some of the bald knobs are entirely occupied by xerophytic red cedar. These clumps are very marked and characteristic and are always practically free of other plant growth. The soil on all such knolls is from 75 to 90 per cent rock. The upper gentle slopes and the more level higher ground is almost exclusively of the white-oak-hickory type on the drier portions and pin-oak-ash on the moister ex- posures, repeating here in a large measure the condition found in the area shown on Map 2. Nearly all of this forest, however, has been cleared and the land devoted to a precarious sort of agriculture—precarious on account of the steep slopes and the attendant danger from erosion. This entire square mile should have remained in forest and ought now to be reforested. The canyon described offers a remarkable and very favorable site for a small state park, forest reserve, and fish and bird sanctuary, and it is to be hoped that the legislature of the state will see fit to take steps for a thor- ough investigation as to the suitability of this tract for such a purpose. Nearly 500 species of plants, including about 60 species of trees and as many shrubs, are here - found occupying land practically worthless for any farm purpose except pasturage and a supply of fuel and post timber. ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 198 This map on a very large scale illustrates well the inroads made on the forest area by agriculture. Also by reference to its former forest cover, it shows the marked influence of soil on types of forest growth. Beginning No. 4 Map ARBA. iw YY, _ mon | ‘ Nolawisesey XI WOT. LIS nw) vad ZHI 40 semua of La a ic &y YAILSAWAC, FE i a SEIN? Rh =Nacpesl ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE “s ij, yy, WY es J BS g Me ‘ AK 4 iz ‘ LATLS TepelLnap | Le \ UZAI ° \ a CSevoinD \ : 1 AWOL LSAN \ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ eS ‘ ‘ AaAIg OCOVSOIHD 49 mgoY Levy 204 FORESTRY SURVEY 205 imum diameter of two feet and a height of fifty to sixty feet. Lianas are abundant on the edges of the relic patches and frequently penetrate to their centers. These include bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), green briar (Smilax sp.), moonseed vine (Menispermum canadense), ‘virginia creeper (Psedera quinquefolia) and poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron). Prickly ash (Xanthoxrylum amer- icanum) and elder (Sambucus canadensis) are among the shrubs. A large part of the upland is characterized by local shallow depressions, in which the vegetation includes a considerable percentage of hydrophytic species, having swamp characteristics, such as buttressed bases. West from the city limits the land has been largely cleared, with few single trees standing, a few woodlots and occasional clumps of second growth, but the forest apparently originally extended to the slopes of the Glen- wood Beach. This beach is now occupied by the Gross Point Road with very few original trees standing and one wood lot 100 by 300 yards extending from Dempster street, southwest along the Gross Point Road. This con- sists chiefly of red or black oaks, with a few somewhat stunted white oak, and has the appearance of a typical sand-ridge formation. Westward to the Chicago river the substratum is composed of irregularly placed sand bars with swales and swampy spots interspersed but practi- cally none of the forest remains, until within one-fourth or one-eighth of a mile of the river. The outlines of the forest along the river are indicated on the map and it is all included in the Cook County Forest Preserve. The east and west branches of the north branch of the Chicago river enter the township in sections 7 and 8 and unite in the northwest corner of section 17. Contrary to the representation of the U. 8. Geological Survey topo- graphical map, the east branch is twice the size of the west. The Glenview Golf Course occupies the triangle between the two branches and only a few bits of forest remain on its grounds. North of Church street the forest has been cleared west of the river and no evidence was secured as to its original western limit. South of Church street there are patches which have been more or less pastured as far west as the line of the Chicago, Milwaukee Prcabeo ae Ne stain arr a WEN Ace be a) Pe DRY Qa aE a " y AN PS ay (Pry, ‘ 206 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and St. Paul Railroad, with isolated trees even beyond that line. The river flows on a flood plain ten to fifteen feet below the upland and from one-eighth to one-fourth of a mile in width. The upland forest consists of white oak (Quercus alba), hard maple (Acer saccharum), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), and white ash (Fraxinus americana), with an abrupt change on the flood plain to white and slippery elms (Ulmus americana and Ulmus fulva), soft maple basswood (Tilia americana), white ash (Fraxinus ameri- cana), with ironwood (Ostrya virginiana), water beech (Carpinus caroliniana) and characteristic flood plain undergrowth. The region surveyed includes a little over nine square miles, of which about 700 acres still bear original forest trees. Of this 700 acres, about 80 acres may be classed as primitive forest, 500 acres as open pastured forest, 100 acres as very open pastured forest and woodlots, and 20 acres primitive flood plain forest. So far there has been no attempt to correlate the forest growth with soil condi- tions, as the soil map of Cook county has not yet been pub- lished and there has been no opportunity of studying the unpublished data. This region differs somewhat from the others so far studied in that it adjoins a large city, but it offers some interesting forest situations on that account. First, it shows the value of forest trees as a factor in city land- scaping. The Lincoln wood portion of Evanston derives a large part of its charm from the presence of the forest trees which have been preserved as far as consistent with the mechanical necessities of laying out streets and build- ing houses. Secondly, it shows the possibility of presery- ing small patches of forest in city parks and for woodlots in the midst of farms and truck gardens. Thirdly, it affords the opportunity for preserving original patches of forest in a Forest Preserve. It also emphasizes the ques- tion of the proper preservation of the forest on this pre- serve, where the demand for picnic grounds, as well as for pasturing, as an economic measure is already being strongly pushed. Such uses prevent reproduction of the forest and if persisted in will result not only in failure to preserve the original forest conditions, but also the inevit- able ee ae bade om fie forest itself. This ean By only be met by artificial planting, which will probably include foreign species which too often will be foreign 18 Bo Pictdtvinad ecological environment. While of course some — * of the forest preserve should be used for such purposes, - om other areas should be definitely set apart for preservation — 2 : Te as nearly the original condition as is humanly he peer ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF FORESTS IN THE VICINITY OF GLENCOE, ILLINOIS. HAZEL M. SCHMOLL, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. INTRODUCTION. The ecological survey of the forests in the vicinity of Glencoe is a portion of the Cook County Forestry Survey, which was made under the direction of Dr. Henry C. Cowles, of the University of Chicago, between October, 1918, and January, 1919. The great number of plant associations represented in the vicinity of Glencoe may be attributed primarily to the topographical diversity of the region. The lowland, the upland, the lake bluff, and the ravines each included vary- ing numbers of plant associations, which were determined, not only by topographical relations, but also by the varia- tion in number and combination of certain physical factors which were peculiar to each area. This complex of factors enabled the tracing of both the hydrarch and the xerarch successions from their initial stages to their mesophytic climax. The forest area is larger, and the forest areas that are being allowed to reproduce themselves naturally are larger than one would suspect in a region which is so thickly settled. The northeast quarter section of land in Section 1 of New Trier Township, which is the Forest Preserve tract, that was recently purchased from W. J. Turnbull, is the largest continuous forest area in this region. A definite terminology has been suggested by Dr. Cowles, for locating specific areas within a section of a township. For field study each section is divided up into sixteen forty- acre plots, or “forties”, these being lettered alphabetically from A to P, as shown in Figure 1. Any “forty” can then be referred to by letter, as for example A, which designates the “forty” in the northeast corner of Section 1, New Trier 208 FORESTRY SURVEY 209 N.T., we would have N. T.1, A. By numbering the 64 ten- acre plots as shown in Fig. 1, any ten-acre plot of the 64 can be designated by using the plot number after the proper 4 capital letter, as for example N. T. 7, A 16. I. GEOGRAPHY. Glencoe is situated about sixteen miles north and west of Chicago. The particular area studied is the northern part of New Trier Township, which lies east of R. 12 E. and north of T. 42 N., and includes the following sections and parts of sections: N. T. 1 and 6, a very small portion of N. T. 5, the northern half of 7 and the portion of N. T. 8 not washed away by Lake Michigan. The boundary of this area is the Cook-Lake county line on the north, Lake Michigan to the east, South Avenue, Glencoe, on the south ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 210 1v4man > ANIAVE WK v ee Oh JIUAW T= SAHNI -3IWIS JO laVd NUYSHLUON SONIMOHS AOONATS i AN “RAN SS SS ie AN BEINGS : se ROAR \ IN QV : NESS Soh N ZINA, SOS ie S £ INlAva voy WESSSSS K To Stee aS TJ \\ ) are » SK Ss ! S ‘S SS PAN oH *' it ce \ Si — rr sro — PR N X. Yabve 40707144 SN2439NH SSS oa = uO sedhy }8havphned ees eppiosdine saou2. cod Se Andoc aH eve BSS per vwabiacnuixoagy FH DILAHdOSAW-OYGAH FH PUVMNIIWD P14] WASPS IZDy OLLAHdOSaV- HVAT: SNIAVa XY DpAo vhinz J TILANAOS AW-HOBVYIX W GNV71dn N qnaus- ¢nyd.0, weal TE SILANdOUIN BE 4anmid FVVT ES €NOLLVIOOSSY HOUVUAxX eos ig Sh: ‘s 7 Heh x lige =t \ A Ad FORESTRY SURVEY 211 and Northfield Township and the northeast quarter of Section 12, New Trier Township to the west. (See Fig. 2.) Section 1 of Northfield Township is incorporated in New Trier Township, hence, since there is no Section 1 of ; New Trier Township, Northfield 1 will be designated as : New Trier 1. The map of Glencoe recently made by Windes and Marsh has been used in this survey. The dotted line to the east of this area, as seen in Fig. 2A, repre- sents the topography as mapped by the State Geological Survey of the State of Illinois many years ago. Il. PHYSIOGRAPHY. A. Geology. This area lies at about the center of what the geologist calls the “Evanston-Waukegan” region. It includes the depression and the ridge at the most easterly edge of the Valparaiso moraine. At this point it is composed of un- stratified glacial drift over-lying Niagara limestone. This drift is made up of a heterogeneous mixture of material which is comprised of clay, sand, gravel, unweathered pieces of rock, pebbles, cobblestones, and boulders. B. Physical Geography. The glacial drift forms a ridge (discussed as the up- land) which is from a mile to a mile and a quarter in width; which extends in a northwest and southeast direc- tion paralleling Lake Michigan; and which is from sixty to eighty feet above the lake level. The glacial origin and soil composition of the region account for the elevations and depressions of both the upland and the lowland. The slope of.the ridge facing the lake is, on the whole, very steep, whereas, the slope to the lowland on the west is a very gradual one. The lowland lying parallel to the ridge is known as the Skokie Swamp. This swamp was natur- ally undrained, but the swamp is now ultimately drained by a ditch which connects the Skokie Stream with the East Fork of the North Branch of the Chicago River. 212 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CO. Topography. Both the pre-erosion and erosion types of topography are represented in this region. The former embraces the upland and its slope to the west, the lowland of the Skokie, and the stable portion of the ravines; the latter includes the eroding lake bluff, and the head and mouth of the ravines. III. PLANT SUCCESSIONS. Even the most casual survey of the region reveals how much the grouping of certain plants into associations is dependent upon the topography. The predominance of secondary forest associations, and the present state of progression or retrogression of these lowland or upland forests has been occasioned by man’s influence. The agen- cies which have done most to bring about this condition are cutting, grazing, burning and drainage. Ample illustrations of pioneer and subsequent associa- tions of both hydrarch and xerarch successions are to be found within a very narrow strip of territory extending from Lake Michigan on the east to the Skokie Stream on the west. The hydrarch succession has its best expression in the Skokie region and is well, but less completely rep- resented in the depressions of the upland; the xerarch succession was represented in the upland, the lake bluff, and the ravine. A. THE HYDRARCH SUCCESSION. 1. The Lowland-Skokie. The topography of the lowland consists of a series of slight elevations and depressions. In its natural condi- tion the lowest part of this area was an undrained swamp of considerable size. By means of an artificial drainage system, man has found it possible to reclaim large tracts of this land for agricultural purposes. a. The unforested area—The most poorly drained land of the Skokie is unforested. Here are to be found what Sherff calls the reed swamp, the meadow swamp, and the shrub associations. More than two-thirds of the western half of New Trier 1 occupies this area. (See un- ES % be Seiawer =n - ee et ‘Neuen ts Loe ee es sulin i | “hy caeemaem beet ~ ey petals MARE § "ie ee a LS Whpnak cab. chested he — ca : f . a “ s * A «) , : . - ect yf a { . ‘ * 3 : aaa vi 2 ; \ , . , . is * ‘. A » d | ha, oh) : ’ ? i | ; ‘ : ve eee pAaET? y 1 3 ' : ‘ bd . . i f . : i, ‘ - ’ 3 ; ' : 4 ‘ ‘ A : | | | | Ie % ; | | « ox 4 : J bs ; : vo , ° , ~ rd : id e * ‘ i : | ‘. r) ‘ é , 2 ) | | ; > ‘ ‘ a 2 Ms : | a Te . soy ‘ ” 7 : , _~ aes ; | » ¢ h 2 . Py 1 7 } : aN ’ | . 3 | Es ) ita * Af 4 : oi’ ; © or : - Lu 7 ‘ 4 | | sa 6 | ’ . Ml ‘ : 3 > bs . ~ * ; < a - ; : | i sr : , « FORESTRY SURVEY 213 forested area of map). The effective drainage of the swamp has, no doubt, been the chief factor in allowing the extension of the meadow swamp, which has become the hay land of this region. Sherff states that under natural conditions the shrub association would occupy an intermediate place between the swamp meadow or the reed swamp associations and the forest. Most of the shrubs and young trees bordering the Skokie have been killed by the burning over of hay land by many farmers in the late autumn. This would account for the forests rising abruptly from the reed swamp or meadow swamp associations, and also for the recent inability of the forest to encroach upon the better drained areas. A reed swamp, in an embayment from the main part of the unforested Skokie area, in N. T. 1, 10 was the only place where a complete and definite shrub association was found bordering the Skokie (See Figs. 1, 2, and map). Cornus stolonifera, Cornus amomum, Salix discolor, Salix (sp.), Sambucus canadensis and Viburnum lentago formed a definite zone between the swamp and the forest. These same shrubs were found at the north end of the island in N. T. 1, 23 and 26. b. The forested area.—The hydrarch succession of the lowland is represented by two forest associations—the hydro-mesophytic and the hydrarch mesophytie. The former association, as will be seen in Fig. 3, usually forms a zone about the shrub or swamp associations and is characteristic of the wettest part of depressions where trees will grow; the latter association is found in the bet- ter drained area adjoining the hydro-mesophytic associa- tion. This succession probably reaches its fullest expres- sion in the lowland, but it is also found in depressions of the upland. The lowland area interpreted three ecological facts very well. First, it exemplified how certain factors check the progressive development of forests toward the mesophytic climax forest of the region; second, how other factors hasten the development of pioneer associations toward the mesophytic climax forest of the region; third, how readily a forest association can be determined by the amount of available soil moisture. MMe nn zy PET ga Re REY ; Wy taht \ Perse ay \ bia 145 eae tg ing 214 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE primary factors which caused retrogression were fire, cut-_ ting and grazing. Aside from the checking of the advance of the forest upon the Skokie region, fire destroyed the dead leaves, thereby preventing the building up of the land and the development of a more mesophytic vegeta- tion. The effect of cutting varied. Where an area was clear cut, the period of recovery has been a long one. In areas where only the larger trees were removed, practi- cally the original type of forest was preserved, if the under- growth was allowed to remain. The pasturing of woods, next to clear cutting, was probably one of the most retro- gressive agencies in this region, because it prevented the reproduction of the forest. Observation seemed to indi- cate that drainage in the region of the hydrarch succession would, if done gradually, hasten the development of the forest toward the mesophitic climax. (1) Hydro-mesophytiec association.—The area_ best illustrating the hydro-mesophytic forest was the low swampy depression in N. T. 1, 13 and N. T. 1, 5 and 12. There was one large pond in N. T. 1, 13 and several small ones in N. T.1,5 and 12. It is the area to the west of this larger pond which concerns us in the study of the early phases of the hydrarch succession. The slope to the east of the pond was steep and the upland forest came to the very edge of the pond. In October there were a few inches of water in the pond and the growth of aquatic plants in it was quite dense. In the more shallow parts of the pond and toward the outer edge to the west were the reed swamp and the shrub associations. The shrubs found were those typical of undrained depressions, Cephalanthus occiden- talis, Salix discolor, Saliz (sp.), Rosa carolina and Vi- burnum lentago. These shrubs were the same as those bordering the Skokie. Immediately succeeding the shrubs and forming a border about the west edge of the pond was the forest association represented by Fraxinus nigra, and Fraxinus pennsylvanica. Continuing on the area, rising in places above the level of the swampy area, and west from these were Quercus bicolor, Ulmus americana, Frazinus americana, Quercus macrocarpa, Quercus ellip- soidalis, etc. In every case, whether it was in the depres- sions of the upland, or the lowland, these trees occurred in the same order in relation to the amount of available water. The forests in this region are all second growth. The "i | . FORESTRY SURVEY 215 The relative abundance of Quercus bicolor in the up- land, of the northern and central part of N. T. 7, and the southern part of N. T. 6, seems to indicate the previous existence of a great many depressions in this region, some of which must have been of considerable extent. This region lies in the most thickly settled portion of Glencoe. Man has filled in many of the depressions of this area; hence, one is led to suspect that the only means of deter- mining their natural existence is through a study of the older trees which comprise the forest here. Between Park Avenue and South Avenue, Railroad Avenue and Grove Street there are very few trees, but they are the largest trees, as a group, which were found in this region. They averaged twenty to twenty-four inches in diameter. There is an area of about thirty acres be tween Hazel Avenue and South Avenue in which Quercus bicolor and Quercus macrocarpa are the dominant trees. A few trees of Frarinus nigra were also found with these. Adjoining and over-lapping this area were found Ulmus americana, Frarinus americana, Quercus ellipsoidalis, Quercus rubra, Prunus serotina, Pyrus coronaria, and Acer saccharum. While Quercus macrocarpa was found abundantly in the hydro-mesophytic areas, it was also found on th mesophytic upland, but here in less abun- dance. (2) The hydrarch mesophytic association—The transi- tion from the hydro-mesophytic to the hydrarch meso- phytic forest was, in almost every instance, clearly defined. A higher elevation and a better drainage of the land in these cases accompanied the change in forest associations. In mapping the hydrarch mesophytic areas no attempt has been made to separate the hydrarch meso- phytic forest proper from the transition type, which lies between this forest and the upland hydrarch mesophytic climax forest. The extremely varied aspect of the hydrarch mesophytie forest in this region is due to the interference of man. The typical tree species in the order of their importance found in the hydrarch mesophytic woods were Quercus ellipsoidalis, Quercus macrocarpa, Carya_ cordiformis, Juglans nigra, Ulmus americana, Quercus rubra, Prunus ee ug ee eet TS“ hy 5 a. * ET SS ee ee a ee as) ee ee! ee ee 216 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE secrotina, Carya ovata, Acer saccharuwm, Populus del- toides, Tilia americana, and Quercus alba, in the upper ellipsoidalis, Quercus macrocarpa, Carya cordiformis, Crataegus (sp.), Prunus americana, Prunus nigra, and Pyrus coronaria in the lower stratum. The shrubs oceur- ring here were Hamamelis virginiana, Sambucus cana- densis, Hvonymus atropurpureus, Virburnum lentago, Vi- burnum acerifolium, Cornus stolonifera, Cornus panicul- ata, Ribes cynosbati, Ribes floridum, and Corylus ameri- cana. Among the vines present were Vitis (sp.), Smilax hispida, Celastrus scandens, Lonicera Glaucescens. Quer- cus ellipsoidalis, although variable in the abundance in which it occurs, was the most characteristic tree of this association. In places it formed pure stands. The tree in Fig. 4 is a specimen of Quercus ellipsoidalis, var. coro- naria. The stand of trees in N. T. 1, C was quite dense. Quer- cus ellipsoidalis, Quercus rubra and Ostrya virginiana were the dominant trees here. Other trees were Juglans nigra, Carya cordiformis, Tilia americana, and Fraxinus americana. There were very few specimens of shrubs in the undergrowth. Sambucus canadensis was the most abundant shrub. A few specimens of Rubus occidentalis, and Virburnum ascerifoliwm, and but one specimen of Evonymus atropurpurea were found. The _ herbaceous undergrowth represented a high type of mesophytism. Osmorhiza (sp.), and Hepatica acutiloba were taken as the mesophytic indicators. The entire forest in N. T. 1, C had been cut over. It seemed obvious that only the larger trees in N. T. 1, 12 had been cut out, for trees from eight to twelve inches in diameter were abundant. The smaller trees of from two to six inches in diameter were of the upland mesophytic type. This upland type was represented by Quercus alba, Carya ovata, and Acer saccharum. Except for these lat- ter trees the forest was not reproducing itself. The forest in N. T. 1, 11 had evidently been more re- cently and more thoroughly cut over. Aside from a very few trees which were from eight to sixteen inches in diam- eter, the trees were only from one to six inches in diam- eter. Fig. —~ «' = -— < S & aa i> oe FORESTRY SURVEY 217 ; The hydrarch mesophytic forests in N. T. 1, D and E differed in aspect considerably from those in N. T. 1, C. This difference was not due entirely to the presence of a few additional tree species, but to the abundance and more varied representation of growth forms, i. e., trees, shrubs, vines and herbs. Except for a few large trees, about two feet in diameter, and mostly all of which were elms, at the very edge of this type of forest, the trees were practically all less than six inches in diameter. Along the edge of the forest bordering the Skokie swamp in N. T. 1, 10 the dominant tree was Populus grandidentata. It and Populus tremuloides were found, although less abundantly, at the edge of the forest where- ever it bordered the Skokie. The shrubs and vines found here were the same as those enumerated above. The islands in N. T. 1, D and E of the Skokie were of special interest. The first problem which confronts one is, why, or how can forests exist in these places which are somewhat isolated from the main forest body; the second, how does the vegetation compare with that of the main forest. First, it was found that these islands were areas that were slightly elevated above the surrounding swamp, and that the density of the vegetation indicated continued rise of the land due to the accumulation of humus. Sec- ond, the upper stratum of trees was the same as that in the main forest, but the dominant members of the lower strat- um of trees in general were of a more xerophytic type than those found in the larger forests. Populus tremu- loides, a northern outlier and xerophyte, was abundant along the more exposed western edge of the islands as well _as along this edge of the main forest. The island in N. T. 1, 23 and 26 merged gently from the reed swamp of the Skokie at its northern end, and rose to a height of a couple of feet above it at the southern end. The reed swamp association at the north end of the island was followed by the orthodox shrub association to the south, and was succeeded in that same direction by trees of the hydro-mesophytic association to about the center of the island, and then by those of the hydrarch mesophytic association at the southern part of the island. With the exception of a few large trees of Ulmus ameri- cana, about two feet in diameter, at the northern end of 218 “ILLINOIS “ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. the island, all of the ante were small, probably avera about four inches in diameter. Fraxinus nigra has developed as coppice, and Quercus bicolor occurs as a_ small tree. These were the three dominant tree species — comprising the hydro-mesophytic association. Quercus — ellipsoidalis was the dominant tree of the more meso- ~ phytic portion of the island. The pioneer xerophyte, — Pyrus coronaria, was the most abundant member of the } trees in the lower stratum. The extremely dense under- erowth is comprised largely of the trees of the lower © stratum, and vines. The latter were represented by all of — the different species noted in the plant list for the _ hydrarch mesophytic association. The herbaceous under- — erowth indicated a high degree of mesophytism. ta The island in N. T. 1, 8 presented an entirely different — aspect from the one in N. T. 1, 23 and 26. It was elevated somewhat higher above the Skokie than the one just de- scribed. The cutting here had evidently been more severe, because there were no large trees on the entire island. The dominant vegetation was shrubs. These formed almost a pure stand, entirely excluding trees from the northern end of the island. Rhus typhina.and Rhus glabra oecu- pied a narrow zone to the north and west end of the island. The remainder of the island was covered with a thicket of Corylus americana and Hamamelis virginiana about 12 feet in height which was almost impenetrable. Of these two Corylus americana was the most abundant. Shrubs fewer in number and importance found near the edge of this mass were Rosa (sp.), Rubus occidentalis and Physo- carpus opwlifolius. The tree species listed were Quercus ellipsoidalis, Quercus rubra, Quercus macrocarpa, Quer- cus alba, Carya ovata, Populus tremuloides, Populus grandidentata, Prunus serotina, Orategus (sp.), and Pyrus coronaria. Qwercus alba, Carya ovata, and Pyrus coronaria were the most abundant trees. In comparing the two islands it is to be noted that the more severe cutting and the slightly higher elevation of the land in N. T. 1, 8 has evidently been the cause of the development of a more xerophytic vegetation than that found in N, T. 1, 23 and 26. Severe cutting would mean a very marked retrogression in the development of the for- est succession, which is best illustrated in the appearance of xerophytic shrubs as the pioneer vegetation. Higher = levation would mean better drainage, and hence a pro- ~ gression in the forest association which would evolve. _ Contrasting the few large trees of U/mus americana, Tilia americana, and Quercus ellipsoidalis, which were on a slightly lower part of land adjacent to the island in N. T. 1, 8, with the upland hydrarch mesophytiec trees which were dominant on the island, these conclusions regarding the retrogression of the forest by cutting and the progres- sion of associations by drainage seem justified. The small bit of hydrarch mesophytic woods in N. T. 1, 29 is of special interest, first, because it is the only place in the newly acquired forest preserve in which the native shrubs and herbs have been allowed to grow practically unmolested, and thus where the forest is replacing itself; second, because its tree population represents well the transition from the lower hydrarch mesophytic forest type to the higher upland hydrarch mesophytic type of forest. All of the trees and practically all of the shrubs enumer- ated under the typical hydrarch mesophytic forest were present here. This forest differed from the typical hydrarch mesophytic forest in having Quercus rubra and @uercus alba as the dominant tree species. Most of the trees here were quite large. They were the trees remain- ing after the removal of the larger trees from the virgin forest. The hydrarch peppreg al Sp forest northwest of Lincoln _ Avenue in N. T. 7, 9 and 27 presented quite a different aspect. It consisted almost entirely of second growth trees from eight to fourteen inches in diameter. This for- est consisted of an almost pure sand of Quercus ellipsoi- dalis. The study of the lowland forests has indicated quite clearly that the forest type is very closely associated with the moisture content of the soil. It has also illustrated how cutting, grazing and fire have caused retrogression in the development of the forest successions toward the climax mesophytie type; and how drainage may cause the hastening of hydrarch successions towards this mesophytie type of forest succession. The diagram (see Fig. 5) well illustrates the approxi- mate order in which trees were found in the hydrarch succession of the lowland. Me Ohl Eee et a Pg vr L-. ~~" =) o 4a | j= ) n & io) rH =I S| =) 4 o 4 nN Load (=) 4 < =| Lal 220 aizlydosou ayphydosow d sighydosou ayhydosaw Yyouvsply ate ee aes eee vouphy yrvsphy purjdry azhydospA y LSS Sees SaaS Fig. 5 eee Sg ee re A Ee, y ee Ta) 7 FORESTRY SURVEY 221 B. THE XERARCH SUCCESSION. The upland, the lake bluff and the ravine, which repre- sent the xerarch succession in this region, involve two types of topography—the pre-erosion, comprising the up- land, and the erosion, including the lake bluff and the ravine. The xerarch succession exhibited varying types of vegetation from the xerophytic to the mesophytic. A very close relationship was found to exist between the topography, the physical factors, and the vegetation. It was of interest to see how quickly the vegetation re- sponded to modifications of topography or the change in the combination of physical factors. The physical factors which were of greatest importance in either the progres- sion or retrogression of the development of forest associa- tions were light, temperature, soil moisture, wind and waves, gravity and instability of soil. All of these factors were operating in the case of the eroding lake bluff. The angle and direction of slope, in the case of the ravine and the lake bluff, had an important influence upon the type of vegetation represented. 1. THE UPLAND. The greater part of the entire area studied is composed of the upland mesophytic climax forest. Excluding the ravines and the depressions in the upland, the forest ex- tends from the lake bluff on the east, to the hydrarch mesophytic forest of the Skokie on the west (see map). The trees most frequently found in this mesophytic for- est association were Quercus alba and Quercus rubra. The former species was the most abundant. The other tree species in this flora were: Frarinus americana, Carya ovata, Prunus serotina, Ostrya virginiana, Quercus macro- carpa, Quercus ellipsoidalis, Acer saccharum, Acer rubrum, Tilia americana, Pyrus ioensis, Amelanchier can- rubrum, Tilia americana, Pyrus coronaria, Amelanchier canadensis, Crataegus mollis (?), Crataegus punctata, Pru- The shrub species in the order of their importance were Hamamelis virginiana, Corylus americana, Cornus pant- culata, Cornus circinata, Véburnum acerifolium, Vi- burnum dentatum, Viburnum lentago, Rubus occidentalis, Rubus allegheniensis, Sambucus canadensis, and Rosa blanda (?). Vitis (sp.) was also found, but not in great abundance. Fraxinus americana and Carya ovata were not as abundant in number of specimens as Quercus alba and Quercus rubra, but Fraxinus americana was abundant, and both Fraxinus americana and Carya ovata were widespread. Acer rubrum was quite frequent in its occurrence east of the railroad, but was found in only three places west of the railroad. In the former instance it was found usually quite near the lake; in the latter, it was for the most part in places where there was a good supply of soil moisture. It was never found in ravines. Acer saccharum was more abundant east of the tracks, and especially in the vicinity of ravines. Whenever it was found in areas where under- growth was allowed to grow, it was found reproducing itself. Acer saccharum and Tilia americana were found in similar habitats. The former was the most abundant of these two species in this region. The present condition of the forest in view of the future, as well as a knowedge of its past condition, is important to note. The upland forest in N. T. 1, A, B, G, H, which in- cludes practically all of the forest area in the new forest preserve, is one of second growth, resulting from the cut- ting out of large trees from the virgin forest. The trees here are all from seven to fourteen inches in diameter. The entire forest has been so closely pastured that all shrubs and young trees have been destroyed, so that this forest is in a static condition, or is retrogressing, so far as the nat- ural method of its replacement is concerned. The individual forest areas in N. T. 6, are not very large, but a large percentage of these are reproducing themselves. The majority of the trees were from six to twenty-four inches in diameter. There were practically no areas in which there had been recent cutting. The woods of this entire region, which most nearly approxi- mated the virgin forest, was east of Sheridan Road and north and south of Ravine 4 (Newhall). (See map, N. T. 6, 34, 47, 35, 46, 50). The general aspect of this forest may be seen in Fig. 6. The trees here were the largest in this region, and were reproducing abundantly. Shrubs and herbs were profuse. In forests of this type transpira- tion and light are reduced to a minimum, moisture is in- creased, and a mesophytic undergrowth results. Hama- melis virginiana was the most abundant shrub growing in Ri eaty A ¢ 4 CA, un " o- Le A ee eS A oe arte et ist te 7 “ > _ FORESTRY SURVEY | - situations of this nature. It seemed to be a shrub that was eonfined entirely to mesophytic habitats. Of the trees of the lower stratum Ostrya virgininana was the most abun- dant. N. T. 7 lies in the more thickly settled and older part of Glencoe. Practically no undergrowth is found in the for- ests of this area. This means that the vegetation on the whole is in a static condition, so far as reproduction is eoncerned. With the exception of one area, to be men- tioned later, the forests here have all developed within the memory of the oldest inhabitants. From the number of saplings of Acer saccharum which were found in reproducing forests where the maple was found, it seemed reasonable to assume that the maple might soon be counted with oak, ash and hickory in the number and importance of specimens represented in the upland climax forest. 2. THE LAKE BLUFF. The lake bluff was represented by two topographical types, the relatively stable and the unstable clay bluff. There were all gradations between these types. The sta- bility of the soil depended largely upon the angle of the slope. Where the angle of the slope was greatest, slump- img was extreme along the face of the entire slope; where the angle of slope was more gentle, slumping was practi- cally absent. Slumping seemed to be partially due to the formation of water pockets in the soil which resulted either from freezing and thawing of water, or from the decay of vegetation (logs) buried in the soil. The severity of wave action was evidenced by the fact that beaches were either very narrow or totally absent, and by the rows of cobblestones which were left at the base of the bluff as the result of the washing away of the soil from the roots of trees and shrubs. It was the degree of erosion or slumping which seemed to determine the type of plant associations of the lake bluff. Those plant associations on the less stable part of the bluff had a decidedly xerophytic aspect. These xero- phytic associations were gradually replaced by increas- ingly more mesophytic associations on the more stable parts of the slope. The four plant associations represent- a mal he ome % io Ss her teen ae? ts ~~ Me RE a Pe, —— ¢ Notte ste Ie, = W Svea Te : . wee Te oak: 224 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. ing this sequence are (1) the Rhus association, (2) the Populus-shrub association, (3) the Juniperus-shrub as- sociation, and (4) the Upland-climax forest association. a. The Rhus association.—Since the topography and the vegetation are so closely associated it will be well to discuss the topography of the bluff first. With the excep- tion of a very small bit of lake bluff in front of the Me- Leish property in N. T. 8, S 10, the lake bluff from Park Avenue to a point just south of Dell Place was slumping badly. The amount, or even the presence of vegetation, de- pended entirely upon the degree of soil stability. In places there was no vegetation on any part of the bluff; sometimes it was scattered sparsely over its face; then again, it was confined to the upper part of the bluff. Aside from Rhus glabra and Rhus typhina, which are found in the most xerophytic parts of this association, the vegeta- tion consists primarily of plants from the Populus-shrub and the Juniperus-shrub associations. Among the scat- tered plants found here in addition to the above were Ostrya virginiana, Juniperus communis, Salia# syrticola, Corylus americana, Cornus paniculata, Populus grandi- dentata, Populus tremuloides, and saplings of Fraxinus americana and Tilia americana. A picture looking south from a point just north of Ravine 5 (see Fig. 7) shows the steep angle of the actively eroding clay bluff as it appeared eighteen years ago (1900). The photograph taken this year (1918) shows how through continued erosion and the development of a slightly wider beach in places, owing to the building of piers, the angle of slope has been lessened and the vegeta- tion of the Rhus association type has come in (see Fig. 8). b. The Populus-shrub association—The Populus- shrub association occurred where the soil of the clay bluff was in a more stable condition than that of the above. This association was best represented from a little over an eighth of a mile north of Ravine 4 (Newhall) (see map, N. T. 6, C 31) to the Cook-Lake County line. An idea of the vegetation and its more or less uniform, though rather sparse distribution over the face of the bluff may be seen in Fig. 9. The trees were small, and the shrubs formed the most conspicuous part of the vegetation. BEY, a ws 4 { F q 4 7 “we tine we bee ee Fig 10 Fig. 11 : ‘The plants taken into account in this association ere: | et rs _ Populus grandidentata, Populus tremuloides, Populus del- toides, Populus balsamifera, Ostrya virginiana, Betula alba .Pyrus coronaria,Frazrinus americana,Tilia americana, Prunus serotina, Crataegus mollis (7), Juniperus virgini- ana, Juniperus communis, Rhus typhina, Rhus glabra, — Salix glaucophylla, Salix syrticola, Cornus circinata, — Cornus stolonifera, Corylus americana, Shepherdia cana- — densis, Rhus toxicolendron, and Celastrus scandens. Pop- ulus grandidentata, Populus tremuloides and Ostrya vir- giniana were the dominant tree species. Betula alba was found sparsely scattered over the bluff but was more abundant near the mouth of ravines. Juniperus virgini- ana and Juniperus communis were generally found at the ~ base, or extending to the middle of the bluff. Upland types such as Frarinus americana and Tilia americana were very rare, but representatives occurred as saplings, and were mostly found only from the middle to the top of the bluff. e. The Juniperus-shrub association.—Fig. 10 shows | an area south of Ravine 4 (Newhall) in which evergreens are dominant. (See map, N. T. 6, 48 and 49). Juniperus virginiana, Juniperus communis and Ostrya virginiana are the most prominent and abundant plant species pres- ent. Shrubs are abundant, and practically the same species are found here as in the Populus-shrub association. The list of shrubs includes Salix syrticola, Salix glauco- phylla, Cornus circinata, Cornus paniculata, Cornus alter- nifolia, Shepherdia canadensis, Rosa blanda, Ribes cynos- bati and Hamamelis virginiana. Except for Ostrya virginiana, the trees of the angio- sperm group were not abundant. Those that were present were mostly small saplings and were confined chiefly to the upper edge of the bluff where the majority of them seemed to be encroaching from the upland. Tilia ameri- cana, Carpinus caroliniana, Quercus macrocarpa, Quercus alba, Populus grandidentata, Populus tremuloides and Frarinus americana occurred here. Hamamelis virgini- ana was found only at the upper edge of the bluff. Near the middle of the bluff was one specimen of Pinus strobus - which was about one foot in diameter and there were a few smaller white pines between the base and the middle of the bluff face. Some of these latter trees are shown in Fig. 11. wil. "I a Ad Tag he ee A AS ee PPT, a” eee oF ees Nee MEM aI SURCT oda a ab Hwa Tt te : shy Ni ks Pte « :) z } 226 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It is of more than passing interest to compare at this ry point the difference in the aspect of the clay bluff in its early stages of stabilization as studied by Dr. Cowles in 1900 (see Fig. 12), and the aspect in 1918 (see Fig. 138), and to note how rapidly the vegetation spreads over the bluff once the slope has become gentle and stabilization of soil has begun by means of vegetation. d. The upland: mesophytic climax association.—There were two places where the upland mesophytic climax for- est type was found (see map). One was north of Ravine 4 (Newhall), (see map, N. T. 6, 31 and 14); the other appears just south of Dell Place and continues south along the lake bluff. The forest to the north might well represent a typical primaeval mesophytic forest. Fig. 14 shows the gentle angle of slope and how complete the stabilization has become, owing to the dense growth of vegetation. Most of the trees were large, i. e., eight to twenty inches in diameter. All the shrub species were very abundant, in fact, they together with the numerous saplings formed an almost impenetrable thicket. The remnants of herbaceous vegetation together with the species represented in the other life forms indicated a high degree of mesophytism. Quercus rubra, Fraxinus americana and Ostrya virginiana were the dominant species here. Associated with these trees were Quercus alba, Quercus macrocarpa, Quercus ellipsoidalis, Tilia americana, Populus grandidentata, Populus deltoides, Acer saccharum, Juniperus virginiana, and one specimen of Pinus strobus. Quite large trees of Juniperus virginiana formed a border nearly twenty feet wide along the lower edge of the bluff. All of the trees recorded were reproducing abundantly. Even a sapling of Pinus strobus was found. In company with the trees were the following shrubs: Cornus stolonifera, Cornus circinata, Cornus paniculata, Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum acerifolium, Viburnum lentago, Corylus americana, and Rhus typhina. There was a luxuriant growth of lianas along the base of the bluff. Lonicera (sp.), Vitis (sp.), and Celastrus scan- dens were the ones recorded. ¥ " Se ne 4 ve ar An: . , +f ” be ‘ * 3 g a at i ’ ia be AE PE Tes oe: ti eel es eh et me ie a sees Ree ee et mie lm ge a) FORESTRY SURVEY 227 The forest to the south was quite different in aspect from the one to the north. It might more properly be called a transition forest. The vegetation at the base-of the slope consisted of species found in the Populus-shrub and the Juniperus-shrub associations. At the center of the bluff these forms overlapped the upland species of trees and shrubs. The trees here were small, and the vegetation was dense. The plant population was compara- ble to that of any upland forest. 3. THE RAVINE. All of the ravines in this region are drained by Lake Michigan. There were no ravines in the initial stages of topographical development in this territory. Of the seven ravines studied only two were in the earlier stages of development. Considered floristically, and taking the entire ravine into account, there is no such thing as an old ravine, for every ravine has its characteristic flora at the mouth, where vegetation may or may not be present, the head, and in the intermediate area. The vegetation found at these places recapitulates the life history of the vegeta- tive cycle of the developing ravine from its earliest stages. a. Mouth.——The mouths of ravines varied in both topo- graphic and floristic aspect. The mouths of the Ravines 1, 2, 3 and 4 were, on the whole, less affected by erosion than Rayines 5, 6 and 7. This may have been partly due to the fact that the beaches were wider in N. T. 6 at these points, and hence the slope was protected from the de- structive effect of the waves. The mouth of Ravine 5 in N. T. 8, 8 is that of a ravine practically in its initial stage. It had an extremely xerophytic aspect. Fig. 15 gives its aspect as studied by Dr. Cowles eighteen years ago when the entire ravine was in the initial stage of its develop- ment; Fig. 16 gives the present aspect of the same ravine. Lateral erosion has caused the widening of the ravine, and although still xerophytic in aspect, the planting of black locust has succeeded in partially stabilizing its face. The mouth of Ravine 2 was almost entirely devoid of vegeta- tion. The north-facing slope of this ravine, however, was covered with vegetation. 53's A ns — FR nai SN a eat | Ad ae ¢ a." ne + Maer) eg r oo 228 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The vegetation at the mouth of older ravines was uni- formly that of the Populus-shrub and Juniperus-shrub type of the lake bluff. Fig. 17 shows this type of ravine mouth. Juniperus virginiana and Juniperus communis are the most abundant and characteristic species found at the mouth of most ravines. This vegetation, in all the ravines, extended back into the ravine farther on the south-facing slope than on the north-facing slope. The north-facing slope, in every case, was more mesophytiec, even to the very edge of the bluff, than the south-facing slope. The south-facing bank in Ravine 6 (McLeish) is recorded as being much steeper than the north facing bank, and as being so seriously affected by wave erosion as to have no vegetation at its base. Wherever erosion, or unstable soil was found, as at the forking of Ravines 4 and ~ 6 in N. T. 6,47 and N. T. 8, 28, some distance inland, Juniperus communis and Juniperus virginiana were grow- ing there. b. Head.—The heads of the ravines had cut back no farther than the upland. In nearly every case the gully stage at the head of the ravine had been disturbed by man. This modification had been carried back some distance into the Ravines 1 and 3 in N. T. 6, D and E, because they were being used as a part of the golf course. The lateral gully, which is roughly V-shaped in cross section, but whose slopes are more or less convex, may well represent the very earliest stage of the ravine at its source in the upland. Farther to the east the ravines began to have a U-shaped appearance. It was noted in Ravine 4 (New- hall) and Ravine 6 (McLeish) that the U-shaped area be- came quite broad, up to a certain point, and then gradu- ally merged into the deeper V-shaped ravine. The low part of the U-shaped headland resembled the floodplain of a river. This is well shown in Ravine 4 (Newhall), Fig. 18. The stream at this point had not cut very deeply, but the effects of erosion and deposition of material were seen in a slight degree here. This illustrated the manner in which base leveling is accomplished. In the Newhall ravine the south facing slope seemed to have eroded more than the opposite face, and the slope was on the whole a more gentle one. Alternating temperatures may have Fig. 18 FORESTRY SURVEY 229 caused the more rapid erosion of that face of the ravine before it was stabilized by vegetation. The vegetation in this part of the ravine was the same as that of the mesophytic upland climax. C. Intermediate Region—As the U-shaped ravine merges into the V-shaped, there is a deepening of the rayine by the gradual deepening of the stream bed and an increase in the degree of the slope. With these changes come a protection of the vegetation from wind, and a decrease in light intensity, both of which result in reduced transpiration, and greater retention of soil moisture. All of these factors were effective in producing a forest which represents the culmination of mesophytism for this entire region. The chief tree species in this part of any of the ravines were Acer saccharum, Tilia americana, Quercus rubra, Fraxinus americana, Ostrya virginiana, Juniperus vir- giniana, Carpinus caroliniana, and Amelanchier cana- densis. The first two were the dominant trees. Upland species such as Quercus alba and Carya ovata are fre- quently found in the ravine, but they are confined to the upper edge of the deeper ravines. Carpinus caroliniana was found in great abundance on the south-facing slope of N. T. 8, 23. Ostrya virginiana was the dominant tree of the lower stratum of the forest. The vegetation in all of the ravines was luxuriant. The maples and lindens were reproducing abundantly. The shrub species were Hamamelis virginiana, Corylus americana, Viburnum dentatum, Viburnum acerifolium, Viburnum lentago, Cornus circinata, and Gaylussacia baccata. Hamamelis virginiana was the dominant shrub in all of the ravines. Gaylussacia baccata was found no- where except along the upper edge of the north and east slopes of Ravine 4 (Newhall), in N. T. 6, 47, and 50. The presence and frequency of the herbs Hepatica acutiloba, Mitella diphylla, and Osmorhiza (sp.) on the east- and north-facing slopes of the ravines was taken as an indication of greater mesophytism on these slopes, than on the south and west facing slopes. Mosses were abundant in the deeper ravines. They were found most y ee 6 Pn ae Mae ee pe 8 ao, —~ yet 230 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE abundantly on the north- and east-facing slopes, but they were also found near the base of the south-facing slopes. Vines were quite numerous and luxuriant near the base of the slopes; particularly in the vicinity of the lake, in the larger ravines. Vitis (sp.) and Celastrus scandens were the ones most commonly found. An observation was made in the McLeish, N. T. 8, dur- ing January on the moisture content of the soil of east and west-facing slopes of the ravine. The soil on the west- facing slope of the ravine on which the sun was shining - seemed relatively dry, while the water was seeping out of soil on the east-facing slope of the ravine. The connection between this and the plants found on the two slopes was of equal interest. There was almost no herbaceous growth on the west-facing slope, while the east-facing slope was thickly covered with moss. The slanting and overturned trees in the older ravines, as show n in Fig. 18, demonstrated the fact that there is slow erosion and slumping taking place on the ravine slopes. This slumping of the land is probably due to the abundance of seepage water in clay soil. Small unweathered pieces of rock (Niagara limestone) were found on the slopes along the entire length of Ravine 3. This study of the ravines has demonstrated how factors © of varying intensity, at the eroding areas of ravines—the mouth and head—in the form of wind, waves, light, alter- nating temperatures, stream erosion, and soil movement due to seepage water, have affected vegetation. In the intermediate areas of ravines, where erosive fac- tors are practically nil in their effects, it is of interest to note, how the slight modification of light and moisture conditions, brought about by the change in aspect of slope, cause an immediate difference in the composition of the herbaceous vegetation on the opposing slopes. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. The plant successions of Glencoe are primarily deter- mined by topography, and are distinguished from one another by the presence, absence or combination of certain physical factors. The important factors in determining FORESTRY SURVEY 231 the presence or absence of vegetation, and the grouping of plants into associations are soil moisture, most conspicu- ous in the hydrarch succession, and wind, waves, light, alternating temperatures, and soil moisture accompanied by soil movement in the xerarch succession. The hydrarch succession is composed of the hydro- mesophytic association and the hydrarch mesophytic as- sociation. Frarinus nigra, Frarinus pennsylvanica and Quercus bicolor are the trees defining the hydro-meso- phytic forest; Quercus ellipsoidalis is the tree determin- ing the hydrarch mesophytic forest. There were many varieties of the latter species in this region. The xerarch succession has the largest representation of plant associations. Practically every gradation in the development of a xerarch succession in clay soil, from the most xerophytic to the most mesophytic, was found in this region. The former was represented by the Rhus-, the Populus-shrub, and the Juniperus-shrub associations of the lake bluif; the latter by the Quercus alba, Frarinus americana, Carya ovata association of the upland, and the Acer saccharum-Tilia americana association of the ravines. The old ravine, in its representation of vegetation at the mouth, head and intermediate area recapitulates the his- tory of the xerarch succession for this region. Both hydrarch and xerarch successions are comprised primarily of secondary associations. Where this was true in the upland and lowland areas, it was attributed to the influence of man through cutting, grazing and fires. Nat- ural delay in the development of associations toward the mesophytic climax of the region, as illustrated by the lake bluff, was due to the severity of conditions brought about by a combination of physical factors. On the whole, shrubs were found to be more widespread in their distribution than trees. Ostrya virginiana proved to be an exception to this, in that it was found equally abundant in all associations of the hydrarch and xerarch succession. This may be due to the fact that it is growing on clay soil, and that it is a soil hydrohypte, and either an air mesophyte or an air xerophyte. Hamamelis virginiana “ be A at) wi ee ek i 232 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE was found only in mesophytic habitats. While Corylus as americana was found growing with Hamamelis virginiana in mesophytic associations, in the main, it was found in less mesophytic situations. LITERATURE CITATIONS. Atwood, W. W., and Goldthwait, J. W., Physical geography of the Evanston-Waukegan region. Bull. it State Geol. Sur. Il. Cowles, H. C. The plant societies of Chicago and vicinity. Geog. Soe. Chicago, Bull. No. 2. 1901. Cribbs, J. E., Plant associations of western Pennsylvania. Chicago. 1916. Salisbury, R. D., and Alden, W. C., The geography of Chicago and its environs. Geog. Soc. Chicago. Bull. No. 1. 1901. Sherff, E. E., The vegetation of Skokie Marsh, with special refer- ence to subterranean organs and their interrelationships. Bot. Gaz. 53: 415-435. No. 5. 1912. Vegetation of Skokie Marsh. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat, Hist. 9 575-613. 1913. 6. Ullrich, F. T., The relation of evaporation and soil moisture to plant succession in a ravine. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat, Hist. 12: 1-16. 1915. ae ere) Beet S Be a ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The writer wishes to express her appreciation to Dr. Henry C. Cowles, for the direction in the technique of ecological surveying, the identication of certain plants in their winter condition, and for the use of Figs. 7, 12, and 15, which were taken in the vicinity of Glencoe in 1900, and are used as comparative studies in this paper; also to Paul 8. Sedgewick for taking the remaining photographs with which this paper is illustrated. Grateful appreciation is likewise extended to Dr. Fuller, of the University of Chi- cago, for many helpful suggestions. Acknowledgment is due Mr. William Turnbull, and Mr. Frederick De Lang for information regarding pioneer forests; and Mr. Frank Englehardt for providing and sug- gesting maps; also to other citizens of Glencoe who con- tributed information of value concerning the early forests. LEGENDS. Fig. 1. A section of land (640 acres). Numbers indicate 10 acre plots, letters 40 acre plots of land, or “forties.” Portion of New Trier Township. Numbers in the figure indi- cate the sections surveyed. bo Fig. Fig. 3. Hydro-mesophytic association in which Frazvimus nigra and . Quercus bicolor form the innermost tree zone about the pond (N. T. 1, 17). Cephalanthus occidentalis is the shrub grow- ing in the water. Fig. Fig. Fig. be | . 10. pat. . 42. Bu ilen . 14. 15. 16. aN Wy 18. 233 4 Quercus ellipsoidalis yar. coronaria is the tree in the fore- ground. Quercus ellipsoidalis and some of its varieties, which characterize the hydrarch-mesophytic association, form pure stands in places (N. T. 7, 9). Hydrarch succession of associations from the undrained low- land to the upland. Reproducing upland mesophytic climax forest north of Ravine 4 (Newhall) in which Quercus alba and Quercus rubra are the dominant trees. Note the abundance of saplings and shubbery. and also the heavy mulch of leaves in the under- growth. Eroding morainic clay bluff near Ravine 5, as it appeared in 1900, showing a steep angle of slope and absence of vegeta- tion. After Cowles. Lake bluff (same as in Fig. 7) in 1918. The more gentle slope shows the effect of erosion between the years 1900 and 1918. The vegetation (mostly planted) is bringing about the stabilization of the lake bluff. Populus-shrub association of the lake bluff. Shrubs are dom- inant and trees are of small size. The vegetation is xero- phytic and sparse, but fairly uniformm in its distribution. Juniperus-shrub association in which Juniperus communis, Juniperus virginiana and Ostrya virginiana are the dominant species. Additional shrub species are also abundant. The vegetation is more dense than in the Populus-shrub associa- tion. Young specimens of Pinus Strobus in Juniperus-shrub associ- ation. Lake bluff (as it appeared in 1900) south of Ravine 4 (New- hall) in its early stage of stabilization. After Cowles. Lake bluff (same as in Fig. 12) in 1918, showing rapidity of vegetational development after stabilization of the soil has been completed. Reproducing upland mesophytic climax forest on the lake bluff north of Ravine 4 (Newhall) the aspect of which ap- proximates that of a virgin forest. Note the size of the dom- imant trees (Quercus alba and Quercus rubra), and the dense undergrowth of saplings and shrubs. The angle of slope is less than in other lake bluff associations. Mouth of ravine (in 1900) in the initial stage of the ravine. exclusion of vegetation from its fates. After Cowles. Mouth of Ravine 5 in 1918 which shows a widening of the mouth due to erosion and partial stabilization of the slope by the planting of grasses and black locust. Mouth of Ravine 3, with Populus-shrub and Juniperus-shrub types of vegetation on its faces. For inland extension of this type of vegetation see Fig. 18. Intermediate area (in the foreground) of a mature ravine (Rayine 3) showing the steep north-facing slope (to right) and slanting trees which indicate the beginning of lateral erosion in this mesophytic climax forest. Acer saccharum, Tilia americana and Frarinus americana are the dominant species. Note junipers in background at mouth of ravine. =." ed, . = P A < ’ : ’ . Ay Sr et eet ~ on 1407 4 ow PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE FORESTS IN CUMBERLAND COUNTY, ILLINOIS, By ARTHUR G. VESTAL, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. Cumberland County is at the northern edge of the lower Illinoisan till-plain. The upland soil is a silt loam, very poorly drained, because of the level surface and the im- pervious clay subsoil. Practically the whole area is drained by the Embarrass river, which runs south through the eastern part of the county. The valley of the Embar- rass is 80 to 100 feet deep and in most places about one and a half miles wide. Se RES ndifferentiated a ass Xerophytic Oak "Xero phytic Forest SN Undifferentiated White Oak-Hickory NS Bur Q- ellipsoidetis Mesoxerophytic Forest XerarchMeso- phytic Forest Hi ep Hydrarch—Meso- ZA phytic Forest Pop-Salix Slough Pin Oak Flat rests of Undroined Depressions THE ForEST TYPES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. Table I (see page 215) gives a brief survey of the plant associations and their local distribution. In connection with the table, Map I should be examined. It is sub- 234 rial . 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It is a part of the township ae which Greenup is situated, township 9 north, range 9 east. The scale of the map is somewhat more than an inch to the mile. The topography is roughly indicated by the bound- ary lines separating flat upland, hill-slopes and bottom- | land. The forested areas are not shown on the west side of the river, nor in the ravines at the southern border of the map. The conventions used to denote the several for- est associations are hatched in wherever the forests still stand. The numbers serve to identify them. The type of forest originally present in an area now cleared is indi- gated by its particular number, enclosed in parentheses. Areas formerly or still covered with prairie vegetation are represented by the number 10. Parts of the extensive prairie uplands are shown at the northwest corner and at the eastern border of the map. The general distribution of forest and prairie is shown for the whole county in Map II, on a succeeding page. The “ends and corners of uplands in angles between ravines,” as mentioned in item 2 of the table, may require brief explanation. These are the flat tops of upland spurs at the valley-border which stand like headlands above the ravines on either side. Their appearance and distribution may be readily seen in Map I, if the reader will follow the line which separates fiat uplands from hill-slopes, partic- ularly in section 15. These spur-tops were salients of the prairie areas, closely hemmed in by the forests of the hill- slopes on either side, and in such places the lateral spread of the dry oak forest over the upland surface was initi- ated. This invasion of forest was slow, and, as shown by Gleason, was subject to frequent check and setback by prairie fires, which were far more prevalent on the wind- ward side of stream-valleys. The summer winds in this part of Illinois are mostly from the south, southwest, and west; and one finds that the upland forest belt is wider, and the spur-tops more generally forested, on the leeward, that is, the north, northeast and east sides of streams, This general relation is quite apparent in the soil maps of Cum- berland and other counties in central Illinois. Its result is to make a smoothly curving or nearly straight boundary between prairie and forest, close to the irregular border of the upland on the windward side of the larger valleys, farther from it on the lee side. FORESTRY SURVEY - 237 from the well known forest associations of other parts of Illinois and the adjoining states. Most of them are well known and only two are worthy of special mention at this point. These are pin oak flats and elm-hackberry forest. 1. Pin oak flats. The pin oak association is found in small groves, a few acres in area, in extremely shallow depressions of the poorly drained upland. Some of the trees found in it are more abundant in bottomlands, others, as the shingle oak, are frequent in upland xero- phytic forest. This vegetation can be correlated with two essential physical conditions, soil which is frequently ‘watersoaked and great exposure of the parts above ground © to dryness. The leaves of the two dominant trees, pin oak (Quercus palustris), locally known as water oak, and shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria) are of xerophytic struc- ture,* that is, with thickened cuticle and pronounced development of palisade tissue, the leaf being also thicker. Other trees are swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), green ash (Frarinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) and red maple (Acer rubrum), the last forming an understory. Lines of these trees are frequently seen along small streams or ditches, and even along fence-rows in poorly drained areas. 2. Elm-hackberry forest. A few examples of small for- ested areas are still to be found, isolated from the forest system of the valleys, which are dominated by elm (Ulmus americana) and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis). With these may oecur honey locust, black haw (Viburnum pru- nifolium) of small tree size, and in some groves shingle oak.* The seeds of these trees are dispersed readily to considerable distances and it is probable that these forests are of independent and comparatively recent origin in locally favorable spots in the prairie uplands. Those that have been seen are located in areas slightly raised above the general level of the poorly drained upland. Most of these slight elevations are now cultivated. This inter- esting type of forest requires further study. 1 For those not familiar with ecological terms, a few used in the table and in the map legend are here described: xerophitic, of dry exposed situations; mesophytic, of intermediate situations, that is, rather sheltered from wind and sun and with a moderate supply of soil moisture; xerarch, developing from xero- phytic vegetation or in formerly xerophytic habitats; hydrarch, developing from hydrophytic conditions. 2See footnote 5 page 000, The forest types? named in the table are not different 238 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE CORRELATION BETWEEN FOREST AND SOIL TYPES. The field study has been inestimably aided by the State Soil survey map of Cumberland county, of which an ad- vance copy was kindly furnished by Professor J. G. Mosier. One problem has been to find what agreement there may be in local distribution of soil types and forest associations. It was soon determined that the boundaries between areas marked as upland timber soils and those of upland prairie soils, serve equally well as boundaries be- tween prairie and forest vegetation. The light gray silt- loam on tight clay, with xerophytic oak vegetation, differs from the gray silt-loam with prairie vegetation, only in having a slightly lower organic content. This at once sug- gests that the slight difference in soil may be the result of the difference in vegetation, a hypothesis which is sup- ported by the facts of vegetational history. The writer is rather confident that the original distribution of xero- phytic oak forest, now mostly destroyed, corresponds very nearly with that of the light gray silt-loam, as shown con- spicuously on the soil map in yellow. Likewise prairie vegetation boundaries have been found to coincide with prairie soil boundaries. The soil map is therefore of very great value to students of vegetation and to foresters.® Correspondence between forests and soils on the hill slopes and bottomlands is less detailed and exact than on the uplands, and without causal connection. The soils are in horizontal strata and are successively uncovered by erosion, so that the soil boundaries coincide more or less closely with the contour lines. Thus soil distribution is controlled by topography. Vegetation distribution is also controlled by topography but in somewhat different ways. Thus, in ravines, a south-facing slope is commonly covered with oak-hickory forest, while the north-facing slope has a mesophytic forest, with red oak, maple, etc. But the soil types of the two slopes are the same and, on both slopes, the same forest type extends over two or three soil types. A re-examination of Table I will show the kinds of soils associated with particular kinds of forests and may per- haps also show that vegetation is more closely dependent upon topography and aspect than upon soil. To sum- 31t might be expected that the vegetation served somewhat as a guide in the field study for the soil survey, and this is suggested by their classification of soils into upland timber soils and prairie soils, FORESTRY SURVEY 239 marize, general correspondence between soil types and forest types is to be made out, more in detail upon the upland, but soil types and vegetation types are both more closely dependent upon topography than upon each other. GEOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISIONS OF THE AREA The area of Cumberland county is only 350 square miles. but in it can be distinguished five geographic subdi- visions. They are shown in Map II, which was made from the soil survey map as a base. The subdivisions are as fol- lows Map 2. Geographic Subdivisions of Cumberland County. For description see text. Upland prairie of the western border of the county. Inter-stream upland prairies. Forest area of the western creeks. Forest area of the Embarrass and the eastern creeks. Morainal outwash plains of the northern border. These will be taken up in order. OUR go bo 1. The upland prairie of the western border is consid- ered as slightly different from the inter-stream areas be- cause of differences in floristic composition and in vegeta- tional history. Being so much more extensive than the inter-stream prairies, it has been less encroached upon in the slow spread of forests from the valleys. In parts of the western upland border which are distant from the forest oe ——— ALY USAR ea Ts Se) VAT Rien ay \ Nort ¥ ite Ap - iy 240 ’ ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE areas by as much as one to several miles, the undrained flats are likely to be characterized by scattering cotton- woods and occasional elms, rather than by the pin oak as- sociation. . 2. In using the plural form of the noun prairie for up- 'Jand inter-stream areas, the writer follows local custom. The term prairie is used by the residents in a physio- graphic rather than a vegetational sense. A prairie is a flat treeless expanse to them, rather than a particular kind of grassland vegetation, and it matters not whether native — vegetation remains. Some of these prairies are known locally by individual names. 3 and 4. The forest area of the western creeks lacks certain tree species of the Embarrass valley and those of eastern creeks, and includes a somewhat higher propor- tion of xerophytic oak forest. A somewhat peculiar forest association is found along the upper stretches of those creeks which head in the upland prairie, especially that of the western border; this forest type is made up of pin oak and shingle oak, with hickory, post oak and other xero- phytic trees in admixture. 5. The outwash plains on the lower side of the Wiscon- sin moraine, in the northern part of the county, were gen- erally covered by a mixed forest, still preserved in many small areas, in which elm is the most abundant species. Other trees are shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), white oak (Quercus alba), shingle oak (Quercus imbricaria), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and white ash (Frasxinus americana). The northern part of this outwash surface is better drained than the southern fringe, which merges into the prairie uplands of the older glaciation. It would appear from such field studies as have been made that there is consequently a transition in floristic (and eco- logic) character of the forests of the moraine from its higher parts southward to the base of its outwash; on the higher parts the white oak-hickory forest is typically developed; on the outwash slope white oaks become fewer toward the south, and elm, shingle oak, ash and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) become progressively more numerous. This transition requires additional study. FORESTRY SURVEY 241 FLORISTIC GEOGRAPHY. Floristic aspects of plant geography emphasize the peculiarities of distribution of particular species of plants. Certain other interesting floristic features are presented in Cumberland county. A north-south floristic transition results from the fact that migration of trees has proceeded upstream along the valleys of the generally southward-flowing streams, and that certain tree species are here nearly at the upper limit of their distribution along.the Embarrass drainage system. The sweet gum (lLiquidambar styraciflua) formerly grew — on the Embarrass near the southern edge of the county. The writer knows of no more northerly station for it in Illinois. The mulberry (Morus rubra), sassafras (Sassa- fras sassafras), persimmon (Diospyros_ virginiana), coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioica), dogwood (Cornus florida), and papaw (Asimina triloba), though all range considerably to the north, are increasingly abundant and grow to larger size southward. Pin oak (Quercus palustris), post oak (Quercus minor), and the river birch (Betula nigra) are common in Cum- berland county, but only post oak is known by the writer to occur in Coles county, just to the north, and that very rarely. The black-jack oak (Q. marilandica) occurs rather infzequently in Cumberland county though it is common fifty miles south in clay soil, and is abundant in the sandy parts of the Illinois river valley. Probably the absence of the three oaks mentioned from the area just north of Cumberland county is due to the difference in soils upon the two sides of the moraine, not that these species could not grow in the better soil on the northern side, but they probably can not compete successfully with the other trees which grow there. The difference in soil is well indicated by the presence, in the lower Illinois glaciation, of the two herbs, Ambrosia bidentata and Plantago aristata, which appear most commonly as road- side weeds, though originally they were probably mem- bers of primitive (pioneer) prairie associations. An east-west floristic transition results from the west- ward migration of trees, as the forest encroached upon the prairie region. Certain tree species are well established along the valleys all over Illinois, but certain others, as adem 242 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the beech (Fagus grandifolia) and the black gum ( Nyssa sylvatica) are confined to the eastern border of the state. Their migration farther to the west, as well as that of many herbaceous forest species, must be greatly hampered by the generally north-south direction of the drainage lines. The east-west transition is therefore more rapid than the north-south transition. The resultant of the two transitions is a direction from about north-northeast to south-southwest for the boundaries of the range of certain species, as the beech, and for the general tension line be- tween forest and prairie in eastern Illinois and western Indiana. Thus, of the western tributaries of the Wabash river crossed in a given latitude, those farther to the east would show the richest forest flora. The valleys of the eastern ereeks of the Embarras itself have several trees not pres- ent, so far as the writer has been able to find, in the area of the western creeks, except near their junction with the Embarrass. Among these are the Kentucky coffee-tree (Gymnocladus dioica), the big shell-bark hickory (Carya laciniosa) and river birch (Betula nigra). VEGETATIONAL CHANGES. The views of Gleason* as to the development of vege- tation in the middle west indicate the probable existence of several historic periods after a prairie-like vegetation had established itself upon the upland: (1) a period of forest advance up and from the valleys; (2) a period of prairie fires in which the prairie vegetation increased its area, except where sloughs or streams protected the for- ests from fire; and (3) the present period in which fires are prevented, but forest spread has been checked by culti- vation. The xerophytic oak forests of the Cumberland county region are plainly in situations which are protected from fire. This may be either because the forests have been preserved in such areas, or because the absence of fires has enabled forests to develop recently, during or since the period of fires. Probably both types of xero- phytic oak forests are present—the survivals of prairie fires and those which have developed more recently in pro- tected situations. 4Ann, Ass, Am, Geog. 5:1385-136, 1915; Bot. Gaz. 53 :88-49, 1912, “hd >. te hg s&s See a ta +. ee. i 7. rt . : FORESTRY SURVEY 243 The presence of the pin oak flats scattered about on the interstream prairie uplands presents an _ interesting problem. If these small pin oak groves are of recent origin, then the pin oaks and shingle oaks must be more mobile than has been realized. If they are not more mobile than other oaks, then it is probable that these pin oak groves are relics, in the wetter situations, of forest areas elsewhere replaced by prairie as a consequence of fire. Evidence for both sides of this question is at hand. These two oaks come up freely along fence-rows and ditches along with plainly mobile species, such as elm and choke-cherry. Probably they are more mobile than oaks with larger acorns and may easily be carried by certain birds. Probably, also, they may be mobile only for rela- tively short distances, for hardly a spot in the inter- stream uplands is more than a mile or half-mile from a grove or line of trees or from the forest system of the valleys. The absence of pin oaks and the presence of cot- tonwoods on at least part of the more extensive prairie upland of the western border bears out the notion of their limited mobility? and indicates a difference from the smaller inter-stream uplands. Possibly the inter-stream uplands may once have been generally forested, while the western border remained treeless and fire-swept. If this is true, then a careful comparison of the remaining prairie floras of the two areas may reveal herbaceous relies of forest over the inter-stream uplands. Such forest herbs do persist among the prairie herbs in parts of Coles county, just to the north. Furthermore, evidence is common both that forest has succeeded prairie and that prairie has replaced forest within even the last sixty years. If such radical changes can take place within so short a time, it need not surprise one that inference should call for perhaps a succession of fluctuations between prairie and forest. 5Since this was written, further evidence appears in the discovery of a Single young plant of shingle oak in an elm-hackberry grove. Obviously the shingle oak did not get in until the more mobile trees were established. This grove, which is six miles northwest of Charleston, is small and probably of recent origin. It is about two miles distant from the nearest tongue of ordinary forest, which follows a small stream. Another isolated elm-hackberry forest known as Round Grove, two or three miles east of the northeast corner of Cumberland eounty, is larger and older and contains a considerable number of fair sized shingle oaks, which, however, seem to be younger than the large elms and hack- berries. There are other groves with no oaks at all. Shingle oak thus seems to be much less mobile than elms and hackberries, and much more mobile than other oaks and hickories. Pin oak is usually found with shingle oak in the inter-stream uplands of Cumberland county, and is probably of the same order of mobility. 244 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ue The detailed sequence of events in any particular sta- — tion has been largely controlled by topography and by geographic position with respect to streams and slopes, which is a matter of topography. This explains the emphasis laid upon topography as the controlling factor | in local distribution of vegetation, in an earlier passage of this paper. CHANGES BROUGHT BY SETTLEMENT. Even as recently as sixty years ago, Cumberland county was a very different kind of country. Much of the prairie area was covered in spring and early summer by extensive sloughs, abounding with ducks and other water and shore birds. Their deeper parts persisted as permanent ponds. These sloughs are now almost gone, though tile drainage has not been put in extensively. Practically all of the prairie upland is now under cultivation, though much of it is comparatively unproductive. The proportion of area devoted to pasture and meadow is much higher than in the black land of the Wisconsin glaciation to the north. Roads are numerous but unimproved. Trees are planted about farm-houses, hedges are common and the more mobile trees are springing up along roads, fences, and ditches. The forested area is thinly settled except for the fertile bottoms of the larger streams, now almost entirely eulti- vated. Most of the xerophytic oak forest of the flat uplands has been removed. The hill slopes are largely kept in timber, though all of the original large trees have been cut. Small sawmills are rather frequent, but are seldom in steady use. Pasturing of forested areas is general and in places destructive erosion has resulted. There are only a few wagon bridges across the Embarrass, which is sub- ject to flood, and foot bridges of the suspension type, built of wire fence, are occasionally found. INFLUENCE OF THE SHELBYVILLE MORAINE. The country to the north, with its newer soils of the Wisconsin glaciation, is different in many ways, physio- graphic, vegetational and cultural. A few of the differ- ences have been hinted at in various places but a fairly adequate treatment of the subject would require many pages and will not be attempted here. It is here suggested anty f rests groulaintiacle 4 2 forests in the richer land of tae later pale | ON THE FORESTS OF LA SALLE COUNTY, ILLINOIS. Gro. D. FuLuER AND P. D. STRAUSBAUGH, UNIVERSITY OF | CHICAGO, The forests of La Salle County are of particular inter- est not so much on account of their economic value as be- . cause of their intimate relation to soil diversity and stream development. The soils have been carefully sur- veyed, classified and mapped by Hopkins and Mosier! and it is largely upon their admirable reports and soil maps that the present forest survey is based. SOIL CONDITIONS. The diversity of soil is due to the situation of the county in the north-central part of the area included in the early Wisconsin glaciation. Five distinct classes are recog- nized, as follows: 1. Upland prairie soil with gently rolling surface, the relief often being too slight for good natural drainage.—To the depth of 3 to 5 feet this soil consists of loam formed principally from wind blown material. With this is mingled more or less silt and an average of 6 per cent of organic matter resulting from the decay of the roots and stems of the grasses which have been the principal vegeta- tion. The soil varies in color from brown to black and covers about 82 per cent of the 1157 square miles which are contained within the limits of the county. The-sub- soil is usually a yellow clayey silt, in places mingled with glacial drift. A prairie vegetation of grasses and herbace- ous plants seems to have been the original cover of this soil, at least within all the areas included in this report, but at present cultivated grains and grasses have very completely replaced the plants of the original prairie turf. _* Hopkins, Cyril G., Mosier, J. G. et al. La Salle County soils. Uniy. Ill. Agri, Exper. Station. Soil Report No. 5: pp. 45 pls. 5. maps 4, 1913. 246 FORESTRY SURVEY 247 2. Upland timber soils usually found along the stream courses and covering about 12 per cent of the surface of the county.—These are silt loams varying in color from ~ yellow to grey and containing about 3 per cent of organic matter resulting from the decay of former vegetation. Differing from the prairie soils in color, in low organic content, and in the possession of a more rolling surface, they present a still more striking contrast in the character of their native vegetation which was almost exclusively a forest in which oaks were conspicuous. They usually pos- sess as subsoil a plastic yellow clayey silt, often mingled with glacial drift forming a gravelly clay frequently lack- ing in permeability. These soils are usually less fertile than those of the prairie type and offer more difficult problems of cultivation and fertilization. 3. Terrace soils deposited by stream action in the val- leys of the larger rivers.—These are usually to be referred to the action of over-loaded streams, during the melting of the glaciers, partly filling the valleys. Later the streams cut through this material and developed new flood plains at a lower level. These soils vary from such silts as are seen in the valleys of the Vermilion and Illinois Rivers to the sands and gravels occurring in the valley of the Fox River, but in general they consist of brown or grey silt loams with varying amounts of sand and organic matter. They occur, as their designation indicates, in the form of benches or terraces along the larger streams, covering about 3 per cent.of the surface of the county, and are usually fertile and well drained. 4. Swamp and bottom-land soil mostly of a recent development upon the wide level flood plains of the Illi- nois River.—As a rule this type of soil is poorly drained, often submerged during periods of high water, and con- sists of brown silt loam containing about 4 per cent of organic matter. It is however most fertile, producing heavy crops wherever the drainage permits. Very little more than 2 per cent of the county is covered with soil of this type. Here may be included small areas of peat less than one square mile in extent. 5. Residual soils formed by the accumulation of loose material from the weathering of rocks in place——While such soils cover less than 3 square miles, La Salle County eau 248 - ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ has probably the largest area of tillable residual soil to be found in Illinois. These soils come from the disintegra- tion of shale and sandstone and vary from sandy loam to sand. Their small area is due not only to the wide extent of the ice sheet and to its action in removing disintegrated rock or in covering it with glacial drift or boulder clay, but also in the southern part of the state to the large de- posits of wind borne loess burying the products of rock decay. STREAM DEVELOPMENT. The water courses of the county differ greatly in age and present many stages of development from small inter- -mittent streams, just beginning to entrench their channels in the prairie soil, to great rivers flowing in broad valleys deeply cut in soil and rock even before the coming of the ice sheets. The forest distribution is so closely associated with the diversities of stream development that it seems advisable for our purposes to recognize four distinct stages of erosional development. 1. Small streams, often intermittent.—These are shal- lowly entrenched in the comparatively level surface of the prairie and have done little or no cutting except to exea- vate the channels through which their waters flow. All the streams of Meriden and Mendota townships belong to this class. 2. Creeks with shallow valleys.—These have cut through and removed portions of the prairie soil exposing strips of the underlying subsoil which become the “upland timber soils.” In these subsoils their channels are entrenched but their valleys show little lateral cutting and almost no deposition. The Little Vermilion furnishes a typical ex- ample of a stream of this class. It may be noted that the soil maps show many streams of this class with a border of timber soil, or in other words a valley slope, distinctly broader upon its left or eastern bank. The cause of this unequal cutting and its significance in forest development will be reserved for discussion in subsequent paragraphs. 3. Small rivers—To this class are to be referred streams that have cut through the soil mantle almost or quite to the underlying rock and are now doing compara- tively little vertical erosion. They are engaged in widen- EAST S aloe Bi, Joon ae. Gare Les C ee Tee 44 a} peat ee. 4 — ‘ ~ igh ; > a FL pel mee ' ‘ =A : a 7 25%3 — “a? 9 ~: C 4 EFT ET es et soe tas he Rseaps Ya > =! x Si< FORESTRY SURVEY 249 ing their valleys, in cutting terraces and occasionally in building up flood plains. Here belong the lower stretches of Big Indian Creek and the part of Fox River within La Salle County. 4. Large rivers—These are comparatively mature streams showing broad deeply cut valleys and a consider- able expanse of flood plain. In this part of the State they must antedate the ice sheets and show evidence of more active cutting due to greater volume of water. Only the Illinois River has reached sufficient maturity to be re- ferred to this class. No forests whatever are associated with streams of the first class except an occasional fringe of willows not more than a few yards wide or occasionally isolated trees of river maple or cottonwood. Upon the gentle slopes of the stream valleys of the second and third classes are developed the upland forests while bottom and swamp forests are almost exclusively confined to the river bottoms associated with streams of the third and fourth classes. This report has to do _ principally with forests associated with streams of the second class and is limited to 12 townships in the northeast portion of the county. Within these townships there are found some 5684 acres that possess a sufficiently dense population of trees to be classed as woodlands and forests. Almost the entire area is in pasture and some would probably be more accurately described as wooded pasture rather than forest so seatter- ing is the stand of trees and so completely absent are all forest shrubs and flowers. So intensive has been the graz- ing that only in isolated small patches is there any repro- duction in progress and the size of the standing timber would indicate that these conditions have not varied greatly during the past 25 years at least, for few trees of 3 inches in diameter or less are to be found. On the other hand almost all tracts show cutting, very few trees re- maining that are over 20 inches in diameter. This shows that the more valuable mature timber has been removed and according to the testimony of various people resident in the vicinity much of this cutting was done 20 to 40 years ago. Only occasionally is there any evidence that tracts have been cut off clean and subsequently reforested. a ‘ 250 LLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. The preservation of the natural forest vegetation over certain limited areas to serve as public parks is important and has received some of the attention it so greatly de- serves. Private owners have done their part as well as the state. Instances of the public spirit and generosity of individual citizens are seen in the pleasure grounds of Deer Park and Matthison Park just outside the limits of the city of La Salle, both due to the generosity of the late Mr. Matthison. While his heirs are still extending the use of these beautiful spots to the public and also pro- viding for their upkeep, their permanency should be in- sured by vesting their control in the state, the county or the city. The former area might well become an extension of the present Starved Rock State Park, while the latter from its size and situation would naturally become a pub- lic park for the city of La Saile. The State has shown its appreciation of the importance of such forest reservation by the inclusion of a most beau- tiful and well wooded portion of the Hlinois River valley in the Starved Rock State Park. A smaller but equally commendable enterprise was the establishment of the Shabona State Park upon the site of an Indian massacre in 1852. This forms an excellent prece- dent for the commemoration of other events of historic interest by the preservation of larger or smaller areas of forested land as state or county parks. CLASSIFICATION OF I‘ORESTS. Forests may be grouped into classes depending upon the similarity of the situations in which they occur and of the species of which they are composed. The forester speaks of these classes as ‘“‘forest types,’ while the ecolo- gist more usually refers to them as “forest associations” and the meaning of the terms is so similar that for our purpose they may be considered as identical and prefer- ence may be given to the forester’s terminology. In a former report on the forests of the state, Hall’ has dis- tinguished two classes of forest types, those of the upland 1 Hall, R. Clifford and Ingall, O. D. Forest conditions in Illinois. Il] State Lab. of Nat. Hist. 9: 175-253. pls. 21-36. 1911. ees oe a. an FORESTRY SURVEY 251 and those of the bottom-land areas. While his report refers principally to the forests of the southern part of the State, his classification of forest types may in general be fol- lowed. It is recognized that any classification whatever of for- ests into a system of types or classes presents several diffi- culties, not the least of which is the fact that such types gradually merge into one another by gradations that are often almost imperceptible. Still classes are necessary for the mapping and intelligent discussion of any consid- erable area of woodland. The following subdivisions are offered as a provisional scheme arranged upon the prin- ciple that it is best to have a small number of classes based upon broad resemblances and differences. Variations in these types, when of sufficient importance or when they involve sufficiently large areas, may be noted in the dis- cussions of the distribution of forests in the individual townships. The application of the proposed classification is at present to be limited to the requirements of a portion of La Salle County, although it is confidently expected that with slight modifications it will be equally service- able for any portion of the State. ~ I. _UPLAND TYPES. These types include both the forests of hills and upland plains although only the latter will be found within the limits of La Salle County. Throughout the State various species of oak dominate the uplands, the species differing upon different soils and in different localities. Usually the soil of any particular type differs from neighboring forested or non-forested areas. Two main types may be distinguished : 1. Upland oak forest—tThe type of forest most extens- ively developed in La Salle and also in many neighboring counties is upon the uplands (mostly upon soil 1134 of the Soil Report) and consists largely of various oaks, with some admixture of hickory, so that it is often and quite appropriately spoken of as the “oak-hickory forest.” In anything like its original conditions it is a rich forest in which either white (Quercus alba) or red oak (Q. rubra) form from 50 to 80 per cent of the stands with varying admixtures of bur oak (Q. macrocarpa), shag-bark hick- 252 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ory (Carya ovata), elm (Ulmus americana) and sugar maple (Acer saccharum). . 2 Se ies es bs , : , oA i . FORESTRY SURVEY. 27 1 SUMMARY BY TOWNSHIPS OF THE TIMBER SOIL AND FORESTED AREAS. Township Timber soil Forest (Acres ) (Acres) MIURA, lA ie ein pave nob ds a win ola 0 0 MEMEO A PSS. aio Ss he a to at ele By oo 150 75 LE TET Bes A eae cin F Pye aie tik Seek Be a 750 200 CAE ETIATED fei Uc ee Rate sta aittors atlas 6 600 20 FEL ey ee eA NERS On ga SA 60 20 MOS AaTOVE) «SW sa cra awa ee yes ee COUN 500 MMPEANICK 2. Sect x ow k bi de pres Se ed 5300 680 Meee a ta dt CR ESE Gi os oe Ak ache ot atte 3200 850 PEPPER lec re sou Ee Soe oe oe uot his hails 1500 150 PUNE LUPO MISES = eta ake w ictate wtere o7h set 2400 175 PREM sigs ok Ae ao cee aera ee 7000 1300 EES GPE CURES SS ERE See 3800 800 META NTE Eat GAYS os Wi a kl bent 4300 800 Payton (I PAre ) | os cerita ees Soles OU 250 worsen (ip part joss. eee SS 1100 540 RAL Meee oie sre aaa 35020 6530 SUMMARY. 1. This report covers the forest survey of 16 townships (3 in part only) in the northwest portion of La Salle County, Illinois, covering an area of approximately 440 Square miles. 2. In these townships the potential forests, as repre- sented by the distribution of the upland timber and terrace soils, amount to an area of approximately 35,020 acres, or 12.5% of the total area covered by the survey. 3. The total forested area is approximately 6,530 acres or 2.5% of the area included in the survey. _ 4. About three-fourths of the woodland area belongs to the upland oak forest type, the remaining fourth including areas of dry oak, rich bottom and mixed forest types. 5. Grazing is so universally practiced and so intensive in its character that not over 5% of the oak and bottom forests show reproduction in progress at the time of the survey. 272 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 6. Along many of the stream valleys are slopes of such a character that the removal of the forest cover will cause and in some cases has already caused, rather extensive gullying. STRIP SURVEY AND GROWTH STUDIES IN LA SALLE COUNTY. R. B. MILLER, STATE FORESTER, AND GEO. D. FULLER, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. During the week of Sept. 15th to 20th it was possible to run some strip surveys in some of the forest tracts pre- viously located by Dr. George D. Fuller in La Salle County which were representative of the types of this region. The results of these strip surveys are given in the following pages appended to Dr. Fuller’s report, and for convenience are lettered from A to I, in the order in which they were made. The method was that of the ordinary strip survey famil- iar to all foresters and estimators of timber and was car- ried out with a crew of three men, one compassman and two estimators. The compassman, with a 4-rod tape attached to his belt, ran the compass across the tract and tallied the trees according to diameter and species as they were called out to him by the men on each side, who covered each a strip 33 feet in width. When the party had advanced a distance of ten chains, or 40 rods, an acre of ground had been covered. The estimate as made up from these strip acres was then applied to the tract as a whole. This method does not differ from the laying out of “quadrats” by the ecologist, each unit being an acre 10 chains long and 66 feet in width. It has the advantage of taking one across the tract and allowing a map of types or physical features to be made which in small woodlands is hardly necessary, conditions being of such uniformity. When the strips are run a distance of 10 chains or 660 feet apart, one-tenth of the tract or “forty” has been covered, giving a ten per cent estimate. All trees were calipered at breast height, or 414 feet above the ground and as the party progressed notes were made on reproduction, ground cover, and herbaceous vege- tation. The tally sheets, with the distance traversed, are retained and the estimate is made up in the office from 273 74 | ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE board foot Volione tables faaen on diameter breast high ae number of sixteen foot logs. Such a table is found on page 22 of Farmer’s Bulletin 715, U. S. Department of Agriculture, “Measuring and Marketing Woodlot Pro- ducts”, which also gives a full description of the strip method of estimating timber and working up the contents by means of volume tables, based on the Scribner rule. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TRACTS ESTIMATED. Tract A. Oak-Hickory Forest. (Serena Township, See. 33). This tract was located on the road about three miles from Wedron and grazing had been lighter in it than most of the others in that region. Some scattered cutting of small white oak for mine props had been done and the heavy growth of hazel and raspberry bushes in some places showed that cutting had been too heavy. Good corn was growing on an adjacent part that had. been cleared, indi- cating good soil. Omitting the tally sheet for 4.7 acres of strip survey, the main facts are about as follows: Average number of trees per acre... 2)... 6. s.062 465 n 203 Number of trees 3 inches in diameter or less... 48 per acre PENN PICK ALTE ie b ie Siete asclo a ue uate e eis ant 2,208 board feet. Per cent of species Wie aie ih ra tea ae 64% Black coke eo ee ie ea 19.5% Shagbark Hickory ......... 14.6% Bur oak DEED Ag or 4 "he Aneel elt RR AMR ono nU ht 1.9% Cherry | Total .... 100.0% Tract B.—U pland dry oak forest. (Serena Township, Sec. Spy: The stand here was composed mostly of white, black and red oak, with some basswood and elm in the wetter por- tions. Judging from scattered poplars, the signs on the trees, the growth of golden rod and absence of humus it seems that the forest had been repeatedly burned. While at first appearance it would not rank with tract A, the vol- ume really ran higher because of the presence of more medium sized trees. It was unfenced and was the common 5 oie ee ee ie ae A Et yy. FORESTRY SURVEY PO ES type of forest being cut off in that region for mine props. The soil was a yellow gray silt loam, average corn land. Average number of trees per acre ................ 197 Number 3 inches in diameter or less ................ 62 : RE POT CTE 5 2 us Sneek ak wrens 6 Saat 3,018 board feet. : Per cent of species. VIM eeeeer eS core dk ee Geta a 65.6% q Biagio Oaks eee os oe S82 . ee ae Bee TPM SIE ee 1.7% BIR Oee J eccev le 32 hemes 1.8% Cherry Basswood 3h.) oss. os esis 2.6% Bur oak | Total .... 100.0% Tract C. Ravine forest—Indian creek. (Serena Town- ship, Sec. 28). A strip was run for eight chains down a ravine and across a small brook to get some idea of the timber on rough land along small streams. The tally sheet showed that on the ravine sides, where conditions were more mesophytic, black oak gave way to red oak, with an occasional hard maple. Red oak being a fast grower and the ground too rough for tillage it would not pay to pasture such places but to leave them in timber. In the bottom were found a few black cherry, walnut and ash trees. Average number of trees per acre ............+... 183 POMBNIG HEP ROME nh cos tas aed bsg s oo e 3,519 board feet. Composition of stand Whe sake Py ese So ee 22% GE ics cin ele abe ote a 6 hs 47.0% JB ly YO ae eats Ry hie ted 11.7% Miscellaneous ............. 9.4% 3 Total .... 100.0% Tract D. Woodland Pasture. (Peru Township, Sec. 32). This was an excellent example of the woodland pasture in La Salle county, being of about 10 acres in extent and of an open park-like appearance. It has been constantly pas- a 276 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tured and only six three-inch trees were found in the 8 acres of strip, those being in ravines. The trees were very short boled, most of them making not over one 12 foot log. Some cutting had been done for fence posts and the diameter growth of such open grown trees had been rapid, some trees having grown 2 inches in radius in ten years. Trees 13 inches in diameter on the stump were from 50 to 55 years old. Per cent of species White ake 2 Nee ee ee 58.77% a Oa eC Rte Be ere tN, 12.8% Shagbark Hickory ......... 13.7% GOT? criictoce a hee Sista oly Bloke 14.8% Total .... 100.0% Magmber OF Crees Per ACTS 2. C/G ese Sake eal oe whee lo Oe 46 mverave board ‘feet per acre). . ois (i6 ksi vee eee 1881 Tract E. Ravine Forest—lIllinois river (Cedar Creek. Peru Township, Sec. 31). Ravine type. This is about the only place where maple is found in abundance. This strip included the bottom of a small ravine and the side of the ravine, running out to oak hickory forest at the top of the ridge. Had been pas- tured and trees are larger than OC, hence estimate runs higher. On the sides of the ravine are good conditions for reproduction if stock were excluded as acorns are lying on exposed mineral soil and only need a slight covering to germinate. As shown by the tally sheet, the number of species is quite large for a small area but red oak and rock maple are the dominant species. Such ravines should be kept in timber and grazing prohibited. It is such ravines that show up as the forested areas on the topographic sheets of the Geological survey. Average number of trees per acre ............ee000- 115 ROAMING PEF ACTS 2.2 sul ge noe oucets se 3,855 board feet. Per cent of species Reg Wak ke yee eee cre cee 20.8% Hard: maple ce eae sk 30.6% OTHERS cbs ede ae 49.6% Total 5.25) 10007 Tract F. Bottomland Woods, Vermilion Creek. ‘ Grove Township, Sec. 14). This was one of the best tracts of timber examined, so far as natural forest conditions were concerned, lying at the head of Vermilion creek. Along the stream the soil was a brown silt loam, changing to yellow gray silt loam on the higher parts. The woods was only lightly pastured and the tally sheets show that there were 40 trees of the three- inch diameter class, mostly ash, elm and walnut. Per cent of species WhetkeY Cl Si ca carte sate os 23% WTAE OM: So ee ee eats 5 18% RDO BME Ste eet som ance pt 11.1% WAS, Cas crettin sx » oe arate ye 11.1% EGER EEE. Se ae a a oo ao 9.0% ANE ass bees an a aon eee 8.0% Hed-ela = Si fis. coved oe 8.0% OGHErR a5. 3 See re wae be Se 11.8% Total .... 100.0% Average number of trees per acre ..:..........-.- 135 SV RRIGE SP MEU 2S Bs ot atte Win db Seok 8 4.625 board feet. Tract G. This was a tract adjoining Tract F, but was deteriorat- ing through the effects of neglect and cutting. This was evidenced by the undergrowth which made travel through the woods difficult. Reproduction consisted of elm and ash, with bur oak taking the place of white oak in the lower parts of the area. The tract was badly in need of an im- provement cutting to remove straggling wide-spreading trees which were crowding better ones underneath. Evi- dences of recent pasturing were not so evident and there were 41 three-inch trees per acre. Per cent of species Peet ON: Oe oe oe an Sees Se OA, mo ee Lg Oks ies EO EN RSS TS Darel a Se 13.2% EN ME Sos eS. Cede 13.1% INS Si, eee 2 bee 10.9% ROMS: fies SS. Ae es See 16.2% Total .... 100.0% whee ‘i Lee eG Pees “RANE Ws a) Meat . your ; A hae, Mi 278 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Average number of trees per acre ...... Ea deg be ea Average stand per acre ......... ae aa 4.510 Board feet. oe Tract H. (Vermilion Township. Sec. 6, Above Vermilion i River). vay» This was rather a thin stand of white oak, bur oak, black — oak and shagbark hickory, on upland soil, just past Bailey’s Falls. Some cutting had been done recently, and hazel brush, blackberry bushes and asters formed the main undergrowth. The stand, as was found from ring counts on stumps was from 75 to 80 years old. The trees were short, not averaging more than 11% sixteen-foot logs per tree, reproduction consisting mostly of white oak and black walnut. Average number of trees per acre ............0000-- 122 Pmmver Ol a INCh TLCS... °y). 2 occ wie cps sie eines digya caren ee 5 (EOE TACEST G3) ie 6) Rea gO a PA 2,573 board feet. Per cent of species WME ORK Sais at eis 67.2% Black ioak ‘seo: be Sule enc hah Stas 20.0% Shagbark Hickory ......... 5.0% CER EIS: ri eae lecd deus cae 7.8% Total .... 100.0% Tract I. (Sec..7, Above Vermilion River). This was one of the best stands examined, so far as forest conditions were concerned, but did not average quite so high as tract F. The tract comprises about 160 acres, and the leading species in order are white, black, and red oak. The soil is a brown silt loam and the ravines were deep enough to give some little difference of forest composition due to soil moisture, so strips were run across the ravines. Grazing had been light and there were about 26 three- inch trees per acre. Seedlings consisted of elm, ash, and white oak, the latter being where openings had been made in the stand by cutting. Clear length was good, and trees would make about two 16-foot logs per tree. The humus was about three inches deep, well decayed with a layer of hardwood leaves on top. The composition of stand was as follows: " Average number of trees per acre ................2.. 146 : Others (Ash, elm,and maple) 13.3% Average yolume per acre’ .::.......--.. 4,307 board feet. | Stump ANALYSES. On September 15th and 16th there was an oportunity afforded to get an idea of the growth of white oak in the ordinary woods pasture on light gray silt loam above In- | dian Creek and 37 trees were analyzed and others measured for volume, where men were cutting trees for mine props_ and piling. In addition to an estimate on Plotl ima similar site about a quarter acre of ground was measured and all material that had been cut on it was counted and ~ the piles separately measured to determine their volume. The number of trees was too small to form any definite conclusions as to growth but are included as giving some idea at least of the growth and yield in this class of timber; which is much larger than the average farmer believes. Actual products measured on an acre were as follows: Material Length Number Fence posts 8 feet 116 Piling 25-30 feet 36 Mine props T feet 312 Mine props 5 feet 2042 The total number of trees per acre on land of this class which was light gray silt loam soil of poor fertility for agriculture was 214, with an average height of 40 feet and an age of from 55 to 75 years. The value of the land for pasture would not be over $4.00 per acre. There was no reproduction on account of pas- turing and when cut over this land would be liable to erosion, on account of its high situation above Indian Creek. Measurements on 37 white oak trees cut and peeled for piling showed the following heights to a six-inch top diameter : - 45a .. bd . om fit ty Sin oe ea ee, ae Sd PP ey AN ee ee 280 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Diameter Breast High Merchantable (Inside Bark) Length Inches (feet ) 8 20 9 24 10 30 it 35 12 40 13 48 The average diameter growth on the stump for these same 37 white oak trees was 1.7 inches for the last decade, a very good growth for this class of soil. PRODUCTS FROM FORESTS OF THE OTTAWA REGION. PILING. According to the men cutting piling, the only species which would be accepted are white oak and bur oak. Piling must have a butt diameter when peeled of not less than 13 inches, with a 7 inch top. The length must be not over 50 feet, nor less than 20 feet. The men receive 114 cents per linear foot for cutting and peeling. Piling is sold at a stated price per linear foot for specified dimen- sions, the price increasing rapidly with increase in length and in desirability of form or taper. One acre of average white oak in this country would produce, according to our estimate and by actual count on the ground about 875 linear feet of piling, with an average length of 25 feet. A white oak tree 16 inches in diameter inside the bark on the stump will produce a pile 40 feet in length and top diameter of 6.5 inches, with a volume of 29.2 cubic feet in about 76 years, or an annual volume growth of .884 cubic feet. MINE PROPS. Mine props are cut from any species, except poplar, and may have the following sizes: Length Diameter of top end Price paid for (feet ) (Inches ) cutting 4 3 .l cent each 5 + 1.5 cents each ré 5 5. cents each ree aces ea pt MT Thee ee CS ee "Props are usually split from the larger cuts of white 02 ake fil < of a length of four or five feet, and since they are in greater _ demand, a seven foot round prop is obtained whenever po i. sible in measuring up small trees. A white oak with a breast high diameter of 11 inches and a clear length of ; ot ay feet will make six cuts, averaging six props per cut, ¢ 07 ta _ thirty-six for the tree. Props are split out with maul. an d eesti: . i - wedge (four and five foot) while the seven foot props are ot not split. - =. FENCE POSTS. i : ae 4, ‘= Fence posts are cut and split from straight-graine¢ white oak, to a length of 8 feet, and men receive 5 cents x4 5 each for cutting them. One 16-inch white oak (on ae pee ___ stump inside the bark) will turn out from 20 to 23 posts. ; Fence posts of white or bur oak are worth from 20 to 25 _ i cents each, and on one acre, in addition to props and = there would be 116 split fence posts. | - I Re ) :- we A. - . 2S. ay THE FORESTS OF VERMILION COUNTY. W. B. McDouGALL, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. INTRODUCTION. The area considered in the following pages consists of about 25 square miles in the middle western part of the Danville quadrangle in Vermilion County, Llinois, and includes parts of Blount, Oakwood, Danville and Catlin townships. It is cut by both the main branch and the middle fork of the Vermilion River and also includes parts of several valleys tributary to the north fork of the same river, so that much of the area is very hilly. Practically the entire area is underlain with coal and this fact has had considerable influence on the economic development of the region. Numerous coal mines are be- ing worked at the present time and numerous others have been worked in the past and then abandoned. Consider- able areas are owned by the various coal companies and in these all other interests have been subordinated to those of coal mining. In several instances villages have sprung up where new mines have been opened and after a number of years the mines have been “worked out” and the villages have disappeared, only to spring up again in some other locality. Often in the vicinity of these temporary mines the miners and their families live in shacks that appear wholly inadequate for the health and comfort of the occu- pants. Agriculture is of course, next to coal mining, the most important industry of the region and the greatest percent of the more level places is under cultivation. The soils of this region are very largely of four types.t Most of the upland soil is either brown silt loam or yel- low-gray silt loam. The yellow-gray silt loam is an up- land timber soil and was all formerly covered with for- ests. rose #0, A + “ . 7 ee é a, - ‘ ¢ “4% > < ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 284 eS) ‘SBINWIWOD TwOD ig asddid4ic NIFQ SvLy avHy GNWT C¢ Si@auoy, Hoy AT@vLINC GNYT 4 ANBSBIIG ATIWNIDINO FAL 167HOL ( 2D ANYTAWNLC |, 6 #2? 2° GNvT woii0g sadaoT¢e THY anwran [7] NONLVIDOSSY HONOTS - MOTTIM- DOMNOLLOD SNOIWS BAIT APNIWHGNG, AO SisTHoy WOILwID0ES4y §=MOTTINA- COOMNOLIOD YP L—— NOILVID0SSY ATAVW TAOWWIAS ‘WIT Ip f C4STAO] DILAHDOAGAY Ws> bead NOILWID0SSY WTY-doomMsewg =e is ASBEOL DALAHAOSAW -HOMWEGAY Z JV, aes 4, NOMLwID OEY AvO-cay ATavW) ‘HOaag [7 A) L87B04 DILAWsOSTW -HOUvaIX tz ASBHOL TWNOILICNY BL zasTTHY vy NOILvISOSSW ABONDILY - vO IN ASAHOCY BILANAOBILOSSLY NE NS ‘NOILWIDOSa YY , ABONDIY -Swuaysevg GNY SvuavesvS Lemoy ANG 9Q ASBHOY DIL AvsOUTK SS VOOR SIN, -A-M “SIONITT] “ALNOOD NOIMTINATA ATONVAGWNYD AITIANYG | SaTIY AuWNoS GZ Pre) DVN LAAANC LeTUAoT VAG LS 4 BR WS as N s \\ Came 4 4 N V7) Me FZ Ze x, ¢ Ss — oe —— I : OY d | eA \ % cs \ W222 lene a4 i es See, a ‘ ~~ ¥ FORESTRY SURVEY 285 in the opinion of the writer ought to be forested. Num- bers in parentheses, as (35), show the type of forest which formerly occupied areas that have been cleared and a letter S indicates “stripland” which will be spoken of again later. FORESTS. XEROPHYTIC FOREST ASSOCIATIONS. The Sassafras and Sassafras-hickory associations (22, 22.1 and 22.3). The only parts of the region studied which bear xerophytic forest associations are two areas occupying portions of the southern part of section eight and the northern part of section seventeen and a small - area in section nine. The two areas first mentioned which were formerly covered by more mesophytic forests are owned by the Missionfield Coal Company. They have been entirely cleared at some time in the past and culti- vated to a certain extent and then left as waste land. The area numbered 22.1 is entirely covered by a young sassa- fras association in which Sassafras varifolium* which is the dominant species is accompanied by patches of black- berries, New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), hazel- nut (Corylus americana) and a few young white oaks (Quercus alba). The other area, numbered 22.3, is the same except that there are several irregular patches that are still under cultivation. The area in section nine numbered 22 is not owned by a coal company and has never been cultivated, but it has not been persistently pastured since being cleared and is now occupied by a sassafras-hickory association, the hick- ories all small (Carya ovata and occasionally C. cordi- formis). MESOPHYTIC FOREST ASSOCIATIONS. The oak-hickory mesoxerophytic association (31, 31.1, and 31.2). This forest association is spoken of as meso- xerophytic because it is in a sense intermediate between the xerophytie and mesophytic types. It occurs on yellow silt loam, where this soil extends back from slopes on to uplands. The dominant trees are white oak (Quercus alba) and hickories (Carya ovata and C. cordiformis). These are accompanied by black oak (Quercus velutina), white mee: The nomenclature throughout this paper is that of Gray's Manual, 7th on. 286 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE elm (Ulmus americana) white ash (Frazinus americana) — and wild black cherry (Prunus serotina). In some places this association is scarcely distinguishable from the next but in other cases, as in section 28, there are quite exten- sive and well marked areas of it. The nixed hillside association (34, 34.1, 34.2 and 34.3). The forest that occupies the yellow silt loam on the slopes and in the ravines is transitional in its nature. It really consists of several distinct forest associations but the rep- resentations of the separate associations are often so lim- ited in extent that each one includes only a few individual trees. For this reason it is thought best to treat it here as a mixed association and without any attempt to indicate any particular species as dominant, since different species are dominant in different parts of the forest. The species of trees in this forest vary from those of the mesoxero- phytic association described above, such as black, white and chestnut oaks (Quercus velutina, Q. alba and Q. prinus) and the shagbark and pignut hickories (Carya ovata and C. cordiformis) and sometimes red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) on the higher parts of the slope, through the group of species characteristic of more meso- phytic forests such as hard maple (Acer saccharum), beach (Fagus grandifolia), red, yellow and shingle oaks (Quercus rubra, Q. imbricaria and Q. muhlenbergii), basswood (Tilia americana), red elm (Ulmus fulva), ironwood (Ostrya. virginiana), red bud (Cercis cana- densis) and white ash (Fraxrinus americana) in the intermediate positions, to the species more characteristic of hydrophytic forests such as red ash (Fraxinus penn- sylvanica), American elm (Ulmus americana), walnut (Juglans nigra), syeamore (Platanus occidentalis), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) and sometimes black wil- low (Saliz nigra) or occasionally glaucous willow (Salix discolor) on the lower parts of the slopes and in the bot- toms of the valleys. This type of forest is more extensive than any other in this region, for the reason that the land on which it grows is mostly too steep or too hilly for culti- vation. Certain patches of this type, too, are the only forests in the region that are not persistently pastured. No forests were found that had never been pastured, but certain areas of the mixed hillside association are appar- ently pastured only when the adjoining fields are pastured aA 1. ty - FORESTRY SURVEY 287 and so they are given some opportunity for reproduction. None of the yellow silt loam soil should ever be cleared under any circumstances, for clearing allows erosion to set in and the result is apt to be disastrous. For instance, there is a field in section 5 which is rapidly being destroyed by having deep furrows and ravines cut into it by eroding floods. This could never have 1p eR if the forest had not been removed. The beech-maple-red oak association (35 and 35.2). This is a xerarch-mesophytic forest association, which means that it is a mesophytic forest which was developed from, or was preceded by, a more xerophytic forest. The dominant trees are either beech (Fagus grandifolia) and hard maple (Acer saccharum), or hard maple and red oak (Quercus rubra) or sometimes all three of these species. This is the association that formerly covered all of the yellow gray silt loam soil and is the climax type of forest in this region but, as the map indicates, it has mostly dis- appeared and only a few small patches, some of which are very thin, remain. It is probable that these patches also will soon entirely disappear, since the soil occupied by them is all suitable for cultivation. In this particular region there is very little beech, but it is obvious that there was formerly much more and that its infrequency now is due to the fact that it has suffered more from cut- ting than has either maple or oak. The little patch of this association near the southeast corner of section 9 is an almost pure stand of hard maple, nearly all other trees haying been cut out. In other cases, however, the dom- inant species are accompanied by greater or lesser num- bers of the following: basswood (Tilia americana), white elm (Ulmus americana), white ash (Frarinus americana), wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), black, white and shingle oaks (Quercus velutina, Q. alba and Q. imbri- carta), butternut (Juglans cinerea), walnut (Juglans nigra), Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioica) and ironwood (Ostrya virginiana). The basswood-elm association (38 and 38.2). This is the hydrarch-mesophytic forest association, having de- veloped from a more hydrophytic type, and formerly oecu- pied all of the brown silt loam soil. Like the xerarch mesophytic forest it has nearly all disappeared and the few remnants probably will not be left much longer. The 288 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE dominant trees are the basswood (Tilia americana) and ah the white elm (Ulmus americana). Along with these occur hard maple (Acer saccharum), walnut (Juglans nigra), yellow oak (Quercus muhlenbergu), white and red ash (Fraxinus americana and Ff. pennsylvanica), and hack- berry (Celtis occidentalis). HYDROPHYTIC FOREST ASSOCIATIONS. The elm-sycamore-maple association (41, 41.1, 41.2 and 41.3). This is the hydrophytic forest that formerly occupied most of the mixed loam or bottomland soil. A great deal of this soil has been cleared but a number of representative bottomland forests still remain especially as narrow strips along the river. The dominant trees of this forest are the white elm (Ulmus americana), the sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and the soft maple (Acer saccharinum). Along with these occur hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), box elder (Acer negundo), green ash (Ffraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata), bur-oak (Quercus macrocarpa), walnut (Juglans nigra) honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), black maple (Acer sac- charum var. nigrum) and cottonwood (Populus del- toides). The cottonwood-willow association (43). This hydro- phytic association is represented in several places along the river. In most places it consists almost exclusively of cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and black willow (Salix nigra), with the sandbar willow (Salix longifolia) occur- ring where the river is depositing sand. These sand de- posits are frequently submerged and most plants are un- able to. grow on them at all, but the sandbar willow does not suffer from the water. It has to contend rather with biotic factors, since it is usually badly infested with wil- low-cone galls and often is completely covered with a spe- cies of dodder. The cottonwood-willow slough association (51). This association is represented only by a small patch in the southern part of section 9. Here an old abandoned gravel-pit has as its center a patch of cattails (Typha latifolia) which is surrounded by an association of young trees and shrubs of the glaucous and black willows (Salix discolor and SN. nigra), cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and a few syeamores (Platanus occidentalis). FORESTRY SURVEY 289 Strip LAND. An S on the map indicates land that has bers “stripped” by the coal mining companies. After “strip- ping” the land is left in such a condition that it cannot readily be used for agricultural purposes. It consists of alternate ridges and furrows, the ridges varying from three or four to twelve or fifteen feet in height. If simply left alone the “striplands” would become covered with bot- tomland forests in most cases in 25 or 30 years. The re- vegetation process could be greatly hastened of course by artificial planting, and it is probable that reforestation would be the most suitable economical means of reclaim- ing these lands. TITLE: GEOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISIONS OF CUMBERLAND COUNTY, ILLI- NOIS. LEGEND. Upland prairie of the western border of the county. Inter-stream upland prairies. Forest Area of the western creeks. Forest area of the Embarrass and the eastern creeks. Morainal outwash plains of the northern border. OTE: The east-west extent is 25 miles. St es See CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS Illinois Academy of Science CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I. NAME This Society shall be known as THE ILLINOIS STATE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ARTICLE II. OBJECTS The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific re- search, the diffusion of seientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. ARTICLE III. MEMBERS The membership of the Academy shall consist of Active Members, Non-resident Members, and Life Members. Active Members shall be persons who are interested in scientific work and are residents of the State of Illinois. Each active member shall pay an initiation fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of one dollar. Non-resident Members shall be persons who have been members of the Academy but have removed from the State. Their duties and privilges shall be the same as those of active members except that they may not hold office. Life Members shall be active or non-resident members who have paid fees to the amount of twenty dollars. They shall be free from further annual dues. For election to any class of membership the candidate’s name must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the committee on membership, and receive the assent of three-fourths of the members voting. All workers in science present at the organization meeting who sign the constitution, upon payment of their initiation fee and their annual dues for 1908, become charter members. ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice-Presi- dent, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The chief of the Division of State Museum of the Department of Registration and Edu- cation of the state government shall be the Librarian of the Academy. All other officers shall be chosen by ballot on recommendation of a nom- inating committee, at an annual meeting, and shall hold office for one year or until their successors qualify. They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respective ' offices. 290 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 291 It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires. The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and ma- terial property belonging to the Academy. ARTICLE VY. COUNCIL The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, and the president of the preceding year. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs of the Acad- emy during the intervals between regular meetings. The Board of State Museum Advisers, created under the provisions of the Civil Administrative Code of Illinois shall be onsulted by the officers of the Academy in all matters which concern the general policy of the Academy in its relations to the Division of State Museum. ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Publication and a Committee on Membership and such other committees as the Academy shall from time to time deem desirable, The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the Librarian, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen annually by the Academy. ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be called by the Council and shall be called upon written request of twenty mem- bers. ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATION The regular publications of the Academy shall include the transac- tions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable by the Committee on Publication. All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Academy. ARTICLE TX. AFFILIATION The Academy may enter into such relations of affiliation with other organizations of appropriate character as may be recommended by the Council and be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the mem- bership present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of the desired change has been sent by the Secretary to all members at least twenty days before such meeting. > ee 292 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE BY-LAWS he The following shall be the regular order of business : 1. Call to order. Reports of officers. Reports of standing committees. » & SS Election of members. Reports of special committees. Appointment of special committees. Unfinished business. ’ New business. OMAR A Election of officers. = S Program, Adjournment. II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’ previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members. III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy. A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order signed by the President and Secretary. Vv. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the mr 33), shall have their names stricken from the roll. VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale, and exchange of the published transactions of the Academy, under such re- strictions as may be imposed by the Council, VII. The presiding officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a committee of three who shall examine he report in writing upon the account of the Treasurer. VIII. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the program unless the manuscript or an abstract of the same shall have been previously deliv- ered to the Secretary. Papers presented in absentia, shall be read by title only, unless the Academy votes to hear them. IX. The Secretary and Treasurer shall have their expenses paid from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meetings and annual meetings. Other members of th council may have their expenses paid while attending meetings of the council, other than those in con- nection with annual meetings. X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote of the members present at any regular meeting. List of Members _LIFE MEMBERS (Revised December, 1919) ’ . *Andrews, C. W., LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago. (Sci. Bibliog. *Bain, SW G., M. D., St. John’s Hospital, Springfield. (Bacteriology.) Barber, F. D., M. S., State Normal University, Normal. (Physics,) Barnes, R. M., LL. D., Lacon. (Zoology.) Barnes, William, M. D., Decatur. (Lepidoptera.) *Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., State Water Survey, Urbana. (Chemistry.) Chamberlain, C. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) Chamberlin, T. C., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.) *Cowles, H. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) *Crew, Henry, Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Physics.) - *Crook, A, R., Ph. D., State Museum, Springfield. (Geology.) Davis, Mrs. Robert L., A. B. (Edna K. Rentchler), Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Deal, Don W., M. D., Leland Office Building, Springfield. (Medicine.) *Farrington, O. C., Ph. D., Field Museum, Chicago. (Mineralogy.) Ferriss, J. H., Joliet. (Botany.) *Forbes, S. A., Ph. D., LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. ( Zoology.) Fuller, Geo. D., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) *Gates, Frank C., Ph. D., State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans. Hagler, E. E., M. D., Capitol and Fourth Sts., Springfield. (Oculist.) Hankinson, T. L., A. M., N. Y. College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y. (Zoology. ) *Hessler, J. C., Ph. D., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Chemistry.) Hinkley, A. A., Dubois. (Conchology.) Hoskins, William, 111 W. Monroe St., Chicago. (Chemistry. ) Hunt, Robert I., Decatur. (Soils.) Jordan, Edwin O., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Bacteri- ology.) Kunz, Jacob, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics.) Latham, Vida A., M. D., D. D. 8., 1644 Morse Ave., Chicago. (Micro- scopy. ) Lillie, F. R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.) Marshall, Ruth, Ph. D., Lane Technical High School, Chicago. (Zoology. ) Miller, G. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Mathematics.) Moffatt, Mrs. Lizzie M., Wheaton. Moffatt, Will S., 105 S. LaSalle St., Chicago. (Botany.) *Noyes, W. A., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.) *Oglevee, C. S., Se. D., Lincoln College, Lincoln. (Biology.) Payne, Edward W., State National Bank, Springfield. (Archaeology.) *Pepoon, H. S., M. D., Lake View High School, Chicago. (Botany.) Pricer, J. L., A. M., State Normal University, Normal. (Botany.) Smith, Frank, A. M., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.) *Smith, Isabel Seymour, M. S., Illinois College, Jacksonville. (Botany.) *Smith, L. H., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Plant Breeding.) Stevenson, A. L., Lincoln School, 1808 Morse Ave., Chicago. Stillhamer, A. G., Bloomington. (Physics.) Sykes, Mabel, B. S., South Chicago High School, Chicago. (Geology.) Trelease, William, LL. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.) Ward, Henry B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.) Washburn, E. W., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry. ) Weller, Annie, L., State Normal School, Charleston. *Charter members. 293 294 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Weller, Stuart, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Paleon- tology.) 3 Zeleny, Charles, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.) ACTIVE MEMBERS Adams, Wm. J., A. M., 238 Holton St., Galesburg. (Biological Science.) Ashman, George C., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Chemistry.) Alexander, Alida, B, S., 231 W. College Ave., Jacksonville. (Biology.) Andras, J. C., Manchester. (Biology.) *Atwell, Chas. B., Ph. M., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.) Baird, Grace J., A. B., 5605 Dorchester Ave., Chicago. (Biology.) Baker, Frank C., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Conchology.) Baker, W. J., Galesburg. (Chemistry. ) Ball, John R., A. M., 820 Hamilton St., Evanston. (Geology.) Barwell, John William, Waukegan. (Anthropology.) Baumeister, George F., B. S., Aledo. (Biology and Chemistry.) Bayley, W. S., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.) Beal, James Hartley, Sc.D., 801 W. Nevada St., Urbana. (Pharma- ceutical Research.) Bensley, Robert R., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Anatomy.) Bergner, E. A., M. §., 315 S. Church St., Jacksonville. (Physics.) Blake, Anna M., 8. B., 203 N. School St., Normal. (Botany and Physi- ology.) Blount, Ralph E., 124 8. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park. (Geography. ) Bonnell, Clarence, Township High School, Harrisburg. (Biology.) Burge, William E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physi- ology.) Butcher, B. H., A. B., Canton. (Science Education.) Braun, HE. J., B. E., Normal. (Biology. ) Cann, Jessie Y., Ph.D., 602 S. Lincoln Ave., Urbana. (Chemistry.) Carey, J. P., B. S., Charleston. (Geog. and Geol.) Carlston, A. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physiology.) *Carpenter, Chas. K., D. D., 311 Park St., Elgin. (Ornithology.) Cederberg, Wm. E., Ph.D., Augustana College, Rock Island. Mathe- matics. ) Chamberlin, Rollin T., Hyde Park Hotel, Chicago. (Geology.) Child, C. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.) Clark, H. Walton, A. M., U. S. Biological Station, Fairport, Iowa. (Bot- any and Zoology.) Clute, W. N. Joliet. (Botany.) Coffin, Fletcher B., Ph. D., Lake Forest. (Physical Chemistry. ) Compton, James §8., Eureka College, Eureka. (Biology.) Cook, Nettie M., 405 W. Monroe St., Springfield. (Botany.) *Coulter, John G., Ph. D., Chicago. (Botany.) Covington, E. Gray, M. D., 410 E. Market St., Bloomington. (Medicine.) *Coulter, John M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) *Crandall, Chas. S., M. S., University of Illinois, Urbana, (Botany.) Crocker, William, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) Crowe, A. B., A. M., Eastern State Normal School, Charleston. (Physics. ) Daniels, F. B., Pullman Building, Chicago. Davis, N. S., M. D., 470 W. California St., Pasadena, Calif. (Medicine. ) Davis, Roy E., B. A., Aurora High School, Aurora. (Physiology.) DeWolf, F. W., B. S., Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana. (Geology. ) Downing, Elliott R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology. ) Dufford, R. J., 1117 Ayars Place, Evanston. (Physics.) Ekblaw, W. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Geology.) *Charter members. LIST OF MEMBERS 295 Eldredge, Anthony G., Physics Building, University of Illinois, Urbana, (Photography. ) = Englis, Duane T., Ph. D., Chemistry Building. U. of L. (Chemistry.) Eyeman, R. L., B. S., Jerseyville. (Agriculture.) Faust, Ernest Carroll, Ph. D., 333 Nat. Hist. Building, Urbana. ( Zoology.) Finley, J. Orton, Oneida. (Agriculture.) *Fisher, Fannie, Assistant Curator, State Museum, Springfield. (Gen- eral Interest.) Flint, W. P.. Assistant State Entomologist, 1006 S. Orchard St, Urbana. (Entomology.) ‘ Foberg, J. Albert, B. S., 4031 N. Avers Ave., Chicago. ( Mathematics.) Folsom, Justus W., Sec. D., University of, Mlinois Urbana. ( Entomology.) ; Frank, O. D., 1464 Vermont St.. Quincy. (Botany.) Frison, T. H., University of Illinois. (Entomology,) Gantz, R. A., A. B., 411 N. Talley St.. Muncie. Ind. (Botany.) Gault, B. T., 2313 Washington Blvd., Chicago. (Ornithology.) Gerhard, William J., Field Museum, Chicago. Geussenhainer, Lilah, A. M., State Normal University, Normal. (Home Economics. } Glasgow, R. D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Entomology.) Glenn, P. A., A. M., 50644 W. High St., Urbana. Goode, J. Paul, Ph. D., 6227 Kimbark Ave., Chicago. (Geography.) Grant, U. S., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geology.) Griffith. H. E., A. M., Knox College, Galesburg. (Chemistry.) Gurley, Wm. F. E., 6151 Lexington Ave., Chicago. (Paleontology.) Haas, William H., A. M., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Geog- raphy.) Hansen, Paul, State Department of Public Health, Springfield. (Sani- tation.) Harding, H. A., Ph. D., University of Dlinois, Urbana. (Bacteriology.) Harkins, William D., Ph. D., 5437 Ellis Ave., Chicago. (Chemistry.) Harmon, C. F., M. D., 31844 S. Sixth St.. Springfield. (Medicine.) Harriman, E. H,, A. M., High School, Springfield. (Chemistry and Physics. ) Harris, Charles L., Macomb. (Archaeology.) Hartin, Fred, B. E., Price. Utah. (Biology.) Haupt, Arthur W., Carthage College, Carthage. (Botany.) Hemenway, Henry B., A. M., M. D., 217 Blackman Place, Springfield. (Public Health.) Henderson, William F., B. A., 1345 W. Forest Ave., Decatur. (Biology.) Hubbs, Carl L., A. M.. Museum of Zoology, Ann Arbor, Mich. ( Zoology.) Hildebrand, L. E., A. M., 808 Hamlin St., Evanston. (Zoology.) *Hill, W. K., Carthage College, Carthage. (Biology.) Hinchliff, Grace, 419 College Ave., DeKalb. Hines, Murray A., Ph. D., 1704 Hinman Ave.. Evanston. (Chemistry.) Hitch, C. Bruce, B. E.. Township High School, Eureka. (Botany.) Hoffman, Leslie R., 213 Baker Ave., Joliet. (Entomology.) Holgate, T. F., LL. D., 617 Library St., Evanston. (Mathematics.) Hottes, C. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.) House, Edward O., Ph. D., 317 S. 8th St., Monmouth. (Chemistry.) Husted, Ward W.. B. S., 256 S. Cedar St., Galesburg. (Chemistry.) Hyde, L. H., Ph. D., 502 S. Eastern Ave., Joliet. (Geology.) Illinois State Library, State House. Springfield. Jamison, A. W., M. S., Agricultural Extension, University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics.) Jelliff, Fred R., A. B., Galesburg. (Geology.) Johnson, Frank Seward, M. D., 2521 Prairie Ave., Chicago. 296 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCH Johnson, Geo. F., 625 Black Ave., Springfield. (Astronomy.) Jones, Jas. H., B. S., 2106 Maple Ave., Evanston. (Biology. ) Kempton, F. E., M. S., Botany Annex, Urbana. (Plant Pathology.) ay ay Kingsley, J. S., D. Se., 1011 W. California Ave., Urbana. (Zoology.) — Kinnear, T. J., M. D., Ridgely Bank Building, Springfield. (Medicine.) ’ Kisler, L. P., Roanoke. “f *Knipp, Chas. T., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Physics. ) Ay Kreider, G. M., M. D., 522 Capitol Ave., Springfield. (Surgery.) ea Krummel, Grace, East St. Louis High School, East St. Louis. (Physies.) Kuh, Sidney, M. D., 31 N, State St., Chicago. (Medicine.) q Land, W. J. G., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Botany.) ms Langford, Geo., B. S., Joliet. (Paleontology. ) y Lanphier, Robert C., Ph. B., Sangamon Electric Co., Springfield. (Hlee- 1M tricity.) Larson, Karl, A. B., Augustana College, Rock Island. (Chemistry.) ro Lambert, Earl L., B. S., Carthage. (Botany and Zoology.) . Hs Lightbody, Ernest R., B. E., Weldon. (Biology.) Lindsey, Clara, High School, White Hall. (Biology. ) if Linder, O. A., 208 N. Fifth Ave., Chicago. (Editor “Svenska-Amerikan-: hi aren.’ ) Linkins, R. H., A. M., 206 N. Main St., Normal. (Zoology.) Longden, A. C., Ph. D., Galesburg. (Physics.) Lutes, Neil, 168 Wilson Aveé., Dubuque, Ia. (Chemistry.) Lyon, Thomas E., LL. B., Hay Building, Springfield. (Lawyer. ) MacFarland, D. F., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.) MasGillivray, A. D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Ento- mology.) MaclInnes, F. Jean, B. S., 614 Michigan Ave., Urbana. (Plant Path- } ology.) | McAuley, Faith, High School, St. Charles. (Botany.) McCauley, Geo. V., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Physics.) McCoy, Herbert N., Ph. D., 6030 Kenwood Ave., Chicago. (Chemistry.) McDougall, W. B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Botany.) McMillan, Mary Ann, A. B., Carthage. (Botany.) MeNallys, John L., 313 E. John St., Champaign. McNutt, Wade, Township High School, Highland Park. (Botany.) Marks, Sarah, A. B., Pecatonica. (Biology.) Mathews, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physi- ological Chemistry.) Mecham, John B., Ph. B., 118 8. Center St., Joliet, Merry, Jessie B., S. B., 126 BE. Fifth St., St. Charles. (Biology.) Metzner, Albertine E., M. S., 326 S. Church St., Jacksonville. (Physics.) Michelson, A. A., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physics.) Millikan, R. A., Se. D., 5605 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago. (Physics.) Millspaugh, Chas. F., M. D., Field Museum, Chicago. (Botany.) Miller, Marion, A. B., 760 W. North St., Jacksonville. (Biology.) Montgomery, Chas. E., A. B., DeKalb. (Botany.) Moulton, F. R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Astronomy.) Mumford, H. W., B. 8., University of Illinois. (Animal Husbandry.) Neiberger, William E., M. D., Bloomington. (Eugenics.) Neifert, Ira E., M. S., 806 E. Knox St., Galesburg. (Chemistry.) Neill, Alma J., A. M., 401 8. Wright St., Champaign. (Physiology.) Nelson, C, Z., 584 Hawkingor Ave., Galesburg. (Botany.) Newman, H. H., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.) Nichols, H. W., B. S., Field Museum, Chicago. (Geology.) North, E. M., B. A., Galesburg. (Geology, Astronomy and Pedagogy.) Packard, W. H., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria. (Biology.) Palmer, Geo. Thos., M. D., Prince Sanitarium, Springfield. (Medicine.) Parker, Bertha M., S. B., 5707 Kimbark Ave., Chicago. (Gen. Sci. and Botany.) LIST OF MEMBERS 297 *Parr, S. W., M. S.; University of Illinois, Urbana. (Chemistry.) Patterson, Alice J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal. (Ento- mology and Nature Study.) Phipps, Charles Frank, M. §., State Normal School, DeKalb. (Physics and Chemistry. ) Ray, Ward L., A. M., Aledo. (Chemistry.) Rathbone, W. V., Harrisburg. (Ornithology.) Reiffel, M. I., 3510 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago. (Botany.) Rice, William F., A. M., Wheaton College, Wheaton. (Physics.) Richardson, R. E., Ph. D., Havana. (Zoology.) Ricker, N. C., D. Arch., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Architecture.) Ridgley, D. C., State Normal University, Normal. (Geography.) Ridgway, Robert, M. S., 1030 S. Morgan St., Route 7, Olney. (Orni- thology.) Risley, W. J., A. M., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Mathe- matics. ) Robb, Mary E., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geography. ) Robinson, C. H., Normal. (Archaeology.) Root, Clarence J., U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield. (Climatology.) Rost, Louis N., Macomb. (Archaeology.) Salisbury, R. D., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Geology.) Savage, T. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Stratigraphic Geology. ) Sayers, Frank E., B. 8., M. D., Fisher. (Public Health.) Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., 926 W. Green St., Urbana. (Physics.) Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 535 Black Ave., Springfield. (Chemistry.) Shaw, L. I, Ph. D., University Club, Evanston. (Chemistry.) Shelford, V. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Zoology.) *Simpson, Q. I., Palmer. (Eugenics. ) Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago. Smallwood, Mabel E., 550 Surf St., Chicago. (Zoology.) Smith, Eleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet. *Smith, C. H., M.E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago. (Editor School Science.) Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, Highland Park. Smith, Kieth K., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston. Smith, Sylvia, B. E., Evanston. (Biology.) Soyer, Bessie, F. 8., 315 S. Church St., Jacksonville. (Biology.) Sperry, Holland R., Galesburg. (Biology.) Spicer, C. E. Joliet. (Chemistry. ) Stark, Mabel C., Ph. B., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Earth Science. ) Stevens, F. L., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana. (Plant Pathol- ogy.) Stevens, W. A., B. A., Lockport. (Chemistry.) *Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewiston. (Medicine. ) Strong, Harriet, B. S., Wheaton. (Biology.) Tyler, A. A., Ph. D., James Millikin University, Decatur. (Biology.) Tiffany, Hanford, Ohio State University, Columbus, O. (Botany.) *Townsend, E. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana, (Mathematics.) Townsley, Fred D., A. B., James Millikin University, Decatur. Trapp, A. R., M. D., Ill. Nat’l Bank Building, Springfield. (Medical Diagnosis. ) Turton, Chas, M., A. M., 2059 E. 72nd St., Chicago. (Physics.) Udden, Anton D., 29 Snell Hall, University of Chicago, Chicago. (Physics and Mathematics. ) Van Cleave, H. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois. (Zoology.) Vestal, A. G., Ph. D., Eastern State Normal School, Charleston. (Ecology. ) Wade, Esther, B. S., 421 W. Grove Ave., Oak Park. (Botany.) Wager, R. E., A. M., Northern State Normal School, DeKalb. (Biology.) 298 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Waggoner, H. D., Ph. D., 224 Ward St., Macomb. (Biology.) % Walsh, John, 282 W. Berrien St., Galesburg. (Water Supply.) 6 Bi Warrum, Jesse J., A. B., Macomb. (Chemistry.) 4 Waterman, Warren G., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany. ) Weaver, Holla E., 714 Lincoln Ave., Charleston. (Biology.) Weckel, Ada L., M. S., Twp. High School, Oak Park. (Zoology.) Wells, C. C., Ph. D., 1006 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago. (Chemistry.) Wescott, O. S., Waller High School, Chicago. Whitten, J. H., Ph. D., 7111 Normal Ave., Chicago. (Botany.) Wells, M. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Zoology.) Wilczynscki, E. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago. (Mathe- matics. ) Willard, Alice, M. A., 704 N. Cherry St. Galesburg. Wilson, Eva M., M. D., Manhattan. (Medicine.) Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 609 Michigan Ave., Urbana. (Entomology.) Winslow, Charles A., 2125 Sherman Ave., Evanston. (Geology.) Winter, S. A., A. M., Lombard College, Galesburg. Wirdlinger, Sidney, Ph. D., Galesburg. (Chemistry.) Wirick, C. M., A. M., Crane Technical High School, Chicago. (Chem- istry.) Woods, F. C., Galesburg. (Physics.) Woodburn, William L., Northwestern University, Evanston. (Botany.) Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Academy of Science, Chicago. (Taxi- dermy.) Zehren, Karl C., Flanagan. (Agriculture.) CORRESPONDING MEMBERS Abbott, J, F., Ph. D., Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. (Zoology.) Coulter, S. M., Ph. D., Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. (Botany.) Eycleshimer, A. C., Ph. D., University of Illinois Medical College, Chi- cago. (Anatomy.) Lyon, E. P., Ph. D., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. (Physiol- ogy.) Turner, C. H., Sumner High School, St. Louis, Mo. (Zoology.) Widman, O., Ph. D., 5105 Morgan St., St. Louis, Mo. (Ornithology.) NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS Bagley, W, C., Ph. D., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. (Educational Psychology.) *Betten, Cornelius, Ph. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. (Biology.) Bleininger, A. V., U. S. Geological Survey, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Ceramics.) *Clawson, A. B., A. B.,Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. ( Biology.) Daniels, L. E., Rolling Prairie, Ind., R. R. No. 2. (Conchology.) *Davis, J. J., B. S., Entomological Laboratory, Riverton, N. J. (Entomology. ) DuBois, Henry M., A. M., LeGrand, Oregon. (Geology.) *Ewing, H. E., Ph. D., State College, Ames, Iowa. (Zoology.) Finley, C. W., A. M., Lincoln School of Teachers College, New York. ( Zoology.) Greene, Bessie, A. M., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo, ( Zoology.) Greenman, J. M., Ph. D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. (Botany. ) Groves, J. F., Ph. D., University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo, (Botany.) Guberlet, J. E., Ph. D., Oklahoma A. E. M. College, Stillwater, Okla, tation. ) *Hutton, J. Gladden, M. S., State College, Brookings, S. Dak. (Geology.) MacInnes, D. A., Ph. D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cam- bridge, Mass. (Chemistry.) Mohlman, F. W., 548 Orange St., New Haven, Conn. (Chemistry.) 45 ‘ 5 * TaN rbol ’ See Bae at y Gaps Gira Girardeau, Mo. (Geogra- ee ‘Clarence a A Cas U. S. tee Survey, Washington, D POLOS gy.) "H. C., Ph. D., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. : ‘an Tuyl, Francis M., Ph. D., Colorado School of Mines, Boulder, So olo petGroloer) - . pr, H. C. 1 Ph. D., Westinghouse Electric Co., stags.’ ~ Fey : q q “ Jeo oe RN ont vine CAL x \ TRANSACTIONS OF THE | Illinois State Academy of Science THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETIN G ~ DANVILLE February 20-21, 1920 VOLUME Xiil [Published by Authority of the State of Tilinois.} - . nthe = ee ae ’ ae at 47 eae as Sey ae * >, ph * TRAN SACTIONS. 1+ OF THE 3 - TMlinois State Academy of Science "THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING © DANVILLE February 20-21, 1920 = VOLUME XIII Edited by A. R. Crook, Acting Secretary. [Published by Authority of the State of Illinois.] Scunepp & Barnes, PRINTERS é 1920. 38866—1M Table of Contents PAGE BIOtCEES AND COMMITTEES FOR 1920-210 05.020 ose. ccc ek sce ceeees 5 See eRe ORTH: ACADMMN Ye 2. cicis bis os vie o's ma oiea 8 kw isie atoleees 6 MINUTES OF THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING.................4.- 9 PRRIMEEE DORs TITS) SROREVARV a) o 5, Sao Swloais o Sosa ere bases we ee See ee 15 SR gE Fee EEE POEE ooo ween oe ao oe SE Re Ca we ae OREO 18 PeRENINCGEY LGTREAREANY oc. oo occ a aie chou ae Cowie ho waa One wan Gee ee 19 PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST: The Development of Smokeless Fuel From Illinois Coal, S. Wicbarr. UNnivGrsiky.. Gis LlnOISa. fo.) ess occ wn Sok cae ae The Irwin Expedition About Cerro De Pasco and Lake Titicaca, William Ray Allen, University of Illinois................ Preserves of Natural Conditions, Victor E. Shelford, University FE PPMIATIOISS, Soa Sic Semi as oo eee ee kinls ee OK omlne eau oe oe Gaining and Losing Power, Casper L. Redfield, Chicago..... Report on the Progress and Condition of the Illinois State Museum; A> RR: Crook, Sprivipield.cc. osc aS. ocean e fees PAPERS ON MEDICINE, PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION: Some Comments on the Present Status of Tuberculosus, Walter Gelvin Bain, St. John’s Hospital, Springfield...... A Statistical Study of Influenza in Illinois, Fiscal Year, July 1, 1918-June 30, 1919, Henry B. Hemenway, Dist. Health Office, Div. of Vital Statistics, Springfield................ Sanitary Districts in Illinois, G. C. Habermeyer and Edward ETERS UE EMER eee hit ees te wk are te a on cee PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY: A Possible Interpretation of the Synchronous Flashing of Fireflies, Christian A. Ruckmick, University of Illinois.. The Cumulative Effect of Rotational Increments, Coleman 2 Grinch UPL VCESia ye ik PIEOISS <-02",.0 2 ais pio Sa eek cokes Evidence that Catalase is the Enzyme in Animals and Plants Principally Responsible for Oxidation, W. E. Burge, Uni- MEESICY sO INGE cra ok ec oes oie week cis cs Bae See Rae Cause of the Increase in the Respiratory Metabolism in the Fertilized Ovum, W. E. Burge, University of Illinois.... PAPERS ON BoTANY: Sooty Blotch of Pomaceous Fruits, Arthur S. Colby, Uni- CSEG Ws CRM EE EEEORISS rae pete tte ens Oe Us wos Si a dain tite The Genus Septoria, Presented in Tabulation with Discussion, Philip Garman and F. L. Stevens, University of Illinois.. Progress in Barberry Eradication in Illinois During 1919, L. R. Tehon, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Urbana...... Forest Distribution at the Ends of the Lake Chicago Beaches, Lillian Marguerite Simmons, Northwestern University.. 96 109 122 136 176 226 ECU eae ee i “— Distribution of Oaks on the Lake Chicago Bars in Evanstc : and New Trier Townships, W. G. Watermann, North- western University oo 3.5 cine ec cocwee sn ee Topographic Relief as a Factor in Plant Succession, Geo. D. Fuller, University of Chicago... /2..c2<2. .2s. le eee Notes on the Distribution of the Oaks and the Buckeye in LaSalle County, Illinois, Geo. D. Fuller, University of Chi- CARO eis Sein Le tots eave ew AE SR I Ee A Comparison of Soil Temperatures in Upland and Bottomland Forests, W. B. McDougall, University of Illinois.......... PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY: Physiological Life Histories of Terrestrial Animals and Mod- ern Methods of Representing Climate, Victor E. Shelford, University of Tlinoviss =. 3.00) Glos es a ee eee The Effect of Sewage and Other Pollution on Animal Life of Rivers and Streams, Frank C. Baker, Curator Museum of Natural History, University of Illinois................ 271 ; Sexual Dimorphism in the Acanthocephala, H. J. Van Cleave, ; University. of 1Minois? oe eo hes 3. ow a nis s coe ee 286 3 The Morphology of the Antorbital Process in the Urodeles, " Geo. M. Higgins, University of Illinois..................- 292 : Cnidosporidia in the Vicinity of Urbana, R. Kudo, University 2 Of Tinos. \.. 2655 os 1b va swan pee Pee eee 298 2 Some Limiting Factors in the Use of Fungus Diseases for b Combating Insect Pests, R. D. Glasgow and C. S. Spooner, Entomological Laboratories, Ill., State Natural History Survey,,.: UTVANa sy .crs cae ste shcisneks mee dines Gate ee eee 303 Notes on the Life-History of a Crane Fly of the Genus Geranomyia Haliday (Tipulidae, Diptera), C. P. Alexan- der and J. R. Malloch, State Natural History Survey, Ur- WPAN ico hae 5 hve cin dye cava nl ol wher okay kon: © Leba¥e EoPS RYOTE Oe hate nee 310 PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CIIEMISTRY: The Intercision of Pike River, Near Kenosha, Wisconsin, J. R. Ball, Northwestern University... ... ¢.:.% 2.0. e.seeeee 323 Note of a New Indicator in Water Analysis, R. E. Green- field and Edward Bartow, State Water Survey, Urbana... 326 The Absorption of the Oxides of Nitrogen Formed in the Silent Discharge, F. O. Anderegg and K. B. McEachron, Purdue -UMIVerSity <2 oa. 6 0.56 698.56 cca wb okie 0 coro eae 329 CONSTITUTION. AND BY-LAWS 52 s-oasic ms 6 vive eee Dl eee 335 List oF MEMBERS ELECTED AT DANVILLE MEETING...........-ccece- 339 TIS | OF“ WEEMBERS 5 alee, sists oe SUR Sosa’ so Se wees tons RIG ee 343 _< = OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1920-21 President, Henry C. Cowres, University of Chicago, Chicago. Vice-President, CHas. T. Knipp, University of Illinois, Urbana. Secretary,* J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. The Council. PRESIDENT, RETIRING PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENT, LIBRARIAN, SECRETARY AND TREASURER Committee on Membership. H. J. VANCLEAvVE, University of Illinois, Chairman. W. J. Ristey, James Millikin University, Decatur. W. G. Barn, Springfield. RoLtuin T. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago, Chicago. W. L. Woopsurn, Northwestern University, Evanston. Committee on Ecological Survey. Henry C. Cowtes, University of Chicago, Chicago, Chairman. Geo. D. Fuxrter, University of Chicago, Chicago. W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston. VY. E. SHELFORD, University of Illinois, Urbana. W. B. McDouvcatL, University of Illinois, Urbana. R. B. Miter, State Natural History Survey, Urbana. S. A. Forses, University of Illinois, Urbana. A. G. VEesTAL, State Normal School, Charleston. H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. CLARENCE BONNELL, Harrisburg Twp. High School, Harrisburg. Committee on Secondary School Science. C. H. SmirxH, Editor School Science and Mathematics, Chicago, Chair- man. F. D. BarBer, State Normal, University, Normal. IsABEL S. SmiTH, Illinois College, Jacksonville. Committee on High School Science Clubs. *J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal, Chairman. W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston. H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Committee on Legislation. H. C. Cow tes, Chairman, Chicago. Wm. Barnes, Decatur. E. W. Payne, Springfield. R. M. Barnes, Lacon. Gro. LANnGForp, Joliet. Committee on Publications. The President. The Secretary, Pror. W. H. Haas, Northwestern University. Committee on Publicity and Promotion. Cuas. T. Knipp, Chairman, Urbana. W. G. WATERMANN, Evanston. R. H. Linxrns, Normal. H. S. Pepoon, Chicago. * Deceased, August 1920. PAST OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY 1908 President, T. C. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago. Vice-President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. Treasurer, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. 1909 President, S. A. Forpes, University of Illinois. Vice-President, JouN M. Couttrr, University of Chicago. Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. : Treasurer, J. C. HressLer, James Millikin University. a 1910 President, JoHN M. Coutter, University of Chicago. x Vice-President, R. O. GRAHAM, Illinois Wesleyan University. : Secretary, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History. x Treasurer, J. C. HessLeR, James Millikin University. a 1911 President, W. A. Noyrs, University of Illinois. Vice-President, J. C. UppEN, University of Texas. Secretary, FRANK C. BAKER, Chicago Academy of Science. Treasurer, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. 1912 President, Henry Crew, Northwestern University. Vice-President, A. R. Crook, State Museum of Natural History Secretary, Otis W. CALDWELL, University of Chicago. Treasurer, J. C. Hesster, James Millikin University. 1913 President, FRANK W. DEWo Lr, State Geological Survey. Vice-President, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Secretary, E. N. TRANSEAU, Eastern Illinois Normal School. Treasurer, J. C. HESSLER, James Millikin University. 1914 President, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. Vice-President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University, Evanston. Secretary, Epcar N. TRANSEAU, Eastern State Normal School, Charles- ton. Treasurer, J. C. HesSLER, James Millikin University. 1915 President, U. S. Grant, Northwestern University, Evanston. Vice-President, E. W. WASHBURN, University of Illinois, Urbana. Secretary, A. R. Croox, State Museum, Springfield. Treasurer, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. 1916 President, WILLIAM TRELEASE, University of Illinois, Urbana. Vice-President, H. E. GrirrirH, Knox College, Galesburg. Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Treasurer, H. S. Pepoon, Lake View High School, Chicago. Librarian, A. R. Croox, State Museum, Springfield. 1917 President, J. C. HesstEr, James Millikin University, Decatur. Vice-President, JAMES H. Ferriss, Joliet, Secretary, J. L. Pricer, State Normal, University, Normal. Treasurer, T. L. HANKINSON, State Normal School, Charleston. Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. J. L. CER, State Not pabvarsttyy. Nepal” = eee Oy ake iabe. State Normal School, Charleston. A. R. Croox, State Museum, Her Etot : 1919 © cai. Henry B. Warp, University of Illinois, Urbana. sy eddent: Geo. D. FuLier, University of Chicago, Chicago. 8 obdaed J. L. Pricer, State Normal University, Normal. Deny urer, W. G. WATERMAN, Northwestern University, Evanston. ‘Librarian, A. R. Crook, State Museum, Springfield. LIBRARY MINUTES OF THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETINGNE\W;9 YORK z BOTANICAL — GARDEN MINUTES OF THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING The meeting was called to order in the Chamber of Commerce auditorium, Danville, at 11:00 A. M. Friday, February 20, 1920, by Dr. Henry B. Ward, President of the Academy. President Ward stated that since the minutes of the previous meeting would be printed in the transactions, they would not be read. Reports were made by the secre- tary, the treasurer, and the librarian. These reports ap- pear later in this volume. President Ward made a brief oral report for Dr. S. A. Forbes as chairman of the committee on Ecological Sur- vey. Dr Forbes was unable to attend the meeting and asked Dr. Ward to say for him that he felt that the com- mittee had about completed the work which it had orig- inally set out to do, and that therefore, he wished to re- sign as its chairman, but hoped that the committee might go forward under other leadership to do other similar work. On motion, Dr. Forbes’s resignation was accepted and Dr. Henry C. Cowles was elected to sueceed him as chairman of the committee. A motion was made and earried that Dr. Cowles should be empowered to add members to the committee at his own discretion. — J. L. Pricer made a brief oral report for the committee appointed the previous year to secure the affiliation of high school science clubs with the Academy. The com- mittee was continued with instructions to continue its efforts along this line for another year. Dr. Bain and Professor Risley were appointed as a committee on auditing and the treasurer’s report was re- ferred to this committee. After a general discussion of the matter of disposing of back numbers of the Academy Transactions, it was voted that the librarian be allowed to use his discretion -in disposing of these publications following a conserva- tive policy. APR 20 1925 10 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE After thorough discussion, the Academy voted unani- mously to become affiliated with the American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science on the terms pro- posed by the latter organization. These terms are set forth in the Secretary’s report printed later in this vol- ume. Next, the Academy voted to adopt an amendment to the constitution, in the form of a complete revision of Article III on membership. This revision includes pro- visions for the affiliated relationship with the American Association. The revised form of this article on mem- bership is printed in the constitution in this volume. After this business session, the Academy adjourned for luncheon and reassembled at the same place at 1:30 P. M. for the reading of papers. At 6:00 P M., the Academy members present and three Danville citizens enjoyed a delightful banquet and program of toasts at Elk’s Hall. At 8:15 P. M., President Ward delivered an admirable il- lustrated lecture on ‘‘Alaska and Its Riches’’, to the Academy members in attendance and a small audience of Danville people. At 8:00 A. M. Saturday morning, a large number of the Academy members made a visit to the Hegeler Zine Plant in Danville, and at 10:00 A M. another general session for the reading of papers was held. At 1:30 P. M., a brief business session was held and the remaining time until adjournment at 4:00 P. M., was devoted to the reading of papers. At the business session, 105 applicants were elected to membership in the Academy. On the recommendation of the Council, it was voted unanimously to divide the Acad- emy into six section meetings for one half day session at the 1921 annual meeting. The following sections were suggested and the Council was empowered to select chair- men for them—; Medicine and Public Health; Biology and Agriculture; Geology and Geography; Chemistry and Physics; Mathematics and allied Sciences; Eduea- tion and Psychology. ee Sa ES Rg She ekg ae ig ne ie ee PE URS ok” ce Nd Sg SLT igi 2 Gia eta 7 Sone ha pet ae ot: any sp : eS Sues — nee ed . ae ne z - » 3 ¢ ‘ * © 2 3 = MINUTES OF THE THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING il Professor Frank Smith, chairman of the committee on nominations proposed the following as officers for the en- suing year: For President—Henry C. Cowles, University of Chi- cago. For Vice President—Chas. T. Knipp, University of Tilinois. For Secretary—J. L. Pricer, State Normal University. For Treasurer—W. G. Waterman, Northwestern Uni- versity. For third member of the Publications Committee— Wm. H. Haas, Northwestern University. For membership committee—H. J. Van Cleave, Uni- versity of Illinois, chairman; W. J. Risley, James Milli- kin University; W. G. Bain, Springfield; Rollin T. Cham- berlain, University of Chicago; W. L. Woodburn, North- western University. On motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for these officers and all were declared elected. Dr. H. C. Cowles, newly elected chairman of the Com- mittee on Ecological Survey, in conference with the com- mittee on nominations, proposed the following as mem- bers of the committee: H. C. Cowles, Chairman; Geo. D. Fuller, W. G. Water- man, V. E. Shelford, W. B. McDougall, R. B. Miller, S. A. Forbes, A. G. Vestal, H. S. Pepoon, Clarence Bonnell. On motion, these were declared elected as members of the committee. The committee on nominations suggested that the President appoint a committee on legislation. About 100 members of the Academy and four delegates from the Indiana Academy of Science attended the meet- ing. More papers were offered for the program than could be presented in the time, and several had to be read by title only. The meeting was highly successful in every way except that the local people of Danville, al- most completely failed to attend any of the sessions. J. L. Pricer, Secretary. « i “hy ee : i a} 71 ae » Ped ee, Fe) Mar CE OL et ery) ALON! Gea aN Mert Reports of Officers REPORTS OF OFFICERS 15 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY A meeting of the Council of the Academy was held at Urbana, Sept. 28, 1919 with the following members pres- ent: Ward, Crook, Waterman, and Pricer. Dr. H. J. Van Cleave, third member of the Committee on Publica- tions also met with the Council. The first matter of business was that of the publication of Volumes XI and XII of the Transactions. After due discussion, the Librarian was instructed to make requi- sition on the Superintendent of Printing of the State for the printing of the two volumes in editions of not less than 1,000 copies each. It is probable that the $750.00 available from the State for printing during the fiscal: year ending June 30, 1920 will not be sufficient to pay for the two volumes, but the shortage will not be very great for the State has a good contract for printing which will make the cost much less than it would be through a pri- vate printer. The Council and the Committee on Publications jointly considered the matter of furnishing free reprints of papers to authors. Considering the fact that the editions of the Transactions must be small, and the further fact that reprints constitute an excellent form for the dis- semination of papers, it was decided to establish as a per- manent policy of the Academy to furnish authors with 100 copies of their papers in reprint form, the authors to pay for special covers if they desire them. It was also decided that the reprints should bear on the back page a brief statement concerning the Academy, such as the number of years it has been organized, the number of members, the conditions of membership, the terms on which back numbers of Transactions may be had ete. Considerable delay was experienced in getting the papers of these two volumes together. Most of the papers on the forestry survey were presented at the meeting last year in only tentative form, and the most of them were re-written and new drawings made. A good many of those who presented papers at the Joliet meeting had removed from the State, and were hard to locate. Fi- nally, however, most of the papers were brought together ities Die las Oe Ar tp. orate 16 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE and prepared for the printer, and they have been in the hands of the State Superintendent of Printing since about the first of last month. I am expecting the galley proof any day. Proof will be sent to the authors for correction, and both volumes should be ready for dis- tribution within the next two months. The next matter of business of the Council meeting was the selection of the present place of meeting and the planning of the present program. These may speak for themselves without further comment. During the St. Louis meeting of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, the President, the Librarian and the Secretary met with the Committee on Affiliations, of the A. A. A. S., where the terms of affiliations between state and local academies and the American Association were considered and perfected as finally adopted by the Council of the Association. These terms of affiliation as reported in Science Jan. 9, 1920, are as follows: 1. That state and local academies may be affiliated with the association on a financial basis that will yield the association $4.00 net per member. 2. That any state or local academy which concludes arrangements for affiliation within the first six months of 1920 may be accepted for the entire year 1920, fees paid to the association before that date to be adjusted in accordance with the detailed plan. 3. Two alternative plans are considered with respect to membership in the academies, namely: (a) All members of the academy to become members of the association. (b) To establish two grades of membership, of which one will be national, involving membership in both the academy and the association, the other local, consisting of academy members only. 4, The academies will collect joint dues and transmit the association’s share to the treasurer. Following the adoption of these terms of affiliation by the American Association, the President and the Secre- tary of the Academy have taken it upon themselves to REPORTS OF OFFICERS 17 anticipate the acceptance of the terms by the Academy, by offering membership in the Academy and through the Academy in the American Association, in accordance with the terms of affiliation. About a month ago, the Secretary sent a letter and circular to something over seven hundred members of the A. A. A. S., living within the state, who are not members of the Academy inviting them to become members of the Academy on the payment of one dollar admission fee. As the report of the mem- bership committee will show, a large number have ac- cepted this invitation. It is hoped that many of the present local members of the Academy will improve this opportunity to become members of the Association. RECOMMENDATIONS In the original constitution of the Academy, we find the statement that the Council shall consist of certain officers, and ‘‘a Chairman of each section that may be organized.’’ This provision was omitted from the con- stitution by amendment, at the Joliet meeting when we were in the depths of dispair, over continued failure to secure proper recognition from the State. Conditions have so reversed themselves, now however that it is the belief of the Secretary that this provision should be re- vived, and certain sections organized. It has been our custom to have three half-day sessions and an evening session. I believe that one of these half day sessions might well be devoted to section meetings and that suit- able sections should be organized for this purpose. Bot- any, zoology, and geology have usually furnished large numbers of papers, and we could surely have strong section meetings in these, but it seems to me that we should have almost equally strong sections representing other sciences if we had a suitable organization. Phy- sics and chemistry might go together, physiology might join with zoology or botany, geography and geology might go together. In our general programs, we have paid a good deal of attention to medicine and public health, we ought to have a section representing this. We have also had a good many papers on the science of edu- i eiritpet iene Wechiee Me Menge Sila opt 18 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE cation and education in science, we could have a section representing this. A few prominent mathematicians, have been faithful members of the Academy and at least one of these has suggested the desirability of having a section for mathematics. I believe that the organization of such sections would tend to at once broaden and in- tensify interest in the Academy, and to increase its use- fulness. I hope that the suggestion will be fully consid- ered, at the proper time. J. L. Priczr, Secretary. REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR THE YEAR 1919-20 RECEIPTS acum Hand, March 24, VOLO. ea. a eee $ 17.28 Membership. dues collected... 2.51... eter le oe 176.35 iaantrom: sale-ol. transactions. 4... iee4 ac vee 55.00 Atal FECCIDISG. Chak ake eee ae ae Pee $248.63 DISBURSEMENTS Stationery, postage and other expenses of officers.$ 61.76 echine@e on, Cheeks 2-0. 3.) Sen Pye wees seme te ae 1.10 Paid in printer’s bill for past volumes of trans- OTIS Fs cle Fock 85 od SOR ee eee a ee oe ee 129,24 fe otivon hand: feb. 20; 1920025 .o bas nae cae 56.93 $248.63 We the undersigned have examined the above accounts and have checked the amounts against the vouchers. We find the same correct. Water G. Barn, W. J. Ristey. The auditing committee also requested and approved the following statement of financial status Feb. 20, 1920: Pele: ATIC. 2 cer oe as on cis a’ 6 oo $ 56.53 Bills ‘recervable—back (diés oo a i ee eee 136.50 Bills receivable—back dues donors.............. 17.00 210.03 Bills payable and approved Miller Printing Co., Wa laANCe. 20852 eee eS ease he eee $103.95 REPORT OF LIBRARIAN ew is a list of volumes sold for the year 1919, up to Bethenny 15, 1920. Volume Name : Price ea VI Syracuse Uni. Book Store....... $75 - —_ xX Amer. Museum Natural History... .75 “s VI-X Eastern Ill. State Normal........ 3.00 5 X U.S. Dept. of Agriculture........ -15 ay ao X Brooklyn Botanic Garden........ 73 in stamps i. X U.S. Geol. Surv. Library........ 75 a a > IX Baker & Taylor Co., New York... .75 in stamps = Set N. Y. Botanical Garden.......... 5.00 IX Baker & Taylor Co., New York... .75 in stamps rt X U.S. Dept. of the Interior........ 75 ; set~ Iowa: State College...........2.. 5.50 — Set University of Michigan.......... 5.50 i Set Withers Pub. Library, Blooming- . WI As eA wa et ee 5.50 VI-X State University of Iowa........ 3.75 Set New York College of Forestry.... 5.50 Set University of Missouri Library... 5.50 Set New York Public Library........ 5.50 Gira CRON | Plea ee. Ss 2 cet oe 5.50 $56.25 Retained in stamps.............. 1.50 = Handed to treasurer............ $54.75 Checks for these amounts were sent to the treasurer as received. 7 - The following volumes paid for by the State were sent _ In exchange gratis. Volume Name Price Pie New vOrk: Hunie. PINTATY. — oc cic Sot ee we eee oe eke Gratis © Be Clty, PICBe GE ASTICUIUFCS. oo n= ae cw ae no soa cine = Pen Ws ot COlSPIGal sy SUE. SaDEArY. 2 7. < S255 he ed ale ee = Pie Winige. Muscat NEARY. CoN one a ce ka Ge ke hee eee = <2 EVV. ix Representative’ B. -M. Mitchell... ............- 5.008% = Peet Mmokonaree: Colere. oo. 2205-6 os ccc cce se see cere cee eae = A. R. Crook, Librarian. . ‘« 5 “= td Me & ay! ~~ y AS ae, uf e ; ed eal i Ms . ; hs ‘ an ) ‘i: a oT hie Aa. heey y ~ mM <>) 8 c= z i”) & S 2 O) om ee ee <~ THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMOKELESS FUEL FROM ILLINOIS COAL S. W. Parr, University oF LiirNots Experiments directed toward the modification of the character of Illinois coals were begun in 1902, coincident with the strike of the miners in the anthracite field of Pennsylvania. While the lack of anthracite coal in the Illinois markets had none of the distressing features re- sulting from the hard coal famine of New England, still, the inconvenience was marked and the question very naturally arose as to whether we might not provide our own fuel of a smokeless type by devising some process of treatment applicable to Dllinois coals which would bring them within the range of substitutes for anthracite. The first published results of these experiments were given in the Year Book for 1906, issued as Bulletin No. - 4 of the Illinois State Geological Survey, under the title ‘“‘The Anthracizing of Bituminous Coal’’. This rather ambitious program and announcement seems, as we look back upon it, to be appropriately characterized as the ex- uberant expression of anticipatory zeal. At least, after the passing of ten or twelve years filled rather strenu- ously with investigational activities along this line, there is evidence of a greater mildness of announcement, if not born of wisdom then perhaps of experience and the very positive discovery of how much we do not know about coal. However, a stage has been reached in recent months where we can properly consider that one chapter has been completed and another begun. The line of demarka- tion between chapters is not very distinct and the divi- sion relates more to the fact that a degree of progress has been attained where industrial scale operations are warranted and indeed essential before any final conclu- sions can be drawn as to the practicability of utilizing the results of purely scientific or laboratory investiga- tions. Of course, it will not be possible in eight or ten minutes to give any detail of the points covered by eighteen years PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 23 24 of work. Besides, a few accessory facts must be given, since these are essential to a fair appreciation of the rela- tion such an investigation may bear to present-day ten- dencies in the industries. Let us assume then, and we are ready to affirm from the purely scientific standpoint be it understood, that we can produce from Illinois coal a new type of fuel having the following characteristics:—It is of uniform texture; of good density and of ample strength to withstand hand- ling and shipping, even, as we believe, of sufficient strength to sustain the burden and meet the require- ments of blast furnace practice, though our original pur- pose and effort had in mind primarily the development of a domestic fuel. It has in its composition a definite amount of combustible matter which at red heat will as- sume the volatile form, hence, in combustion it burns with a flame though the flame is entitrely without smoke. The volatile matter thus referred to and amounting to from 8 to 12 per cent is a feature of very great importance, since because of it the necessity of special draft regula- tion is obviated. That is to say, the material will burn under the same draft conditions as are required for coal. If the draft is closed, the fire is still kept alive by reason of the availability of the volatile matter. This same con- dition exists in the case of the anthracite coal, though to a less degree, since the average anthracite has only about four per cent or one-half as great an amount of volatile matter. In the making of it, there is produced per ton from the average Illinois coal approximately 20 gallons of oil, 6,000 cu. ft. of very high grade gas with an average heat value of about 700 units per cubic foot and 25 to 30 pounds of ammonium sulphate. The statement of the problem is as simple as it is diffi- cult of accomplishment: The decomposition of coal which begins at about 250° C delivers between that point and approximately 750° C all of those heavy volatile con- stituents which are condensible into tars and oils and which are difficultly combustible under the ordinary con- ditions of draft and temperature, hence wholly respon- es ee eee eS oer ee a eee eee Fo Oe, a. x2. Fe ee re. So ate ma = v= eo tsk a S PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 25 sible for the smoke, soot and grime which attend the com- bustion of bituminous coal in the raw state. You will at once say therefore that it is a simple propo- sition of conducting a fractional distillation wherein the process is not allowed to exceed a temperature of 750° C. But there the difficulty is at once apparent of heating up a mass of non-conducting material through a range of 700° by means of the application of external heat which at once proceeds to build up against its own progress an — impenetrable wall of greater non-conductivity between the source of heat and the mass to be heated: That, in concise form, is the statement of the problem. —- rs > a = Pe ae PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 33 Collections were made in Lake Titicaca at Moho and Vilque Chico; in the meadow ponds of Huancané; the R. de Huacané, Lake Arapa, R. de Chupa, R. de Azangaro, and R. Porque. Laguna Salinas is too saline for fishes. In fact nothing living was found in it except certain phyllopod ecrustacea, Artemia salina (reported for the first time from the continent, though found in all other continents). These were very abundant, and in all stages of development simultaneously. Flamingoes were feed- ing constantly in the lake. Lake Umayo, five leagues inland from Puno, is very rich in several species of Orestias. It abounds also in freshwater sponges, which form masses covering the roots of aquatic plants and exposed bowlders to a depth of one-fourth inch or more. Thanks to the hospitality and cooperation of Sr. Francisco P. Valcarcel I was able to obtain excellent collections there, and to visit the ruins of Silustani and Atunorco. On the Bolivian side of Lake Titicaca fishes were ob- tained at Puerta Acosta and Guaqui. The Rio de Tiahu- andacu was fished near the ruined ‘‘House of the Sun’’ at Tiahuanacu, and the Rio Colorado near Viacha. La Paz marks the upper limit to which Atlantic drain- age has invaded the pampas of the Titicaca-Poopé basin. Unfortunately the only fish obtained here turned out to * have been introduced artificially from the Pacific slope near Mollendo. It is doubtful whether native fish ever reach this elevation, 12,000 feet, in the River Chuquiapo. The current is very rapid and the water polluted with sewage Near Calacoto the Rio de Calacoto, R. de Corocoro, and R. Desaguadero were fished. The last is the outlet of Lake Titicaca into Lake Poopé. Since it is retarded here in a narrow gorge, there is great seasonal variation in the level of the lake above—as much as five feet be- tween extremes. Other tributaries of Lake Poopo visited were: R. de Eucaliptus, R. de Poopo, R. de Pazna, R. de Challapata, all to the east; southward, Rio Mulato and Rio Grande de Lipez. 34 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Lake Poopoé at 12,000 feet elevation in the Bolivian highlands, is nearly unapproachable, hence there is a total lack of native facilities, and it was possible to do shallow water fishing only. The lake shores are ex- tremely flat. The fluctuations in level carry the shore line back and forth more than a mile from season to season. The writer was able to wade more than a mile out into the lake at its lower level before reaching water that was above the knees. In addition to the seasonal fluctuations there are changes in level of shorter periods, apparently almost diurnal. They are probably due to the wind rather than to the existence of a seiche. Though more than fifty miles long, and half as wide, the lake has a maximum known depth of but thirteen feet. The literature is flatly contradictory as to the salinity of the water of Lake Poopo. It is in fact quite salt and non-potable. However the writer and attendant were able to subsist four days upon strong tea made with it. So far as observed the salt has no effect upon the fish fauna. The Rio de Juli in Peru is considerably more saline, yet is inhabited by the same fish as the adjacent freshwater creeks. Even Lake Titicaca is slightly salt, at least locally. This is not evident to the taste in most places. Some rivers of the altiplane are extremely saline and have no fish. Such are those about Urora, Bolivia, which thus resemble Laguna Salinas mentioned above. Other rivers vary seasonally in salt content. R. de Lampa in the rainy season has no taste of salt. But Mr. F. H. Grundy reports that at Maravillas during the dry season the Indians scrape salt off the rocks of its bed. Lake Poopé is probably less salt than it would be did its surplus not overflow annually into the Salar of Coi- pasa. Here, at Laguna Salinas, and elsewhere salt is recovered on a commercial scale by leaching it out of salty earth. In the Rio de Poopé occurs a spring of superheated steam and water. This water mingles with and is grad- ually tempered by the water of the river. Small suches were observed in water of considerably more than 100° F. The same phenomenon occurs at Aguas Calientes in southern Peru. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 35 At the same altitude as the Titicaca-Poopo altiplane the socalled Lake Ascotan is hemmed off by a ring of extinct volcanoes (only Ollagtie being active.) Itis about twenty-five miles in extent and lies just within the border of Chile. It consists for the greater part of muddy de- ‘ posits of hme salts. Numerous pools and sluggish streams appear throughout, and drain away by seepage. At the bases of the voleanoes along the eastward margin are many warm and cold springs. These are only slight- ly brackish. Small Orestias are everywhere abundant here, though there is no communication with the outside. Great quantities of aquatic plants of the same species as those found in other lakes occur. Facilities and help in fishing were kindly provided by Mr. E. W. Lycett, manager of the Borax Consolidated Company’s calcining works. Between Ascotan and the coast at Antofagasta lie vast voleanic areas and the nitrate belt. Only one river which might support fish oceurs—the Loa. But at Calama (ele- vation 7,000 feet) it was found to be totally devod of them. This is reported to be due to a water fall twenty-five kilometers downstream, below which coastal forms exist. No new genera of fish were obtained in the Titicaca- Poopoé dramage system. Only two genera, Orestias and Pygidium, occur. There is probably sufficient material collected for adjusting the very unsatisfactory status of the species. It is hoped that the parasites of the fishes may, through their affinities, throw some additional light upon the origin of the fauna of the land-locked Titicaca-Poopé system. With one exception few parasites were obtained from the many hundreds of fish dissected. The one ex- ception was a minute, active trematode resident in the cranical cavity of nearly every Orestias examined, but not occurring in Pygidium. It is found not only in Titi- caca itself but in all the tributary lakes and streams. In the lakes of the altiplane the great quantity of bird life in the broad plant zone of the littoral is noteworthy. There are many coots, cormorants, grebes, ducks, flamin- goes, ibises, lapwings, and gulls. The writer estimated that there were not fewer than 10,000 wading birds per 36 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE mile of the shore at the southern end of Lake Poop6é According to F. M. Chapman they are principally winter residents. Many birds were found to be parasizited by tapeworms and Acanthocephali. The lack of game fishes is much lamented both by the people of the country and by the English and American residents of the altiplane—principally employes of the mining companies. They regard the clear, cold, swift Mantaro and other rivers as well suited to trout produc- tion. Mr. A. 8. Kalenborn of Oroya, and others, have © made an effort, so far unsuccessfully, to procure from this country trout eggs or young. In spite of the inferior quality of the native fish, the fishing industry is of considerable importance in Lake Titicaca. The chief Peruvian and Bolivian ports, Puno and Guaqui respectively, are noteworthy as fish markets. Many fish are shipped from these ports to La Paz and Arequipa. The Rio Ramiz and its tributaries at the north and the Desaguadero at the south are fished for suches. Suches are also taken in the lake, and when properly prepared are better than the Orestias. But they are much less plentiful and more expensive, especially when twelve to fifteen inches in length. Hispes (an Orestias) are taken when about three inches in length and dried entire. In this state they are marketed at great distances—even at Cuzco and beyond—and are much prized by the lower classes. The smaller Orestias, hispe and carache, sometimes occur in remarkable concentration, especially in the meadow ponds of the pampas. Frequently scores of them may be dipped up with a single swoop of the dipnet. Even a roadside sheep-washing pool, without outlet and very muddy, contained a multitude of isolated, pallid cara- chitos. In the same pools occur also vast numbers of small Dytiscid beetles. As a result of this concentration no fish was found which did not have the fins more or less abbreviated. zy ti a ce 5 Ste ‘ oo 7 é “ Lt . — i hee = gh< aa + D> + : » y < . xz = - oe _ PAPERS SRS OF GENERAL . A INTEREST | PRESERVES OF NATURAL CONDITIONS? By Victor E. SHetrorp, University oF ILLINoIs I. Introduction 3 Il. Some Reasons For Preserving Natural Areas (Prepared by the Committee on the Preservation of Natural Conditions of the Ecological Society of America, arranged and % illustrated by V. E. S.) Combination of Interests in Preserves Management of Preserves Methods of Securing Reservation of Areas General Problems Related to the Preserves 1. Agricultural Practice. 2. Swamp drainage and Aquicultural Experiment Stations a4 38 A Descriptions of Natural areas 1. Preserved Areas 2. Proposed Preserves I. INTRODUCTION A few years ago the writer was appointed chairman of a committee charged with the listing of all preserved and preservable areas of natural conditions in North Amer- ica. The committee is composed of about twenty-five members scattered throughout the United States and Canada. The first work was to make the list and when this had made some progress, to agitate for the reserva- tion of such important areas as demanded immediate at- tention. The whole problem of securing the preservation of areas which is one of the objects of the work is very complex. At the outset the committee felt the lack of any definite guides in carrying on the work. However, ae a certain amount of progress has been made and out of — 3 this progress we can distinguish certain high places. Beet 1The work of a Commiitee of the Ecological Society of America Edi- aes - a ted in proof by the Academy’s Committee on an Ecological Survey of the = * State. ares In part a contribution from the Zoological Laboratories of the Uni- a versity of Illinois No. 160. The University supplied the illustrations. = 3 ase ae es 38 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE | II, SOME REASONS FOR PRESERVING NATURAL AREAS GENERAL REASONS ‘«No realize the greatest profit, therefore, from the plant and animal life of the national parks, their original bal- ance should be maintained. Park areas should be con- served unmodified in the interest of research and natural history. For, as the settlement of the country progres- ses, and the original aspect of nature is altered, the parks will probably be the only areas unspoiled for scientific study, and this is of the more significance when we con- sider how far the scientific methods of investigating na- ture then obtaining will be in advance of those now ap- plied to the same study.’’—J. GrRINNELL. Among the recreative elements in nature the following are important: ‘‘First: either perfect quiet, or an ab- sence of all save primitive and natural sounds, such as those caused by the wind in the trees, by running or fall- ing water, or by singing birds. Second: landscapes that relieve the eyes from close work by offering distant views, quiet harmonies of color, and a quiescent atmos- phere, varied by occasional touches of movement in such objects as running or falling water, scurrying squirrels, or birds in flight. Third: accessible mountains, which en- courage climbing and allow the visitor to combine the ex- hilaration of overcoming obstacles with the physical ex- ercise attending the woodsman’s mode of travel. Fourth: natural phenomena that make a purely intellectual or esthetic appeal, as do the conflicts between the great in- sentient forces of nature, the processes of geological up- building and destruction, the intimate inter-relations of plants and animals, and the contentions for mastery that are forever recurring throughout the whole realm of liv- ing things. We believe the last, the mental appeal, to be the element of greatest recreative value in nature, but the other three are of only slightly less importance.’’— J. GRINNELL and T. I. Srorer. IMPORTANCE OF EARLY ACTION ‘‘ After civilization has developed in any area, every one realizes the desirability of parks and reservations 1. The dunes at the head of Lake Michigan, looking west, taken fifteen years ago. showing land now held at an enormous price, which at that time had reverted to the state for taxes. Tall stacks and a cloud of smoke now stand out in such a view at the center of the pic- ture, locating Gary, Ind. 2. Beach near Gary fifteen years ago. These areas are of immense interest to Illinois’ most crowded population. 3. Early stage of forest development once common in northern I1li- nois and Indiana, now almost gone. This picture was taken on the site of Gary in 1905. 4. A later stage than that shown above, once common on the site of Chicago. Taken on the site of Gary in 1905. 5. Some of the oak woods in 1910 in a place similar to that shown in figure 4 showing needless destruction of vegetation. 6 and 7. Showing remnants of this vegetation along the main street of Gary in 1911. . a < _ ) “ PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST which shall preserve something of the original conditions that existed before the advent of man, but in most cases it is already too late to secure the necessary action when the desirability of it becomes evident to most people. It is, on the other hand, extremely easy in many cases to secure reservations in unsettled country where there are no local interests to be interfered with by such action. ‘“‘The reservation of the Katmai National Monument in Alaska, which comprises some seventeen hundred square miles and is, next to the Yellowstone and Yose- mite, the largest member of our National Park System, involved no difficulty whatever for the simple reason — that it was carved out of an absolutely uninhabited coun- try and there were no settlers on the ground whose in- terest could be interfered with by the withdrawal of the land from entry. ‘) Do n n eal ° =| les ol nl Lal 4H ° is) 12) vo — i= w ot) q on! e ° =| nN A indicating rapid forest reproduction. 9. = than those Saad t in pasha ate the ens and making - them accessible. ane _ ‘Just as we preserve the works of great masters, ance find that the longer we have preserved them, the greater : their value becomes; so we are seeking to preserve the — works of the greatest of Masters, and if length of time _ - imereases the value of these works they are infinitely 7 me > Be: : more valuable than works of art. In this we appeal to— : __ almost all sections of the community. The economic S __ aspect is dominant in our immediate vicinity. ‘Will it — ___ pay?,’” has been answered satisfactorily. They are at- 7 7 tractive to the artist and poet as a source of inspiration; — . ___ to the educator as a source of illustration; to students of E * geology, botany, physiography, etc., as a source of m- = ; a * — a struction; and to all as a source of health and recreation — which leads one’s thoughts away from the mundane Se affairs of this world ‘Through Nature up to Nature’ s ae God.’ ’’—Joun Davinson. Es Z The ideas brought out here, as reasons for preserves, — a a all include reasons why ‘‘it’s paying.’’ It pays to pre-_ a Sg . serve forests and swamps as watershed protectors and — Ke flood preventers. It pays to educate the public in forest — + practice, fish culture, culture of water plants, etc. ae = i. & 5 SIZE OF PRESERVES—LOCATION ‘‘The Governor of Illinois stated that he was strongly — in favor of rather large preserves, averaging say a a = _ thousand acres. He also said that these should be well — distributed through the state so that all citizens in the 4 state would take a large interest in the movement. My | own personal feeling is that an effort should be made — Sie also to have be bee in proximity to each of the major population centers.’’—H. C. Cow es. = EFFECT OF LUMBERING IN PRESERVES ‘‘T am of opinion that from the point of view of aM ae ecological study, the result is unfavorable. That is to a say, if it is desirable Je he purpose that the occurrence — ad ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — nature developed them, then any kind of lumber openee : tion is bad. The opening up of the forest cover, and the | cutting and destroying of certain species to the exclusion of others, is almost sure to encourage a type of vegeta- tion not found before the forest was disturbed.’?’— R. T. FisHer. GRAZING IN PRESERVES ‘‘The sheep destroy the young trees and when the old ones die no forest will be left.’’—H. C. Cows. ‘‘T wish to urge that every side of the problem be con- sidered before forest reserves and, particularly, national monuments, are opened for sheep grazing. In my natural history field work through the state I have had occasion to observe the disastrous results following upon close sheeping. These results are such as to leave the terri- tory in many cases open to soil erosion and practical effacement of original conditions. Cattle grazing is not nearly so injurious. ‘‘T have been fortunate in having spent three month in field work this year in the east-central part of Cali- fornia and western edge of Nevada. The only human industry affecting wild life there is grazing of sheep; for instance the White Mountains, in Mono County, are alto- gether too closely sheeped, with the result that the riparian and palustrian fauna and flora of the higher alti- tudes are almost completely tramped out. For example, a shrew was newly named from there in 1891. The in- tensive work of our party the past summer failed to find a single shrew. The near vicinity of the small streams, springs and seepages is now a mere dust wallow.’’— J. GRINNELL. Cattle are less serious but destroy the forest neverthe- less. See Fig. 8-9. AQUATIC PRESERVES ‘Tt is our belief that the preservation of marshes is a most important step. In so doing you will be providing an important nesting place for game birds rapidly being driven out by drainage of land, and a tract peopled with PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 45 small animals particularly suited for aquaria for public schools. ‘‘Many swamps lie in the direct migration route of many species of birds which are used as food, or which destroy crop pests farther north. This is so important that through gifts and state acquisition Louisiana has set aside areas of swampy land along the southern coast to serve as way stations for migrating birds and as a breeding place for the native species. Thus, swamps have a real value from the standpoint of birds alone; they are not the only animals found in and about marsh- es, which provide us with necessities, including food, furs, buttons, and other articles. The marshes and water courses of Louisiana yield upward of $700,000 per year in products including turtles, frogs and furs. ‘‘Upland marshes also have values similar to those of the lowland and coastal swamps, and an additional and important function. With the clearing off of timber and the draining of such swamps the streams appear to be subject to greater floods and to more extreme low water. The latter conditions in particular are important in con- nection with the effects of pollution. It is at extreme low stages that the streams are overloaded, and that a small amount of pollution overtaxes the self-purification mechanisms, with results almost as disastrous to fishes and similar animals, as if the low water occurred throughout the year. ‘A part of any large swamp, such as the Okefinokee ‘’ Swamp, or any other natural area is as valuable as the most expensive American museum, one which requires say $10,000,000 endowment and $500,000 annual expense. Such swamps are really museums of living things, the value of which at any time may become infinitely great in the solution of important scientific problems, which involve living animals. Each year animals and plants find new uses and new values. No one would have thought white rats, guinea pigs, and common mice worth saving a century ago; if the question of sacrificing all of them for a little additional land to cultivate had been raised it would have received but one answer, there would be none of these animals now. Yet by far the greater part of our 46 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE laws of immunity from disease, heredity of cancer, as well as of heredity in general have been, or are still being, worked out on them. The investment in equipment and salaries for such investigation amount to millions of dol- lars every year. Preserves of our native flora and fauna are more important than museums of dead animals. To quote a recent writer on water culture: ‘We urge that water areas, adequate to our future needs for study and experiment, be set apart and forever kept free from the depredations of the exploiter and of the engineer.’ “‘The nation has preserved certain areas as national parks, national monuments, national forests, etc., for the use of the nation as a whole. The states have reserved some similar areas. The humblest citizen has a right to the recreation values of the bodies of water near his home, and his children should be able to wade in a nearby stream and pick up stones without danger to health. The day is past, even in America, when population is so small and resources so great that these general interests can be sacrificed for the profit of a small group of citizens.’’—V. E. SHELFORD. LITERATURE When one reads such poems as Bryant’s ‘‘ Prairies,”’ he wonders how future generations are to interpret his works. ‘ OW ow SRO COS Oo Oo Park = ares yews Shrubs 15. Plan of management of a 1,600 acre tract to serve for the most part as a timber growing project. 120 acres is set aside as a public A somewhat larger tract serves as a natural preserve and a game sanctuary and is surrounded by a single ete. park for camping, hunting, Such a tract will support a number of deer and in fact should have them to maintain a condition such as was originally present. wire. 52 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The Okefinokee Society has secured action in the Geor- gia legislature which memorialized Congress to make a national park of Okefinokee Swamp. At the last meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science both of these societies presented resolutions which were passed by several biological societies inter- ested in these projects, asking the Council of the Ameri- ean Association to recommend the two preservation pro- jects to the federal government officials. At the present time the National Research Council is in close touch with the federal government and in a position to get in touch with Congress. It is an additional body to which appeal may be made. Preservation of areas by the state requires similar - effort; similar general methods may be followed. But methods may be more direct as it is easier to reach state officials directly than the national officials and it is the states that have been especially interested in game sanctuaries and in some cases in bird preserves. Thus the people interested in preservation of natural condi- tions for purposes of study should undertake to get their project before the fish and game officials and the bird societies of the state. Many states have state foresters who usually are inter- ested in reserve projects and who often would be able to combine their sample plots with the proposed pro- ject for the preservation of natural conditions. In the state of Illinois, for example, a law in force for some years renders possible the formation of county forest preserves in counties with municipalities. The signatures of a body of citizens and the ruling of the county court favorable to the project following a hearing for objec- tions, can automatically condemn a selected tract of woodland as a forest preserve, and bond the county to purchase the same to be paid for from a county mill tax provided for in the law. This method is probably not particularly valuable except near the large centers of population where the securing of the signatures is com- paratively easy and preserves more appreciated than in the small communities. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 53 Certainly in Illinois and in all other states there should be preserves of natural conditions in the vicinity of all the larger institutions of high rank. These are needed in connection with all the various biological courses but particularly forestry. Certainly they have a value in the interpretation of literature and art in a great many cases at least, and often as well in the understanding of his- tory. Doubtless in many eases the preservation of natural conditions may be combined with recreation projects, tracts may be provided which are in part in their natural state and in part made up of tree-covered pasture land such as the public desires for camping and picnics. The Cook County forest preserves are serving various pur- poses. It is probable that in the more thickly settled parts of the country no tract of forest will be in orig- inal condition; any considerable tract will contain some original stand, some second growth, some pastured area. The second growth is good for forestry purposes, the pastured areas particularly good for recreation, and the undisturbed situations particularly if they le within these can easily contain certain sample plots of the fores- ter and serve as game sanctuaries and bird preserves. VI. GENERAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO PRESERVES These are (1) the preservation of portions of the orig- inal flora and fauna, in the semi-natural conditions ac- companying agriculture, including (2) the preservation of the nesting sites of swamp birds, and of the swamp flora and fauna generally, also (3) the drawing of cor- rect conclusions from the conflicting views of bird protec- tors, on the one hand and clean-culture agriculturalists and entomologists on the other. They are, however, closely related to the task with which we are concerned. 1. Clean-culture (roadside mowing; burning) vs. roadside and streamside shrubbery and bird and original life preservation. Birds are decreasing because of lack of nesting sites. Entomologists and some agriculturists maintain that this destruction is necessary to agricul- ture; while the bird men insist that birds are also essen- Sy Sone a ee eee eS a ee eae b = ” Sas pL Fe Bie ES 54 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — eee Ss tial. The practice in the United States should be ascer- ee tained; the areas in which specially destructive and drastic measures such as burning are necessary, should be clearly defined and limited. 2, Upland marshes are important water-storage sponges letting it out slowly during dry seasons thus controlling floods. Such marshes are gradually being drained and the flood menace is increasing every year. The only way to save these natural resources and at the same time the swamp faunas,. especially the birds, is to utilize the swamps for aquiculture. To this end several. aquicultural experiment stations should be established. For the present there should be one perhaps at Cornell University to deal with upland marsh problems. There should be another in connection with Okefinokee Swamp and one in connection with the coastal swamps of New Jersey. In addition to frogs, fish, and birds, a number of plants are good for food, ete.; cattail flour and eattail paper have recently been tried with success. Swamp potatoes, the corms of arrowhead, and seeds, roots and stalks of our native lotus served as food for the American - aborigines and pioneers. Hedrick (Science 40: 611), Claussen (Sci. Mo. 9:179), and Needham and Lloyd (‘‘Life of Inland Waters’’) have discussed these ques- tions and are actively interested. VII. DESCRIPTIONS OF NATURAL AREAS A listing of all preserves and preservable areas now in a natural condition constitutes an inventory of what has been done and what may still be done. The list, now incomplete but in tentative form, indicates that there are certain kinds of areas of which we have no preserved samples or no areas proposed for preservation. For ex- ample, certain types of semi-desert have attracted so little attention that there is a possibility of none of the type of vegetation which they represent being preserved. The list also shows that there are many preserved areas of certain types and very few or none of others, and that the territory near educational institutions which can make use of such preserves, in many cases, 1s almost cee ao Se eS oe, Oe ae eee ae a = ‘PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 55 without any facilities such as reserves afford. Thus the general list serves to give us an idea of what should be done in the way of securing the preservation of addi- tional areas. It is desirable that State Academies gather all possible information relative to preserved and preservable areas in their respective states. This does not need to be of the nature of an accurate survey. So long as the size and location of the tracts are approximate and the gen- eral character of the vegetation is known, the tracts can be about as well described as the limits of printing de- scriptions will permit. It will be well for academies to print lists of areas suitable for ecological and other bio- logical study and related to the various interests enum- erated on page 47 and circulate them among the people of the state. The Ecological Society of America desires to publish a National and International list of Areas suitable for biological study, ete., and will appreciate securing copies of these descriptions. This society desires to publish the list covering all of North America and South Amer- ica to the Equator which is the territory being visited by American scientists at the present time. A general plan for uniform descriptions and descriptive terms has been worked out and is indicated below. 1. Preserved Areas. Model Description The description below is offered as a model for those describing areas. Riverside Flood Plain and Savanna Forest* in the Cook County Forest Preserve. About 20 acres along the Desplaines River; typical mature flood plain forest of maple, elm, basswood, walnut and oak—shows succession from middle age to mature stage. Forest edge with sinu- ate outlines, outlying groves; grass covered portions, typical mesophytic prairie; general aspect characteristic Figures in ft. indicate elevation above sea level. 7 Especially important; should be preserved unmodified. || Hotel or boarding house during touring season only. ~ § Camp outfit desirable; ** camp outfit necessary. 56 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE of large areas in Illinois oak grove savanna.’ See Bryant’s poem ‘‘The Prairies.’’ The fauna of the for- est edge is especially characteristic; in the forest, rac- coons, gray squirrels, and many characteristic inverte- brates. Stream badly polluted. 630-650 ft.; level (See Figs. 10 to 13). Chicago’, 12 miles west, C. B. & Q. R. R. or La Grange Electric; 4% mi. N. W. from (w) Riverside, Ill. John Doe. Name each preserve according to a locally known point, as a village, river, mountain or the like, and the natural ecological features. The model would be preceded by a general description of the Cook County Forest Preserves. Describe general areas first; for example a National Forest, and follow it by the descriptions of important natural areas within it accompanied by the phrase e. g. ‘‘in the Teton National Forest’’. The first name of a town or city following the descrip- tion is the nearest station at which through trains stop, the nearest town with good hotel accommodations, or the like; where practicable the town should be large enough to be on available small scale maps and serve as a catch word for location. It is followed by the distance and di- rection to the locality’s nearest postoffice with name of transportation routes available; after this follows the distance and direction from the nearest postoffice which is given last followed by the state or provinee, and finally the name of the person describing the area. Letters in parentheses preceding the name of the near- est post office indicate desirable means of reaching the area as follows: (w) on foot; (a) by automobile; (h) horse back. The following types of conditions have been recognized. The first twenty with the possible exception of the S. H. conifer forest are believed to be dependent upon climate. The last four or five are known as local or edaphic or mi- croclimatic conditions. *Refers to numbered paragraphs describing large communities which appear in the main to be dependent upon climate. Hotel or boarding house facilities. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 57 1. Tundra or Barren Grounds (Arctie of Merriam) ; Northern part of the continent, in N. E. United States during glacial times. 2. Northern Conifer Forest (Canadian and Hudson- ian of Merriam except in the Pacific slope area) ; North- ern United States and Canada, extending southward into the mountains where it has been designated as Mountain Conifer Forest. 3. The Northwestern Moist Conifer Forest (Van- couveran of VanDyke) ; Pacific slope Northern California to Alaska. 4. Semi-desert Conifer Forest; on the western desert mountain slopes and foothills. 5. Poplar Savanna; a narrow strip skirting the con- ifer forest on the south and west; Wisconsin to Alberta. 6. Deciduous Forest; Eastern United States and Southern Canada. 7. Oak Grove Savanna; Mississippi Valley—llimois was originally of this type. (See Figs. 10-13). 8. Southeastern Conifer Forest; S. E. United States, near the coast. 9. Grassland and Steppe; the Great plains. 10. Temperate Semi-desert Broken Steppe; the Snake River Valley, Northern Texas, and portions of New Mex- ico. 11. Mexican Plateau Desert; the Chihuahua-Zacatee- as area in Mexico. 12. Extreme Desert (small leafed shrub desert); Lower Colorado River Area. 18. Sage Brush Desert; the Great Basin. 14. Eastern Succulent Desert; West Texas. 15. Western Small tree and Succulent Desert; Ari- zona and Sonora. 16. Mesquite Semi-desert; Southern Texas and N. E. Mexico. 17. Broad-Leafed Evergreen Semi-Desert (Califor- nian of Van Dyke) ; California. 58 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 18. Temperate Rain Forest; possibly the ‘‘Ham- mocks’’ of Florida and some mountain sides in Mexico. 19. Tropical Rain Forest; S. E. Tip of Florida (7), West Indies and portions of Mexico and Central America. 20. Tropical Deciduous Forest; portions of Mexico, West Indies and South America. 21. Alpine Summits; chiefly in the western states, and Mexico. 22. Lakes, ponds, and streams; Designate streams as ‘‘torrential’’; ‘‘swift’’; ‘‘mod- erate’’; ‘‘sluggish’’ or intermittent; give your estimate of width and depth at mean low water. Designate ponds and lakes as ‘‘young’’ with much terrigenous bottom; middle aged with little terrigenous bottom; or old with no terrigenous bottom, ete. 23. Swamps and marshes. 24. Marine shallows and embayments. 25. Sand areas, talus slopes and gravel slides. Designate topography as ‘‘level’’; ‘‘rolling’’; ‘¢sharp’’; ‘‘precipitous’’; ‘‘badlands’’; ‘‘dissected’’; 1. e. comparatively level and cut by many deep ravines. Terms such as mountain, hill, level plain, ravine, canyon, bluff, shore, and sandy, rocky, glacial floodplain, ete. are used. The agency which owns, and controls, and manages the preserve should be given. Any matters which need attention, such as lack of management or mismanage- ment should be mentioned. 2. Proposed Preserves. The description of these should be similar to that of the preserved areas but uses which the preserve will serve should be given, the popu- » lation centers, schools, colleges, museums and societies which can make use of it should be stated. — ~~" PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 59 GAINING AND LOSING POWER Casper L: Reprrevp, Cuicaco, Int. A man goes into a gymnasium and takes up physical training. The first day he gets tired very quickly. The second day is the same, and the third day and the fourth day. Butif he continues, there soon comes a day when he - can exercise longer and harder without becoming so tired. And if he keeps on day after day, and month after month, he finds he continually gains in his capability of with- standing severe exercise without weariness. When a man who has been leading an active life changes to a sedentary one he finds, after a few months, that he has lost something of that energy, vim, pep, which he had before, and that he tires more quickly than when he was active. If his sedentary life continues year after year, he finds that his physical powers continually de- cline. What is this thing which is gained by exercise and lost by idleness? What are the conditions under which there is a change from gain to loss or the reverse? How long will gain in powers continue to follow exercise and loss of powers follow idleness? What are the limits of gain and loss? Can an animal by continual exercise become more powerful than any ancestor? To how many differ- ent organs does this kind of gain or loss apply? The object here is to bring together some of the facts which will help to furnish answers to these questions. The facts bearing upon this matter are to be found in many and diverse places, but we will consider only such as lend themselves most readily to scientific exactness, or are most convenient for illustration. Of all animals, the trotting horse has been more regu- larly and continuously trained for the purpose of pro- ducing physical development than any other, and the mile track and stop watch furnish scientifically exact means for measuring the gain coming from exercise. It is universally recognized that powers continue to develop during growth, but it is generally believed, and some- times stated, that such development ceases when the ani- 60 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE mal becomes full grown, or soon thereafter. The horse is full grown at three or four years of age, consequently we will look at what occurs under continuous training after full growth. HIGHEST SPEED OF FLORA TEMPLE AT DIFFERENT AGES ONE MILE ives Garsrold sexe oe ote Ons eee 2:49 SOVENHMVEars VOM) Weck a oe ec on ree ee 2:36 Bishteyears: Oldisierss coco co tioscene oe 2:27 Mleven “years: Olds snide maces wren ae ene 2:24% MOUrteeN. Wears AOld Ss 2o.kccn we cols ee ae 2:19% Flora Temple was not raced as a six-year-old, but was trained and raced every other year up to sixteen years of age. She continued to gain in trotting power under con- tinued trainmg up to fourteen years of age, though the gain was not uniform. At sixteen she nearly equalled her best previous record, but her racing career was sud- denly terminated by Government action. That was in 1861. By continually exercising the powers she had, Flora Temple acquired powers she did not have before, and powers which never existed in any ancestor. By her own efforts she acquired powers beyond her inheritance, because no previous horse was capable of trotting as fast as she trotted, and she could not inherit from an- cestors a power which the ancestors did not have. As an eleven-year-old she trotted faster than any previous horse had trotted, and as a fourteen-year-old she broke the world’s record four times in succession. Whenever a horse becomes a champion trotter, the fact that he does become a champion is of itself positive evidence that he has greater trotting power than he inherited—greater power than existed in any ancestor, or in any relative of any ancestor. During the past seventy-five years there have been more than twenty such horses to become cham- pions, and no matter how good a horse may be, he can become a champion only as the result of many years of strenuous efforts. He must acquire by his own efforts that which he did not have, and that which never before existed. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 61 HIGHEST SPEED OF GOLDSMITH MAID AT DIFFERENT AGES ONE MILE Wreht years Olds. «cj. sae vec ew te ae ee 2:36 WING VORCS ONG mn. Sains. ec cere hs we Lhe IP a Sos es eC) 7 Ra Ree ar eee ae 2:2416 mieven- years> Old o.oo ccc cewae cat nsc cee eee TEWEIVG. VOAPS GIG soe owe Soe cho wit ae ee wee HMourteen: years “Old ho es ee ce Ss tet elk HPCCH ORES OIE 2 oo 6-k ds cltan dla cine ale 2:16% SitCOCR-VEAES GIG... fae sheet as oes oes 2:16 Seventeen years Olds coccs acess conn ost When Goldsmith Maid trotted a mile in 2:17 as a four- teen-year-old she broke the world’s record, and thus demonstrated that she had .developed more trotting power than ever existed in any previous horse. As a fif- teen-year-old she broke the record again, and then once more as a sixteen-year-old. As a seventeen-year-old she broke the record four times in succession. By continu- ally exercising the powers she had, she continued to gain in trotting power from youth to old age, and made the most striking gains in the evening of life. The powers she developed in that way greatly exceeded anything which ever existed in any ancestor. . It is not often that horses are trained continuously for so many years as were Flora Temple and Goldsmith Maid, but for the purpose of showing that the results ob- tained were not due to something peculiar in the inheri- tance of those animals, note the fact that during 1917 more than one hundred trotters, ranging from ten to fif- teen years of age, made faster records on the race tracks of the United States than they ever made before. HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN MILK PRODUCTION SEVEN-DAY OFFICIAL TESTS Pounds of Average Age. Milk Two years and two months............ 322.7 Three years and two months.......... 400.3 Four years and two months............ 446.8 Six years and six months............... 450.7 Seven years and seven months......... 472.6 Eight years and three months.......... 499.8 Nine years and seven months........... 564.8 « ey, pan 62: = ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ‘The first part of this table is just as it is furnished by the Holstein-Friesian Association for 1913. The second part is a tabulation made from the records of 1906. The reason why it was necessary to make this tabulation is because the association does not classify cows over five years of age, but lumps them all together. The cow reproduces before two years of age, and is full grown at three. As further evidence that milk-pro- ducing power continues to develop under milk-producing exercise long after full growth, take note of the average amount of milk pr Sanned by the 1,497 Jersey cows a all ages tested duri — 1916. JERSEY COW MILK PRODUCTION YEAR RECORDS. OFFICIAL TESTS. 1916. Pounds of Ages at Calving Milk Wniderst wor years seman wee ce ween .. 6242.2 Two years to three years.............. 6710.0 Three years to four years............. T3171 Four years to five years............... 8040.2 Five years to six years............0.- 8255.0 Six years to seven years............. 8340.2 Seven years to eight years............ 8702.2 Hight years to nine years.............. 8667.0 Nine years to tem years.............-. $643.3 OVEN “LEM AV.CATS chev cielo upelteete aiclateustansye icles 8900.0 The Binet system recognizes the continued develop- ment of mental power in human beings during the grow- ing period, but let us go beyond that into the older life. It requires mental power to learn anything, and to retain it in memory while learning a second thing. It requires more power to remember two things while learning a third; still more to remember three things while learning a fourth; more yet to remember four things while learn- ing a fifth; and so indefinitely. As a matter of fact we carry more and more in our memory as the years go by, and the increasing load we carry is a measure of our in- creasing mental power. Even those persons designated as feeble-minded carry more and more in their memories as they grow older, and that fact is conclusive evidence PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 63 that they do increase in mental power, statements to the contrary notwithstanding. The ‘‘dope fiend’’ will take a quantity of poison large enough to kill several men who are not accustomed to taking it. The man who survives the taking of such large doses does not do so because he was born with greater powers of resistance to that drug than other men. He does so because he began with small doses, such as any man might take and survive, and then gradually built up his powers of resistance by continually exercising them. By exercising the powers he has, a man ean build up powers he did not have before, and powers which never existed in any ancestor. By beginning with small doses and gradually increas- ing them, pigeons have been made resistant to rattlesnake poison. Resistance has been built up in this way until pigeons were able to withstand a dose more than four times as powerful as that which would kill in the first place. By exercising the feeble powers which they had, these pigeons acquired powers which they did not have before, and powers which never existed in any ancestor. Let us turn aside and consider the powers of plants, because the matter under consideration is something fundamental in living things. If we take some wild plant and attempt to reproduce it by cuttings, we are likely to find that it can be reproduced that way only with diffi- culty. But if we take a cutting from the first plant raised that way we find the second time it grows a little more readily. If we take a cutting from the second plant to raise a third, we again find it starts more easily, and so on time after time. By many repetitions the plant de- velops the power of producing roots abundantly from cuttings. By exercising the powers which it has it ac- quires powers which it did not have before, and powers which never existed in any ancestor. There is no selection in this matter. No seeds are pro- duced. The final plant is really a developed section of the original plant, but has powers which the original plant did not have. A large number of our greenhouse plants (th shunt ‘ r ud “wr its ee Ce me ee a 4 a rANh APE 64 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE - are now produced by cuttings, but originally came from stock which would grow that way only with difficulty. All plants raised for any considerable length of time by division, like tubers, bulbs, cuttings, buds or grafts, gain the power to produce roots abundantly, and at the same time they lose the power, sooner or later, to pro- duce seeds. By continually exerting themselves along particular lines plants develop new powers along those lines, and by continued idleness along other lines (seed production) they lose the powers they originally had. In a wild state plants have to fight for existence in a world covered with other plants. When man domesti- cated certain plants he protected them from weeds. As a consequence of not having to fight for room against other plants, our domesticated kinds have lost the power of so fighting, and are unable to maintain themselves when deserted by man. Idleness along that line caused a loss of power on that line. There is no selection in this. Man did not select plants because of their inability to protect themselves. Plants produce seeds. To casual observation, a seed looks like a dead object, but it came from a living plant and it has life. In that life there is the power of sprouting and growing into a new plant like that from which the seed came. But let the seed lie idle for one, two, three or more years, and that power gradually de- clines and finally ceases to exist. The loss of power due to idleness extends to the seed stage, and continued loss of power means loss of life. In the seed, life and power are one and the same. Flagellata are protozoa which multiply by division. Dallinger subjected these animals to heat and found them dying at 74 degrees, Fahr. But by beginning at 60 de- orees and gradually increasing the temperature he finally got them to stand 158 degrees without dying. Several years were required to accomplish that result. There was no selection in this. The final animals were simply divisions from the original ones. By continually exer- cising the powers they had, they acquired powers they did not have before. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST ~ 65 Corn is sensitive to climatic changes, and can endure only slight changes without suffering seriously. But by moving it a short distance northward each year, it is now fully acclimated in regions where it was impossible to raise it forty years ago. Corn goes through the seed stage; flagellata do not. But each of them by continually exerting the powers they had, acquired powers of resist- ing temperature changes which they did not have before. The presence or absence of a seed stage does not affect the matter except as to the rate at which the acquirement occurs. The acquirement comes as a direct result of exercising the powers in existence. When the matter ex- tends over several generations, the seed stage simply in- serts idle periods during which there is no acquirement. The blood reaction of different animals is different. With this in mind, let us consider some phenomena relat- ing to vaccination. If we inoculate a cow with smallpox virus we remove the germ from a place where it was able to live to a new place where it meets a new blood reac- tion. Only occasionally does the germ survive in this new place, but when it does survive we may pass it on - from cow to cow without difficulty. i after passing the germ through ten or more cows in series, we take this virus and inoculate a man, we find that it is cowpox and not smallpox. A man so inoculated becomes immune to smallpox. Going back to what we have learned about power being developed by exercise and lost by idleness, and applying that information to the facts just given about smallpox and cowpox, we can get some new light on the phenomena relating to vaccination. When smallpox virus is inocu- lated into a cow it will ‘‘take’’ only when it comes to some cow more susceptable than others. The germ in fighting for its own existence in a new blood reaction de- velops its powers of meeting that kind of blood reaction so that when it later is passed on to another cow it finds no difficulty in surviving in a place where before it could not have survived. In passing along from cow to cow these germs continue to develop their powers of meeting the blood reaction of cows. But while they are doing ae LE GS NOR ee ES Re EDR OR ET nce CHL Mea pee AE Ra ET ’ a? ror, ek eA eh ath ea e.g 66 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE this they are removed from the blood reaction of human beings, and because they are not fighting this particular blood reaction they gradually lose the power of fighting it. As a consequence, when they are later removed from the cow to the man they have only the powers of cowpox. From these facts it will be seen that cowpox and small- pox are two strains of the same thing. One strain has its powers developed to meet the blood reaction of cows but not that of man, while the other has its powers de- veloped to meet the blood reaction of man but not that of cows. Also, that either can be transformed into the other by a course of training designed to develop one form of power and not the other. About 1880 Pasteur discovered that the anthrax bacil- lus cultivated in chicken broth at blood temperature lost its virulence after a few generations and ceased to kill even the mouse. Since then it has been learned that the virulence of many organisms became diminished when they are grown on artificial media. Let us consider what these facts mean. When bacteria in small numbers get into the blood they are rapidly killed off. As far as we are at present con- cerned we need not stop to inquire whether this is by phagocytosis, chemiotaxis, or other means, or several means combined. The point here is that animal powers of some kind attack the bacteria, and for these bacteria to withstand these powers and make headway against them, the bacterial powers must be developed by exercise. Now, when bacteria are raised on some nonliving sub- stance, as chicken broth, they do not have to struggle for existence against a blood reaction and consequently they lose the power of meeting such reaction. A stallfed bac- terium may be as fat as any other, but he does not de- velop individual powers any more than does a stallfed steer. When a person exerts himself by physical efforts, he does certain foot-pounds of work, and foot-pounds of work is something well known in physical science. It is properly called ‘‘energy’’, but is referred to as ‘‘power”’ when we wish to indicate energy as being expended, or + ee eo Oe ee oe ee Hd Fat ~~ aig a * = 2 “FS tabeees ae Cae te => . . So ao en >. ee ae 2 - pet > - - PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 67 capable of being expended. This energy which is ex- pended by efforts comes out of the body of the person who exerts himself, and as we cannot get something out of nothing, the energy must be stored in the body of the person before he can do foot-pounds of work. If the ef-— forts which a person makes are moderate, within the ordinary meaning of that term, then the foot-pounds of energy withdrawn by exercise are soon replaced by other foot-pounds of energy derived from food. The condition under which this results in a building process is one in which the amount of energy withdrawn from the system, in some unit of time, as a day, week or month, shall be a little less, but not much less, than the system ean re- plenish in the same time from the food supply. But it is known that by great efforts long continued a man may cause his own death as a result of nothing else than his own exertions. This means that death is caused by withdrawing from the system more than a cer- tain amount of energy, and that in turn means that life itself is a form of energy. We identify electricity as be- ing a form of energy, even though we do not know pre- © cisely what this form is. In the same way we can identify life as being a form of energy, even though we are un- able to determine the essential nature of this form as distinguished from other forms. We have identified life as being a form of energy by showing that life may be withdrawn from an individual by withdrawing foot-pounds of energy, and not withdraw- ing anything else. Likewise, life may be withdrawn from an individual by exposure to cold which results in with- drawing heat units, and not withdrawing anything else. As heat units are a form of energy, we again identify life as being nothing else than a form of common me- chanical energy. By the examples given it has been shown that powers are developed by exercising them, and the powers so de- veloped are nothing else than stores of energy which are transformable into foot-pounds of work. By referring to the records of the trotting horse it is learned that those horses which had their powers developed (stores of en- 68 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ergy increased) by training and racing live longer than do their untrained brothers and sisters who did not have their stores of energy augmented by special exercise. Here is a third identification of life itself being a form of common mechanical energy. Those horses live long- est which have stored in their systems by acquirement the greatest number of foot-pounds of energy. Women produce children, and in doing so they exer- cise many bodily organs not exercised by women who pro- duce no children. Such exercise builds up energy in the exercised organs just the same as other exercise builds up energy in other organs. Statistics gathered by Cattell and by Bell show that those women who build the great- est amount of energy into their systems by this process before they are forty-five, are the ones who live the great- est number of years after they are forty-five. Here again we identify life as being a form of energy by show- ing that increase of energy means increase of life, and that we may build onto our inheritance by our own ef- forts. Longevity is that power within the organism which prolongs life, and is known to be an inherited thing. In trotters, the offspring of those horses which have their powers developed by training and racing live longer than do the offspring of their untrained relatives. In human beings, when healthy women develop their bodily powers by producing many children, the later born children live longer than do the earlier born ones. The first of these items is taken from records published in The Horse World of Buffalo. The second is from statistics I gath- ered from genealogies. Both identify life as being energy; both make it clear that we can add to our lives by our own efforts; and both show that what is built up in that way is carried over by heredity to the next generation. PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST 69 REPORT ON THE PROGRESS AND CONDITION OF THE ILLINOIS STATE MUSEUM Fesrvuary, 1920 A. R. Croox, State Musreum, SPRINGFIELD The Illinois State Academy of Science is the logical body to whom an annual report should be made on the condition and progress of the Illinois State Museum, since the Academy is composed of men from all portions of the State, connected with all kinds of educational in- stitutions, representing a great variety of occupations, and interested in all branches of science, and since the purpose of the museum is to present in concrete form all kinds of scientific knowledge for the use of all people of the State. Four out of five of the men composing the museum Board of Advisers are now members of the Academy. The Academy has from time to time made its influence felt by resolutions and by personal work on be- half of the museum. The first meeting of the Academy was held 1907 under the auspices of the museum. The financial relationship of the two institutions is intimate. And finally there is no body of men in the State more competent to pass judgment on the work of the museum than are the members of the State Academy. Hence this report. The first and most important item of progress to be noted is the work on the new building. After many years of urging the need of a new building and of involuntary ‘‘watchful waiting’’ a magnificent new structure is being erected just south of the State House. The top floor of this building 270 feet long by 68 feet wide, commodious and well lighted, has been assigned to the museum, and it is thought that it will be ready for occupancy next year. It is realized that as soon as the building is completed various departments now waiting for quarters will pour into the building like sand through a sieve and hence it is very important that the musuem have ready exhibits which may in a measure block out the space assigned, be worthy of their surroundings and convey some concep- ae a ae i? oe ee ee SE ar Ae! s Shixe. y amet RNG Eg pai rlikak Sang ely Ne) Meath a iat pa 70 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE tion of the wealth of the fauna, the flora and the mineral resources of the State. During the past few years there has been a substantial growth of our museum materials in many lines both by gift, purchase and collecting in the field. The collections of invertebrate paleontology number- ing more than 30,000 specimens, which have been in stor- age for many years, are being worked over and put in shape by Mr. A. W. Slocom of the University of Chicago and Dr. A. F. Foerste of Dayton, Ohio. The mineral collections have been greatly increased until now about 50 per cent of the commonly known min- erals are represented, some of them by handsome speci- mens, some by many pounds of material, and some by minute examples. A case 15 feet long, 3 feet deep, 10 feet high has just been filled with Illinois mineral pro- ducts of major importance. A ‘‘Guide to the Mineral Collections in the Illinois State Museum,’’ forming a book of some 300 pages, is in the hands of the printer at the University of Chicago Press. Minor advances have been made in conchology, ento- mology, ichthyology, herpetology and ornithology. The ornithological collections now contain most of the species of Illinois birds and there are six handsome groups with transparent backgrounds and one group of wild turkeys. Two cases have recently been placed in the entrance hall containing casts showing the development of the horse in North America as worked out by Prof. Osborn of the American Museum and others, and of the human race, from the time of the Pithecanthropus to the Cro- magnon man as represented by skulls found, in many places by various anthropologists and by busts prepared by Prof. J. H. McGregor. The general plan being followed in the museum is to present Illinois materials chiefly, and when expenditures are made to do a few things well rather than many things. As the result of this plan a number of groups have been completed and others are in preparation. The deer group, with which many of the members of the Acad- emy are familiar has been followed by the completion of pe teste RE eee ee ey aes = PAPERS OF GENERAL INTEREST . 71 two noteworthy groups and by work on two additional groups. The bear group occupies a case 14 by 20 feet and 18 feet high. The circular background painted by Mr. Chas. A. Corwin depicts one of the canyons in Starved Rock Park. Four bears, a male, female and two cubs, occupy the foreground. Mr. Julius Friessr, head taxidermist at the Field Museum made the group. The Indian group, made possible by the generosity of Mr. J. W. Bunn, represents an incident in the life of the Sacs-Fox Indians one hundred years ago on the banks of the Illinois river where Peoria now stands. In the fore- ground are arranged seven figures—two warriors re- turning with a captive, a chief seated by the fire putting on his mocasins, a boy with bow and arrow in hand, a maiden standing by the door of a bark wigwam within which an old woman looks up only long enough to glance at the prisoner and then resume the pounding of corn in a log serving asa mortar. The figures were cast from life at an Indian reservation in New York and are there- fore correct anthropological records. The trees, vines, hawks, arrowpoints and axes of Indian manufacture, the fire; the path winding over the hill; and the Illinois river and bluffs at the Narrows, skillfully painted on the curved canvass background, present a very pleasing pic- ture. Both the picture, figures and foreground are the work of Henri Marchand, a one time student of August Rodin and Jerome in Paris. It is thought that this group is unsurpassed by any similar group in the country in ethnographical and artistic merit. Two other groups are in preparation; an elk group and a mushroom group. Mr. Frank H. Connor of Chi- cago sent a party of hunters to Wyoming in November last and they secured six handsome elk. The skins are now being prepared. They will be displayed in a case 28 feet long, 16 feet deep and 18 feet high. The most pretentious group thus far undertaken in the museum is one which will be completed it is hoped by May Ist. It will occupy a cireular case with a back- ground 60 feet long and extending to the ceiling. The ob- server entering the door comes into a small hexagonal Pe SN A onl ait pe aca We Oy Ie, ee, ea) . 4 . * Wines (Ned i Gi a Vi Ta 72 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE room 12 feet in diameter. The foreground from six to nine feet in depth merges into the panorama on the can- vass. On the left is a wood, on the right brush, in front is a valley. An actual stream of water trickles from a spring and flows into the river. Appropriately placed in the foreground are more than two hundred characteristic Illinois mushrooms, made in wax and plaster. They are so skilfully wrought that it is almost impossible to dis- tinguish the models from the original mushrooms. Doubt- less in no other place is there a mushroom group of such artistic and scientific merit and it is our belief that this collection will be of practical as well as_ scientfic and artistic interest. This work was made possible by the generosity of Mr. J. W. Bunn and is being executed by Marchand. For nearly twenty years Mr. Marchand has been studying mushrooms and has made cast of many hundreds of species. Here are sam- ples of four species—Amanita muscaria, Coprinus com- atus, Galeria tenera and Sparassis crispa. Papers on Medicine, Public Health © and Sanitation. rae S PAPERS ON MepicrNe, PusLic HEALTH AND SANITATION 75 “SOME COMMENTS ON THE PRESENT STATUS OF TUBERCULOSIS Water Getvin Bary, St. Jonn’s HosprraL, SPRINGFIELD I believe that your Secretary was of the opinion that one’s army experience must always give one some new ideas, when he asked me to appear before you with a paper. It certainly is the belief that I have acquired a clearer vision of the tuberculosis situation as a result of my army service, that leads me to comply with his re- quest to read a paper on a subject which has been so much discussed and written about. The greater part of my army service was spent at the U. S. Army General Hospital No. 8 at Otisville, N. Y., the seaboard hospital where the overseas chest cases were received and treated. In general, my experience has given me a much more hopeful feeling toward the tuberculosis outlook than I had previous to entering the service. I think that during the early months of our entrance into the war, the entire medical profession was much mis- led by the gloomy prophecies of our tuberculosis special- ists. These men, basing their estimates on the reports of the Allied Countries, foretold the return of thousands of our American boys, victims of tuberculosis ac quired in France. They pictured these victims scattering through our towns and villages, each a menace to his community, a carrier and spreader of the germs of the dreaded white plague. It later appeared that the only basis for these false prophecies was the reports of the French on the situation in France. Particularly misleading was the report of Professor Landouzy, who first voiced this apprehension with his estimate of 150,000 cases of tuberculosis in the Frencharmy. This unfortunate exaggeration was widely quoted and quite generally accepted as representing the danger to French military efficiency from this source, and pb Ce ee ee ge ee ot ee oe 76 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE by inference therefore, to the arms of the other nations as well.’ As a matter of fact, the later, more authentic reports on the French situation developed the fact that the num- ber of soldiers discharged from the French army from August 2, 1914, to October 31, 1917,’ was 89,430. Of these 70,196 were discharged previous to March 1, 1916, and largely represent pre-existent cases of tuberculosis caught into the army by the urgently rapid mobilization. These cases constituted about 1.75 per cent. After these early cases were eliminated the percentage fell to .63 per cent, which is about the same as was later found in the Italian army where Sforga in charge of the diag- nostic tuberculosis center of Rome, relates that the call to arms poured the entire male tuberculosis morbidity of the country into the army. Thus we were all led to be- lieve that the high tuberculosis incidence among soldiers was due to the war, and that tuberculosis was rapidly increasing. In the mobilization of the American army* the draft boards rejected 69,935 men for tuberculosis. The army surgeons afterward rejected 14,967 men who had been passed by the local draft boards, or a total of 84,903. It therefore appears that as the result of the careful med- ical examinations of our draft boards and army surgeons* tuberculosis was 13 times more prevalent among civilians than among soldiers. Instead of army life increasing the incidence of tuberculosis and returning our boys from France a menace to their communities, the army life really diminished the hazards from tuberculosis® so that 1Tuberculosis Among European Nations at War, by James Alexander Miller in the American Review of Tuberculosis, August, 1919. 2Tuberculosis Among European Nations at War, by James Alexander Miller in the American Review of Tuberculosis, August, 1919. 3 The Present Status of Soldiers and Draft Rejects with Tuberculosis, by William (HH. Baldwin in the American Review of Tuberculosis, August, 1919. +Victor C. Vaughn and George T. Palmer in The Journal of Labora- tory and Clinical Medicine, July, 1919. 5 Tuberculosis Among European Nations at War, by James Alexander Miller in the American Review of Tuberculosis, August, 1919. The Army in Relation to the Tuberculosis Problem, by Col. G. E. Bushnell in J. A. M. A., June 15, 1918. The Present Status of Soldiers and Draft Rejects with Tuberculosis, by William H. Baldwin, American Review of Tuberculosis, August, 1929. ‘Papers on Mepicrve. Pustic HEALTH AND SANITATION 17 & whereas of the civilians applying for military service, 2.34 per cent were found tuberculous, only .05 per cent of those who came up for demoblization were found to have tuberculosis. The facts that were to be learned from the examina- tions and care of some two thousand of these cases are the basis of my optimistic feeling toward the tuberculosis situation. These facts I will now discuss in a somewhat didactic manner. CAUSATIVE ORGANISMS Although we handled a large amount of tuberculous material in the laboratory and our work naturally led us to constant review and perusal of recent literature on the subject, yet I am unable to note that the war developed 2 any new facts relative to morphology, colony growth, a motility, staining reactions or viability in vitro of the “4 causative organism of tuberculosis. -s to the character of the toxin produced by this or- ganism, the work of Vaughn,*® wherein he identifies the various split products and determines their toxicity, ap- pears to be the last and accepted facts of the situation. et ty Ci Re oh!) { ave LIFE OF THE ORGANISM WITHIN THE HUMAN BODY In a consideration of the organism and its probable entrance into the body, the burden of argument leads one to think that the tubercle bacillus fmds its entrance into the human organism through the oral passage, rather * than through the respiratory tract as I had formally be- =? lieved. It may enter on food or in the food, or on the hands of the baby, soiled from the oral excreta of the adult carrier. Once within the oral passage, it possibly i. not infrequently finds its first point of localization in the tonsils.* The paths of transmission from tissue to tissue in the body have been for a long time, as regards the tubercle SACP. FO” Per lee €Protein Split Products in Relation to Immunity and Diseases, Vaughn, 1913. Chap. 8. 7 Bacillus Tuberculosis in the Tonsils of Children Clinically Non- Tuberculous, R. S. Austin in American Journal of Diseases of Children. July, 1919. Tuberculosis of the Ear, Throat and Nose, Arthur E. Prince and W. G. Bain, Illinois Medical Journal, September, 1910. ; rf 78 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE bacillus, a much debated question. A study of tne re-— lation of infected lymphatic glands to other localizations of the tubercle bacillus, is strongly convincing that the paths of transmission are by the way of the lymphatics, though, of course, there is the obvious transmission from one portion of an organ to another by contiguity. THE ANATOMICAL POINTS OF LOCALIZATION Though it formerly had appeared that the tubercle bacillus might develop in any anatomical localization, the lungs being the most frequent location, it would now appear that the glandular tissue is primarily and most frequently involved.* The bones and joints are involved secondarily in children. The apices of the lungs are involved most frequently in adults, our own autopsies showing the up- per lobe more than 95 per cent, the middle lobe more than 80 per cent, and the lower left lobe slightly below 80 per cent, and more often involved than the right lower. The effects of the growth of the tubercle bacillus on the infected tissues is a matter of greatest interest, in view of the fact that it is this particular phase of the situation upon which hinges the hopeful outlook for the future. It is the reactions to the primary lesion which must determine prognosis. The pathology, therefore, of the primary lesion, is all important. The following case cited by Dumas and Beclere® possibly throws some light on the character of the primary lesion. ‘ + > 2 ” 2 . PAPERS ON MEDICINE, PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION 87 2. Errors in diagnosis. Errors in diagnosis are com- mon, and especially when the germ of a disease is not surely identified such errors cannot be guarded against. Under normal conditions the tendency is to fail to recog- nize such a disease as influenza at least in its milder cases, and so the reported cases would only be a fraction of the whole. On the other hand in the height of an epidemic and especially of a great pandemic the psychological ef- fect results in calling anything approaching influenza in nature a genuine case. It is quite possible, then, that the reported cases would exceed the true number. 3. Health authorities are often negligent im collecting and forwarding reports of communicable disease. Thus in Pope County during the year studied there were re- ported less cases of influenza than there were deaths from the disease. Statistics based chiefly upon morbidity re- ports are therefore very misleading. 4. Death Certificates. In Death Certificates we are exposed to the same errors in diagnosis as for morbidity reports. In addition a large proportion of Illinois physi- cians do not make out their Death Certificates properly. Fatal influenza is almost invariably connected with pneu- monia. The proper certificate should give influenza as the cause of death and pneumonia as the contributory cause or complication. This is not the arbitrary ruling of the State Department of Public Health; it is in accord with the rulings of the U. S. Census Bureau, and with the rules laid down by the international committee. Never- theless, in one County Medical Society meeting, where the question was asked, fifteen out of the sixteen present said they would give pneumonia as the cause of death. In many of these certificates, although the real cause of death was influenza, there has been no mention of in- fluenza as related to the case. All certificates giving pneumonia or bronchopneumonia as the cause of death are questioned by our Department. It is the experience of the U. S. Bureau of Census, of our own Department and of other investigators that such questions result in a decided reduction in the number of deaths recorded for pneumonia and a corresponding in- 88 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE crease in the deaths assigned to other diseases. In five years experience of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company such investigation of deaths reported simply for pneumonia resulted in a transference of 7.5 per cent to other causes. In this study an estimate was first made of influenza alone, county by county through the State. When it seemed best to study the reports for cities it was found that there had been such a transference of assigned cause from the pneumonias to influenza that the deaths in the city from influenza exceeded the total formerly given for the entire county. The experience of statisticians in the study of influenza indicates that it is generally best to consider deaths as- signed to the different forms of pneumonia with those assigned to influenza. This was done in comparing the rates in the cities with those of the counties in which the cities were located. For the purpose of studying the dis- tribution of the disease through the State we depended solely upon the records of influenza. In comparing cities with containing counties we compare the number of deaths from influenza and all the pneumonias with mor- bidity reports only of influenza for the reason that through most of the State cases of pneumonia are very imperfectly reported. 5. There is another source of error in Death records. Some undertakers neglect to obtain burial permits promptly and it seems impossible to get some local registrars to send in their reports each month. This negligence on the part of some registrars is assisted by the absolute failure of boards of county commissioners to provide for the payment of the fees which the Law de- mands. Cook County Commissioners have never since the Law went into effect provided for the payment of registrars in the County. After the data were collected for this study bunches of death certificates were received from some local registrars which would have decidedly increased the mortality rate.* * * * Since this paper was written Cook County has paid local registrars. ee sf. ee . es = ye ° - bs 4 . ee : ; E iC. Anam Papers oN MeEpicrine, Pustic HEALTH AND SANITATION 89 = * * * The reported cases and deaths due to influenza were collected for each county and from these data we estimated the rate per 100,000 of population and the deaths per 1,000 of cases. We found that the average for the State was 3,517 cases and 396.6 deaths per 100,000 of population and the deaths were 112.7 per 1,000 cases. Dividing reported cases and deaths each into three classes we find nine possible combinations :—High mor- tality and high morbidity, high mortality and medium morbidity, high mortality and low morbidity, ete. Upon coloring the map of the state according to these nine classes we find the various colors are pretty evenly distributed through the State. Neither north nor south, east nor west shows any special color. Two counties, namely Pope and Schuyler, were given a distinctive color because their reports were manifestly unreliable. We do find that the populous centers and the coal mining areas show a large amount of the disease. The counties showing both high mortal- ity and high morbidity are Lake, LaSalle, Grundy, Rock Island, Peoria, Champaign, Christian, Franklin, Perry and Union. Those showing low morbidity and low mor- tality are Carroll, Lee, Kendall, DuPage, Putnam, Stark, Cumberland, Clark, Clinton, Hamilton and Williamson. It is easy to see that where the population is close to- gether the opportunities for infection are more numer- ous; also where people are closely associated the chance is greater that the infective dose will be large. The in- dications are that the germ of influenza is conveyed through exhaled droplets. In crowded work rooms and in mines the chance is great that the air may be saturated with these germs if there be cases present. We are not surprised, therefore, that in crowded sections the cases should be numerous and severe, but Cook County, and especially Chicago, shows less mortality than Lake, La- Salle or Grundy, where the density of population is less. There must be some other important factor. There are certain important general biologic laws which must be remembered. (a) When a germ is im- 4 De MN i Fi ee cg 90 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE planted in favorable soil, under favorable conditions it tends for a time to increase in virility. (b) After the soil has been to a degree impoverished by any special strain of germ the growth will become weaker and more stunted. (c) Germs, whether weak or strong, when transferred to an average soil tend to preserve their former. char- acter. Most elderly persons by virtue of having had influenza in the epidemic of 1889 or later had therefore a degree of immunity to the germ. Young persons generally had a less degree of immunity because at the most they had been exposed to an attenuated form of the germ. The normal community is made up of both young and old, and its susceptibility to such a disease may therefore be considered as normal. A community made up chiefly of young people would theoretically have more than the normal degree of susceptibility to the disease, and would prove a favorable soil. We should therefore expect such a community to show high morbidity and high mortality. This is well represented in Lake County which contained a large Army Camp at Fort Sheridan, and the Great Lakes Naval Training Station. Champaign County con- tains a large university and the aviation field at Rantoul. There was a camp in Peoria County. On the other hand, communities which had lost an appreciable proportion of their young people, especially if they contained no important business interests which would attract large numbers of people, might reasonably be expected to show a lessened susceptibility. Though the disease might find many victims in such communities we should not expect a high death rate. In the main our study of the records for the State bears out these general conclusions, but we are struck with a marked exception. Winnebago County, containing the largest camp in the State at Rockford is classed as low in morbidity and average in mortality. When, however, we include the figures for the pneumonias we find that its morbidity total was very heavy. In most counties the deaths from pneumonia were recorded as less than those from influenza. In Winnebago the deaths RSS SSS SSS SSS INFLUENSA ILLINOIS VisealNeor, Jui, 1 1918 t Sone 30,1919 _—-— LEGEND Te: 100,000 - of Population Under 3000 Ue oblique) ——— ay YY) YY Eras WR PMALLLED DE fi LEE ooo psd iy spoon tii iataniiaeL eh SSS SSN LEI ILLS eepnussessargaed tars GELEEILEIDEES LP rots sie daw LETS SEED IDSs SASS SSSSOSSSS SRNRAAACELAN SSO aed SASS moe (AMEV ILS EDITEI ETSY eso ee Oe eee Acces adept ened SSSSsssy SS EE oa SSS SSS Yf = SSS —s 2 At ara | PMI LI LL A vara ares sara a CL GETZ LT STOTT ARENAS “SMEAR SS SSS Z OPES. ie Deaths Parers ON MEDICINE, PuBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION 91 from pneumonia are four times as numerous as those from influenza. A study of the map shows that though Chicago is med ium in morbidity and medium in mortality the county outside of the city is high in number of cases but low in mortality. The low number of cases in the city may be misleading. It is not impossible that the cases were more fully reported in the surrounding area. However, we find a similar condition shown in Alexander County as com- pared with Cairo, in Macon County as compared with Decatur, in McLean County as compared with Blooming- ton, in Rock Island County as compared with Rock Is- land, in Tazewell County as compared with Pekin. It is very natural that the inhabitants of the surrounding area should get their infection at their County Seat. Their sickness would be at home and away from the germ laden air of the city. We find in Winnebago County a re- versal of these conditions. The morbidity is higher in Rockford than in the county, according to report, but the mortality is more than ten times greater in the county. This is explained by the fact already mentioned that Camp Grant was located in the County outside the limits of the city, and its death rate was very great because it was made up of extremely susceptible material. Returning now to the map of the state, attention is— called to Calhoun County. This county is a ridge of high ground between the Mississippi and the Illinois Rivers. It is the only county in the State which is not touched by a railroad and it is not even served by an electric line. It contains no large town; the people are very largely farmers. Its isolated position and its rural character would lead one to expect that it would have few cases and that they would be of a mild nature. In fact we found that the cases reported were at the rate of 8,862 per 100,- 000, more than double the average for the State. The death rate however was 267.1 whereas the average for the State was 396.6. The large number of cases may have been the result of duplication of reports, because the re- porting areas are not clearly defined. The small popula- tion of the county—8,610—makes it possible that a very 92 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE few double reports would be very misleading as each case would be at the rate of 100 per 100,000. Comparing a map showing density of population of counties with the influenza map we see that density of population has apparently little direct relationship either with the incidence or fatality of influenza. Of the coun- ties showing high incidence and high mortality only three have a population of over 90 to the square mile accord- ing to the 1910 census, namely, Lake, Rock Island and Peoria. Williamson County is high in population but low both in incidence and mortality from influenza. The mortality in Cook County from Influenza is medium, and there the population is most dense. The same is true of Madison and St. Clair Counties, which are also reckoned among the dense population. Carroll, Lee, Kendall, Stark, Putnam, Clark, Clinton and Hamilton Counties which are low both in incidence and mortality from in- fluenza have a population of less than 45 to the square mile. Generally speaking the counties having a popula- tion less than 45 to the square mile show low mortality. On looking over the death certificates one is struck with the large number of names which show Italian, or Slav nationality. This class of people generally live in crowded quarters which are poorly ventilated. We are lead to suspect that their great mortality is not due to their na- tionality per se but it is more likely to be the result of their environment and manner of living. This predomi- nance of such foreign born among the deaths in mining communities may perhaps to some degree account for the increased mortality among miners. A special study was not made upon this point, but the suggestion is made more from a general knowledge of conditions. STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH JANUARY, 1920 INFLUENZA, Illinois, Fiscal Year, July 1, 1918—June 30, 1919 Deaths Per 100.000 of per Popula- Reported Population. 1,000 tion Cases Deaths Cases Deaths cases SAE Mh Ser he pe 2 6,359,102 223,683 25,222 3,517 396.6 112.7 PRAT ATS G's hoy eter 64,588 2,580 211 M3,995 M326.7 81.8 Miexander rrcupeeiec 25,699 795 82 M3,094 M319.2 103.2 Bond =>. Saeeeiee 17,949 418 57 L2,330 M317.7 136.3 PESO ELE iz.c0~s gesteteraneyens 15,481 466 51 M3,010 M329.5 109.5 ee Champaign eceee rece esse eee ee ee eee Cumberland ee re D Se so be = pts 2 © er a Jo Daviess a © = ows oHels we ee | ee eT ee McDonough Popula- tion 10,397 46,934 8,610 18,035 17,501 55,539 35,309 23,517 18,661 25,480 34,842 2,904,800 32,490 14,281 34,953 18,906 20,024 38,044 27,336 10,049 20,055 28,083 17,096 31,466 52,501 14,628 22,363 24,183 18,227 30,638 7,015 9,724 43,224 35,543 36,262 18,157 29,973 13,954 22,654 14,331 103,386 43,919 10,777 48,405 73,180 92,208 28,072 27,750 40,465 31,564 63,163 58,116 112,027 39,188 15,679 17,377 15,157 26,887 34,930 68,149 Reported Cases Deaths 973 2,931 - 763 PAPERS ON MEDICINE, PusLIc HEALTH AND SANITATION Per 100,000 of Population Cases Deaths H9,364 L182.8 H6,245 M315.3 H8,862 L267.1 L2,657 L235.1 M3,851 H451.4 M5,968 H416.0 H5,008 H473.1 L2,378 L.289.2 H5,113 M307.9 L2,696 L.246.7 H7,474 M361.6 L2,036 M319.5 H4,392 L233.9 L1,386 L280.1 M3,536 M329.0 A7,143 M407.4 H4,835 M339.7 L1,893 L218.2 M3,088 M303.7 H9,452 L209.1 H5,586 M413.9 H4,893 L292.0 M3,616 M392.0 H7,260 H775.6 M3,851 H464.8 M3,461 M362.5 M3,390 M375.7 H5,852 417.7 L2,607 L203.0 H4,198 ™M303.6 M3,749 755.5 M3,023 L226.2 H5,116 L277.6 M3,275 M312.3 M3,706 M386.1 4,441 236.9 M3,810 L233.6 5,548 200.7 4,901 189.8 SBI ES) 390.8 4,179 324.3 M3,300 H416.7 2,711 250.7 4,105 289.2 4,298 1,482.0 7,246 433.9 4,881 217.3 1,589 230.6 8,536 299.1 M3,216 M367.5 4,170 296.1 8,525 320.1 3,665 356.2 4,888 339.4 5,868 236.3 8,897 287.8 2,865 600.7 7,094 271.5 4,492 200.4 5,036 356.6 93 INFLUENZA, Illinois, Fiscal Year, July 1, 1918-June 30, 1919—Continued Deaths per 1,000 cases 19.5 50.5 30.1 87.7 117.2 69.7 ¥ 94 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE INFLUENZA, Illinois, Fiscal Year, July 1, 1918—June 30, 1919—Concluded ; _ Deaths Per 100,000 of er Popula- Reported Population 1,000 tion Cases Deaths Cases Deaths cases BVEGTICLT: le fesavs siaraave ete 12,796 1,303 51 10,180 398.6 39.6 INVET GET Woo « «plaayelsts 19,723 639 55 3,240 278.9 86.1 AVECHUE OC uss viz. s ss elstasene 13,508 416 25 3,081 185.2 60.1 Montgomery ...... 39,254 1,893 111 4,823 283.8 58.6 INEQUEAN . eo iecw lem elle 5 34,420 2,949 135 8,568 392.2 45.9 VECGULERIC! So), citer ccs 14,630 305 46 2,085 314.4 150.8 (8°23 Ke a ere isco 27,864 1,008 40 3,618 143.5 39.7 APOTUAT. orie sc a.045 orale 110,524 10,442 491 9,428 444.3 47.0 PPC RE Val sere as a oepehes 24,075 1,426 107 5,924 444.5 75.0 retiicosrcis ano.a 2 atetela sie 16,376 1,754 45 10,710 274.9 25.7 PIC Rous cishic.s, a < a ietametanea 28,622 1,261 66 4,406 230.6 52.3 itt) OSS eeeaant + 11,215 4 18 35.7 160.6 4,500.0 Ralask, 2. ees 16,616 380 62 2,288 373.3 163.2 PuiNaM ss So sites 10,041 132 19 1,314 189.2 144.9 PAN OLD NS” sz setstetorass 30,101 1,921 113 6,382 375.4 58.8 RMiechland.. ¢ss vax 15,970 490 29 3,068 181.6 59.2 Rockoisland (sc... 83,767 4,502 391 5,375 466.8 86.9 Sey e505 Sys. 5 Weehaee ie 31,715 3,113 135 8,255 358.0 43.4 SER TY 23 0a\0) nae a 108,155 5 Dy, 410 5,101 379.3 74.3 SSMU VACT. oles ars enelwie 14,852 74 43 498.3 289.8 581.6 SHOOT EE eo 10,067 353 19 3,509 188.8 53.8 ES 1 nY) | ON gee eae i oa 31,693 1,040 75 3,282 236.6 T2.1 SET SRM Ct 10,098 216 17 2,140 168.5 78.7 S55 6 GEM b eee seas, 149,130 7,519 595 5,041 399.0 79.1 Stephenson ....... 39,142 1,391 98 3,554 250.2 70.5 PRAZOWELLS c's \S serous rete 34,734 2,674 135 7,699 388.7 50.5 FETE Nn sietste cic + Staleleccls 21,856 885 120 4,050 549.2 135.6 Vermilion .. 4056 88,894 3,525 403 3,966 453.4 114.3 BVVeu tS Ia 9% a heavens ane ote 16,965 385 56 2,270 330.2 145.4 BWSUP TOM. to. 50s brayeitee 23,442 1,808 54 1,713 230.4 29.9 Washington ...... 18,759 1,219 40 6,498 21328 32.8 WVIELVIIG. Fe. k sisson ite 25,697 585 90 2,277 350.3 153.8 ANA nt See aeihpe tater ieee 23,052 769 63 3,336 273.3 81.9 WHILESICG: <". vie Scie 34,507 2,274 113 6,589 327.5 49.7 RTT eal clave, sas cement 92,841 1,287 376 1,386 405.0 292.2 MINT AINSON \ sc ioteres 60,353 844 160 1,398 265.1 189.6 INWANNE DAO: 25%. elas 76,649 1,461 300 1,906 391.4 205.3 WVOOGLOrG : >.< scJalvie © 20,506 1,735 72 8,461 351.2 41.5 Ota eats eceerorete 223,683 25,222 Ghicavor City: s..40 2,621,419 43,371 8,459 1,654 323.7 195.0 Cook Co., outside i CHICAGO << eec te 283,481 15,765 819 5,566 288.9 52.0 PAPERS ON MEDICINE, PusLic HEALTH AND SANITATION 95 ILLINOIS FISCAL YEAR, JULY 1, 1918 TO JUNE 30, 1919 Comparison of Cities with Remainder of Including Counties Per 100,000 population nM § S 5 ay 5 3 eta 3 38 a Gp m = ° Sq a) S 3 § ag T8as pan) oq S| | | Os Ss ze (>) “ = n oO Cou 5: 5e eg 8332 County (Outside) = ass $a Sac E Oy fe _ Q Qa ana UEPRCY. So iccse So sul aves s 36,883 4,454 586.8 131.8 PRAT St COs Fc ce ete 27,705 3,368 360.9 107.2 PoE etc ator > scape ee a 16,296 1,602 693.4 433.0 Alexander Co. ...... 9,403 5,679 553.2 9.4 Champaign: sx os. . se 15,865 8,339 598.8 TL.8 PED ATI. ters..5c-3 ke Str ec 10,624 5,045 677.7 134.3 GChampairn ‘Cos. oo... 29,050 - 6,615 668.3 101.1 RVPAELOON 3 oti. oo oe os SK 12,996 10,111 400.1 39.6 Moles COs Lice cece se 21,846 5,905 508.1 86.0 CHICALO se oie. kk oaks 2,621,419 1,654 584.4 353.2 COOK O0rt 2 Ase 283,481 5,563 518.0 93.0 MWA. Fe oo5.. Ce klowe 10,036 4,812 458.3 95.2 Dekalb Cor ics. os 24,917 2,219 402.5 19.9 SPEWANEE 92 vce. wos aa. 19,184 6,778 372.9 55.0 MGA CO. sue sae 24,040 2,770 424.3 153.2 S| GG OT id ae ee es 25,155 5,702 481.0 67.0 TRTTOROON ite ache o cere se 23,250 2,379 322.5 135.6 PS ANe Soars ccs aces 12,495 1,521 920.4 60.5 PEBCALOD = is che os are ac 14,313 11,801 1,020.0 86.4 as aller Co. Sc. css 55,865 4,716 426.0 100.9 IGE UWE testy. oc oes 44,261 1,701 423.6 197.8 MNCS COS. ot ws ers 18,902 9,147 402.1 44.0 PSGEOI Sac atc ees a eR 30,036 3,702 464.2 131.3 NMAMISON- OO: .<.ccte we 63,515 3,608 538.9 149.3 Bloomington ....... 27,663 3,561 571.2 160.4 Mebean-Co:)..2.2. 40,480 5,986 383.3 64.0 Jacksonville ........ 15,543 10,030 855.7 85.3 Morgan: Cos 66 23 wks 18,877 7,199 360.2 50.0 IA OPIA ee co. hes Sete 72,184 11,374 669.1 58.8 eras COlak ceca 38,340 6,457 546.8 84.7 Rock Islands: 2.63. 32,561 2,442 540.5 274.0 Rock Island Co...... 23,230 5,349 779.2 136.4 Springfield ......... 64,877 5,860 678.2 115.7 Sangamon Co. ...... 43,278 4,009 318.9 80.5 Beeville. (i t.c% 35s se 21,161 9,593 926.2 96.5 Bast St: Louis....... 78,213 5,043 719.8 142.8 Sie lair’. Coc Nee: 49,756 3,105 154.8 49.8 WEBENOTL, icc actos oe 19,844 4,812 462.5 96.3 Stephenson Co. .... 19,298 2,259> 243.6 107.8 Pekin 36's is. caso 12,137 4,070 667.4 164.0 Tazewell Colic ii 22,597 9,647 508.9 52.8 Dayville: 3.2) te 32,969 2,563 785.6 366.5 Vermilion Co. ...... 55,925 4,810 448.8 93.3 “ SSUET=| A RRA ee eee 39,353 480 947.8 1,974.0 Wall: Cosioused calor 53.925 2,036 421.0 206.7 Roekford’ 7s sys 60,213 2,031 634.4 312.3 Winnebago Co. ..... 16,436 1,448 7,676.0 5,294.0 96 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE SANITARY DISTRICTS IN ILLINOIS G. C. HaperMever anp Epwarp Bartow, State Water Survey, UrBana When Illinois was first settled each individual or fam- ily made provision to secure its own water supply and to dispose of its own wastes. As villages and cities grew in size the difficulty of securing water and disposing of wastes increased. By natural development municipalities installed pub- lic water supplies and cared for the removal of wastes. With water from a public supply available the most con- venient method of disposing of much of the waste was by water carriage through sewers. That method of disposal is now in general use in all of the larger cities. Many of the earlier settlements were on the banks of the larger streams or on the shores of lakes and the natural point of discharge for sewage or liquid wastes was in the streams or lakes. Later, with the development of railroads, many cities sprang up in localities where there were no large water courses. Sewage from such communities was car- ried to a small stream or, in many instances, to a ditch which was dry for a considerable portion of the year. Sewage has been discharged into streams until they are polluted, the degree of pollution depending upon the amount of sewage and the flow of water in the stream. In many places pollution has become serious and the water eannot be satisfactorily used for drinking, fish life has disappeared, the stream cannot be used for pleasure pur- poses, and noxious odors have caused many complaints. Cities have grown and it has become necessary to dis- pose of sewage by means other than discharge into a ditch or small stream close to the city. With increase in the number and size of cities the distances between them have decreased and the need of better disposal of sewage has increased. In order to allow better means of disposal laws have been enacted by the State Legisla- ture providing for the creation of sanitary districts and for the disposal of sewage from territorities included in the districts. In accordance with the provisions of these ttn foe = AF) Sei ae Fe OF 1D pa a ee, pag MD ges Moat mae Pusric HEALTH AND ares aes 97 laws the Sanitary District of Chicago, the North Shore Sanitary District, the Decatur Sanitary District, and the Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District, have been formed. SANITARY DISTRICT OF CHICAGO For many years Chicago discharged sewage into Chi- cago River and Lake Michigan. The amount of sewage discharged became very great and as water from the lake was used for a publie water supply other means of disposing of the sewage became necessary. In 1889, - under the provisions of an act to create sanitary districts, and to remove obstructions in the DesPlaines and [li- nois rivers, the Sanitary District of Chicago was or- ganized. The law provides that whenever any area of contiguous territory within the limits of a single county contains two or more incorporated cities, towns or vil- lages so situated that the maintenance of a common outlet for the drainage thereof will conduce to the preservation of the public health, area within the limits of the cities incorporated towns or villages and within three miles thereof may be incorporated as a sanitary district. Any 5,000 legal voters resident within the limits of a proposed sanitary district can petition the county judge to cause the question of organization to be submitted to the voters. The law provides for the creation of a board of trustees of nine members, which board exercises all the powers and controls all the affairs of the district. The board has power to provide for the drainage of the dis- trict by laying out, establishing, constructing and main- taining channels, drains, ditches and outlets, with neces- sary adjuncts, for carrying off and disposing of the drainage (including the sewage) of the district. The law provided for the levy and collection of taxes for corpor- ate purposes the amount of which in any one year should not exceed one-half of one per centum of the assessed valuation of the taxable property, and for the issue of bonds. Indebtedness could not exceed five per centum of the valuation of the taxable property within the dis- trict provided this five percentum did not exceed the sum of $15,000,000. 98 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF . SCIENCE The law has been modified from time to time by amend- ments which include acts conferring police power, allow- ing additional taxation for specific times and purposes, changing the limit of bonded indebtedness, providing for a minimum flow depending upon the population of the district, authorizing enlargement of the district, provid- ing for converting power available into electric energy, and amending sections in regard to the election of trus- tees. The primary purpose of the work of the Sanitary Dis- trict of Chicago has been sanitation and sanitary con- ditions have been greatly improved. It constructed the eanal from Robey St., Chicago, to Lockport, and diverted sewage from Lake Michigan to this channel, through which it flows to Des Plaines River and thence to Illinois River. A channel has been cut from the lake at Wilmette southward to a connection in the North Branch of Chi- cago River and a channel known as the Calumet Sag Channel is being constructed to drain areas in the south- ern part of the district. Investigations have been made of methods of treating sewage and experimental sewage treatment plants have been operated. Chicago River has been deepened and widened and obstructions have been removed, and valuable water power has been developed. The title and certain provisions of the act under which the Sanitary District of Chicago was formed practically limit the application of the act to that district. NORTH SHORE SANITARY DISTRICT In April, 1914, the North Shore Sanitary District was created in accordance with ‘‘An Act to create sanitary districts, and to provide for sewage disposal.’’ This act, passed and approved in 1911, and amended in 1913, 1915 and 1919, provides for the creation of sanitary districts in territories within one county, including two or more incorporated cities, towns or villages owning and operat- ing either or any of them, a system. or systems of water- works and procuring a supply of water from Lake Mich- igan. PAPERS ON MEDICINE, PusLIc HEALTH AND SANITATION 99 This district extends along Lake Michigan from the north to the south line of Lake County. The proceedings for the establishment of the district were practically the same as those by which the Sanitary District of Chicago was formed. Three hundred instead of five thousand petitioners were necessary to bring the matter up for election. Bond issues with indebtedness not to exceed in amount five per centum of the value of taxable prop- erty within the district are provided for and taxes can be levied not to exceed in any year one third on one per centum of the value of taxable property within the dis- trict limits. The board of trustees has power to provide for the disposal of sewage and to preserve the water supplied to the inhabitants from contamination and for that pur- pose may construct and maintain conduits, pipes, chan- nels, drains and outlets. It must provide suitable and modernly equipped sewage disposal works or plants for the separation and disposal of all solids and deleterious matter from the liquids, and must treat and purify the residue of such sewage so that when it flows into any lake it will not injuriously contaminate the water. The board has power to enter into contract with any city or village for the reduction, treatment and disposal of any garbage or offal, or solid matter removed from sewage at any disposal plant or treatment works. The district has acquired 30 acres of land for the lo- cation of a purification plant, has investigated methods of sewage treatment, and has raised money which is available for construction. GENERAL LAW PROVIDING FOR THE FORMATION OF SANITARY DISTRICTS The laws under which the Sanitary District of Chicago and the North Shore Sanitary District were formed were limited in their application by provisions of the acts. In 1917 the Fiftieth General Assembly passed ‘‘An Act to create sanitary districts and to provide for sew- age disposal’’. It provides that whenever any area of contiguous territory contains all or parts of one or more 100 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE incorporated cities, towns or villages, and is so situated that the construction and maintenance of a plant or plants for the purification and treatment of sewage and the maintenance of a common outlet for the drainage thereof, will conduce to the preservation of the public health, the same may be incorporated as a sanitary dis- trict under this Act. No territory can be included, how- ever, which is not within the limits of a city, mcorpor- ated town or village, or within three miles outside thereof. Any one hundred legal voters, resident within the lim- its of a proposed sanitary district may petition the county judge of the county in which the proposed district, or the major portion thereof is located, to cause the question to be submitted to the legal voters of such proposed dis- trict whether such proposed territory shall be organized as a sanitary district under the Act. According to pro- visions of the act, upon filing the petition in the office of the county clerk, a board of commissioners is organized, consisting of the county judge and two judges of the Cir- cuit Court. At a meeting of this board, of which twenty days’ notice is given, all persons in the proposed dis- trict have an opportunity to be heard in regard to the location and boundary of the district. The board of com- missioners determines the limits and boundaries which are incorporated in an order spread at length upon the records of the County Court. A majority vote at an election held within sixty days of the time of entering the order, at which each legal voter resident within the pro- posed sanitary district has the right to cast a ballot, and notice of which is given by the county judge at least twenty days prior thereto, is required for organization of a district. The corporate authority is a board of trustees consist- ing of three members appointed by the county judge. This board exercises all powers and manages and controls all the affairs and property of the district. It passes all nec- essary ordinances, rules and regulations for the manage- ment and conduct of business of the board of trustees and of the corporation and for carrying into effect the objects for which the sanitary district is formed. It has a = power to provide for the disposal of Hie sewage of the district and to preserve the water supplied to the inhabi- tants of such district from contamination. The board may construct and maintain conduits, pipes, channels, drains, ditches, and outlets for carrying off and dispos- ing of the drainage (including the sewage) of the district together with such adjuncts and additions as may be nec- essary or proper to cause such channels or outlets to ac- eomplish the end for which they are designed. The board may also treat and purify the sewage so that when the same fiows into any lake or other watercourse, it will not injuriously contaminate the waters. The board may adopt any other feasible method to accomplish the object for which the district is created, and may also provide means whereby the district may reach and procure supplies of water for diluting and flushing purposes. The board of trustees is not authorized to operate a system of water works for the purpose of furnishing or delivery of water to any such municipality or the inhabitants thereof, or to flow sewage of a district into Lake Michigan. A district may acquire by purchase, condemnation, or otherwise any and all real and personal property, right of way, and privilege, either within or without its corporate limits that may be required for its corporate purposes. In ease any district formed is unable to agree with any other sanitary district upon the terms under which it is permitted to use the drains, channels or ditches of such other sanitary district, the right to so use the same may be acquired by condemnation. The corporation may borrow money and become in- debted to an amount not in excess of five per centum of the valuation of the taxable property in the district pro- vided the proposition to issue bonds is carried by vote at election held in the district according to provisions of the act. All bonds issued mature in not exceeding twenty annual installments. At the time of, or before incurring any indebtedness, the board of trustees provides for the collection of a direct annual tax sufficient to pay the in- terest on the debt as it falls due, and also to pay and dis- charge the principal as it falls due, and at least within ee. Ah eit anit As Md he, — \ say: The ahadtea ea! ea, he ae TE ed oo i A a 102 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE twenty years from the time of contracting the same. The board may levy and collect other taxes for corporate pur- poses upon property within the territorial limits of the district, the aggregate amount of which for each year shall not exceed one-third of one per centum of the value of the taxable property within the corporate limits, as the same is assessed and equalized for the State and county taxes of the year in which the levy is made, pro- vided however, that a like sum in addition, a total of two- thirds of one per centum, may be levied when such addi- tional tax has been authorized by the legal voters of such district at an election duly held. Any district formed under provisions of this act has the right to permit terri- tory lying outside its limits, whether within any sanitary district or not, to drain into and use any channel or drain made by it, upon payments, terms and conditions mutu- ally agreed upon, and it has full power and authority to contract for the right to use any drain or channel which may be made by any other sanitary district upon terms mutually agreed upon. This Act provides for the formation of sanitary dis- tricts anywhere in the State and with increasing size of municipalities, and consequent increase in amount of sewage produced in such municipalities, many districts will undoubtedly be formed in the near future. In addi- tion to providing a better means of sewage disposal in many cases than could be secured by municipalities act- ing individually, it provides for obtaining money for car- rying on work without regard to the debt of municipali- ties included in the district. DECATUR SANITARY DISTRICT The Decatur Sanitary District was organized in Aug- ust 1917. Money has been raised by taxation, and on Feb- ruary 24th an election will be held to decide if the tax rate may be raised to 2-3 of 1 per cent, and if bonds, $860,000 in amount, shall be issued. The board of trustees has | employed engineers, prepared plans for intercepting sew- ers, and let contract for a small amount of construction. If this bond issue is authorized by vote on February 24th, Papers ON Mepictne, Pustic HEALTH AND SANITATION 103 a contract for intercepting sewer will be let in the near future, and it is expected that money will be available for a purification plant. BLOOMINGTON AND NORMAL SANITARY DISTRICT The Bloomington and Normal Sanitary District was organized in November, 1919. An area of about eight square miles, includng the two cities from which the dis- trict takes its name, with the exception of about one square mile area which was previously included in a drainage district, is included in the district. Surveys are now being made for an intercepting sewer. These districts can be of mutual aid to each other and are co-operating with the State Water Survey Division in a study of sewage purification in the testing station of the Division. Many other cities which have need of more adequate sewage disposal can with advantage make use of the privileges granted in these acts. Discussion oF Paper By H. B. Hemenway This subject is one which interests us all as property owners and tax payers. There are certain legal aspects which demand consideration. Streams and lakes are the natural source of water supply for our cities. They are also natural outlet for our sewers. The one demands that the purity of the water be preserved, and the other naturally causes dan- gerous pollution. A city which provides water for its citizens for pay does so, not in its governmental capacity, but as a semi- public corporation. As such it is hable for any damage which may result from impurity of the water sold. So, in Keever v. Mankato (113 Minn. 55) the city was held in damages for the occurrence of typhoid fever, resulting from impurity of its supply. There have been many other similar decisions. 104 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE There are also numerous decisions to the effect that a city has no more right to maintain a public nuisance than has a private individual. The discharge of sewage into a stream, thereby causing pollution, is a nuisance. Tf it be a private nuisance, affecting few people, the city ‘or individual causing the damage may be held liable in civil damages, or sometimes it may be enjomed. When, however, the pollution is of water used for a public water supply the act is a public nuisance and it may be enjoined. Not only so, but the city or individual causing the dam- age may be held in civil damages for all harm done. The upper city may be compelled to pay the expense of the lower city in maintaining its filter plant, and it may be held in addition for sickness and deaths resulting from the impurity of the water. It has sometimes been claimed that use for over twenty years gave a prescriptive right. That might be so held as regards a private nuisance, but the courts have re- peatedly held that no amount of usage could give a pre- seriptive right to maintain a public nuisance. Where the action has been against private individuals it has some- times been held that those who had been so discharging private sewage for twenty years might have a prescrip- tive right, as against other individuals; but the fact that A had so used it for twenty years gave no prescriptive right to B who had only discharged his sewer into the - stream for ten years. In the case of Attorney General vs. Grand Rapids (175 Mich. 503) the plea of prescriptive right was made. The court again affirmed the dictum that no amount of usage could give a prescriptive right to commit a public nui- sance; and it added that the fact that Grand Rapids so discharged its sewage when it was a small city give the large city no prescriptive right. Prescriptive right is limited to the kind and amount of usage which was main- tained for over twenty years. In Attorney General v. Birmingham, ete. Drainage District, (1910, L. R. I. Ch. 48) an injunction was granted against the discharge of the drainage district into a stream, but on appeal Sir William Ramsey was ap- nie es eae tye 3g DBRS i a Ee) ae Se ee = ye oe So, Se Pe S >. - ¥. ike a “SS 8 36 ws oe xy a= c ¢ Se er a ae Papers ON Mepicrne, Pustic HEALTH AND SANITATION 105 pointed to make a chemical and bacteriological investiga- tion. He found that the sewage was so treated and puri- fied that the water of the stream was actually less impure below the outlet of the sewer than it was above. The in- junction was dissolved. Finally, on appeal to the House of Lords (1912, A. C. 788) the dissolution of the injunc- tion was sustained, but with the provision that the purifi- eation must be maintained. Cities must purify their sewage before turning it into streams. It will cost less to maintain proper Inhoff tanks and other purification works than it will to pay damages, and the tendency is to hold cities more rigidly to these requirements. 2 Discussion oF Parser By JoHN R. Batu As related to the facts stated I may mention conditions at Evanston. South of Hamilton street the government surveyed land, which was taken up, which land was washed away, and its location is now out in the lake. Opposite where Memorial Hall now stands in the campus I remember a house which stood some distance from the lake. I remember one day hearing a man say that he had eut ten cords of wood between that house and the lake, and one would not notice that any wood had been taken out. All of the foundation of that house long ago disappeared into the lake. It was my observation © that the washing out of the banks occurred during north east storms, and that the gain so made by the lake was kept. Then citizens began to build breakwaters—small piers extending into the lake. These broke the force of the waves, and caused them to deposit sand. Thus land was made. Where I remember to have seen steamers draw- ing ten or twelve feet of water at the foot of Davis street now there is solid land, made first by the deposit of sand by the lake, and later increased by filling done by the city. The city did not begin to fill in until after the lake had receded. Papers on Psychology and Phys os logy 10 et S < —— ~— Soe ae ae Mike : 3 mS PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 109 A POSSIBLE INTERPRETATION OF THE SYN- CHRONOUS FLASHING OF FIREFLIES Curistian A. Ruckmick, University oF In.inots I. THEORETICAL AND HISTORICAL Luminescence in living organisms has rarely failed to excite the curiosity and wonder of mankind. The ree- ords of travellers and explorers frequently contain ac- counts of various forms of the phenomenon and of its presence in many different varieties of animal life. There have also appeared from time to time a large num- ber of scientific descriptions and explanations relating to the biological function, the chemical production, and the characteristic conditions of its occurrence. In 1910 Mangold (18)? was able to collect 649 titles on the sub- ject and in the last decade several scores of additional contributions must have appeared. We are not here con- cerned, however, with the general subject. Some con- siderations, like the biological function of the phenome- non and the chemical nature of it, may have important re- lations to the discussion but time forbids a more detailed examination. Suffice it, then, to remark that among in- sects it is claimed, first by Osten-Sacken (23), then by McDermott (17) and Mast (19), that luminescence is very likely a secondary sex characteristic, especially so in the fireflies (Lampyridae). Recently Harvey (12) has also reported on the chemical changes that take place during the flashing. But we are chiefly interested in the problem of the con- certed behavior of groups of fireflies and with the pub- lished statements regarding this peculiar action. It is claimed in many independent reports that there exists at times a certain unusual synchronism of flashing. Often this synchronism is called rhythmical. In the course of discussion synchronism of action has been described in many different forms of animals, notably the swinging movements of web-worms (16, 24), the rising and falling of harvestmen (Phalangidae) (22, 30), the beating of the wings of the pelican (30), the swaying of the bittern in the grass (9), the wriggling of bees at the entrance of a ja 2 hae? See — ne ae Oe eine T, Lg Se “> Se ee ee ne OE Wi SETAE Pe Pe eee . ‘Kr rot ae ae) 110 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the hive (11), the knocking of the heads of ants against dry leaves (20, 26), the chirping of crickets (Grillidae) (20, 5), the clucking of frogs (2), and the movements of plant lice, of fireflies on the wing, and even of sensitive plants (2). In examining these reports the psychologist becomes aware of certain features familiar to him in his study of observation and of testimony; and the writer, having ac- quainted himself with the subject of rhythm, has taken an additionally keen interest in the discussion. A few years ago he made a special investigation into the problem of visual rhythms and discovered in the present question some elements common also to his former experiments. First of all, then, as to matters of general psychologi- eal significance, we may note these: 1. The observations for the most part occur under uncritical conditions. In some respects the circumstances are akin to those accompanying the observation of many mediumistic performances. In a majority of the reports the writer has noticed an emotional attitude and the des- eription of conditions bordering on the romantic. For example we read: ‘“We sat gazing enraptured on a pyramid of living light, suspended, as it were, by threads of fairy gold. On a high black walnut tree there had gathered myriads of fireflies, which moving through the dark foliage as if to the time of some enchanter’s music, presented a scene of exquisite loveliness, which it is impossible to describe. As the fairy mass revolved, now up, now down, then round as to the measured time of a dance, my companion in ecstasy exclaimed, ‘Captain, I would work twelve months for nothing to see such a sight as this.’ ’’ (28) ‘*At one moment every leaf and branch appears dec- orated with diamond-like fire; and soon there is darkness, to be again succeeded by flashes from innumerable lamps which whirl about in rapid agitation. If stars be the 1Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliography at the close of the paper. Page references were not deemed necessary because of the brevity of most of the articles cited. PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 111 poetry of heaven, earth has nothing more poetic than the tropical firefiy.’’ (6) ‘“‘On approaching in canoes, a scene of wondrous beauty presented itself. The light was due to miniature lamps of several thousands of fireflies which were hold- ing festival over what appeared to be a breeding ground.’’ (13) ‘“As the stage rounded one of the numerous curves on the grade there appeared on our left, apparently in mo- tion, a ghostly incandescence which came and went in regularly repeated flashes and intervals of darkness. The appearance was uncanny and was plainly visible to all the passengers in the stage.’’ (21) The writer has never witnessed synchronic flashing of this sort but he is convinced that its first appearance must throw the observer into an attitude of astonishment at the beauty of the effect. As our experiments later to be described indicate, the same result has been pro- duced even under artificial conditions of the laboratory. And since few of the reported observations have been re- peated, statements concerning the phenomenon may be made without being subject to verification under the same conditions. 2. Again, with few exceptions, notably those of Morse (21) and Hudson (13), the synchronism was noticed by but a single observer in any one case. Concerning some of the conflicting points in the several reports there can be therefore no safeguarded confirmation. As some of the statements indicate, at any rate, the phenomenon is in most places of observation particularly rare in occur- rence. Allard (1) thinks that ‘‘one may consider himself fortunate if he has observed the phenomenon even once in a lifetime, his observation having occurred more than a dozen years ago, and Morse (20) first reported an ex- perience of fifty years ago. Even though there are a good many independent reports of different occasions, an in- stance simultaneously reported by several individuals is rare in the literature. 3. This scarcity of testimony concerning the identical event is furthermore embarrassed by conflicting reports Sacre i cued Ney aia ES J BP iting cor ea at aa ea a AEC» ae Fer eh ne Rr eee 112 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE on essential points. The debate on some of these points has already been begun in the literature, but no conclu- sion agreeable to all has been drawn. (a) There is the widest divergence of opinion regard- ing the regularity of the synchronism. If some of the fireflies flashed in unison, how many in proportion were ‘out of step’? There was of course no check on the ap- parent regularity of the synchronism. We know, es- pecially from the work of MacDougall and Woodrow that in rhythmical performance variations from strict time can physically occur without a perceptible difference in the maintenance of the rhythm. The quotations which follow indicate positions assumed on this question by the observers. ‘“‘There must have been several thousand insects im each tree, yet the synchronism was so perfect that rarely or never did a single firefly flash at the wrong time.’’ (25) ‘‘Wrom time to time, as if moved by a common impulse, great numbers would flash so closely in unison over the entire field that an extensive sheet of tiny light-points would gleam upon the vision for a moment—and_ then vanish.’’ (1) ‘‘The majority of the fireflies were flashing in unison but there were some which did not time their flashes with the majority.’’ (4) ‘‘The flashes were not perhaps as regular as an army officer would like to see in regimental drills but were so rhythmic that any one would take note of their action.”’ (20) ‘‘T frequently noticed that small trees and shrubs would be more aglow at certain times than at others, but I never happened to observe a time when a small tree or shrub was all alight one instant and dark the next. In my experience there were always some fireflies flashing in the ‘dark’ periods. The times of greatest light. oc- curred when the greatest number of varying flashes co- ineided.’’ (10) ce * * It was soon evident that while at a given instant one tree may have been more highly illuminated PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 113 than the other, there was nothing approaching period- icity in the phenomenon, and no continuation of it was noticed.’’ (16) ‘‘During these visits we noted that the illumination was never due to a truly synchronous lighting of the lamps of those fireflies engaged in the display but was always of the nature of wave motion spreading out from one or more centers * * *. Strictly speaking there was no measured regularity in this concerted response and therefore no true rhythm. * * *’’ (13) In the most recently reported experimental investiga- tion in the subject, the Snyders (27) observed a regular- ity in the synchronism with a variation of only a tenth of a second in the flash of fireflies flying in a strata of a uniform temperature coefficient. (b) Variations occur also in the statements concern- ing the duration of the synchronism. Some say that the effect lasted for a considerable length of time, others that it appeared sporadically. One of the quotations given above (16) referred to the fact that there was no con- timuation of effect noticeable. In one report we note that the synchronism did not begin at the first appear- ance of the flashing: ‘After a while a most remarkable synchronism in the flashing appeared to take place * * *. This remark- able synchronism in the flashing sometimes continued several times in succession, * * *.’’ (1) (c) The question of alternate illumination of trees, in addition to the synchronous effect in any one tree, also arises. There seems to be, in other words, a spatial fae- tor in the distribution of the periodical effect. In respect to the problem of rhythm, we are at once confronted with several important factors. There can be no rhythm, of course, unless there is accentuation of some member in the measure. It is likely therefore that whenever the term is used in these discussions there is meant simply a periodicity or synchronism, 2. e., the wider usage of the term common in some connections, as physiological rhythm, geological rhythm, or, as is less likely, there is already a tacit admission that a rhythm 114 exists, but that it is subjective as regards the observer. This explanation has already been suggested by Craig (9) who refers also to the similar theory advanced in the Dolbear-Shull controversy regarding crickets. It were better to restrict the effect to that of synchronism. Other explanations have not been lacking. The earlier writers did not hesitate to attribute to the lower animals a ‘‘fine sense of rhythm on the part of each individual’’ (30). Both by implication and by direct statement the opinion is expressed that the control of the performance _ is consciously executed. One writer discusses the subject in connection with crickets (5): ‘‘Tt is now a question as to whether these crickets per- ceive the rhythm which is so pronounced in the regular sequence of their chirpings. I believe they must, for it is quite evident that they hear and respond to the pecu- lar rhythmical chirpings of their kind, which have be- come the common language of the species. If they are able to recognize the notes of their kind, it is reasonable to believe that the rhythmical character, as well as pitch, manner of delivery, and even more subtle tonal differ- ences enter into the recognition.”’ It is almost gratuitous to assign rhythmic perception to the lower organisms. According to Morgan it is not safe to explain animal action on any higher mental level than is necessary. Swindle (29) seems to think that the sense of rhythm in the human species does not show traces of inheritance. And the question whether savages have a more pronounced sense of rhythm because, Dela- croze fashion, they can often maintain complicated rhythms side by side, has not yet received a final answer! In the case of fireflies the added difficulty of seeing the rest, except in the few instances of a spreading effect from several foci (13, 22) is presented. The difficulty of explaining the phenomenon on the basis of a selective sex function is materially increased by the synchronism itself (16). To the writer it would seem that if the flash- ing is related to the sex activity of the males, as the work of Mast (19) seems to indicate, it cannot be of direct causal assistance, but only of secondary import- _ PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 115 ance in the sense of a by-product. And it is furthermore apparent from the researches of Harvey (12) that the release may be very regular provided that the physico- chemical conditions are such that the oxidation of luci- ferin can be resumed at periodically recurring intervals. It is not necessary therefore to take the extreme view that the flashing is due to movements of the eyelids of the observer, as Laurent concluded (15), or that the mat- ter rests largely upon the suggestion of the observer’s mind as Craig infers (9), or that, as Gates remarks (10), ‘‘eomplete synchronism in the flashing of a group of fire- flies is simply a very rare accident, occurring when the flashes of the individuals chance to come at the same time.’’ ll. EXPERIMENTAL The writer believed that, aside from the varying cir- cumstances attendant upon the observations as noted, a reasonable item in the explanation of the phenomenon in its psychological aspects was the well-known tendency of the human mind to integrate its experiences. If the ticks of a metronome are heard at first in a monotonous and unaccented fashion, soon they will be measured off subjectively into groups; if any unevenness should occur in these beats, it would be overlooked and the grouping would continue as before; and if a number of metronomes were set off at respectively different rates, the subject hearing them all at once would bring order out of chaos and begin to superimpose a grouping on the irregularly beating complex. The assumption made, then, was this: suppose, as some writers stated, there should be several coincidences among a large number of firefly flashings in a given place. This would be so striking that the periods of darkness might seem in comparison more or less complete; and it would then tend to set the mind of the observer in the direction-of subsequent grouping of flashes in patterns supplied, for the most part, by himself. In the case of observers whose rhythmicizing tendencies were not so strong—they are never entirely wanting in the normal human mind—the report would take a different turn Soho Org Rag We se hPa Ue Soe es ON) eS Re See ee oe a a ee AP Tap oi As ~ aad 3: 116 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE from those of others more emphatically inclined in this direction. | Apparatus. It was our task to reproduce on a smaller scale and under laboratory conditions the effect de- scribed in the above reports. That the appearance was startling and beautiful most of our observers spontane- ously remarked. ~I'wenty small, 15 watt tubular incan- descent lamps were mounted irregularly over a wooden framework on candelabra bases. Covers for these lights were then made out of mailing tubes with one end sealed and a hole punched in this end in diameter a little larger than that of the ordinary pin-hole. The inside of the tubes was lined with white bristol board to increase the reflection. But great care was taken to stop all light- leaks, even thoes only faintly visible in the dark-room. The entire arrangement subtended a visual angle of about 25°, the observer sitting about 5 meters away from the framework. The framework was eccentrically pivoted on the wall opposite the observer so as to disturb any tendency to memorize the pattern of arrangement. When the experiment was not under way, a curtain hung over the apparatus in order to prevent the possibility of an inadvertent exposure of the apparatus to the observer. There was provided also a small greenish ight mounted near the center of the framework which served to give the observer the approximate center of fixation. A tele- phone cable with a separate strand for each light carried the connections to an adjoining dark-room where the experimenter was stationed and where the control ap- paratus was located. This consisted principally of a small horizontal brass drum driven by a very smoothly running clockwork and governor. On the drum were mounted strips of paper with perforations for the con- tacts made through twenty separately connected point- — ers. Whenever one of the pointers passed over a hole in the paper the electric circuit for its particular lamp was closed and the lamp would flash. A main switch and a switch for the momentary flashing of the fixation lamp completed the apparatus in the experimenter’s room. Vy wl SO le ee - 7 se a Za: 7 ‘“ ; ». _-. pas . a, a) PAPERS ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 117 Observers. Observers were recruited from the staff, from the graduate students in the Department of Psy- chology, from the students in the intermediate labora- tory, and from the members of a few elementary classes. There were more than a dozen all told; and they ranked in training from naive observation to the capacity for eareful analysis of mental processes. With one or two exceptions, which were noted in our results, the observ- ers were uninformed concerning the problem of the ex- periment or the character and disposition of the ap- paratus. Procedure. The experiments lasted through the great- er part of the year 1919-1920 in the course of which time several modifications in the procedure were made. In the early series only five lights were used. They were flashed on in irregular order and no two in unison. Since we were working with a limited number of lamps, at most only twenty, to produce an effect equivalent to that un- der natural conditions we had to increase the speed of flashing to about one per second; the duration of the flash equal to .5 sec. and the intervals between flashes of the same duration as the flashes. The Snyders give the most reliable value as to flash and interval: 15 flashes per min. and a 6 sec. duration for the interval. We are now con- tinuing the experiment with these longer time values. In every experimental series the observer was seated in the dark-room, allowed to rest for about five minutes to permit after-images to disappear and to become ‘‘dark adapted,’’ and he was then told to describe as accurately and analytically as possible the effect produced. He was told that a warning signal would appear at about the center of the field which he was to observe and at about three second interval before the observation was to begin. Cotton was inserted in his ears so that no possible noise from the apparatus in the adjoining room could form the basis of grouping even though heard through the closed door. At the end of the series before the light was again turned on the curtain was drawn over the frame- work suspended on the wall. From a simple series of five lights, each one flashing at its own peculiar rate, the number of lights flashing in stated a marta area : a 5 - Om Te ere ed SUP RT fp a ae epee pe ad 2 A ee, Oe Ne, Se lien HP RRA, ht eet NaN e eta ON Aye PNT SEALS re Dh OaS MO Se ene ENS 118 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE this manner was gradually increased in successive series, until all twenty lights were in operation. In all cases the length of the flash was the same but the intervals be- tween the flashes varied from .5 sec. to 2.5 sec. in .5 sec. increments. The temporal distribution of all the lights was such that only two out of the twenty could flash at the same instant. In a final series we tried the effect of continuing a rhythmical grouping that was given four times at the beginning of the series, but passing thence into the ut- most irregularity of flashing. Results. It was curious to see the emotional effect of all of our series on the observers. Some of it un- doubtedly was due to the appearance of these odd and silent flashings on the wall of a dark-room. But more curious still were the spontaneous associations with fire- flies. Some of the remarks, as made by different ob- servers, follows: ‘‘Tmpression of lightning bugs flitting.’’ ‘‘Tdea of lightning bugs.”’ ‘ 128 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE to avoid the appearance of nystagmus when it came as a small relapse. For example, a subject may have been ac- customed to six turnings and have been ready to pass to seven save that organic distress (which, as we have found in other experiments, tends to increase the intensity and duration of the nystagmus) made it impossible for the subject to stand more than four or five turnings without nystagmus. In such cases, and they were too few to ser- iously affect the experiment, the subject was continued at the old number of turnings until he was physiologi- eally stable again. We shall now discuss the results. By inspecting Table IJ, it will be seen that, at the time the investigation was discontinued, subjects C and F could be rotated ten times TABLE II Giving the nur’ ber of rotation-periods of ten trials (each trial con- sisting of the designated number of revolutions) necessary to enable the several subjects to pass to the next higher number of revolutions per trial without the appearance of nystagmus. That is to say, Subj. A, for example, was given 1 rotation-period of ten trials, each trial con- sisting of one revolution. He then spent 4 rotation-periods where each of the trials consisted of two revolutions and so on. No. of Subjects revolutions. © ———$—$— > > per trial A B C Dd E F 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 4 2 3 2 4 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 4 2 3 il 2 3 2 5 1 4 3 6 3 2 6 ik a al 6 2 es 7 4 2 2 5 5 4 8 3 se 6 Ae 4 9 6 6 5 10 ane 3 4 in twenty seconds without a perceptible quiver of the eye. Subject A was discontinued at nine turns per trial, sub- jects B and D at seven turns and subject EH at six. There is no-reason to suppose, however, that these subjects would not ultimately have given the same results as sub- jects C and F. Table III shows, in terms of the number of single revo- lutions, the general course of the increasing inhibition against nystagmus. The fact is revealed that the effect of practice is greater at the beginning of a series than at pci a fe =. > TABLE III The figures indicate the actual number of revolutions given to each subject as the number of revolutions per trial increased up to ten. In the column of averages, the small number for 10 revolutions per trial is due to the fact that subjects C and F were not rotated long enough to enable them to pass to eleven revolutions per trial. No. of Subjects revolutioas —=_—-—- —_*"_,._ Reeciprocals per trial A B D E EF Av. base=1002.0 1 20 40 20 20 20 20 23.6 41.7 2 160 80 120 80 160 120 120.0 8.3 3 120 180 120 120 120 = 180 140.0 ae 4 160 240 80 160 240 160 173.3 5.8 5 100 400 300 200 300 # 200 250.0 4.0 6 120 420 120 720 240 £240 305.0 320 7 560° - 280 .280 - 700 -.:.. . 560 476.0 2.1 8 4800 Sac2! SG 4 ek Pe 640 693.3 1.4 9 1,080 et AE OSUS Hake .-- 900. 1,002.0 0.0 10 ee GOO) 7 2: Seen SOO 700.0 1.4 the end. In other words, it takes a greater amount of practice to be able to stand nine turns aft-r having stood eight than it does to stand three turns after having be- come accustomed to two. Or, again, it took 640 turns for subject C to become accustomed to five turns a trial but it took 3,040 turns to stand the increase up to ten turns per trial. In a similar way it took 680 rotations for subject F to become accustomed to 5 turns a trial while 3,140 were required to go to ten turns per trial. These facts illustrate a common characteristic of the change that takes place in the organic and mental effects of rota- tion during practice. That is, a curve showing the in- creasing ability of a subject to stand rotation without presenting any organic or mental effects possesses some of the characteristic of the typical learning curve. That this is true can be seen by recalling the general form of the learning curve and by comparing it with the curve of Chart I. Chart I is based upon the results ob- tained from the experiments we are now discussing. (See Table IIT) If becoming accustomed to rotation ean- be spoken of as a ‘‘performance’’ then it will be seen that the degree of performance is much greater during the early part of a series than later.’ 7 Compare the curve in chart I with those obtained from subjects who be- gan with ten revolutions per trial or approximately 25 revolutions of after- nystagmus. See J. of Exper. Psychol., 1920, 3, p. 30. Scare ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY * eet ak ee ae ee 6 “4 ) : NO. OF REVOLUTIONS PER TRIAL ee us ‘CHART I | OO _ The curve represents the temporal curve of the increasing inhibition 0 nystagmus as revolutions increase in number per trial. Distances along the ordinate are reciprocals of the total number of revolutions. Danby ee Sa . tee . bie RR oe" « S, Ee ee: ON PSYCHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY 131 a are" PAPERS The after-nystagmus was not the only effect of rotation _ that was altered by practice. None of the subjects ex- perienced vertigo at any time. Ona few occasions a very slight dizziness was reported; but in most of the cases this was demonstrated to be coincident with the organic disturbances from other causes. None of our subjects past-pointed at the end of the investigation. That the muscular effects of rotation usually leading to past- pointing had dropped out was demonstrated in the fol- lowing manner. being forced from the pyenidium (Fig. 21). es In the accompanying diagram (Fig. 34), are shown in cross section, the relative positions of the various parts of the pyenidium. The pyenidium (a), is seen to be en- tirely above the cuticle (b), and to possess a solitary subglobose locule (e). The mycelium (f) leading up to the pycnidium proper, is extremely dense, and it is sel- dom that its cellular structure can be recognized. It ap- proaches the locule from either side, the locule being in a way buttressed by the ends of the former. The locule itself is surrounded by cells of irregular shape (d), somewhat gelatinous in character, and thinner walled and lighter in color than those of the thallus (f), individual cells in the inner layer alone, being recognizable. Cellu- lar structure of this nature extends above the locule, making up the upper layer (c) of the pyenidium. In the angles (g), made betwen the buttressing mycelium and the locule, as well as along the base of the pyenidium just below the locule, the cells are still lighter in color than those immediately above the locule. Pycnidial Formation. According to DeBary (1884), and Kempton (1919), pycnidia may arise by one of two methods, which they designate as ‘‘symphogenous’’ and ‘‘meristogenous’’: ‘‘symphogenous’’ when the young hyphal threads interlace to form at first a loose network, later one gnarled and knotlike, ‘‘meristogenous’’ when the pyenidial primordium arises by intercalary growth on one or more cells of one hyphal branch. Variations in these two methods have also been noted, such as simple and compound modes of each, or even a combination of the two methods. The various stages in pyenidial formation in sooty blotch, have been followed on apple skin by mounting representative bits at different times in the year. Pyeni- dial development was observed to be in progress in Sep- tember, but it is not usually complete until the winter is over, and appears to proceed naturally on material win- tering out of doors. Pycnidial formation in sooty blotch is usually sym- phogenous (Figs. 27-30), though the behavior of the IOJVM OT[OARL UY WOTSAoTUUIT 10978 ‘YOJOTG AJOOS YPM poyoore sojdde soupy ‘Ag ‘OL ie i al "PAPERS ON E ae threads is variable and oie: may be found e of different modes. In one developmental series, representative of the sym- phogenous method, formation of the pyenidial primor- dium begins by the lateral budding of one or more cells of a hyphal thread (Fig. 28), cells of various shapes and sizes being cut off. A second hypha, lying beside the first, _ buds, and the branches resulting from these two parent — hyphae unite. In other cases, this second hypha is m- cluded in the formation, by the uniting of a branch of the first hypha with a cell of the second (Fig. 27). Ocea- sionally, additional main mycelial threads may become involved. From this stage on, regardless of how initiated, the — process is one of rapid branching, with many connecting links formed between the hyphal threads (Fig. 29). Much loopmg and interlacing of main and branchmg hyphae ensues, which results in a dense mass of mycelial cells. The outer portion or covering then becomes mem- braneous and darkens in color. Further internal de- velopment and cell differentiation of the mass, results mn a pycnidium (Fig. 30). Conidia. Conidia were rarely found, as scores of seemingly mature pycnidia were examined without evi- dence of fructification. The method of procedure was as follows: Bits of apple skin on which it was thought — good material might be present were placed in concen- trated potassium hydroxide over night. The next morn- ing the skin was washed and the pycnidia removed to a glass slide, in a small amount of water. A cover glass was placed on the material, and individual pyenidia ob- served under the low power, were forced open by care- ful pressure with the scalpel. Where conidia were ob- served extruding through the characteristic slit, they were stained with iodine. The conidia (Figs. 23, 31), are almost hyaline, one- celled, and while varying in shape, are somewhat ob- long, straight or slightly curved, muticate, measuring 10-20 x 4-7. The conidia appear to be sessile, or borne = pl : Pp t4 (4 - 4 : : cs > = rr x ee. ead A, .- 2 tp ae Sn se we ae on very short conidiophores arising as lateral branch from the mycelium, which forms the base of the sporo- genous structure. Paraphyses. A fact of importance to be noted is the presence of copious paraphyses (Figs. 28, 32). They are slender, blunt, gelatinous, and many-septate, and ex- tend among and far beyond the conidiospores. In var- ious genera of the perfect fungi, the presence or absence, and the shape and size of paraphyses are important characters in differentiating these genera. Such struc- tures are very much less common in the imperfect fungi and are here rarely used as generic characters. However, Saccardo, in the ‘‘Sylloge Fungorum’’ uses the presence of paraphyses as a generic character in lim- iting Lasiodiplodia, and he also describes paraphyses in connection with many species of Chaetodiplodia. Hig- gins (1916), in his discussion of the nomenclature of plum wilt, which he places in the genus Lasiodiplodia, states that ‘‘the presence of paraphyses seems to be the most constant character of the pyenidia’’. Chlamydospores. What appear to be chlamydospores : have been observed often in examination of thalli of the fern-like type (Fig. 7). These spore-like bodies may be deseribed as dark brown, thick walled, sometimes angled cells. They probably originate through the breaking apart of single cells of mycelium. It is certain that these chlamydospores initiate new colonies, since in thalli con- taining but 4-7 cells (Fig. 26), as well as in those much larger (Fig. 24), the chlamydospores are still easily recognizable near the center of the thallus. Histological Relation. Sections of apple and pear fruits, more or less coated with sooty blotch, after being stained with the safranin, showed clearly that the state- ment generally made, affirming the superficial nature of the fungus, is correct. In no case was the cuticle pene- trated, or any of the epidermal cells or those below, dis- turbed, or their appearance altered from the normal, when sooty blotch was present. This fact is well illus- trated with respect to the pear, in Fig. 14, and the apple, PLATE I Wears.” a, ie in ee 13 and TD: as well as in Fig. 34, previously # bat pre: - A These Sigur tations are of interest, also, in e connection. According to Beach (1899), Clinton cay superficial examination, has often been mighieeee for” apple scab. Since apple Nea is subepidermal, a cross sec- tion of an apple fruit affected with scab wontd show a true diseased condition of the host, which condition is entirely lacking where sooty blotch, alone, is present. © Taxonomy. In 1832?, Schweinitz published the species : Dothidea pomigena, under the section Asteroma, the description reading as follows: a! **1909 D. pomigena L. v. S., frequens in maturis Pomis dictis ‘‘Newtown Pippins’”’. ‘Pennsylv. Bi: ae SD: pomigena maculis orbiculatis laxis, e fibrillulis tenerrimis nigris_ reticulato Afepete MS plerumque | Ks sterilibus. Cellulis in centro aggregatis, geek ma- ie jusculis. Maculis vix unquam 1 uncialibus.’ The original specimen is now in the Schweinitz call lection, in the Herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sbaies of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Both the packet and its contents were kindly photographed by Dr. J. W. Harshberger, and appear as Fig. 4. UE It will be noted that Schweinitz was uncertain as to the name to apply to the fungus, in that he first labelled — 5 the packet Dothidea fructigena, then changed it to D. -pomigena. The packet also states that the fungus was og formerly known as Monilia fructigena. ‘ It is not clear why Schweinitz placed the fungus in ee Dothidea, a genus with the stromata formed within the tissues of the host plant, and later becoming erumpent. 2 Some question has arisen as to the year of publication, Sturgis (1898) _ i stating it to be 1831, while Clinton (1901) gives it 1834. The matter is — ae cleared up by the following statement in a recent letter to the writer, from Dr. J. H. Barnhart, Bibliographer of the New York Botanical Garden: “The ~ paper by Schweinitz, “Synopsis fungorum in America boreali media degen- tium”, was published in 1832, not 1834 (see North American Flora, vol. 9, page 451). The volume title-page is dated 1834, but this paper constitutes Part 2 of the volume, dated 1832 (I have seen several copies in their orig- | inal covers) and there is no doubt that it was issued in that year.” - Vi \ “ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It is certain, however, that the fungus of Schweinitz is what we now know as sooty blotch. Sturgis (1898) trans- lates Schweinitz’ description of D. pomigena as follows :)\qaa “Spots orbicular, loose, (in texture?) (composed of) a radiating network of very delicate black fibrils, for the most part sterile. Cells in the center aggregated, ex- panded, comparatively large. Spots hardly over 1% inch (in diameter). Common on ripe apples known as ‘ New- town Pippins’, Pennsylvania;’’ and concludes that ‘‘the aye sooty disease * * * * is probably identical with the fungus observed by de Schweinitz on Newtown Pippins’’. Clinton (1901) in his study of apple scab, after an ex- amination of Schweinitz’ original specimen of D. pomi- gena, concludes it is not scab as some botanists have sus- pected, ‘‘being more like the fly speck fungus in its macroscopic appearance’’. Clinton’s statement has misled many succeeding investigators who have reasoned that Dothidea pomigena Schw., later changed to Phyl- a lachora pomigena by Saccardo, (1883) is indeed fly t speck. The writer was not convineed as to this fact and Pe correspondence brought out the following: Clinton in a recent letter* states with regard to Dothidea pomigena, any ‘What I wished to satisfy myself of at the time, was that th it was not apple scab. I am not sure that at that time I had a very distinct idea of sooty blotch so may have thought it resembled the fly-speck fungus because I did ii not distinguish between them”’. ae In a letter* from Harshberger, he states after an ex- amination of D. pomigena Schw., at Philadelphia, that the fungus is in all probability sooty blotch, rather than an fly speck, since the areas are diffused and there are no ie specks. Since Schweinitz included D. pomigena under the sec- tion Asteroma as he understood it, (cf. original deserip- tion), Sprague (1856) lists sooty blotch as Asteroma pomigena Schw., among a number of fungi collected near Boston and named by M. A. Curtis. Later in the same year, Sprague (1856) describes, with a specimen, the 8 Letter of April 14, 1919. 4Letter of March 14, 1919. PLATE IT + my, 4 LS beak 2 < nows hh en Oa Sat poe My ak rag Ay =f i a Peres roy. oh 9; f o = . Vin aot F y] ~? * 4, a Bo As sooty blotch fungus, using the same name as before, A Asteroma pomigena Schw. He mentions the presence of — minute black perithecia seated upon the mycelium, fe though he was not able to find any evidence of spores. Ries Saceardo (1893), after giving Schweinitz’ Latin de- ag scription of D. pomigena, renames the fungus, which thus becomes Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Race, The reason : for this transfer is not clear, since Phyllachora has a well es defined stroma within the host tissues, a character which - a is entirely lacking in sooty blotch. No evidence of the existence of ascospores of P. pomigena (Schw.) Sace. is | on record. Furthermore, Theissen and Sydow (1915), in ae “a their monograph on the Dothideales, list Phyllachora_ 3! pomigena (Schw.) Sace. under ‘‘Species Phyllachorae ~ A ep delendae’’ a mcatanne and Fries (1834), published the species” Labrella Pomi. Although the description is meager and not conclusive, it probably refers to fly speck.* Saccardo (1879), after repeating the description of Montagne and Fries, renames the fungus ‘‘Leptothyrium? Pomi’’, al- | though he reports no spores. Later, Saccardo (1884) — lists this fungus as ‘‘Leptothyriwm Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace.”’ lag The name L. Pomi as above is commonly found in the literature to refer to fly speck, until Selby (1900) pub- — es | lished ‘‘Sooty Fungus and Fly-speck Fungus * * * * | Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace.”? He thus was the first to group the two fungi under the same technical name. ae Selby mentions no investigations to prove the identity of the two fungi. The nearest approach to work of this OS Seale nature was that done by Floyd, and reported by Duggar _ * - Sa 5 Since the above was written, positive evidence has come to light which , ies substantiates the writer’s statement. Through the kind offices of Doctor _ are ( Wm. Trelease, Head of the Department of Botany, University of fllinois, a5 three mounts were prepared from Montagne and Fries’ No. 847, preserved be og in the Montagne Herbarium in the Museum of Natural History in Paris. The Curator of the Museum kindly sent the mounts to Doctor Trelease, peat *) who turned them over to the writer for study. The tissues are somewhat tangled as the material was cut free hand, nevertheless, the character- istic structure of fly speck is clearly evident. The mounts have been for- warded to Doctor J. W. Harshberger to be placed in the Herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. aha bd + , : -. > Bi - ied: - - (1909), who states that ‘* the sooty blotch and fly speck are apparently stages of the same fungus’’ and pro- yvisionally refers to them as one fungus, though the eyi- dence on which he bases his conclusions is not presented. Since the publication of Duggar’s book (1909), _ Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace. has been quite _ generally accepted as the technical name for the two fungi, though this usage is not universal. In a recent letter, G. R. Lyman of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plant Disease Survey, states that most of their collabora- tors refer to Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace., as _ the cause of sooty blotch, and a smaller number attribute | fly speck to this fungus. Sheldon, Cook, and Clinton refer to Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc., as the cause of sooty blotch. The following herbarium specimens were examined. The label on the packet is given as well as the herbarium or set of exsiceati from which the specimen was received. In the column headed ‘‘sooty blotch’’ are placed the names of the specimens classified by the writer as such: in the column ‘‘fly speck’’ are placed those classified by him under that name. SCOTY BLOTCH Phyllachora pomigena Schw. Sace. Pirus malus. Win- chester, Va. Oct. 21, 1908. Com. M. B. Waite. Det. M. B. Waite. From U.S. Dept. of Agr. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace. From Giltner in Hamilton Co. Collector Mrs. E. D. Snider, 22 Sept. 1909. Herbarium of Plant Pathology, Dept. of Agricul- tural Botany. Univ. of Nebr. Plant Disease Survey. From U.S. Dept. of Agr. FLY SPECK Disease of Malus malus ‘‘Genitan’’. Caused by Lep- —— tothyrium pomi. From Red Cloud. Collector J. M. koe Bates, Jan. 31, 1908. Herbarium of Plant Pathology, Dept. of Agricultural Botany, Univ. of Nebr. Plant Disease Survey. From U.S. Dept. of Agr. ’ ® Letter of March 10, 1919. Rg PLATE III i rom U. S. Dept. of Agr. ‘3 of Nebr. Plant Disease Suny y. From U. 8. Dept. of | PETE ee ee gelatinous, referring to the gelatinous interior of the | Lep i ' Bitar. 24, 1909. Coe L. C. Garbett, Det. M. B. Waite Disease of Malus malus. Caused by Lepioviweaae pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Saece. From Giltner in Hamilton Co. Collector Mrs. E. D. Snider, 22 Sept. 1909. Herbarium of Plant Pathology, Dept. of Agricultural Botany, Univ. Agr. n Ellis & Everhart. North American Fungi. Second Series. 2174 Leptothyriwn Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) On ap- ple skins. Chicago, Ill. Col. W. W. Calkins, Univ. of Ill. Herb. .de Thuemen Mycotheca universalis 1483 Labrella Pom Mntg. et Fries in Ann. se. natur. 1843. I. p. 347. Mntg. Syll. plant. eryptog p. 272. Autria inferior: Wien in Pyri Mali Lin. fructibus EB OEE Apr. 1879, leg a Thuemen. Univ. of Ill. Herb. C. Romeguere. Fungi selecti exsiceati 6357 Leptothy- rium Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Saee. Syll. IL, p. 632 : Labrella Pomi, Mont. Grognot, flore de ey stairs p- 136 f Crataegi. Sur fruits de Crataegus oxyacantha mars 1893. Fr Fautrey. Univ. of Il. Herb. z, In view of the morphology of the sooty blotch fungus, as described on the previous pages, it is obvious that it does not belong to any of the genera just discussed, and ee et moreover, that it possesses characters sufficiently strik ing and distinctive to warrant the erection of a new genus to receive it. For this I propose the name Gloeodes, $i DN ¥. pyenidium, with the following generic description: — Gloeodes nov. gen. i Mycelium strictly superficial, dark colored, septate : profusely branched, often anastomosing, constituting a _ thallus, often fern-like in appearance but occasionally of — other types; pyenidia dimidiate, membrano-carbonous, | ty interior gelatinous; paraphyses present; conidia oblong, one-celled, hyaline. A whi y 4 iy SCI "ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF The type of the genus is © Gloeodes pomigena (Schw.) nov. comb. Dothidea pomigena Schw., Trans. Am. Phil. Soe. n. s. 4:232, 1832. Asteroma pomigena (Schw.) fide Curt. in Sprague, Proce. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist. 5:325, 1856. : Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace., Syll. Fung. 2 :622, 1883. Leptothyrium Pomi Selby, Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 121:12, 1900, as to sooty blotch only, the original idea of L. Pomi having reference to the fly speck fungus alone. Pyenidia dark brown, dimidiate, scattered or aggre- gated, superficial, rupturing irregularly; conidia oblong, sometimes slightly curved, one-celled, hyaline, 10-20 x 4-71; conidiophores short or lacking; paraphyses septate, gelatinous, slender, blunt, longer than the conidia. Hab. fruits and stems of certain species of Pyrus. Host Considerations. Sooty blotch of pomaceous fruits is very common on the apple, Pyrus Malus L. (Fig. 2), appearing less often on the pear, Pyrus communis L. (Fig. 5). The literature available does not record with certainty, the occurrence of sooty blotch on any other hosts. Duggar (1909) reports what was either sooty blotch or fly speck on trees and shrubs other than pomaceous ones, though he does not mention any host plant by name, nor does he distinguish between sooty blotch and fly speck, because he regarded them as identi- eal. The writer has observed a sooty blotch on the twigs or stems of peach, Prunus Persica (Li) Stokes, and black- berry, Rubus nigrobaccus B. (Fig. 19), both of the family Rosaceae, and on black mustard, Brassica nigra (L) Koch. (Fig. 20), of the family Cruciferae. Various authorities regard the Rhode Island Greening, Peck’s Pleasant, Rome, Baldwin, and Northern Spy ap- ples, and Anjou, Lawrence, and Kieffer pears as those on which the fungus is most commonly found in North America. English writers report the Newton Wonder apple and Catillac pear, as most frequently bearing the PLATE IV PAPERS ON BOTANY 159 fungus. However, it has been the writer’s experience in dealing with sooty blotch, that in a season of consider- able rainfall during the late summer, especially in orchards poorly pruned, the trouble was generally pres- ent on the fruit of nearly all varieties. For example, in one Illinois orchard in 1917, he found sooty blotch on the fruit from practically every tree and secured material from apples of twelve varieties, which are not specifi- cally mentioned in the literature as those on which the fungus appears. OI. CONTROL Sooty blotch, beimg superficial, comparatively slow growing, and appearing rather late in the season, is com- monly well controlled in orchards properly located as re- gards air and water drainage, where correct methods of orchard management are followed. On the other hand, it is practically impossible to ex- elude it from orchards, on sites poorly located (Howitt 1911). Fletcher (1912), Selby (1900), and Sheldon (1905) recommend the selection of an elevated site, where the trees will secure sufficient air and sunshine. In Ili- - nois, in 1916, 1917, and 1918, according to my own obser- vations, the trouble was much more commonly found in unpruned than in pruned orchards, and in vigorous young trees than in older more open-headed ones. The year 1917 was comparatively rainy during the latter part of the growing season. The conditions were reversed during 1918. Orchards under observation at Farming- dale and Clinton, Illinois, fairly well pruned to admit sun- shine and air, and located on elevated sites, were not sprayed for the control of fungi in 1918. Scab (Ven- turia inaequalis), blotch (Phyllosticta solitaria), and black rot (Physalospora Cydoniae) were common. Not an apple, however, was found with sooty blotch. In the Farmingdale orchard, moreover, during the previous year, which was one of moderate rainfall during the latter part of the growing season, the trouble had been found wide-spread and abundant. It thus appears that the _ fungus is extremely susceptible to unfavorable environ- mental conditions. Proper pruning is important 1 in preventing the ocecur- rence of sooty blotch in fruit trees. Opening the trees to sunshine and air should be the first measure taken to ~ combat the trouble. Clinton (1906) reports the sooty blotch as noticeably injurious in Connecticut orchards, ‘‘even where they have been sprayed’’. With this exception, the fungus has generally been reported easy of control when a regular spray schedule was followed. Usually this control - comes about as an incidental result (Scott 1906, and Beach 1912), of other applications of spray material in the schedule. The first recorded experimental work carried on for the control of sooty blotch was that of Lamson, on pears (1894). He reports that spraying with Bordeaux mix- ture was effective in controlling the trouble. His for- mula was 6 lbs. copper sulfate, 4 Ibs. lime, in 22 gallons of water. Lamson’s results, of special value in showing gradations of control, are tabulated as follows: Slightly Badly Free from spot spotted spotted MUR PTL VO. % 22 cc,e\nle Siew e elotecers 18% 57% 25% BaP is i nn SN ANC ahaha ara sigh abe 77% 23% 0% Since that time, coincident with the gradual improve- ment in the formula for Bordeaux mixture, and more knowledge of its limitations, as well as advantages, in sooty blotch control, other fungicides have been discov- ered and tested. Lamson (1903), with a 5-5-50 Bordeaux mixture, reports that in spraying apples for scab, pri- marily, 77% of the fruit harvested was free from sooty blotch, 23% slightly spotted, and none badly spotted. Selby (1906) suggests an application of 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture when the apples are the size of hickory nuts. An exception is made in case of apples like the Maiden Blush and Grimes varieties, when the spray should be applied earlier to avoid russetting the fruit. Norton and Seymour (1907) recommend Bordeaux mixture when the PLATE V Fe + ey B- ' po a | w ey Et Lge - adoption of a regular spray schedule of six applications, a using Bordeaux mixture. Sa It may sometimes be necessary, in severe cases, aug- PE) * mented by rainy weather in late summer, to make more _ than the usual number of fungicidal applications. Wil- cox (1905) believes that control of sooty blotch will be insured by spraying against apple scab, supplemented __ by one or more applications in July, a program also urged by Rolfs (1907). Howitt and Caesar (1917) ree ommend the application of the regular scab sprays early in the season, using lime sulfur as the fungicide. These are to be followed by an early August application, es- te) pecially for sooty blotch control. Coons and Nelson (1918) state that it is often the practice in Michigan to use Bordeaux mixture late in July or up to the middle of August, as a supplement to the regular lime sulfur sprays. It is worthy of note in this connection that Clinton and _ c ae Britton (1912), and Blair e¢ al. (1916), have found arse- nate of lead to be of some fungicidal value, since itis slightly effective in sooty blotch control. Some work has recently been done with a view to testing the relative effectiveness of the two standard fungicides, lime sulfur and Bordeaux mixture, in the ie control of sooty blotch. Ballou (1912) states that in Ohio the trouble was thoroughly controlled with one applica- tion of lime sulfur, the spraying: being done late in July. He also shows that this material was as effective as Bordeaux mixture. Blair et al. (1916) report Bor- deaux mixture superior to lime sulfur. They show in addition, that lime suifur with arsenate of lead added, was slightly superior to lime sulfur alone, but adding arsenate of lead to Bordeaux mixture did not increase its fungicidal effect. Pickett et al. (1918) state that both Bordeaux mixture and lime sulfur, when used separately, completely controlled sooty blotch in 1913 and 1914, while as high as 25% infection was found in the check plots. Peruit is one uri’ s erown. gunn (1910) urges ‘the IV. GENERAL DISCUSSION It has been shown that the names sooty blotch and fly — speck have been confounded, and some authors have held that the two are but ae forms of the same fungus. The morphological studies so far carried on by the writer, however, do not enable him to regard the sooty blotch and fly speck as caused by the same fungi, for the fol- lowing reasons: On many apples, collected at various times of the year, from Illinois and other states, showing a large amount of sooty blotch, no fly speck was present (Frontispiece). It has often been observed, that where colonies or thalli © of the fly speck and sooty blotch fungi approach each other, one of these fungi exerts an inhibiting or retard- ing effect upon the growth of the other, so that, for ex- ample, a nearly circular colony of the fly speck fungus may be almost completely surrounded by sooty blotch, yet the line of demarkation between the two be sharp and clearly marked (Fig. 18). In other instances, a colony of one of the two fungi may grow toward a colony of the other fungus, until the two meet, then one may proceed to surround the other but not to grow into it. The condition exhibited is much like that frequently found on agar plates, where colon- ies of fungi or bacteria inhibit the growth of each other, and constitutes a strong argument that fungi which ean so inhibit growth of each other are not of the same spe- cies. While this inhibition or antagonism of sooty blotch by fly speck or vice versa is a very common phenomenon, cases do frequently occur where one of these fungi grows into the colony of the other, such as Rhizopus may grow through a colony of Penicillium. The morphology of the cell aggregations of sooty blotch and fly speck is dissimilar as to the size and external ap- pearance (Fig. 18), and internal appearance (Figs. 15, it T;); The mycelium radiating from the cell aggregations of sooty blotch (Fig. 9), has been discussed. The mycelium radiating from the fly speck is very fine and hyaline, and is of quite different character than that of sooty blotch. PAPERS ON BOTANY 163 Finally, there has been observed a marked difference in the geographical range of the two fungi, by the writer and others. J. H. Gourley’ of New Hampshire, in a let- ter to the writer, states: ‘‘It has been very apparent to me since being in this country that the fiy speck does not develop as much as it did out in Ohio.’’ In view of these several points of evidence as to the independence of sooty blotch and fiy speck, and the fact that their general aspect is quite dissimilar, any assump- tion of their identity would be quite gratuitous. The burden of proof must rest with any who make such an assumption. While the writer has made no studies, as yet, as to the dissemination of sooty blotch, except the observation regarding the presence of chlamydospores, it was noted on examination of hundreds of apples of many varieties, from various parts of the United States, that in a very large percent (80-90) of cases, the fruit showed more sooty blotch at the stem end (Frontispiece), than else- where. This fact is presumably correlated with the dis- semination of chlamydospores, by air, during the latter part of the growing season. It was found that sooty blotch could be easily removed, with no damage to the apples, by immersing them for three to six minutes in Javelle water. The apples were then well washed and rinsed in running water and al- lowed to dry. The formula used in preparing Javelle water is as follows: JAVELLE WATER PiCARHONALG G8 SUR. = win bls Salon Sees 4 Ib. itridear Mme. wees So. bana > Sualdors © 2 1 Ib. Put soda in kettle over fire, add 1 gallon boiling water, let boil 10-15 minutes, then stir in the chloride of lime, so as to avoid the formation of lumps. Use when cool. The sodium hypochlorite is the effective reagent in de- stroying the fungus, by oxidation. It is believed that a practicable method can be developed, commercially, to enhance the sale price of blotched fruit, by removing the fungus. TLetter of November 6, 1918. Rud at * iad ners ? a ee ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Tn the literature, the sooty blotch fungus as observed on apple and pear fruits, is held to be morphologically similar with the exception of Salmon and Wormald’s (1916) report. They state, after a description of sooty blotch on apples, in England, that its appearance on pears is very much the same, except that on apples there are very numerous ‘‘minute black specks’’. It is very likely that the sooty blotch, as Salmon and Wormald observed it, was a comparatively young stage, since in studying the trouble in Illinois on several varieties of pears, it was noted that the very small black ‘‘specks’’, primordia of pycnidia, did not begin to appear until October. This was about the same time that similar ‘‘snecks’’? were forming on apples. Martin (1918) describes ‘‘Brown Blotch of the Kief- fer Pear’’, which he believes is probably closely related to the sooty blotch fungus, but is distinguished by its smaller size, its straighter connecting strands, and that it burrows into the cuticle, causing hypertrophy of the subeuticular layers. It is clearly evident that the di- sease Martin describes is not caused by the same fungus the writer has treated in these pages. VY. SUMMARY 1. Sooty blotch is a common trouble of apples and pears, of considerable economic importance, in North America and England. 2. It is entirely superficial, and does not cause rot or bring about any perceptible host malformation. 3. It was found on all varieties of apples examined, when conditions were favorable for the fungus. 4. Three thallus types have been observed, the fern- like type (Fig. 7), the honey comb type (Fig. 11), and the reticulate type (Fig. 12). 5. Pyenidial development is commonly by the sympho- genous method (Figs. 27-30). 6. The fungus has been known as: Dothidea pomigena Schw. Asteroma pomigena (Schw.) fide Curt. in Sprague. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace. oy z Leptothyrium Pom Selby. m ois $ but does not belong to any of these. ; ee * % 7. Its characters warrant the erection of a new genus. | “ te | on 8. For this the name Gloeodes is proposed. ‘a -- -9.. The names fly speck and sooty blotch have been ie ie commonly confounded, and some have held that the two he merely represent Seas of one fungus. The evidence is | opposed to this view and the two should be regarded as separate fungi, unless full proof that they are connected = ean be adduced. . ix 2 10. Arguments against the fly speck and sooty blotch = I Se being identical are: (a) the two are frequently found “ae 4 separate; (b) an antagonism often appears to exist be- ney Se tween the two, as a sharp line of demarkation is observed Ae 4 when their colonies approach each other; (c) the mor- phology of the cell aggregations is dissimilar; (d) the — mycelium radiating from the cell aggregations is dis- ; similar; (e) there is a marked difference in geographical range of the two fungi. Re k i 11. Sooty blotch is controlled by correct orchard man-— et agement. | : tA 12. The fungus does not spread appreciably in stor- es ; age. 4 ee if 13. Sooty blotch was easily removed from the snéties Cae of apple fruits after immersion in Javelle water for a ae short time. a? Be ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY es Schweinitz, L. D. Rae 1832. Dothidea pomigena. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. N. S. 4, p. 232, The first recorded notice of sooty blotch. Said to be free Ris quently found on mature apples, Newton Pippins, in if ie aerey. Penn. A technical Latin description is given. mnt # rit Sue 7 eae Montagne, C, et Fries. ; s Me yi 1834. Labrella Pomi Montag. mss. (Fr. in litt.) In Cryptogames — i , nouvelles de France. Ann. Sc. Nat. bot. 2, 1, p. 347. \ A Authors give a very brief Latin description. State ve ah spores are globular. Bats: Sprague, C. J. _ Sprague, C. J. Vie " 1856. Asteroma pomigena Schw. Jn Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. V, p. 339. 2 ae Interesting description of sooty blotch on apple fruits. — Claimed to find minute black perethecia but no evi- dence of fructification. Said to be very common. 1856. Asteroma pomigena Schw. Jn Contributions to New Eng- land Mycology. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. V, p. 325. ; Sooty blotch listed among the New England fungi. Saccardo, P. A. 1879. Leptothyrium ? Pomi (Mont. sub. Labrella) Michelia 2, p. alps} A technical Latin description given. No spores found. — Reported on apples in France. Thuemen, F. 1879. Labrella Pomi Mntg. In Fungi Pomicoli, p. 118-119, Wein. Describes fungus in Latin and lists others in synonymy. — Describes and figures spores as globular. Thuemen, F. ; 1879. Leptothyrium carpophilum Pass. Jn Fungi Pomicoli, p. 110, Wein. Latin description of the fungus. Spores long and fusi- form. Reported on pears in Italy. ate Saccardo, P. A. 1883. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc. Syll. Fung. 2, p. 622. A technical Latin description is given. Lists Dothidea pomigena Schw. in synonymy. Reported on Newtown ; Pippins in Penn. _ $4 Saccardo, P. A. hey: 1884. Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace. Syll. Fung. 3, oh p. 632. “ Gives a technical Latin description. No spores seen. | Lists Labrella Pomi in synonymy. Reported on epi- carp of apples in France and Rhode Island. De Bary, A. 1884. Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi, Myce- ‘ tozoa and Bacteria. (English Translation by Henry E. F. Carnsey revised by I. B. Balfour. Oxford 1887.) Treats of the development of the pycnidium. Saccardo, P. A. 1884. Microsticta Pomi (Mont.) Desm. 1, ec Labrella Pomi Mont. Ann. Sc. nat. 1834, p. 347. Syll. Fung. 3, p. 693. Renames Labreila Pomi, giving Latin description after Thuemen, including his description of globular spores. Farlow, W. G., and Seymour, A. B. 1888. A Provisional Host-Index of the Fungi of the United States P. 40. Cambridge, Mass. Synonymy of sooty blotch given. ‘ 1991 creainoeners Seu Nomenanicn Larosa iy a A chart to make comparable the use of colors. ay niieeas of isease Riven on pears by spraying. Taft, L.\ R.- and Davis, G. C. 1895. Fruit Spot. (Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc.) In The Pests of the Orchard and Garden. Mich. Agr. ie Sta. Bul. 121, Dp. 22. Noted as troublesome in Michigan. =~ Powell, G. H. mY 1896. A fungous disease of the apple. Garden and Forest 9, Doce! ; Bra. ATA-AT. ‘ my : The term, Fly Speck, used to include both forms. Claimed that the tissue around “disease” spots shinks. Market value of affected fruit injured. Beal, W. J. 1897. Fly Speck. (Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) (Labrella Pomi) In Diseases of the Apple. Mich. Ho Soc. Rpt. 27, p. 180. } A popular description. Classed as a saprophyte. Selby, A. D. 1897. Sooty fungus and fly-speck fungus. In Some diseases of (aes orchard and garden fruits. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, ae p. 133-134. . ah Names apples and pears as hosts. States both fords “y are commonly found together on apple. Unable © to culture fungus. ot Sturgis, W. C. rp 1898. On the cause and prevention of a fungus disease of the apple. Conn. (New Haven) Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 21, P. ; 171-175. Reports on the morphology, host susceptibility, snd control methods necessary with respect to sooty i blotch. : Beach, S. A., Lowe, V. H., & Stewart, F. C. 1899. Sooty Blotch. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc.) Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) In Com- mon Diseases and Insects Injurious to Fruits. N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 170, p. 383-388. ~ Believe the “diseases” distinct, though associated. | State that pears also subject. Control measures suggested. _ ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF § Selby, A. D. 1900. Sooty Fungus and Fly-speck Fungus. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) Jn A Condensed Handbook of the Diseases of Cultivated Plants in Ohio. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 121, p. 13-14, fig. 12. ‘ Describes fungus. Thought to spread in storage. Con- trol measures are recommended. First to place the two under one technical name. Clinton, G. P. 1901. -Nomenclature. Jn Apple Scab. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 67, p. 124. After an examination of Schweinitz’ original specimen of Dothidea pomigena, concludes that it is not the scab fungus as generally suspected, but more like the ‘‘fly-speck fungus” in its macroscopic appearance. Orton, W. A. ‘ 1902-07. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. In Yearly Summary of Plant Diseases in the United States. Dept. of Agr. Year- © books, 1902, p. 715; 1905, p. 603; 1906, p. 499; 1907, De Dai. Reports occurrence of the “diseases” when common in the various states. Saccardo, P. A. 1902. Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. et Fr.) Sace. Syll. Fung. 16, p. 986. Gives a technical Latin description. Uncertain as to spores being present. Reports fungus on apples in Italy. Clinton, G. P. 1903. Fly Speck. Sooty Blotch. In Notes on Parasitic Fungi. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 1903, p. 299-302. Brief descriptive notes. Faurot, F. W. 1903. Sooty Mold. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) In Rpt. of Fungous Diseases Occurring on Cultivated Plants during the Season of 1902. Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta. Bul. 6, p. 8-9. A minor trouble but very common. Fly Speck also caused by same fungus. List of susceptible apple varieties given. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture controls the “disease.” Lamson, H. H. 1908. Sooty Spot. Apple. Pear. In Fungous Diseases and Spray- ing. N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 101, p. 60-61, 65. Description of fungus. Satisfactory results from spray- ing recorded. : +4 z 4 7 ‘ay oe oye pe re 1) ea W. T. } 1903. Sooty Fungus or Fly Speck Fungus. Leptothyrium ‘pomi vg ay: In Report of the Horticulturist. Canada Central Exp. ; ae j Farm Rpt. 1902, p. 111. 3 wz Fungus described. Geographical occurrence in Cal oe ada noted. Treatment suggested. _ Rabenhorst, L. ay! e. Ay * 1903. Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. et Fries) Sacc. Kryptogamen Was? |»: Flora von Deutschland I. 7, p. 337. sue 7 ay Gives a technical description in German. Lists Labrella if % Pomi in synonymy. Reports fungus on the epicarp a of apples from France and Rhode Island. 7 PAS z Longyear, B. O. Be i 1904. Sooty Blotch. In Fungous Diseases of Fruits. Mich. Aer. tae bee - Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul. 25, p. 14. : te Briefly describes the fungus. Names varieties of ue ; - apples and pears most commonly affected. Control — j measures suggested. as Ne Sheldon, J. L. ; af = ; 1905. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. Jn A Rpt. on Plant Diseases of the State. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 96, p. 77. ee. M4 Advises the selection of site where trees will secure ; air and sunshine. Bordeaux will check the cout Wilcox, E. M. Mi : 1905. Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) ee . Sooty Blotch Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc.) _ heed ee In Diseases of the Apple, Cherry, Peach, Pear, and 9 Plum: with Methods of Treatment. Ala. Agr. Exp. nA Sta. Bul. 132, p. 93-94, 102-103. Pl. II, fig. 5. £ Gives their geographical occurrence. Discusses _ . morphology. Expresses doubt as to nomenclature. Claims they spread in storage. Recommends con- — trol measures. BB Clinton, G. P. 2a bh? 1906. Apple. Sooty Blotch. Phyllachora pomigena. In Fungous a Diseases for 1906. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 1906, P. 307-8. “One of the most serious fungous troubles of the oe apple in Conn.” 8 : , Macoun, W. T. 1906. Sooty or Fly Speck Fungus. Leptothyrium pomi. In Report cr: of the Horticulturist. Canada Exp. Farms Rpt. 1906, p. iM 123-124. . ae ‘nae Describes fungus. States that it spreads in storage. ; Scott, W. M. “a Bi 1906. The Control of Bitter Rot. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bureau Plant Industry Bul. 93, p. 27. ae The control of sooty blotch as an incidental result of — sprays for bitter rot affirmed. : ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Norton, J. B. S., and Symons, T. B. ‘N 1907. Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi. In Control of Insect Pests and Diseases of Md. Crops. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, De LL: Recommended spraying with Bordeaux mixture when fruit is one-fourth grown. Shear, C. L. 1907. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont.) Sacc.? In Cranberry Diseases. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau Plant Industry Bul. 110, p. 44, illus. Reports occurrence of “flyspeck” on cranberries. Fig- ures the fungus in cross section. Not certain of finding spores. Rolis, F. M. ’ 1907. Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sacc.) Sooty Blotch. Phyllachora pomigena Schw. Sacc.) In Fruit Tree Diseases and Fungicides. Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta. Bul. 16, p. 8. Brief descriptive notes of the “diseases” on apples. Pears are also affected. Control measures recom- mended. Duggar, B. M. 1909. Sooty blotch and fly speck of the apple and other plants. Leptothyrium Pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sace. In Fungous Diseases of Plants. P. 367-369, fig. 187-188. Boston, Mass. Reports unpublished observations of Floyd, who holds that “sooty blotch and fly speck are ap- parently stages of the same fungus.” Life his- tory provisionally indicated. Morse, W. J., and Lewis, C. E. 1910. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. In Maine Apple Diseases. Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 185, p. 358, fig. 249. Description of the fungus. Not so common in Maine as farther south. Effectively controlled by thorough spraying. Salmon, E. S. 1910. Sooty blotch, a new fungous disease of apples. Card. Chron. 3: 48, p. 448, fig. 187. Its first reported appearance in England. A “disease” which “spreads on stored apples.” Lists susceptible varieties. Spray schedule for con- trol recommended. Smith, R. I., and Stevens, F. L. 1910. Fly Speck. (Leptothyriose). In Insects and Fungous Di- seases of Apple and Pear. N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206, p. 110, fig. 39. A superficial fungus of minor importance. Controlled by use of the spray treatment suggested. re: __—s“ Hewitt, J. L., and Hayhurst, P. é : 1911. Fly-Speck Fungus. Sooty Fungus. In Diseases of Ante Trees and Fruit Caused by Fungi and Insects. P Exp. Sta. Bul. 109, p. 439. hy" Stated that the fungus occurs on branches and twigs aS of apple trees as well as other plants in the orchar« x z but no specific examples cited. he M Sp _ Howitt, J. E. 1911. Sooty Blotch of Apple. Jn Ontario Agr. Col. and Exp. Farms Annual Rpt. 29, p. 51, illus. Brief descriptive notes. Bordeaux mixture when apples - Mie size of hickory nuts recommended in control. v4 ; + = = ¢ 7 we Fats, * wey . ~ re at ‘ : Ballou, F. H. { re % 1912. The Rejuvenation of Orchards. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. aay us 240, p. 511. 7 Sooty fungus controlled with lime-sulfur or Bordeaux 4 mixture applied late in July. on i Beach, S. A. yea 1912. Sooty Blotch. Fly Speck. In Spraying Practice for Orch- a ard and Garden. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 127, p. 52-53, 61-62. 7 Spray schedule for control. 7 = Brooks, Chas. 1912. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi. * In Some Apple Diseases and Their Treatment. N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 157, p. 15, fig. 17. - Dependent on moist weather for development. Read-- ily controlled by spraying and pruning. Clinton, G. P., and Britton, W. E. 1912. Tests of Summer Sprays on Apples, Peaches, ete. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rpt. 1911, p. 357. Lead arsenate used alone gave noticeable control. Quaintance, A. L., and Scott, W. M. 1912. Sooty fungus and fly speck. In The More Important Insect i . and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 492, p. 36-37, figsed ‘ 4 Give description. Disease is common in eastern he states. Regular spray schedule, appended, will 4 control. Stevens, F. L. 1913. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sace. Leptothyrium pomi (M. & F.) Sace. In The Fungi Which Cause Plant Di- sease, p. 220, 529. Gives morphology of the fungi. Notes meager knowl- edge of life histories. iy abr ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Stevens, F. L., and Hall, J. G. Me 1913. Sooty Blotch. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw.) Sacc. i Fly Speck. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. et. Fr.) Sacc.) In Diseases of Economic Plants, p. 94-95, fig. 38. New York City. Give description of fungus, with control measures. Sears, F. C. 1914. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. Jn Productive Orcharding, p. 169. Philadelphia. Believes the two “diseases” similar, or may even be caused by same fungus. Superficial. Orchards sprayed for scab usually show very little of it, tho one later application may be necessary. Theisen, S. J., and Sydow, H. 1915. Phyllachora pomigena (Schw. sub Dothidia Sacc. In Dothideales Annales Mycologici 13: p. 575. Authors list P. pomigena under doubtful species. Wilkinson, A. E. 1915. Sooty blotch and fly-speck fungus. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. & Fr.) Sace.) In The Apple, p. 226-227, fig. 102. Boston, Mass. Brief general notes as to appearance and salability of affected fruit are given, with list of most sus- ceptible varieties. Spray treatment recommended. Blair, J. C., et al. 1916. Field Experiments in Spraying Apple Orchards. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 185, p. 191, 202, 204-5. The relative merits of Bordeaux mixture and lime sul- fur in sooty blotch control discussed. Reported slight control with arsenate of lead used alone. Spray schedule recommended. Higgins, B. B. 1916. Nomenclature of the fungus. Jn Plum wilt. Its nature and cause. Ga. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 118, p. 13, 14. Discusses his reasons for the name he gives plum wilt. Salmon, E. S., and Wormald, H. 1916. Sooty Blotch of the Pear. Jn Gard. Chron., 59; p. 58-59, fig. The “disease” reported as present on Catillac pears. Description of symptoms. Claimed tc be second to Thuemen (1879) in recording “disease” on pears. Stevens, F. L. 1916. A convenient, little-known method of making micromounts of fungi. Phytopath., 6, p. 367. Describes the use of celloiden for this purpose. —) a f : 1916. The Apple Crop of 1915. Trans. Ill. Hort. Soc. N. S. Vol. 49, p. 351, 352. é Reports serious infection of sooty blotch in unspray i a orchard, while trees nearby, sprayed three times with — art lime sulfur, were clean. “Clouded” fruit sold in Chicago for much less than clean fruit. ma ft s ; 5° . Whetzel, H. H., and Hesler, L. R. ; ae : 1916. Sooty Blotch. In The Fruit Industry of New York State. N. Y. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 79, J, p. 869-870, fig. 244-245. aS Describe fungus. Fly Speck is said to be another form. ws eee The late spray for scab should control. flew Me mes. Hesler, L. R., and Whetzel, H. H. Rae 1917. Sooty Blotch and Fly-Speck. Leptothyrium pomi (Mont. rs sats Sy eS Fr.) Sacc. In Manual of Fruit Diseases. p. 104-108, fig. “y ies 28-29. New York. ; ane a Fungus described. Susceptible varieties of apples é and pears listed. Geographical range noted. Pro- ~ visional life history sketched. Control measures a e recommended. . | a 4 sy . we Howitt, J. E., and Caesar, L. as hae 1917. Sooty Blotch and Fly Speck. Jn The More Important Fruit Tree Diseases of Ontario. Ont. Agr. Col. and Exp. Farms Bul. 257, p. 12, illus. Pa. Apples not injured as fungus is superficial. Affected — fruit rendered unattractive, reducing sales. Con- 4 e; trol measures recommended. Reet , Coons, G. H., and Nelson, Ray. See 1918. Sooty Blotch. Fly Speck. (Leptothyrium pomi). a? In The Plant Diseases of Importance in the Transporta-— ake tion of Fruits and Vegetables. Am. Ry. Perishable OS Freight Assoc. Cire. 473-A, p. 16, fig. 19. tae Sa The presence of apples showing such superficial blem- 137 65D ishes “in shipment is indicative of low-grade fruit, ér fx not properly sprayed.” ? Martin, G. W. és 1918. Brown Blotch of the Kieffer Pear. In Phytopath. 8: 5, p. 24 234-8, fig. 9. ; Aa Description and experimental data. Probably closely iy related to Leptothyrium pomi, but distinguished by its smaller size, straighter connecting strands, and that : it burrows into the cutin and causes hypertrophy ~ 4 of the subcuticular layers. Spray schedule recom- 4 mended. a 174 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Pickett, B. S., et al. 1918. Spraying Apple Orchards in 1913 and 1914. [ll. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206, p. 493. Both Bordeaux mixture and lime-sulfur, used separately, completely controlled sooty blotch in both seasons. As high as 25% infection found in check plots. Kempton, F. E. 1919. The Origin and Development of the Pycnidium. Thesis for degree of Ph. D. U. of Illinois, 1918. (Accepted for publication by the Bot. Gaz.) A general discussion of pycnidial development with many illustrated examples. ; ‘EXPLANATION OF PLATES: All plates are from photo-micrographs. The magnification used — tn Plates 1-4 is indicated in connection with the figures. apparatus and a Leitz number six objective, giving a magnification of approximately 1,100 diameters, and are reduced two-thirds. ' Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure . Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure ne 8. 26. 28. 30. 31. 34. iy i PLATE I ; Sooty blotch thalli of Fern-like type, x 160. tees Branching mycelium of one of the above thalli, x 300. — * PLATE II ; Ba Immature pycnidia and mycelium, x 230. Mature pycnidia and mycelium, x 230. Sooty blotch thalli of the honey comb type, x 150. Sooty blotch thalli of the reticulate type, x 230. PLATE Ii Cross section of sooty blotch pycnidium on apple, x 200. Cross section of sooty blotch mycelium on pear, x 160. Cross section of sooty blotch mycelium on apple, x 160. Cross section of fly speck on watermelon, x 160. Cross section of fly speck on apple, x 200. PLATE IV } Antagonism of sooty blotch and fly speck on apple, x 2. Sooty blotch and fly speck on blackberry, x 2. Sooty blotch and fiy speck on black mustard, x 2. Sooty blotch pyenidium forced open, x 200. Sooty blotch pycnidium with jagged aperture, x 230. Spores and paraphyses of sooty blotch, x 230. PLATE V Well developed thallus of sooty blotch. Younger stage of sooty blotch thallus. Still younger stage of sooty blotch thallus. A beginning stage in pycnidial formation; on apple bark. Later stage in pycnidial formation; on apple skin. Later stage in pycnidial formation. Nearly mature pycnidium. Conidia of sooty blotch. Paraphyses of sooty blotch. Cross section of sooty blotch mycelium. Diagram of cross section of sooty blotch pycnidium. x ’ 176 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE GENUS SEPTORIA, PRESENTED IN TABU- LATION WITH DISCUSSION Puiuip Garman anp F. L. Stevens, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS INTRODUCTION Much difficulty is often encountered in determining parasitic fungi. Large genera which parasitize a large number of host plants are particularly troublesome and often cause those not acquainted with the genus to give up in dispair. Septoria is one of the most troublesome of the larger genera and plainly in need of systematic and morphological study. Such a study will require years of work, but a simple method of listing species according to minimum spore length has been found of great help and is a convenient basis for studies in mor- phology besides affording means for rapid determina- tion. In the following pages the Septoria species de- seribed in Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum, Vols. 1-22 are listed in tabular form including the more important mor- phological characters together with a list of host plants and localities from which the species are reported. The family of each genus of hosts has been given a number and added to the list. CHARACTERS OF THE GENUS The characters of the genus Septoria given by Sac- eardo, Lindau and others are essentially as follows: Pye- nidium, subeuticular, globose-lenticular with a protrud- ing ostiole; maculicole. Spores rod-shaped to filiform, many septate or many guttulate or continuous, hyalin. Basidia none or small. In the main features this de- scription does not differ from that of Rhabdospora, the nearest ally, which is reported as not forming spots or of growing parasitically upon the stems of plants instead of leaves. The property of forming spots or of erowing parasitically upon the stems of plants is not a really valid character for the separation of genera. Die- decke,? therefore, makes the further distinction that the 1Diedecke Die gatturg septoria. Ann. Myc. 10, 478, 1912. a aa" my — ‘| font ae oe 4 oe Ltd Seah nS aa bs ey as or ie a re Pare? age: - PAPERS On BOTANY - , 197-3 ee _ pyenidia of Rhabdospora possess thin-walled cells in. me stead of thick-walled cells as in Septoria. Even this .: separation seems artificial and insufficient for the two genera. His definition of the genus Septoria, neverthe- less, which appears to be more comprehensive and exact than those quoted above, follows: ‘‘Septoria umfasst alle diejenigen Arten, deren Fruchtlager sich durch Aus- Bish bildung einer Decke in ein pseudopyknidiales Gehause umwandelt, das oben mehr oder wenig breit gedffnet ist.’’ Phleospora, regarded as the only other very close rela- hy tive of Septoria is stated by Diedecke to be synonomous ee) with Cylindrosporium. RELATION OF SPECIES TO HOST PLANTS ‘. * Popular methods of naming Septoria species consist ie of determinations of the generic characters and reliance AY upon the host index in ascertaining whether the species is new or old. The majority of the species of Septoria have been reported from flowering plants and when we ‘ consider that there are some 1,200 species of Septoria a and less than 280 families of flowering plants, it will be seen that, if equally distributed, not less than four species must have been described from every family of flower- ing hosts in existence. Actual facts, however, show that from the more common families many more than this number have been described while from the less common families none at all are recorded. For instance: from the family Compositae, there are listed 113 species; from the Gramineae, 86; Leguminosae, 50; Rosaceae, 53; Um- Spee 52; Labiateae, 33; Caryophyllaceae, 34; Cruci- ferae, 22 and Solonaceae, 19. * Thus from nine families of flowering plants there are listed 38% of the described species of Sentuue It has been found from a comparative study of the species that many reported from different genera of the same family of hosts have the same spore length and agree in all other described morphological particulars. From this it would seem as though the generic host limit *Species without spore measurements are not included in this sum- mary. yi id eu fase 2 | Watt ul aia i 178 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE were too small. This fact, cannot, however, be accepted cm without thorough cultural studies of the genus. SPORE MEASUREMENTS Attention is called to ‘‘inaccuracies’”’ in the measure- ment of spores best seen by a comparison of the number ‘of species having a given minimum length. Thus the number of species having minimum lengths ef 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 mu. is much greater than the number with lengths of 15, 25, 35, 45, 55, ete., and these in turn are more numerous than those with minimum lengths of 14, 24, 34, 44, ete. This is also true if we consider maximum measurements and suggests that the absolute accuracy of these measurements is of questionable value. It would thus appear to be more important to state the length in an even number of microns, say 20 to 30, or 25 to 35 than to use figures such as 19 to 28, or 24 to 36 simply because these measurements happen to give the range of the particular specimens examined. IMPORTANT SPECIFIC CHARACTERS Of the various specific characters commonly mentioned in descriptions none seem more important than spore length which, in Septoria, is to some extent correlated with diameter and septation. As regards spore color, all spores should be colorless, yet if we exanfine the tables we find a number of species possessing spores with more than permissable color. It is probable that these species belong elsewhere. Ostiole measurements are thought to be of value and deserve more attention than has formerly been given them. The host is, under the present system of determination, the factor most used in identification, and its use affords the only convenient means of tracing a species. It is to be regretted that more reliable means © are not at hand but until complete cultural studies are made this means of tracing species will continue to be important. EXPLANATION OF TABLES The following explanation of the tables is necessary: Figures in column 1 represent the number of the fungus wa i Ly - " # Sdecaribed | in the dyllope: the first tenet being that of ee Gu the volume, the second that of the species in that volume. — is nae For meeting 3-110 refers to Septoria species 110 in vol mie 3 of the Sylloge. The second column presents that Be. diameter of the pycnidia in microns. The third column — ay a gives the spore length, also in microns. This column is — is ey, the key to the whole table, the “‘species”’ having been | rly a arranged first according to the minimum measurement, secondly according to the maximum. The fourth column gives the spore diameter in microns. Indand6thesep- ta and guttulae, if present, are checked, if absent from the description the fact is indicated by a dash. If a definite number is present, figures giving the number of septa or guttulae are entered in the column. The © sign ~ means that the spores are multiseptate or guttu- late. Continuous or entire spores are so indicated when the character is present in the description. Columns 7 and 8 representing curvature of the spore need no com- ment. The number in column 9 representing spore color correspond to the numbers given by Saccardo to different __ colors in his ‘‘Chremataxia.’’ ‘‘A’’ here denotes hyalin ene spores. The significance of the remaining figures in this aes column may be determined by use of the following table: ipa a 72 SATE ST Ts eR erie Nore ee ee hyalin ig 2—Griseous.......... gray (smoky, cloudy.) | ies A——Ator ie 2a tae sok ee: dark, blackish ie f ph 22-—Thutens. ... 22-4. egg-yellow, golden-yellow 4, ae p= BEE © Se pet @ ey agi age See Sa yellow «he 30—Melleus...... stone-colored, amber-colored : “gt Sere WEP IER ESS Mimic Swi chore my nein hdyaid a's ve Gre Brea green ‘ rs 39 Oli vaceons 2 52% sites. s sk See ss olive green a Z Column 10 represents spore shape, the numbers corre- Bi sponding to those found in the following list: {2 1—Linear, filiform, vermiform, flagelliform or acicular. A) t 3—Oblong, cylindrical, bacillar, rod-shaped, allantoid or terete. \ y ‘s 4—-Fusoid or fusiform. Soy 6—Clavate. : at 7— Irregular. a. 9— co BX. Column 11 is merely a list of the genera of hosts. Col- ‘, umn 12 represents the families of hosts. The figures te : + ad Ma “A GALAGA HU AALS OND Aer nee Ov mY MT hay iy re) MRO ESS aries Bh > A a Wenn PMN) yy 180 : ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE sits corresponding to those given to the families of Siphono- si, gams by Dalla Torre and Harms.’ The entire list is to be found in subsequent pages. Column 13 includes the localities. The countries have been omitted from the descriptions, in many cases there being only the name of some local town. An attempt has been made to supply the countries or nations as far as possible. Some of the species that have been quoted from a large number of countries in Europe have been entered in this column simply from Europe. CONSIDERATION OF VARIOUS GROUPS OF SPECIES The largest number of species from a single fam- ily is reported from the Compositae, but that is be- eause that family is broader in its limits than most of the others. Somewhat recently authors have, in fact, divided the original Compositae into a number of sep- arate families. Of the 118 species from this family, 54 are described from Italy and Central Europe, i. e. Ger- many, France, Portugal, Austria, etc.- It will be noticed that in many cases species from a given country tend to group themselves together under similar spore lengths. | In these groups other characters also correspond. For instance, if we trace in the tables the species from Com- positae (280), beginning with spores 20-27 mu. in length, four species in succession occur from the United States. A fifth species from Silphium properly belongs in this eroup. Again, beginning with species having a spore length of 25 mu. we find three species from Italy, all with spore lengths between the limits of 25-30 mu. Among the species on Gramineae, we find the same erouping by countries. It is a notable fact that many of the species here listed from the Gramineae are gen- eral parasites and are capable of affecting most grasses. Twenty-six of the species are included between the mini- mum spore lengths of 20-24 mu. while many others lap over into these limits. Septation is slightly more com- mon than in the Septorias on Compositae, and there 2C, G. Dalla Torre et H. Harms, Genera Siphonogamarum. seems to be a predominance of rod-shaped spores over other shapes. Twenty-three of the fifty species from Leguminosae _ are rod-shaped, fourteen are filiform. It will also be © noted that a large part of them are septate. The vari- ation in spore length is great, and ranges from 10 to 120 mu. Most of the species in the ‘‘Umbelliferae’’ group may be included within the limits of spore length of 25-50 mu, and it is probable that many of these are synomous with S. petroselinum, var. apu, the common form on celery. There is nothing of special importance connected with the species on Labiatae except that there is a general absence of septation. _ Of the group from the Rosaceae, thirteen species have been described from Prunus alone. This amounts to 25% of the species from this family. Species from the Caryophyllaceae present some inter- esting features. First, nearly all spores seem to be rod- shaped; second, there are few continuous spores. In the group from Cruciferae, one group on Sysim- brium from Servia with a spore length of 19-62 mu. may be considered as ineluding 16 of the 22 species from this family. Nearly one-half of the species from the family Solon- aceae are reported from Solanum. Approaching the tables from the standpoint of mor- phology alone, there will be noted a general similarity between species with given spore lengths, as regards sep- tation, spore shape, locality, etc. Thus on page 1 of the general tables, we see six species with spore lengths of 10-12 mu. all reported from Italy with the exception of one from France. The diameters of the spores are very similar and the septation is definite. All have rod-shaped spores and in all cases where the fact is mentioned the spores are curved. The largest groups of this kind are those with spore measurements lying between 20 and 25 mu..and 20 and 30 mu. Each of these contain over thirty species and probably include many identical forms. ae PERE Gettan at Soa Aah CM Be aS RAE Perea Steger ae ay: EE PAPERS ON BOTANY | we ! ‘The spores of ae 7 00 species ‘fall within ‘the ? of 20 and 50 mu, and when we remember that few othe characters are of constant diagnostic value it appears — possible that with proper cultural studies a large number — of Septoria species may be united. In Saccardo’s Sylloge - _ Y. 22 a species is described (no. 4) having a spore length — ranging from 19-62 mu. If this be a single species, which - is entirely possible, then there appears to be no reason why the 700 species mentioned could not with proper methods of study be proven to belong to a small number _ of specific types. Such a wholesale elimination of species _ would probably not be acceptable to workers in this field, _ but it seems to be fully as warranted in the light of our _ knowledge to-day as the erection of myriads of species based largely on the host plant which they parasitize. 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Acanthaceae 107. Capparidaceae 163. Aceraceae 271. Caprifoliaceae 204. Achariaceae 205. Caricaceae 272. Adoxaceae 183. Caryocaraceae 84. Aizoaceae 87. Caryophyllaceae 15. Alismaceae 51. Casuarinaceae 79. Amaranthaceae 158. Celastraceae 40. Amaryllidaceae 27. Centrolepidaceae 153. Anacardiaceae 116. Cephalotaceae 209. Ancistrocladaceae 89. Ceratophyllaceae 98. Anonaceae 262. Cesneriaceae 247. Apocynaceae 90a. Cercidiphyllaceae 13. Aponogetonaceae 78. Chenopodiaceae 157. Aquifoliaceae 172. Chlaenaceae 23. Araceae 54. Chloranthaceae 227. Araliaceae 193. Cistaceae 74. Aristolochiaceae 230. Clethraceae 248. Asclepiadaceae 136. Cneoaceae 195. Cochlospermaceae 73. Balanophoraceae 263. Columelliaceae f 58. Balanopsidaceae 221. Combretaceae i 168. Balsaminaceae 33. Commelinaceae ; 86. Basellaceae 280. Compositae 81. Batidaceae 127. Connaraceae 208. Begoniaceae 249. Convolvulaceae K 2. Bennettitaceae 3. Cordaitaceae 93. Berberidaceae 151. Coriariaceae i 61. Betulaceae 229. Cornaceae 4 258. Bignoniaceae 156. Corynocarpaceae ‘ 194. Bixaceae 115. Crassulaceae * 177. Bombacaceae 125. Crossosomataceae i 252. Boraginaceae 105. Cruciferae : 32. Bromeliaceae 217a. Crypteroniaceae 119. Brunelliaceae 275. Cucurbitaceae 122. Bruniaceae 120. Cunoniaceae 49. Burmanniaceae 34a. Cyanastraceae 139. Burseraceae 1. Cycadaceae 16. Butomaceae 22. Cyclanthaceae 149. Buxaceae 82. Cynocrambaceae 226. Cynomoriaceae 210. Cactaceae 20. Cyperaceae 148. Callitrichaceae 154. Cyrillaceae 96. Calycanthaceae 279. Calyceraceae 207. Datiscaceae 276. Campanulaceae 235. Diapensiaceae 197. Canellaceae 146. Dichapetalaceae 47. Cannaceae 78a. Didiereaceae PAPERS ON BOTANY 217 _ FAMILIES ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY WITH THE FAMILY 180. 43. 274. 188. 112. 240. 215. 171. 189. 150. 234. 233. 30. 134a. 123a. 181. 147. Dilleniaceae Dioscoreaceae Dipsacaceae Dipterocarpaceae Droserageae Ebenaceae Elaeagnaceae Elaeocarpaceae Elatinaceae Empetraceae Epacridaceae Ericaceae Eriocaulaceze Erythroxylaceae Eucommiacese Eucryphiaceae Euphorbiaceae Fagaceae Flacourtiaceae Flagellariaceae Fouquieriaceae Frankeniaceae Geissolomaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Ginkgoaceae Globulariaceae Gnetaceae Gomortegaceae Gonystylaceae Goodeniaceae Gramineae Grubbiaceae Guitiferae Haemodoraceae Halorrhagidaceae Hamamelidaceae Hernandiaceae Hippocastanaceae Hippocrateaceae Hippuridaceae Humiriaceae Hyctasinaceae NUMBER—Continued 76. Hydnoraceae 17. Hydrocharitaceae 251. Hydrophyllaceae 114. Hydrostachyaceae 162. Icacinaceae 44. Iridaceae 60. Juglandaceae 60b. Julianaceae 14. Juncaginaceae 36. Juneaceae 196. Koeberliniaceae 254. Labiatae 55. Lacistemaceae 97. Lactoridaceae $2. Lardizabalaceae 102. Lauraceae 219. Lecythidaceae 128. Leguminosae 59. Leitneriaceae 24. Lemmnaceae 232. Lennoaceae 264. Lentibulariaceae 38. Liliaceae 152. Limnanthaceae 132. Linaceae 206. Loasaceae 245. Loganiaceae 67. Loranthaceae 216. Lythraceae 95. Magnoliaceae 202. Malesherbiaceae 141. Malphighiaceae 175. Malvaceae 48. Marantaceae 184. Marcgraviaceae 260. Martyniaceae 28. Mayacaceae 223. Melastomataceae 140. Meliaceae i67. Melianthaceae 94. Menispermaceae 101. Monimiaceae Moraceae Moringaceae Musaceae Myricaceae Myoporaceae Myristicaceae Myrothamnaceae Myrsinaceae Myrtaceae Myzodendraceae Najadaceae Nepenthaceae Nolanaceae Nyctaginaceae Nymphaeaceae Oenotheraceae Ochnaceae Olacaceae Oleaceae Oliniaceae Opiliaceae Orchidaceae Orobanchaceae Oxalidaceae Palmae Pandanaceae Papaveraceae Passifloraceae Pedaliaceae Penaeaceae Pentaphylacaceae Philydraceae Phrymaceae Phytolaccaceae Pinaceae Piperaceae Pirolaceae Pittosporaceae Platanaceae Plantaginaceae Plumbaginaceae Podostemonaceae Polemoniaceae Polygalaceae NUMBER—Continued 77. 34. 11. 85. 237. 66. 218. 185. 75. 91. dl. 108. 26. 169. 220. 126. 270. 137. 166. 56. 244, 69. 165. 239. 110. 52. LT 257. 179. 138. 256. 217. 10. 200. 160. 161. 37. 178. 278. 241. 242. 42. nh Polygonaceae Pontederiaceae Potamogetonaceae Portulacaceae Primulaceae Proteaceae Punicaceae Quiinaceae Rafflesiaceae Ranunculaceae Rapateaceae Resedaceae Restionaceae Rhamnaceae Rhizophoraceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae Sabiaceae Salicaceae Salvadoraceae Santalaceae Sapindaceae Sapotaceae Sarraceniaceae Saururaceae Saxifragaceae Scrophulariaceae Scytopetalaceae Simarubaceae Solanaceae Sonneratiaceae Sparganiaceae Stachyuraceae Stackhousiaceae Staphyleacaceae Stemonaceae Sterculiaceae Stylidiaceae Styracaceae Symplocaceae Taccaceae Tamaricaceae ee ee ee i wn get = oe an ee — . PS ya" ak kr ot! PAPERS ON BOTANY _ FAMILIES ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY WITH THE FAMILY “i NUMBER—Concluded so 5. Taxaceae 63. Ulmaceae 13289 186. Theaceae 228. Umbelliferae Pe 235a. Theophrastaceae 65. Urticaceae , we } 30a. Thurniaceae q 174. Tiliaceae 273. Valerianaceae 4 106. Tovariaceae 41. Velloziaceae BES eye s 144. Tremandraceae 253. Verbenaceae pk yi 142. Trigoniaceae 198. Violaceae at 176. Triplochitonaceae 170. Vitaceae 18. Triuridaceae 143. Vochysiaceae f r 90. Trochodendraceae ahriea e* S| | 131. Tropaeolaceae 29. Xyridaceae ; 201. Turneraceae he 8. Typhaceae 46. Zingiberaceae te 135. Zygophyllaceae ; PROGRESS IN BARBERRY ERADICATION IN a ILLINOIS DURING 1919. By L. R. Tenon, Unirep States DEPARTMENT OF aan AGRICULTURE, URBANA. x The barberry eradication campaign had its beginning, in the state of Illinois, in the spring of 1918 under the leadership of Dr. F. L. Stevens and Dr. H. W. Anderson. The results of the year of 1918, briefly restated from Dr. Anderson’s report, indicated 36,419 bushes found. Dr. Anderson’s report states confidently that ‘‘seventy per cent of all of the barberries in Illinois have been removed, or will be removed before next spring’’. Dr. Anderson N likewise speaks of bushes escaped from cultivation as | follows: ‘‘It is evident, however, that the shrub is not very widely distributed in the woods and pastures to date’’. As it now appears, these last two statements by Dr. Anderson were far too optimistie. The campaign of 1919 opened in March under the lead- ership of Dr. F. E. Kempton, Dr. F. L. Stevens resigning his place in favor of Mr. P. A. Glenn, Chief Inspector for the State Division of Plant Industry. Dr. Kempton left Illinois to become federal leader of the campaign on June 30, 1919; and was succeeded by L. R. Tehon. 220 Through provisions contained in the Plant Inspection Ac of 1917, as amended in 1919, the common barberry andthe purple-leafed barberry were declared a nuisance by the state Director of Agriculture, after a public hearing held . a on August 9th. The plan of the campaign during the past year has been different from that of the first year. The slogan ‘‘Bar- berry or Bread’’ has been dropped, and no attempt has been made to cause this campaign to appear as anything other than one of the many campaigns for agricultural improvement through plant disease control. Use has not been made of high school students or other persons who were not employed by the United States Department of Agriculture in the immediate tasks of scouting for, and removing located, barberries. The number of men em- ployed has varied from one in March and December to twelve in July. The plan of the campaign has been to assign a squad of men to a county and to work thoroughly every town in that county. The start was made in the northern part of the state and made good progress southward reaching Pike county in the west, Sangamon, Christian, and Macon counties in the center and Craw- ford and Lawrence counties in the Wabash Valley. The countryside is as yet very largely untouched, although a great deal of accurate data has been collected. Single towns in other portions of the state have also been worked. From March 1st until December 31st, the amount ac- complished has been entirely satisfactory both to the State Department of Agriculture and to the United States Department of Agriculture. The tangible pro- gress of the year may be summed up in the following: The number of towns visited was 632; the approximate population reached was 1,169,200; barberries were found on 2,977 properties and eradicated from 2,921; the num- ber of bushes found was 45,370 and the number eradi- cated 39,879. About 350 towns, distributed among about 60 counties, are known to be free from Berberis vulgaris and the variety purpurea. PAPERS ON BOTANY > ‘ 221 Infected barberry was found in or near 54 towns, dis- tributed among 18 counties. The total number of im- fected bushes found was 2,859; the earliest date of re- ported infection was May 2nd at Winnebago, in Winne- bago county. The latest date of reported infection was on September 2nd at Cornell, in Livingston county. The most southerly point of infection reported was at Bayles, in Pike county. The future work of barberry eradication remains to be done in the country districts, and fimally in a clean-up of areas of dense population such as Chicago, Evanston, and East St. Louis. And the importance of this part of the program is not by any means small. The accompanying map shows the location, and indi- cates the relative extent, of ‘‘escaped’’ or ‘‘wild’’ plant- ings. Dr. Anderson’s statement relative to escaped bar- berries will be remembered. It is worthy of note that after two years of work there have come to our attention, without special emphasis being laid on that phase, at least 33 localities in which barberry is now growing wild. Dr. Anderson mentions only a single planting of escaped bushes in his 1918 report. Considerable interest ob- tains in regard to several of these plantings. The country surrounding Galena (Jo Daviess county) seems to be an ideal habitat. One of our men writes that “‘the country about Galena is full of the pest. It would take a week for two men to get a thorough survey. The rocks and hills are ideal for barberry and they are found growing nice and big with beautiful red berries. Some of the farmers told me they use the leafy branches for feeding sheep, goats, ete., in winter. I would suggest that either this fall or next spring a couple of good men were sent out to do a good job. The farmers are very willing to cooperate’’. During the past year, rust infection of wheat was particularly severe in Hancock county. Had it not been for dry weather and consequent early maturity of the grain a large percentage of loss would undoubtedly have occurred. Mr. Curtiss, in working this county, was able to locate a 500 acre tract of wooded hill land on the Mis- De UD AE ee tS eal (eee oem eh POP A SU er CATES Ga TORR) 5 Paka PP ae | aL Ne F qr AAAS Teo Se Lh ales Dat an ba Aa ee ted Ay NE bay eatist Lisetnt jeer AUN Os s Py 222 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE _ sissippi near Hamilton in which large numbers of bar- berry are growing wild. On November 22nd, one of our men visited Kankakee. His first letter reports rumors of a place where ‘‘there are millions growing wild!’’ and when his report came in for properties on which they actually occurred, he was able to show at least six properties and, at the most con- servative estimate possible, 250 bushes. This was merely incidental to working the town of Kankakee. Probably the most interesting area in which barberry has escaped from cultivation is in Knox county. The town of Henderson, a small village of about 160 inhabi- tants, was first settled in 1825. A few hedges were _ planted in the town by the early settlers, and those hedges up to the present year, were still in existence. Our field man, who at that time had established temporary head- quarters in Galesburg, writes as follows: ‘‘When I went out there (Henderson) yesterday, I had the idea that one hours work would be sufficient, but found that it took two days. I found about 1,200 bushes altogether. The whole township is ‘‘infested’’ with barberries; and the bushes are large and growing wild. Mr. W. has tim- berland of 200 acres and the bushes are scattered all over it. Messrs. W., M., P., C., and P., also have a consider- able amount. It seems that the ‘‘wild’’ bushes have been. propagated from seed from the original hedges.’’ One instance of particular interest has come to our attention during the past summer as showing how the barberry may be of importance in the spread of rust to grains other than wheat. Puccinia graninis avenae is the biological form on oats, tritici for rust on wheat. On a farm belonging to J. H. near Minooka, Illinois there was a rusted hedge of the common barberry approximately two hundred yards long containing about 600 bushes. The accompanying sketch, reproduced as clearly as possible from a field drawing, represents the relative positions of the several fields with respect to the barberry. The winter wheat directly east of the barberry was well protected by the intervening orchard. This fact, together with the earlier develop- et Fp EY al sagas se oes Lie: ; Tt tee ty ss LB saa att ae oe Re } ac 2S ment of. te inten sully has gd ch Sate ina comparative aa ~ freedom from rust. a) “ About one-quarter of a mile south-east of the bates bs oe ries, however, was a field of spring wheat with no pro- ats s tection from the infected barberry save distance. A Dae a 20 tail) and Agropyron repens in the pasture were me Fock: rusted. Rust had spread first from the hedge to the pas- a ha ture grasses, and then from the hedge and pasture ~— an ais grasses to the spring wheat producing ninety per cent # “a a infection. Directly across the road, and not seventy feet distant fe _ from the infected hedge, was a field of oats in which not a ~ ee single stalk was free from rust. Grasses along the road _ and along fences, particularly Dactylis glomerata and ~ _ Agrostis alba, were heavily rusted. About one and an eighth miles south of the infected hedge was a second — ae) field of oats (not shown on the sketch) which was in- fected only to the extent of seventy-five to eighty per —_ eent, this being due partly to the influence of the infected __ hedge in increasing infection in the fields and grasses near it. The presence of rusted timothy near the orchard — indicates also the possible influence of the barberry in spreading the phlei-pratensis form of rust. Careful microscopic examination was made of oats © from the above fields to eliminate the possibility of the _ _- rust being Puccinia coronata. The removal of the hedge in this case has removed an important source of in- fection in this neighborhood both for wheat and oats. | Further control of the grass-weeds in which the myce- lium of the rust may be perennial should serve as a _ further means of control. a . The results of our year’s work have served to enhance the significance of barberry eradication as a means of ee ; rust control. A large portion of the bushes have been - - removed from the towns. The countryside remains yet is to be done. Information has accumulated to show that | the barberry is not only present in great numbers in culti- vation in the country districts, but has escaped from cul- » “4 ~ he! 7 -* Phe: Fr o ras ~. ' 4 , ~\ 4 ta Pair Hi, z ee ¥ zs, wf y a Mg ah s, + ae, oT yok Fs “~- a ies * 44) ‘ tebe 2ust on wheat tld; timothy be near fell dorchatd usted — a PASTURE SPRING WHEAT. _ badly rusted iy (90%) 0 iy The farm of J. H. near Minooka, Illinois showing the relationship be- | : v) tween infected barberry and neighboring fields of wheat and oats MISSOURI Showing lo- cation and relative Size of "wild" plantings of Barberr} present Sarst. A known to be in Illinois oF0 ~wve ITESIDE LEE . é LASALLE oan Tr Mirrors. ‘ , é % ca Beal Seng yf Bikes LOGAN ERMI- CHAMPAIGN | CON 1. CUMBERL. INDIANA “ ‘ PERRY HA WHITE FRANKLIN d las bas Ks — SALIN De SSA WILLIAM. : MASSAC previous to JanueélYexanver oak KENTUCKY y 4 FOREST DISTRIBUTION AT THE ENDS OF THE LAKE CHICAGO BEACHES Linuian Marcusrire Summons, NorrHwesterN UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION The work for this study has been carried on in connec- tion with an ecological survey of the same region. The problem undertaken is to determine the location .and character of the present forest areas and from the re-_ sults of this investigation to decide upon the nature of the more extensive forests which occupied this region in the past. The area covered by the study extends along the shore of Lake Michigan a few miles north of Chicago and in- cludes the northern part of Evanston, all of Wilmette and Kenilworth and the eastern part of Winnetka. Its general shape is somewhat triangular, the lake shore forming the north-east side, Simpson Street, Evanston, the south, and the Gross Point Road and the section lines west of sections 16 and 21 of New Trier Township the west side. The area covers the eastern parts of sections 21, 28 and 33 in New Trier and of section 10 in Niles Township and all of sections 16, 22, 26, 27, 34 and 35 in New Trier, 11 and 12 in Niles and the northern sec- tion in Evanston Township. Section 12 of Niles Town- ship is sometimes included as part of Evanston Town- ship, being within the limits of the City of Evanston. Several of these sections are not complete, the north- eastern portions being cut away by the lake (Figure 1.) This region has been settled for a long time and con- sequently the natural conditions have been more or less disturbed. The eastern portion at the present time is largely a residence section while the land on either side of the Gross Point Road is under cultivation in truck farms and greenhouses. Because of the building of towns throughout the sections, the natural physiographic and vegetational features have been obscured and in many places destroyed by draining, grading and culti- vation. —~ \nw eee ew ew ew awww Ss SS Distribution of Forests YUL~LAZ-_-_«_-*£T PAPERS ON BOTANY 233. serotina.) There is little undergrowth remaining, but in a part of the forest beyond the arbitrary boundary line are Prunus virginiana, Podophyllum, Viola, Geranium and Trillium recurvatum. In the xerophytie sand ridge forest, the red _ oaks, Quercus macrocarpa and Quercus alba are the chief types. The proportions vary but, on the whole, the red oaks are the more common. The shagbark hickory and the black cherry are also found in smaller numbers and one large black walnut (Juglans nigra) stands at the corner of Pine Street and Maple Avenue, Winnetka. The undergrowth is very slight, lacking in shrubs, and con- sists of the more xerophytic herbs, as Smilacina racemosa, Trillium recurvatum, Viola, Antennaria, Achillea, Fra- garia and Potentilla. The morainie swamp forest, which is the most exten- sive, and also the least disturbed, varies in composition in localized areas, but the swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor) is dominant everywhere. Other trees typical of the swamp forest are the butternut (Juglans cinerea), elm (Ulmus americana), ash (Fraxinus americana), lin- den (Tilia americana), white maple (Acer saccharinum), and various haws (Crataegus sp.) although they do not occur in such large numbers. The red oaks and Carya ovata are also members of this forest. The undergrowth is very luxuriant with young trees, Prunus virginiana, Rosa, Sambucus canadensis, Ribes, Rubus, Xanthoxylum americanum, Rhus toxicodendron, Celastrus scandens, Vitis, Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Smilax hispida, Viola sp., Trillium grandifiorum, T. recurvatum, Claytonia, Geran- ium, Phlox, Anemone, Sanguinaria, Cardamine bulbosa, Ranunculus sp. Smilacina racemosa, Podophyllum, Maianthemum, Allium, Fragaria, Galium, Thalictrum, Osmorrhiza, Iris and others. B. DISTRIBUTION The upland forest is found only in the northwest cor- ner of the region studied, on the morainal till west of the Glenwood bluff. Only small areas appear in this region, as shown on the map (Figure 2) but they are continuous _ with a larger forest west of the arbitrary boundary line. Along the crests and slopes of the ridges are scattered areas of the xerophytic ridge forest. The land has been cleared along the Gross Point Road leaving only an area north of Winnetka Avenue and a small group of trees south of Central Street, but the forest is more continu- ous along Ridge Avenue and the lake shore in Evanston, where it has been less disturbed. Other isolated areas are found along the lake shore in Winnetka and one V- shaped patch north of the Northwestern University ath- letic field. The greater part of the land between the Glenwood and Calumet ridges is oceupied by the morainie swamp forest. This covers the western part of the residence section of Evanston and nearly all of Wilmette and Kenilworth and extends into Winnetka. The outlines of the central area are very irregular and there are smaller patches outlying on the east and west. A some- what similar but less extensive forest lies between the Calumet and Tolleston ridges. Although the typical sections of the different associa- tions are very dissimilar, there is in certain places a transition from one association to another, so gradual . that a line can hardly be drawn between them. Thus a forest area may be classed as one type on the map, when it is apparently intermediate between that type and an- other. Such an area is the one at Winnetka Avenue, west of the Gross Point Road. It is classed as xerophytic because of its location on the slope of the ridge and be- cause the red oaks are more numerous than the whites (Quercus alba). It resembles the xerophytice forest on the Northwestern University campus south of Simpson Street, but is more mesophytic than the other areas of ridge forest in the region studied. The southern and western limit of this area were not determined. It is possible also that in such a case the characteristic species have been removed or killed and the resulting type is not the natural one. This is especially likely where the remaining patch is small and the undergrowth Pie care Old res | time the ridges were covered with a heavy forest in which - eae ete a te" Riese Ge Wecactan ate wee nae the white oak was much more common and that lumber- ing was oa first hier along the North Shore. The to the opening of the forest and draining, might dentro some species. Dr. Heminway (8) earGaen this as one cause of the dying of the forest trees. DISCUSSION vf Geir oT The distribution of the forest associations is appar- ently closely related to soil and drainage conditions a es though other factors may enter in. The mesophytic up- _ land forest requires a rich but fairly well-drained soil. Such a condition can only be found in this region on the _ moraine uplands and on them the forest is fully devel- _ oped. Along the edge of the bluff where the exposure ~ is greater and the conditions more xerophytic the red ee oaks increase in number and a few scattered birches (Betula alba), red and white cedars (Juniperus virgini- — ana) and white pines (Pinus strobus) are to be found. | The red cedars and birches appear to be natural but - the Thuja occidentalis and Pinus strobus may have been Fe fs i _ the drainage is very poor. Its composition apparently introduced. No individuals whose presence naturally was absolutely certain were seen though Mr. Atwell (1) states that some white pines still remain from the old forest. Where the soil is rather course and well-drained, as on the crests and slopes of the ridges the xerophytic for- est reaches its highest development. The red oaks are on the whole the predominating species, but at the end of Pine Street, Winnetka, near the lake, is a patch con- sisting chiefly of bur oaks (Q. macrocarpa). Thereisno _ apparent reason for this, but Cowles (5) says the bur © oak appears to be more abundant on the lower and less drained ridges. The difference in elevation in this case, however, is inappreciable. The swamp forest is found on the lowland clay where [Soa oe Ry DA 236 «=«=—S——s*=<«é«‘TLLLNOOISS. ACADEMY OF SCIENCED varies with the elevation, the red oaks increasing i number and the herbaceous vegetation becoming more ~ xerophytic on the higher ground. An area of this type is located south of Central Street and east of Ridge Ave- nue. Here the trees are Quercus bicolor, red oaks, elms and ashes, and the undergrowth, Viola, Podophyllum, Fragaria, Potentilla, Allium, Smilacina and Trillium recurvatum. Where the ground is lower the swamp forest reaches its climax. The most characteristic patch of this type lies between Colfax and Grant Streets and Bennett and Ewing Avenues in Evanston. This is called the ‘‘Lin- coln Woods”’ and is now a part of the Cook County For- est Preserve. Other areas in which the forest is best pre- served are in Wilmette near the Electric R. R. between Maple and Linden Avenues and at Chestnut Avenue © between Tenth and Eleventh Streets. Nearly (every- where,) however, the forest trees have been left stand- ing on vacant property and in yards and along the streets. The herbaceous vegetation is also well pre- served. An interesting patch of swamp forest is located at the west side of Nanzig Avenue at the end of Isabella Street where Iris and Caltha palustris are found under red and bur oaks, Tilia, Crategus and Populus tremuloides. Iris was found in several other places in depressions and in shallow drainage ditches along the edge of the forest. Caltha was not found elsewhere although it was reported from the patch north of Winnetka Avenue, east of the New Trier High School. Where the forest has been opened up or cut over and unused, Salix, Populus tremuloides, Cornus stolonifera and Crataegus appear. A typical growth is to be seen on Sheridan Road northwest of Winnetka Avenue. The slopes of the Lake bluff are covered with Populus deltoides, Salix, Alnus incana and Rhus. At the foot of North Avenue Winnetka, a small clump of Juniperus communis has taken a foot-hold half way down the slope. This has probably been imported from the Waukegan region where it is common, as has the patch PAPERS ON BOTANY 237 on the end of the Calumet ridge at the Wilmette harbor. On the sandy beach in Evanston, Populus balsamifera grows abundantly. In many places in the Evanston-Winnetka area large spruces, firs and Norway pines have been introduced. One large hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) was found on the Glenwood bluff north of Elm Street, Winnetka. These species are not natural here, their ranges ending farther north. West of the Rose Hill bar, between it and the swamp forest is an unforested area which is now occupied by the North Shore Drainage Channel. The natural vege- tation has been almost entirely destroyed, but was prob- ably similar to that of the swampy tracts west of the C. and N. W. Ry. in Rogers Park. East of the ridge is a similar but smaller and more irregular depression which continues itself in the ‘‘Campus Meadow’’ of North- western University and the unforested swale between Sheridan Road and Sherman Avenue, south of Colfax Street. This is a part of the old swamp mentioned ee Miss Willard and Miss Childs. CONCLUSIONS The distribution and character of the areas of the three different associations at the present time are such as to suggest that the original forest probably covered practically the whole of the region studied, with the ex- ception of the depression west of the Calumet ridge and that between Sherman Avenue and Sheridan Road. The outline of this forest was probably irregular extending into the marshy tracts where the ground rose high enough for the forest trees to live. This forest was not divided into distinct associations set off by definite lines from each other but was appar- ently composite, consisting of mesophytic forest on the upland with a gradual transition to the xerophytic for- est on the ridges and the swamp forest on the lowland plain. The swamp forest itself was more or less hetero- geneous, approaching the xerophytic type on the higher ground and maintaining an almost hydrophytic vege- tation in the lower spots. 238 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE This transition probably was not only horizontal, but vertical as well, the intermediate areas representing a gradual succession toward the mesophytic oak-hickory association which is apparently the temporary climax of the Chicago Region. SUMMARY A survey of the present forests of the Evanston-Win- netka region, which includes the ends of the Lake Chi- cago beaches, shows that these are three forest associa- tions found: the mesophytic upland forest, the xerophytic sand ridge type and the morainic swamp forest. These forest association types are not in distinct areas, but there is a gradual transition from one to another. The location of the association is dependent on the character of the soil and the drainage, the mesophytiec forest on rich well-drained soil, the xerophytic forest on sandy, with good drainage and the swamp forest on the poorly drained lowland clay. Where the water stands too long during the year, no forest is found. Conclusions are drawn as to the probable extent of the original forest and it is suggested that the present associations on the plain represent a succession toward the mesophytie association now found only on the up- land. LITERATURE CITATIONS 1. Atwell, C. B. “The Forests of Evanston, Old and New.” Evanston News Index, April 2, 1910. 2. Atwood, W. and Goldthwait, J. W. “Physical Geography of the Evanston-Waukegan Region.” Illinois State Geological Survey, No. 7, 1908. 3. Bannister, H. N. Cook County, in Geology of Illinois, pp. 239-256. Geol. Survey of Illinois, vol. III (1868). 4. Childs, Mary Louise. Chicago and Vicinity in 1850. Northwestern University, A History 1855-1905 (1905) by Arthur Wilde. 5. Cowles, W. C. The Plant Societies of Chicago and Vicinity. Geographic Society of Chicago, Bull. No. 2, 1901. loa thy ee ee ee i mae | If) aks Sha, Pl wr ak sr Sin” oy te Hall C. and Ingalls, 0. D ; 8. Heminway, W. O.~ - 10. Salisbury, R. D., and Alden, W. C. - aroused by the large number of ellipsoid acorns observed Plan of Evanston (1917). sociation. Forest Conditions in Illinois. a Bull. Ill. State Lab. Natural History, Vol. TIX, Art. IV, Jan. 1911. Oaks are Oldest Residents. Evanston News Index, Sept. 5, 1903. 9. Leverett, F. * Pleistocene Features and Deposits of Chicago Area. Chi. Acad. — of Sci., Bull. II. ‘he Geol. and Nat. History Survey (1897). The Geography of Chicago and Its Environs. Geographic Society of Chicago, Bull. I, 1898. 11. Schmoll, H. M. Ecological Survey of Forests in the Vicinity of Glencoe, Tl. Master Thesis, 1919. 12. Sherff, E. E our The Vegetation of the Skokie Marsh, with Special Reference __ to Subterranean Organs and Their Relationships. ’ Botanical Gazette, Vol. 53, pp. 415-435, (1912). ise Ullrich, F. TT: ee it The Relation of Evaporation and Soil ee to Plant Succes- sion in a Ravine. ‘Y Bull. Ill. State Lab. of Nat. Hist. No. 12, (1915). 14. Willard, Frances, and Norton, M. B. A Great Mother (1894) pp. 63-64. DISTRIBUTION OF OAKS ON THE LAKE CHI- CAGO BARS IN EVANSTON AND NEW TRIER TOWNSHIPS W. G. Waterman, NoRTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY © This study originated in a class exercise in Forest Ecology, largely on account of the abundant fruiting of the red-black oaks in the summer of 1919. Interest was and it was decided to investigate the relative number of specimens of Q. ellipsoidalis in comparison with those of the other species found in this region. It was also decided to study the relative distribution of the ellipsoid y 1 ‘ eins rn ig eM i ! 4 240 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCI iE ot ye Mis) mt oak and if possible find some indication of its ecological - characteristics. It might be mentioned in passing that " Q. alba did not fruit at all this year, and Q. bicolor — Willd. and Q. macrocarpa Michx, very sparingly if at all. The region studied lies within the district surveyed by Miss Simmons and reported in this volume and the parti- ° cular portion included in this study consists of about fifteen blocks in the northern part of the city of Evans- ton, containing the ends of the Tolleston and Calumet sand bar ridges just before they disappear owing to erosion by the lake. It was intended to include the Glen- wood bar in this study, but it was found that the oaks had been almost entirely removed from it in this region. One small patch at the Gross Point Road and Dempster Street was surveyed and will be described later. ! Owing to the time when the study was begun, the acorns had mostly fallen from the trees and consequently the identification of the trees had to be made by an inspection of the acorns as they lay on the ground. Because this region is entirely built up, the acorns in many cases had been removed by raking of lawns, but even in those cases it was usually possible to find a few specimens lying in flower beds or in the spaces between the grass plots and pavements. Great care was observed in relating the acorns to the trees and in many cases it was possible to state only that there were ellipsoid trees in a certain spot without definitely indicating any individuals. Only speci- mens showing ellipsoid characters were preserved and it is possible that some were rejected which were really ellipsoid so that the numbers accepted represents a min- imum rather than a maximum of those really present. As the writer has not made much study of the ellipsoid oaks and as Trelease’s article (Transactions Illinois Academy, Vol. XI.) is still in the printers’ hands, the identification of the ellipsoid varieties was a difficult task. Professor Trelease very kindly assisted by identifying a few type speciments which were sent to him. As is known in regard to the ellipsoid oak, the acorns are ex- tremely variable and the range of shape in those studied Fic. 1. Acorns of Q. ellipsoidalis showing variability in shape Fic. 2. Acorns of Q. ellipsoidalis var. depressa except DP-B which is Q. velutina and H-27 doubtful Fic. 3. Distribution of oaks in N. E. Evanston PAPERS ON BOTANY . 241 is shown in Figure 1. In this the type form is that labelled Sh. and E 74. C 19 represents a reduced size due probably to lack of moisture and nutrition in extremely exposed conditions on the sandy ridges. D-64 and A-8 show a characteristic which has always been associated with the red oak (Quereus rubra); namely, the bulging of the acorn about in the middle of its length which led to the suspicion that D-64 might be a hybrid. The variety depressa of Q. ellipsoidallis is shown in Figure 2. This variety shows characteristics suggesting the black oak (Quercus velutina) and some of the speci- mens found might be hybrids of these two species. In this figure D P a typical black oak is included for the sake of comparison while H-27, very much dwarfed in size, may be either a black or a peculiar ellipsoid. The distribution of the oaks is shown by the map im Figure 3. The symbols representing the different trees were chosen with some care and experimentation to se- cure a symbol which would be sufficiently small to fit in with the scale of the map and yet be distinct to the eye. Even with the size adopted it has proved impossible to put one symbol for each tree observed, but instead an attempt has been made to let the number of symbols for each species be proportionate to the actual number of trees of that species found. It was found that only five or six symbols could be relied upon. On account of the small number of symbols available, it was impossible to represent even all the species concerned, to say nothing of the varieties of ellipsoid oak. A study of the map shows first, the transition from ridge conditions to swamp conditions described by Miss Simmons. In this region no true ellipsoids were found and the oaks were identified only as swamp _ white (Quercus bicolor) or of the red-black type. .The ellipsoid oaks were found chiefly on the Calumet bar, although some which are not recorded on the map were observed on the Tolleston bar on the campus of Northwestern University. This is left blank in the lower right hand corner of the map as there was not time to study it thoroughly before the acorns were removed either by - ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE raking or by animals. In the patch of oaks studied. _ the Glenwood beach (not shown on the map) there were : no true ellipsoids observed, but some that possibly were _ variety depressa. On the Calumet beach two distributional characteris- tics of the ellipsoid can be observed: first, a tendency to be found mostly along the edges of the sand ridges and. secondly, a tendency to segregate in small patches. The red oaks (Quercus rubra) are found on the whole in rather more mesophytic conditions, frequently occurring near the swamp white oaks and on the edges of the ridges nearest the intervening depressions. They reach their best development in the lowland forest bordering the flood plains of the Chicago and Desplaines Rivers. The white oaks when found are more usually along the tops of the ridges while the black oaks are the most xerophytic of all. In conclusion, it may be stated, first, that the number of ellipsoids is much larger than was expected and it is probable that further surveys would show that in gen- eral Quercus ellipsoidallis is a much more numerous component of our oak forest than has been supposed. It seems to occupy an intermediate position in regard to mesophytism between the black, white, and bur in the order named on the one hand, and the red and swamp white on the other. For the reason stated above, this study must be re- garded only as a preliminary survey and an intensive study under more exact conditions would give a more detailed knowledge of the distribution of these oaks, but probably would not alter the main conclusions arrived at. The writer wishes to express his thanks to Professor Wilham Trelease for his assistance in identifying the specimens and to Miss Catharine Blood and Miss Eliz-. abeth Bryant who made the collections. et ae ee 3 ats a ee aS fae TOPOGRAPHIC RELIEF AS A FACTOR IN PLANT SUCCESSION Geo. D. Funier, Untversity or CHIcaco It is now generally accepted that there is a tendency for one plant community to pass to another in a some- what definite series, from the pioneer vegetation of a region through successive phases to a community that is very decidedly richer and more mesophytic than any of the earlier vegetation. This series of changes has been designated plant succession, and has been exten- sively discussed by Cowles (1), Clements (2), and oth- ers. The final phase in the succession differs from the pioneer and intermediate ones, not only in its greater mesophytism, but also in its permanence and is termed the climax phase. Throughout the northeastern United States the climax plant community is a mesophytic for- est in which deciduous trees predominate, and it has been assumed by many that all parts of the region will event- ually be dominated by this, the richest type of vegetation -that the climate is able to support. Progress towards this climax will vary much in the character of the differ- ent stages and in the rapidity with which they succeed one another, the differences being determined largely by the character of the soil, the development of its drain- age, and the composition of adjacent vegetation. Man’s activities in cutting and burning may cause temporary or even permanent halting or retrogression, but other- wise the progress will be steadily towards the climax even although the movement be imperceptibly slow. While many ecologists have regarded the climax vege- tation as limited by the climate only, others have seen in soil a limiting factor and recognized the establish- ment of permanent plant communities of distinct char- acter due to the conditions of the soil. These communi- ties would be called ‘‘edaphie climax communities,’’ and they would be less mesophytic than the climatic climax of the region. Such communities have also been termed ‘‘temporary climax communities’’ by those who believe that they will eventually pass to the climatic climax, al- Wy, he AUN OR DP a a ae Oe oe Sis Fe ere tes Jeter tet OPN a Te br Arai 1 Reds a BT a A pr ay ai Saye A eae » 244 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE though the steps in the succession may be almost infi- ug nitely slow. . Among the most striking examples of edaphic or tem- porary climax communities are the pine barrens of New Jersey so well described by Taylor (3) and by Harsh- berger (4), and the similar forests of scrub pine in Michigan spoken of as ‘‘the plains’’ by Spalding (5) and others. In New Jersey the area is within a region capable of supporting a highly mesophytic forest in which chest- nut, beech, maple and certain oaks are conspicuous. Further, the sandy plains have been continuously out of water for long ages, and are occupied by a plant com- | munity that gives evidence of being an ‘‘old climax ; condition infinitely more ancient than anything in the surrounding area’’; nevertheless this vegetation is far below the climax of the region in mesophytism and in comparison with it is to be classed as a primitive com- munity. The vegetation of the sand plains of Michigan is simi- lar to that of New Jersey. The principal tree of the former, Pinus Banksiana, closely resembles in habit and ecological relations the P. rigida which dominates the latter, while the associated forms in each instance are decidedly xerophytic, and very similar both floristically and ecologically as may be seen by comparing the de- scriptions of Taylor (3) and Gates (6). The Michigan ‘‘nine barrens’’ are in a region where the climax forest is characterized by the dominance of beech, maple and hemlock. Many different causes have been given for the perma- nency of this primitive type of forest over the Michigan sand plains, but such attempted explanations have usually emphasized the character of the soil, its lack of fertility, its poor water supply, and its deficiency in humus or in essential mineral constituents. Harper (7) asserts with some plausibility that the difficulty is that the sandy soils leach freely and hence prevent the ac- cumulation of any considerable amount of plant food material. Whatever may be the cause, the fact of the oh fe PRON OG TOA PAY 1 it epee Ee, BT eee ee Pet Ue’ > be alee Seen LEON SAE RN, ae SE OE POL REE eee OR PAPERS ON BOTANY 245 apparent permanency of a primitive type of forest within - a region of a mesophytice climax seems established be- yond question, and also the further fact that this serub pine forest is in both Michigan and New Jersey asso- ciated with a soil of almost pure sand and a topography of low relief. In Michigan there exist other areas of sandy soil ex- hibiting quite different conditions of forest development. These are to be found more particularly along the west- ern shore of the lower peninsula in the form of sand- dune areas of varied extent. The soil does not seem to be essentially different than that of the sand plains some miles farther inland, in fact, if there is a difference it seems to lie in the direction of the dunes having more nearly absolutely pure sand, free from any other soil whatever, than the sandy plains. The latter have fre- quently some small admixture of loam or similar fine material. But while the soil is similar the same cannot be said of the vegetation for while primitive stages closely resembling those of the sand plains are evident in portions of the forest cover of the dunes more par- ticularly in newly formed areas, much of the older por- tions are covered by the climax forest of the region. Such a forest has been described by Waterman (8) in the Frankfort region, and it has also been seen by the writer at many different points, extending from Sawyer, at the south end of Lake Michigan to Bay View, Fox and Beaver Islands well to the north. This climax forest, although developed upon pure sand, differs very slightly from that upon other soils in the region the dominating trees being beech, maple and hemlock. It is true that some dune areas such as those covering a portion of the Big Sable Point area, near Ludington, seem to have remained for a very long time with a very primitive vegetation cover, but adjacent portions of the same area are in climax forest. What has caused this great difference in the rate of succession in these sand areas? In the opinion of the writer the differences in the topography relief have played an important part. It is a fact established by of OS We ee re he Vangie: ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF Ny Sint cu ie “SCIENCE d- frequent observation that in sand areas where dune build. ing has been extensive and dunes of considerable height have developed there occur sheltered depressions where mesophytic vegetation soon becomes established on ac- count of the lower evaporating power of the air and the consequent increased accumulation of humus. Such islands or centers of mesophytism are too well known and their occurrence will be too readily admitted to re- quire further demonstration, but their importance as centers from which mesophytism spreads to surround- ing territory has not been sufficiently recognized. From such centers go the seeds or other organs of dissemina-- tion to the fringe within shelter of the central forest as- sociation, and so completely is the spreading of the mem- bers of the climax forest accomplished that soon the very tops of the higher dunes are covered with beech and maple while adjacent plains remain in xerophytie scrub pine. The successional stages may include as in southern Michigan, a pioneer pine forest with an evergreen under- growth of Juniperus, Arctostaphylos, Pyrola, Linnaea and associated forms, a succeeding xero-mesophytic oak forest dominated by Quercus velutina and becoming grad- ually more mesophytic as indicated by the invasion of Q. alba and Q. rubra, and this in turn gradually giving way before the encroachment of Tsuga canadensis, Acer sac- charum, and Fagus grandifolia. Farther to the north the oaks disappear but the maple and hemlock remain with equally mesophytic undergrowth, and such tree associ- ates as the white spruce, Picea canadensis, and the yellow birch, Betula lutea. Whatever may be the modifications in the rate and phases of the succession the ultimate and comparatively speedy arrival at a rich mesophytic climax forest association leads to the conclusion that the high relief of sand dunes affords an excellent demonstration of the importance of mesophytie centers, developed in protected local areas, in inducing and hastening the de- velopment of the more advanced stages in plant suc- cession. ‘The physiographic ecology of Chicago and vicinity. Bot. Gas: Pte. 31: 73-108, 145-182, 1901. a Ags! on Cowles, Henry C. Bee a The causes of vegetative cycles. Bot. Gaz. 51: 161-183, 1911. 3 2. Clements, F. as : pis. 61, 1916. Taylor, Norman. On the origin and present distribution of the hing Soiree of New Jersey. Torreya 12: 229-242, figs. 2, 1912. 4. Harshberger, J. W. The vegetation of the New Jersey pine-barrens, pp. 327, figs. " 284, map Philadelphia, 1916. "e: my 5. Spalding, V. M. ‘eee ie “The plains” of Michigan, Amer. Nat. 17: 249-259, 1883. aR rr 6. Gates, F.C. ae The vegetation of the region in the vicinity of Douglas Lake, i Ak Cheboygan County, Mich. Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 14: 46-106, _ ORE » Oe pls. 17, 1913. + iD CoH 2 oe ok ‘ oe 7 % 7. Harper, R. M. - : The plant population of northern lower Michigan ¢ vironment. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club 45: 23-42, figs. §8. Waterman, W. G. ah Ecology of northern Michigan dunes: Crystal Lake Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 19: 197-208, pls. 6, 1917. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE OAKS: AND THE BUCKEYE IN LA SALLE Vee COUNTY, ILLINOIS 3 Gro. D. Funuer, Universiry oF CHICAGO While engaged in an ecological forest survey of a por- _ tion of La Salle County, the results of which have al- ready been reported,’ the writer’s attention was attracted © by the somewhat peculiar distribution of certain trees, principally species of Quereus and Aesculus. The survey covers the larger proportion of that part of the county lying north of the Illinois River and the parts of La Salle and Peru townships south of that stream. The exact — limits of the survey are indicated in the maps accom- — 1Fuller, Geo. D., and Strausbaugh, P. D., The forests of La Salle . County, Ill.. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 12: 1920. BS 248 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE > panying the report just cited and the following notes on species distribution may be regarded as an appendix to that paper. Collections were made of certain of the oaks of which 8 species were found within the county. — Special attention was given to the black oaks Quercus velutina and Q. ellipsoidalis and to one or two other species of rare occurrence. Material of these collec-_ tions, bearing the collection numbers, have been placed in the herbaria of the University of Illinois, at Urbana and of the Field Museum of Chicago. No attempt at completeness has been made but it is thought that the following notes may be worthy of record. 1. Quercus alba L., white oak. This species is found in all the upland forests often forming 40 to 60 per cent of the present stand. 2. Q.macrocarpa Michaz., bur oak. This oak also oe- eurs throughout the county in the upland forests and is rather abundant upon the drier flood plains. A form collected in Earl Township, Sect. 17, No. 1128, showed a particularly small acorn, another collection, No. 1117, was made in Harl Township, Sect. 8, and a third, No. 1109, in La Salle Township, Sect. 25, upon a stream ter- race. 3. Q. bicolor Willd., swamp white oak. A single small stand of this species was found in Dimmick Township, Sect. 3, upon the flood plain of Vermilion Creek, Col- lection No. 1162. 4. Q. Muhlenbergu Engelm., yellow chestnut oak. The Species is not abundant, forming a very small per cent of the stand and is apparently confined to the uplands near the Illinois and Fox Rivers. Collections: Peru Township, Sect. 19, No. 1133; La Salle Township, Sect. 11, No. 1134 and Dayton Township, Sect. 4, No. 1160. 5. Q. rubra l., red oak. Found throughout the county upon somewhat sheltered slopes, in ravines and upon the uplands most advanced in mesophytism. 6. Q. velutina Lam., black oak. This is the principal element forming the more xerophytic upland forests. It is abundant in Starved Rock Park and was collected in the following townships: Earl, No. 1126, and Serena PAPERS ON BOTANY ipa ee 249 No. 1161. A specimen, No. 1112, collected in Troy Grove, Sect. 35, may be hybrid with Q. ellipsoidalis. ; In this and the following species the writer is glad to acknowledge the assistance of Professor William Tre- lease in the identification of the collections. 7. Q. ellipsoidalis Hill, Hill’s oak or Hill’s black oak. This species is often confounded with the preceding from which it is not always easily distinguishable. Several varieties have been recognized by Trelease. It seems to be more plentiful in the northern half of the county and was collected in the following townships: Troy Grove, Sects. 11 and 18, Nos. 1101, 1106 and 1107; Earl, Sect. 8 and 17, Nos. 1120 and 1129, the latter being apparently var. intermedia; Utica, Sect. 7, No. 1155, and Dayton, Sect.-4, No. 1158. 8. Q.mbricaria Michx., shingle oak. Found occasion- ally along stream bluffs. Usually small in size. Collee- tions: La Salle Township, Sect. 13, No. 1148, and Day- ton Township, Sect. 4, No. 1159. Aesculus glabra Willd., fetid buckeye. A single speci- men was found in Troy Grove Township, No. 1110, a few scattering specimens near the town of Peru, but only south of the Illinois River did it become rather frequent in its occurrence. A COMPARISON OF SOIL TEMPERATURES IN UPLAND AND BOTTOMLAND FORESTS W. B. McDoveatt, University or Itirxots In connection with some ecological studies that were being made on the vegetation of Vermilion County, Ili- nois, during the summer of 1918, a series of measure- ments of soil temperatures was undertaken for the pur- pose of comparing habitat conditions in upland and bot- tomland forests. Unforeseen events prevented this from being carried out on as extensive a seale as had been in- tended but it is believed that the few readings obtained are worth recording in view of the fact that available data on the subject are very meager. Pe ee Dh eA ee ee es * ~ > \ ™ PS eS ae ee a Pee” oe ee Oe east of the Middle Fork of the Vermilion River a Becta tween the C. C. C. & St. L. and I. T. S. railroads. The river at this place is bordered on the east by a strip of | typical bottomland forest 300 to 500 feet wide. The dominant trees here are American elm (Ulimus ameri- cana), sycamore (Platanws occidentalis) and soft maple — (Acer saccharinum). Common secondary trees are the hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), box elder (Acer ne- gundo), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceo- lata), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), walnut (Juglans mgra), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), black maple (Acer saccharum var. nigrum) and cottonwood (Populus deltoides). The dominant species of the herbaceous layer are the wood nettle (Laportea canadensis) and the pale touch-me-not (Impatiens palida) both of which grow very vigorously, reaching heights of four feet or more, and often occupying the soil over considerable areas to the almost total exclusion of other herbaceous plants. At the eastern edge of the bottomland forest the land rises by a steep slope to the upland plain about 70 feet above. The slope itself is clothed with a transitional mixed hillside forest in which the dominant trees vary from those characteristic of the bottomland forest at the base, through the most mesophytic species of the region, namely hard maple (Acer saccharum), red oak (Quercus rubra) and beech (Fagus grandifolia) which are found part way up the slope, to the more xerophytic species of upland forest types such as the white and black oaks (Quercus alba and Q. velutina), and the shag-bark and pig-nut hickories (Carya ovata and C. cordiformis). At the top and adjacent to the slope the soil was formerly occupied by the ordinary oak-hickory mesoxerophytie¢ association. Most of this adjacent land, however, has been cleared and is under cultivation. The upland station selected for making soil tempera- ture readings was just at the top of the slope where the land begins slanting to the west. The particular place chosen was near a cluster of raspberry bushes where the other undergrowth was also abundant and the instru- * che ; Mit AN .. hase ye oot hidden To This BPE Ng was necessary to eet their being tampered with by a a hunters or other pedestrians. The bottomland station — oe ie _ chosen was about 50 feet from the bottom of the slope ; in the middle of a dense patch of wood nettle and touch: a - Me-not. . The thermometers used were of the type sold by Henry J. Green of Brooklyn, N. Y. Each thermometer is en- ist $e closed in a wooden case and has an exposed scale about | ute OS eleven inches long. Two thermometers were used at each | station; one for taking the temperature at a depth of 8 three fnghos and the other at a depth of twelve inches. a These are the depths at which series of readings have © been taken for the Committee on Soil Temperature of the Ecological Society of America by a number of colla- | _ borators in different parts of the United States. The _ thermometers were set on June 21, 1918, and left undis- ~ turbed until September 25, 1918. Readings were made on both of these dates and on seven intervening dates. The readings were in every case made as near to 12 o’clock noon as possible and always in the same order, the ther- — mometers at the upland station being read first and those at the bottomland station about five minutes later. Tables I and II give the results of these readings in de- grees Fahrenheit. TABLE I + Soil temperatures at depth of three inches ‘& ; 4 Date Upland Bottomland Difference Re AIRE Ea. 8 in a Solan ene die Mee see 67.0 64.0 3.0 2” oe: Beasts Ge Merete» rae 62.5 59.0 3.5 Bes aOhy 9 Bs 5.2 Set nae wade eae n ee 69.0 66.2 2.8 SETURL ns % cis a ataene,5 REO ets oD eve 68.0 65.5 2.5 : 6 Fa DSS I SL ee eae 62.7 Ba iy WP p ’ 27 ye Rep, TE ain) Su SE Rly re 63.0 61.2 1.8 PETROS LA, W514 <- win nd ae She epms 75.5 4p ss AUS. 27... 6 cece eee cece eee 72.0 70.0 2.0 IGE iy SSC. a a eek Een we Ss 55.0 53.2 128 IAWOEA RO a5 At cde Aerie. eve’ 66.0 63.6 2.4 252 : ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — TABLE II Soil temperatures at depth of twelve inches. Date Upland Bottomland Difference RVG OSV RAT HERA NIST DA CAD eS EE Heh atest GL aes 8. 65.0 62.4 2.6 PUIUDTT Clg Ac sees ete ate he eel Le Ne aia UA AU 63.2 59.8 3.4 TATU iA NER Oe DAR IN as LN 67.4 64.0 3.4 BTL V AN Gate levsteiovat ete a tiles peke lates abe SBE M LA 66.5 62.2 4.3 BUELL oD one cs eats he''p valle laecs Mieye rote haute cestaueh oe 61.5 60.2 ibe PHU eyustbavors: steals MAA ae PMU TAM AB A a Tile 67.6 4.1 This table indicates that there is an even greater dif- ference in air temperatures than in soil temperatures in upland and lowland forests, the average difference in air temperature for the three readings taken being 4.1 de- grees. ¢ i { E aha 253 ~UPLand Ly -Bottomland 50° F(9.1.So0it temreratures aT 3 inches These temperature differences at first thought do not seem very great but the difference in the number of heat units received by the upland and bottomland plants dur- ing any time unit must be multiplied by the number of time units in the whole growing season. When we re- member that a decrease in the average annual tempera- ture of North America of only four degrees would prob- ably be enough to bring about another glacial period we 254 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Mt realize that the actual amount of heat received during a season by bottomland plants is very much less than that received by upland plants and may be an extremely im- portant environmental factor. Vie 70° 65° b0° w5% 50° Fi9.0.Soil temperatures at 12 inches Papers on Zoology e Ve; "om pay De PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 257 PHYSIOLOGICAL LIFE HISTORIES OF TERRES-_ TRIAL ANIMALS AND MODERN METHODS OF REPRESENTING CLIMATE: By Victor E. SHeirorp, University or Innriors I. INTRODUCTION Modern ecology had its beginning with the publication of Warming’s work on the sand dunes of Denmark. He discovered in these studies that it is possible to classify and arrange the various plant communities which he found there in a natural order. This is the distinctive thing about modern ecology; the ecology of communi- ties of organisms is known as synecology. It enables us in our studies of the peculiarities of various domestic species and pest species to refer them back to the original conditions in which they were found. In other words, it has made it possible for us to locate organisms in their natural environments correctly and in a manner which other trained ecologists can understand. From time to time one hears biologists, particularly zoologists, asking why the term ecology is used and what modern ecology is all about, anyway, but these people have merely neglected to become acquainted with its distinctive features which are synecological or have to do with the ecology of com- munities. Perhaps the second distinctive feature of n.odern ecol- ogy lies in the attempt of ecologists to study what are known as physiological life-histories of organisms. By this is meant all physiological changes during the life eycle or during an annual cycle in the ease of animals with several generations, and the relations of these physiological changes to external conditions. Ganong (1917) expressed the view that if we could learn the physiological life-history of the plant we wovld be well on the road to the solution of the ecological roblem. 1Contribution from the Illinois Natural History Surv ; and from the Department of Zoology of the University of Illinois N . 161. For details regarding the work on insect pests referred to herei see Bulle- tin of the Illinois Natural History Survey. This paper s the sub- stance of an address befor the American Society of Zoologists at its St. Louis meeting Dec. 31._ .9 and the Illinois chapter of Sigma Xi, Jan. 11, 1920. and an address before the meeting of the Illinois Academy of-_ Sciences at Danville, Feb. 21, 1920. PEATE rT Oe OC IN Peet LTR Sen he a be PE ORCI ap Ry TU RADAR PIS Pusan AA ae ry WRUNG Cee EEE Pa VL eke! Avi ca aA a ANY Mh Ane A my Peak tes HON CeA Das Heures Ney A r ¢ yey foew aah Kiet WOO AlN Ti la 258 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Some of the best known examples of physiological lifes. 4 histories are suggested by some of the insects. One of the tiger beetles (Cicindela hirticollis Say) deposits eggs in June; these hatch in the sandy soil in which they are laid, feed on ants and other insects, molting once or twice during the summer. When the cold weather begins they close their burrows and remain below ground during the winter. They begin feeding again early in the spring, pass to the pupa stage, and emerge as adults in July. After feeding for a few days the adults burrow into the sand and remain until the following June when they come out of hibernation, deposit their eggs and remain in their habitats in some numbers so that in the ordinary sum- mer, one is able to collect these old individuals mixed with the new freshly emerged ones of the next genera- tion. Thus in this species we have two years between generations and some special conditions apparently necessary both in the larva and in the adult, before they will proceed with development at the time of the usual hibernation period. The codlin moth of the apple passes the winter in the larval stage, pupates after a few warm days in spring. The pupae emerge as adult moths about the time that the apple trees have begun to leaf out. They deposit eggs which on hatching into small larvae provide the so-called worms which are familiar in wormy apples. The small larvae enter the young fruits and after feeding for a time reach the fully grown condition, make their way out, down to the tree trunk where they spin a cocoon, pupate, and produce a moth which again lays eggs for the second generation. Under certain weather conditions a third generation is produced late in the summer, but under certain other weather conditions no larvae of this second generation of moths will proceed with develop- ment until after some special conditions of temperature and moisture have been imposed upon them. Thus we see the physiological life-history of the codlin moth var- ies with weather conditions and presents some special o problems, though perhaps problems of a kind which are : common to most animals. It. THE EFFECT OF CONDITIONS ON PHYSIOLOGICAL LIFE-HISTORIES From the standpoint of insect pests such as the eod- lin moth it is important to know how external conditions effect the rate of development, fecundity and length of life of the individual. It has long been known that tem- - perature has an important effect. De Candolle, the noted Swiss botanist, stated in 1830 that the time to ma- turity of wheat, for example, differs with the mean tem- perature above 6°C. So that the ‘‘total degree days’’ or the number of degrees above 6°C multiplied by the num- ber of days has a constant value. When De Candolle stated this he also stated the time temperature curve for the development of a plant is an equilateral hyperbola, the reciprocal of which is a straight line crossing the axis of temperatures at the temperature at which de- velopment does not take place but immediately above which development begins to take place. In the ninety years that have elapsed since this discovery, this prin- ciple has been discovered repeatedly and announced as new and original. (See Figure 1). It was not until 1914 that the Danish physiologist, Krogh, working upon the frog’s egg discovered that this law holds good only within a limited range of temperature. He published a list of the various species which had been studied and gave the limits within which the law could be expected to hold. It will be seen from Figure 1, particularly from the reciprocal curve, that development is a little too rapid at the lowest temperatures and considerably too slow at the highest temperatures to conform strictly to the equilateral hyperbola and a fixed total temperature for completion of development. Nevertheless this method constitutes a valuable guide in many kinds of study but it has been found in the course of studies carried out on the chinch bug and codlin moth in the University of Ilinois Vivarium under the auspices of the Natural History Sur- vey that many factors other than temperature influence 15 20 30 Fig. 1. Curves of the development of the frog’s egg at different: temperatures. The curve AB is the time temperature curve for de-- velopment of the first cleavage plane. The curve A’B’ is the reciprocal wif : 1 RT yh of the time temperature curve, i. e. the plotted on ie Time in minutes bi Na the temperatures in question. The distance above the axis of tempera- tures represents relative velocity of development. a Ae PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 261 the length of stages and the rate of development. Hu- midity is one of these; light, variability of temperature, air movement and rate of evaporation are others. On account of these complications it is necessary to express rate of development in more than one dimension. In 1910, Ball writing in the Cairo Scientific Journal used diagrams laid out on section paper in which he repre- sented temperatures on the scale at the left and the humidity on the horizontal scale at the top. He plotted as points on this chart temperature and humidity for each month in the year for various oases in the Sahara and then connected the points so plotted with straight lines. (See Figure 2). Later Griffith Taylor (1914) of Australia followed this same plan plotting the optimum humidity and temperature for man on such a chart ac companied by various similar plots for cities of the var- ious parts of the world. He used wet bulb temperatures which rendered his work not strictly comparable with that of others. In 1916 Pierce applied this same princi- ple to the Mexican Boll Weevil, but since he followed the usual custom of the Bureau of Entomology in not cit- ing any authorities, it is not possible to tell whether he originated the idea independently also. In the case of humidity and temperature in our work on the codlin moth we have found it possible to plot the length of the pupal period, the pupal mortality, and the failure to pupate in this fashion with advantageous re- sults. The pupal mortality is indicated at certain tem- peratures and humidities in figure 3. Another type of diagram is being prepared which we believe will prove to be quite helpful in making predictions regarding the time of appearance of the adult codlin moth. On this diagram we are plotting for each temperature the per cent deviation in the length of the pupal period due to humidity, but the work is not complete. On a diagram of this kind it is possible to plot also the march of tem- perature and humidity for each day and thus determine whether the humidities will have a marked effect on rate of development or only a slight effect. Probably such diagrams could be made for temperature and light, tem- . 262 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE perature and evaporation, and temperature and airmove- _ ment. Light influences the length of the codlin moth pupal stages as much as ten per cent. Evaporation differences may cause the length of the pupal stage to be doubled under certain conditions and the effects of air movement are often similar. Variability of temperature shortens i ; ° 50 80 S02 0 40 20 Fig. 2. A climograph or temperature-humidity graph for man and for two years at Urbana, Ill. Horizontal distance represents hu- midity; vertical temperature in Fahrenheit. The heavy curve with lettered angles connects the following: a, temperature and humidity comfortable for men lightly clothed and making no exertion; b, the same when exercising; c, the lowest death rate; d, high efficiency for factory workers in summer; e, the same in spring and’ fall; f, the same in winter. The light curve with crosses inside of circles at the angles and numbers adjacent connects the points representing the mean monthly temperature and humidity at Urbana, Ill., for the year 1897 in which the chinch bugs did damage at Urbana and in which the death- rate was high in Chicago. The numbers refer to months. The similar curve with crosses at the angles is for the year 1891 in which there was no chinch bug damage in Champaign county and the death-rate was low in Chicago. _ Sa a ee ees ee ; ie PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY | 263 _ Saaeee ait Neaeedaha Momennges 7” 70 70 60 0 40 60 80 100% Fig. 3. Climograph for the death-rate of man shown with hori- zontal rulings. The broken lines (0%) are drawn along the combined temperature and humidty conditions under which the death-rate is normal and hence the deviation from normal 0%; for the white man. The curve bounding the sparsely ruled area and labeled 10% passes through the temperature and humidity conditions in which the death- rate is 10% below normal for the white man; the lowest death-rate 65°F. and 80 per cent humidity is shown by a black dot. The closely ruled area shows a death rate 10% less than normal for the negro and the x is placed near its center on a humidity of 81 per cent and a temperature of 68°F. (after Huntington). The vertically ruled areas indicate the deaths (% individuals) of codlin moth pupae under ex- perimental conditions. yo Le ox: J ? Ma tat “4 eee wp OST Fes. it. fos aces Late oO ver! el ee | ee SF BERR ES poe a ihe vis SASS, ex ee EAS: ‘ fe: rebate P . tenis ey Ro 264 the length of the stages ten or more per cent as com- pared with the constant temperature of the same nu- merical value (see Figure 4 B). Another very interest- ing result of the experimental work is the demonstration of the fact that the so-called threshold of development for temperature which is the temperature just above which development begins, differs under wet and dry conditions Re EU rei 0 10°F Fig. 4A and 4B. Shown the effects of variability on human effi- ciency and insect metabolism. (a) Curve A shows the effect of changes of temperature on the efficiency of 300 men in a Connecticut factory. The center 0 indicates no change in temperature from the preceding day. At the right are shown rises of temperature and to the left fall in temperature in de- grees. In general variability favors efficiency. Curve B shows the same for students but decrease in efficiency with rise in temperatures which exceed 5° are evident (after Huntington). (b) Is a curve showing the effect on the length of the pupal stage of the codlin moth of a daily rise in temperature indicted by the scale. The vertical scale gives the per cent deviation from a constant tempera- ture with the different amounts of increase. as + - ij . a es ee Ld oe ie > ~ oi S : papas | ‘ON ‘200 ae Mu ap as > — —s ia Za can Lee A wy A ee in different generations i im fhe same year gina BA datis Ox, e different years. The threshold of development for the egg as determined by Mr. Spooner is somewhat lower & than that of the pupa, while the threshold of develop- — ment temperature of the larva is perhaps still lower. These threshold values are calculated by the use of the equilateral hyperbola and its reciprocal as already de-— scribed and of course the values are only approximate. Calculations of the threshold can usually be made when- _ ever a change in the factor amounting to about 1/3 of the maximum daily range of that factor halves or doub- © les the length of the stage. Thus the ordinary range of temperature to which the codlin moth may be subjected is at most about 30°C, and lowering the temperature 10° usually nearly douliles the length of the stage. This | ratio for temperature is known as the quotient for 10° or the Q,.. Likewise the total range of humidity to which the codlin moth may be subjected is almost 90 per cent and lowering the humidity 30 per cent under certain con- ditions will double the length of the stage and thus a hu- midity threshold may be calculated under these condi- — tions. The total degree-days for the length of codlin moth stages differs greatly with humidity and other con- ditions so that the results of experiments do not coincide exactly with the outdoor variable temperature and hu- midity conditions. Having noted the effects of various climatic factors on the codlin moth some comparison with man who has been _ particularly studied will be valuable. Turning to Figure 3 we note that the line representing a death-rate 10 per cent below normal passes through a considerable number of different temperatures and humidities just as does the minimum death-rate of the codlin moth pupae and that both are oblique in the same direction but that man being _ a warm blooded animal does not show as great a tempera- ture range as does the cold blooded codlin moth. On the same figure we have drawn the 10 per cent below normal — death-rate of negroes and the center of this area falls on temperature about 68°F. and humidity about 83, while 266 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE that of the white man lies at 65° and 80 per cent relative is oF ‘ humidity. | These two points are significant first in that our rooms are all too warm and dry being at 70°F. and 30 per cent instead of 65°F and 80 per cent. Thel negro who came to America from moist tropical Africa differs from the white man who came from somewhat drier and much cooler western Europe. Variability of temperature is stimulating to the codlin moth pupae (see Figure 4 B). The amount of respira- tory diseases among children in school rooms with win- dow ventilation and accordingly more variable tempera- tures is only about half as geat as with fan ventilation. Furthermore Figure 4 A is taken from the work of Mr. Huntington and shows that variable temperatures in- crease efficiency. The manual laborer’s efficiency is in- creased either by a rise or fall from day to day. HEffi- ciency of brainworkers, especially students, is increased by a fall of temperature from day to day and decreased by a rise in temperature from day to day. And it seems that we have done well to choose the time of year for their most important examinations when the temperature is rising from day to day, it apparently being our pur- pose to eliminate as many students as possible. It is altogether possible that our schools should begin in the middle of August and close considerably earlier than they do. Huntington has made a careful study of death-rate in relation to climate and weather and has compared busi- ness, school attendance, ete., with health or the death- - rate curve inverted. Figure 5, curves A and B, show this relation for the entire eastern United States for 1880-1910. The curves for Great Britian are similar. Curves B and C of Figure 5 show the death-rate in Chi- cago and damage by chinch bugs in Illinois. During the period from 1885 to 1895 the death-rate in Chicago rose high. These were troublous times with strikes, bloody anarchists, and Haymarket riots at the close of the eighties, due to the presence of a democratic president in Washington and certain wild-eyed agitators in Chicago, PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 267 1880 1890 1900 1910 1880 1890 1900 1916 Fig. 5. Showing parallel curves for health, school attendance in eastern United States, death-rate in Chicago and chinch bug infesta- tion in Illinois from 1880 to 1910. Curve A (scale at left) normal health of the general population is shown at 0% while bad health is indicated by per cent below and good health by per cent above. Curve B (scale at right) shows the parallel of school attendance to health. Curve C (scale at right) shows the death-rate in Chicago. Normal death-rate is indicated by zero per cent, high death-rate by per cent above and low death-rate by per cent below. Curve D (orig- inal; scale at left) shows relative chinch bug infestation in Illinois from records in the state entomologist’s office. The records show three de- grees of damage, slight, moderate and severe, by counties. Slight was given a value of 1, moderate 2, and severe 3; these figures were multi- plied by the number of counties in each case, and then totaled, and then divided by two for convenience in plotting. There is a good correspondence between chinch bug damage and death-rate in Chi- cago; the entire state of Illinois would be better. 268 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE some of whom were hung and others who should have i been! This was followed in the early nineties by a rail strike, panies, etc., due to the same causes as the earlier troubles. . The politicians did not make use of the health and death-rate curves but no doubt would have tried to prove that health was affected by political parties. The prob- abilities are that these disturbances were due in part, perhaps the larger part to ill-health, brought on by un- favorable weather. A comparison with the chinch bug curve indicates that weather which is detrimental to man is favorable to chinch bugs. Thus we see that with long experience and careful records it may be possible to check and anticipate various pest conditions by comparison with human death-rate, and vice versa. Another type of work which has been undertaken re- cently is the plotting of the relation between temperature and rainfall in localities where certain crops are espec- ially grown as compared with localities where it is de- sired to determine possibilities. One of this type of dia- grams shown in Figure 6 which compares a locality in the Illinois corn belt with tropical Australia to show the gen- eral method. It is one adopted by Griffith Taylor to represent the climate of tropical Australia and to de- termine whether or not various crops such as cotton, coffee, ete., could be grown there. There are further matters of interest in connection with man and his activities with relation to temperature and rainfall which demand some comment. On the basis of his experiments which have already been referred to and the opinion of various scientists whom he consulted, Mr. Huntington has mapped the areas of most stimulat- ing climate and has published maps of these areas. The moist deciduous forest climate of western Europe and eastern North America afford the variability and con- ditions necessary to high efficiency along with mean temperatures and humidites approaching the optimum for the white race, namely, 65°F. and 80 per cent relative humidity. These areas are also regarded as possessing the highest type of civilization. Mr. Griffith Taylor has PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 269 shown that the yellow race has successfully settled in ___ tropical regions which have 50 inches of rainfall. He finds i that north Australia possesses some area of this sort which is not suited for settlement for the white man and Australia has excluded the yellow race from that which Australia cannot itself make use of. From these brief remarks I hope that I have made clear what is very evi- dent to me, namely, that in dealing with insect pests, 0 2 4 6 8 13 12 14 =F. Fig. 6. Hythergraphs or rainfall-temperature charts of several lo- calities. The figures at the top of the chart represent rainfall in inches. The vertical scale is degrees Fahrenheit. The heavy black line repre- sents the rainfall temperature conditions in the Australian tropics. The horizontal rulings fill the space within the plot for Calcutta which is in the center of tropical cotton production; the vertical lines fill the space within the plot for Juiz, Brazil, the center of hill coffee pro- duction. One concludes that the Australian tropics are good for cotton but not for hill coffee. The curve with crosses at the angles is for Bloomington, Illinois. 20 Aw Hd eds oh ye Le. De i es fa A, % a F oe ee ee ee ee LEW RL EEN “s “4 : 1s a a-ak a 7 y t* Y ease be “ < - ‘ , t net ° e F Me bk eR TANW FPN OD ae OUR EM) bm cer en oma) MEOW Fu * 270 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE dealing in crop production, in settling questions of such - a delicate nature as the exclusion of certain races from ~ certain regions, a knowledge of climatic data and parti- cularly the effect of climatic factors on man and the or- ganisms involved is of prime importance. A few years ago I received a letter from a federal official asking if the Ecological Society of America desired to have any par- ticular kind of weather or climatic records taken, as they were planning a bureau of agricultural meteorology. It is my understanding that similar letters were written to various other biologists and agriculturists but that the : weather bureau did not gain very much information as 4 to what kind of records should be taken. This is the | fault of biologists who have failed to conduct experi- ments on the effect of climatic factors on organisms. The character of the records to be made is determined by the Fig. 7. The solid black shows the areas of most stimulating clim- ate (after Huntington). The stippling shows the area in Asia and the Orient with 50 inches of rain perannum. Theyellowrace has colonized in the tropics only where there are 50 inches of rain. The heavy line indicates limits of colonization. They are excluded from these parts of Australia which are unfit for white men (after Taylor) but suitable for them. ee a oe fe ects. are hemes a ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Saas . ae oe The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Prof. S. A. a! oe ~~ Forbes and Mr. W. P. Flint for the use of the data on the occurrence ides ei of the chinch bug. x ee ee Ball ae oat e wr z 1910. Climatological Diagrams, The Scientific Journal, Cairo, Vol. ee IV, No. 50. : ae , yt Ba <= Huntington, E. = Ae “4 ‘ae 1915. Civilization and Climate, New Haven. as es ie, 1919. World Power and Evolution, New Haven. ae Taylor, G. ‘eg he! 1914. Control of Settlement by Humidity and Temperature, Com- ors monwealth Bureau of Meteorology, Bull. No. 14 (from PF pe Huntington}. vere 5 he 1919. The Settlement of Tropical Australia, Geog. Rev. $:84115. a “eae ves THE EFFECT OF SEWAGE AND OTHER POLLU- s ty TION ON ANIMAL LIFE OF RIVERS ae AND STREAMS’ bs % By) Frank Coiiins Baker, Untverstry or Inurvxots a Pat : * 72 eh Stream pollution may be broadly divided intotwomain divisions: contamination by organic sewage from cities — sae and towns and by chemical wastes from factories and mines. Both are inimical to life but the latter is es- rom. sd pecially fatal to animal life, causing wide stretches of otherwise fertile streams to become veritable deserts. Organic sewage, in a crude or highly concentrated form, is also very injurious, effectually eliminating most forms of life from the polluted body of water. The importance and seriousness of the problem of stream pollution in its effect on the life of the rivers | and streams into which the contaminating material is na discharged has not, until very recently, been given the | ee attention that the subject demands. The diminishing fish , 2Contribution from the Museum of Natural History. University of Fiber eed No. 11. “2 272 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE supply, and in many places the very objectionable physi- — eal character of the polluted waters, have caused the au- thorities of several states to pass laws governing the dis- charge of these wastes into streams and the establish- ment of penalties for disregarding these laws. New York and Massachusetts have led in the framing of these laws and other states are following the good example set by these two older commonwealths, where the conditions seem to have reached a maximum of harmfulness (see Ward, 1918, 1919). ; During recent years stream pollution has enormously increased and the problems arising from this condition have been investigated by many biologists and sanitary engineers. The former have studied the problem from the viewpoint of its effect on the useful animal life, es- pecially fishes and river mussels, and this phase prob- ably bears as close a relation to human welfare as any other. Of course, from the standpoint of health, the pol- lution problem is of paramount importance because of its bearing on such diseases as typhoid fever which may be caused by a polluted water supply. Perhaps the worst effect of chemical pollution is to be found in the streams of western Pennsylvania, where mine water heavily loaded with oil or acid water from coal mines is permitted to flow into the rivers and streams of this part of the state. Studies by Ortmann (1909) show that whole stretches of the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela rivers have been made into deserts, as far as the animal life is concerned, by the large amount of poisonous substances discharged into these streams by the mines, oil industries, and chemical and other factories that border these rivers. In the Susquehanna River the same condition prevails in many places (Leighton, 1904). Such pollution causes a complete extermination of the fauna (and largely of the chlorophyl-bearing flora) and leaves the stream in such condition that restocking by either natural or artificial means is practically impos- sible, and if attempted is a waste of money. Pollution by sewage, when the polluting material is of small percentage as compared with the pure water of PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY . . 273 the stream (as 200 to 1), causes little inconvenience to the animal life and is doubtless of some benefit because of the additional food material that is added (Forbes and Richardson, 1919, p. 146). But the streams seldom remain long in this innoxious condition, the sewage be- coming more and more concentrated and less diluted until the whole stream may be supersaturated with noxious substances, the amount of oxygen in saturation reduced, and the biota finally driven out or killed. The Illinois River is one of the most striking examples of the effect of sewage pollution on the life of a stream. Under the direction of Dr. S. A. Forbes, studies of this. river have been carried on for more than forty-two years (since 1877) and a mass of reliable data has been gath- ered. The opening of the Chicago drainage canal in 1890: produced most revolutionary changes in the life of the Illinois River by the discharge into it of the sewage of Chicago, as well as commercial wastes from this city and other places along the river (Forbes and Richardson, 1913, 1919). The effect of this sewage and other pollu- tion has been to cause the animal life to be almost ex- cluded from the upper parts of the river. That the pol- luted condition is creeping down stream is shown by com- parisons of collections made in 1911 with those made in 1918. In the earlier years a foul water fungus disap- peared from the river near Starved Rock; in 1918 it was found at Henry and Lacon, 35 and 41 miles farther down the river (Forbes and Richardson, 1919, p. 145). - At the present time (1919) optimum conditions and a normal river fauna are not encountered until Peoria is reached, a distance of about 120 miles from the chief source of pollution at Lockport. Sewage from the towns and cities along the river also contribute to the general septic condition and retard the natural purification that occurs in all bodies of water. A striking example of the deadly effect of sewage pol- lution on the mussel life of a stream is given by Wilson and Clark (1912, p. 34) in their study of the Kankakee River mussel fauna. ‘‘The DesPlaines River, which joins the Kankakee to form the Illinois River, is simply an. re) ye. Xe in LIDAR RS Pe Re CRN OPI TE RL Omi UM DL amy ol oO lean © 274 | ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE immense sewer bringing down the Chives sewage. ‘Bot rivers, but especially the DesPlaines, are full of the char- Ke acteristic algae and other vegetation which grow in such > oe waters, and the combination of a copious vegetation with the sewage has effectually killed off all the mussels in © the vicinity. Not a single living specimen could be found in either river; but there were hundreds of dead shells along the ns most of these old and bleached, but still capable of identification’’. This statement, ye: course, applies only to the lower part of the Kankakee River where the influence of the polluted DesPlaines has worked upstream for some distance. The Kankakee for the most part is a highly productive stream with a high rate of dissolved oxygen, in fact, the water is super- saturated with this life-giving element. In the Maumee River (Wilson and Clark, 1912, pp. 26, 28) shell beds were found which had probably been killed by the refuse from gas works near the junction of the St. Marys and St. Joseph rivers. ‘‘Spots of tar were found on dead mussels some distance below this point. The water was covered with an oily scum in places and a tarry odor was perceptible for several miles down the river’’. Lower in the river the mussels were showing the effect of increased pollution of the stream by sewage. Pollution is worst and usually most deadly to animal life during periods of low water and in winter when the amount of water in the stream is small and the decom- posing organic material has less water to deprive of its dissolved oxygen. During times of floods the putrescent material is also carried down stream for many miles and cotaminates areas not previously affected. While all clean-water forms of animal life are more or less affected by sewage pollution, the decomposition of the organic matter abstracting dissolved oxygen from the water and rendering it unsuitable for aquatic life, the fish, river mussels, and crayfish are particularly affected, most fish being especially sensitive to contaminated water. Some fish (as the brook silversides, Labidesthes sicculus) are notably sensitive, while others (as the black bullhead, Ameiurus melas) will endure water that < he Pe ea ey, I a ee a Ee eA Fe Se ee eS Et ee eT ve = a ' tos acs ? x Wheat: ae ag is badly polluted (Shelford, 1918, p. 27; Wells, 1918, pp. 562-567). Young fish are relatively more sensitive than adult fish. It is noteworthy that the more resistant species of fish are inhabitants of sluggish bodies of water, as ponds and shallow lakes, while the least resist- ant species live in running streams. It seems to be a question of the amount of oxygen necessary for the well being of the fish. The ill effect of sewage pollution is most marked on the bottom of bodies of water, where a sludge is formed, often of great thickness (as much as ten feet in several cases), consisting of a mass of soft, black, sediment, with a high content of organic matter, in which only a few organisms, normally inhabitants of polluted streams, can live (e. g. septic Protozoa and Rotifera, foul-water algae, and slime-worms, Tubificidae). This effect on the bottom is perhaps the most serious phase of stream pol- lution because the septic condition of this area continues in operation long after the original source of contamina- tion ceases to operate. This sludge formation renders the bottom unfit for clean-water life upon which many fish depend for food. The time necessary for the recoy- ery of the normal biota cf such a stream will in most cases be of long duration, and in the ease of a stream polluted with wastes from mines and chemical manufacturies, there may never be a return to the original condition. - In New York State, the Genesee River, at Rochester, has afforded a striking example of stream pollution, of the effect of this pollution on certain animal life in the river, and of the return of this life when the amount of pollution had been largely reduced. This stream has been under observation by the writer for a period of twenty- seven years (1892 to 1919) and collections of the mollus- ean life have been made from time to time, both before the period of maximum pollution and since that time. The portion of the river studied lies below the lower falls north of Rochester, and about a quarter of a mile below the outfall of several large trunk sewers, the sewage be- ing discharged into the stream in a crude condition. _ Refuse and other waste matter, both liquid and solid, also Pet oo BAPE GN wOOnOGY 6200 2) aig ~ re ven? we J fms , . wy 7 SP a Ms suuhe bet ves se ee ek oe eee eee ee ee oe SO SI ere ‘YS tee ee Oe nae eae et een a5 ex, Sar eter re os JO ater hs Roe SITUS BOTAN Sey OE 0 Wy, PS a / tp WAI NARA Ween Nia ate} 276 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE enter the stream from gas works, tanneries, and manu- — facturing plants above the lower falls. Collections made in 1892, before pollution became not- ably apparent, included nine species of gastropod mol- lusks, three being water breathers and six air breathers, These species were identified as: Musculium transversum Musculium partumevwum Bythima tentaculata Planorbis trivolvis Physa gyrina Physa sayu Physa heterostropha (=oneida) Galba catascopium Galba caperata Individuals were notably abundant, thickly covering the rocks and the shore. In 1897 it was observed that the sewage was increasing in volume and pollution was be- coming more noticeable, the water looking like very heavy, greasy dish water. The river was visited and ex- amined at short intervals from 1898 to 1919. Hach year it was noted that pollution was rapidly increasing. In 1907, the water-breathing mollusks, Musculiwm and By- thinia, had succumbed and none could be found. The air-breathers, Galba, Planorbis, and Physa, still held out, though reduced in number of individuals. An examina- tion nmtade in 1910 failed to discover a single living mol- lusk of any species. Apparently the water had reached such a state of concentrated pollution that even the air- breathing mollusks, which normally come to the surface to take free air, could not adapt themselves to this most unfavorable environment and were either killed or com- pelled to migrate down the river to a point where pollu- tion was less deadly. During the following years, 1910 to 1913, the river was visited but no mollusks were found. During the summer of 1912, Mr. G. C. Whipple, pro- fessor of Sanitary Engineering in Harvard University, made a study of the effect of the sewage pollution on cer- tain animal and vegetal life in the Genesee River (Fisher, PON ne A Ok ee ee ee i » s 7 % 0 far a. ~~ ri (eel Gy “oS wee, CHE SL ee a ee i Diy, C°sR * Baio 42 ma hese RISE LE eR NTR hate as oe Nag kB RS ee 38 Me besthis 4! cay SS 079 oe OS q ‘rhe i. DS Creche Wwe eat ; - . : . re Fe STE, TP EOL IE ey Or ee ig he ee , a's 5 Ee ane ns . a ir _ a - PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 277 1913, pp. 179-200). This study was made when pollu- tion was at its maximum and during the period when molluscan life had disappeared from the lower part of _ the river. The dissolved oxygen in the lower river, be- low the trunk line sewer, in July and August when the- temperature was high and the water low, varied from 5 to 41 per cent of saturation. The water at the bottom of the river almost always contained less oxygen than that at the surface. On one day in August, the percent- age of saturation in a distance of three miles did not exceed 5 per cent from the surface to the bottom of the stream, which has a depth of about twenty-six feet. The number of bacteria per cc. for this period was 1,650,000 near the source of pollution and but 67,000 near the mouth of the river where the influence of the pure water from Lake Ontario increased the amount of dissolved oxygen. In 1917 a large part of the city sewage was diverted to a disposal plant situated near the shore of Lake On- tario. Here an average of 32 million gallons of sewage are treated daily and the treated sewage discharged into Lake Ontario in deep water at some distance from the shore. Itis at once apparent that when this large amount of sewage was discharged into the Genesee River in a crude condition, it could not but render the water totally unfit for animal life and a menace even to the inhabitants who visited the beautiful parks bordering both sides of the lower Genesee River. The result of the diminution in the amount of sewage discharged into this river has been that the mollusean fauna, as well as other forms of animal life, have re- turned and are rapidly taking possession of the favorable environments which were in use previous to the maxi- mum period of pollution. Collections made in Septem- ber, 1919, contained six species, two being water-breath- ers and four air-breathers: Musculium transversum _ Planorbis trivolvis Bythinia tentaculata Physa wmtegra Galba catascopium Physa oneida : ¢ os j P “ ee ee ee ee eee ee Pe a pha CDS OE a Nod i ‘ 278 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE It will be noted that of the returned species, oneranae ; 7 different (P. integra) while four are missing,Galba caparta, Physa gyrma and P. say, and Musculium partumeium. It frequently happens that when a fauna returns to a habitat from which it has previously been driven, it is made up of a different aggregation of species - (See Ortmann, 1909, for additional notes on this sub- ject). In the case of the Genesee River we have a striking example of the history of a polluted stream and its ef- fect on one group of the animal life. Previous to the stage of great pollution there is a varied fauna of mol- lusks very numerous in individuals. In the course of eleven years the gill-bearing species are forced out and after a lapse of fourteen years all molluscan life ceases to live in this part of the river. Seven years later the greater amount of sewage is diverted to another outlet. Two years after this change we find that the mullusks have returned in as great numbers as before the maxi- mum stage of pollution. The significance of all this lies in the fact of the early return of this life, and strikingly indicates that streams may become restocked with life in a short period after pollution has ceased to be of an unfavorable character. At the present time the sturgeon, which formerly resorted to the river to feed and breed, and had been driven out by the polluted condition of the stream, has returned, which is another indication of im- proved conditions. It is quite probable that the large fall in the river, some 60 feet in height, has had a marked effect in the return of these favorable conditions. A study of the Salt Fork of the Big Vermilion River, now in progress, indicates that all clean water life, in- cluding mussels and ecrayfishes, has been excluded from this stream for a distance of fourteen miles, and a normal — fauna of these animals is not encountered until a dis- tance of twenty miles has been traversed. The shallow- ness of this stream has evidently provided a sufficient supply of dissolved oxygen and it is apparent that in a deeper stream the ill effects of sewage pollution would be experienced for a much greater distance. eas INE RD FED EN EON, PET TS EOD eae ee OS a SO ee ee ea ee ae oS ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee a ee ee — = — ~ > oe 2g i fas ey ee ae ee Se ee ‘Wherever stream pollution occurs it is evident that the elean-water animals will sooner or later be driven out or killed. Such a condition seriously effects our food and game fishes, which form so large a part of the meat of our population, and the situation demands immediate attention and early remedy. It is a matter of great sat- isfaction to scientific men that the authorities are awak- ened to the seriousness of such conditions and that they are providing adequate remedies in many places. LIST OF REFERENCES IN THE TEXT Forbes, S. A. and Richardson, R. E. 1913. Studies on the Biology of the Upper Illinois River. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., IX, pp. 481-574. 1919. Some recent changes in Illinois River Biology. Bull. Il. Nat. Hist. Survey, XIII, pp. 137-156. Leighton, Marshall O. 1904. Quality of Water in the Susquehanna River Drainage Basin. Water Supply and Irrigation Paper, No. 108, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 1-76. Ortmann, Arnold E. 1909. The Destruction of the Fresh-water Fauna in Western Penn- sylvania. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., XLVIII, pp. 90-110. Shelford, Victor E. 1918. Ways and Means of Measuring the Dangers of Pollution to Fisheries. Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv., XIII, pp. 23-42. Ward, Henry B. 1918. The Elimination of Stream Pollution in New York State. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc., XLVIII, pp. 1-25. 1919. Stream Pollution in New York State. A Preliminary In- vestigation of the Problem from the Standpoint of a Biologist. Report to N. Y. Conservation Commission, pp. 1-79. Wells, Morris M. 1918. The Reactions and Resistance of Fishes to Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide. Bull. lll. State Lab. Nat. Hist., ; XI, pp. 557-571. Whipple, George C. 1913. Report on the Sewage Disposal System of Rochester, N. Y. By Edwin A. Fisher, City Engineer. pp. 179-200. Wilson, Charles B. and Clark, H. Walton. 1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Maumee River. Bureau of Fisher- ies, Document No. 757. 1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Kankakee River. Bureau of Fish- eries, Document No. 758. PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY - 39 280 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE ACANTHO- — CEPHALA? H. J. Van Cueave, University oF Inuiots Frequently, animals differing widely in appearance belong to the same species. Polymorphism, as this con- dition is called, occurs in various groups throughout the animal kingdom and is especially prominent in insect states and in the colonies of some of the coelenterates, es- pecially among the Siphonophora. Under these condi- tions individuals representing each of the different forms carry on restricted, specialized functions for the colony or state. The causes of such diversity of form within the members of the same species are not understood thor- — oughly. There are those who contend that polymorphism has arisen as a result of a division of labor among the individuals while others adhere just as strongly to the view that because the individuals are different they are thereby fitted for only one kind of special work and con- sequently each does the work for which bodily structure fits it. The type of bodily difference accompanying re- stricted function most frequently encountered in the ani- mal kingdom is that associated with the differentiation of the sexes. Sexual dimorphism, as somatic differences between males and females is termed, is of frequent occurrence throughout the animal series. However, most of the published accounts dealing with this phenomenon have been concerned with the most conspicuous instances such as those in which male and female differ so profoundly in superficial characters that they might well be taken as representatives of entirely distinct species. Technically, any somatic difference, however slight, which enables one to differentiate males from females without an examina- tion of the gonads, may be considered as sexual dimor- phism. In many species certain restricted organs or parts of the body, not directly associated with the repro- ductive process, display distinctive differences in the two 1Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illinois, No. 162. . PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 281 sexes. Such characters are termed secondary sexual characters. Much of the literature concerned with the explanations of dimorphism has placed strong emphasis upon the role of sexual selection as the factor which has originated and emphasized the secondary sexual characters. Most of the popularly cited instances offer no fundamental difficulty for such a possible origin. The development of horns or other organs of offense or defense in the males of mammals would seem to give such individuals greater chanee of perpetuating their kind than possessed by other individuals not having such special organs. Simi- larly, there does not seem to be any fundamental objec- tion to the possibility that females among the birds might show preference for the more highly colored and ornamented males as mates though many authorities question any such show of preference on the part of the female. In all of the most readily available accounts sexual selection and natural selection have been almost exclusively advanced as basis for the explanation of di- morphism. In fact, P. C. Mitchel! in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Eleventh Edition, Vol. 24:748) definitely contends in his discussion of Sexual Dimorphism that Darwin’s theory of sexual selection is the only compre- hensive suggestion capable of explaining why some males and females differ and others resemble each other. In species having no direct copulation and in all those having no mating of the sexes, obviously sexual selection cannot operate in the development of secondary sexual differences. Frequently ardent advocates of a theory have been so blinded by the implicit belief in the all potent powers of some particular explanation of given phenomena that they have been unable to conceive of the possibility that various factors may act simultan- eously to attain the same or similar end results. This seems to have been the attitude of recent writers who have tried to explain all secondary sexual characters on the basis of natural and sexual selection. Charles Dar- win, the founder of the theory of sexual selection, has well pointed out that his theory could not be the sole , ep PR if gaa watee FEF RE as Pol Tn ga aah ee ee 282 explanation for the development of dimorphism among — the lower sexual animals. In the Descent of Man (Chap- ter 9) he states that among the lower organisms ‘‘it is almost certain that these animals have too imperfect senses and much too low mental powers to appreciate each other’s beauty or their attractions, or to feel ri- valry.’’ It becomes a matter of considerable interest, then, to examine some of the lower bisexual organisms in which mating does occur in order to see if it is possible to offer any explanation of the factors causing dimor- phism under such conditions. In the course of work upon the Acanthocephala, I have come across a number of instances of sexual dimorphism which, because of the conditions under which they occur, seem to offer some interesting obstacles to the operation of sexual selection or of natural selection in their de- velopment. Before discussing the specific instances, a few facts regarding these organisms should be enumer- ated. The Acanthocephala are worms of uncertain phylo- genetic relationships which, through complete adaption to the parasitic habit, have arrived at a state where they no longer possess a free living stage at any point in their life cycle. In the reduction of organs character-° istic of free life the Acanthocephala represent the ex- treme condition of complete absence of any structures for locomotion in any stage of their development, and total elimination of all special organs dealing with the processes of metabolism. Similarly there has been an entire loss of all organs of special sense. The whole central nervous system consists of a small mass of gang- lion cells from which a few fibers are distributed to the body wall and to the muscles which control the opera- tions of the proboscis and of the anterior region of the body. In spite of the fact that these organisms are re- duced to essentially little more than a sac for containing the developing reproductive elements and a_ special organ, the proboscis, for attachment to the host, yet they display rather marked differences between the sexes in many species. Many of these differences are apparently of no advantage to the individuals possessing them and —— Te Ps, > PAPERS on ZOOLOGY 283° in some instances appear after the single necessary copu- lation so they can have no very essential relation to the perpetuation of the species. All evidence seems to point to the fact that the Acanthocephala are, as a group, too far removed from any free living ancestors to make it possible that dimorphism could have been carried over as an inheritance from free living ancestral forms. It then becomes a matter of some interest to examine these instances of sexual dimorphism in the hopes of finding some of the factors responsible for their development. The somatic differences between the sexes encountered in these parasites constitute two fairly natural classes (a) differences in form and size, and (b) presence in one sex of structures entirely wanting in the other. Under the first of these are included all the differences in body form, in body size, and in proportions of the body or of any of its individual structures while the second, of much rarer occurrence, is possibly based upon incomplete and faulty observations. Frequently structures such as body spines, apparently wanting in one sex, have, upon closer examination, been found greatly reduced in size or ob- secured by other structures. Almost invariably the mature female acanthocephalan is larger than the male of the same species. In some in- stances, however, the difference is so slight that among fully mature specimens some males are as large as the smaller females and in a few instances there is practi- cally no external means of differentiating the sexes. This last mentioned condition is best exemplified in Plag- torhynchus formosus VanC. as shown in figures 1 and 2. Extreme differences in size are to be noted in Giganto- rhynchus hirudinaceus (Pall.) from the hog. The female of this species may reach a length of 65 cm. while the male rarely attains a length of more than 10 cm. In average, mature, individuals the male is about 4 mm. in diameter while the female measures about 6 mm. Thus in this species the difference in length is much more con- spicuous than the difference in diameter. Simple sexual difference in length appears rather late in the develop- ment of the individuals of most species that have been 284 d ; fcealnte observed. In immature specimens it is impossible to dis- oe tinguish the sexes without observation of the essential organs of reproduction. ¥ Plagiorhynchus formosus VanC. Fig. 1. Male. Fig. 2. Female. Both figures drawn to same scale. Another extreme example of difference in length is found in Heteroplus grandis (VanC.), the female of which is approximately five times as long as the male (see figures 3 and 4) but only about one-third greater in diameter of the body. Heteroplus grandis (VanC.) Fig. 3. Male. Fig. 4. Female. Both figures drawn to same scale. No one has ever demonstrated the presence of cell di- vision in other than germ cells in the body of an acantho- cephalan after it has entered its definitive host. In addi- tion to this the writer has shown that in members of the family Neoechinorhynchidae the number of cellular ele- ments is fixed and in structures common to both sexes is PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 285 constant in all individuals. Consequently any difference in body size, in members of this family at least, could re- sult only from differences in physiological processes which would permit simple increase in bulk without any corresponding increase in number of cells. Since the start of this differentiation in bulk of the members of the opposite sexes occurs at about the same time that the germ cells start to form it seems possible that simple difference in size of the two sexes may be directly corre- lated with differences in physiological conditions accom- panying the development of the sex cells. General body form frequently shows marked contrast in the two sexes other than the relative size discussed above. In Arhythmorhynchus pumilirostris Van C. the writer has shown that the male has the posterior region of the body distinctly attenuated while the gravid female displays no distinctive difference in diameter of anterior and posterior regions of the body. In this species the musculature of the body wall is also apparently more highly developed in female than in male. In preserved specimens the females present a distinctly wrinkled ap- pearance due to the contraction of the muscles in the body wall, while the males present .a perfectly smooth surface on the exterior of the body. Frequently a portion of the body of a gravid female becomes distorted from the form characteristic of the _ young female and of the male. Localized distended areas have frequently been attributed to the mechanical effect of the myriads of developing embryos which fill the entire body cavity of the gravid female. Thus in Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus (VanC.) and in N. agilis (Rud.) the middle third of the body of the female us- ually shows a distinct enlargement. In some instances the entire body becomes greatly distended, forming a capacious sac for the retention of the embryos as the writer has described in the females of Filicollis botulus VancC. Difference in size and form are not restricted to the body proper. A radical difference in form of the pro- boscis has been described for the female of Filicollis anatis (Schr.). In this species the proboscis of the and of very young females is of an ordinary type ° att rows of hooks extending from the extremity to near the base (fig. 5). In contrast with this the proboscis of the — female is an inflated spherical organ which bears a star- like crown of hooks (fig. 6), limited in distribution to the anterior face of the structure. Filicollis anatis (Schrank) Fig. 5. Proboscis of male magnified about 120 diameters. From Liihe 1911, fig. 44. Fig. 6. Proboscis of female magnified about 30 diameters. Modi- fied from Liihe 1911, fig. 39. Cuticular spines appear on the body proper of species belonging to certain genera of Acanthocephala. These spines display dimorphism in some instances through dis- similarity in size and in others through difference in dis- - tribution. In one species of Rhadinorhynchus the body spines of the female range from 60 to 70» in length while those from the same region of the male are only about 28» long. In this instance the female shows greater size of spines in just the same manner as greater body size is associated with the females in the Acantho- cephala. On the other hand the writer has described two ‘ ise agn not be the homologue of the cribiform plate of mam- tf malian anatomy, since the olfactory nerve does not pass oe __ through any portion of it. Accordingly it would seem that the term planum tectale would more adequately © express the function and the position of this cartilage. In the younger stages of Amblystoma, the antorbital process and the planum tectale are far removed from each other, the former having no association whatsoever with the nasal region. During later development, how- Ss ever, the distal part of the antorbital grows forward, while the base of the tectale extends farther backward, — so that in a larva 34 mm. long, these structures have come to lie very close to each other. During the later larval period, the cornu trabeculae, which supports the anterior parts of the nasal organ, extends backward toward the antorbital and the tectale; and, in a larva at the end ~ of metamorphosis, these structures have all united to form the lateral and the posterior walls of the nasal capsule. It is evident, therefore, that the antorbital process, al- though having its origin some distance back of the nasal region, is destined to become with the planum tectale, the posterior wall of the nasal capsule, which is pierced 2 by a single opening, the foramen orbito-nasalis, through a which the branches of the fifth nerve pass to the olfactory be: organ. : Considerable diversity of opinion has existed in the ei oa 3 4 Rs past, in regard to the homology of this cartilage bar, which arises from the trabecula considerably back of the - nasal region, but later becomes a part of the posterior 2 wall of the nasal capsule. Throughout the literature, the y terms palatine cartilage and antorbital process are used interchangeably in its designation, the latter possibly be- ing more commonly employed; while Parker, in a series ; of extensively illustrated papers on the skull of the Zz. Anura and Urodela has employed the term ethmo-pala- a: -tine. Gaupp (1893), in his work on the chondrocranium | of Rana fusca, held that the antorbital process of the i Urodeles is homologous with the pterygoquadrate arch ‘- of the Anura; and he uses the terms ‘‘Antorbitalfort- x Fs Met PLS a NYPL Wg bee Oke Ake ay Rte A en Oe Cee Ce cee ee AGL Ta DE wud) 1) ARE Un cS Nae TA TOON COSSRME UE IM MeV aon SMR WN SIO OTR (a ’ Ve OR te Pe WD ee Fae MN: sey OA Wig VERA ie aN Uy PR ee: 294 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE hi phi PAN Woy WA ae he) satz’’ and ‘‘Cartilago palatina’’ with reference to ‘the same structure. It may be remarked parenthetically, that — the terms palatine cartilage or palato-quadrate arch, frequently applied to the pterygoquadrate is incorrect, as it contains no palatal element, and no part of the pala- tine bone is derived from it. In the development of the chondrocranium of Crypto- branchus alleghaniensis, possibly a more primitive Uro- dele, some light is shed upon the history of this antor- bital process. In a larva, two weeks after hatching, when the cristae trabeculorum are already well-developed there is no evidence of a developing antorbital. Slightly posterior, however, to the position of its probable appear- ance, procartilage cells have formed in the surrounding tissue, lateral to the trabecula; and these cells continue posteriorly into the anterior end of the pterygoquadrate, extending forward from the hinge of the lower jaw. In a larva five weeks old, these procartilage cells have chon- drified; the pterygoquadrate now reaches farther for- ward, and unites to the side of the trabecula in the posi- tion from which the antorbital process normally devel- ops in other Urodeles. In this stage, there is no exten- sion forward of a cartilage bar from the junction of the pterygoid with the trabecula; but in a larva three months after hatching, a small process reaches forward from the end of the pterygoquadrate toward the nasal capsule, and an antorbital process has assumed propor- tions similar to that in Amblystoma. My oldest larva of Cryptobranchus does not show any connection be- tween the antorbital process and the nasal capsule; it is probable, however, that in a later stage these parts would be united, for the nervous supply and the associated cartilages are similar to those in Amblystoma. In no other Urodele, as far as I have been able to dis- cover, with the single exception of the Siberian genus Ranodon (Wiedersheim, 1876; fig. 69) is there a similar connection of the pterygoquadrate with the anterior part of the skull. In a larva of Spelerpes fuscus (Wieder- sheim, 1876; fig. 108) there is a cartilage bar directed posteriorly from the nasal capsule toward the pterygo- PE Oe ae ee er eee . « — —— SSS — a ee - 4 oy Are a eae which has been called the maxillary process; - and the proximity of these two structures would suggest an earlier continuity between them. Elsewhere in all described Urodeles, the extent of the pterygoquadrate forward from the quadrate is variable throughout the order; and in the adult Cryptobranchus (and this holds true for the Japanese japonicus, as figured by Parker, 1876) the connection between the pterygoid and the struc- tures farther forward is lost. In the chondrocranium of Epicrium glutinosum, the blind caecilian of the trop- ics, the pterygoid process reaches well forward toward — the nasal region; and the proximity of the antorbital to the pterygoid suggests that here, as in some of the Uro- deles, these structures may have been at one time more closely related. In all of the Anura, on the other hand, the pterygo- quadrate arch is connected throughout life with the pos- terior wall of the nasal capsule. In this respect, Rano- don and Cryptobranchus more closely approach the Anura than any other Urodele; for in the remainder of — the group, there is no.connection of the pterygoquadrate with the anterior part of the cranium. It is usual to regard the pterygoquadrate arch of the Anura as the homologue of the upper jaw of the Elasmo- branch, which, with the development of the osseous upper jaw of the higher groups has lost its original function as part of the feeding apparatus, and has fused with the cranium, thus contributing toward the posterior wall of the nasal capsule. In the chondrocranium of the Elas- mobranch, there is no anterior extension of the pterygo- quadrate beyond the curve of the upper jaw, to form any integral part of the nasal capsule; but in all of the Anura, as far as I know, the side wall of the capsule is apparently a continuation forward of the pterygoid, beyond its con- nection with the cranium. In Pipa americana, a small triangular cartilage plate, the ethmo-palatine of Parker, continues forward from the pterygoid and partially cov- vers the caudal parts of the nasal organ; while in Bufo and Rana, the side wall of the capsule, better designated PAPERS on (abocoer Gene 5 a “So ys _— - ow s(x Ye = erate ae NS TP ee ee Ry RO ee Te | Se ~ Se ee & bens ‘eo ae a, 296 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the lamina externa, is likewise continuous with the an- terior end of the pterygoquadrate. In Cryptobranchus, then, these relationships between the pterygoid and the nasal capsule, as found in the Anura, are carried over into the Urodela; and it would seem that the antorbital process, the pterygoid and the planum tectale of the Urodela may be readily homolo- gized with these structures in the Anura. That being true, it would apparently follow that the antorbital pro- cess in Cryptobranchus and perhaps in all Urodeles, is, at least in its basal part, derived from the anterior part of the pterygoquadrate arch; while the more distal por- tion which must be the homologue of the lamina externa of the Anura, may be a new formation. It may be re- marked, that in both the Anura and the Urodeles, the antorbital process unites with the cornu trabeculae, a structure clearly homologous throughout the class Amphibia, thus furnishing a further clue to its relation- ships. In the early stages of the chondrocranium of Salaman- dra maculata, a Urodele in which the pterygoquadrate does not reach forward into the nasal region, the antor- bital process arises from the trabecula much as in Am- blystoma. During its development, the planum tectale, which forms the roof of the nasal capsule, develops lat- erally from the posterior end of the columna ethmoidalis ; and, curving ventrally, covers the posterior and lateral parts of the nasal organ. In a_larva, 38 mm. long, the anterior end of the distal part of the antorbital, which has developed forward toward the capsule, has come to lie just beneath and slightly posterior to the lateral mar- gin of the planum tectale; so that these two structures are separated by a wide gap, through which the ophthal- micus and the superficialis branches of the fifth nerve pass to the nasal organ. Thus the antorbital process is ventral to these nerves. In all Urodeles, with the excep- tion of Necturus and Amphiuma, in which the antorbital process does not unite to the structures farther forward, and probably in the later stages of Salamandra, this wide gap is reduced to an orbito-nasal foramen, which oes esse st aay Pais Sera Baer MAL eh Te eT et eee Y, aint RN oh | a Fy cae Aiea ey eee PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 297 pierces the posterior wall of the nasal capsule and con- ducts the rami of the fifth nerve into the nasal cavity. In the chondrocranium of Bufo americana, these same nerves pierce the posterior wall of the capsule just above the pterygoquadrate, where it joins the cranium; the ' same is true in Rana and Pipa, although in the latter, . some modifications in the capsule have occurred, making the comparisons to the Phaneroglossa more remote. : Since it is customary to regard nerves and their distri- ¥ bution as sufficient criteria for the determination of homologous structures, it would apparently follow that the orbito-nasalis foramen has been reduced from the large gap between the planum tectale and the antorbital process; and that these foramina in the Urodeles and the Anura occur in homologous parts. Accordingly that ' portion of the posterior wall of the nasal capsule dorsal to these nerves must be a derivative from the planum tectale, while the cartilage immediately beneath them is as clearly antorbital in origin, or in the Anura and Cryp- tobranchus clearly pterygoidal. SUMMARY The antorbital process of the Urodela arises from the lower margin of the trabecula, considerably back of the choana; during the later stages it unites with the struc- tures farther forward, and forms a part of the posterior wall of the nasal capsule. In Cryptobranchus alleghan- iensis the pterygoquadrate arch joins the side of the trabecula in the position from which the antorbital nor- mally develops in other Urodela; and in this respect Cryptobranchus more closely approaches the Anura, in which the junction of the pterygoquadrate to the cranium is the characteristic condition. The rami of the fifth nerve pass into the nasal cap- sules of the Urodela through an orbito-nasal foramen, dorsal to the antorbital process; while in the Anura, these same nerves pass through a foramen just above the pterygoid process, where it joins the cranium. That part of the posterior wall of the nasal capsule in the Urodela, ventral to these nerves is clearly antorbital; while in the Anura, this ventral vorGoa ’ is as cle pterygoid. . The basal part of the antorbital process in Crypto- es branchus, and possibly in all Urodeles is derived from the pterygoquadrate arch, and is homologous with the anter- ior part of this arch in the Anura. BIBLIOGRAPHY Gaupp, E. 1893. Beitrage zur Morphologie des Schadels. Primordial-cran- ium und Kieferbogen von Rana fusca. Morph. Arbeiten, 2:275-480, 4pl. Parker, W. K. 1876. On the structure and development of the skull in the Uro- — Mi delous Amphibia. Trans. Zool. Soc., London, 11:171-214. 1881. On the structure and development of the skull in the Ba- trachia. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 172:266, 44pl. Terry, R. J. 1906. The nasal skeleton of Amblystoma punctatum. Trans. Acad. Science, St. Louis, 16:95-124, 4pl. Wiedersheim, R. 1877. Das Kopfskelet der Urodelen. Morph. Jahrb., 3:352-448; 459-548. Winslow, Guy M. 1898. The chondrocranium in the Ichthyopsida. Tufts Coll. Stud- ies, 1:147-201, 4pl. CNIDOSPORIDIA IN THE VICINITY OF URBANA? R. Kuno, Unrversitry or [uurnots The writer has been studying, for some time, Cnidos- poridian parasites of fishes and insects from the vicin- — ity of Urbana, Ill. The object of this study is to deter- mine: 1) what forms do occur in this locality; 2) to what extent is the infection carried on; and 3) what is the effect of infection upon the host body. The study is still under way; the brief summary of the results obtained up to the present will be stated in the following pages. 1 Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illi- nois, No. 164. pif of ia have been sabfedton to careful examination. | may be understood that the fish were collected from : Sa at Urbana, unless otherwise stated. : ‘ z 3 ¥ ; 3 3 3 = F 3 3 SE 23 = 4 te 3 = 33 s2 a = A) = > cs Fee or es a =i MS = Ag Se 23 2 z . & 5 Es Es E—5 % % "43 : 2 4 : a tied 6 = Me _ Ambloplitis rupestris....Stony Creek November 2 0 fA »ieet tuo _ Ameiurus melas......... ..-- Oct.andNoy, 5 0 eee oeve 4 _ A, natalis..............Stony Creek November 7 0 era stein, ee _ Carpiodes difformis...... .... May 1 1 Branchia Myzobolus dis- ; ; : : crepans Kudo Pa : Gall-, ; a C. thompsoni...........Stony Creek November 1 is bladder Myzobolus sp. (2?) ye Oe Few spores — et 3 Gall- ‘ _ Catostomus commersonii. eels October 5 4 bladder Chloromyzxum ca- 3 tostomi Kudo | Tae Myzidium sp. — iy nigricans............Stony Creek November 1 0 ae artare f - Bupomotis gibbosus.....Crystal Lake June 1 i bladder Chloromyzum tri- jugum Kudo — 1 Ovary Wardia ovinocua Kudo Urinary ‘ Lepomis cyanellus.......Stony Creek November 3 1 bladder Henneguya Mrce- tospora Kudo ~ 2 Mesen- fo) Cae : Crystal Lake June, July 36 7 tery, etc. Myzobolus mesen= — tericus Kudo 36 Kidney Mitraspora_ elon-— gata Kudo t bP Re Ly humilis.............Stony Creek November_ 2 1 bladder Henneguya mic- Ak tospora Kudo ~~ 1 Ovary Wardia ovinocua ; ; Kudo of) 4 . L. megalotis........... Stony Creek, Gall- Homer November 6 6 bladder Chloromyzum tri- — jugum Kudo Gall- Dis DOUedus oi Fac ss ad sce Crystal Lake June, July 8 3 bladder Chloromyzum_ tri-— te ; jugum Kudo — Gall- af Tat STM oa eae 6 ae as October 26 5 bladder Myzidium sp. aa few spores ie Myzobolus sp. (2?) _ Phe Few spores ; Micropterus dolomieu....Stony Creek November EN 0 Wr es) aha +. Urinary M. salmoides...........Stony Creek November 1 1 bladder Henneguya . mice ; tospora Kudo — ?Descriptions of the Myxosporidia mentioned here-. are published 2 is in the writer’s work on Myxosporidia (Illinois Biological Monograph > ; a: Vol. V) which is now in press. r os 3’ The fish were less than three centimeters in length, and could ner EN ‘be identified. PP ae ) Bak 300 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE — ~ . : ae yD 3 y Ra 1 Wn 8 Car ad eae} S| oD oO 3 3 SS SE 3 5 o Db ea a & 6 2 B eee a 5a o a a 3 Ss ae as g 2 aod 3 5 5 os S D 3) ES g a) Es a K ° ° OK ‘ot Ss Be i ss 4 a PA pe ees is) = Gall- Notropis blennius....... Homer November 2 bladder Sphaerospora sp. (2?) A few spores Muscle. Myzxobolus orbie- i , ulatus Kudo 1 ODL OR A ETE ae Stony Creek November 1 1 Muscle Mysxobolus orbic- ulatus Kudo : ; Gall- Pomowis annularis...... Crystal Lake July u 1 bladder Chloromyxum tri- ‘ ee jugum Kudo Trionyx spinifera....... Crystal Lake July 1 al Kidney Mysxidium ameri- canum Kudo As will be seen from the above, the myxosporidian in- fection among the common fish in this locality is heavy. Only five out of eighteen species of fish were proved to be free from infection at the time of examination. Yet too much emphasis can not be laid upon the absolute ab- sence of Myxosporidia in these fish, as the number of in- dividuals in each of these five species was not great and. besides observations were not made during the summer months. The writer could not collect, and study the fish through- out the year. In the fish obtained during colder months, there was strong evidence which suggested that only plasmotomous multiplication of the parasites took place. On the other hand, in the specimens collected in June and July, remarkably rapid growth of parasites due to plasmotomous as well as sporogonic development were clearly noticed. This was well demonstrated in the case of Mitraspora elongata Kudo, parasitic in the kidney of Lepomis cyanellus caught in Crystal Lake. Early in June vegetative forms and spores were seen to be present in the lumen of the urinary tubules of the kidney of host, while in the latter part of June and in July the vegetative forms became considerably larger and larger, and ap- peared as more or less conspicuous cysts in the tissue of the kidney, forming frequently numerous small whitish pustules on the surface of the organ. These observa- tions simply verify similar observations made by sev- eral investigators especially on such a form as Myxobolus pfeiffert Thélohan. ., roe vials . a7 PART Terao Wes Ae £ Pitse4: 7 ws Ley " aor ol : oF Ny He Nf af Besta: = Pa £ : + f he Jay 74 Py Wf, _ PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 301 ; ‘a ; As to the effect of the parasites upon the host-body, ie the writer has but little to state. Im the case of infection of the gall-bladder or urinary bladder, the host fish did not show any recognizable effect which may be attributed to the myxosporidian infection. This has been true in almost all cases of the so-called ‘‘free’’? forms. In the tissue-infecting species, however, some effect was noticed. The heavy infection of Myzxobolus discrepans Kudo on the branchial lamellae, apparently reduced the activity of the host, Carpiodes difformis, so that the host fish was caught with a small net without much trouble, and also seemed to have quickened the death of the host which occurred shortly after its capture. Tt is noticable that even very young fish, Lepomis sp. which were less than three centimeters in length har- bored a few spores in their gall-bladder which fact must be considered seriously when they are used as experiment animals. It is also noticable that so far the writer has not encountered any species which would produce cysts in the subcutaneous tissues of the body or fins of the host. II. MICROSPORIDIA* Little is known about North American Microsporidia. In connection with Myxosporidia, the writer has also been studying Microsporidia. The study has just begun, yet the writer feels justified in stating that this group of Cnidosporidia plays some role in certain aquatic arthro- pods. The larvae of Culex pipiens and Anopheles punctipen- nis and the nymphs of Baetis sp. (?), which were col- lected in October from the drainage at Urbana, have been found to be infected by three different Microsporidia respectively. Out of 38 larvae of Culex pipiens examined, six were found to be infected by Thelohania magna Kudo. The adipose tissue and body cavity were the seat of infec- tion, other organs being so far free from the infection. 4Full account of these Microsporidia will be published in the Journal of Morphology. Gd iia au 302 | ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Twenty-two larvae were kept in the laboratory, and m oh morphosed into pupae and adults. Thirteen pupae and — nine adults were examined. In one adult were seena few spores in fresh smears. Careful examination of numrous sections of larvae failed to reveal the slight infection whatsoever. This may be interpreted as indi- cating that the larvae became infected either when they _ were very young or when they swallowed a large amount of infected tissue of the larva dead from the infection and underwent decaying at the bottom of the pool where they were found, so that the heavy infection resulted in a comparatively short time. _ The infected larvae were more whitish opaque in color than normal, with more or less distended thorax. Yet they were as active as normal ones. However, they died more rapidly than majority in the laboratory. Although there has been one case of ambiguous slight infection in an adult, the parasites seem to exercise a fatal effect upon the host, and the larvae once infected, perish with- out completing their life cycle. This is the second Microsporidian found parasitic in the dipterous insects under discussion, although there have been some doubtful cases which did not furnish the necessary proof to show their belonging to Microsporidia. i The first microsporidian parasite of mosquitoes was de- : scribed by Hesse in 1904 from France, who noticed a few 5 larvae of Anopheles maculipennis infected by Thelo- i! hania legeri Hesse. The seat of infection was adipose ) tissue as in the American form. Hesse however states q that the infection was rare and the infected larvae did a not seem to suffer at all from the parasites. ' In two out of twelve larvae of Anopheles punctipennis examined, another Microsporidian was noted to occur in the adipose tissue. The small number of specimens and the smear preparation do not allow the writer to report the details as the observation is still incomplete. The effect of the parasite upon the host also remains to be de- termined in future. In nine out of thirty nymphs of Baetis sp. (7%). ex- amined, third Microsporidian was found to occur exclu- ae | ~ tet my obs ~ 1% bal a: PSone eRe ORIIEL SNR ECA sively in adipose tissue. The infected nymphs could easily be distinguished from the healthy ones by their opaque appearance. They however did not seem to suf- fer from the infection. Further details still are needed to complete the observations. . The Microsporidian nature of the latter two forms can not be doubted, because the writer could determine every characteristic of Microsporidian spores in both of them; i. e., the characteristic appearance of spores and the pres- ence of a polar filament in the spore which can be made to extrude under suitable treatment. SUMMARY Myxosporidia are common parasites among fish in the _ vicinity of Urbana, Hil. The infection is heavy in many eases. The effect of the parasites on the host body is in some cases fatal. Microsporidia seem to be also common among some aquatic insects in the same locality. The larvae of Culex pipiens appear to receive mortal influence by its para- sites, Thelohania magna Kudo. SOME LIMITING FACTORS IN THE USE OF FUN- GUS DISEASES FOR COMBATING INSECT PESTS* R. D. Guascow anp C. S. Spooner, Narurat History Survey, URBana Insects are attacked in nature by many fungus diseases. Sporadic cases of such diseases are common, and may be found by a diligent collector at almost any time. Oc- easionally, however, some of these diseases appear in epidemic form so as almost to exterminate locally, insect species which previously had been abundant. That house flies are commonly decimated in autumn by a fungus disease of that insect, Empusa muscae, is well known. Even the most superficial observer can * From the Entomological Laboratories of the Illinois State Natural History Survey, S. A. Forbes, Director. PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 303 Ph ow MEN ieee oe UT a NILE meet egg ee Pek eR ASP) oP ee te Sate SoS Yas tee a ital? SRS TYere4e wr ty " rere ae ex v1 55) ye “at ¢ 304 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE scarcely have failed to notice dead bodies of house flies | in Autumn sticking to window panes and to other sur- faces, with the abdomen whitened by the spores and spore producing bodies of this fungus, and often with a broad circle of the discharged spores adhering to the sur- rounding surface so as to form a sort of halo about the dead insect. Other species of Empusa attack grasshop- — pers and plant lice, as well as many other kinds of in- sects, and epidemics of another fungus disease, Sporo- trichum globuliferum, have often contributed materially to the suppression of the chinch bug during outbreaks of that notorious pest. It would be exceedingly difficult to grow citrus fruits profitably if the scale insects which attack these fruits were not largely destroyed and thus held in check by fungus diseases. Indeed, one of the authors has himself observed a mortality of 95 per cent in the scale insect, Aspidiotus ancylus, on pecans in . Georgia, due entirely to fungus disease. The fact that fungus diseases at times cause the de- struction of great numbers of insects has aroused much popular as well as scientific interest; and since many of these fungi may easily be cultivated in the laboratory on non-living culture media, the question whether arti- ficially produced epidemics of such diseases might not afford a ready means for controlling outbreaks of in- jurious insects has received much serious attention. The idea of employing their fungus diseases to control the ravages of noxious pests is not a new one. DeBary, the Tulasne brothers and others, as early as the middle of the last century, called attention to the important natural check on destructive insects afforded by the ‘‘white muscardine’’, Isaria densa Link., and similar organisms, and since that time many workers have at- tempted to produce epidemics of such diseases by arti- ficial means for the purpose of combating insect pests. Among the host of investigators who have worked on this general problem, Krassilschik (1884) employed the so-called ‘‘green muscardine’’, Metarhiziwm anisopliae Metch., to combat the beet weevil, Cleonus punctiventris Germ.; Rorer (1910) employed the same fungus in Trini- yroe Me ay! ar Ale ct Ghee ke ay EL) Seagiee SO Ae ONS aha ORR e AL oS eo, ty a tai Oy PEADE SS tie AEP ee eA ee ay. A ae +o =e ue 4 pet leet - PAPERS ON ZOOLOG' . 305 dad to combat the sugar-cane frog-hopper; Forbes (1888), Snow (1889), and others have attempted to use Sporotrichum globuliferum Speg. to control the chinch bug; Rolfs (1907) and Faweett (1908) have used Sphaerostilbe coccophila Tul. and Ophionectra coccicola EK. and E. against the San Jose scale and the purple scale on the orange; and the last two investigators have also employed various other fungus diseases to combat the white fly in the citrus groves of Florida. Very diverse opinions have been expressed by investi- gators who have worked upon this problem, concerning the success of their experiments and the promise of this method of insect control for practical work. Krassil- schik claimed to have produced an epidemic of ‘‘green muscardine’’ among the weevils in the beet fields at Smelk, which destroyed from 50 to 80 per cent of these pests. Rorer reports the destruction of as many as 93 per cent of the sugar-cane frog-hopper in his field ex- periments in Trinidad, and most promising results have also been reported from work with the fungus diseases of scale insects and of the white fly in Florida. On the other hand, however, some workers have reported the complete failure of their experiments, and have ex- pressed grave doubts concerning the practical utility of the method. Between these extremes, all degrees of suc- cess and failure have been reported, and all degrees of optimism and pessimism expressed by investigators who have studied the problem. On the whole, perhaps, a summation of these various reports and opinions tends rather to discredit than to recommend the method. In spite of the disrepute into which the insecticidal use of fungus diseases has fallen in many quarters, the startling destructiveness of occasional natural epidemics. of these diseases remains, and their importance as a constantly present natural check upon insect oscillations eannot be denied. These facts, therefore, together with the frank differences of opinion expressed by students of the subject, have seemed to justify reopening the question, and have led to the organization of a series of. ~ studies of which the present paper is a partial report. M's {Why Ave » Mahl tite! = SsRten bya) file wet NG es va LY Ae a 306 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE The effectiveness of entomogenous ae in hots oe oH ural and artificially induced epidemics, appears to de- — pend very largely upon climatic conditions. Indeed, those students of the subject who are most pessimistic concerning the practical utility of fungus diseases in in- secticidal operations, recognize their great effectiveness under favorable weather conditions, but hold that suffi- ciently favorable conditions to insure success are en- countered too rarely to justify the enthusiasm for the method which some of its advocates have expressed. The procedure followed by former students of the sub- ject has usually been to propagate some species of fun- gus diseased on artificial media, and to distribute the spores produced or the resulting culture of the organism, in fields or in other situations where the insect pest against which the operation was directed happened to be abundant. In such a case the results of the test and the conclusions of the operator are determined by the weather conditions which chance to prevail at the time. Laboratory studies generally have been little more than — field tests in miniature, and usually with as little atten- tion given to the precise relation between the results ob- tained and the conditions governing the test. In organizing the present series of studies it was pro- posed to analyze the problem thoroughly and to study its various elements one by one: to proceed under carefully controlled conditions, and by changing certain of these conditions one at a time, to find how various degrees of temperatures, various percentages of humidity, and va- rious other fators may influence the germination of the spores and the power of the fungus to penetrate the body of its insect host; to find how cultivation of the fungus on artificial media may influence its virulence or power to attack its proper insect host; to find how temperature, humidity and other factors may influence the power of the insect to resist infection when exposed to contamination with a fungus disease: and finally, in the light of the data thus accumualted, to canvass the meteorological records and to determine if practicable in what habitats of what localities during what months or seasons, fungus diseases Pa 8d Be CE Ne On on Pe PY Pits Yoyo Paes Loa Coes .~ - —- wee Mist Oe Bae Pk d ~ . . i aes F~ os ees BAS. Les 4 OLEAN we 7 y . m PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 307 may or may not be employed to combat outbreaks of - noxious insects with a reasonable assurance that the op- eration will be successful. The present report relates to some of the effects of different degrees of temperature and different percentages of humidity upon the behavior of an entomogenous fungus toward one of its insect hosts. The ‘‘green muscardine’’ of Metchnikoff, Metarhizium anisopliae, was chosen as the pathogenic agent in this series of studies because of its cosmopolitan distribution, because of its power to attack and destroy insects of many widely separated taxonomic groups, and because it has been employed in field operations with reputed success by several former investigators of the subject. For the insect host, pupae of the giant American silk worm, Samia cecropia, were chosen, because they are common and may easily be obtained in ample numbers, because they are large and easily handled and observed, because they are quiescent and more easily managed in the exposure cages than the active stages of any insect could possibly be, and finally, because they are avail- able throughout the year if collected in the fall and kept in cold storage. Constant temperatures of the various degrees indicated were maintained in a battery of six incubators, and in each incubator was provided a series of large dessicators, the atmosphere within each of which was maintained at a constant relative humidity by means of sulphuric acid in appropriate dilutions. This method for maintaining _ any desired degree of relative humidity is fully described and tables of dilutions are given by N. E. Stevens, Phy- topathology, vol. 6, 1916, pp. 428-432. Thus, a predeter- mined series of humidity exposures could be made at the temperature maintained in each incubator, affording a - temperature-humidity curve for each complete set of tests. Spores both from pure cultures grown on potato and from infected cecropia pupae were employed in the course of the work, and in each test two lots of pupae were used, which were treated with these spores in two different ways. The pupae in one of these two series were simply 308 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE. ‘dusted with the dry spores, while an emulsion of the spores in sterile physiological salt solution was prepared, — and injected by means of a hpodermic syringe into the sub-hypodermal tissues of the pupae in the second series, | each pupa in the inoculated series receiving many times — the minimum fatal number of spores. That this method of inoculating the pupae is not injurious mechanically, is - conclusively demonstrated by the fact that other pupae receiving injections of sterile physiological salt solution, similarly administered but several times greater in vol- ume, survived the experience apparently uninjured and developed into normal adults. The case history of this disease in the cecropia pupa presents several rather sharply defined stages which af- — ford an excellent index to the effect of any combination of temperature and humidity conditions. The stages may be outlined briefly as follows: (1) The spores must germinate and penetrate the body wall of the pupa in sufficient numbers to overcome the natural resistance of the insect. This conquest of the host animal by the dis- ease, and the development of the fungus at the expense of its tissues may be recognized by the characteristic hardening of the body of the insect commonly called — mummification, and the two series of pupae just de- seribed afford an accurate check at this point, on those © conditions which either entirely prevent the germination of the spores in contact with the pupa, or prevent their penetration of the body wall of the insect in numbers sufficient to infect the animal. (2) Having completed its development within the body of its host, the fungus must again penetrate the body wall to reach the exterior where the new crop of spores may be produced in a po- sition most favorable for dissemination. This stage is characterized by the appearance of velvety-white masses of hyphae which appear first through the thinner por- tions of the integument between the abdominal segments, but which eventually may cover the entire surface. (3) The first evidence of spore formation consists of the appearance upon the velvety-white masses of aerial hyphae of small, irregular, light olive-green patches, — * —— Se ee eis Kye er 5 ae be 5 oe er et ee = naip= nS ee a De Fee er “ c= =e =. Se Se NT 8 ee Pw ee gee —— x > Se ee 5 “4 om ack, ray Ohves in color, and which typically form a solid © ce layer from one to two millimeters thick over the entire — a surface of the pupa. Time will not permit a discussion of the details of in- dividual experiments, but a summary of the general re- sults presents the following facts which seem especially worthy of note: A. Even at optimum relative humidi- ties, development of the fungus in these tests did not oc- cur in either series of pupae at temperatures below 14° nor above 38° C. B. At 35° C. aerial hyphae may appear on the surface of a mature mummified specimen, but a _ new crop of spores will not be formed. At this tempera- ture the injected spores may infect and kill the insect host, but the fungus can not propagate itself. C. The - most rapid development of the fungus, or the shortest time observed between exposure to infection and the rip- ening of a new crop of spores (17 days for the injected, and 29 days for the dusted series), occurs at 30° to 31° C. D. Spores are produced in greater abundance at tem- _ peratures between 18° and 26° C., which appears to be the optimum temperature range for this species of en- tomogenous fungus. EH. At optimum temperatures, con- stant relative humidities below 80 per cent appear to be prohibitive. At constant relative humidities between 80 per cent and 90 per cent infection does not occur in the dusted series of pupae, and while the disease in the in- oculated series will progress to the mummification stage, the subsequent external development of the fungus and especially the formation of spores is very scanty. Rela- tive humidities between 95 per cent and 100 per cent con- stitute the optimum range for this species. It is needless to say that combinations of temperatures between 18° and 26° C. with relative humidities be- tween 95 per cent and 100 per cent of any considerable duration are not common, especially during periods when injurious insects are most abundant, unless it be in trop- ical or sub-tropical regions or possibly in subterranean habitats. Further investigations are under way or pro- Puke La, OMAN REA Wie Mad Ray ay BN ni Le) : BAA et Dich RINE Cam aa pa ee Ania a) che PON 310 «=—S—Ss«CTLLINOIS. ACADEMY OF gas aN ditions upon which it is hoped a further report may b made in the near future. FLY OF THE GENUS GERANOMYIA HALI- DAY (TIPULIDAE, DIPTERA). TORY Sieg, dice The genus Geranomyia was erected in 1833 by Haliday 4 (Entomol. Magaz., vol. 1, p. 154) for a species, G. wni- _ color, occurring near the sea-shore in England and Ire- _ land. Since the date of its establishment, approximately eighty species have been added to this genus, the mem- bers being found in all the major regions of the world. The habits of the adult flies have been discussed rather | frequently in the literature but data on the immature stages are quite lacking. When we consider the com- paratively large size of the genus and its wide distribu- tion throughout the world, this fact becomes very strik- ing and Geranomyia may be considered as being the larg- est genus of crane-flies that has thus remained unknown. Mr. Malloch, one of the authors of this paper, was the — first to locate the breeding-haunts of a species of Ger- anomyia and to ascertain the rather peculiar life-history. _ The notes made at the time of this original discovery in 1917 and the subsequent observations made by both ~ authors in 1919 are briefly recorded in the present article. The adult flies of species of Geranomyia are all of medium size. They are distinguished from all other crane-flies by the structure of the elongate rostrum which is approximately one-half the length of the body, PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY aad 5 with the paraglossae very elongate and appearing as slightly recurved lobes, the palpi being situated not far from the base of the rostrum. All other crane-flies with the rostrum conspicuously elongated have the palpi re- duced in size and borne at the extreme apex. Because of this elongate beak, the flies of this genus superficially resemble very large mosquitoes from which they are readily distinguished by the family characters, the long and excessively slender legs, the almost invariable pres- ence of an enclosed (discal) cell on the wings and the complete lack of scales on the body and wings. The adult flies are often very abundant and may be swept in numbers from vegetation in the haunts which they frequent. The authors found one of the four species occurring in northeastern North America, Geranomyia canadensis (Westwood), very commonly at Alto Pass, Union County, Illinois, on June 6, 1919. At this place there is a low limestone embankment formed by a cut of the Mobile and Ohio railroad, about one hundred yards south of the station. The almost vertical surface of this embankment is continually moist with water percolating from the saturated soil above. On the face of this small cliff the immature stages are spent as described here- inafter and the adult flies occur in numbers in the im- mediate vicinity. In the evening they appear in small swarms of usually three or four individuals, dancing about only an inch or two from the face of the cliff. The swarming flight is nearly horizontal and in the form of a figure 8, very rapid, but covering a distance of only three or four inches. In repose, the species occur on the face of the wall where they are usually to be found in the act of ‘‘bobbing’’ up and down. In copulation, the pairs rest on plant stems near these haunts, the female above, the male below and partly dorsad of his mate, the posterior legs of both sexes hanging free. The feeding habits of the flies are now comparatively well-known. Knab and other students found that the present species feeds on the nectar of tubular flowers, preferably Com- positae (Hupatorium, Solidago, Aster, Silphium, Rud- beckia, Cacalia, Verbesima and others), usually in the late RW EG a ON SATIRE Fe ENT) foters CUIaNy RPRC REDO RNY ern gy Live ome UEayhe con) Mee 1g ana md vehes 2) Me eH are J eM - ivy tee if ‘, c : Sf ee 4 ‘ye ) ris yyy ieee ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE nye afternoon and evening. The other species whose writ ods of feeding are known have habits that are very simi- — lar to the above. The eggs are deposited in moist situ- ations such as the one described above. The most striking feature of the life-history is its ex- treme brevity. This duration was determined in the following manner: In 1917, the Floriculture department of the University of Illinois laid out a portion of the grounds on the south campus as a garden and devoted a small part to flowers found in rocky situations. In this part they installed a bubbling fountain among some rocks at one side of the winding, declivitous walk, the water flowing from the fountain being conducted to the sewer some distance away by means of an open gutter along one side of the walk. This gutter had become ob- structed by vegetable growth and while examining an artificial pond near the garden for mosquitoes, the small pools in the gutter were also examined to discover if any mosquito larvae were present. No mosquito larvae were found but among the aquatic insects along the gutter were some interesting forms, including an Anthomyiid, Inspa tentaculata (De Geer), some species of Dolicho- podidae, about three species of Chironomidae, and lar- vae, pupae and imagines of Geranomyia canadensis. The larvae and pupae of the last named species were found on the surfaces of the rocks over which the water from the fountain flowed very swiftly, some on the vertical portions, and were remarkably conspicuous owing to the fact that the surfaces on which they lay were coated with a rusty colored diatomaceous deposit from the water, which is of artesian origin. Several of the larvae were removed to jars and kept alive for over a week but failed to pupate. Adults were found commonly alongside the gutter, resting on the vegetation, feeding on the nectar of flowers or in copu- lation. In 1919, this bubbler in the Rock Gardens was turned on for the season on April 25. On May 24, the rock surface was thickly covered with diatomaceous 00ze but no larvae could be found and, if present, must have been very small. On June 28, just five weeks later, half- Fp go Re 4 an See Oe a ~ be ae a a a Ae at ee St Pa = SS is Farad Saree Se Ne ee Sa Sd ae tig ‘ho eq a Spal Fs >. Mare, Ft ey 2 a, bien ta a aha MEANS ks) Rea ee ea SRE oe an Ru gky ah ~ ; "PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 313 grown and fully-grown larvae and a few cast pupal skins were found. This proves that the entire life- cycle to the adult condition is not more than two months and probably only six or seven weeks. At Alto Pass, in the situations previously described, the larvae of Gerano- myia canadensis were found living in the irregularities and crevices on the wet face of the cliff. They were found lurking in delicate, silken tubes covered with a deposit of silt and diatoms. They emerged from these eases to feed on the exposed surface of the wet rocks during twilight and even during the hours of sunlight but upon being disturbed or alarmed they retreated in- stantly and with great agility into their tubes. The pupa occurs in a short, nearly vertical, burrow in the same situations as the larvae; here they rest with only the long, conspicuous breathing-horns projecting from the entrance to this burrow. When transformed, the empty pupal skin projects from the mouth of the bur- row nearly to the ends of the wing-sheaths. Numerous larvae, three pupae and many cast pupal skins were found. The very scanty number of pupae as compared with the abundance of larvae and pupal skins leads us to believe that the pupal existence is of very short dur- ation, else this stage would be found more often. It is probable that the flies pass the winter in the larval condition, although this has not been proven. In the green-houses of the Department of Floriculture of the University of Illinois, the adult flies were found in large numbers throughout the winter. On February 26, 1920, at least one hundred individuals were seen in one of the buildings where the heat was maintained at ap- proximately 70° in the day and 60° at night. Many of these flies were gravid females, a few were teneral, as though newly emerged, and still others were in copula- tion. However no evidences of the immature stages could be found in spite of a diligent examination of all possible situations wherein these flies might be breeding. The only possibility of their breeding in these buildings would appear to be in damp earth since no situations 6 Se eae + ie EA SAN RAR aia RU aa i ang) ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIEN cn comparable to their out-door breeding situation maintained in the green-houses. Last fall (1919) a number of adults were found in Gh, greenhouse at the University Vivarium building, resting — on the sides of the small overflow troughs or channels. Several times since, efforts have been made to discover if the species passes the winter there and, if so, in what stage. No stage has so far been discovered in this sit- uation, only adults in spider’s webs remaining as eyl- dence of their occurrence there. It may be seen from the above account that the gen- eral features of the immature stages are quite in agree- ment with other members of the tribe Limnobiini, the lar- vae living in silken tubes into which they retreat when danger threatens. A similar habit is found in the genera Limnobia, Dicranomyia, Rhipidia, Discobola, Elluptera, _Antocha and others. The immature stages may be briefly described as fol- lows: Larva—Length, 12—12.5 mm. Diameter, 0.8—0.9 mm. The living larva is grayish subhyaline in color, the ali- mentary canal and the tracheae showing very clearly through the integument; on the posterior lateral por- tion of the prothorax a large orange area is evident; the transverse welts on the segments dark brown. Upon dropping the larvae in alcohol they soon become opaque white. Body moderately long and slender, the thoracic seg- ments gradually decreasing in length from the prothorax to the metathorax; first abdominal segment short, the ab- dominal segments gradually elongated to the fifth, then shortened to the end of the abdomen. The ventral sur- face of the last two thoracic segments and the first eight abdominal segments are each provided with a basal trans- verse welt which is densely set with microscopic short hairs or points. On the mesothorax and metathorax these are broad, the spicules most dense medially to form a broadly triangular region, the lateral portions with ste We te ore of rag ‘ahi Line plat teats a4 oe ey or iy a LR Weenies heer ee a ey SY ary m9) ae pea! Patek . i re ts 0 hee 3 “a > - ‘ . ‘ ‘ be ~~ es ask YA ae f ‘TS a re j eS * . » + oe BOL Nae “toe mm : PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY _ | mete: ok fewer hairs; the area on the first abdominal segment is - much smaller than those on the succeeding segments and not raised into a welt; the area on the eighth abdominal segment is less conspicuous than those of the preceding seven segments which are raised into broad oval welts. The areas on the dorsal surface of the segments are much narrower and not raised into welts; they occur as a narrow, parallel-sided band on the anterior margin of the metathorax and on abdominal segments two to eight, occupying a position nearly opposite the welts on the sternum but with no connection across the pleural region except the areas on the metathorax and the eighth ab- dominal segment where the bands completely encircle - the body although less developed on the pleural regions. The body setae are very small and scattered, a widely separated pair a short distance caudad of the ventral abdominal welts, on the thoracic segments occupying corresponding positions but with two setae to a puncture. The dorsal setae are very small and widely separated, situated nearly midlength between the welts. The spiracular disk is very similar to that found in the © genus Dicranomyia, the spiracles being very large, elon- gate-oval, placed obliquely on the sides of a deep split and so capable of close approximation. The usual ven- tral lobes of the disk are represented by two contiguous, roughly circular, dusky areas, (fig. 7) each with three or four tiny setae near the middle of its caudal margin. Anal gills (fig. 6) four in number, distinct, each gill rather short, simple, tapering gradually to the blunt tip. The head-capsule is of the simple, generalized struc- ture of this tribe, with flattened, mussel-like constituent plates. Labrum (fig. 1) transverse oval, the margin pro- vided with short yellow hairs, a larger tuft on either side. On the disk are two oval subhyaline areas, each of which are provided with three sensory papillae; at either end of the labral sclerite a roughly conical chitinized sup- porting structure. Mentum (fig. 5) broad, the anterior — margin gently convex and provided with 11 teeth, the median tooth largest, the others gradually decreasing in size to the outermost which is very small and indistinct; WV NSU shrek ih {Ee Ney per 316 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE the three intermediate teeth have the margins projectin as thin, pale wings. Hypopharynx (fig. 2) formed as in this tribe, a roughly circular chitinized collar provided with a crown of strong teeth that are curved strongly out- ward. Antennae (fig. 4) two-segmented, the last seg- ment rather stout, cylindrical, slightly curved; the api- eal papilla is small but high, subhyaline. Mandibles (fig. 3) broad and flattened with a small dorsal tooth, and a row of five teeth along the ventral cutting edge, the outermost exceeding the apical point in size, the teeth thense decreasing in size to the basal one which is di- rected strongly basad. Maxillae of the usual general- ized structure of this tribe, the inner and outer lobes | subequal in size, densely hairy, the cardines large. Pupa.—Length (including breathing-horns), 8-9 mm.; breathing-horns alone, 1.2-1.3 mm. Width, dextro-sinistral, .85-.9 mm. Depth, dorso-ventral, 1-1.05 mm. Pronotal breathing horns grayish subhyaline. Head, thorax and sheaths of the appendages dark brown, be- coming darker with age. Abdomen white or whitish, the chitinized terminal hooks and the transverse rows of spicules on the segments brown. Cephalic crest small, indistinctly bilobed, distinctly set off from the antennal bases by deep grooves. Front long and parallel. Rostral sheath (fig. 12) very long and slender, subtended on either side by the sheaths of the paraglossae (fig. 12, Pa.) ; the latter project considerably beyond the tip of the former, extending to almost oppo- site the wing-tip; the rather acute apex of the rostrum ends just before midlength of the metatarsal sheaths. Margins of the cheeks prominent, flattened, as in this © sub-tribe, overlying the knee-joint of the fore-legs. An- tennal sheaths (fig. 8, Ant) short, ending slightly beyond the base of the wing-pad. Pronotal breathing-horns (fig. 9) very long and promi- nent; viewed from the side (fig. 8) they are broadest be- fore midlength where there is a distinct bulge on the anterior margin nearest the eye, thense tapering to the Lene a Se ae ee ae _— > PA = ~ SO ge ge Do ee a ee Oe oe > = —Sat = to. = mes.) | Syd ie anes ie plunt tips. Vidwed Soreaity fe isdee that the breathing) _ horns are not contiguous basally as in the genus Elliptera ee re but are inclined proximad so that the tips touch one an- other, or nearly so; the dorsal margin is flattened and . provided with about a dozen separated beathing-pores. — _ Mesonotum smooth and not at all precipitous. Wing- _ sheaths rather long, ending opposite the base of the yi @ third abdominal segment. Leg-sheaths ending about op- Ba posite midlength ie aiid Peer the abdouinal segment or Bo slightly beyond, the tarsal sheaths ending nearly on a level or the two inner pairs a little longer than the outer Ret pair. Abdominal segments three to seven near the base are 4 ¥ provided with two bands of chitinized hooks enclosing a — ah transverse area, these interrupted on the venter by the oy oe Ld P -: ies leg-sheaths. There are about four or five distinct rows 2 “ of hooks in each of these bands, those of the anterior acm oy band directed cephalad, those of the posterior band di- © Bo ____ rected caudad, the hooks on the outer margin of these EP x - areas smallest, almost hair-like, the hooks increasing in my = size toward the enclosed area. Male cauda (fig. 10) chit- aa inized, the tergal region produced into a powerful curved cS _ __ hook on either side, this bent strongly dorsad; in this oe sex the sternal valves do not project caudad beyond the A level of this spine; in the female the sheaths of the ovi- x "i : positor (fig. 11) project considerably beyond the spine ___ which is thus situated at about midlength of the tergal a valves. i F. is Nepionotype (type larva), Alto Pass, Union County, Illinois, June 6, 1919 (Alexander and Malloch). a Neanotype (type pupa), with the type larva. Paratypes, numerous larvae and cast pupal skins with © es the types; other material from the Campus of the Uni- ss versity of Illinois, Champaign County, summers of 1917 _ f (Malloch) and 1919 (Alexander). tol ts Ba SE rea? P /’ “7 “ de Sete Fe cw + Gott cee be wit. vem of e ane " . ~ ou jaa i A N- ie <4 + ach ae, ts Be Sige ens PAPERS ON ZOOLOGY 319 EXPLANATION OF PLATE : Ant—antennal sheath; G—gills; Pa—sheaths of the paraglossa; R—sheath of the rostrum; S—sternal valves of ovipositor; Sp—larval spiracles; T—tergal valves of ovipositor; W—wing sheath. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. end. Fig. 7. end. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. notal breath Fig. 10. cauda. Fig. 11. male cauda. Fig. 12. SP St tay Co Shere Larva Larva Larva Larva Larva Larva Larva of Geranomyia of Geranomyia of Geranomyia of Geranomyia of Geranomyia of Geranomyia of Geranomyia canadensis ; canadensis; canadensis ; canadensis ; canadensis ; canadensis ; canadensis ; labrum. hypopharynx. mandible. antenna. mentum. lateral aspect of caudal dorsal aspect of caudal Pupa of Geranomyia canadensis ; lateral aspect of male. Pupa of Geranomyia canadensis ; ing-horn. dorsal aspect of pro- Pupa of Geranomyia canadensis; ventral aspect of male Pupa of Geranomyia canadensis; lateral aspect of fe- Pupa of Geranomyia canadensis; ventral aspect of male. Papers on Geology and Chemistry. - ob See pat ee ee eee +e, YY goa A she J elt >" to 2 ted Se 4 YO eA ee, 22 eee bse > el Tete ae atta he ad tae stats . oy ae +. 4 ~ a ‘ PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 323 THE INTERCISION OF PIKE RIVER, NEAR KENOSHA, WISCONSIN J. R. Batt, NoRTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY J. W. Goldthwait, writing in School Science and Mathematics for February, 1908, uses the term ‘‘inter- cision’’ to describe a peculiar drainage modification ef- fected by the waves of Lake Michigan. The term is one not common in physiographic usage. Goldthwait mentions several other instances of the same process and Cleland tells how the waves of the ocean may cut into the valley of a river in the same manner that Gold- thwait has described.t Goldthwait’s use of the term is referred to in quotation marks by Alden in his recent paper on the Quaternary Geology of Southeastern Wis- consin.” My purpose, however, is not to call attention to the use of a term, but rather to describe the process referred to. Intercision, as the term is used by Gold- thwait, is an instance where a lake shortens the course of a stream by intercepting the stream somewhere be- tween its source and its mouth. The conditions for such interception are rather exceptional and the event is a rare one in drainage changes. Pike River finds the lower portion of its course incised in the plain of Glacial Lake Chicago. It crosses this plain in such manner that for nearly three and one-half miles it flows practically parallel to the shoreline of Lake Michigan. The direction of flow is towards the south. T. C. Chamberlin mentions the course of the stream as indicative of a southerly alongshore drift, that, in a higher stage of the Lake than at present, diverted the stream towards the south.® The remnant of the lacustrine plain in this region is suffering rapid removal by the wave erosion of Lake Michigan. It is this fact, plus the parallel position of the stream in relation to shoreline thaf furnishes the set- ting for intercision. In respect to the retreat of the 1Cleland, H. F., Geology, 1916, p. 214. 2Alden, W. C., United States Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 106, 1918, p. 340. Chamberlin, T. C., Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. II, 1877, p. 130. 324 ILLINOIS ACADEMY or SCIENCE cliffs, Dr. Andrews, 1n 1870, found that the average » 3 treat of the lake cliffs foe Evanston, Ill., and Mani- — i towoe, Wis., a distance of 180 miles, was 5. 28 feet per 2am year. The neneareriente on which his estimate was based ranged through a period of from 10 to 35 years.* In 1870, or thereabouts, he found the retreat of the cliffs at Kenosha to be as much as twelve feet in a year. In 1874, measurements furnished Dr. Chamberlin showed that at one place in Racine, Wis., the cliffs for 24 years had been receding at a rate of 9.73 feet per year. Measurements recently completed near Kenoska in- dicate that the cliffs have retreated as much as 34 feet locally within a period of one year and seven months. — The average retreat during this period, as indicated by eight measurements was 27.7 feet. The maximum retreat _ was found to be 34.2 feet; the minimum, 22.6 feet. The eight measurements mentioned above were taken within a distance of 2.5 miles. Taking the average retreat as a fair indication of the loss of land, the figures given repre- sent the loss of a little more than eight acres within two years. The height of the cliffs ranges from 20 to 40 feet. The material of the cliffs is partly till, and partly stratified sands and clays deposited by Lake Chicago. The annual retreat of the cliffs as indicated at present approximates 17 feet as compared with the 12 foot re- treat noted by Andrews. That this rapid retreat of the cliffs is responsible for a marked diversion of the stream is shown in the fol- lowing fashion. As the stream gradually approaches the lake, the continuity of its eastern valley wall is broken in two places. The breaks or breaches occur at places where the valley swings in meandering curves to- wards the lake. Through these wide breaches it is pos- sible to obtain an open view of the lake from within the valley of the river. At the breaches the beach of Lake Michigan is built directly upon the flood plain of the river. Opposite the northernmost breach the river flows but fifty feet distant from the lake. Merely the 4 Andrews, Dr. Edmund, The North American Lakes Considered As Chronometers of Post Glacial Time, Chicago Acad. of Sci., Vol. II, 1870, p. 7. ~ mee 7s TAT RNS ae YS A OY he : PERL NS Ne ea ee IN «ia eat), . ’ \ ee ae Ve ens, Sek Sa a Sk, ee = —_ EI SR te EO ee ia Se aes PRS wo a a PRE SUG RE of ge ais es Sa es ee ee ~ Ros 2 reese S re ‘ ee Pe : PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 325 e Es. sands eopneet the waters of the river from the _ waters of the lake. It is easy to anticipate that at some time of flood or storm a channel will be opened across the | Ee _ beach for the river to follow.. When this is done and the water of the stream diverted, the river will have suffered | a second intercision. This description of the present situation leads on to- an interpretation of what has taken place in the past. About a mile south of the present mouth of the stream and along the shore, is a curving channel that has both ends open towards the lake. This abandoned channel is interpreted as a remnant of the former valley of lower Pike River. It has been utilized as part of the Kenosha harbor and locally is called a lagoon. Several features, evident in the field, point to the proper connection of this abandoned channel with the former valley of Pike River (1) Several deposits of peat, similar to the peat now lying underneath the -flood plain of the river, are exposed along the beach between the present mouth of the stream and the lower channel. (2) Near the present mouth of the stream a line of wil- lows similar to the willows within the valley of the river continues south along the lake shore. Back of these willows the land descends in a gentle slope towards the lake instead of terminating in a sharp wave-cut cliff as it does elsewhere in the region. (3) A third, but not very conclusive evidence, lies in the fact that the abandoned channel is within the projected course of the meandering stream. (4) Pile driving operations south of the present mouth of the river encountered soft mud and logs in such a way as to suggest that the lake has entered in upon the flood plain of the lower part of the stream. The evidence seems to be sufficient to suggest that the valley of the stream has been entered by the waters of the lake and the stream actually shortened in its course by more than a mile. When the second intercision takes place, if such an event occurs, the stream will be short- ened again by at least one-half mile. And unless some means are adopted to check the migration of the cliffs Pe ata ie dike os PRG es, St Pam ; : 4 326 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE a third intercision may be anticipated with some degree % k of reason. The rapid retreat of the cliffs is proving of serious a import to property owners along the lake shore. In some cases the slumping of the cliff material is facili- tated by the tile drainage of the uplands. The small, artificial streams directed by the tiles aid materially in - the erosion of the steep cliffs. The retreat of the cliffs and the possibilities of the future intercision of the river give the situation a certain economic as well as physi- ographic interest. NOTE OF A NEW INDICATOR IN WATER ANALYSIS R. E. GREENFIELD AND Epwarp Bartow, State WATER Survey, URBANA The selection of an indicator for use in the titration of the bicarbonate alkalinity of natural waters has al- ways presented some difficulty. Probably the first indi- cator used for this purpose, of which we have any rec- ord, was the coloring matter of red wine, for we are told that the Romans titrated natural waters with sour wine the red coloring matter of the wine acting as a natural indicator. Since that time other and better indicators have been suggested, it is true however that the selection of those suggested has often been made with very little more regard to the needs that the indicator must fill than was the original red wine of the Romans. An examination of some of the more recent textbooks and reference books shows the following recommenda- tions. Thresh (1913), Mason (1912), and Stocks (1912) recommend Methyl Orange. Leffman (1909) and Chem- iker Kalender (1917) recommend Alizarin with Methyl Orange as an alternate. The first two editions of Stand- ard Methods of Water Analysis A. P. H. A. recommend the use of either Lacmoid in hot solution or Erythrosine ~ cold and advise against the use of Methyl Orange due to the difficulty of getting supplies of that indicator of sat- OD OR Fe ee RSA EPR ent FS Oe Tee TEE (ee we eS ery Pee a ee ee ¥ Die es Bed wh ay whos | ‘a ie eae | PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 327 isfactory quality. The third or (1917) edition of Stand- ard Methods of Water Analysis, A. P. H. A. allows the use of Methyl Orange. It will be seen from the above that Methyl Orange is the more popular indicator for this titration. The dis- advantages of the others are so marked that it is hardly necessary to refer to them. The necessity of shaking the Erythrosine with chloroform makes its use tedious and slow. Lacmoid must be used in a boiling solution. This is a decided disadvantage. Methyl Orange can be used in a cold solution, works very satisfactorily in all cases excepting in water with an excess of alum. Methyl Orange indicates a slight residual alkalinity in a water in which all of the bicarbonate alkalinity has been used up by the addition of alum and even where there is a slight excess of alum in the water. Larger excesses of alum give an acid reaction. If such a case is suspected it is absolutely necessary to use some other indicator, such as Erythrosine or Lacmoid, which reacts acid to a dilute solution of alum. While the end point change of Methyl Orange is very sharp and satisfactory to most chemists, quite often one finds chemists to whom the color change is very indefi- nite and difficult to distinguish. This is probably due to a slight color blindness but is nevertheless a real disad- vantage of this indicator. In 1916 Clark and Lubs’* described a new series of in- dicators which they studied with reference to their use in the colorimetric determination of the hydrogen ion concentration. Acree and co-workers have studied the chemical structure and mechanism of color change of these indicators. The entire series without exception are brilliant colors and show a very marked color change at their neutrality point. One of these indicators tetra- brom phenol-sulphonpthalein changes color at a hydrogen ion concentration almost identical with that of methyl orange. The color change is from blue in alkaline to yellow in acid solution. This color change is much dif- ferent from that of Methyl Orange and we feel that many 1W.M. Clark and H. A. Lubs, J of Bact. 2, 1-3, 109-136, 191-236 (1917). 328 people will find it much more easily eucted We har : found it to be very satisfactory for use in titration of — the bicarbonate alkalinity of natural waters. Table 1. gives a typical series of results. 50 cc. of water were used and duplicate titrations made with Methyl Orange and the tetra-bromphenol-sulphonthalein. It will be noted that the variation between the results obtained with the two indicators is slight being practically no greater than would be found between duplicate determina- tions using the same indicator. The results tend to be. somewhat higher since there is a constant difference, it could be eliminated by re-standardization of the standard acid using the new indicator. It was found that the titra- tion could be carried out satisfactorily by ordinary elec- tric light although the daylight was to be preferred. TABLE I. CUBIC CENTIMETERS OF N/50 SULFURIC ACID TO NEUTRALIZE 50 ec. OF WATER Observer Observer No. 1 Observer No. 2* No. 3 Sample M0... B22. BB. BoM, OF SBE Bb see Number Day Day Night Night Day Night Night Meee reas cecgeats 12.7 12.5 12.5 12.5 Pig icdsieve t bins 15.7 15.6 15.6 15.4 3 deevanie We eget 12.8 sil! 13.1 12.9 AE nance dele 11.4 5 at eh) if ei 11-3 ites soins 13.8 13.9 13.9 137 Gish ie theehecase 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.6 eLewaxetate ses. g 258 12.1 ee rakase Ci, 12.4 12.4 12.2 CEE Ee Thee 8.0 8.0 7.9 THs) OEE eae pares 8.3 8.5 8.4 hap peniecayts pa | Merce dons wo Sei's bi 5.6 Baws bab 5.6 ieee sce stele, 3 [heat i Ga 7.8 deci w26 ics Sera cist uvarevats 1.4 aie ore saree ree oe Oa 11.0 a bs er 11.3 11.0 a Os ea Bae Beals tece ais ilar nly! a sya) 15.9 15.5 Gaerne Sia sroos 5.7 5.8 6.0 5.8 b.9 Lier, ete ere 4.1 4.2 4.5 4.2 4.2 2 Sete Scie ole 21.3 21.5 21.8 21.5 21.4 B. P. B.=Tetra-brom-phenol-sulfonphthalein. M.O. =Methyl Orange * No Methyl Orange results obtained by observer number two on account of color blindness. Ses ob Ay a Nit te ae ae. DR ea A eee RAS a . : shee as i Sy Oe | PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 329 ‘Titration Math electric light using this indicator was - however much easier than when Methyl Orange was used. One or two experiments with the so-called dayloene electric light indicated that the titration was a little more easily made with this light than when using ordinary electric light. Excess alum interfers in the same way as with Methyl Orange... Experiments have not been made in substituting this indicator for Methyl Orange in other titrations. We cannot say therefore whether it can be recommended as a general substitute for Methyl Orange but can recommend it as a substitute for Methyl Orange in the titration of bicarbonates with acid. THE ABSORPTION OF THE OXIDES OF NITRO- GEN FORMED IN THE SILENT DISCHARGE By F. O. Anperece anp K. B. McEHacuron, PurpDUE UNIVERSITY If the silent discharge process for the fixation of nitro- gen is to be made sufficiently effective to compete com- mercially with other methods very efficient absorption of any oxides of nitrogen is quite necessary. In the are fixation of nitrogen the question of complete absorption has received much attention because of the low concen- tration of nitric oxide produced. In the silent discharge process the most of the nitrogen which has been once - brought into combination with the oxygen is probably oxidized completely so that it is readily absorbed in water. On the other hand the concentrations are apt to be rather low. Experiments with the silent discharge process are being carried out at the Engineering Experi- ment Station of Purdue University and considerable - study has been given and more will be needed before the problem is solved. Since a report on this work is to be read at the Boston meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in April by C. F. Harding and K. B. McEachron, only such points as are pertinent to our — subject will be discussed here. ee OE RO A eee eae See ee a ye 4 ve Neva Net en Knee 330 ILLINOIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE Hautefeuille and Chappius’ followed the course of the a reaction when the silent discharge was passed through | mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen by means of absorp- tion spectra. A series of new bands was observed which was not characteristic of any of the bands of the oxides of nitrogen then known. On passing this new compound into water the water became acid and apparently only ozone was left in the gas. This peculiar compound seems to decompose on continued discharge, or slowly on stand- ing, to lower oxides of nitrogen. This decomposition may be readily followed by changes in the absorption spectra. The formula, N.O, was assigned to the compound as a result of analyses which were, however, widely divergent. Warburg and Leithduser? have also studied this com- pound and have concluded that it is formed by the ad- dition of ozone to nitrogen pentoxide. Spiel’has made a very interesting study of the effect of the silent discharge on enclosed oxygen-nitrogen mix- tures. At first there was a marked diminution in pres- sure which reached a limiting value. Then all of a sud- den the pressure increased again nearly to the original value. Analysis of the gas at the point of minimum pressure showed the presence of 5-6% by volume of fixed nitrogen calculated as NO. After the reversal the pres- sure remained constant as well as the composition of the gas so long as the temperature remained constant. If the temperature, however, was allowed to rise after re- versal then fluctuations in pressure were observed with corresponding changes in the amounts of oxides of nitro- gen present. This tends to indicate the existence of a delicate electrical equilibrium which is easily distributed as a result of small temperature changes. The gas at the final equilibrium contained about 0.6% NO. At the lower pressures probably considerable amounts of the ozone-nitrogen pentoxide addition product were formed. During the reversal this was decomposed partly to mole- cular nitrogen, partly to nitric oxide and partly to nitro- gen peroxide. This abrupt reversal appears rather 1Compt. rend. 92, 80 (1881); 94, 1111, 1306 (1882). 2Ann. Phys. 23. 204 (1907). 3 Spiel, Dissertation, Vienna, 1909. 3 \ \ : \ ef = aoe ee Te OF a ENE a Sa ee eT ee a wo Fe ee er st ae a = eta" oo es Pt ee pe ny a oe a ee a PAPERS ON GEOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY _ 331 startling and so parts of this work have been repeated by one of us confirming Spiel’s results as closely as could be expected considering the use of a different in- duction coil as source of power. Very briefly the method used in the Purdue work has been to pass dry, carbon dioxide free, metered air down through that part of the discharge outside of the dielec- tric and up inside around the inner electrode where the most of the discharge occurs. The gas then passes into an apparatus containing broken glass tubing and stand- © ard alkali on the top of which are placed various traps to diminish the amount of entrapped liquid as much as possible. A large number of runs has been made at dif- ferent velocities and different pressures. The results show a maximum in each ease at a velocity of about 6 liters per minute. Beyond that the curve yield drops more or less rapidly. In the discharge there are at least two reactions going on simultaneously, an oxidation of some of the nitrogen and the reverse decomposition. The rate of the second reaction depends upon the concentra- tion of the oxidized nitrogen. By increasing the flow of the gas this concentration is diminished and the amount of the reverse reaction approaches zero. According to this the greater the flow rate the greater the total fixation should be. Of course practically this reaches the limit. Here the limit is reached when the velocity of the gas becomes so great that the absorption is incomplete. How- ever there are some other points that have arisen in con- nection with this maximum. From other reasons there is a suggestion that there might be a true optimum point at this maximum. An interesting side phenomenon which tends to accompany the absorption is the formation of fog above the absorption hquid. This fog forms about the molecules of nitrogen pentoxide or about the addi- tion compound noted by Hautefeuille and Chappius. The fog reaches the greatest density at this velocity and until a small Cottrell electrostatic precipitator was included it escaped with resulting lowering of the observed yield. The appearance of this fog varies with the velocity and probably with the relative temperatures of the gas, liquid are noticed periodic vibrations in the pressures of the gas in the-tube with corresponding fluctuations in the © electrical recording instruments. This suggests a re- versal similar to that noted by Spiel and suggests that at this velocity there is a tendency for the gases to reach a maximum concentration and then just before they can get out of the discharge perhaps a reversal starts to set in. This vibration effect was most noticeable at the higher pressures. More recently one of us has devised a more efficient means of absorption. The gas from the tube causes water to be atomized or broken up into a very fine spray so that the gas and the water are carried along together for some distance. By this simple method the yield especially at the higher velocity is somewhat in- creased. Careful measurements have been made on the power input into the tube. Also the change in temperature of the gas, the porcelain dielectric and the electrodes have been noted using alcohol thermometers. Using standard specific heats 25-50 per cent of the energy put into the tube is not accounted for. This suggests that there might be a great deal more chemical action going on in the tube than is shown in the analyses. The amount of energy required to form the nitrogen peroxide and ozone observed by analysis will make up for only a small part of this discrepancy. There are at least two possibilities. Very likely some of the nitrogen is oxidized to only ni- tric oxide which is comparatively slowly oxidized and the gas passing through so rapidly would not be observed. For this reason it is proposed to use a mixing chamber so that it may be more completly oxidized. It is also proposed to try the effect of various catalytic agents. An allotropic modification of nitrogen might be pro- duced which assumes a relatively stable form and es- capes into the air. An active modification of nitrogen was first observed by EH. P Lewis.* This modification has been much studied by R. J. Strutt. This gas is best "— 4Astrophys, J. 12, 8 (1900); 20, 49 (1904). 5 Proc. Roy. Soc. London A. 1911 to date. (1904) Lafayette, Ind. ens, us” that he has as cinerea an eae meat The term ] | “Strutt active nitrogen remains to be seen. ne _ Work is being continued on this process but it oe D i eealy to prophesy whether it will ever be a commercia _ absorption of the gases as complete as possible so the what is learned here may be applied to other propia involving the oe of gases. “Seta ea A > e* _ ee tea oe ee 4 CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS’ Illinois State Academy of Science CONSTITUTION ARTICLE 1. NAME This Society shall be known as THe ILtinois STaTe ACADEMY OF ScIENCE. ARTICLE II. OssectTs The objects of the Academy shall be the promotion of scientific research, the diffusion of scientific knowledge and scientific spirit, and the unification of the scientific interests of the State. ARTICLE III. MEMBERS The membership of the Academy shall consist of two classes as follows: National Members and Local Members. National Members shall be those who are also members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Each national member, except life members of the Academy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assessment of five dollars. Local Members shall be those who are members of the local Academy only. Each local member, except life members of the Acad- emy, shall pay an admission fee of one dollar and an annual assess- ment of one dollar. Both national members and local members may be either Life Members, Active Members, or Non-resident Members. Life Members shall be national or local members who have paid fees to the Academy to the amount of twenty dollars. Life members, if national members, shall pay an annual assessment of four dollars. Active Members shall be national or local members who reside in the State of Illinois, and who have not paid as much as $20.00 in fees to the Academy. Non-resident Members shali be active members or life members who have removed from the State of Illinois. Their duties and privi- leges shall be the same as active members except that they may not hold office. Charter Members are those who attended the organization meet- ing in 1908, signed the constitution, and paid dues for that year. For election to any class of membership, the candidate’s name must be proposed by two members, be approved by a majority of the *As Revised February, 1920. committee on imeaAbepsha, Soa: mocniye! the ase t of _ the members voting. q ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS The officers of the Academy shall consist of a President, a Vice President, a Librarian, a Secretary, and a Treasurer. The chief of fice for one year or until their successors qualify. They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their respec- tive offices. It shall be one of the duties of the President to prepare an ad- dress which shall be delivered before the Academy at the annual meet s ing at which his term of office expires. The Librarian shall have charge of all the books, collections, and material property belonging to the Academy. . ARTICLE V. CoUNCIL The Council shall consist of the President, Vice-President, Librar-— : ian, Secretary, Treasurer, and the president of the preceding year. To the Council shall be entrusted the management of the affairs ofa the Academy during the intervals between regular meetings. a ARTICLE VI. STANDING COMMITTEES The Standing Committees of the Academy shall be a Committee on Publication and a Committee on Membership and such other com-- mittees as the Academy shail from time to time deem desirable. The Committee on Publication shall consist of the President, the | Secretary, and a third member chosen annually by the Academy. 2 The Committee on Membership shall consist of five members chosen annually by the Academy. . “a at ARTICLE VII. MEETINGS The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held at such time ze and place as the Council may designate. Special meetings may be brs: : called by the Council and shall be called upon written request of — et twenty members. ec ARTICLE VIII. PUBLICATION The regular publications of the Academy shall include the trans- a3 actions of the Academy and such papers as are deemed suitable ys the Committee on Publication. “0 All members shall receive gratis the current issues of the Acad: am emy. me Perr. Kee may ates into such Solution oF affiliation wit oe s ee organizations of appropriate character as may be recommend ed eee _ by the Council and be ordered by a three-fourths vote of the members = | present at any regular meeting. fa Bi. 3 a ' ARTICLE X. AMENDMENTS a _ This constitution may be amended by a three-fourths vote of the Bio. membership present at an annual meeting, provided that notice of th least twenty days before such meeting. BY-LAWS following shall be the regular order of business: Call to order. Reports of officers. Reports of standing committees. Election of members. “Reports of special committees. Appointment of special committees. Unfinished business. New business. Election of officers. Program. Adjournment. 2. 3. 4 5. 6. i? 8 9. i ad II. No meeting of the Academy shall be held without thirty days’ _ previous notice being sent by the Secretary to all members. III. Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum of the Academy aS A majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum of the Council. -¥. IV. No bill against the Academy shall be paid without an order S signed by the President and Secretary. a V. Members who shall allow their dues to remain unpaid for — * three years, having been annually notified of their arrearage by the ee eee eae wsurer, shall have their names stricken from the roll. ‘ aed bp VI. The Librarian shall have charge of the distribution, sale, ; im ee and exchange of the published transactions of the Academy, under - such restrictions as may be imposed by the Council. ce, ; 3 | VII. The presiding ‘officer shall at each annual meeting appoint a xe : committee of three who shall examine and report in writing upon the Ses > account of the Treasurer. 8 ig anuscript or an n abstract of nee a ha oe ‘delivered to the Secretary. No paper shall be presented : at a Be es in , by any person other than the author, except on vote of ‘the n ee _ bers present at such meeting. TX. The Secretary and Treasurer shall have their expenses | from the Treasury of the Academy while attending council meeti - and annual meetings. Other members of the council may have the expenses paid while attending meetings of the council, other t those in connection with annual meetings. , X. These by-laws may be suspended by a three-fourths vote o: the members present at any regular meeting. a AN List of Mempers ELecTeD AT DANVILLE MEETING “© — 339 List of Members Elected at Danville Meeting Note.— Black faced letters indicate names of those who are also members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Abrams, Duff A., C. E. Lewis Institute, Chicago (Structural Materials). Acker, Frank J., 357 W. Erie St., Chicago (Chemistry). Adelsperger, Roland, B. S., 5751 N. Clark St., Chicago (Safety in Build- ing). Adler, Herman M., M. D., 119 E. Huron st., Chicago (Psychopathology, Criminology). Alexander, C. P., Ph. D., 419 W. Main St., Urbana, (Entomology). Allee, W. C., Ph. D., Lake Forest (Gen. Physiology). Alton High School Science Club, Alton (General). Ames, E. S., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Psychology). Andrus, J. C., B. A. Manchester (Astronomy & Botany). Bacon, Chas. Sumner, Ph. D., M. D., 2156 Sedwick St., Chicago. Baber, Zonia, B. S., 5623 Dorchester Ave., Chicago (Geography & Geology). . Bangs, Edward H., 212 W. Washington St., Chicago (Agriculture & Elec- ; tricity). . Barnes, Cecil, LL. B., M. A., 1522 1st Nat’l. Bk. Building, Chicago (Physi- 7 cal Geography). ‘ Bentley, Madison, Ph. D., University of Ill., Urbana (Psychology). : : Block, D. Julian, 1423 Rosemont Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Boot, G. W., M. D., 800 Davis St., Evanston (Medicine and Geology). Breed, Frederick S., Ph. D., 5476 University Avenue, Chicago (Education). Brown, George A., C. E., 304 E. Walnut St., Bloomington (Education). ; Buckingham, B. R., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Education). x Burmeister, William H., M. D., 1511 Congress St., Chicago (Experimental Medicine). Calumet High School Biology Club, Chicago. Carman, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physics). Clark, Albert Henry, B. S., 701 S. Wood St., Chicago (Chemistry). Colby, Arthur Samuel, Ph. D., 413 University Hall, Urbana, (Pomology and Pathology). Colby, Chas. C., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geography). Cone, Albert Benjamin, 5245 Magnolia Ave., Chicago (Forestry, Micros- copy). Culver, Harold E., Ph. M., State Geological Survey, Urbana (Geology). Danville Science Club, Danville (General). Dart, Carlton R., B. S., 706 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette (Civil Engineering). DeTurk, Ernest E., Ph. D., 707 W. Green St., Urbana (Soil Fertility). Doll, Theodore, M. A., 913 Hamlin St., Evanston (Mathematics). Earle, C. A., M. D., Desplaines (Botany). Edgar, Thomas O., M. D., Dixon (Ophthalmology and Medical Science). Ehrman, E. H., M. E., 410 N. Kenilworth Ave., Oak Park (General). Bifrig, C. W. G., 504 Monroe Ave., Oak Park (Ornithology, Botany, Zool- ogy). Elliott, Jesse E., Hoopeston. Eureka Science Club, Eureka Twp., High School, Eureka. French, G. H., M. A., Carbondale (Botany and Entomology). Gaines, W. L., Ph. D., Urbana (Milk Production). Georgetown Science Club of Georgetown H. S., Georgetown. Gilman, Albert Franklin, Ph. D., Illinois Wesleyan University, Blooming- ton (Chemistry). Griffith, C. R., B. A., 209 University Hall (Psychology). Grodle, Harry S., M. D., 22 E. Washington St., Chicago (Ophthalmology). Hanson, Alyda C., B. S., 246 N. H., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geog- + raphy and Geology). Herrick, C. Judson, Ph. D., Department of Anatomy, University of Chi- eago, Chicago (Neurology). Co! pee 6 i ye oa, MALT Fay Le ee ‘93 x eS eal ee ia ae Be sie ens of See ial Bere! Y Hoffman, Frank F, M. D., 2514 Smiaiiey St., ohilaee (Physician-Surge Hoffman, Leslie R., 213 Baker Ave., Joliet (Entomology). Holmes, Manfred J., B. L., 703 Broadway, Normal (Social and Education). Hoover, Harvey D., Ph. D., S. T. D., Carthage. = = Hopkins, B. Smith, Ph. D., 706 W. California St., Urbana (Tnoneenie i Chemistry). ae Horton, Edward R., North Henderson (Genetics-Eugenics). Jensen, Jens, Ravinia (Geology-Botany). Johnson, TFT. Arthur, M. D., 7th St. and 4th Ave.,‘ Rockford (Medicine, EF f Science and Surgery). : Johnson, C. N., M. A., D. D. S., 22 E. Washington St., Chicago (Prevens ; tion of Diseases). 2% Jones, Elmer E., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Mental ~ Development-Heredity). ; Kauffman, J. S., M. D., 233 York St., Blue Island (Medicine). Koch, Fred Conrad, Ph. D., 5532 Blackstone Ave., Chicago (Physiologi- Bet eal Chemistry). Kuderna, J. G., M. S., Normal (Physical Science and Education). Laves, Kurt, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Astronomy and Mathematics). : ; Leighton, Morris Morgan, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geology). Lerche, Thorieif I. D. D. S., 3012 E. 92nd St., Chicago (Medicine). ; Lewis, Howard B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physiology- Chemistry). Lukens, Herman T., Ph. D., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago (Geography). Magill, Henry R., 426 Forest Ave., Oak Park (Geology, Sociology, Fi- nance). ; Malinovszky, A., 316 Portland Ave., Belleville (Chemistry). Mason, J. Alden, Field Museum, Chicago (Anthropology). Miller, Isaiah Leslie, M. A., (Mathematics and Chemistry). Miller, P. H., Potomac (Biology). Miller, R. B., M. F., 223 Nat. Hist. Survey, Urbana (Forestry and Ecology). Morrison, Elsie, M. S., Mount Carroll (Botany-Ecology). Newcomb, Rexford, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Engineering Applications). Newell, M. J., M. A., 2017 Sherman Ave., Evanston. Normal Science Club, Illinois State Normal University, Normal (Gen- eral). Ondrak, Ambrose L., B. A., Lisle (Physics). Patterson, Cecil F., B. S., 610 West Illinois St., Urbana (Horticulture). Pollock, M. D., M. D., Powers Bldg., Decatur (Medicine and Surgery). Porter, James F., M. A., 1085 Sheridan Road, Hubbard Woods (Zoology). Potomac Twp. H. S. Science Club, Potomac (General). Redfield, Casper L., 526 Monadnock Block, Chicago (Evolution). Rew, Irwin, Ph. B., 217 Dempster St., Evanston. Rice, Arthur, M. E., 537 S. Dearborn, Chicago (Engineering). Ruckmick, Christian A., M. A., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, Urbana (Psychology). Rudnick, Paul, 10640 S. Seeley Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Salter, Allen, Lena, (Medicine). Schaub, Edward L., Ph. D., 2437 Sheridan Road, Evanston (Psychology). Schantz, Orpheus M., No. 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, (Birds, Plants). Seifert, Herbert F., M. A., Natural Hist. Bld., Urbana (Entomology). Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago (Sociol- ogy). Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago (Botany). Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago (Botany). Singer, H. Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago (Psychiatry). Smith, Arthur Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston (Telephony). List oF MreMBERS ELECTED AT DANVILLE MEETING 341 Smith, B. S., Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Building, Urbana (Chemistry and Physics of Soils). Smith, S. S., Menard (Gen. Vocat. and Physical Education). Sonnenschein, Robert, M. D., 4534 Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Spencer, Ada V., B. A., Eastern Illinois State Normal School, Charleston (Zoology). Spooner, C. S., M. A., 704 N. Illinois St., Urbana (Entomology, Ecology). Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physi- ology and Pharmacology). Thurlimann, Leota, 5955 Calumet Ave., Chicago (Botany). Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., 9616 S. Winchester Ave., Chicago (Commercial and Econ. Geography and Climatology). Von Zelinski, Walter F.. M. D., Ph. G., 4709 N. Rockwell St., Chicago (Biology and Physiology). Warbrick, John C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 43d St., Chicago (Birds and All Nature). Ward, Harold B., B. S., Northwestern University, Evanston (Geology and Geography). Weaver, George H., M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago (Medicine and Bacteriology). Welker, William H., Ph. D., 5085 Honore St., Chicago (Biological Chemis- try). Williams, E. G. C., M. D., Danville (Clinical Pathology). Witzemann, Edgar J., Ph. D., Sprague Mem. Institute, Rush Medical Col- lege, Chicago (Chemistry). ‘ Wright, Frank, M. D., 5 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago (Biological Chemistry). Wynne, Ross, B., A. B., 1409 B. 53d St., Chicago (Botany). Zimmerman, Augustine G. 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago (Biologic Science). . ha ~ a hie List of Members Note—The names of charter members are starred; names in black — “ted faced type indicate membership in the American association for the ad- — vancement of science. i LIFE MEMBERS. #Andrews C. W., LL. D., The John Crerar Library, Chicago (Sci. Bibl.). - *Bain, Walter G., M. D., St. John’s Hospital, Springfield (Bacteriology). Barber, F. D., M.S., Illinois State Normal University, Normal (Physics). Barnes, R. M., LL. B., Lacon (Zoology). ai Barnes, William, M. D., Decatur (Lepidoptera). hae *Bartow, Edward, Ph. D., University of Iowa, Iowa City. St. Louis, Mo. (Physics). 2 Kuderna, J. G., M. S., Normal (Physical Science and Education). —— Kudo, Rokusaburo, D. Ag. Se. Uni. of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). ’ Kuh, Sidney, M. D., 31 N. State St., Chicago (Medicine). oa Lambert, Earl L., B. S., Dakota, Ill. (Botany and Zoology). 1 Land, W. J. G., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Botany). : Langford, Geo. B. S., Joliet (Paleontology). 3 Lanphier, Robert C., Ph. B., Sangamon Electric Co., Springfield (Elec- , tricity). ’ Larson, Karl, B. A., Augustana College, Rock Island (Chemistry). a aves, Kurt, Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Astronomy and as Mathematics). E~ ogy). i : Lerche, Thorleif I., D. D. S., 3012 E. 92nd St., Chicago (Medicine). Chemistry). Lightbody, Ernest B. E., Weldon (Biology). ~ 5 Linder, O. A., 208 N. Fifth Ave., Chicago. = Lindsey, Clara, White Hall (Biology). Linkins, R. M., M. A., 206 N. Main St., Normal (Zoology). = Longden, A. C., Ph. D., Knox College, Galesburg (Physics). er Lukens, Herman T., Ph. D., 330 Webster Ave., Chicago (Geography). ‘Holmes, Manfred J., B. L., 703 Broadway, Normal (Social and Education). a House, Edward O., Ph. D., 317 S. 8th St. Monmouth (Chemistry). e ; ae 7 ad oon o Jones, Elmer E., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Mental De- — Leighton, Morris Morgan, Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Geol- Lewis, Howard D., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Physiol. | MacGillivray, A. D., Ph. D>. University of Illinois, Urbana (Enitemples -MacInnes, D. A., Ph. D., Mass., Institute of Techuology, Campers Mass. (Ghantistray, : - MacInnes, F. Jean, B. S., 614 Michigan Ave., Urbana (Plant pawnologs _ Magill, Henry R., 426 Forest Ave., Oak Park (Geology, Sociology, Fi- fives 1). nance), i nie Malinovszky, A., 316 Portland Ave., Belleville (Chemistry). Marks, Sarah, Pecatonica (Biology). Mason, J. Alden, Field Museum, Chicago (Anehropology). : Mathews, Albert P., Ph. D., University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio (Physiology). McAuley, Faith, High School, St. Charles (Botany). McCauley, Geo. V. (Physics). McCoy, Herbert N., Ph. D., 6030 Kenwood Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). McDougall, W. B., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Botany). McMillan, Mary Ann, Carthage (Botany). ? “ Zs MeNallys, John L., 313 E. John St., Champaign.: seek McNutt, Wade, Township High School, Highland Park (Botany). Mecham, John B., Ph. B., 118 S. Center St., Joliet. Merry, Jessie B., B. S., 126 E. Fifth St., St. Charles (Biology). Metzner, Albertine E., M. S., 326 S. Church St., Jacksonville (Geology and Physics). Michelson, A. A., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Physics). Miller, Isaiah Leslie, M. A., (Mathematics and Chemistry). Miller, Marion, A. B., 760 W. North St., Jacksonville (Biology). Miller, P. H., Potomac (Biology). Miller, R. B., M. F., 223 Nat. Hist. Survey, Urbana (Forestry and Ecology). Millikan, R. A., Sc. D., 5605 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago (Physics). Millspaugh, Chas. F., M. D., Field Museum, Chicago (Botany). Mohlman, F. W., Ph. D., 548 Orange St., New Haven, Conn. (Chemistry). Montgomery, Chas. E., OC. A., DeKalb (Botany). Morrison, Elsie, M. S., Mount Carroll (Botany-Ecology). Moulton, F. R., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Astronomy). Mumford, H. W., B. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Animal Hus- bandry). Neiberger, William E., M. D., Bloomington (Eugenics). Neifert, Ira E., M. S., 806 E. Knox St., Galesburg (Chemistry). Neill, Alma I., M. A., 401 S. Wright St., Champaign (Physiology). Nelson, C. Z., 534 Hawkingor Ave., Galesburg (Botany). Newcomb, Rexford, M. A., University of Illinois, Urbana (Engineering Applications). Newell, M. J., M. A., 2017 Sherman Ave., Evanston. Newman, H. H., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). = Nichols, H. W., B. S., Field Museum, Chicago (Geology). Normal Science Club, 111 St. Normal University, Normal (General). North, E. M., B. A., 1481 E. Main St., Galesburg (Geology, Astronomy, Pedagogy). Olin, H. L., Ph. D. (Chemistry). Ondrak, Ambrose L., B. A., Lisle (Physics). Packard, W. H., Ph. D., Bradley Institute, Peoria (Biology). Parker, Bertha M., B. S., 5707 Kimbark Ave., Chicago (General Science and Botany). *Parr, S. W., M. S., University of Illinois, Urbana (Chemistry). Patterson, Alice J., Illinois State Normal University, Normal (Entomol- ogy, Nature Study). Patterson, Cecil F:, B. S., 610 West Illinois St., Urbana (Horticulture). rie ee A ; LIST OF MEMBERS 349 Phipps, Charles Frank, M. S., State Normal School, DeKalb (Physics and Chemistry). Pollock, M. D., M. D., Powers Building, Decatur (Medicine and Surgery). Porter, James F., M. A., 1085 Sheridan Road, Hubbard Woods (Zoology). Potomac Twp. H. S. Science Club, Potomac (General). Ray, Ward L., M. A. (Chemistry). Rathbone, W. V., Harrisburg (Birds). Bedfield, Casper L., 526 Monadnick Block, Chicago (Evolution). Reiffel, M. IL., 3510 Irving Park Bld., Chicago (Botany). Renick, Mary E., Ph. D., Normal University, Normal (Botany). Bew, Irwin, Ph. D., 217 Dempster St., Evanston. Rice, Arthur, M. E., 537 A. Dearborn, Chicago (Engineering). Rice, William F., M. A., Wheaton College, Wheaton (Physics). Richardson, R. E., Ph. D., Havana (Zoology). Ricker, N. C., D. Arch., University of Illinois, Urbana (Architecture). Ridgley, D. C., State Normal University, Normal (Georgraphy). Ridgway, Bobert, M. S., 1030 S. Morgan St., Route 7, Olney (Ornithology). Risley, W. J., M. A., James Millikin University, Decatur (Mathematics). Robb, Mary E. (Geography). Roberts, H. L., State Teachers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo. (Geography). Robinson, C. H., Normal (Archaeology). Root, Clarence J.,.U. S. Weather Bureau, Springfield (Climatology). Ross, Clarence S., A. M., U. S., Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. (Geology). Rost, Louis N., Macomb (Archaeology). Buckmick, Christian A., Ph. D., 209 University Hall, Urbana (Phy- chology). Rudnick, Paul, 10640 S. Seeley Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Salisbury, BR. D., LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Geology). Salter, Allen, Lena (Medicine). Sampson, H. C., Ph. D., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Savage, T. E., Ph. D., University of [Illinois, Urbana (Stratigraphic Geology). Sayers, Frank E., M. D., Fisher (Public Health). Schantz, Orpheus M., 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago (Birds, Plants). Schaub, Edward L., Ph. D., 2437 Sheridan Road, Evanston (Psychology). Schulz, W. F., Ph. D., 926 W. Green St., Urbana (Physics). Seifert, Herbert F., M. A., National Historical Building, Urbana (Ento- mology). Shamel, C. H., Ph. D., 535 Black Ave., Springfield (Chemistry). Shaw, L. L., Ph. D. (Chemistry). Shelford, V. E., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). Siedenburg, Frederic, M. A., 1076 West Roosevelt Road, Chicago (Sociol. ogy). Simonds, O. C., 1101 Buena Ave., Chicago (Botany). Simons, Etoile B., Ph. D., 7727 Colfax Ave., Chicago (Botany). *Simpson, Q. I., Palmer (Eugenics). Singer, H. Douglas, M. D., 6625 N. Ashland Ave., Chicago (Psychiatry). Slocum, A. W., University of Chicago, Chicago. Smallwood, Mabel E., 550 Surf St., Chicago (Zoology). Smith, Arthur Bessey, B. S., 2324 Hartzell St., Evanston (Telephony). *Smith, C. H., M. E., 5517 Cornell Ave., Chicago (Editor School Science). Smith, Pleanor C., B. S., 104 Winston Ave., Joliet. Smith, Jesse L., Supt. of Schools, Highland Park. Smith, K. K., Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston (Physics). Smith, RB. S., Ph. D., 653 Agricultural Building, Urbana (Chemistry and Physics of Soils). Smith, Sylvia, B. E. (Biology). Smith, S. S., Menard (Gen. Vocat. and Physical Education). ; Sonnenschein, Robert, M. D:, 4534 Michigan Ave., Chicago (Medicine). Soyer, Bessie F., B. S., 315 S. Church St., Jacksonville (Biology). Spicer, C. E., Joliet (Chemistry). Se Tatum, Arthur L., Ph. D., M. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Phys- : *Townsend, E. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Mathematics). ¥ \ spencer Ada vV., B. A, stent Illinois ‘Seteasecsd - (Zoology). : ‘ ; ‘Sperry, Holland R., Galesburg (Biology). tia ess “ Spooner, C. S., M. A., 704 N. Illinois St., Urbana (Entomology, Zoology). j Stark, Mabel C., Ph. B., DeKalb (Earth Science). tS Stevens, F. L., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Plant Pathology). Stevens, W. A., B. A., Lockport (Chemistry). z *Strode, W. S., M. D., Lewistown (Medicine). Strong, Harriet, B. S., Naperville, Northwestern College (Biology). iology and Pharmacology). Thurlimann, Leota, 5955 Calumet Ave., Chicago (Botany). Tiffany, L. Hanford, Botany Department, Ohio State University, Colum- a bus, Ohio (Botany). cae Townsley, Fred D., B. A., James Millikin University, Decatur. a Trapp, A. R., M. D., Illinois National Bank Building, Springfield (Medi- 4 cal Diagnosis). is ye Turton, Chas. M., M. A., 2059 E. 72nd St., Chicago (Physics). Tyler, A. A., Ph. D., James Millikin University, Decatur (Biology). Udden, Anton D., (Physics and Mathematics). Van Cleave, H. J., Ph. D., University of Illinois, Urbana (Zoology). — Van Cleet, Eugene, B. S., 9616 S. Winchester Ave., Chicago (Commercial _ and Econ. Geography and Climatology). Van Tuyl, Francis M., Ph. D., Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. (Geology). Vestal, A. G., Ph. D., Stanford University, Cal. (Ecology). ; Von Zelinski, Walter F., M. D., Ph. G., 4709 N. Rockwell St., Chicago “sy (Biology and Physiology). c Wade, Esther, B. S., 421 N. Grove Ave., Oak Park (Botany). Wager, R. E., M. A., Northern State Normal School, DeKalb (Biology). Waggoner, H. D., Ph. D., 224 Ward St., Macomb (Biology). Walsh, John, 282 W. Berrien St., Galesburg (Water Supply). Warbrick, John C., M. D., M. C., 306 E. 43rd St., Chicago (Birds and All Nature). Ward, Harold B., B. S., Northwestern University, Evanston (Geology and Geography). Warrum, Jesse J., B. A., (Chemistry). Waterman, Warren G. Ph. D., Northwestern University, Evanston — (Botany). Weaver, George H., M. D., 629 S. Wood St., Chicago (Medicine and Bac- teriology). Weaver, Holla E., 714 Lincoln Ave., Charleston (Biology). Weber, H. C. P., Ph. D, Westinghouse Electric Co., Pittsburg, Pa. (Chemistry). Weckel, Ada L., M. S., Township High School, Oak Park (Zoology). Welker, William H., Ph. D., 5085 Honore St., Chicago (Biological Chem- istry). Wells, C. C., Ph. D., 1006 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago (Chemistry). Wells, M. M., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Zoology). Wescott, O. S., Waller High School, Chicago. Whitten, J. H., Ph. D., 7111 Normal Ave., Chicago (Botany). Wilczynscki, E. J., Ph. D., University of Chicago, Chicago (Mathematics). Willard, Alice, M. A., 704 N. Cherry St., Galesburg. Williams, E. G. C., M. D., Danville (Clinical Pathology). Wilson, Eva M., M. D., Manhattan (Medicine). ‘Windsor, Mrs. P. L., 609 Michigan Ave., Urbana (Entomology). Winslow, Charles A., 2125 Sherman Ave., Evanston (Geology). *Winter, S. G., M. A., Lombard College, Galesburg (Histology). Wirdlinger, Sidney, Ph. D., Galesburg (Chemistry). ‘Woodburn, William I, Northwestern University, Evanston ( _ Woodruff, Frank M., Chicago Academy of Science, Chicago (Ta: - Woods, F. C., Galesburg (Physics). Wright, Prank, M. D., 5 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago (Biological cher Wynne, Ross, A. B., 1409 E. 53rd St.. Chicago (Botany). = Zehren, Karl C., Flanagan (Agriculture). - Zimmerman, ‘iewathan G., 30 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago Science). ae New York Botani (NN im iam ; 35185 ———! ie, «. geet = ee Je Oe PEE MR per 1 Pet iy : caer Bye i a a ok rw we ee ae as Sane Se ae ae ee ee enw ee add et. apdnttet Oo we need cis Pa ere ate nw cand i i ’ > . 7 mee yaa ‘ edad Bier - ae en Looe Ste or hae oe ay a ne a A eres